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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324,
+April, 1886, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324, April, 1886
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26439]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK QUARTERLY REVIEW, APRIL, 1886 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+QUARTERLY REVIEW.
+
+NO. CCCXXIV. APRIL, 1886. VOL. CLXII.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+
+I. Matthew Parish
+
+II. The Christian Brothers.--Religious Schools in France and England.
+
+III. Archives of the Venetian Republic.
+
+IV. Yeomen Farmers in Norway.
+
+V. Oliver Cromwell: his character illustrated by himself.
+
+VI. Travels in the British Empire.
+
+VII. The Bishop of Durham on the Ignatian Epistles.
+
+VIII. Books and Reading.
+
+IX. Characteristics of Democracy.
+
+X. The Gladstone-Morley Administration.
+
+
+PHILADELPHIA:
+LEONARD SCOTT PUBLICATION COMPANY,
+1104 WALNUT STREET.
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+THE
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+_Annual Subscriptions Received by all Booksellers and Newsdealers._
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+THE LEONARD SCOTT PUB. CO.,
+1104 WALNUT STREET.
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+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF NO. 324.
+
+
+Art.                                                              Page
+
+I.--Matthæi Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica
+Majora. Edited by Henry Richards Luard, D.D., Fellow of
+Trinity College, Registrary of the University, and Vicar of
+Great St. Mary's Cambridge. Published by the Authority of
+the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, under the
+direction of the Master of the Rolls. 7 vols. 8vo. London,
+Vol I. 1872--Vol. VII. 1883.                                       293
+
+
+II.--1. The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work, with
+a sketch of the Life of their Founder, The Venerable Jean
+Baptiste de la Salle. By Mrs. R. F. Wilson. London, 1883.
+
+2. La Première Année d'Instruction Morale et Civique:
+notions de droit et d'économie politique (Textes et Récits)
+pour répondre à la loi du 28 Mars 1882 sur l'enseignement
+primaire obligatoire: ouvrage accompagné de Résumé, de
+Questionnaires, de Devoirs, et d'un Lexique des mots
+difficiles. Par Pierre Laloi. Quatorzième Edition. Paris,
+1885.
+
+3. Report of the Committee of Council on Education (England
+and Wales). 1884-85.
+
+4. Seventy-fourth Annual Report of the Incorporated National
+Society. 1885.                                                     325
+
+
+III.--The State Papers of the Venetian Republic; namely,
+Cancelleria Inferiore, Cancelleria Ducale, Cancelleria
+Secreta, preserved in the Convent of the Frari, at Venice.
+                                                                   356
+
+
+IV.--1. Journal of a Residence in Norway during the years
+1834, 1835, and 1836. By Samuel Laing, Esq. London, 1837.
+
+2. Le Royaume de Norvège et le Peuple Norvégien. Par le Dr.
+O. I. Broch. Christiania, 1878.
+
+3. Official Reports of Prefects on the Economic Condition of
+the Provinces of Norway in 1876-80. Christiania, 1884.
+
+4. Publications of the Statistical Bureau Christiania.             384
+
+
+V.--A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq.;
+Secretary, first to the Council of State, and afterwards to
+the Two Protectors, Oliver and Richard Cromwell. In Seven
+Volumes, containing authentic Memorials of the English
+affairs from the year 1638 to the Restoration of King
+Charles II. Vol. III. London, 1742.                                414
+
+
+VI.--1. Oceana, or England and her Colonies. By James
+Anthony Froude. London, 1886.
+
+2. Through the British Empire. By Baron von Hübner. 2. vols.
+London, 1886.
+
+3. The Western Pacific and New Guinea. By Hugh Hastings
+Romilly, Deputy Commissioner of the Western Pacific. London,
+1886.                                                              443
+
+
+VII.--The Apostolic Fathers: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp.
+Revised Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and
+Translations. By J. B. Lightfoot, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
+Bishop of Durham. London, 1885. 2 vols.                            467
+
+
+VIII.--1. An Address delivered to the Students of Edinburgh
+University on Nov. 3, 1885. By the Earl of Iddesleigh, Lord
+Rector of the University of Edinburgh.
+
+2. Hearing, Reading and Thinking: an address to the Students
+attending the Lectures of the London Society for the
+Extension of University Teaching. By the Rt. Hon. G. J.
+Goschen, M.P.
+
+3. The Choice of Books and other Literary Pieces. By
+Frederic Harrison. London, 1886.                                   501
+
+
+IX.--1. Popular Government. Four Essays. By Sir Henry Sumner
+Maine. Second Edition. London, 1886.
+
+2. Democracy in America. By Alexis de Tocqueville.
+Translated by Henry Reeve. New Edition. London, 1862.
+
+3. On the State of Society in France before the Revolution
+of 1789. Translated by Henry Reeve. Second Edition. London,
+1873.                                                              518
+
+And other Works.
+
+
+X.--1. Fourth Midlothian Campaign. Political Speeches
+delivered, November, 1885, by the Right Hon. W. E.
+Gladstone, M.P. Edinburgh, 1886.
+
+2. John Morley: The Irish Record of the New Chief Secretary,
+1886.
+
+3. Ireland: A Book of Light on the Irish Problem. Edited by
+Andrew Reid. London, 1886.                                         544
+
+And other Works.
+
+
+
+
+ART. I.--_Matthæi Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica Majora._
+Edited by Henry Richards Luard, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
+Registrary of the University, and Vicar of Great St. Mary's, Cambridge.
+Published by the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's
+Treasury, under the direction of the Master of the Rolls. 7 vols. 8vo.
+London, Vol. I. 1872--Vol. VII. 1883.
+
+
+Some of our readers are not likely yet to have forgotten the remarkable
+essay which the late Professor Brewer contributed to our pages in 1871,
+and which has since been reprinted in the volume of 'English Studies,'
+published shortly after the author's death in 1879. English History owes
+a larger debt to few men of our time than it owes to Mr. Brewer. As a
+teacher whose pupils were always eager to listen to all that fell from
+his lips, and whose enthusiasm never failed to awake a kindred spark in
+the minds of those who looked to him for light in dark places and
+guidance along tortuous paths of research, Mr. Brewer has had few
+equals, and perhaps has left no successor who can compare with him. As a
+writer he was always brilliant, lucid, and vigorous, and his unrivalled
+'Introductions' to the Calendars of Letters and Papers, concerned with
+the reign of Henry VIII., will long continue to be read by all students
+of our History, as necessary and indispensable interpreters of the vast
+storehouses of original documents which he did so much to rescue from
+the oblivion or obscurity to which they had previously been consigned.
+But it was as an organizer of research that Mr. Brewer earned his
+greatest fame and achieved his greatest success, and it was to him more
+than to any one man, to his immense persistence in urging upon the
+powers that be a more generous freedom of access to our Records, and to
+his prodigious powers of work in arranging and tabulating the enormous
+masses of documents of all kinds which constitute the _Apparatus_ of
+English History, that this country stands indebted, and will remain
+indebted as long as our literature lasts.
+
+In the Essay on 'New Sources of English History' the learned author has
+given us a startling account of the deplorable condition into which some
+of the most precious of our national manuscripts had been allowed to
+fall--of the utterly chaotic state of our depositories--of the
+hopelessness, the despair which must needs have come upon one student
+after another who might be fortunate enough to be turned loose into the
+various prison-houses of our muniments--and of the efforts made, and
+happily at last made with splendid success, to cleanse the Augean
+stable, and to let the world know something of the wealth it contained.
+With characteristic modesty Mr. Brewer said nothing of his own part in
+all that laborious and sagacious organization which resulted in our
+obtaining the magnificent _Calendars_, which have opened out to us all
+'that new world which is the old' that had become almost forgotten or
+unknown. He was not the man to assert himself, he knew that posterity
+would give him his due, but with a simple desire to stimulate research,
+and to show how much remained to be done, and how much to be discovered
+and made known, he drew the attention of his readers chiefly and
+primarily to the value of the Calendars, and to the important results
+which those Calendars had already produced, and were destined to produce
+hereafter. He had quite enough to say upon this point, and if his life
+had been spared, it is probable that he would eventually have given us a
+more comprehensive account of the series of volumes which, though now
+issuing from the press _pari passu_ with the Calendars, were originally
+undertaken a little later. Such an Essay by such a master would indeed
+have been an important aid to the student, but at the time of Mr.
+Brewer's lamented death the day had hardly come for such a _résumé_; and
+even now, though so much has been achieved, so much and so well, the
+hour has hardly arrived nor the man for taking a comprehensive survey,
+and giving to the public an intelligent and intelligible account of that
+other Library of Chronicles, and biographies, and letters, and
+cartularies, and those other memorials of the Middle Ages in England,
+which it is to be feared are hardly as well known as they ought to be,
+nor as widely studied as they deserve.
+
+Meanwhile it is high time that attention should be drawn to that noble
+series of volumes now issuing from the press under the editorship of
+scholars whose reputation is assured, and whose work continues to
+enhance their reputation--high time that we should begin to do something
+like justice to the labourers, who have deserved so well at the hands
+of such Englishmen as have any sentiment of loyalty to the great
+thoughts, the great doings, and the noble lives of their forefathers.
+The philosopher, who 'holds the mirror up to nature,' has not of late,
+as a rule, missed his reward. The historian, who in his dogged, patient,
+toilsome fashion holds the mirror up to the life of bygone ages, has
+received among us scant recognition, and generally is rewarded with but
+barren honour. What has been done and still is doing will be best
+understood by briefly reviewing the progress of that movement, which has
+brought about the great revival of English Historical study, and under
+the influence of which the opinions and convictions of educated men have
+passed through a very decided change, one destined to produce still
+greater and more unlooked for changes of sentiment and belief before the
+present century shall have closed.
+
+It is just fifty years since 'the Father of Record Reform,' as he has
+been justly called, received his patent creating him Master of the
+Rolls. Although as far back as the year 1800 a Commission was issued for
+the methodizing and digesting the National Records, and for printing
+such calendars and indexes as should be thought advisable; and though
+during the next twenty-seven years many works of supreme interest and
+importance were printed at the public expense, the enormous extent of
+our National Records were known to few, and the difficulty of consulting
+them, (dispersed as they were through a score of different depositories)
+was enough to deter all but the most resolute enquirers. It was Lord
+Langdale who first set himself to reduce the chaos of our archives into
+something like order. When the old Record Commission expired in 1837, it
+was by Lord Langdale's influence that the Public Record Act was passed
+on the 14th of August, 1838, whereby the Records named therein were
+placed under the custody of the Master of the Rolls for the time being,
+and hereupon a new era began. Nevertheless it was not till July 1850
+that a vote was obtained from the Treasury for the erection of a
+national depository, wherein our vast archives should be assembled under
+a single roof, and not till 1855 that the magnificent _Tabularium_ in
+Fetter Lane was opened for the reception of our muniments.
+
+Lord Langdale died in April 1851;[1] he was succeeded in the Mastership
+of the Rolls by Lord Romilly, then Sir John. A happier choice could not
+have been made. To Lord Langdale belongs the credit of carrying out the
+grand scheme for consolidating the various collections of documents,
+which, as we have said, had up to this time been widely dispersed, and
+the very existence of the larger mass of which was known only to a few
+experts. To Lord Romilly we owe it that the great original sources of
+English History so assembled have been rendered accessible to any
+student who desires to consult them; and it is to him, too, that we are
+indebted for the issue of that unrivalled series of 'Chronicles and
+Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland, from the Invasion of the Romans
+to the Reign of Henry VIII.,' which has laid the foundation for a
+science of history firmer and deeper and wider than before was believed
+to be even attainable.
+
+Great men are at once the leaders and the product of their age. When
+Lord Langdale set himself to his task he was only attempting that which
+had been talked of since the reign of Edward II. For five centuries the
+unification of our National Records had been recommended and advised by
+lawyers, statesmen, and scholars from generation to generation, but no
+practical scheme had ever been suggested, and the difficulties in the
+way of reform were supposed to be insuperable. It was a Herculean task,
+and one that grew ever more arduous the longer it was postponed. During
+the first quarter of the present century profound dissatisfaction had
+begun to be felt at the condition of our historical literature. The
+ordinary text-books were full of fables, more than suspected to be
+fables, and which yet it was extremely difficult to disprove
+satisfactorily. Theories which had long passed current were being rudely
+assailed, and yet--in the face of the obstacles that hindered
+research--stubbornly held their ground, or were repeated with peremptory
+dogmatism. A deep distrust of the old methods and the old assumptions
+had given rise to a widespread desire to drag forth from their
+hiding-places any documents, however dry or recondite, which might throw
+some clear light upon our national life and manners, and not only upon
+mere events of national importance during Medieval times. A desire to
+know the truth was _in the air_. The science of history had passed out
+of its infancy, and the stirrings of a new craving--the passion of
+Research--were making themselves felt in that mysterious restlessness
+which indicates that the old smooth-faced docility, the old childish
+submission to tutelage, the old unquestioning acceptance of authority,
+has gone for ever, and a new life has begun. The year before Lord
+Langdale received his appointment as Master of the Rolls, the Surtees
+Society had been founded for the printing of unedited MSS. illustrative
+of the history of the northern counties; and in the same year that the
+old Record Commission expired, the English Historical Society was
+started, a society which numbered amongst its promoters such men as the
+late Mr. Kemble, Mr. H. O. Coxe, Sir T. Duffus Hardy, and Mr.
+Stevenson--the leaders and teachers of that school of younger men who
+have so ably followed in the steps of their seniors, and who, mounting
+on the shoulders of the giants, have gained a wider view than it was
+given to those others to attain. The five years that followed saw the
+foundation of the Camden, the Percy, and the Chetham Societies, not to
+mention many another that has done useful work in its way. The labours
+of these pioneers soon made it quite apparent that the sources of our
+national history--social, ecclesiastical, and political--were quite too
+voluminous for private enterprise to deal with, and would demand the
+co-operation of a body of trained scholars and the resources of the
+public exchequer to make them available as apparatus for the teachers of
+the future.
+
+On the 26th of January, 1857, Sir John Romilly submitted to the Treasury
+his memorable proposal for the publication of certain materials for the
+History of England;[2] and on the 9th of February a Treasury Minute was
+put forth approving of the plan that had been drawn up as one 'well
+calculated for the accomplishment of this important national object in
+an effectual and satisfactory manner within a reasonable time.'
+Forthwith arrangements were made for the issue of that series of works
+which is now known as the 'Rolls Series,' a collection which has already
+extended to upwards of 200 volumes.
+
+The lines laid down by Sir John Romilly were almost exactly those which
+had been followed by the English Historical Society. Every editor was to
+'give an account of the MSS. employed by him, of their age and their
+peculiarities;' he was to add 'a brief account of the life and times of
+the author, and any remarks necessary to explain the chronology; _but no
+other note or comment_ was to be allowed, except what might be necessary
+to establish the correctness of the text.' The restriction was
+absolutely necessary if only for this, that when the 'Rolls Series' was
+first commenced even the most accomplished of its editors were mere
+learners. The time had not yet arrived for comments. The text was wanted
+first in its completeness and integrity.
+
+Looking back to this period--little more than a quarter of a century
+ago--it is difficult for us to realize the deplorable condition into
+which our historical literature had been allowed to fall. Kemble's great
+work, the 'Codex Diplomaticus ævi Saxonici,' the first volume of which
+appeared in 1839, and his 'History of the Saxons in England,' published
+in 1849, came upon the great body of intelligent men as the revelation
+of new things. It is sufficient to turn to the chapter on the
+Constitutional History of England before the Conquest, in Hallam's
+'History of the Middle Ages,' to be assured how meagre and superficial
+even Hallam's knowledge was of everything before the Norman invasion. It
+was no fault of his; he made good use of all such materials as were then
+accessible to the student--that is, all such as had been printed; for
+that incomparably larger _apparatus_ which since Hallam's days has been
+published to the world, it was for all practical purposes as if it had
+never existed at all. Even men of culture and learning were persuaded
+that all that was ever likely to be known about the religious houses had
+been collected in the new edition of Dugdale's 'Monasticon.' It is
+hardly too much to say that of the history of English monasticism Hallam
+knew nothing. Dr. Lingard himself had very little more to say of the
+great Abbeys than his predecessors, and had a very inadequate conception
+of the part they played in the development of our institutions; and when
+Dr. Maitland wrote his brilliant 'Essays on the Dark Ages,' he hardly
+names St. Edmundsbury or St. Alban's, and though one of his most
+fascinating chapters is concerned with the early days of Croyland, his
+only authority for the beautiful story, which he has handled so
+skilfully, is a romantic narrative attributed to Ingulphus, which has
+been demonstrated to be a somewhat clumsy though a clever forgery. Of
+the Mendicant Orders--of the work they did, of the influence they
+exercised, and of the attitude adopted towards them in the 13th century
+by the parochial clergy on the one hand, and by the monks on the
+other--even less was known, if less were possible, than of their
+wealthier rivals.
+
+Two years had scarcely elapsed since the issue of the Treasury Minute of
+February, 1857, before it began to be said that the history of England
+would have to be written anew. In the single year 1858 _eleven_ works of
+the highest importance were printed, and it was evident that neither
+original materials nor scholarly editors would be wanting to make the
+'Rolls Series' all that it was desired it should become. The 'Chronicles
+of the Monasteries of Abingdon and of St. Augustine at Canterbury,' the
+contemporary 'Life of Edward the Confessor,' and the priceless
+'Monumenta Franciscana,' telling the wonderful story of the settlement
+of the Minorites among us, were printed from unique MSS. Next year the
+'Chronicle of John of Oxnedes' was brought out by Sir Henry Ellis, and
+the 'Historia Anglicana' of Bartholomew Cotton, by Dr. Luard, neither
+work having ever before been printed. Volume followed volume in rapid
+succession, a steady improvement becoming observable in the style of
+editing, as the several editors became more familiar with the results of
+their predecessors' labours.
+
+It was while working at Bartholomew Cotton that Dr. Luard was brought
+into intimate relations with the 13th century. Hitherto the _composite_
+character of such chronicles as had been published had indeed been
+perceived, but no attempt had been made to trace the original authority
+for statements repeated in the same words by one writer after another.
+Dr. Luard opened out a new line of enquiry, and in his edition of
+Cotton's Chronicle he endeavoured to distinguish in every instance the
+material which might fairly be called original from that which his
+author had borrowed from older writers and incorporated into his text.
+The borrowed matter was printed in smaller type, and the sources from
+which it had been derived were indicated by references given at the foot
+of the page. Cottons' own additions were printed in a bolder type, so as
+at once to catch the eye. While conducting the laborious researches
+necessitated by this new method of editing his text, it became clear to
+Dr. Luard that Cotton had borrowed largely from Matthew Paris--who had
+lived just a generation before him--and that he had also borrowed from a
+mysterious writer much read in the 14th and 15th centuries, who went by
+the name of Matthew of Westminster. As to this Matthew of Westminster,
+Dr. Luard postponed dealing with him till some future time. He might
+prove a mere mythic personage, and it was suspected he would; but
+Matthew Paris was certainly no shadow, but a very real man, whose
+greatness seemed to grow greater the more he was studied and the better
+he was known. Yet as Dr. Luard became more familiar with the text of
+Paris, he was soon convinced that in its printed form it was bristling
+with the grossest inaccuracies of all kinds. Originally it had been
+published under the authority of Archbishop Parker in 1571; and though
+other editions had appeared, in this country and on the Continent,
+several times since then, Paris's great work had remained exactly in the
+same state as Parker (or whoever his agent was) had left it three
+centuries ago. That is to say, that by far the most important work on
+English history during the 13th century--not to mention European
+affairs--and by far the most minute and trustworthy picture of English
+life and manners during the reign of Henry III.--a record, too, drawn
+up by a contemporary writer of rare genius and literary skill--was
+defaced by blunders, audacious tampering with the text and gross
+inaccuracies, to such an extent that no conscientious student could
+allow himself to quote the printed work without first referring to one
+of the very MSS. which the Archbishop professed to have used.
+
+Nevertheless, the task of bringing out a critical edition of the
+'Chronica Majora' did not appear less formidable as fresh sources of
+information cropped up; and Dr. Luard shrank from the immense labour
+that such an edition involved, it was because he had formed a correct
+notion of its magnitude. In 1861 he brought out in the same series the
+'Letters of Robert Grosseteste,' the heroic and magnanimous Bishop of
+Lincoln; and while working at this volume, the England of the 13th
+century became more and more alive and present to the mind of the
+student.
+
+But distinctly and grandly as one noble character after another revealed
+itself, there was a strange mist that required to be dispelled before
+even the importance of great events could be rightly estimated. The
+inner life of the monasteries, great and small, must be enquired into,
+so far as it was possible to get any information on so obscure a
+subject; and, above all, the paramount influence which so magnificent an
+institution as the Abbey of St. Alban's exercised upon the intellectual
+life of the country must be studied with patient impartiality. Before a
+scholar with so lofty an ideal of an editor's duty could venture upon
+his _magnum opus_, there was indeed an enormous mass of preliminary work
+to get through. The horizon seemed to widen everywhere as the years of
+historical discovery went on. It was left to Mr. Riley to attack that
+wonderful collection of documents to which he gave the title of
+'Chronica Monasterii Sancti Albani'--a series occupying twelve thick
+volumes, and which furnish us not only with a priceless _apparatus_, by
+the help of which a hundred problems perplexing the historian are
+furnished with a clue towards their solution--but which afford such an
+insight into the life of the greatest monastery in England during its
+best times as nobody expected could ever be forthcoming. While Mr. Riley
+was occupied with the _Chronicles_ of St. Alban's and the lives of its
+Abbots, Dr. Luard was engaged in collecting all the _Annals_ of the
+lesser monasteries which he could lay his hands on. Some of these had
+already been printed more or less carelessly; others had never seen the
+light since they were written. Such as were printed were extremely
+difficult to procure--scarce and costly. Dr. Luard took six years in
+bringing out his five volumes--volumes referring to the golden age of
+English Monasticism, which threw all sorts of side-light upon Mr.
+Riley's 'Chronicles,' while they were in turn continually being
+explained and illustrated by them.
+
+While the 'Monastic Annals' were passing through the press, a very
+startling announcement was made by no less a person than Sir Frederick
+Madden, Keeper of the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum.
+Sir Frederick declared that he had come upon a copy of what was commonly
+called the 'Historia Minor' of Matthew Paris, not only written by the
+author himself, but actually annotated, corrected, and illustrated with
+drawings by his own hand. Such an announcement made by an expert of
+European reputation, one who had been handling MSS. all his life,
+necessarily created a sensation in the literary world. If it were
+accepted and proved true, it was one of the most curious romances in the
+history of literature. But was it true? To most critics the antecedent
+improbability of the theory put forth by Sir Frederick was so great as
+to relegate it to the domain of extravagant paradox; but the name and
+fame of its supporter were too high to allow of its being dismissed
+without refutation. For two or three years no one ventured to enter the
+lists against so formidable a champion who had staked his reputation
+upon the issue. At last another great specialist, not a whit less
+competent than the other, came forward to controvert the opinions and
+theory which had been so confidently maintained by Sir Frederick. In
+1871 Sir Thomas Duffus Hardy brought out the third volume of his
+_Catalogue_, and it was in the famous Introduction to this volume that
+the Madden Hypothesis was first assailed with damaging effect. Sir
+Thomas, it must be remembered, was Deputy Keeper of the Records. Sir
+Frederick was Keeper of the Department of Manuscripts at the British
+Museum. Each was the representative man in his own department, and a
+very pretty quarrel arose. Into the merits of that quarrel it is
+impossible to enter here; it is a matter for specialists, not for
+outsiders, to pronounce upon. This, however, may be said with
+confidence, that if we except that school of very able and accomplished
+experts which the British Museum has trained, experts whose _range_ of
+diplomatic knowledge must needs be wider than that of any 'Record man,'
+the refutation of Sir Frederick Madden by Sir Thomas Duffus was
+generally regarded as unanswerable and triumphant. With the exception
+indicated--a very important exception indeed--the Madden Hypothesis was
+believed to be utterly demolished, in fact 'blown into the air.'
+Nevertheless there are those, from whom something may be expected some
+day in the way of rejoinder who are by no means sure that the last word
+on this question has been said that deserve to be said, and even so
+scrupulous and sagacious a critic as Dr. Luard seems to be less certain
+than he was that Madden was quite wrong in _all_ he affirmed, and Hardy
+quite right in _all_ he denied.
+
+The attention which had been drawn to Matthew Paris by this remarkable
+controversy could not but have its effect in awakening a desire for that
+critical edition of the larger Chronicle which Dr. Luard had been so
+long preparing. The way was cleared for such an edition now; it was not
+likely that any more MSS. of the author would be discovered. Such as
+were deposited in the various libraries had been carefully scrutinized,
+or their homes were known, and the long years of preparatory study had
+been turned to good account--no pains had been spared nor any labour
+grudged. In 1872 the first volume of the 'Chronica Majora' appeared in
+the 'Rolls Series.' In 1884 the seventh and last volume was issued,
+containing the learned editor's last preface, glossary, and emendations,
+and an Index to the whole work, extending over nearly 600 pages. It is a
+long time since an English scholar has had the good fortune to carry to
+its completion so important a work as this, projected on so large a
+scale, executed with such conscientious care--characterized by so much
+critical skill and scrupulous accuracy--all this achieved single-handed
+in the midst of other duties, professional and academical, which would
+be quite sufficient to exhaust the energies of an ordinary man.
+
+Now that the work has been done, and done so thoroughly that it may
+safely be asserted the _standard edition_ of the 'Chronic Majora' has
+been published once for all, we are in a better position than we ever
+were heretofore for taking a survey of the life and labours of its
+author, and for answering the enquiries which of late have been made
+with increasing frequency, and made too among those who might have been
+expected to be able to answer them. Who and what was Matthew Paris? What
+did he do, and what did he write that the learned few should speak of
+him with so much reverence, though to the unlearned many he is little
+more than a famous and familiar name?
+
+Perhaps before dealing with his personal history, or entering into any
+examination of his literary labours, it will be well first to answer the
+question--_What_ was Matthew Paris? for it is simply impossible to
+estimate rightly the debt we owe to him, or to understand the brief
+account that could be drawn up of his career till we have learned to
+know something of the _profession_ to which he belonged, and the great
+foundation of which he was so distinguished an ornament. By profession
+Matthew Paris was a monk. A monk 'professed' is a term indicating the
+higher grade to which not every brother in a monastery attained. The
+very term 'profession' may be traced to the cloister. In its usual
+acceptation it is modern.
+
+To dilate upon the various monastic orders, which were almost as
+numerous in the 13th century as the different religious denominations
+are in the 19th, would be out of place here. Suffice it to say that the
+English monasteries in Henry III.'s time counted by hundreds. But there
+were monasteries and monasteries. Some the homes of the scholar, the
+devout and the high-minded, the seats of learning and the resting-places
+of the studious and the aged, who hated war and tumult, and only longed
+for repose. Some that were mere hiding holes for the lazy and the
+incompetent, the failures among the younger sons of the gentry, who had
+not the power of pushing their way in the world, or whose career had
+been a disappointment. Such men, where all else failed, could get
+themselves admitted into some smaller religious house by the interest of
+the patron; sometimes bringing in a trifling addition to the common
+property, sometimes simply 'pitchforked' into a vacancy, it is difficult
+to say how. Then they became 'brethren' of the monastery, and sharers in
+most of the good things that it could offer; they were almost exactly in
+the same position as Fellows of Colleges were twenty years ago, holding
+their preferment for life, with this difference, that a Fellowship at
+the smallest College in Oxford or Cambridge always implied _some_
+qualification for the post. A College Fellow, at the worst, must have
+had some claims to learning or culture; whereas in the smaller and more
+remote monasteries a man might be scandalously ignorant, and yet gain
+admittance as a brother of the house.
+
+Between the highest and the lowest of that great army of monks,
+dispersed through the length and breadth of the land, when English
+monarchism had declined from its earlier ideal, there was as great a
+distance as there is at this moment between the Fellows of Balliol or
+Trinity, and the poor brethren of the Charterhouse, or the bedesmen in
+the cathedrals of the old foundation.
+
+In the first half of the 13th century English monarchism was at its
+best; the 12th century was emphatically the reformation age of British
+monarchism. All the many schemes for starting new orders with improved
+_Rules_, and all the efforts to improve the discipline of the religious
+houses and fan the fire of devotion among their members, assumed that
+the monasteries were then living institutions with vast powers for good;
+and institutions which needed only to be reformed to make them all that
+the most earnest and ardent enthusiast claimed that they ought to be,
+and might become. In the fifty years preceding the accession of King
+John, more than 200 monasteries had been built and endowed--some of them
+munificently endowed, and the only purely English order (that of St.
+Gilbert of Sempringham) had been founded, and in little more than fifty
+years could count no less than fourteen considerable houses. Englishmen
+believed in the monastic system as they have never believed in anything
+else since then; never have such prodigious sacrifices been made, never
+has such lavish munificence been shown by the _upper classes_ as during
+the century ending with the accession of Edward I. In the next hundred
+years they were chiefly the townsmen and traders, not the landed
+proprietors, who emptied their money-bags into the lap of the Begging
+friars. Certainly the great religious houses at the end of the 13th
+century had the entire confidence of the country, and it is impossible
+to understand the long reign of Henry III. unless we are fully awake to
+the fact that then, too, the monasteries were not only thriving and
+powerful, but were institutions on whose help and power the people leant
+with an assured confidence, because they were pre-eminently the people's
+friends. But between the old foundations which had a history and the new
+houses that were springing up in every shire, some feeling of jealousy
+and soreness was sure to arise. The old abbeys, with a history that
+looked back into a past all clouds and mist, but none the less glorious
+for that, affected a supercilious tone towards the mushrooms that had of
+late sprouted into vigorous life. A man need not be an old man who can
+remember when the Eton and Winchester boys at the Universities affected
+an air of contempt for all the 'modern' places of education, and
+disdained to number such institutions as Cheltenham or Clifton among the
+'public schools.' These were all very well in their way, but where were
+their traditions? So with the older and grander Benedictine monasteries,
+with charters from Saxon kings, let alone anything else. Glastonbury,
+where men said two of the Apostles had built themselves a house of
+prayer, and where St. Patrick and St. Dunstan lay entombed; Canterbury,
+where Augustine, the English apostle, found a home; Malmesbury, where
+St. Aldhelm preached to the barbarous people, and when they tired of his
+sermon played to them upon his harp, and, anticipating Mr. Sankey, sang
+David's Psalms to the crowds that moved by him as they passed over the
+bridge of Avon. These venerable foundations, about whose origin a
+glamour of mystery had gathered, whose history had become strangely
+obscured by the body of myths that had grown up in the lapse of
+centuries--which had survived pillage and anarchy, and all the horrors
+of fire and sword, desolating, devastating--were there before men's
+eyes, testifying to the amazing vitality which a millennium of strange
+vicissitude had not only not destroyed, but not even impaired. Such a
+mighty pile of buildings, as had risen up to heaven there in the old
+Roman town of Verulam, appealed to the imagination of mankind--the very
+materials of the massive tower, ruddy in the blaze of the noon-day, must
+have been a wonder and astonishment to many an awe-struck pilgrim
+perplexed at the first sight of Roman bricks burnt on the spot a
+thousand years ago. There stood the mighty Roman rampart, vast,
+enormous--the ground beneath his feet teeming with the tangible memories
+of grisly conflict, or of an old civilization that had been blotted out
+long ago--the swords of Roman legionaries, the bones of British heroes,
+coins with legends that few could read turned up by the ploughman's
+share. Yonder, men said, away there at Redburn, the heathen pursuers had
+come upon England's proto-martyr and slain the saint of God, whose bones
+since then had been gathered up, and were now resting in their sumptuous
+shrine. When the Norman came, and the new order was set up in the
+land--not a day before it was needed--the thirteenth Abbot of St.
+Alban's was of the blood royal, and heir, they said, to Cnut, the Danish
+king, who had passed away. It was to him that the awful Conqueror made
+oath he would bind himself by the Confessor's laws, an oath which, if he
+ever meant to keep, he meant to interpret according to his mood. Even
+the very laxity and shortcomings of the abbots of generations back,
+which tradition, and something more to be trusted than tradition,
+declared to have been matters of scandal, proved no more than that the
+great Abbey could live through evil times, outride the storms which
+would wreck weaker vessels, and right itself, though overloaded with
+abuses which timid pilots would have shrunk from throwing overboard: and
+now that 400 years had passed since Offa, the Saxon king--(stirred
+thereto by Karl, the Emperor)--had founded the monastery in St. Alban's
+honour, and from generation to generation vast building operations had
+been going on almost without interruption, and the old Abbey still held
+up its head proudly, its Abbot taking precedence of every other in the
+land; any man might be excused for thinking that to become a monk of St.
+Alban's Abbey was to become a personage of no small consideration.
+
+Verily it was a great abbey in the days of King John. There, in the
+eighth year of that King's reign, was held that memorable council
+which, if it had been let alone, would doubtless have issued its protest
+against the intolerable aggression of the Pope and his _curia_. There,
+six years afterwards, another assembly was convened; the first occasion
+on which we find any historical proof that representatives were summoned
+to a national council in England. Eight times during his reign the
+ruffian King was himself a guest at the Abbey. Once after John's death,
+when Louis was desperately struggling to hold his own against young
+Henry's friends and supporters, he too came to St. Alban's, and
+threatened to give it over to fire and sword: only money saved it from a
+sack. There was always something to take, and yet always wonderful state
+kept up. The magnates in Church and State were for ever going in and
+out; the mere domestic expenditure was enormous. Yet, even when the
+country was groaning under horrible anarchy, and grinding taxation, and
+war and poverty, the building went on as if men lived only to glorify
+the great house, and to raise its church tower, or beautify the west
+front, or fill the windows with stained glass, or erect the splendid
+pulpit in the nave--a miracle of art.
+
+It would be a very great mistake to conclude that all this lavish
+expenditure implied the enjoyment of large rents from land. The revenue
+derived from the tenants of the Abbey and the profits of farming were no
+doubt considerable; but that revenue could never have sufficed alone to
+defray the cost of keeping up the establishment. In point of fact, when
+a monastery, great or small, depended wholly upon its landed property,
+it invariably got into debt; sometimes it got hopelessly into debt. It
+is clear that before the Dissolution a very large number of the
+religious houses were insolvent. The striking paucity in the number of
+'religious' at the time of the suppression--for hardly one house in ten
+had its full complement of inmates--is by no means wholly to be
+attributed to the reluctance on the part of people in general to take
+upon themselves the monastic vows. Where a monastery was financially in
+a critical condition, the brotherhood resorted to the expedient which is
+at this moment being carried out at more than one College in Oxford and
+Cambridge. Now, when times are bad, we temporarily suppress a
+Fellowship; then, on the death of a brother of the house, they chose no
+monk into his place.
+
+The income from landed estates at St. Alban's was probably at no time
+equal to what may be called the extraordinary income. The offerings at
+the shrines of SS. Alban and Amphibalus, the proceeds of the offertory
+at those magnificent and dramatic functions in which the multitude
+delighted, and the _douceurs_ that were always expected and almost
+always given in return for hospitality, which only in theory was
+free,--these and many another source of profit, which the universal
+habit of giving money for 'pious uses' supplied, all made up a sum
+total, in comparison with which the proceeds of the rent-roll were
+insignificant. In the taxation of Pope Nicholas (A. D. 1291) the whole
+revenue of the Abbey from rent and dues in the liberty of St. Alban's is
+set down at 392l. 8s. 3-1/4d., a sum which in those days would go as far
+as 5000l. a-year now. Even granting that this was only half the net
+income derivable from the Abbey's estates, which were widely
+distributed, an expenditure of 10,000l. a year would go in our own time
+a very little way towards meeting the charges which such an enormous
+establishment involved. The mere keeping up the buildings at all times
+entailed a very heavy annual outlay. Already in the 13th century the
+precincts of the Abbey were overcrowded with palatial edifices, which
+were never pulled down except to make room for larger ones. There were
+acres of roofs within the Abbey walls.
+
+And what return was being made to the nation, that every rank and every
+class were keeping up a rivalry in munificence in favour of such an
+institution as this? What had they done, what were they doing, these
+seventy men, with their Abbot at their head, who were in the enjoyment
+of an income larger than that of many a principality? How was it that no
+one _in those days_ accused them of being indolent drones? Mere burdens
+upon the earth, as they were called frequently enough, and loudly
+enough, and angrily enough, three centuries later? It was the age for
+the expansion of the monastic system--none then wished to sweep the
+monks away. One of the reasons why the monasteries had retained their
+hold upon the affection of the people, and were regarded with reverence
+and pride and confidence, lay in this, that they had moved with the
+times, and that the monasticism of the 13th was very different indeed
+from the monasticism of the 9th century. The primitive asceticism had
+almost vanished; it had not, however, died, leaving nothing in its
+place. No one now expected to find the religious houses filled with
+religious people, everyone holy, devout, and fervent; the personal
+sanctity of the inmates was one thing, the sanctity of their churches
+and shrines was quite another. In the old days the monks were separate
+from the world, living to save their own souls at best; examples to such
+as trembled at the wrath of God, and longed for the life to come. As
+time went on they mixed more boldly with the sinful world, and gradually
+they became more and more the illuminators of the darkness round them.
+Now they were regarded as in great measure the salt of the earth, and if
+that salt should lose its savour, where was such virtue elsewhere to be
+found? Personally, the men might be worldly--vicious, as a rule, they
+certainly were not--they were, _mutatis mutandis_, what in our time
+would be called cultured gentlemen, courteous, highly educated and
+refined, as compared with the great mass of their contemporaries; a
+privileged class who were not abusing their privileges; a class from
+whence all the art and letters and accomplishments of the time emanated,
+allied in blood as much with the low as the high, the aristocracy of
+intellect, and the pioneers of scientific and material progress. The
+model farming of the 13th century would be regarded as barbaric by our
+modern theorists; but such as it was, it was only to be met with on the
+demesne lands of the larger monasteries, and was a prodigious advance
+upon the _petite culture_ of the open fields. The Priory at Norwich made
+an income out of its garden in the days of Edward III., and probably
+much earlier; the pisciculture of the religious houses remains a mystery
+as yet unsolved; the skill exhibited in the management of the
+water-power of many a district round even the smaller houses, still
+awakes wonder in those who think it worth their while to study it. At
+St. Alban's, as at Glastonbury, St. Edmund's Abbey, and elsewhere, the
+culture of the vine was made profitable for generations. The monasteries
+were the first to give personal freedom to the villeins, and the first
+to commute for money payments the vexatious _services_ which worried the
+best men and maddened the worst. The landlords in the 13th century were
+real _lords_ of the _land_. They were, as a class, very poor, spite of
+the privileges they enjoyed and the power that they possessed of making
+themselves disagreeable; and though the constitution of a _manor_ was a
+limited monarchy, and the _limits_ were very many, yet the lord could
+exercise a great deal of petty tyranny in his little kingdom if he were
+so disposed. In the manors which were in the possession of the religious
+houses the lord was necessarily non-resident, and the tenants were left
+to manage their own affairs with very little interference. The tenants
+of the monasteries were in a far more favoured condition than the
+tenants of some small lord, needy and greedy, who extorted his dues
+literally to the last farthing, and who knew exactly what the best beast
+was, on the land that owed him a heriot; and, when the tenant was _in
+extremis_, kept a sharp look-out that a fat bullock or a promising young
+horse should not be driven off before the owner died.
+
+So the monasteries at the time we are now concerned with were regarded
+at once with pride and affection by the great bulk of the people; they
+were places of refuge where, in a turbulent time, men and women who had
+been stricken, bereaved or wronged, might find a quiet refuge and hide
+their heads and be forgotten and fall asleep, with the prayers of other
+sufferers to console and support them in their passage through the
+valley of the shadow of death. The gentlest spirits here could taste the
+bliss of a holy tranquillity; the ascetic could indulge his most
+fantastic self-immolation; the morbid visionary could dream at his will
+and give his imagination full play, none hindering him; evil demons
+might chatter and gibe and twit him at his prayers; choirs of angels
+might calm his despair with celestial lullabies; awful forms might rise
+from clouds of incense as the gorgeous procession moved along the vast
+church aisles, or stopped before some glittering shrine. What then? Who
+would question the reality of a miracle, or doubt that sublime
+revelations might be made to any holy monk as he wrestled in prayer with
+a rapture of the soul, and found himself lifted to the seventh heaven in
+ecstasy unutterable?
+
+What has been said applies mainly to the older houses, those which were
+under what may be called the _primitive_ Benedictine rule. If men were
+moved to rigid asceticism, however, and had a taste for bald simplicity;
+if art, and music, and ornate architecture, had no charm for them, and
+they dreamt that God could only be sought and found in the wilderness,
+the Cistercian houses offered such a congenial asylum. The Cistercians
+were the Puritans of the monasteries, and appealed to that mysterious
+sentiment which makes some minds shrink with fear from the touch of
+luxury, and regard culture as antagonistic to personal holiness. The
+sentiment was strong in the reign of Henry II., when nineteen Cistercian
+houses were founded; but it is not improbable that other motives, beside
+mere taste for a stricter discipline, led to the foundation of eight
+more in the reign of King John. Meanwhile the Benedictines had become by
+far the most learned and most _educating_ body in the land, and
+pre-eminent above them all was the great Abbey of St. Alban's. If it was
+not at this time the centre of intellectual life in England, it was
+because at this time centralization was unknown. Eadmer, Florence of
+Worcester, Gervase of Canterbury, William of Malmesbury, Simeon of
+Durham, were all 12th-century Benedictines. They were all students and
+writers of history, and history meant _literature_ till Peter Lombard
+arose at the end of the 12th century and revolutionized the world of
+thought--at any rate the domain of logic. John of Salisbury fiercely
+assails the intellectual innovators of his time on the ground that the
+new lights of the 12th century disdained to be students of history and
+affected contempt for the past. It was the old story; literary culture
+found itself in antagonism with scientific culture, and the vigorous
+childhood of scientific research was aggressive, insolent, and noisily
+insubordinate. The old seminaries, whose homes were in the Benedictine
+monasteries, refused to welcome the new learning. Its teachers settled
+themselves elsewhere; at Paris, on the other side of the water, they had
+a hard fight of it. Once in 1209 the Synod of Paris actually prohibited
+the reading of Aristotle's 'Metaphysics.' At Oxford they seem to have
+met with a more generous reception. Perhaps it was because that
+reception was too enthusiastic that King Stephen at the close of his
+miserable reign expelled Vacarius, the first teacher of scientific law
+in England. Whereupon young men of parts and ambition crossed the
+Channel, seeking and finding at Pavia and Bologna what was not to be had
+at home. The monastic schools held their own, and went on in the old
+groove; the intellectual revolution which soon came about by the agency
+of the Mendicant Orders was not yet dreamt of. St. Alban's, Malmesbury,
+and other such mighty foundations, stuck to the old studies, just as
+Eton and Winchester stuck to Latin Verse as the one thing needful, and
+reluctantly gave into the newfangled notion of having a 'modern side.'
+
+Outside the Abbey precincts, a hundred yards from the great gate, and
+separated from it by the _Rome land_, which may possibly have served the
+boys as a playground, stood the Grammar School. Whether it offered a
+different training from that which was usually supplied to the scholars
+who were under training in the cloister, it is difficult to say. Within
+the precincts, when the 13th century began, there stood the great
+church--enriched by the accumulated offerings of centuries, and glowing
+with dazzling splendour of jewels and cloth of gold, and glass that
+glorified the very sunshine, and wonders of sculpture and colour and
+needlework filling the heart to overflowing with inexplicable hopes and
+longings for an ideal that seemed possible of realization, if only the
+Church in heaven should be as far removed above the actual of the Church
+on earth, as the glories of the Church on earth were removed above the
+squalid life of the common workday world. All this in witness that the
+great Abbey was, first and foremost, a religious foundation, raised in
+the first instance to the glory of God, and meant to help forward the
+worship of God, and make the worship worthy of the Most High.
+
+But besides being primarily and emphatically a religious foundation, the
+Abbey in the 13th century had grown into something else, and had become
+the home of a corporation of scholars and students, who were the leaders
+of art and culture in an age when art and culture were to be met with
+nowhere outside the walls of a great monastery. There, in what might be
+called the museum of the Abbey, you might see no mean collection of
+antique gems that had once been the pride of Roman magistrates.
+Mysterious specimens of barbaric goldwork, fashioned by unknown
+craftsmen for the necks of nameless chieftains who had drawn the sword
+and perished, none knew when. Engraved gems that had been dug up in
+mysterious sepulchres, about which even imagination despaired of telling
+any story; relics of saints and martyrs, charters of Saxon kings,
+granted centuries before the Normans came to ring out the old and ring
+in the new. The wealth of mere archæological specimens at St. Alban's
+made it such a museum of antiquities as provokes wonder and bitterness,
+as we read the catalogue of what was once there, and has perished
+utterly and for ever.[3]
+
+The range of buildings to the south of the church covered a far larger
+area than that which the church itself occupied. Uncertain though the
+exact site may be and is, there had already been added in Brother
+Matthew's time what we should now call an Art school, a Library, and,
+almost more famous than all, the Scriptorium. By-and-bye, too, came the
+printing-press which John Herford set up in 1480. Wynkyn de Worde was
+sometime schoolmaster of Saint Alban's, and Lady Juliana Berners' famous
+volume issued from the Abbey Press, while Caxton was still pursuing his
+craft in the almonry of another monastery at Westminster.
+
+In the days of King John, however, people had so little idea of the
+possibility of the printing-press, that they were almost equally
+ignorant of such a material as paper for literary purposes. Yet it is a
+huge mistake which has not yet been exploded, as it ought to be, that
+reading and writing were rare accomplishments in the 13th century.
+Knowledge of a certain kind was disseminated far more effectively and
+far more universally than is generally believed. The country parson was
+expected to be the schoolmaster of his parish, and generally was so, and
+there was hardly a village in England during the reign of Henry III, in
+which there were not one or more persons who could write a _clerkly_
+hand, draw up accounts in _Latin_, and keep the records of the various
+petty courts and gatherings that were continually being held, sometimes
+to the annoyance and grievous vexation of the rural population. The
+professional _writers_ were so numerous, and their training so severe,
+that they had got for themselves privileges of a very exceptional kind;
+the _clerk_ took rank with the _clergyman_, and the _writer_ of a book
+was almost as much esteemed as its _author_.
+
+The scriptorium of a great monastery was at once the printing-press and
+the publishing office. It was the place where books were written, and
+whence they issued to the world. With the traditional exclusiveness of
+the older monasteries there was less desire, no doubt, to diffuse and
+disperse than to accumulate books, but the composing and the
+multiplication of books was always going on. The scriptorium was a great
+writing school too, and the rules of the art of writing which were laid
+down there were so rigidly and severely adhered to, that to this day it
+is difficult to decide at a glance whether a book was written in St.
+Alban's or St. Edmund's Abbey. Sometimes as many as twenty writers were
+employed at once, and besides these there were occasionally
+supernumeraries, who were professional scribes, and who were paid for
+their services; but nothing short of perfect penmanship, such trained
+skill, for instance, as would now be required for an engraver, would
+qualify a copyist to take part in the finished work, which the copying
+of important books required.
+
+One of the conclusions which Sir Thomas Hardy arrived at during the
+course of his minute examination of Sir Frederick Madden's theory is so
+curious, and opens out such an unexpected view of the way in which our
+monasteries may have been brought under the influence of foreign
+literature, that it is worth while in this connection to quote the great
+critic's own words:
+
+     'After minutely examining every page of the manuscripts in
+     question, as well as others, which were undoubtedly written
+     in the monastery of St. Alban's, and comparing them with
+     others executed in various parts of England and on the
+     Continent, I can come to no other conclusion than that
+     during the latter half of the 13th century, and perhaps a
+     little earlier, there prevailed among the scribes in the
+     Scriptorium of St. Alban's, a peculiar character of writing
+     which is not recognizable in any other religious house in
+     England during that period; but which is traceable in some
+     foreign manuscripts, and even in private deeds executed in
+     England in the neighbourhood of St. Alban's during the 12th
+     and 13th centuries. These facts lead me to the inference,
+     that _the schoolmaster who taught the art of writing to
+     Matthew Paris and the other members and scholars of the
+     establishment at St. Alban's was a foreigner_; that his
+     pupils not only imitated their instructor in the formation
+     of his letters, but also in his exceptional orthography.'
+
+What questions suggest themselves as we accept the conclusion arrived
+at! Who was he, this 'foreigner,' who had come from across the sea to
+bring in his outlandish novelties into the great scriptorium? Was he
+some 'Frenchman' imported from sunny Champagne, where Thibaut, the
+mawkish singer was making verses which his people loved to listen to?
+Did he teach the young novices French as well as writing? Did he touch
+the lute himself on Feast-days, and charm them with some new lyric of
+Gasse Bruslé, or delight them with one of Rutebeuf's merry ditties?
+France was all alive with song at this time, and princes were rivals now
+for poetic fame. It may be that this 'foreigner' brought in a taste for
+light literature as well as for a new fashion in penmanship, and made
+known to his pupils such alluring novelties as the 'Roman d'Alexandre,
+soon to be eclipsed by the 'Roman de la Rose.'
+
+The scriptorium at St. Alban's was founded by Abbot Paul, a kinsman of
+Archbishop Lanfrance, when the great Abbey had already existed for three
+centuries. Paul became Abbot eleven years after the Conquest, and he
+showed himself an able and earnest administrator. From this time
+learning and a love of books became a tradition of the house. Abbot
+after abbot continued to add to the collection of MSS., and to increase
+the value of the library. But St. Alban's had never had a great
+historian of its own. Strange and shameful fact! East and west and north
+and south, all over the land, there were great writers holding up their
+proud heads. Out in the desolate wilds there at Peterborough, they had
+been actually keeping up a chronicle for centuries--aye, and written in
+the vernacular too. The lonely monastery of Ely, among the swamps, had
+its historian. Malmesbury boasted her learned William; and Worcester,
+which St. Wulstan had raised from the dust, as it were, only the other
+day, had already her Florence. In the great houses of the Northern
+Province there had been no lack of writers to whom the past was an open
+book. Even Westminster had long ago had her _chronographer_, and far
+away in furthest Wales, Geoffrey, the Monmouth man, was making men open
+their eyes very wide indeed with tales--idle tales they might be, but
+they were well worth the reading--and there was talk too of another
+young Welshman, Giraldus, who was on the way towards outdoing the other
+by-and-bye. What are we coming to? Holy St. Alban, shalt thou and thy
+house be put to shame?--that be far from us!
+
+Thus it came to pass that about a century after the foundation of the
+scriptorium, and when the library had grown to an imposing size, Abbot
+Simon bestirred himself, and a new office was created in the Abbey, to
+wit, that of Historiographer. In our time we should have given this
+functionary a grander title, and called him Professor of History; but in
+the 12th century, they called him what he was, a writer of history, and
+from this time, in fact, the writing of history, after a certain
+authorized method, began, and what had been called, and deserves to be
+called, the St. Alban's School of History took its rise.
+
+It is evident that before the 13th century had well begun, an historical
+compendium of great value had already been drawn up, which must have
+been compiled by careful students with a command of books such as during
+this age was rare.
+
+     'The compilation,' says Dr. Luard, 'whenever and by
+     whomsoever it was written must be regarded as a very curious
+     and remarkable one. The very large number of sources
+     consulted, the miscellaneous character of many of the
+     extracts, the mixture of history and legend, the giving
+     fixed years to stories which even writers like Geoffrey of
+     Monmouth had left undated, the care at one time and the
+     carelessness at another, the slavishness with which one
+     authority is followed, and the recklessness with which
+     another is altered, the frequent confusion of dates, their
+     ignorance and want of care, the blunders displayed in many
+     instances from the compiler not understanding the author
+     whom he is copying, as is especially the case in the
+     extracts from the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;" all these
+     characteristics may well earn for the author the title that
+     Lappenberg has given to him, though under the name of
+     "Matthew of Westminster," namely, that of the "Verwirrer der
+     Geschichte." At the same time there is no doubt that he had
+     access to some materials which we no longer possess: and my
+     object has been to trace all his statements, where possible,
+     to their source, and to distinguish any additions that the
+     compiler has made when they are merely rhetorical
+     amplifications of his own, or when they are really from some
+     source not now extant.'--Pref. to vol. i., p. xxxiii.
+
+After all that can be said, the work surprises us by the erudition it
+displays. Nor is that surprise lessened when we have gone through the
+masterly analysis of its contents, which Dr. Luard has given us in the
+Preface to his first vol. Such as it was, it became the great text-book
+on which Roger of Wendover founded his own labours when he incorporated
+it into the chronicle which he left behind him. Roger of Wendover did
+good work, and laboriously epitomized, supplemented and improved, but he
+was a mere literary monk after all; a student, a bookworm, simple,
+conscientious, and truthful; a trustworthy reporter, 'a picker-up of
+learning's crumbs,' a monkish historiographer, in short; but by no means
+a historian of large views and of original mind. Roger of Wendover died
+in 1236, and Matthew Paris succeeded to his office and work.
+
+From what has been said, the reader may be presumed to have gained
+something like an answer to our first question: _What_ was Brother
+Matthew? Briefly, he was a representative monk of the most powerful
+monastery in England during the 13th century, when that monastery was at
+its best, and doing the work which in after times the Universities and
+great schools of the country took out of the hands of the religious
+houses; work, too, which since those days has been done by the
+printing-press, and by many other institutions better fitted to deal
+with the requirements of an immensely larger population, and to be the
+instruments of diffusing culture and refinement through the nation after
+it had outgrown the older machinery.
+
+When we come to look into the personal history of Brother Matthew, the
+details of his biography need not detain us long. Sir Henry Taylor's
+famous line is only half true, after all;
+
+    'The world knows nothing of its greatest men'
+
+really means that the world knows less about them than it would like to
+know. And yet the world knows almost as much about them as is good for
+it. The leading facts of a man's career are all that concern most of
+us--the main lines--not the details. Of Matthew Paris we know enough,
+because he has himself given us so faithful a picture of his times, and
+so charming an insight into the daily life which he led.
+
+Unnecessary doubt has been suggested as to his parentage, and whether
+his extraction was or was not from a stock that could boast of gentle
+blood. For our part we incline strongly to the belief, that Brother
+Matthew was called Paris because that was his name, and had been his
+father's name before him. A family of that name held lands in
+Bedfordshire in Henry III.'s time; others of the same stock were settled
+in Lincolnshire earlier still; and the Cambridgeshire family (one of
+whom was among the visitors of the monasteries under Henry VIII.)
+boasted of a long line of ancestors, and retained their estates in the
+Eastern Counties till late in the 17th century. Young Matthew probably
+received his education in the school at St. Alban's, and soon showed a
+decided taste for learning and the student's life, and that in the 13th
+century meant an inclination for the life of the cloister. Many a
+precocious lad is even now taught from his childhood to look forward to
+the glories of a College Fellowship, and the career which such an
+academic success may open to him; and in the 13th century a schoolboy's
+ambition was directed to the goal of admission to a great
+monastery--that step on the ladder which whosoever could reach, there
+was no knowing how high he might climb--how high above the common sons
+of earth or, if he preferred it, how high towards the heaven that is
+above the earth.
+
+Matthew was probably born about the year 1200, and in January 1217 he
+became a monk at St. Alban's, _i. e._, he became a _novice_. At this
+time a lad could commence his noviciate at 15; but the age was
+subsequently advanced to 19, the younger limit having been found, as a
+rule, too early even for the preliminary discipline required. On the day
+after the lad was admitted, a frightful scene took place in the
+monastery. A band of Fawkes de Breauté's cut-throats had stormed the
+town of St. Alban's, burst into the Abbey, and slaughtered at the door
+of the church one Robert Mai, a servant of the Abbot. William de
+Trumpington was Abbot at this time, a vigorous and resolute personage,
+who ruled the convent with a firm hand. Like all really able men, he was
+ably seconded, for he knew how to choose his subordinates. At first the
+monks had repented of their choice, and there were quarrels and
+litigation and appeals to the Pope, and many serious 'unpleasantnesses;'
+but as time went on, Abbot William had won the allegiance of all the
+convent, and they were proud of him. He was a man of books, among his
+other virtues, and had an eye for bookish men; and when he deposed Roger
+de Wendover from being Prior of Belvoir with a somewhat high hand, and
+brought him back to St. Alban's, he doubtless did so because he knew
+that at Belvoir he was a square man in a round hole, while in the
+scriptorium of the Abbey he would be in his right place. Certainly the
+event proved that the Abbot was right, and it was to this judicious
+removal of a student and man of letters to his proper home that we owe
+so much of our knowledge of those interesting minutiæ of English history
+which the writer has revealed. It was under the eye of Robert de
+Wendover that Matthew Paris grew up, rendering him every year more and
+more substantial assistance in the library and in the scriptorium.
+
+But the young man was not only a bookworm and a copyist, he soon got to
+be looked upon as a prodigy. He was a universal genius; he could do
+whatever he set his hand to, and better than any one else. He could
+draw, and paint, and illuminate, and work in metals. Some said he could
+even construct maps; he was versed in everything, and noticed everything
+from 'the cedar that is in Lebanon to the hyssop upon the wall;' he was
+an expert in heraldry; he could tell you about whales, and camels, and
+buffaloes, and elephants--he could even draw an elephant--illustrate his
+history, in fact, with the elephant's portrait, the first elephant, he
+says, that had ever been seen in our northern climes. It was centuries
+before men had dreamt of what the science of geology would one day
+reveal. Then, too, he had vast capacity for work, and was a courtly
+person, and he had the gift of tongues, and had been a great traveller;
+he had early been sent by the convent to study at the University of
+Paris, and wherever he went, he was the man to make friends. When the
+Benedictines in Norway had convinced themselves that there was sore need
+of a reform of their rule and discipline, they applied to Pope Innocent
+IV. to send them a Visitor furnished with the necessary authority for
+carrying out so delicate and difficult a mission, and they made choice
+of Matthew Paris as the fittest possible person for such a work.
+Reluctantly Brother Matthew was compelled to undertake the task; he
+started on his northern voyage in 1248, and was absent about a year. In
+Norway he soon grew into high favour with King Hacon, who peradventure
+would have kept him at his side if he could. This seems to have been the
+most important episode in his otherwise uneventful life. But the
+advantages and opportunities which were at the command of any ambitious
+and studious young monk at St. Alban's were in themselves extraordinary.
+We have said that building was always going on. It was going on on a
+very large scale indeed in Abbot William's time. That means that there
+were the plans and sections and working drawings to be copied for the
+architect, and measurements and calculations by the thousand to be
+made--_a school of architecture_, in short: and besides that, what Roger
+de Wendover was in the scriptorium, that Walter of Colchester, _pictor
+et sculptor incomparabilis_, was in the painting room. Walter was a
+sculptor; indeed he wrought at his marvellous pulpit which the Abbot set
+up in the middle of the church: and he carved the story of St. Alban
+upon the great beam over the high altar, and did many another thing of
+which we have only too brief descriptions. Then, too, there was Richard,
+the monk who decorated the grand new guests' hall _deliciose_, as we are
+told, and who painted pictures and carried out other works of
+embellishment at a pace which none could have kept up, but that he had
+his father to help him with his brush, and another artist, John of
+Wallingford, to carry out his great designs, and many more skilled
+limners whose names have gone down into silence.
+
+When Abbot William's reign came to an end, the monks were unanimous in
+choosing John of Hertford as his successor, and the new Abbot lost no
+time in showing favour to Matthew Paris. Next year Roger de Wendover
+died, and who could there be so worthy to succeed him as historiographer
+as the versatile and accomplished brother, who by this time was the
+boast of the great house? And historiographer accordingly Matthew
+became--_mutatis mutandis_, a sort of 13th-century editor of the
+'Times;' his business was to gather from all points of the compass, if
+not the latest news, yet the best and most trustworthy reports upon
+whatever was worth recording. He had his correspondents all over Europe,
+and that he sifted the evidence as it came to him we know.
+
+Wherever there was any great event that deserved a place in the Abbey
+Chronicle, some splendid pageant to describe, some battle, or treaty, or
+pestilence, or flood, or famine, straightway tidings came to the
+vigilant historiographer; and there was a comparison of the evidence
+brought in, and some testing of witnesses, and finally the narrative was
+drawn up and incorporated into Matthew's history. Again and again it
+happened that a great personage who, while himself _making_ history, was
+anxious that his own part in a transaction should be represented
+favourably, would try and get the right side of the famous chronicler,
+and would furnish him with private information. Even the King himself
+thought it no scorn to communicate facts and documents to Brother
+Matthew. Once when Henry saw him in a crowd on a memorable occasion, he
+picked him out, and bade him take his seat by his side, and see to it
+that he made a true and faithful report of what was going on; and it is
+evident that the royal favour which he enjoyed through life must have
+extended to furnishing him with many a story and many a detail which
+none but the King could have supplied. The minute account of the attempt
+to assassinate Henry in 1238; the curious State paper giving a narrative
+of the dispute between the King and his nobles in 1242; the strange
+scene at the tomb of William Marshall in 1245, and scores of other
+incidents in the career of Bishop Grossteste and Richard of Cornwall,
+were evidently 'inspired,' and can only have come from eye-witnesses of
+the events recorded. Nevertheless Matthew, though he was willing enough
+to receive information, and to utilise facts and documents, was by no
+means the man to reproduce them exactly in the form in which they came
+to him. More than once he ventured to remonstrate with the King, and
+very much oftener than once he expresses his opinion of him in no
+measured terms. Some of the severest censures he had marked for
+omission, and some expressions he modified considerably, for we have the
+good fortune to possess his chronicle both in an earlier and in a later
+form; but even though the fuller and more outspoken record had perished,
+we should still have had enough proof to make it clear that we have in
+Matthew Paris an instance of a born historian, one who never consented
+to be a mere advocate, taking a side and seeing only half the truth of
+anything; but a man gifted with the judicial faculty, that precious gift
+without which a man may be anything you please--a rhetorician, a special
+pleader, a picturesque writer, a laborious collector of facts; but an
+historian never. And yet Matthew Paris was a magnificent hater, with a
+fund of indignant scorn and righteous anger which never fails him upon
+occasion. Friend of King and nobles as he was, he will not spare his
+words of wrathful censure upon the tyrant, or upon any that he held
+deserving of rebuke for cruelty, oppression and avarice. When he has to
+lay the lash on such as had proved themselves enemies to his much-loved
+Abbey, or who had wronged and defrauded it, he is well-nigh as fierce as
+Dante. He singles them out--the doomed wretches--and holds them, as it
+were, over the fire of hell before he drops them down into the burning
+flame.
+
+Did Ralph Cheinduit, that blustering, burly knight, cry aloud 'A fig for
+St. Alban and his monks! Since they excommunicated me--look you! I have
+only increased in girth, behold me fat and jolly, in faith almost too
+big for my saddle. A fig for them all!' Did he say so, the impious
+wretch? Be it known that from that very day Sir Knight began to shrink
+and waste and pine, and if he had not repented and been absolved in
+time, he had gone down to the bottomless pit with never a hope of
+deliverance.
+
+Did not Sir Adam Fitz William show the evil spirit that was in him when
+he sided against us time and again? And now, look to his awful end!
+Gorged with meat and drink one night, he sprawled upon his bed,
+_indigestus_, as you may say, and he never woke more. Aye! and he died
+intestate too. And as though that was not bad enough, his wife too died,
+straightway, like another Sapphira slain by the shock of the tidings.
+And then there was Alan de Beccles, too, always notorious for setting
+himself against us and our house, he too perished as the other did, for
+he loved choice dainties overmuch, and he dined late and he ate as none
+should eat, and when he could eat no more, suddenly his speech failed
+him and his veins burst, smitten with an apoplexy. And many another,
+whom it would take too long to name, following his evil course, and
+being prosecutors of Holy Alban's Church, perished for ever by God's
+vengeance.
+
+It is no longer the fashion now to denounce the Pope and his myrmidons,
+but if the rage of Exeter Hall should ever recur, and the orators of the
+old platform should revive a taste for anti-papal agitation, they might
+find in Matthew Paris as rich a repertory of testimonials against Roman
+aggression and greed as the most rabid Irish Protestant could desire. 'O
+thou Pope,' he bursts out once, 'thou the father of all the fathers in
+Christ, how it is that thou sufferest the realms of Christendom to be
+fouled by such creatures as are thine?' The 'creatures' were the papal
+legates and nuncios and all their belongings, who were plundering
+England without shame. 'Harpies they were and blood-suckers,' says
+Matthew, 'mere plunderers, skinning the sheep, not shearing them only.'
+Then there were the King's Justiciars--'Justice'--nay, with that they
+had nothing to do. Why tell of their unrighteous deeds? he asks. 'Better
+forbear from vainly writing about the _wrongers_, and return to the
+story of the wronged.'
+
+Of course the friars come in for their share of strong words--chiefly
+because the Pope made use of them so vilely, and not less because they
+set themselves above their betters--us, to wit--monks of the old houses.
+
+     'They started with such fair professions, they were going to
+     be so very poor, and so very unworldly, and were going to
+     supplement our work and interfere with nobody, and give us
+     all a helping hand. Look at them now!' says Matthew; 'they
+     march through the streets in pompous array with banners
+     flaunting in the sun and waxen tapers, and rich burghers in
+     holiday garments joining in the long train, and if they have
+     no land they have money, good store, and as for their
+     churches, they are eclipsing us all. Their invasion of our
+     territory is a dreadful scandal, and they sneer at us and at
+     all other religious men and women and they flout the parish
+     priests and call them humdrums, and schism is at work
+     horribly, and the people are running away from the old
+     guides, and there is no end to them. Actually in the year of
+     grace 1257,' he says, 'a new order of these fellows turned
+     up in London. Friars of the sack, forsooth, because they
+     were clothed in sackcloth! Of course they came armed with a
+     papal licence as usual. What did these fellows come for? Was
+     it to make confusion worse confounded? Alas! Alas! If we had
+     only been as we were in the golden age, these friars would
+     never have had a chance--not they! We too are not as the
+     monks of old were; they lived the guileless life--austere,
+     hard, self-denying, saintly! What are we in comparison with
+     them?
+
+     'Did not we find the bones of our brethren there, hard by
+     the High Altar, when we were beautifying the same? O ye
+     degenerate sons of this degenerate age! Two centuries ago
+     and our monks were men of faith and prayer. In the year of
+     grace one thousand two hundred and fifty-one, we found more
+     than thirty of them buried together, and their bones were
+     lying there, white and sweet, redolent with the odor of
+     sanctity every one; each man had been buried as he died, in
+     his monastic habit, and his shoes upon his feet too. Aye,
+     and _such_ shoes--shoes made for wear and not for
+     wantonness. The soles of these shoes were sound and strong,
+     they might have served the purpose for poor men's naked feet
+     even now, after centuries of lying in the grave. Blush ye!
+     ye with your buckles, and your pointed toes and your fiddle
+     faddle. These shoes upon the holy feet that we dug up were
+     as round at the toe as at the heel, and the latchets were
+     all of one piece with the uppers. No rosettes in those days,
+     if you please! They fastened their shoes with a thong, and
+     they wound that thong around their blessed ankles, and they
+     cared not in those holy days whether their shoes were _a
+     pair_. Left foot and right foot each was as the other: and
+     we, when we gazed at the holy relics--we bowed our heads at
+     the edifying sight, and we were dumbfounded, even to awe, as
+     we swung our censers over the sacred graves of the ages
+     past!'
+
+The anecdotes and out-of-the-way pieces of information in the 'Chronica
+Majora,' which may be said to represent the _paragraphs_ of modern
+journalism, are countless. Brother Matthew enlivens his history with
+these cross-lights at every page, and what gives to these scraps an
+added charm is that Matthew himself seems to be always with us when he
+prattles on. Not even Herodotus has succeeded more entirely in
+impressing his quaint personality upon his narrative. It is always
+something which he has seen, or heard from some living man who saw it
+with his own eyes.
+
+     'There was my friend John of Basingstoke, had studied at
+     Paris, and a wonder of learning he was, but he told me
+     himself that his best teacher by far was the young lady
+     Constantina, daughter of an archbishop she. Archbishop of
+     Athens, too--archbishops may marry out there! Before she was
+     twenty she knew all that men may know; she was worth two
+     universities of Paris any day; she foretold the coming of
+     plagues and storms, and eclipses--and--more wonderful
+     still--the coming of earthquakes too: and John of
+     Basingstoke was her scholar, and whatever he knew that was
+     deep and rare, he learnt it of the lady Constantina, the
+     Archbishop's daughter.'
+
+Matthew is very great when he has to tell of omens and portents:
+
+     'We were scurvily treated by Pope Innocent III.,' he says,
+     'in the days of Abbot John. Spite of all our privileges and
+     indulgences, the Pope would have him come to Rome every
+     third year; a sore burden and harm to us all. Forthwith evil
+     omens came. Thrice in three years was our tower struck by
+     lightning. After that wrong of his Holiness it was no wonder
+     that the impression of the papal seal in wax, which we had
+     taken good care to fix on the top of the steeple, availed
+     not to keep off the thunderbolt--small good you see in that
+     kind of thing.'
+
+Besides the miscellaneous paragraphs, there are periodical reports of
+the weather, and the storms, and the droughts, and the harvests.
+Moreover, there are what answer to our police reports, and details of
+criminal proceedings against Jew and Gentile, and births and deaths and
+marriages, and now and then brief notes upon the state of the markets,
+and sometimes hints and reflections upon the desirability of certain
+reforms in Church and State; and all this not in the spirit of modern
+journalism, which at its best too often bears the marks of haste, and
+betrays the literary soldier of fortune paid for his work at so much a
+column, but genuine, hearty, throbbing with a certain passionate loyalty
+to a tradition, or an idea which you may say is exploded, grotesque, or
+fanciful, but which in the 13th century honest men and devout ones lived
+by and lived for, and were trying in their own way to carry out into
+action.
+
+But now that we have got this precious 'Chronicle,' not to mention other
+works in the composition of which Brother Matthew had at least a large
+share--though our space forbids us dwelling upon them or their contents,
+and we must refer our readers to Dr. Luard's elaborate prefaces if they
+would desire to know all about them--another question suggests itself,
+which sooner or later will become a pressing question--What are we going
+to do with such a national work of which this country has great reason
+to be proud?
+
+The days are gone by when a man was supposed to be educated in
+proportion as he was familiar with the literature of Greece and Rome and
+ignorant of everything else. Already at Oxford candidates for the
+highest honours in the final schools think it no shame to read their
+Plato or their Aristotle in English translations, and in half the time
+that was needed under the old plan they get a mastery of their
+Thucydides or Herodotus, devoting themselves to the subject-matter after
+they have proved at 'Moderations' that they have a respectable
+acquaintance with the language of the authors.
+
+May the day be far off when Homer and Æschylus shall cease to be read in
+the original! The great writers of Hellas and Italy were poets or
+orators, great teachers or great thinkers; but they were something more.
+They were perfect instrumentalities too. Their thoughts, their lessons,
+their aspirations, their regrets, you may interpret and transfer into
+the speech and the idioms of the moderns; but the music of their
+language, the subtleties of melody and rhythm, and harmony and tone, can
+no more be translated than a symphony for the strings can be adequately
+represented upon the organ. You may persuade yourself that you have got
+the substance; you have missed the perfection of the form. Yet who but a
+narrow pedant will insist that the study of any literature, ancient or
+modern, is valuable chiefly for familiarizing us with the language, not
+for enriching our minds with the subject matter? Do we desire to
+understand the past and so to be better able to estimate the importance
+of great movements that are going on in the present or, by the help of
+the experience of bygone ages, to forecast the future? Then it behoves
+us to see that our induction shall be made from as wide a view as may
+be, and to avail ourselves of any light that may be gained. But it is
+mere waste of time to be for ever staring at the lamp which may be
+pretty to look at in itself, but is then most precious when it serves as
+a means to an end. If we are ever to construct a Science of History, the
+old methods must give place to something which may approximate to
+philosophic enquiry. When we come to think of it, how very small an area
+of time or space is covered by the historians of Greece and Rome: how
+small an area and how superficially dealt with! Even Thucydides hardly
+ventures to lift the veil which separates the civilization of his own
+age from that of an earlier period; he lifts it for a moment, then drops
+the curtain and passes on. It is true indeed that Herodotus introduces
+us to a world that is not Hellenic, and brings us into some sort of
+relation with men whose habits and art and religion had a character of
+their own; but then these nations were not as we, and not as men even of
+our race could ever become. We never seem to be _in touch_ with Egypt or
+Assyria, and when he prattles on about these nations it is less as a
+historian than as an observant traveller that Herodotus delights and
+allures. Xenophon's passing notices of the manners and education, of the
+_feudalism_ and the social life of the Medes, are too brief to be
+anything but tantalizing; but the neglect of Xenophon by professed
+students is not creditable, however significant. Perhaps of all the
+Greek writers Polybius was the man who had the truest conception of the
+historian's vocation; perhaps, too, it was just because he was so much
+before his age that his voluminous and ambitious work has come down to
+us little more than a fragment. Because he was something better than a
+compiler of annals, they who read history only to be amused found him
+dull, and the moderns have not yet reversed the verdict which was passed
+upon him. Who ever heard of a candidate for honours taking Polybius into
+the schools?
+
+It is from the Latin historians that we might have expected so much and
+from whom we get so little. What do they tell us of ancient Spain--the
+Spain that Sertorius pretended he was going to regenerate, and whose
+civilization, literature, and national life he did so much to
+extinguish? If it were not for what Aristotle has told us in the
+_Politics_, what should we know of that mighty commercial Republic which
+monopolized the carrying trade of the old world? It never seems to have
+occurred to Livy that the political organization of Carthage could be
+worth his notice. His business was to glorify Rome, and to tell how Rome
+grew to greatness--grew by war and conquest and pillage, and the
+ferocious might of her relentless soldiery. The 'Germania' of Tacitus
+stands alone--unique in ancient literature; but what would we not give
+for such a monograph upon the Britain which Cæsar attempted to conquer,
+or the Gaul which he plundered and devastated? The great captain's
+famous missive might be inscribed as the motto of his 'Commentaries.'
+Veni! vidi! vici! sums up in brief the substance of what they contain.
+It was always Rome's way! Rome swept a sponge that was soaked in blood
+over all the past of the nations she subdued. She came to obliterate,
+never to preserve. Her chroniclers disdained to ask how these or those
+doughty antagonists had grown formidable, how their national life had
+developed; whether their progress had been arrested by the conquerors or
+whether they had become weak and enervated by social deterioration or
+moral corruption. Enough that they were _Barbarians_.
+
+The science of history can be but little advanced by writers such as
+these, who pass from battlefield to battlefield--
+
+    'Crimson-footed, like the stork,
+    Through great ruts of slaughter,'
+
+and to whom the silent growth of institutions and the evolution of
+ethical sentiments and the development of the arts of peace were matters
+which never presented themselves as worthy of their attention. You may
+call this history if you will, in truth it is little better than
+Empiricism. The world is a larger world than Rome or Athens dreamt of,
+and students of history are beginning to realize that not quite the last
+thing they have to do is 'to look at _home_.' Such a work as the
+'Chronica Majora' of Matthew Paris is a national heritage which it is
+shameful to allow much longer to be known only by the curious and
+erudite. Now that there is no excuse for our neglect, is it too much to
+hope that the day may not be far distant when the name of this great
+Englishman may become as familiar to schoolboys as that of Sallust or
+Livy, of Cornelius Nepos or Cæsar--his name as familiar, and his
+writings better known and more loved?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Lord Langdale resigned three weeks before his death.
+
+[2] The proposal to print and publish the _Calendars_ had been approved
+by authority of the new Record Commissioners as early as January 1840.
+_See_ preface to Mr. Lemons' 'Calendar' (Domestic, 1547-1580), p. viii.
+
+[3] In Luard's sixth volume there are two facsimiles of certain coloured
+drawings of the more precious gems at St. Alban's, with careful
+descriptions of them, these and the illustrations being most probably
+_executed by Mathew Paris himself_.
+
+
+
+
+Art. II. 1.--_The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work, with a
+sketch of the Life of their Founder, The Venerable Jean Baptiste de la
+Salle._ By Mrs. R. F. Wilson, London, 1883.
+
+2. _La Première Année d'Instruction Morale et Civique: notions de droit
+et d'économie politique (Textes et Récits) pour répondre à la loi du 28
+Mars 1882 sur l'enseignement primaire obligatoire: ouvrage accompagné de
+Résumé, de Questionnaires, de Devoirs, et d'un Lexique des mots
+difficiles._ Par Pierre Laloi. Quatorzième Edition. Paris, 1885.
+
+3. _Report of the Committee of Council on Education_ (England and
+Wales). 1884-85.
+
+4. _Seventy-fourth Annual Report of the Incorporated National Society._
+1885.
+
+
+Most travellers in France will have met occasionally in Paris and in the
+provincial towns a school of boys walking two and two, and followed by a
+serious-looking superintendent of very solemn deportment. The boys are
+in no marked respect different from other boys, but they are orderly and
+well conducted. They are probably on their way to a church; and if you
+watch them, you will see them march in with much propriety. The
+superintendent is evidently not an ordinary schoolmaster; you would
+suppose that he is an ecclesiastic of some kind. He wears a loose black
+cloak, a hat with a low crown and a portentous brim, and bands such as
+were much worn by English clergymen till late years, and which, when
+strongly developed, were supposed to indicate a sympathy with
+Calvanistic theology. Nevertheless, the solemn-featured young man is not
+an ecclesiastic, neither is he a Protestant minister. He is one of the
+Frères Chrétiens, or Christian Brothers; and the boys whom he has under
+his charge are pupils in one of the Écoles Chrétiennes, or Christian
+Schools.
+
+We will venture to assume, that some of our readers are not well
+acquainted with the story and the principles of the remarkable
+institution known as the Schools of the Christian Brothers, or with the
+life of their remarkable founder. We propose in this article to supply
+some information upon the subject, not only because we think that such
+information will be interesting in itself, but also because we believe
+that from the story of the work and principles of the French schools of
+the Christian Brothers, we may proceed without difficulty, and almost by
+necessary consequence, to some useful considerations with respect to
+English schools as now established and conducted amongst ourselves.
+
+Jean Baptiste de la Salle was born in Rheims, April 30, 1651. The house
+in which he was born is still standing, and is regarded with reverence.
+He came of a noble family, which was originally of Bearn. His
+grandfather settled at Rheims, of which he became an honoured citizen,
+but was apparently in no way himself remarkable. His second son, Louis,
+was the father of a child, who received the name of Jean Baptiste on the
+same day as that upon which he was born.
+
+This child, whose career we purpose briefly to follow as that of the
+founder of the Christian Brothers, exhibited early signs of a devotional
+spirit; he learned to recite the Breviary from his grandfather, and
+continued to do so even before being bound to the practice by his
+ordination vows; and he soon made it clear to himself and to others that
+his vocation was that of the priestly office. His conduct as a student
+in the University of Rheims, which he entered at eight years old, was
+marked by diligence in study and gentle docility.
+
+Before he had reached the age of sixteen he was made a canon of the
+cathedral; such were the strange ecclesiastical possibilities of those
+times. An aged relative resigned in his favour, and died the following
+year. The preferment, however, did not spoil him; he looked upon it as a
+call to duty. He was diligent in attendance upon the offices of the
+Church, diligent in private prayer, diligent in study--in every way a
+remarkable boy-canon!
+
+In October 1670 he entered the seminary of St. Sulpice in Paris, where,
+amongst other fellow-students, was Fénelon, subsequently the great
+Archbishop of Cambrai. Little is recorded of his seminary life, except
+that it was gentle, modest, blameless. In 1672 he lost his father, and
+in the same year returned to Rheims to take charge of his younger
+brothers and sisters. The responsible position in which he was thus
+placed seems to have shaken for a time his persuasion that he had a true
+vocation for the priesthood; but after consultation with a friend who
+knew him well, his doubts vanished, and on the eve of Trinity Sunday in
+this same year he was admitted to the subdiaconate.
+
+Then follow six years of quiet home work and retirement. During this
+time he attended the theological course of the University, provided for
+the education of his brothers and sisters, and gave himself very
+earnestly to prayer and good works. In the year 1678, on Easter Eve, he
+was ordained Priest.
+
+During all this time De la Salle's attention does not seem to have been
+turned to that which ultimately became the great work of his life. As
+not unfrequently happens, the real bent was given to his energies by
+what might be described as accidental circumstances. The friend whom he
+consulted when in doubt concerning holy orders was one Canon Roland.
+This good man had interested himself much about an orphanage for girls
+at Rheims, which had fallen under bad management, and urgently needed
+reform. Canon Roland was taken ill just before De la Salle's ordination,
+and, dying not long after, left the young priest his executor,
+commending to his special care the orphanage just mentioned. De la Salle
+could not refuse the charge; it was not much to his taste, but it was
+the bequest of his friend; it was the leading of God; and he girded
+himself to the task. He applied through the Archbishop to the King for
+letters patent recognizing the institution, and thus put it upon a
+lasting foundation; he bore the expense of the whole transaction; then
+he supplemented the funds out of his own means; and having thus
+satisfied his obligations to his deceased friend, he returned to his
+quiet devotional life. The thought that this orphanage for girls would
+constitute a valuable training school for schoolmistresses seems already
+to have crossed his mind.
+
+Now comes the turning-point of De la Salle's life, and it comes in a
+curious way. There was a certain rich, fashionable, and extravagant
+married lady living in Rouen, who, like the rich man in the parable, was
+clothed in fine linen and fared sumptuously every day, while Lazarus lay
+at the gate. One day a poor beggar, who had been harshly repulsed from
+the door, touched the heart of a servant by his manifest misery, and was
+received into the stables, where he died the same night. The dead man
+must needs be buried; so the servant went to the mistress, confessed his
+fault, received some violent language and notice of dismissal, but at
+the same time procured a sheet to serve as a shroud for the corpse. At
+dinner-time the lady perceived the very sheet, which she had given for
+the burial, folded up and lying in her own chair; some mysterious hand
+had brought back the ungracious present, as though the deceased beggar
+would not receive a favour in death from one who had been so cruel to
+him in life.
+
+This strange and apparently not very important occurrence changed the
+whole course of the lady's life. She gave up all her old habits of
+magnificence and extravagance, lived the life of a devotee, and soon
+succeeded in separating from herself all her old companions and friends,
+who, in fact, deemed her mad. After her husband's death she became still
+more strict in her habits, and devoted to the service of the poor a
+large part of her fortune.
+
+Amongst other charities which she assisted was the female orphanage, of
+which we have already spoken as having been cared for by Canon Roland,
+and after his death by M. de la Salle. She conceived the idea of
+establishing something of the same kind for boys in her native town of
+Rheims, and she consulted Canon Roland on the subject. Ultimately she
+engaged a devout layman, named Adrien Nyel, who had experience of poor
+schools in Rouen, promised him maintenance for himself and a young
+assistant, gave him a letter of introduction to her relative M. de la
+Salle, and sent him to Rheims to open a school there for poor boys.
+
+This school, which was commenced in 1679, was the germ of the great
+system of _Écoles Chrétiennes_. Its success led a pious lady in Rheims
+to wish to establish another of the same kind in a different part of the
+town. She consulted M. de la Salle, who had become patron of the first
+school, on the subject; and thus he became, without any special wish or
+intention of his own, drawn into the work of the education of poor boys.
+His own account of the matter is worth quoting:--
+
+     'It was,' he wrote, 'by the chance meeting with M. Nyel, and
+     by hearing of the proposal made by that lady [to whom
+     reference has been made], that I was led to begin to
+     interest myself about boys' schools. I had no thought of it
+     before. It was not that the subject had not been suggested
+     to me. Many of M. Roland's friends had tried to interest me
+     about it, but it took no hold of my mind, and I had not the
+     least intention of occupying myself with it. If I had ever
+     thought that the care which out of pure charity I was taking
+     of schoolmasters would have brought me to feel it a duty to
+     live with them, I should have given it up at once; for as I
+     naturally felt myself very much above those whom I was
+     obliged to employ as schoolmasters, especially at first, the
+     bare idea of being obliged to live with such persons would
+     have been insupportable to me. In fact, it was a great
+     trouble to me when first I took them into my house, and the
+     dislike of it lasted for two years. It was apparently for
+     this reason that God, who orders all things with wisdom and
+     gentleness, and who does not force the inclinations of men,
+     when He willed to employ me entirely in the care of schools,
+     wrought imperceptibly and during a long space of time, so
+     that one engagement led to another in an unforeseen way.'
+
+This passage somewhat anticipates events; but it is convenient for the
+condensed character of this narrative that it should be so. We will
+therefore briefly fill up the gap left by M. de la Salle's own statement
+by saying, that he found the work of directing schools for the poor
+increase upon his hands in a wonderful manner. The success of those
+which he visited and superintended led to the establishment of others.
+Soon the masters themselves formed a small body which required
+superintendence and guidance. He took a house in which he placed them;
+the home of course needed rules for its orderly and efficient working;
+these M. de la Salle supplied. But still all was not quite as it should
+be. Cathedral duties took up much of the Canon's time; these duties were
+of primary obligation, and left comparatively little of the day to be
+given to the superintendence of schoolmasters. But more than this, the
+difference of station and comfort and habits between a well-endowed
+Canon of a Cathedral, enjoying in addition a private fortune of his own,
+and poor schoolmasters taken from the humblest ranks, and living in the
+most humble manner, was quite immeasurable. It was comparatively easy to
+have the whole company to dine with him, and so to meet them half way
+down the social hill; but this was not enough. M. de la Salle began
+gradually to realize the fact, that his great undertaking of supplying
+schools and schoolmasters for the gratuitous education of the poor,
+could only be crowned with complete success on the condition of his own
+adoption of poverty in all its thoroughness. Accordingly he determined
+to resign his canonry and spend his fortune upon the poor. Not
+altogether so easy a thing as might at first sight appear. Great
+opposition was made by his friends: the Archbishop was unwilling to
+accept his resignation: nothing but persevering determination on the
+part of De la Salle could have carried the business through; but he was
+full of perseverance and full of determination, and in 1683 he at last
+succeeded in divesting himself of his Cathedral preferment. The sale of
+his property, and spending the money upon the poor, was an easier
+matter, especially as the year 1684 was one of dearth; in the course of
+that year and the following he managed to get rid of all.
+
+This parting with his money, instead of spending it upon his great work,
+may well seem to be a conduct of doubtful wisdom; especially as at a
+later period much difficulty was encountered for want of funds. But it
+is hard, and perhaps not justifiable, to find fault with a man, who
+adopts the course of selling all that he has and giving to the poor,
+after using devoutly such a prayer as the following:--
+
+     'My God, I do not know whether to endow or not. It is not
+     for me to found communities, or to know how they should be
+     founded. It, is for Thee, Oh my God. Thou knowest how, and
+     canst do it in the way which is pleasing to Thee. If Thou
+     foundest them, they will be well founded. If Thou foundest
+     them not, they will be without foundation. I beseech Thee,
+     my God, make me know Thy will.'
+
+Soon after the last livre was spent, De la Salle had occasion to make a
+journey in connection with his work. He went on foot, as needs he must,
+and begged his way. An old woman gave him a piece of black bread; he ate
+it with joy, feeling that now he was indeed a poor man. He had at this
+time reached the age of thirty-three years.
+
+Behold the Society of the Christian Brothers, and the Christian Schools,
+taking form at last with De la Salle at the head! Let us examine that
+work and see how matters stand.
+
+In the first place, so far as the founder was himself concerned, his
+life was one of asceticism, but still more of prayer:--
+
+     'He prayed by day and by night--his life was one incessant
+     communion with God. He would fain have avoided even the
+     interruption caused by sleep, and he grudged every moment
+     given to it, because it shortened his time of prayer. He
+     slept on the ground, or sometimes in his chair, and was the
+     first to rise at the sound of the morning bell. While at
+     Rheims he regularly spent Friday night in the Church of
+     Saint Rémi; he made the sacristan lock him in, and there
+     poured out his soul in prayer for help, and guidance, and
+     success in his work.'
+
+The Superior and the Brothers of course lived a common life. The great
+principle of bringing himself exactly to the level of those who worked
+under him, which had led to his resignation of his stall and the sale of
+his property, made it quite certain that he would not call upon the
+Brothers to do or to bear anything which he was not willing to do and to
+bear himself. But the burden was heavier to him than to them. They were
+poor men originally, accustomed to hard work and rough fare; while he
+had been brought up in ease and plenty, and had never known what want
+and poverty were. Consequently it cost De la Salle much effort and
+self-denial to enter upon his new life; but he was satisfied with no
+half measures; the sacrifice was to be absolute and complete; he fought
+the battle and gained it,--yet not he, but the grace of God that was in
+him. At the first starting of the Society there was no distinct rule,
+but the following arrangements were made:--
+
+The food was to be substantial but frugal, fit for labourers engaged in
+hard toil; nothing costly, nothing but what was necessary; on the other
+hand no special rigour of abstinence, beyond that demanded of other
+Christians.
+
+For dress was adopted a capote, such as was common in the country, made
+of coarse material, and black; together with a black cassock, thick
+shoes, and a broad-brimmed hat.
+
+For a name they chose that of 'Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes,' or, as
+commonly abbreviated, 'Frères Chrétiens.'
+
+With regard to vows, De la Salle decided that they should take the
+three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but for three years
+only. They might make them perpetual the following year.
+
+As to the Superior himself, he had little difficulty with regard to the
+first two points, for his only possessions were a New Testament, a copy
+of the 'Initiation,' a Crucifix and a Rosary; and to celibacy he was
+already committed. With regard to obedience, the fulfilment of the vow
+was not easy to a man in his position; but he endeavoured to find a way
+to make this vow also a practical one, by the method of resigning his
+post and putting one of the Brothers in his place; this he ultimately
+succeeded in doing, though only for a short time.
+
+We must leave to the reader's imagination the manner in which the work
+grew under such remarkable auspices, the growth of M. de la Salle's
+reputation as a saint, and the constantly increasing load of
+responsibilities of all kinds which rested upon his shoulders.
+
+In the year 1688 the work extended to Paris. When De la Salle arrived
+there he left behind him in Rheims a principal house containing sixteen
+Brothers, and a training college for country schoolmasters, containing
+thirty men, besides fifteen lads in their noviciate. For the purpose of
+his work in Paris he hired a house in the village of Vaugirard; this he
+occupied for seven years, collecting the Brothers about him in their
+vacations, and making it a home for the sick and weary, and a place
+where postulants might make proof of their profession. We shall not
+follow his footsteps during this time, except to say that the work
+flourished wonderfully well under his hand, as it always did,
+notwithstanding all kinds of difficulties. We may produce, however, a
+striking document of self-dedication which belongs to this period. The
+Brothers seem to have been strongly moved by the desire of making their
+vows perpetual, instead of only for three years; the Superior opposed
+the innovation, but finding them resolute, he at length gave way, and
+commenced the new system by a formal dedication of himself, expressed in
+the following remarkable words:--
+
+     'Most Holy Trinity, Father, Son and Holy Ghost, prostrate in
+     deepest reverence before Thine infinite and adorable
+     Majesty, I consecrate myself wholly to Thee, to seek Thy
+     glory in all ways possible to me, or to which Thou shalt
+     call me. And to this end I, Jean Baptiste de la Salle,
+     Priest, promise and vow to unite myself to, and abide in
+     society with, the Brothers [here follow twelve names], and
+     in union and association with them to hold free schools in
+     any place whatsoever (even though, in order to do so, I
+     should have to beg for alms, and live on dry bread), or to
+     do in the said Society any work which may be appointed for
+     me, whether by the Community or by the Superior who shall
+     have the direction of it. For which reason I promise and vow
+     obedience as well to the Society itself as to the Superior
+     of it. And these vows of association with, and steadfastness
+     in, the said Community, and of obedience, I promise to keep
+     inviolable during my whole life; in witness whereof I have
+     signed. Done at Vaugirard, this sixth day of June, being the
+     Feast of the Most Holy Trinity, in the year 1694.
+
+    '(Signed) DE LA SALLE.'
+
+Having taken this step, De la Salle made a great effort to divest
+himself of his post as Superior, but in vain. He argued, but the
+Brothers were not convinced. He insisted upon an election, and every
+single vote was given for him. He begged for a second voting, but the
+result was the same. The Brothers said it would be time enough for them
+to elect his successor, when death had deprived them of him. So in his
+post of Superior he remained; and doubtless the Brothers were right, and
+he was wrong, as to the point in dispute between them.
+
+Let us now look for a moment at the rule of the Christian Brothers in
+the complete form which it ultimately assumed.
+
+The first article sets forth the purpose of the Society as follows:--
+
+     'The Institute of the Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes is a
+     Society, the profession of whose members is to hold schools
+     gratuitously. The object of this Institute is to give a
+     Christian education to children, and it is for this purpose
+     that schools are held, in order that the masters, who have
+     charge of the children from morning to night, may bring them
+     up to lead good lives, by instructing them in the mysteries
+     of our Holy Religion and filling their minds with Christian
+     maxims, while they give them such an education as is fitting
+     for them.'
+
+Thus the schools were to be free, and they were to be essentially and
+fundamentally Christian; but there was no intention of making them
+exclusively religious and banishing secular studies. On the other hand,
+the greater part of the time given to the children was devoted, as in
+reason it must be, to secular teaching; and only a small portion
+retained for teaching of a more solemn kind. No doubt De la Salle
+depended for the religious results of schooling more upon the men who
+taught and the general atmosphere of his schools, than upon amount of
+religious lessons actually taught and learnt: this is indicated by the
+following article of the Rule:--
+
+     'The Brothers of the Society will have a very deep reverence
+     for the Holy Scriptures, and in token of it they will always
+     carry about them a copy of the New Testament, and will pass
+     no day without reading a portion of it, in faith, respect,
+     and veneration for the Divine Words which it contains. They
+     will look upon it as their prime and principal Rule.'
+
+Again:--
+
+     'The spirit of the Institute consists in a burning zeal for
+     the instruction of children, that they may be brought up in
+     the fear and love of God, and led to preserve their
+     innocence, where they have not already lost it; to keep them
+     from sin, and to instil into their minds a great horror of
+     evil, and of everything that might rob them of purity.'
+
+The great purpose of De la Salle was to form men suitable for the work
+of education as thus conceived; and one notable feature of his scheme
+was that they should be laymen; even with regard to the Superior of the
+Society, De la Salle, though himself a Priest, bound the Brethren down
+to a pledge that they would not, when he was gone, elect a Priest into
+his room. It is needless to say that he had no prejudice against the
+priestly office as such; but he was genuinely persuaded that the work
+which he wished to have done could best be performed by laymen; partly
+because they could give themselves up to it more completely, partly
+because they could be had more cheaply, and partly because poor men such
+as he enlisted, and intended to enlist, were more thoroughly on a level
+with the poor, whose children he desired to educate. It was in the same
+spirit that he forbade to the Brothers the knowledge of Latin.
+
+There are five vows in the Society. Brothers who have not attained the
+age of twenty-five years can take them for only three years. No one may
+take them even for three years, until he has been at least two years in
+the Society, and has had one year's experience of the Noviciate, and one
+year's teaching in the schools. The vows are as follows:--
+
+    1. Poverty.
+    2. Chastity.
+    3. Obedience.
+    4. Steadfastness.
+    5. Giving gratuitous instruction to children.
+
+By this last vow they also bind themselves to take all possible pains to
+teach them well and to bring them up Christianly; and they promise
+neither to ask nor to accept, from the scholars, or from their parents,
+anything, be it what it may, either as a gift, or in any other form of
+remuneration whatsoever.
+
+The rule of daily life is given by the following table:--
+
+     4.30 A.M. Hour of rising.
+
+     5. Prayer and meditation.
+
+     6. Attend Mass, reading, &c.
+
+     7.15. Breakfast; prayer and preparation for school.
+
+     8 till 11. School, and children taken to Church.
+
+     11.30. Particular examination of conscience; dinner and
+     recreation.
+
+     1 P.M. Prayer in oratory, and depart to various schools.
+
+     1.30 till 5. School; half an-hour given to catechism.
+
+     5.30. Spiritual reading and mental prayer. The reading
+     begins with a portion of the New Testament, read upon the
+     knees.
+
+     6. Mental prayer, and confession of faults one to another.
+
+     6.30. Supper; reading at all meals; recreation.
+
+     8. Study of catechism.
+
+     8.30. Prayers in oratory.
+
+     9. Retire to dormitory; in bed by 9.15.
+
+So much for the Rule of the Christian Brothers. It is sufficiently
+strict; but, as before remarked, not intensified by any special
+austerities. The general order prescribed is, however, strengthened by
+injunctions against unnecessary communications with persons outside the
+Brotherhood, unnecessary possessions, unnecessary exercise of the will:
+the devotion to the rule is absolute, the poverty complete, the
+submission of the will unbounded. Very wonderful all this, but quite
+true.
+
+In connection with the rule, it may be well to say a few words
+concerning the manuals which De la Salle composed for the guidance of
+the Brothers. The principal was a book entitled, 'Conduite à l'usage des
+Écoles Chrétiennes;' this was circulated in manuscript, and a copy given
+to each Brother in charge of a school, but was not printed during the
+author's lifetime. He revised it in 1717, when he had retired from his
+post as Superior, and it was printed in 1720, a year after his death. It
+has been the guide of the Brothers ever since, and is read through twice
+a year in every one of their houses. The book shows great insight and
+good sense. Here is an instruction for a lesson in arithemetic:--
+
+     'After the children have done their sums on the paper,
+     instead of correcting them himself the master will make the
+     children find out their mistakes for themselves, by rational
+     explanation of the processes. He will ask them, for
+     instance, why in addition of money they begin with the
+     lowest coin, and other questions of the same sort, so as to
+     make sure that they have an intelligent understanding of
+     what they do.'
+
+When the subject is religious teaching, the tone of the book rises to
+the occasion:--
+
+     'The masters will take such great care in the instruction of
+     all their scholars, that not one shall be left in ignorance,
+     at least of the things which a Christian ought to believe
+     and do. And to the end they may not neglect a thing of such
+     great importance, they will often meditate earnestly on the
+     account which they will have to give to God, and that they
+     will be guilty in his sight of the ignorance of the children
+     who shall have been under their care, and also of the sins
+     into which their ignorance may have caused them to fall.'
+
+The faults which De la Salle regards as worthy of being treated with
+most severity are these: untruthfulness, quarrelling, theft, impurity,
+misbehaviour in church. It is notable that idleness and inattention to
+lessons, sauciness, and other boyish faults, which have brought much
+trouble upon many thousands of urchins, are not here enumerated at all;
+probably the wise Superior of the Christian Brothers thought that these
+and the like infirmities could be more successfully treated by other
+means than by severe punishment. We incline to believe that he was
+right. Certainly we shall have no difficulty in assenting to the wisdom
+of the rules laid down as to the conditions of punishment being useful:
+it must be (1) disinterested, that is, free from all feeling of revenge;
+(2) charitable, that is, inflicted from a real love to the child; (3)
+just; (4) proportioned to the fault; (5) moderate; (6) free from anger;
+(7) prudent; (8) voluntary on the part of the scholar, that is,
+understood and accepted by him; (9) received with respectful submission;
+(10) in silence on both sides.
+
+These samples must suffice to indicate M. de la Salle's practical and
+simple wisdom.
+
+The thought of all that we wish to say before concluding this article
+compels us once more to appeal to the reader's imagination with regard
+to the success of De la Salle's work. His fame went through France and
+beyond it; he became the recognized apostle of elementary education;
+when he made an expedition to Calais and the north in the latter part of
+his career, it was almost a triumphal progress; nothing, however, could
+spoil the sweet simplicity of his character, or interfere with his utter
+devotion to his work, and his humble desire to shift the burden upon
+what he believed to be stronger shoulders than his own. This desire was
+at length accomplished, and on the 8th of May, 1717, after much earnest
+consideration and religious observance, a second Superior of their
+Society was unanimously elected by the Christian Brothers.
+
+And now this remarkable man had nothing more to do in this world but to
+await his call and to depart in peace. At the earnest entreaty of the
+Brethren he took up his abode with them in their house at Rouen; and
+there, in the midst of increasing infirmities, and in the exercise (so
+far as was possible) of his priestly office, he tarried the Lord's
+leisure. We give the closing scene in the words of the interesting
+volume, the title of which heads this article, and from which we have
+been drawing the materials of our sketch.
+
+     'The Festival of St. Joseph, March 19, was approaching. He
+     had always had a special veneration for that great Saint,
+     whom he had chosen for patron of his Society, and he had a
+     great wish to celebrate once more on that Festival. He could
+     hardly have hoped to do so, for he had now for some time
+     been quite unable to leave his bed; but in the evening of
+     the 18th, about ten o'clock, his pain was unexpectedly
+     relieved, and he was conscious of some return of strength.
+     The night was quiet, and on the morning of the Festival he
+     was able to crawl to the Altar, and to celebrate the Holy
+     Mysteries in the presence of all the Brothers, who could
+     scarcely believe their eyes. All that day he continued
+     better, was able to converse with the Brothers, listened for
+     the last time to their confidential talk, and gave them some
+     last counsels. But the pain came on again, and he was
+     obliged to go to bed.
+
+     'The Curé of the parish, hearing that he was worse, hastened
+     to visit him, and thinking from the bright cheerfulness of
+     his face that the dying man was not aware of his own
+     condition, said to him, "Do you know that you are dying, and
+     must soon appear before the presence of God?" "I know it,"
+     was the answer, "and I wait His commands; my lot is in His
+     hands, His will be done." In truth, his soul dwelt
+     continually in unbroken communion with God, and he only
+     waited with longing for the moment when the last ties that
+     bound him to earth should be severed. Several days passed
+     thus. Feeling that he was getting worse, he asked for the
+     Viaticum, and it was arranged that he should receive it on
+     the following day, which was Wednesday in Holy Week. He
+     spent the whole night in preparation, and his little cell
+     was decorated as well as the poverty of the house allowed.
+     When the time came, he insisted on being taken out of bed,
+     and dressed, and placed in a chair, vested in a surplice and
+     stole. At the sound of the bell announcing the approach of
+     the Priest, he threw himself on his knees, and received his
+     last Communion with the same wonderful devotion which had
+     often formerly struck those who assisted at his Mass, only
+     with even more of the fire of love in his face. It was the
+     last gleam of a dying light, which was being extinguished on
+     earth, to shine with undiminished brightness "as the stars
+     for ever and ever."
+
+     'The next day he received Extreme Unction. His mind was
+     still quite clear, and the Superior asked him to give his
+     blessing to the Brothers who were kneeling round him, as
+     well as to all the rest of the Community. He raised his eyes
+     to heaven, stretched out his hands, and said, "The Lord
+     bless you all."
+
+     'Later in the day he became unconscious, and the prayers for
+     the dying were said; but again he revived. About midnight
+     the death agony came on: it was the night of the Agony in
+     Gethsemane. It lasted till after two: then there was another
+     interval of comparative ease, and he was able to speak. The
+     Superior asked him whether he accepted willingly all his
+     sufferings. "Yes," he replied, "I adore in all things the
+     dealings of God with me." These were his last words; at
+     three o'clock the agony returned, but only for a short hour.
+     At four o'clock in the morning of Good Friday, the 7th of
+     April, 1719, he fell asleep.
+
+     'As soon as the news of his death was spread abroad, the
+     house was beset by crowds desiring to see him. All revered
+     him as a Saint, and wanted to look once more on the
+     venerable face, and to carry away something in remembrance
+     of him. He had nothing belonging to him but a Crucifix, a
+     New Testament, and a copy of the Imitation; but his poor
+     garments were cut up, and distributed in little bits to
+     satisfy the people.'
+
+The Christian Brothers since the death of their great founder have
+steadily continued their charitable self-denying work. They have
+received much encouragement from high authorities in Church and State,
+much also from the good opinion which their work has gained for them
+wherever it has been known. Their history, however, records reverses:
+the chief of them connected with the catastrophe of the great
+Revolution. With regard to this, it might have been expected on general
+grounds, that in a social upheaval, which was essentially a rising of
+the poor and oppressed against the rich and the privileged, a society
+which had poverty as its foundation principle, and the free education of
+the children of the poor as its only reason of existence, must have been
+spared by general consent in the midst of the social ruin by which so
+much was overwhelmed. At first it seemed that this might have been so;
+when the Religious Orders were suppressed by decree of the National
+Assembly in 1790, exception was made in favour of those engaged in
+public instruction and the care of the sick; but in 1792 all
+corporations, specially including the Christian Brothers, were
+abolished, on the ground that their existence was incompatible with the
+conditions of a really free State. During the Reign of Terror the
+Institute was broken up, the Brothers scattered, and many suffered.
+There was a revival under Napoleon, which lasted till the Revolution of
+1830. At this time the Institute was shaken, as was almost everything
+else in France; but the recognized merits of the Christian Brothers
+carried them safely through the storm, and one of the most telling and
+triumphant facts in their history is the confidence reposed in them by
+M. Guizot, when Minister of Public instruction under Louis Philippe.
+More than once M. Guizot endeavoured, but in vain, to persuade the
+Superior to accept the Cross of the Legion of Honour.
+
+The work of the Christian Brothers in France at the present time is of
+special value; but also carried on under much chilling discouragement. A
+systematic attempt is being made to secularize education, and to drive
+every indication of religious faith from the primary schools. It remains
+to be seen what will be the result of the fanatical opposition to all
+that is dear to the minds of many French men and almost all French
+women, which is carried on so persistently by the Legislature and the
+Government. Already there are signs of reaction; the result of the late
+elections, which has substantially changed the proportion of parties in
+the representative Chamber, is probably not a little connected with the
+enforcement of an utterly godless education.[4] Meanwhile it would seem,
+as a matter of fact, that the number of children under the teaching of
+the Christian Brothers has increased instead of diminishing: there are
+still some French people left who have not bowed the knee to Secularism,
+and Materialism, and Atheism: even those who tremble at Priestcraft can
+accept the ministration of the Christian Brothers, who cannot (as we
+have seen) be Priests, according to their fundamental rule: and so,
+although the secularist flood is just now frightfully high, there is a
+gleam of hope to be found in the work of the Christian Schools, and the
+light which shines in them and from them may serve as a witness for God
+till the tyranny be overpast, and then may perhaps serve as a light at
+which the torch of religious teaching will be lighted again once more.
+
+We have placed at the head of this article the title of one of the
+manuals in use in the primary schools of France. It is worth studying in
+connection with the work of the Christian Brothers, and on other grounds
+as well. The entire absence of all reference to God or to any kind of
+religious knowledge or religious principle in connection with duty is
+startling, and gives the book a complexion somewhat strange to an
+English mind; and there are portions which can scarcely fail to strike
+an Englishman as droll; but is full of French ingenuity. It contains a
+vast amount of compressed information, and the dry instruction of the
+text is enforced, or rather sweetened and made palatable, by a series of
+stories in the form of a running commentary or collection of foot-notes,
+in which the heroes of the stories illustrate the lessons which the
+scholars have to learn.
+
+We take two or three specimens from the manual, which we will present in
+a free translation:--
+
+     OUR DUTIES TOWARDS OURSELVES
+
+     'As you grow older, you become more serious. Consider what
+     your duties are.
+
+     'You have duties towards yourselves, that is, towards your
+     bodies and towards your souls.
+
+     'Sound health must be taken care of; weak health must be
+     strengthened by a good hygiene.
+
+     'Hygiene demands cleanliness; wash your whole body carefully
+     and frequently.
+
+     'Keep nothing dirty upon you, nor in your house, nor near
+     your house.
+
+     'Hygiene demands good air: air your bed, your chamber, and
+     all places in which you live and work.
+
+     'Hygiene forbids all excess, and the use of injurious
+     things, as alcohol and tobacco. It prescribes temperance and
+     sobriety.
+
+     'Hygiene requires you to avoid a sudden change from heat to
+     cold. When you are in a perspiration, do not lie down upon
+     the ground, do not expose yourself to draughts, and do not
+     drink cold water.
+
+     'Hygiene requires gymnastic exercises, which make the body
+     supple, healthy, and strong.
+
+     '_Attention to health gives a chance of long life._
+
+     'In order to fulfil your duties towards your soul, you must
+     continue to cultivate your intelligence and to educate
+     yourself.
+
+     'Do not forget that you can educate yourself at any age.
+
+     'You must fight against sensuality, which would make you
+     gluttons, drunkards, and debauchees; against idleness, which
+     would make you useless to others and a burden to them;
+     against selfishness and vanity, which would make others
+     detest you; envy, which would render you unhappy and
+     hateful; anger and hatred, which might lead you to all kinds
+     of evil deeds.'
+
+These lessons are enforced by an extract from the French Law, which
+informs scholar that the persons found in a condition of manifest
+intoxication in the street or a public-house are punished by a fine of
+from 1 to 15 francs; that for a second offence the punishment is
+imprisonment for three days; and that for a third breach of the law the
+offender may be sentenced to imprisonment for from six days to a month,
+and to a fine of from 16 to 300 francs. In addition to this, the
+offenders will be declared incapable of exercising their political
+rights for two years.
+
+This is a very practical teaching; but the duties which little boys owe
+to their bodies and souls are rendered more attractive, than either the
+dicta concerning hygiene or the threatened results of evil ways are
+likely to make them, by the history of a certain Dr. John Burnett, a
+physician, who made an immense fortune in New York. This is found as a
+_feuilleton_ at the foot of the page, under the title 'Un Bon
+Charlatan.'
+
+The pith of the teaching under the head of Morals, is contained in the
+following summary:--
+
+     '1. I will fulfil my duties towards myself. My duties
+     towards my body are, cleanliness, sobriety, temperance,
+     precaution against the inclemency of the seasons, exercise.
+
+     '2. I will fulfil my duties towards my soul by continuing to
+     educate myself, and by combating all bad passions.
+
+     '3. I will not do to another that which I would not that he
+     should do to me.
+
+     '4. I will not do him wrong, either by striking him, or
+     robbing him, or deceiving him, or lying to him, or by
+     breaking my promise, or by speaking evil of him, or by
+     calumniating him.
+
+     '5. I will do to another that which I should wish him to do
+     to me.
+
+     '6. I will love him, I will be grateful, exact, discreet,
+     charitable.'
+
+Very good resolutions these, but one cannot avoid the thought that the
+little scholar might estimate 3 and 5 not the less, perhaps the more, if
+informed of the life and character of Him who first spoke these apparent
+simple rules in such a manner as to impress them upon the heart of the
+world. Would not all the resolutions gain strength from the belief that
+duty towards God is the true spring of duty towards our neighbours and
+ourselves, and that the grace of God is necessary to make the best
+resolutions practically operative in the life?
+
+We will now give our readers a specimen of the tales by which the
+lessons of the manual are illustrated and enforced. It shall be taken
+from the section entitled _Society_, the second subsection of which is
+as follows:--
+
+     'FREEDOM OF LABOUR.
+
+     'In France; labour is free; every one employs, as he
+     pleases, his intelligence and his arms.
+
+     'You may choose any profession you please; but everybody
+     else has the same right as yourself.
+
+     'Competition is therefore permitted; never complain of
+     competition.
+
+     'If you hinder your neighbour from working as he pleases,
+     you may yourself be hindered in like manner.
+
+     'Competition excites the workman to do his best and at the
+     cheapest rate.
+
+     'Thus competition is advantageous to all. _Never ask Society
+     to interfere with the freedom of labour, but work hard
+     yourself._'
+
+These wholesome lessons on competition are illustrated by the following
+tale:--
+
+     GREGORY'S VIEWS ON COMPETITION.
+
+     'Our friend Gregory is a good husband; but he sometimes has
+     little arguments with his wife.
+
+     'The other day, Mrs. Gregory was angry, because she had
+     found out that a shoemaker was going to establish himself in
+     the village. "What do we want another shoemaker for," said
+     she "when you and I are here already? The Government ought
+     to prevent such things."
+
+     'Gregory, who was at his work, lifted his head and said:
+     "The Government ought to prevent women from talking
+     nonsense. Suppose that I was the shoemaker who had just
+     established himself in the village; what would you say if
+     any one interfered with my carrying on my trade? You would
+     not be very well pleased, I fancy."
+
+     'He then explained to his wife the necessity of competition.
+
+     '"There is plenty of work for everybody," said he. "If there
+     had been already two or three shoemakers in the place, this
+     new fellow would not have come to settle here. He would have
+     seen that there was nothing for him to do. I am surprised
+     that no competing shoemaker has come here before. You know
+     very well that we have sometimes to refuse work, and that
+     there are people in the village who have to go to the town
+     to get their shoes. Beyond doubt the newcomer will take some
+     of our custom; but it is our business to look after that. We
+     must work better than we have done hitherto; and that's all
+     about it."
+
+     'Mrs. Gregory was not convinced, but she said nothing.
+
+     '"You see," continued Gregory, "you must look a little
+     beyond the end of your nose. You wish that there should be
+     only one shoemaker in the place. The linendraper wishes that
+     there should be only one linendraper; the grocer only one
+     grocer; and so on through all the trades. Very well; don't
+     you remember when we had only one linendraper how dear
+     shirts used to be? And don't you remember some twenty years
+     ago, when there was only one smith? You could never get hold
+     of him; and when you did, his charges were tremendous. I
+     recollect him putting a bell to our front door. When he gave
+     me the bill, and I had seen the amount, I said to him, 'my
+     good fellow, I didn't order a silver bell.' 'And I have not
+     put up a silver bell,' was the reply. 'Oh! I thought from
+     the price it must have been silver,' said I. This vexed him,
+     and he answered, 'If you are not satisfied, go elsewhere.'
+     That was well enough; he was the only smith in the
+     neighbourhood. I could not send for a man from Pekin: he
+     would have been sure to be lost on the road, and I should
+     have been obliged to provide for his family."
+
+     'Gregory made some other good remarks to show that if
+     competition prevents a shopkeeper from selling his goods at
+     a high price, it enables him to buy from others at a cheap
+     rate. "So on the whole," concluded he, "do not let us fuss
+     and make ourselves ill. I would much rather have some
+     coffee, than be compelled to take medicine."'
+
+Gregory must have had some of the saintly qualities of his great
+namesakes to enable him to take so calm a view of the invasion of his
+shoemaking monopoly. We trust that Mrs. Gregory was eventually convinced
+by his wise and philosophical arguments, and still more, that the
+generation of Frenchmen who enjoy such teaching from their early years
+may emulate so bright an example.
+
+We cannot refrain from making one more extract from our little manual.
+The thirteenth section deals with 'The Rights and Duties of the Citizen'
+and the third subsection treats as follows of:--
+
+     'POLITICAL DUTIES.
+
+     'The French people ought more than any other people, to
+     respect the law made by its own deputies.
+
+     'It ought without murmuring to pay the taxes voted by the
+     Chambers, and to fulfil its military duties.
+
+     'It ought to respect the authority of all the agents of the
+     Government, from the lowest to the highest, from the _garde
+     champêtre_ to the Ministers and the President of the
+     Republic, for the agents of authority are the servants of
+     the law, and all are chosen directly or indirectly, by the
+     deputies of the people.
+
+     '_The greater the rights of citizens, the greater their
+     duties._
+
+     'It used to be said, _Noblesse oblige_. This meant: a
+     nobleman ought to behave himself better than another, to be
+     worthy of his nobility.
+
+     'It should now be said, _Liberté oblige_. This means that a
+     free citizen ought to behave himself better than another, in
+     order to be worthy of liberty.
+
+     'You have the duty of putting your name upon the electoral
+     roll at the Mairie of the Commune in which you reside.
+
+     'You have the duty of voting, and you must vote according to
+     your conscience.
+
+     'You have not the right of being indifferent to public
+     affairs, and of saying that they do not concern you.
+
+     'You have an interest in securing to your Commune good
+     Municipal Councillors, who will look well after the
+     finances, will take care of the schools, and of the roads,
+     and attend to all wants.
+
+     'You have an interest in securing to your Department good
+     General Councillors, who will do for the Department what the
+     Municipal Councillors do for the Commune.
+
+     'You have an interest in nominating good Deputies and good
+     Senators, who may make useful and just laws, choose a
+     President of the Republic worthy of that supreme honour, and
+     keep the Government in good ways.
+
+     'You ought to make a good choice, not merely for your own
+     interest, but for the love of your country.
+
+     '_Love those republican institutions which France has
+     provided for herself._
+
+     'Endeavour to make them loved, respecting the while your
+     neighbour's opinions, and restraining yourself from all
+     hatred and from all violence.
+
+     'The future of the Republic depends upon each of you. If
+     each of you does his duty, it will be strong: strong enough
+     to make our lives happy, and to restore to us one day the
+     brothers whom we have lost--the BROTHERS OF ALSACE AND
+     LORRAINE.'
+
+This is the conclusion of the manual. All works up to ALSACE AND
+LORRAINE. (The capital letters are in the original.) Is it not
+delightful? Is it not most truly French?
+
+We should be sorry to see a parody or parallel to this French manual
+introduced into our schools. At the same time we think there is
+something to be learnt from studying it. Our neighbours seem to have in
+some respect learnt better than ourselves the maxim of Horace:--
+
+               'pueris dant crustula blandi
+    Doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima.'
+
+The pages of our manual are full of literary _crustula_; and we imagine
+that most boys would find themselves sufficiently amused to read and
+study the book, whether they were desirous of profiting by the contents
+or not. And after all it is a great thing to _get hold_ of a boy,
+whether it be by the loving and evidently self-sacrificing efforts of
+the Christian Brothers, or by the ingenious mental food provided by the
+Minister of Public Instruction. Notwithstanding such ingenuity, we do
+not, however, believe that the present system of French teaching can
+answer: it is hollow and unsound: it ignores the deepest of motives, and
+disregards the most potent of influences: it may breed a desire to fight
+with Germany for the recovery of Alsace and Lorraine, but it can
+scarcely produce the highest class of citizens and heroes, because it
+does not acknowledge the fear of God as the beginning of wisdom, and the
+love of God as the best foundation of the love of man. The principles of
+duty inculcated in the manual from which we have been exhibiting a few
+elegant extracts will never rear such a character as De la Salle, nor
+supply the foundation of such an institution as that of the Christian
+Brothers.
+
+But we must come nearer home--
+
+    'Nam tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet.'
+
+We have not yet arrived in England at the complete secularization of our
+elementary schools; but we are, in the opinion of some and in the wish
+of others, within measurable distance of the Paradisiacal terminus of
+secularism and secular reform; and therefore, with the thought of what
+has been going on and is still going on in France, we may do well to
+look for a few moments to our own country, and examine what has been
+going on and is going on there.
+
+Let us beware, however, of exaggeration or alarmism. We do not at all
+desire to imply that there is anything approaching to parallelism in the
+conditions and possibilities of the two countries. Had it been proposed
+to do in England what has been done in France, the opposition would have
+been indignant and overwhelming. There is no such desire for
+emancipation from Priests and Priestcraft in England as has long existed
+and still exists in France. To be sure we hear something on this side of
+the Channel of sacerdotal pretensions and unwarrantable clerical claims;
+but the men by whom the offence comes are few in number, and, at the
+worst, they and their conduct are but as a drop in the great bucket of
+the English Church and its influence upon the nation. In France matters
+are painfully different. While the women are largely _dévotes_, the men
+are very sparingly _dévots_. Unfortunately the admission of
+superstitious practices, the practical hiding of Holy Scripture, the
+adoption under the patronage of the Church of foolish tales of miracles,
+and the absence of effectual protest against the unwarrantable
+assumptions of the Vatican, have combined to offer to the intellect of
+France an unnecessary obstacle, which in too many instances causes
+shipwreck to faith; and so, while in England the men, who make the laws,
+are, speaking broadly, Christian believers, in France the men, who
+equally make the laws, are as broadly unbelievers. This difference is
+not likely to disappear. France has reached a point at which the disease
+of unbelief may be said to have become chronic; England, on the other
+hand, although there have been of late, and are still, symptoms of
+infidel proclivities, appears nevertheless, so far as her condition can
+be tested to be sound at heart, and in some respects in a more healthy
+state of religious conviction and activity than has been manifested
+hitherto.
+
+The question of the comparative conditions of France and England is one
+with which we have no desire to enter at length; and indeed a native of
+one of the countries is very unlikely to be in a condition to take a
+quite just and fair view of the other. We only desire to guard ourselves
+from appearing to assume the probability of the secularization of our
+English schools on the ground of the step having been already taken in
+France. And having premised this caution, we will ask our readers to
+accompany us in the consideration of some details, suggested by the
+Report of the National Society, and by that of the Committee of the
+Privy Council on Education. Afterwards we will submit a few general
+reflections, and so close our article.
+
+It was feared by some and hoped by others fifteen years ago, when the
+law of compulsory education and School Boards was enacted in this
+country, that Voluntary Schools would undergo what was described at the
+time as a 'process of painless extinction,' and that Board Schools would
+reign supreme. These fears and hopes have been curiously falsified; the
+Voluntary Schools have not been extinguished either painlessly or
+otherwise; on the other hand, they have increased, both in work done and
+in support given, to an extent which could never have been anticipated.
+It will be observed that the question is not purely and simply between
+Board and Voluntary Schools; it may be so in some parishes, where with
+unanimity on the part of the parishioners, one Parish School can be made
+to supply the wants of all; but generally the question is that of
+supporting Voluntary Schools and paying towards Board Schools as well;
+the support of one does not exclude the legal claim of the other, as it
+has been frequently argued that it ought in equity to do; consequently
+Voluntary Schools are heavily handicapped, and nothing but a deep sense
+of the advantage of freedom in religious teaching, and an utter dread of
+secularism, can account for the remarkable results exhibited by the
+progress of Voluntary Schools under such manifest difficulties.
+
+The following Tables are so exceedingly instructive, that we make no
+apology for introducing them:--
+
+_Accommodation._
+
+
+Day Schools, Year ended August 31      1882.       1883.       1884.
+
+Church                               2,385,374   2,413,676   2,454,788
+British, &c.                           384,060     386,839     394,009
+Wesleyan                               200,909     200,564     203,253
+Roman Catholic                         269,231     272,760     284,514
+Board                                1,298,746   1,396,604   1,490,174
+
+                                     4,538,320   4,670,443   4,826,738
+
+_Number on the Registers._
+
+Day Schools, Year ended August 31.     1882.       1883.       1884.
+
+Church                               2,133,978   2,134,719   2,121,728
+British, &c.                           339,812     337,531     333,510
+Wesleyan                               177,840     175,826     172,284
+Roman Catholic                         232,620     226,567     226,082
+Board                                1,305,362   1,398,661   1,483,717
+
+                                     4,189,612   4,273,304   4,337,321
+
+_Average Attendance._
+
+Day Schools, Year ended August 31.     1882.       1883.       1884.
+
+Church                               1,538,408   1,562,507   1,607,823
+British, &c                            245,493     247,990     253,044
+Wesleyan                               125,109     125,503     128,584
+Roman Catholic                         160,910     162,310     167,841
+Board                                  945,231   1,028,904   1,115,832
+
+                                     3,015,151   3,127,214   3,273,124
+
+_Voluntary Contributions._
+
+Day Schools, Year ended      1882.           1883.           1884.
+       August 31.
+
+                           £. s. d.        £. s. d.        £. s. d.
+Church                   581,179  5  3   577,313 16  5   585,071 11 10
+British, &c               75,132 11  8    71,519  2  9    72,978 10  0
+Wesleyan                  15,705  2  2    15,271 14  1    16,802  2  0
+Roman Catholic            51,283 11  7    51,564 15  2    57,672  1  2
+Board                      1,545  2  2     1,420  1  3     1,603  7 10
+
+                         724,845 12 10   717,089  9  8   734,127 12 10
+
+From these Tables it appears that in spite of the surrender of some
+Church Schools to Boards, a process which is always to some extent going
+on, and which causes an increase in the number of Board Schools beyond
+that produced by actual building, the accommodation in Church Schools
+rose in 1884 by 41,112, and the average attendance by 45,316. The Church
+was also educating about half as many again as were being educated in
+Board Schools, and the amount voluntarily contributed during the year
+was more than 585,000l., in addition to a large sum expended on
+buildings and improvements.
+
+This does not look much like speedy extinction, and we sincerely trust
+that that event is still far distant. It is not so much that we are
+opposed to Board schools on principle, still less that we disapprove of
+the national determination that every child shall be educated, which
+logically leads to some national machinery involving the principle of
+Board Schools in some form or other,--not so much this, as that we are
+persuaded that the existence of Voluntary Schools is an unspeakable
+benefit even to the Board Schools themselves. We hold that a definite
+system of religious teaching, according to which the religious studies
+of the school and the secular are co-ordinate and equally regarded, and
+the religious atmosphere which such consideration implies, are of the
+very essence of a rightly ordered school; the ideal may be reached in a
+Voluntary School, it is impossible that it should be reached in a Board
+School; nevertheless, there may be Board schools _and_ Board Schools; in
+some there may be simple secularism, and in others there may be a good
+religious spirit and fair religious teaching; and the degree in which
+the average quality of Board Schools will approximate to the latter
+limit rather than the former, will depend very much upon the standard
+set up by the Voluntary Schools. A reference to the Report of the
+Committee of Council on Education proves that Voluntary Schools are
+worked more cheaply, and, so far as can be judged by the results of
+examination, are secularly not less successful than schools upon the
+Board system; and therefore even with reference to economy there is some
+advantage in keeping the two classes of school going side by side. But
+all questions of comparative economy, and of advantages arising from an
+honourable competition, are as nothing compared with the reflected
+influence in the direction of bringing up the average religious
+character of Board Schools to the highest point which the shackles of
+legislation allow.
+
+In addition to the work of voluntary elementary schools, there are two
+other departments in which voluntary efforts are doing much in support
+of the religious and Christian character of English Education.
+
+There are no less than thirty Training Colleges in connection with the
+Church. The pupils trained in these Colleges are not in general bound by
+any rule to accept posts only in Church schools; as a matter of fact,
+many are drafted into Board Schools; but it is impossible to exaggerate
+the importance to the subsequent influence for good, in a school of
+whatever kind, of a thorough religious training in youth upon definite
+religious principles. So far as an opinion can be formed, it would seem
+that these Training Colleges must always rest upon a voluntary
+foundation; it is difficult to conceive of their being carried on upon
+State principles; you may make religious teaching optional in an
+elementary day school, and the evil results may be not easily
+perceptable; but when eighty or a hundred young men or young women are
+brought together into one home, to lead a common family life with common
+purposes and prospects, the religious equality principle breaks down;
+you must have common religious teaching and common worship, and these
+must be utterly vapid and miserable, unless there be a hearty agreement
+upon the grounds and articles of faith, such as is only possible for
+those who are of one Church, or at all events of one denomination.
+Doubtless on this very account efforts have been made, and efforts will
+be made, to break down the Church Training College system, or to erect
+something on broader principles which shall gradually extinguish it; but
+on all grounds we trust that these efforts may fail, and that at all
+events no change may be introduced which shall be successful in
+rendering impossible the carrying on of institutions, to which we are
+convinced that the education of the poor children of England is indebted
+more than to almost any other. We have but been working out under new
+conditions the great problem which De la Salle perceived to lie at the
+root of elementary education: the forming of the instrument wherewith to
+do the work was, as he clearly perceived, the great thing to be
+accomplished; and for that purpose personal influence was needed; it was
+necessary to stir up in each young aspirant to the office of a teacher
+something of the enthusiasm of teaching, to breed a high conception of
+the value and responsibilities of the office, to make it felt that
+self-denial and self-devotion were essential conditions of any lasting
+success. English Training Colleges differ very widely from that
+community which De la Salle established, and over which he presided; in
+our opinion, they, at least their managers, might profit by studying his
+work and emulating his spirit; but after all, they will still be widely
+different, and any attempt at exact imitation amongst ourselves would
+perhaps produce a parody rather than an adequate copy. Any one who can
+remember the early work of Derwent Coleridge at St. Mark's, Chelsea, and
+the vast change which was brought about in the training of the
+schoolmaster, the estimate of his qualifications, and his general
+status, by the admirable and laborious efforts of that good and able
+man, will be conscious that a work has been done amongst us in these
+latter days, upon which De la Salle himself would have looked with a
+kindly smile of approval, though in some respects he might have
+imagined, and perhaps with justice, that it was not so thorough as his
+own.
+
+The other department of voluntary action to which we proposed to refer,
+is that which is known as Diocesan Inspection.
+
+This system of inspection is carried on by Clergymen, who are appointed
+with the approval and in connection with the Bishops, and whose stipends
+are provided by voluntary contribution. The action is not uniform
+throughout the Dioceses, but there is scarcely a Diocese in which the
+work is not carried on with great energy. These Inspectors visit the
+schools, in some Dioceses and Board Schools as well as those in
+connection with the Church; they examine the children, confer with the
+masters and mistresses, give advice and encouragement as may seem to be
+necessary and fitting, and make a report upon the general condition of
+the school with reference to religious knowledge. In most Dioceses there
+is in addition some kind of prize scheme, by means of which children are
+encouraged to give special attention to the religious side of their
+education.
+
+We think it worth while to call attention to this system of Diocesan
+Inspection, because it is well that Englishmen, and especially English
+Churchmen, should be awake to the religious needs of our times, and the
+efforts which are being made to meet them. We are aware that all such
+machinery as that which we have described must be ineffectual in
+implanting in the minds of children that 'fear of the Lord,' which is
+'the beginning of wisdom.' No system of inspection and examination, and
+no careful grinding of certain lessons, whether they be taken from Holy
+Scripture or from any other book, into the minds of little children, can
+be a substitute for the true influence of heart upon heart; the teacher
+who would generate religious life in the soul of a child must imitate
+the Prophet, who put his mouth to the child's mouth, and his eyes upon
+his eyes, and his hands upon his hands, and prayed that the child might
+awake to new life; nevertheless on the supposition that no pains are
+spared in obtaining suitable masters and mistresses, much may be done to
+encourage them in their difficult work by making it manifest that the
+heart of England and of England's Church is with them. And indeed it
+_is_ a difficult work: the education of children will never be a simple
+and easy thing as long as the world lasts: the value of the finished
+article may generally be taken as some measure of the labour and care
+necessary to produce it: and the value of a pure, simple-hearted,
+well-taught Christian child is so immeasurably and indescribably great,
+that we may safely conclude that the workmen and workwomen employed in
+producing the result must have spent upon their work an incredible
+amount of honest self-denying toil: a perfunctory discharge of the
+office of schoolmaster,--so many hours a week, and so much pay,--will
+never do: the master of the Elementary School must ever be a Christian
+Brother in reality, if not in name.
+
+Passing for a moment from the religious side of the educational
+question, the reader may be interested by looking at a few statistics,
+indicating the general position of England, or rather England and Wales,
+with reference to elementary education.
+
+In the year ending August 31, 1884, Her Majesty's Inspectors visited
+18,761 day schools, having on their registers the names of 4,337,321
+children. Of these, 3,273,134 were, on an average, in daily attendance
+throughout the year. The amount of income arising from school-pence, it
+may be worth while noting, was 1,734,115l., or nearly two millions. The
+Government grants reached 2,722,351l., or nearly three millions.
+
+Besides the day schools, 847 night schools were examined. In many parts
+of the country these night schools were very important: they afford big
+boys the only opportunity of keeping up their knowledge, or
+intellectually improving themselves. Nearly twenty-five thousand
+scholars over twelve years of age are, on an average, in attendance each
+night.
+
+There are nearly forty thousand certificated teachers at work; and 3214
+students are being prepared in forty-one Training Colleges.
+
+The expense of education at different places varies remarkably, and
+apparently without any intelligible principle. Thus the income per
+scholar from voluntary contributions in Voluntary Schools, and from
+rates in Board Schools, is in certain selected towns as follows:--
+
+                     Voluntary
+                  contributions.         Rates.
+                     £    s.   d.        £    s.   d.
+London               0    9    0-1/4     1    9    9
+Brighton             0   11    7-1/2     0   17    7
+Birmingham           0    5    3-3/4     0   13   10-3/4
+Bradford             0    2   11-3/4     0   13    2
+Sheffield            0    2    4-3/4     0    9    8
+Manchester           0    4    7         0   10   10
+
+We submit the above figures and facts to the reader's consideration, and
+we are compelled to confess that we do not find ourselves in a condition
+to offer a satisfactory solution of the difficulties which they suggest.
+We should probably have expected that London would be in an exceptional
+position with regard to this as to many other matters; but the
+magnificent manner in which its Board contributions exceed those of any
+other town quite baffles us; it will be observed that the odd shillings
+and pence of London more than pay the whole expense at Sheffield.
+Possibly the practical difficulty of understanding this economical
+anomaly may have had something to do with the results of the late Board
+election in London.
+
+On the whole, we English people seem to be solving the national
+education question _more nostro_. We have got a system not quite
+symmetrical, not quite logical, not the perfect exponent of the
+crotchets of any particular school, but nevertheless one which has on
+the whole produced remarkable results, and seems to have in it
+sufficient powers of adaptation and development. Of late a new question
+has been opened--and an important one--namely, that of making elementary
+education entirely gratuitous. There is something to be said in favour
+of the proposal, and it is a pity that the merits of the question should
+have been somewhat obscured by the intolerable, but to some persons
+perhaps attractive, suggestion that the additional expenditure necessary
+for making education gratuitous should be supplied by the robbery of the
+Church, or (in politer phrase) by the appropriation to the purposes of
+education of the national property hitherto supplied to the support of
+religion. This cat can scarcely be said to have been let out of the bag,
+for her head was no sooner seen peeping out than the alarm created was
+dangerously great, and Puss was concealed again in a twinkling; _but she
+is inside the bag still_. A much less objectionable proposal was
+speedily made, namely, that the deficiency created by the remission of
+school-pence should be supplied by a Parliamentary grant. And this
+proposal, we presume, may be regarded as at present before the country.
+
+Looking upon the matter from a Chancellor of the Exchequer point of
+view, it is a serious thing to think of having to make an addition of
+about two millions to the annual national expenditure; and it may be
+observed that leading statesmen on both sides of politics may be found
+who are at present unconvinced. Doubtless an expenditure of two millions
+would not be grudged by the nation for any necessary purpose; but when
+the proposal is to substitute a payment of two millions by the Exchequer
+for the two millions paid in driblets by the persons most interested,
+for the most part gladly and with special provisions for preventing the
+payment pressing hardly upon the exceptionally poor, it may well be that
+many sensible persons will ask the question, _Cui bono_?
+
+Independently, however, of any fiscal considerations, it seems to us
+that there are weighty arguments against the proposal of a gratuitous
+education.
+
+It may be observed, and we think it an important observation, that the
+proposal of free education is in the teeth of all our recent policy; and
+some pressing reasons ought to be given for a complete and sudden
+reversal of all that we have hitherto been doing. There are many free
+schools in the country, endowed by 'pious founders,' and established for
+the special purpose of giving free education to the children of
+particular parishes. Some of these schools have had to pass through the
+hands of the School Commissioners and to receive new schemes. It has
+been, we believe, the invariable practice to insert into these new
+schemes the condition of school-pence; the portion of the endowment so
+saved has been applied to the foundation of exhibitions and other
+methods of assisting deserving children. The inhabitants of the parishes
+in which this innovation has been introduced have grumbled and
+submitted; it has in some cases been a bitter pill, but the law-abiding
+character of the Englishman has caused it to be swallowed without noisy
+remonstrance. We cannot, without raising a suspicion of having practised
+educational quackery, retreat from the position which we have thus taken
+up.
+
+What is the argument for the position? It is sometimes stated thus, that
+people value a thing more when it costs them something to get it. The
+argument is not to be despised; but we think that it yields in
+importance to the consideration, that the payment of the school fees is
+almost the only indication left of the great truth, that the parent is
+responsible for his children's education. We have sometimes trembled
+when we have seen in Board Schools directions concerning the doings of
+the children, which would seem to have had a right to come from parents,
+but which do in fact come 'by order of the Board.' We have almost feared
+lest in the Fifth Commandment our boys and girls of the rising
+generation should be tempted to substitute 'Board' for 'father and
+mother.' Certainly there is great danger in virtue of modern social
+arrangements lest parents should forget their highest duties to their
+children, and children cease to honour their parents in the good
+old-fashioned way. We confess, therefore, that we are jealous of the
+proposal to take away from the father the proud privilege of paying for
+his children's schooling, even though it may sometimes cost him an
+effort to do so.
+
+It may be said, of course, that every man does pay indirectly, because
+he pays according to his means to the taxes of the country, and that
+therefore the proposal only gives him of his own. The argument is
+defective, because it ignores the fact that whatever a man may pay
+indirectly in taxes, there is a conscious effort in finding the pence
+for the children's schooling, which morally is of great importance. But
+the argument fails also on other grounds: it assumes that all men have
+children equally; it asserts that the married man with his five children
+has no more responsibility than the elderly spinster who lives next
+door; it supposes that the parents have not a special interest in their
+children, distinct from that which can be felt by any other person
+whatever. It may be further urged, that if a man pays for his children
+while they are in process of education, the pressure comes upon him when
+he is in full vigour, and most able to bear it; whereas if the payment
+of pence be commuted for a perpetual tax, the pressure becomes one of a
+lifelong character, and is not relieved when the powers of earning begin
+to diminish.
+
+We do not deny that painful cases have occurred, and are likely to still
+occur, in which parents are summoned before the magistrates for the
+non-attendance of children at school. But free education will not get
+rid of these painful cases. Already arrangements are made by law for the
+payment of fees for very poor parents who make the proper application;
+and if there be any obstacle in the way of the smooth working of the
+law, the matter should be looked into and the law amended; but the great
+difficulty in the way of good attendance on the part of very poor
+children lies, as we apprehend, not more with school-pence, than with
+school-clothes, and school-dinners. Attendance cannot be enforced
+completely all round, unless free education comprise in its idea free
+food and clothing, as well as free books and lessons.
+
+We cannot but fear also lest the remission of school-pence should be
+another step towards the destruction of Voluntary Schools. It is evident
+that the proposal is so regarded; and though it may not be difficult to
+find arguments to show, that if the loss from school-pence be made up
+from the Exchequer, the compensation will work equally and fairly with
+respect to all schools, whether Voluntary or Board, still there can be
+little doubt that the additional grant will give a handle for proposing
+to introduce some more direct interference with the management of
+Voluntary Schools than has existed hitherto: and it is probably a true
+instinct which leads many friends of Voluntary Schools to look upon the
+free system with sincere apprehension. Certainly the indirect abolition
+of Voluntary Schools would be a great calamity; and if the views already
+expressed be correct, the abolition would leave a legacy of weakness,
+and a permanent injury to the Board Schools, when they found themselves
+'monarchs of all they survey,' and without the wholesome rivalry of
+Voluntary Schools.
+
+There was no such objection to the free education offered to his poor
+brethren by the hero of this article, the sainted De la Salle. He made
+himself poor and bound all his disciples to a life of poverty, in order
+that they might have fullest sympathy with the poor, and might teach
+their children for no other payment or purpose but the love of God. The
+atmosphere of a school conducted upon such principles would be so
+saturated with the spirit of holiness and godly love, that there would
+be no danger of duty to parents, or indeed of any duty either to God or
+man, being left out of sight. It would never be forgotten in such
+schools that the formation of character is the chief aim of education:
+_manners makyth man_--as William of Wickham, our great English father of
+liberal education, has taught us: and _manners_, taken in the broadest
+and best sense, even more than the three Rs and all the extra subjects
+of all the standards, is what we want in our elementary schools, and
+what we shall never get, except upon the condition of a religious tone
+and a pure atmosphere, and teachers whose hearts are animated by the
+love of little children and by the love of God.
+
+We gladly turn once more, before laying down our pen, to the volume
+which we have already introduced to the reader, and out of which we have
+told the tale of De la Salle, and the Christian Brothers. We do so for
+the purpose of showing what kind of men these good Brothers are, when
+put to the test in a severe and unexampled manner.
+
+     'After the disasters of the Prussian invasion in 1871,' says
+     our author, 'the City of Boston, in America, placed at the
+     disposal of the French Academy a special prize of two
+     thousand francs to be given to whoever should be judged most
+     worthy of the honour, on account of services rendered during
+     the siege and in presence of the enemy. The Academy could
+     find no more fitting recipient of this distinction than the
+     Community, which during the whole time of the war had sent
+     five hundred infirmarians into the battlefields, one of whom
+     had fallen under the fire of the Prussians, among the
+     wounded at Bourget. Public opinion fully endorsed the
+     decision, when the first literary body in the world adjudged
+     this reward to the humble and despised corps of the Frères
+     des Écoles Chrétiennes. At the same time the National
+     Defence Government insisted on decorating their venerable
+     Superior with a cross of honour. He would have refused it,
+     as he and his predecessors had already done many times, and
+     he only yielded when he was told that there was nothing
+     personal in the honour; that it belonged to his Institute;
+     and that it was only as the representative of the Society
+     that he was asked to wear it. The eminent Dr. Ricord, who
+     had been an eyewitness of the devotion of the Brothers, was
+     charged with the office of fastening the cross on the
+     cassock of Frère Philippe, in the great hall of the
+     mother-house. This was the most embarrassing moment in the
+     life of that man of God. He could not bear to wear the cross
+     of honour, and in fact he never did wear it. When he
+     returned after conducting the Doctor to the door at the end
+     of the ceremony, he somehow managed that no one should
+     perceive his decoration. The cross was not to be seen; and
+     it has remained ever since as a kind of myth, or mysterious
+     souvenir; it was never found.'
+
+Thus in France Ministers of Public Instruction and Superiors of the
+Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes agree in removing the cross from
+elementary schools: but how marvellous the distance between the
+religious principles which lead to the two kinds of removal!
+
+And now, in these days of payment by results, let us look for one moment
+to the Écoles Chrétiennes from this point of view; and then we will bid
+the Brothers a respectful farewell.
+
+     'For the last forty years a certain number of exhibitions or
+     scholarships (bourses) have been offered by the City of
+     Paris for competition amongst the scholars of elementary or
+     primary schools, which give to the successful candidates a
+     right of free education in the higher class schools. The
+     number of scholarships which are offered varies. In 1848
+     there were twenty-nine; in 1871, fifty; in 1874, eighty; and
+     in 1877 the number was raised to a hundred. Competition is
+     open to all elementary schools, whether taught by the
+     Christian Brothers, or by lay teachers of no religious order
+     or society.
+
+     'The result, taking the thirty years from 1847 to 1877, has
+     been that of 1445 exhibitions gained by scholars, 1148 have
+     been won by boys from the Christian schools, and 297 by
+     those from other schools. Or to take the last seven years of
+     that period, during which every effort has been made by the
+     Government, at a lavish outlay, to promote the efficiency of
+     the secular schools, the results, though the numbers are not
+     quite so disproportioned, yet show a marked superiority in
+     the schools of the Christian Brothers. Out of 490
+     exhibitions, 364 have been adjudged to their pupils, and 126
+     to those of the secular schools.'
+
+Well done, Christian Brothers! You have preached an admirable sermon to
+all those who take an interest in the education of children upon those
+comprehensive and deep-reaching words of Christ, 'Take no thought,
+saying, What shall we eat? or, What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal
+shall we be clothed?... But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and His
+righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you.'
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] 'The policy of the late Chamber with regard to religion, education,
+and the army had very much greater weight with the electors.... The
+persistent threat held out by certain Republicans to destroy the Church,
+either by a hypocritical fulfillment of the Concordat or by the forcible
+separation of Church and State, has been skilfully used by their
+adversaries amongst the peasantry, who dread nothing so much as having
+to pay their curé themselves. The Government was so well aware of this
+fact, that in some of the departments the Catechism was ordered to be
+recited in the schools during the last week before the elections, though
+only two months earlier the teachers had been strictly forbidden to use
+it. This childish stratagem had, as might have been expected, no great
+success.'--Gabriel Monod, in 'Contemporary Review,' of December, 1885.
+
+
+
+
+Art. III.--_The State Papers of the Venetian Republic_; namely,
+_Cancelleria Inferiore, Cancelleria Ducale, Cancelleria Secreta,_
+preserved in the Convent of the Frari, at Venice.
+
+
+In recent years a new tendency has been given to historical studies by
+the avidity with which scholars have investigated the masses of State
+documents accumulated through centuries, almost untouched, in the Record
+Offices of various nations. This tendency has been in the direction of
+minuteness and accuracy of detail. The finer shades of policy, the
+subtler turns in the game of nations, have been revealed by this
+intimate study of the documents which record them. Among the archives of
+Europe there is none superior, in historical value and richness of
+minutiæ, to the Archives of the Venetian Republic, preserved now in the
+convent of the Frari at Venice. The importance of these archives is due
+to three causes: the position of the Republic in the history of Europe,
+the fullness of the archives themselves, and the remarkable preservation
+and order which distinguishes them, in spite of the many dangers and
+vicissitudes through which they have passed. Venice enjoyed a position,
+unique among the States of Europe, for two reasons. Until the discovery
+of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, she was the mart of Europe
+in all commercial dealings with the East--a position secured to her by
+her supremacy in the Levant, and by the strength of her fleet; and, in
+the second place, the Republic was the bulwark of Europe against the
+Turk. These are the two dominant features of Venice in general history;
+and under both aspects she came into perpetual contact with every
+European Power. The universal importance of her position is faithfully
+reflected in the diplomatic documents contained in her archives. The
+Republic maintained ambassadors and residents at every Court. These men
+were among the most subtle and accomplished diplomatists of their time,
+and the government they served was exacting and critical to the highest
+degree. The result is that the dispatches, newsletters and reports of
+the Venetian diplomatic agents, form the most varied, brilliant, and
+singular gallery of portraits, whether of persons or of peoples, that
+exists. There is hardly a nation in Europe that will not find its
+history illustrated by the papers which belong to the Venetian
+department for foreign affairs. Nor are the papers which relate to the
+home government of the Republic less copious and valuable. Each
+magistracy has its own series of documents, the daily record of its
+proceedings: in this we find the whole of that elaborate machinery of
+State laid bare before us in all its intricacy of detail; and we are
+enabled to study the construction, the origin, development, and
+ossification, of one of the most rigid and enduring constitutions that
+the world has ever seen; a constitution so strong in its component
+parts, so compact in its rib-work, that it sufficed to preserve a
+semblance of life in the body of the Republic long after the heart and
+brain had ceased to beat.
+
+Admirable as are the preservation and order of these masses of State
+papers, it is not to be expected that each series, each magisterial
+archive, should be complete. There are many broad lacunæ, especially in
+the earlier period, which must ever be a cause for regret: for Venice
+growing is a more attractive and profitable subject than Venice dying.
+During the nine hundred and eighty-seven years that the Government of
+the Republic held its seat in Venice, the State papers passed through
+many dangers from fire, revolution, neglect, or carelessness. When we
+recal the fires of 1230, 1479, 1574, and 1577, it is rather matter for
+congratulation that so much has escaped, than for surprise that so much
+has been destroyed. The losses would, undoubtedly, have been much more
+severe had all the papers and documents been preserved in one place, as
+they are now. But the Venetians stored the archives of the various
+magistracies either at the offices of those magistrates, or in some
+public building especially set apart for the purpose. The Secret
+Chancellery, which was always an object of great solicitude, containing
+as it did all the more private papers of the State, was deposited in a
+room on the second floor of the Ducal Palace. Many of the criminal
+records belonging to the Council of Ten were stored in the Piombi under
+the roof of the Palace; and the famous adventurer Casanova relates how
+he beguiled some of his prison hours by reading the trial of a Venetian
+nobleman, which he found among other papers piled at the end of the
+corridor where he was allowed to take exercise. Soon after the fall of
+the Republic, the following disposition of the papers was made. The
+political archive was stored at the Scuola di S. Teodoro; the judicial,
+at the convent of S. Giovanni Laterano; the financial, at S. Procolo. In
+the year 1815, the Austrian Government resolved to collect and arrange
+all State papers in one place. The building chosen was the convent of
+the Frari; and the work was entrusted to Jacopo Chiodo, the first
+director of the archives. The scheme suggested by Chiodo has served as a
+basis for the arrangement that has been already carried out, or is still
+in hand.
+
+Under the Republic it was natural that access to important diplomatic
+papers and to secrets of State should be granted with reserve, and only
+to persons especially authorized to make research. The directors
+appointed by the Austrian Government showed a disposition to maintain
+that precedent; and M. Baschet relates that it was only by a personal
+appeal to the Emperor that he obtained access to the archives of the
+Ten. The Italian Government allow nearly absolute liberty; and nothing
+can exceed the courtesy of the officials under their distinguished
+director, the Commendatore Cecchetti.
+
+Any attempt to explain the archives of Venice and to display their
+contents, must be preceded by a statement of the main features of the
+constitution of the Republic upon which the order and the arrangement of
+the archives is based. The constitution of Venice has frequently been
+likened to a pyramid, with the Great Council for its base and the Doge
+for apex. The figure is more or less correct; but it is a pyramid that
+has been broken at its edges by time and by necessity. The legislative
+and political body was originally constructed in four groups, or
+tiers--if we are to preserve the pyramidal simile--one rising above the
+other. These four tiers were the Maggior Consiglio or Great Council, the
+Lower House; the Pregadi or Senate, the Upper House; the Collegio, or
+the Cabinet; and the Doge. The famous Council of Ten and its equally
+famous Commission, the Three Inquisitors of State, did not enter into
+the original scheme; they are an appendix to the State, an intrusion, a
+break in the symmetry of the pyramid. Later on we shall explain their
+construction and relation to the main body of government. For the
+present we leave them aside, and confine our attention to the four
+departments of the Venetian constitution above mentioned.
+
+The Great Council, as is well known, did not assume its permanent form
+and place in the Venetian constitution till the year 1296. At that date
+the famous revolution, known as the closing of the Great Council, took
+place. By that act, which was only the final step in a revolution that
+had been for long in process, those citizens who were excluded from the
+Great Council remained for ever outside the constitution; all functions
+of government were concentrated in the hands of those nobles who were
+included by the Council; the constitution of the Republic was
+stereotyped as a rigid oligarchy. Previous to the year 1296, a great
+council had existed, created first in the reign of Pietro Ziani (1172);
+but this council was really democratic in character, not oligarchic; it
+was elected each September, and its members were chosen from the whole
+body of the citizens. Earlier still than the reign of Ziani, the
+population used to meet tumultuously and express their opinion upon
+matters of public interest, such as the election of a Doge or a
+declaration of war, first in the _Concione_ under their tribunes, while
+Venetia was still a confederation of lagoon-islands; and then in the
+_Arengo_ under their Doge, when the confederation was centralized at
+Rialto. But of these assemblies the latter was disorderly and irregular,
+and the former was of doubtful authority. It is from the closing of the
+Great Council that we must date the positive establishment of the
+Venetian oligarchy, and the completion of that constitution which
+endured for five hundred years, from 1296 till the fall of the Republic
+in 1797.
+
+The age at which the young nobles might take their seats in the Council,
+that is to say, might enter upon public life, was fixed at twenty-five,
+except in the cases of the Barbarelli, or thirty nobles between the ages
+of twenty and twenty-five, who were elected by ballot on the fourth of
+each December, St. Barbara's day; and in the case of those who, in
+return for money advanced to the State, obtained a special grace to take
+their seats before their twenty-fifth year.
+
+The chief functions of the Great Council were the passing of laws, and
+the election of magistrates. But in process of time the legislative
+duties of the Council were almost entirely absorbed by the Senate; and
+the Maggior Consiglio only retained its great and distinguished
+function, the election of almost every officer of State, from the Doge
+downwards. The large number of these magistracies, and the various
+seasons of the year at which they fell vacant, engaged the Great Council
+in a perpetual series of elections. It is not our intention to explain
+in detail the elaborate process by which the Venetians carried out their
+political elections; such an explanation would carry us beyond our
+scope, which is to state the position and functions of each member in
+the constitution of the Republic. But, briefly, the process was this.
+The law required either two or four competitors for every vacant
+magistracy, and the election to that magistracy was said to take place
+_a due_ or _a quattro mani_, respectively. If the office to be filled
+required _quattro mani_, the whole body of the Great Council balloted
+for four groups of nine members each, who were chosen by drawing a
+golden ball from among the silver ones in the balloting urn. Each of
+these groups retired to a separate room, and there each group elected
+one candidate to go to the poll for the vacant office. The names of the
+four candidates were then presented to the Council and balloted. The
+candidate who secured the largest number of votes, above the half of
+those present, was elected to the vacant office. Thus the election to
+the magistracy was a triple process; first, the election of the
+nominators, then the election of the candidates, and finally the
+election to the office.
+
+The Great Council, as representing the whole Republic, possessed certain
+judicial functions, which were used on rare occasions only, when the
+State believed itself placed in grave danger through the fault of its
+commanders. The famous case of Vettor Pisani, after his defeat at Pola,
+in 1379, and the case of Antonio Grimani, in the year 1499, were both
+sent to the Grand Council, who passed sentence on those generals. But,
+broadly speaking, the judicial functions of the Maggior Consiglio hardly
+existed, its legislative functions dwindled away, and were absorbed by
+the Senate, and its chief duty and prerogative lay in the election of
+almost every State official.
+
+Coming now to the second tier in the pyramid of the constitution, the
+Senate, or Pregadi,--the invited, we find that the Senate proper was
+composed of sixty members, elected in the Great Council, six at a time.
+The elections took place once a week, and were so arranged that they
+should be complete by the first of October in each year. In addition to
+the Senate proper, another body of sixty, called the _Zonta_ or
+addition, was elected by the outgoing Senate at the close of its year of
+office; but it was necessary that the names of the _Zonta_ should be
+approved by the Great Council before their election was valid. The
+Senate and the Zonta together formed one hundred and twenty members; and
+besides these, the Doge, his six councillors, the Council of Ten, the
+Supreme Court of Appeal, and many special magistrates, who presided over
+departments of Finance, Customs, and Justice, belonged _ex officio_ to
+the Senate, and brought the number of votes up to two hundred and
+forty-six. Further, fifty-one magistrates of minor departments also sat,
+with the right to debate, but without the right to vote.
+
+The Senate was the real core of the Administration. The presence, _ex
+officio_, of so many and such various officers of State sufficiently
+indicates the wide field which was covered by the authority of the
+Pregadi. The large number of the Senatorial body, and the diversity of
+subjects with which it dealt, required that business should be carried
+on with parsimony of time and precision of method; and therefore private
+members were restricted to the right of debate. Only the Doge, his
+councillors, the Savii Grandi and the Savii di Terra ferma had the right
+to move the Senate; and their propositions related to peace, war,
+foreign affairs, instructions to ambassadors, and representatives of
+foreign Courts, to commercial treaties, finance, and home legislation.
+The various measures were spoken to by their proposers, and by the
+magistrates whose offices they affected. As in the case of the Great
+Council, the Senate also on rare occasions exercised judicial functions.
+It was in the discretion of the College to send a faulty commander for
+trial either to the Great Council or to the Senate; but in that case the
+charge must be one of negligence or misjudgment; if the charge implied
+treason, it was taken before the Council of Ten. A few of the higher
+officers of State were elected in the Senate, among them the Savii
+Grandi and the Savii di Terra ferma, and the Admiral of the Fleet. The
+functions of the Senate were legislative, judicial, and elective. But
+just as the Great Council was pre-eminently the elective body, so the
+Senate was pre-eminently the legislative body in the constitution of
+Venice.
+
+The Collegio or Cabinet of Ministers, formed the third tier in the
+pyramid. The College was composed of the following members: The Doge,
+his six councillors, and the three chiefs of the Court of Appeal; these
+ten persons formed the Collegio minore, or Serenissima Signoria; in
+addition to these there were the six Savii Grandi; the five Savii di
+Terra ferma, and the five Savii da mar; a body of twenty-six persons in
+all, forming the College. Beginning with the lowest in rank, the Savii
+agli ordini, or da mar, were, as their name implies, a Board of
+Admiralty; but they acted in that capacity under the orders of the Savii
+Grandi upon whom the naval affairs of the Republic immediately depended.
+The Savii agli ordini had a vote but no voice in the College; this post
+was given, for the most part, to young and promising politicians; it was
+a training school for statesmen: 'Officio loro,' says Giannotti, 'è
+tacere ed ascoltare.' The office lasted for six months only; and so
+there was a constant stream of young men passing through the political
+school, and becoming intimately acquainted with the affairs of the
+Republic and the methods of government. How excellent that school must
+have been will become apparent as we proceed to note the functions of
+the College of which the Savii agli ordini formed a silent part.
+
+Next in order above the Savii agli ordini came the Savii di Terra ferma.
+This Board was composed of five members; the Savio alia Scrittura, or
+Minister for War; the Savio Cassier, or Chancellor of the Exchequer; the
+Savio alle ordinanze, or minister for the native militia in the cities
+on the mainland; the Savio ai da mò, or minister for the execution of
+all measures voted urgent; the Savio ai Ceremoniali, or Minister for
+Ceremonies of State. These Savii di Terra ferma, like the Savii agli
+ordini, held office for six months only.
+
+The six Savii Grandi, who came above the Savii di Terra ferma,
+superintended the actions of the two boards below them, and, if
+necessary, issued orders which would override those of the other
+ministers. They were, in fact, the responsible directors of the State.
+The Savii Grandi were required to prepare all business to be laid before
+the College, where it was first discussed and arranged before being
+submitted to the Senate for approval. To facilitate this labour of
+preparation, each of the Savii Grandi took a week in turn, and the Savio
+of the week was, in fact, Prime Minister of Venice. It was he who read
+dispatches, granted audiences to ambassadors, and prepared official
+replies. The Doge presided in the College, it is true, but it was the
+Savio of the week who opened the business, and suggested the various
+measures to be adopted.
+
+Besides these boards of Savii, the College included the Ducal
+Councillors, and the three chiefs of the Court of Appeal. We shall speak
+of these latter when we come to the judicial department of the
+constitution. The office of Ducal Councillor was, perhaps, the most
+venerable in Venice. These six men held, as it were, the Ducal honours
+and functions in commission; they embodied the authority of the Doge to
+such an extent, that without their presence he could not act; he became
+a nonentity unless supported by four at least of his council; while, on
+the other hand, the absence of the Doge in no way diminished the
+authority of the Ducal Councillors. For example, the Doge without his
+council could not preside, neither in the Maggior Consiglio, nor in the
+Senate, nor in the College, but four Ducal Councillors had the power to
+preside without the Doge. The Doge might not open dispatches except in
+the presence of his council, but his council might open dispatches in
+the absence of the Doge. Yet, great as were the external honours of the
+Ducal Councillors, the office was rather ornamental than important. It
+was the Savii Grandi who were the directing spirit through all the
+multitudinous affairs of the College. As we have seen, those affairs
+embraced the whole field of government, except the field of Justice. The
+College had no judicial functions, nor did it legislate. As the Maggior
+Consiglio was the elective member, and the Senate the legislative, so
+the College was the initiative and executive member of the State. The
+College proposed measures which became law in the Senate; and the
+execution of those laws was entrusted to the College which had the
+machinery of State at its disposal. It is this right of initiating which
+distinguishes the College; and it is just upon this point that the Ducal
+Councillors appear to have a slight pre-eminence; for the Doge, his
+council, and the Savii alone, had the right to initiate in the Senate;
+the Doge, his council, and the chiefs of the Ten alone, had the right to
+initiate in the Council of Ten; the Doge and his council alone had the
+right to initiate in the Maggior Consiglio. The Doge and his council
+alone move through all departments of government, presiding and
+initiating, embodying the spirit of the Republic; and yet in no case is
+their power great; for the Savii had more influence in the Senate, the
+Chiefs of the Ten in the Council of Ten; and the Great Council, where
+the Doge and his councillors had the field to themselves, was of little
+importance in the direction of affairs.
+
+At the apex of the constitutional pyramid we find the Doge. The Doge
+also had his distinctive functions in the State; his duties were
+ornamental rather than administrative. Though all the acts of the
+Government were executed in his name, laws passed, dispatches sent,
+treaties made, and war declared, yet it is not in these departments that
+the Doge stands pre-eminent; it is throughout the pomp and display of
+the Republic that he is supreme; and the archive wherein his glory shows
+most brightly is the _Ceremoniali_.
+
+The Doge was elected for life. When a Doge died, the eldest Ducal
+Councillor filled the office of Vice-Doge until the election of the new
+Prince. The remains of the deceased Doge were laid out in the Chamber of
+the Pioveghi, on the first floor of the Ducal Palace, dressed in robes
+of State, the mantle of cloth of gold and the ducal beretta. Twenty
+Venetian noblemen were appointed to attend in the chapelle ardente. On
+the third day the Doge was buried; and the Great Council on the same day
+elected the officers who were to revise the coronation oath, and to
+render its provisions more stringent if the conduct of the deceased had
+revealed any point where a future Doge could exercise even the smallest
+independence in constitutional matters. At the same time the Council
+elected another body of officers, who were required to examine the
+conduct of the late Doge, and, if he had violated his coronation oath,
+his heirs paid the penalty by a fine. Immediately after the appointment
+of these officers, the Maggior Consiglio proceeded to create the
+forty-one electors to the dukedom. The process of election was long and
+intricate, and occupied five days at the least; for there was a
+quintuple series of ballots and votings to be concluded before the
+forty-one were finally chosen. When the forty-one noblemen had been
+appointed they were taken to a chamber specially prepared for them,
+where, as in the case of a papal election, they were obliged to stay
+until they had determined upon the new Doge. They were bound by oath
+never to reveal what took place inside this election chamber. But this
+oath was not always observed in the spirit; and memoranda of the
+proceedings of the forty-one are still preserved in the private archives
+of the Marcello family. The first step was to elect three priors, or
+presidents, and two secretaries. The presidents took their seats at a
+table on which stood a ballot-box and an urn. The secretaries gave to
+every elector a slip of paper, upon which each one wrote the name of the
+man whom he proposed as Doge. The forty-one slips of paper were then
+placed in the urn, and one was drawn out at hazard. If the noble, whose
+name was written upon the slip, chanced to be an elector, he was
+required to withdraw. Then each of the electors was at liberty to attack
+the candidate, to point out defects and recal misdeeds. These hostile
+criticisms, which covered the whole of a candidate's private life, his
+physical qualities and his public conduct, were written down by the
+secretaries, and the candidate was recalled. The objections urged
+against him were read over to the aspirant, without the names of the
+urgers appearing, and he was invited to defend himself. Attack and
+defence continued till no further criticisms were offered, and then the
+name of the candidate was balloted before the priors. If it received
+twenty-five favourable votes, its owner was declared Doge; if less than
+twenty-five, a fresh name was drawn from the urn, and the whole process
+was repeated until some candidate secured the necessary five-and-twenty
+votes. As soon as this issue was reached, the Signoria was informed of
+the result, and the new Doge, attended by the electors, descended to
+Saint Mark's, where, from the pulpit on the left side of the choir, the
+Prince was shown to the people, and where, before the high altar, he
+took the coronation oath and received the standard of Saint Mark. The
+great doors of the Basilica were then thrown open, and the Doge passed
+in procession round the Piazza and returned to the Porta della Carta. At
+the top of the Giants' Stair the eldest Ducal Councillor placed the
+beretta on his head, and he was brought to the Sala dei Pioveghi, where
+the late Doge had lain in state, and where he too would one day come.
+Then the Doge retired to his private apartments, and the ceremony of
+election closed.
+
+As we have already observed, the position of the Doge in the Republic of
+Venice was almost purely ornamental. The Doge presided, either in person
+or by commission through his councillors, at every Council of State; he
+presided, however, not as a guiding and deliberating chief, but as a
+symbol of the Majesty of Venice. He is there not as an individual, a
+personality, but as the outward and visible sign of an idea, the idea of
+the Venetian oligarchy. The history of the personal authority of the
+Doge falls into three periods. A period of great vigour and almost
+despotic power dates from the foundation of the Dukedom, in the year
+697, down to the reign of Pietro Ziani in 1172. During this first
+period, the Ducal authority showed a tendency to become concentrated,
+and almost hereditary in the hands of one or two powerful families. For
+example, we have seen Doges of the Partecipazio house, five Doges of the
+Candiani, and three of the Orseoli. But the rivalry and balanced power
+of these great families eventually exhausted one another, and preserved
+the Dukedom of Venice from ever becoming a kingdom. A second period
+extends from the year 1172 down to 1457, and is marked by the emergence
+of the great commercial houses, and the development of the oligarchy
+upon the basis of a Great Council. The aristocracy during this period
+were engaged in excluding the people from any share in the government,
+and in curbing and finally crushing the authority of the Doge. The steps
+in this process are indicated by the closing of the Great Council, the
+revolution of Tiepolo, the trials of Marino Faliero, Lorenzo Celsi, and
+the Foscari. The third period covers what remains of the Republic, from
+1457 down to 1797. During this period the Doge was little other than the
+figurehead of the Republic; the point of least weight and greatest
+splendour; the brilliant apex to the pyramid of the Venetian
+constitution.
+
+So far, then, we have examined the four tiers in the original structure
+of the constitution, the Doge, the College, the Senate, and the Great
+Council; and we have seen that, broadly speaking these were,
+respectively, ornamental, initiative and executive, legislative, and
+elective. But this pyramid of the constitution was not perfectly
+symmetrical; its edges were broken. This interruption of outline was
+caused by the Council of Ten. The exact position in the Venetian
+constitution occupied by this famous Council, and its relations to the
+other members of the government, have proved a constant source of
+difficulty and error to students of Venetian history. Leaving aside the
+obscure problem of the origin of the Ten, it is still possible for us to
+indicate the constitutional necessity which called that Council into
+existence. As we have pointed out, the College could not act on its own
+responsibility without the Senate; the Senate could not initiate without
+the College, for the preparation of all affairs passed through the hands
+of the College. To establish connection between these two branches of
+the administration was a process that required some time; it could not
+be done swiftly and secretly. In all crises of political importance,
+whether home or foreign, some instrument, more expeditious than the
+Senate, was required to sanction the propositions of the College. That
+instrument, acting swiftly and secretly, with a speed and secrecy
+impossible in so large a body as the Senate, was created with the
+Council of Ten. The Ten were an extraordinary magistracy, devised to
+meet unexpected pressure upon the ordinary machine of government. The
+emergence of the Ten proves this view. Without determining whether the
+Council existed previous to the year 1310, we may take that year as the
+date of its first appearance as a potent element in the State. The
+rebellion of Tiepolo and Querini, an aristocratic revolt against the
+growing power of the new commercial nobility, paralysed the ordinary
+machinery of State, and revealed the danger inherent in a large and
+slow-moving body of rulers. The Ten were called to power, just as the
+Romans created the Dictatorship, in order to save the State in a
+dangerous crisis.
+
+The place of the Ten in the constitutional structure is below the
+College and parallel with the Senate. Below the College the
+administration bifurcates, the ordinary course of business flows through
+the Senate, the extraordinary through the Ten. The Ten possessed an
+authority equal to that of the Senate; the choice of which instrument
+should be used, rested with the College. The Ten appear to be of more
+importance than the Senate, solely because they were used upon more
+critical and dramatic occasions. Wherever the machinery of the College
+and Senate moves too slowly, we find the swifter machinery of the
+College and the Ten in motion. And so not only in political affairs,
+home and foreign, but also in affairs financial and judicial, the
+Council of Ten takes its part. The Ten, as being the readier instrument
+to the hands of the College, gradually absorbed more and more of the
+functions which originally belonged to the Senate. This process of
+absorption, and the extension of the province of the Ten, is marked by
+the establishment of its sub-commissions, that took their place in every
+department side by side with the delegations of the Senate and the
+ordinary magistrates. In politics and foreign affairs there is the
+famous office of the Three Inquisitors of State. In the region of
+Justice all cases of treason and coining, and certain cases of outrage
+on public morals, came before the Ten; and it was always open to the
+College to remove a case from the ordinary courts to the Ten, when State
+reasons rendered it expedient to do so. In the Police department the
+Esecutori contro la Bestemmia, and in Finance the Camerlenghi, were
+officers of that Council. In the War Office the artillery was under
+their control; and in the arsenal certain galleys, marked C.X., were
+always at their disposal.
+
+These five great members of the State, four regular and one irregular,
+formed the political and legislative departments of the Venetian
+Government. It would require too many details to give a similar account
+of the Judicial, Educational, and Religious machinery.
+
+One of the most remarkable features in the Venetian constitution is the
+infinite subdivision of government, and the number of offices to be
+filled. Nobles alone were eligible for the majority of these offices,
+and if we consider how small a body the Great Council really was, it is
+clear that the larger number of Venetian noblemen must have been
+employed in the service of the State at some time in their lives. The
+great political and administrative activity which reigned inside the
+comparatively small body that formed the ruling caste, as compared with
+the absolute stagnation and quiet which marked the life of the ordinary
+citizen, is one of the most noteworthy points in the history of Venice.
+Every noble above the age of twenty-five was a member of the Maggior
+Consiglio; every week that council had to fill up some office of State,
+had some new candidate before it. The tenure of all offices, except the
+Dukedom and the Procuratorship of St. Mark, was so brief, rarely
+exceeding a year, or sixteen months, that the fret and activity of
+elections must have been nearly incessant. This constant unrest bore its
+fruit in perpetual intrigues, and the censors were appointed to check
+the rampant canvassing and bribery. But the main point which is
+impressed upon us is the universality of political training to which all
+the nobles of Venice were subjected. No matter how frivolous a young
+patrician might be, he would be obliged to sit in the Great Council; he
+would be called upon to assist in electing the Ten, whose omniscience
+and severity he had every reason to dread; he might even find himself
+named to fill some minor post. It was impossible, under these
+circumstances, that he should fail to be educated politically, or that
+he should ever lose the keenest interest in every movement of the State.
+It is to this political activity that we may possibly look for one of
+the reasons which conduced to that extraordinary longevity which the
+constitution of Venice displayed.
+
+Each of the Government offices, many as they were, possessed its own
+collection of papers. These are either still in loose sheets, just as
+they left the office, or bound in volumes. They are indicated by the
+name of the Government department, the subject dealt with, and the date.
+The pages are of three kinds; first, there are the files or _filze_, the
+original minutes of the Board, written down in actual Council by the
+secretaries, and with the _filze_ are the dispatches or other documents
+upon which the Council took measures. In many of the more important
+departments, such as the Senate, the Ten, or the College, these _filze_
+were epitomized; the substance of each day's business was written out in
+large volumes known as _Registri_; each entry was signed by the
+secretary who had made the digest, and was accepted as authentic for all
+purposes of reference. These registers are, in many cases, of the
+greatest value where the files have been destroyed or lost. They were
+more constantly in use, and therefore more carefully preserved; and now
+they frequently form our sole authority for certain periods. As a rule
+the registers are very full and good; they contain all that is of
+importance in the files; but in making research upon any point it is
+never safe to ignore the files where they exist. In some cases the
+secretaries made a further digest of the registers in volumes known as
+Rubrics, which contain in brief the headings of all materials to be
+found in the registers. As the registers sometimes supply the place of
+lost files, so the rubrics are occasionally our only authority where
+registers and files are both missing. The rubrics are often of the
+highest value. As an instance, we may cite the twenty volumes of rubrics
+to the dispatches from England between the years 1603 and 1748. The
+method of research, therefore, where all three kinds of documents exists
+is this, to examine first the rubrics, then the registers, and then the
+files. But the infinite subdivisions of the Government offices in Venice
+render the task of research somewhat bewildering; and a student cannot
+be certain that he has exhausted all the information on his subject,
+until he has examined a large number of these minor offices. He will
+probably find some notice of the point he is examining in the papers of
+the Senate or of the Ten, and, if it be a matter of home affairs, he can
+trace it thence through the various magistracies under whose cognizance
+it would come; or if it be a matter of foreign policy, he will find
+further information in the papers of the College.
+
+Under the Republic these collections of State papers were not known as
+archives, but as chancelleries. The collections of highest interest, the
+papers to which the student is most likely to turn his attention, are
+those relating to the ceremony, to the home, and to the foreign policy
+of Venice. These three groups are contained in the Ducal, the Secret,
+and the Inferior Chancelleries. The three chancelleries were committed
+to the charge of the Grand Chancellor and his staff of secretaries, who
+received, arranged, and registered the official papers as they issued
+from the various Councils of State. The Grand Chancellor was not a
+patrician; he was chosen from that upper class of commoners known as
+_cittadini originarii_, an inferior order of nobility, ranking below the
+governing caste, but bearing coat armour. The office of Grand Chancellor
+was of great dignity and antiquity, and was held for life. The
+Chancellor was head and representative of the people, as the Doge was
+head and representative of the patricians; and, when the nobility began
+to exclude the people from all share in the government, the Grand
+Chancellor was allowed to be present at all sessions of the Great
+Council and of the Senate as the silent witness of the people,
+confirming the acts of the Government, and bridging, though by the
+finest thread, the gulf that otherwise separated the governed from the
+governing. The part which the Grand Chancellor took in the business of
+the Maggior Consiglio and of the Senate was a constant and an active
+part. It was his duty to superintend the arrangements for every
+election, to direct the secretaries in attendance, to announce the names
+of the candidates for office, and to proclaim the successful competitor.
+His seat in the Great Council Hall was on the left-hand of the Doge's
+daïs, and his secretaries sat below him. But the custody of the State
+papers was by far the most important function which the Grand Chancellor
+had to perform. To assist him in these labours he was placed at the head
+of a large College of Secretaries, trained in a school especially
+established to fit them for their duties. In the year 1443 a decree of
+the Great Council required the Doge and the Signoria to elect each year
+twelve lads to be taught Latin, rhetoric and philosophy, and the number
+of the pupils was gradually increased. From this school they passed out
+by examination, and became first extra-ordinaries and ordinaries, called
+Notaries Ducal, then secretaries to the Senate, and finally secretaries
+to the Ten. The post of secretary was one which required much diligence
+and discretion. The secretaries were in constant attendance on the
+various Councils of State, and thus became intimately acquainted with
+all the secret affairs of the Republic. They were frequently sent on
+delicate missions. It was a secretary of the Ten who brought Carmagnola
+to Venice to stand his trial; and, as we shall presently relate, it was
+a secretary of the Senate who announced to Thomas Killigrew, the English
+Minister, his dismissal from Venice. The secretaries were sometimes
+accredited as Residents to foreign Courts, though they were not eligible
+for the post of Ambassador. Inside the Chancellery the secretaries were
+entirely at the disposal of the Grand Chancellor, and their duties were
+to study, to invent, and to read cipher; to transcribe the registers
+and rubrics; to keep the annals of the Council of Ten, and to enter the
+laws in the statute book.
+
+We may now turn our attention to the principal series of State papers
+which issued from the five great members of the Constitution, the
+Maggior Consiglio, the Senate, the Ten, the College, and the Doge, and
+show how these papers were arranged under the three Chancelleries of
+which we have spoken.
+
+The Cancelleria Inferiore was preserved in one large room near the head
+of the Giants' Staircase in the Ducal Palace, and was entrusted to the
+care of the Notaries Ducal, the lowest order of secretaries. The
+documents in this Chancellery related chiefly to the Doge; his rights,
+his official possessions, his restrictions, and his state. Among these
+papers, accordingly, we find the coronation oaths, the Reports of the
+Commissioners appointed to examine those oaths, and the Reports of the
+Commissioners appointed to review the life of each Doge deceased. This
+series is valuable as revealing the steps by which the aristocracy
+slowly curtailed the personal authority of the Doge, and bound his
+office about with iron fetters, and crushed his power. In addition to
+these papers the Inferior Chancellery contained the documents relating
+to the dignitaries of St. Mark's in its capacity as Ducal Chapel; the
+order and ceremony of the Ducal household; the expenditure of the Civil
+List; and the archives of the Procurators of Saint Mark, which contained
+the will, trusts, and bequests of private citizens.
+
+The Ducal Chancellery, which the Council of Ten once called 'cor nostri
+status,' was preserved on the upper floor of the palace, and was reached
+by the Scala d'oro. The papers were arranged in a number of cupboards
+surmounted by the arms of the various Grand Chancellors who had presided
+in that office. The documents of the Ducal Chancellery are of far higher
+importance than those contained in the Cancelleria Inferiore; they
+consist of political papers which it was not necessary to keep secret.
+Among the many interesting series of documents which fell to the Ducal
+Chancellery, the most valuable are the 'Compilazione delle Leggi,' or
+statute-books distinguished by the various colours of their
+bindings--gold, roan, and green--to mark the statutes which relate to
+the Maggior Consiglio, the Senate, and the College respectively; the
+Secretario alle voci, or record of all elections in the Great Council;
+the Libri gratiarum, or special privileges. But most important of all is
+the great series of documents which include the whole legislation of the
+State relating to Venetian affairs on sea and land. Of this vast series
+those marked _Terra_ contain 3128 volumes of files, 411 volumes of
+registers, and 7 volumes of rubrics; those marked _Mar_ number 1286
+volumes of files, 247 volumes of registers, and 7 volumes of rubrics. It
+will easily be seen how important the Ducal Chancellery is both for the
+verification of dates, and also as displaying so large a tract of the
+Venetian home administration.
+
+But important as the Ducal Chancellery undoubtedly is, it cannot vie in
+interest with the Cancelleria Secreta, which might, with every justice,
+have been called 'cor nostri status', for it is in the papers of that
+Chancellery that the long history of the growth, splendour, and decline
+of the Republic is to be traced in all its manifold details and
+complicated relations. The Secret Chancellery was established by a
+decree of the Great Council in the year 1402. Its object was to preserve
+those papers of the highest State importance, from the publicity to
+which the Ducal Chancellery was exposed. The regulation of the Secret
+Chancellery was undertaken by the Council of Ten, and the rigorous
+orders which they issued from time to time abundantly prove the
+difficulty they experienced in securing the secrecy which they desired.
+The Secret Chancellery became the depository of all State papers of
+great moment; and if we take the chief members of the constitution in
+order, and note the documents issuing from them which fell to the
+custody of the Secreta, we shall see how the great flow of Venetian
+history is to be followed here rather than in any other department of
+the archives.
+
+To begin with the Maggior Consiglio, we have the long series of
+registers containing the deliberations of the Council from the year 1232
+down to the fall of the Republic in 1797, occupying forty-two volumes,
+and distinguished, at first, by such capricious names as Capricornus,
+Philosus, Presbiter, and Fronesis; and later on by the names of the
+secretaries who prepared them, Ottobonus primus, Ottobonus filius,
+Busenellus, and Vianolus. In the special archive of the Avogadori di
+Commun a contemporary series of registers is to be found; it covers from
+1232 to 1547, and should be consulted together with the first series,
+for it is more voluminous and minute. The first reference to England
+that occurs in the Venetian archives is in the volume Fronesis
+(1318-1385). This, and all other documents relating to Great Britain,
+have been collected and rendered accessible in the splendid and
+monumental series of the 'Calendar of State Papers,' edited with such
+diligence and care by the late Mr. Rawdon Brown. Mr. Brown's published
+work goes down to the year 1552; and it is only after that date that any
+work relating to England remains to be done. That work, however, is
+voluminous, for the regular and unbroken series of dispatches from
+England does not begin till the reign of James I. Little more respecting
+England is to be expected from the papers of the Great Council, however;
+for at the date where Mr. Brown's work ends, the Maggior Consiglio had
+ceased to occupy a high position in the direction of Venetian foreign
+policy; its functions were chiefly confined to the election of
+magistrates.
+
+The Senate supplied a far larger number of papers to the Secret
+Chancellery than that yielded by the Great Council. This was to be
+expected, owing to the central position of the Senate in the
+constitution, and its prominent place in the management of Venetian
+policy, home and foreign. The oldest documents in the archives of Venice
+belong to the Senate. They are contained among the volumes of Pacts or
+treaties, seven in number, without including the volume Albus, which is
+devoted to treaties between the Republic and the Eastern Empire, nor the
+volume Blancus, which contains the treaties between Venice and the
+Emperors of the West. The thirty-three volumes of Commemoriali formed a
+sort of commonplace book for the use of statesmen; in them were
+registered briefly the most important events and abstracts of principal
+documents which passed through the hands of the Government. The
+Commemoriali cover the years 1293 to 1797; but after the middle of the
+sixteenth century they were neglected, and they are chiefly valuable
+down to that date only. After the Patti and Commemoriali we begin the
+record of the regular proceedings in the Senate. This series contains
+papers relating to home government, foreign policy, the dominions of
+Venice on the mainland, in Dalmatia and the Levant, ecclesiastical
+matters, relations with Rome, instructions to ambassadors and reports
+from governors. So widely spread and so varied were the attributes of
+the Senate, that the analysis of a single day's proceedings in that
+house would prove most instructive to the student of the Venetian
+constitution, and would, in all probability, bring him into contact with
+a large number of the leading magistracies of the Republic. The series
+of senatorial papers proceeds in almost unbroken completeness from the
+year 1293 down to the close of the Republic; and counting files,
+registers and rubrics, numbers 1599 volumes. This main series is known
+by different names at different periods, and shows signs of that
+tendency to subdivision which characterizes all Venetian Government
+offices. The volumes which run from the year 1293 to 1440 were known as
+Registri misti; those covering from 1491 to 1630, and overlapping the
+first Misti, were called Registri secreti. After the year 1630 the
+papers of the Senate are divided into those known as Corti, relating to
+foreign Powers; and those known as Rettori, relating to the government
+of the Venetian dominion.
+
+Besides this great series of Deliberazioni, containing the general
+movement of business in the Senate, there is another voluminous series
+of documents, equally important, and even more interesting to the
+student of general history, the dispatches received from Venetian
+representatives in foreign Courts, and the Relazioni, or reports which
+ambassadors read before the Senate upon their return from abroad.
+Nothing can exceed the brilliancy of this series; and the value of the
+Relazioni at least has been fully recognized. Yet it should be borne in
+mind that the Relazioni are only a part of the series, and that, taken
+alone and isolated from the dispatches, they lose much of their value.
+For we must not forget that the Relazioni were drawn up on more or less
+conventional lines; the headings, under which the report was to fall,
+were indicated by the Government, and were invariable; and, further, the
+home-coming ambassador handed his report to his successor, who
+frequently used it as a basis in drawing up his own. The result is that,
+except in the descriptions of Court life, and in the sketches of
+prominent characters, the Relazioni are apt to repeat themselves. But,
+taken with the dispatches, which arrived almost daily, they form the
+most varied, brilliant, and minute gallery of national portraits that
+the world possesses. The reports and dispatches were made by men whose
+whole political training had rendered them the acutest of observers, and
+they were presented to critics who were filled with the keenest
+curiosity, and were accustomed to demand full and precise information.
+Not a detail is omitted as unimportant; the diurnal gossip of the Court,
+the daily movements of the sovereign and his favourites; are all
+recorded with impartial and unerring observation. The relation of the
+Dispacci to the Relazioni is the relation of the study to the picture.
+The Relazioni are the large canvas upon which the whole nation is
+broadly depicted, the Dispacci are the patient and minute studies upon
+which the excellence of the picture depends. The majority of the
+Venetian Relazioni between the years 1492 and 1699 have been published;
+the earlier part by Signor Alberi, and the later by Signori Barozzi and
+Berchet. The eighteenth century still remains to be worked out. In the
+series of Relazioni and Dispacci, Great Britain occupies a comparatively
+small space. While France, Germany, and Constantinople, each give five
+volumes of reports, England gives one only, dating from 1531 to 1763. Of
+dispatches from England there are 139 volumes in all; while from
+Constantinople we have 242, from France 276, from Milan, 230, and from
+Germany 202.
+
+Previous to the year 1603, when the regular series of dispatches from
+England begins, there had been intermittent relations between the
+Republic and the English Court. Sebastian Giustiniani was Venetian
+ambassador in London in the reign of Henry VIII. (1515-1519); and in the
+reign of Mary, Giovanni Michiel represented the Republic for four
+years--from 1554 to 1558. The Protestant reign of Elizabeth caused a
+long break, during which the Republic received its information about the
+affairs of England from its ambassadors in France and Spain. Permanent
+relations were not resumed between the two Powers till the accession of
+James I., one of whose earliest acts was to send Sir Henry Wotton to
+Venice as his ambassador. The appointment of Sir Henry Wotton was a
+movement of gratitude on the part of the King; and the cause of it
+cannot be better told than in the words of Sir Henry's biographer, who
+thus describes this 'notable accident:'
+
+     'Immediately after Sir Henry Wotton's return from Rome to
+     Florence--which was about a year before the death of Queen
+     Elizabeth--Ferdinand, the Great Duke of Tuscany, had
+     intercepted certain letters that discovered a design to take
+     away the life of James, the then King of Scots. The Duke
+     abhorring this fact, and resolving to endeavour a prevention
+     of it, advised with his Secretary Vietta, by what means a
+     caution might be best given to that King; and after
+     consideration it was resolved to be done by Sir Henry
+     Wotton, whom Vietta first commended to the Duke, and the
+     Duke had noted and approved of above all the English that
+     frequented his Court.
+
+     'Sir Henry was gladly called by his friend Vietta to the
+     Duke, who dispatched him into Scotland with letters to the
+     King, and with those letters such Italian antidotes against
+     poison as the Scots till then had been strangers to.
+
+     'Having parted from the Duke, he took up the name and
+     language of an Italian; and thinking it best to avoid the
+     line of English intelligence and danger, he posted into
+     Norway, and through that country towards Scotland, where he
+     found the King at Stirling. Being there, he used means, by
+     Bernard Lindsey, one of the King's bed-chamber, to procure
+     him a speedy and private conference with his Majesty.
+
+     'This being by Bernard Lindsey made known to the King, the
+     King required his name--which was said to be Octavio
+     Baldi--and appointed him to be heard privately at a fixed
+     hour that evening.
+
+     'When Octavio Baldi came to the Presence-chamber door, he
+     was requested to lay aside his long rapier--which,
+     Italian-like, he then wore;--and being entered the chamber,
+     he found there with the King three or four Scotch Lords
+     standing distant in several corners of the chamber; at the
+     sight of whom he made a stand; which the King observing,
+     bade him be bold and deliver his message; for he would
+     undertake for the secrecy of all that were present. Then did
+     Octavio Baldi deliver his letters and message to the King in
+     Italian; which when the King had graciously received, after
+     a little pause, Octavio Baldi steps to the table, and
+     whispers to the King in his own language that he was an
+     Englishman, beseeching him for a more private conference
+     with his Majesty, and that he might be concealed during his
+     stay in that nation; which was promised and really performed
+     by the King, during all his abode there, which was about
+     three months. All which time was spent with much
+     pleasantness to the King, and with as much to Octavio Baldi
+     himself as that country could afford; from which he departed
+     as true an Italian as he came thither.'
+
+The presence of Sir Henry in Venice, where he was a _persona
+gratissima_, both for his love of Italy and his knowledge of the
+language, did much to strengthen the new relations between England and
+the Republic. The feeling between Venice and the Stuart kings became
+extremely cordial; but on the outbreak of the Civil War, in 1642, the
+Republic suspended the commission of Vincenzo Contarina, who had been
+appointed to succeed Giovanni Giustinian as ambassador to England. The
+secretary Girolamo Agostino, however, continued to discharge Venetian
+affairs till the year 1645; and his dispatches contain minute
+particulars concerning the progress of the Civil War. In the year 1645,
+Agostino was recalled, and the interests of Venice in England were
+entrusted to Salvetti, the Florentine resident. Agostino left behind him
+in England a secret agent, with instructions to forward a weekly report
+on the progress of affairs to the Venetian ambassador in France, among
+whose dispatches we find these newsletters from London. After the death
+of Charles I it is not likely that the Republic would have been
+represented at the Court of Cromwell, towards whom the feeling of Venice
+was not cordial, had she not been in great straits for help against the
+Turk. But in the year 1652 she resolved to dismiss the representative of
+Charles II, then in Venice; and, at the same time, the Government
+instructed the ambassador at Paris to send his secretary, Lorenzo
+Pauluzzi, to London to open negociations with Cromwell. With Pauluzzi
+the series of dispatches from London recommences; but these dispatches
+are to be found among the communications from the Venetian ambassador in
+Paris, by whom they were forwarded to the Senate. The dispatches of
+Pauluzzi are of great importance, and give us a vivid though hostile
+picture of Cromwell and his surroundings. 'Nell' universale,' he says,
+'ha pochissimo affetto;' and further on, 'non ardiscono tentare alcuna
+cosa nè parlare che tra i denti; ma ognuno sta sperando un giorno
+verificate le profizie che questo governo non possa a lungo durare.' In
+1655 the negociations between England and Venice had advanced so far
+that the Republic had determined to send an Ambassador Extraordinary to
+the Protector's Court. Giovanni Sagredo, ambassador at Paris, was
+chosen, and the closing paragraph of his first dispatch shows how
+strongly Cromwell's personality impressed him. 'Per il resto,' he
+writes, 'è uomo di 56 anni, con pochissima barba, di complessione
+sanguigna, di statura media e robusta e di presenza marziale. Ha una
+fisonomia cupa e profonda. Porta una gran spada al fianco. Soldato
+insieme ed oratore, e dotato di talenti per persuadere e per operare.'
+The result of Sagredo's mission is contained in the long and brilliant
+Relazione which he read in the Senate on his return to Venice in 1656.
+In this splendid specimen of a Venetian report, he gives, with singular
+lucidity and grasp, a brief sketch of the condition of Great Britain; of
+the causes of the Civil War; of Cromwell's rise to power; of his foreign
+relations; and closes with a portrait of the Protector which confirms
+Pauluzzi's unfavourable view, and draws a terrible picture of that
+restlessness and dread which clouded Cromwell's last days--'più temuto
+che amato ... vive con sempiterno sospetto.' When Sagredo returned to
+Venice, his secretary Francesco Giavarnia was left behind in England, as
+Venetian resident, and continued to hold that post till the Restoration,
+sending dispatches every week direct to Venice, detailing the close of
+the Protectorate, and the return of Charles II., whom he was the first
+to welcome at Canterbury the day after his landing. In 1661 the Republic
+gladly re-opened full relations with the Stuarts. Giavarnia was
+superseded by two Ambassadors Extraordinary, who conveyed to Charles two
+gondolas for the water in St. James's Park, and from that date onwards
+the diplomatic connection between England and the Republic followed the
+ordinary course.
+
+We come now to the papers of the Council of Ten; all of these were
+committed to the custody of the Secret Chancellery. We have already seen
+that the Council of Ten was an extraordinary office, used upon
+extraordinary occasions, where secrecy and speed were required. Its
+chief occupations may be summed up under three heads--safety of the
+State, protection of citizens, and public morals. That being the case,
+the number and interest of its documents is very great--greater than
+that of any other Council of State; but this interest is confined, for
+the most part, to matters affecting the home policy of the Republic;
+foreign affairs finds comparatively little illustration among the
+papers of the Ten. The series of documents, containing the ordinary
+business of the Ten, dates from the year 1315 to the close of the
+Republic. The documents are arranged according to the matter they deal
+with, that is to say political matter, _parti communi_ and _secreti_, or
+criminal matter, _parti crimminali_. The immense importance and interest
+attaching to the papers of the Ten will be illustrated by the statement,
+that there we find the cases of Marino Faliero, of the Carraresi, of
+Carmagnola, of Foscari, of Caterina Cornaro, and of Foscarini.
+
+Among the papers of the Collegio we find ourselves once more in the
+general current of foreign politics. The ordinary proceedings of the
+College, the papers containing the arrangement and discussion of affairs
+to be presented to the Senate, are included in the volumes of files and
+registers, known as the Notatorii del Collegio. The College was
+entrusted, as we have said, to receive all the representatives of
+foreign Powers and to open all letters and dispatches addressed to the
+Government. It is in the three series known as Lettere Principi,
+Espozioni Principi, and Ceremoniali, that we obtain the fullest
+information about the action of the agents from foreign Courts resident
+in Venice. The series called Lettere Principi, letters from royal
+personages, covers the years between 1500 and 1797, and is contained in
+fifty-four volumes of _filze_. England is represented by two of these,
+beginning with the year 1570, and ending with 1796, entitled 'Collegio,
+Secreta, Lettere. Rè e Regina d'Inghilterra.' These volumes contain one
+hundred and seventy-one letters, thus distributed among the various
+sovereigns; there are thirteen in the reign of Elizabeth; forty in that
+of James I.; four in that of Charles I.; three from Oliver Cromwell; one
+from Richard Cromwell; one from Speaker Lenthal: ten during the reign of
+Charles II.; five during that of his brother; three during the reign of
+William, including one from the Old Pretender; seven in the reign of
+Anne; eight in that of George I.; twenty-one from George II; and
+fifty-five from George III. These letters are concerned with formal
+announcements and the exchange of courtesies, the credentials of
+ambassadors and notices of royal births, marriages and deaths. Their
+historical importance is very slight. The long series of George III. is
+almost entirely occupied by noting the yearly increase of his family.
+The autographs of the ministers who countersigned the letters, form
+their greatest attraction. The late Mr. Rawdon Brown has published
+facsimiles of these autographs down to the year 1659; but after that
+date we find such interesting endorsements as those of Lauderdale,
+Arlington, Bolingbroke, Carteret, Pitt, Halifax, Henry Conway,
+Shelburne, and Charles James Fox. On a loose parchment among these
+letters is one very curious document. It is dated Bologna, 21st
+February, 1671, and begins 'Carlo Dudley per la gratia di Dio Duca di
+Northumbria et del Sacro Romano Impero, Conte di Woruih e di Licester,
+et Pari d'Ingliterra.' The document goes on to state that Charles
+Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, in consideration of the affection and
+partiality always shown towards his person and house, grants to Ottavio
+Dionisio, noble of Verona, the title of Marquis to him and to his eldest
+son, to his younger sons and to his brothers and their sons the title of
+Count, in perpetuity; and this in virtue of the declaration and
+authority of His Holiness Pope Urban VIII., which conferred on Charles
+Dudley and his eldest born the right to exercise all the privileges of
+an independent prince. At the date which this document bears, 1671,
+there was no Duke of Northumberland; that title had lately been bestowed
+by Charles II. on an illegitimate son, and had perished with him. This
+Charles Dudley was probably some pretender to the honours of the Dudley
+family who once held the dukedom of Northumberland. The document is
+curious, for the noble family on whom Charles Dudley conferred this
+title of Marquis still exists, and we do not know if any British
+subject, either before or after, has even claimed to be a fountain of
+honour. But Charles Dudley is not the only English pretender who figures
+among the papers at the Frari. Filza 8 of the loose papers, titled
+'Miscellanea Diversi Manoscritti,' contains the marriage certificate and
+will of James Henry de Boveri Rossano Stuart, natural son of Charles
+II., and seven letters from his son James Stuart, dated Milan, Gemona
+and Padua, 1722 to 1728. The majority of these letters are addressed to
+Cardinal Panighetti, from whom this 'povero principe Stuardo,' as he
+calls himself, hoped to receive money and support in some imaginary
+claims on the Crown of England. The letters are full of a certain
+pathos--the pathos which cannot fail to attach itself to fallen royalty.
+The handwriting is that of an uneducated man; and James Stuart, in these
+letters, certainly shows no signs of the ability required to meet so
+trying a situation. He appeals to the Cardinal first on the grounds of
+his creed. It is 'for the Faith that he finds himself in the miserable
+little town' of Gemona. Failing upon this line, James Stuart abandons
+himself to astrology, in the hope that the stars may give an answer
+favourable to his hopes. But to all his appeals the Cardinal replies
+with cold reserve, and when he hears of astrology, he adds a sharp and
+crushing reprimand.
+
+Leaving the Lettere Principi we come to the last two series of State
+papers of which we shall speak, the Espozioni Principi, or record of
+all audiences granted to ambassadors and of the communications made by
+them in the name of the Power they represented; and the Libri
+Ceremoniali, or record of the great functions of State, coronations and
+funerals of the Doges, the elections of the Grand Chancellors, the
+reception accorded to ambassadors, princes and distinguished travellers.
+The Republic of Venice was as punctilious as any Court of Europe upon
+the points of precedence, ceremony, and etiquette. The reader will not
+have forgotten the amusing account, given by the elder Disraeli, of the
+long struggle between the Master of the Ceremonies and the Venetian
+ambassador at the Court of St. James. The Government required from its
+representatives a minute account of every detail of etiquette observed
+towards them, and replied in kind in their treatment of foreign
+ministers in Venice. The Republic was punctilious abroad, and no less so
+at home. Every stage in the public entry, first audience and _congé_ of
+foreign ambassadors were carefully regulated and based upon precedent.
+The ambassadors of Spain and France had each a special volume devoted to
+the ceremonies and etiquette which the Republic observed towards them.
+M. Baschet describes at length the receptions of the French ambassadors,
+for whom he claims the highest rank among the representatives of foreign
+Powers at Venice. Great Britain sent fifty-eight embassies, in all, to
+the Republic, between the years 1340 and 1797. Of these ambassadors, Sir
+Gregory Cassalis filled the office twice, Sir Henry Wotton thrice, the
+Earl of Manchester twice, and Elizeus Burgess twice. The ceremony to
+which the ambassador was entitled may be gathered from the accounts of
+these embassies preserved in the Esposizioni Principi and the
+Ceremoniali.
+
+The reception of Lord Northampton in the year 1762 will afford us the
+most detailed view of the ceremony, for on that occasion some questions
+of precedent arose, and the Cavaliere Ruzzini, who was entrusted with
+the conduct of the affair, presented a long report to the Senate on the
+subject. The ambassador was not officially recognized by the Government
+until he had made his public entry, and presented his credentials at his
+first audience in the College. Until that had taken place, he remained
+incognito, and was in fact supposed not to be in Venice. Before the
+ambassador arrived, the English Consul was expected to hire a palace for
+his use. There was no fixed embassy in Venice; Thomas Killigrew lodged
+at San Cassano, Lord Holdernesse at San Benedetto, Lord Manchester at
+San Stae. John Udny, who was consul at the time of Lord Northampton's
+Embassy, rented the Palazzo Grimani at Cannaregio for the ambassador
+whenever his appointment was announced, and an amusing and
+characteristic story attaches to this affair. The palace belonged to a
+Contessa Grimani, and was in bad repair; but the owner promised to
+restore and fit it up for the ambassador. When the consul went to see
+the palace, shortly before the ambassador's arrival, he found that
+nothing had been done to it, and moreover that a gondolier and his wife
+occupied the ground-floor and refused to move. He wrote at once to the
+Contessa requesting her to remove the gondolier, to which he received
+for answer that the gondolier's wife had been nurse to one of the
+Countess's boys, and the Grimanis had promised her twenty ducats a-year;
+if the ambassador liked to pay that amount, the gondolier would turn
+out; if not, they must manage to share the palace between them. The
+consul appealed to the English Resident, John Murray, who wrote an angry
+letter to the Government, complaining of this treatment; 'La carità
+della nobile donna,' he says, 'verso la moglie del gondoliere merita
+senza dubbio gran lode, ma il sottoscritto s'imagina che l'avvocato più
+scaltro si troverebbe bene intrigato di produrre una legge o esempio per
+incaricare l'Ambasciatore Inglese di questa carità.'
+
+The matter was probably arranged, for on the 22nd of October Lord
+Northampton arrived, incognito, of course, with all his suite, and took
+up his residence. Lord Northampton was ill, and it was not until the
+beginning of the next year that he took the necessary steps to make his
+entry and to secure his first audience. The etiquette observed upon such
+occasions required that the ambassador should send his secretary to
+leave copies of his credentials at the door of the College, and to ask
+on what day the Doge would receive him. The College reply through one of
+their secretaries that an answer will be sent. The Doge was then
+consulted what day would suit him, and he answers by putting himself at
+the disposal of the College. The Senate is then informed of the
+ambassador's arrival, and sixty senators, under the direction of a
+leader, are appointed to attend the ambassador until the ceremonies of
+his reception shall be completed. The days selected for Lord
+Northampton's reception were the 29th and 30th of May, 1763; and the
+Caveliere Ruzzini was named as head of the sixty senators who were to
+attend the ambassador. Ruzzini informed Lord Northampton of these
+arrangements, and at the same time sent him a programme of the ceremony,
+which was based upon that observed towards Lord Holdernesse, and was
+identical with that which the Republic offered to the ambassador of the
+King of Sardinia. Before his public entry, the ambassador and all his
+suite went to the island of San Spirito, in the lagoon towards
+Malamocco. The fiction of the ceremony supposed all ambassadors to be
+lodged there until they had presented their credentials. San Spirito was
+chosen as the point of departure for the ambassadorial procession
+because the distance between that island and Venice was supposed to
+correspond exactly with the distance between London and Greenwich,
+whence the Venetian ambassador was wont to begin his progress. Sir Henry
+Wotton's second embassy forms a rare exception to this rule, for the
+Venetians were so fond of that charming and accomplished poet, that they
+allowed him to make his entry from San Giorgio Maggiore, which is much
+nearer the city and more convenient. After midday on the 29th, Ruzzini
+and his sixty senators, each in his gondola, arrived at San Spirito, and
+found the household of the ambassador drawn up along the landing-place
+_en grande tenue_. Lord Northampton was informed of Ruzzini's arrival,
+and came to meet him on the staircase. After exchanging the prescribed
+compliments, Ruzzini, with the ambassador on his right hand, descended,
+and both entered the Cavaliere's gondola. The whole procession left San
+Spirito and proceeded by the Grand Canal to the ambassador's lodging at
+San Girolamo, accompanied, as Ruzzini says, by 'un immenso popolo
+spettatore del nostro viaggio;' for these official entries were among
+the most popular of the Venetian spectacles, and the whole city went out
+to witness them. At the palace fresh speeches and compliments followed.
+Lord Northampton was suffering acutely from an illness of which he died
+that same year, but Ruzzini reports with obvious satisfaction that he
+did not spare him a single ceremony, 'adempi ad ogni parte del consueto
+ceremoniale.' The next day Ruzzini and the sixty senators again attended
+at the ambassador's palace to conduct him to his audience in the
+College. Lord Northampton was worse than he had been the day before; but
+Ruzzini was implacable. It cost the ambassador three-quarters of an hour
+to ascend the Giant's Stair. When at last he reached the door of the
+Collegio, the Doge and all the College rose; the ambassador uncovered
+and made three bows, and, leaving his suite behind him, he mounted the
+daïs and took his seat on the right hand of the Doge. The ambassador
+then covered his head, and simultaneously one of each order of the Savii
+did the same. The ambassador handed his credentials to the Doge, and
+remained uncovered while they were being read. The Doge made a brief and
+formal reply, welcoming the ambassador to Venice, and each time the
+King's name occurred, the ambassador raised his cap. After repeating his
+three bows, the ambassador retired, and was accompanied to his palace
+by the sixty senators who had waited for him at the door of the
+Collegio. This closed the ceremony of entry.
+
+The English Ambassador Extraordinary enjoyed certain privileges which
+were established on the precedent of the embassy of Lord Falconberg,
+Cromwell's son-in-law. Among these privileges was the right to lodging
+and maintenance at the cost of the Republic, a right which the
+ambassador usually compounded for the sum of five or six hundred ducats;
+a box at each theatre in Venice was placed at his disposal, and when he
+took his _congé_ the Senate voted him a gold chain and medal of the
+value of two thousand scudi. The ambassadors ordinary enjoyed certain
+exemptions from customs dues. These exemptions were frequently abused,
+and were the cause of constant friction between the Government and the
+representatives of the Powers. In the year 1763 Mr. John Murray's
+Istrian wine was seized, and he only recovered it after expressing
+himself _ben mortificato_. Mr. Murray was constantly in trouble on this
+subject. The year before he had addressed an indignant letter to the
+Government because 'a certain official of the Custom House had accused
+him of allowing his servants to sell wine and flour at the door of the
+Residency. It is but a poor satisfaction after so long a period of
+suspicion to know that that official is bankrupt and no proof of the
+accusation is forthcoming.' But by far the most curious episode of this
+nature was that which befell Tom Killigrew, the poet, grandfather of the
+Mrs. Anne Killigrew of Dryden's famous ode and a friend of Pepys, who
+recals him as 'a merry droll, but a gentleman of great esteem with the
+King, who told us many merry stories,' this, perhaps, among the number.
+Killigrew was sent to represent Charles II. at Venice in 1649, just
+after the execution of Charles I., and while his son was _a ramingo_, or
+knocking about, as the Venetian ambassador politely puts it. Killigrew
+was received in the usual way on February 10, 1650, and made his address
+'in lingua cattiva,' as the report affirms. But the Republic soon tired
+of its alliance with an exiled king, and resolved to dismiss Killigrew
+as soon as possible. Killigrew was poor, and his master had little or
+nothing to give him, so he hit upon the expedient of keeping a butcher's
+shop, where he could sell meat, cheaper than any one else in Venice, by
+availing himself of his exemptions from octroi. The Senate resolved to
+fasten upon this illicit traffic as a pretext for dismissing Killigrew;
+and on the 22d of June, 1652, they sent their Secretary, Busenello, to
+tell Killigrew, _vivâ voce_, that he must go. Busenello went to San
+Fantin, and there found one of Killigrew's butchers, who told him that
+the Resident only kept his shop there, but lived himself at San Cassano.
+At San Cassano Busenello was told that Killigrew was dining at Murano,
+and would not be home till evening; but very soon after he saw the
+Resident at his window, and insisted on being announced. He explained
+'with all possible delicacy,' as he says, the order of the Senate; but
+Killigrew received the message with every sign of anger and pain. With
+tears in his eyes he declared that it was the other ambassadors who
+robbed the customs, while he had all the blame. It was true that he did
+keep 'a little bit of a butcher's shop to support himself,' but that
+could not hurt the revenue; and he added that, under any circumstance he
+should leave Venice, for he had received his letters of recall from
+France, four days previously. The Senate no more than their secretary
+believed in the existence of this letter of recall; but Killigrew really
+had the letter, dated March 14th, and it was sent into the College,
+along with a brief exculpatory epistle from the Resident, on the 27th of
+June. Killigrew left Venice the same day as he was bound to do by
+ambassadorial etiquette; and Charles had not another recognized agent to
+the Republic until his restoration; for the Venetians definitely adopted
+the policy of courting Cromwell, in the vain hope that he would assist
+them against the Turk.
+
+With the papers of the College we close this notice of the political
+documents in the archives at the Frari. The other departments of the
+Government had each their own series of papers, equally copious and
+valuable. The heraldic and genealogical archives of the Avvogadori di
+Commun, for example, the Charters of the German and Turkish Exchanges
+and the records of the Mint and the public Banks, offer a wide and a
+rich field for study; and in spite of the profound and extensive labours
+of such scholars as Thomas, Checchetti, Barozzi, Berchet, Fulin,
+Lamansky, Mas Latrie, and Rawdon Brown, it will be long before the
+materials in the vast storehouse of the Frari are exhausted or even
+adequately displayed.
+
+
+
+
+Art. IV.--1. _Journal of a Residence in Norway during the years 1834,
+1835 and 1836._ By Samuel Laing, Esq. London, 1837.
+
+2. _Le Royaume de Norvège et le Peuple Norvègien._ Par le Dr. O. I.
+Broch. Christiania, 1878.
+
+3. _Official Reports of Prefects on the Economic Condition of the
+Provinces of Norway in 1876-80._ Christiania, 1884.
+
+4. _Publications of the Statistical Bureau, Christiania._
+
+
+The advocates of a general redistribution of landed property in Ireland,
+as well as those who are holding out to the agricultural labours of
+other portions of the United Kingdom the Arcadian lure figuratively
+known as the 'three acres and a cow,' will find in the work cited at the
+head of this article the amplest materials for the justification of the
+views they are pressing for adoption partly as a remedy for agricultural
+distress, but essentially in application of the Socialist doctrine that
+the people of a country have an inherent right to an absolute,
+proportionate possession of its soil.
+
+Mr. Laing's 'Journal' is, indeed, not a record of travel and adventure,
+but a treatise, admirably written and replete with facts, in
+demonstration of the great superiority of the Norwegian system of land
+tenure over that of any other part of civilized Europe. His views have,
+moreover, been to a great extent adopted in the numerous works that have
+since been produced by British travellers who, after a rapid drive over
+the main routes of Norway, have described in terms equally glowing the
+happy and enviable condition of the _Bonde_ or yeoman farmer of that
+country.
+
+Considering there is much in common in regard to race, religion,
+language, character, and civilization, between the inhabitants of that
+interesting little country and its maritime neighbours--the populations,
+more especially, of England and Scotland, it will be instructive, on the
+eve of the agrarian revolution with which the United Kingdom is
+threatened, to study and analyse the statements and conclusions of Mr.
+Laing, and to trace the subsequent and present operation of the peculiar
+land laws which he so highly extolled in the earlier part of this
+century.
+
+With that object we proceed to describe, almost in Mr. Laing's own
+words, the condition of the peasant proprietors of Norway at a period
+(1835) when, out of a population of 1,194,827, only about eleven per
+cent. inhabited towns, the land in rural districts being held by 103,192
+proprietors and tenants, the proportion of the two latter being
+respectively seventy and thirty per cent.
+
+     'The Norwegians,' wrote Mr. Laing, 'are the most interesting
+     and singular group of people in Europe. They live under
+     ancient laws and social arrangements totally different in
+     principle from those which regulate society and property in
+     the feudally constituted states. Their country is peculiarly
+     interesting to the political economist. It is the only part
+     of Europe in which property from the earliest ages has been
+     transmitted upon the principle of partition among all the
+     children. The feudal structure of society with its law of
+     primogeniture, and its privileged class of hereditary
+     nobles, never prevailed in Norway. In this remote corner of
+     the civilized world we may therefore see the effects upon
+     the condition of society of the peculiar distribution of
+     property; it will exhibit, on a small scale, what America
+     and France will be a thousand years hence.... Here are the
+     Highland glens without the Highland lairds.... If there be a
+     happy class of people in Europe it is the Norwegian _Bonde_,
+     king of his own land, and landlord as well as king.'
+
+This state of happiness is, according to Mr. Laing, the result of the
+still existing _Odels ret_ or Allodial Right, under which, he asserts,
+the land of Norway was always the property of the people, not of a
+feudal class of high nobility. But although this assertion does not much
+affect the main and practical object of our enquiry, it may be as well
+to point out at once that, whatever might have been the inherent right
+of every Norwegian to a portion of the soil on which he was born, Dr.
+Broch, an eminent native authority, maintains that a considerable
+portion of the land belonged anciently to the kings of Norway, and had
+been acquired, as in other countries, partly by confiscation from
+nobles. Those lands were leased and, gradually, to a certain extent,
+sold. In the days of Roman Catholicism, the Church also held great
+landed estates, which the State appropriated at the Reformation. No
+inconsiderable part of the State domains was then leased, and, in short,
+before the middle of the seventeenth century, leases comprised a little
+more than half of the landed property of the country; while even in
+1814, they constituted one-third of it. Later, the State lands, and
+those which had been distributed among nobles at the Reformation, were
+repartitioned among the bulk of the population or sold.
+
+But to return to the _Odels ret_. It gives, Mr. Laing shows,
+
+     'to all the kindred of the Odelsmand in possession, in the
+     order of consanguinity, a certain interest in it. If the
+     Odelsmand should sell or alienate his land, the next of kin
+     is entitled to redeem it on paying the purchase-money; and
+     should he decline to do so, it is in the power of the one
+     next to him to claim his _Odelsbaarn ret._'
+
+At the present time, the allodial right is acquired only by the
+uninterrupted possession of the same person, his descendants or his
+wife, during a period of at least twenty years, and it is lost if the
+property has been in strange hands for three years. Testamentary
+dispositions, in the case of persons leaving issue, are now limited to
+one quarter of the testator's property; whereas before 1854, a testator
+could not bequeath anything individually. Since the year 1860, also,
+there is perfect equality between the two sexes in the division of real
+and personal property. At the period when Mr. Laing visited Norway, the
+division of land among children had
+
+     'not had the effect of reducing properties to the minimum
+     size that would barely support human existence. One sells to
+     the other and turns his capital and industry to pursuits
+     that would enable him to acquire the necessaries of life.
+     The heirs who sell, very often, instead of a sum of money,
+     which is seldom at the command of the parties, take a
+     life-rent payment or annuity of so much grain, the keep of
+     so many cows, so much firewood, a dwelling-house on the
+     property, or some equivalent of that kind. Few properties
+     have no such burthens.' He argued that 'in a country where
+     land is held, not in tenancy merely, as in Ireland, but in
+     full ownership, its aggregation by the death of co-heirs,
+     and by the marriages of female heirs,[5] will balance its
+     subdivision by the equal succession of children; and also,
+     that in such a condition of society, the whole mass of
+     property would be found in such a State to consist of as
+     many estates of 1000l., as many of 100l., as many of 10l. a
+     year, at one period as at another.'
+
+     'Norway,' our author urges, 'affords a strong confutation of
+     the dreaded excessive subdivision of land. Notwithstanding,
+     the partition system, continued for ages, it contains farms
+     of such extent that the owner possesses forty cows.'
+
+On the whole, the farms appeared to him to be of various sizes: many so
+large that a bell was used to call the labourers to or from their work;
+while some were so small as to have only a few sheaves of corn, or a rig
+or two of potatoes, scattered among the trunks of the trees. These,
+however, were occupied by the farm servants, or cotters, paying for
+their houses and land in work (_Husmoena_). Twenty to forty cows could
+be counted on the large farms. In the district of Verdal
+(Trondhjemsfiord) Mr. Laing saw beautiful little farms of forty to fifty
+acres, each having a pasturage or grass tract in the mountains, where
+the cattle were kept during the summer until the crops were taken in,
+and upon each such out-farm, or _Soeter_, there was a house and
+regular dairy, to which, he informs us, 'the whole of the cattle and
+the dairy-maids, with their sweethearts, are sent to junket and to amuse
+themselves for three or four months of the year.[6] We can well believe
+that, in such circumstances, Mr. Laing found 'this class of _Bönder_ the
+most interesting people in Norway,' and that 'there are none similar to
+them in the feudal countries of Europe.' He appears to have been more
+particularly impressed with
+
+     'the farms large enough to keep a score of cows, six horses
+     and a small flock of sheep and goats, and to maintain a
+     family and servants in all that land usually produces,
+     leaving a surplus for sale sufficient to pay taxes, wages,
+     and to provide the comforts and necessaries of life to a
+     fair extent,' all which could be bought 'for 1000l. or
+     1200l., or even less.'
+
+As regards the agricultural labourer, or cotter, Mr. Laing conceived
+'his average condition to be that of holding land on which he could sow
+three-quarters of an imperial quarter of corn and three imperial
+quarters of potatoes, and which would enable him to keep two cows, or an
+equivalent number of sheep or goats.' His wages are stated to have been
+4-1/2d. to 6d. per diem, in addition to his food. It was consequently
+'amusing to recollect the benevolent speculations in our Agricultural
+Reports, of the Sir Johns and Sir Thomases in our midland counties of
+England, for bettering the condition of labourers in husbandry, by
+giving them, at a reasonable rent, a quarter of an acre of land to keep
+a cow on, or by allowing them to cultivate the slips of land on the
+roadside, outside of their hedges.' He also derides 'the agricultural
+writers' who 'tell us, indeed, that labourers in agriculture are much
+better off as farm servants, than they would be as small proprietors,'
+for 'if property is a good and desirable thing, the very smallest
+quantity of it is good and desirable.' It was obvious to Mr. Laing that
+the forty families of two or three Norwegian highland glens, 'each
+possessing and living on its own little spot of ground and farming well
+or ill, as the case might be, were in a better and happier state, and
+formed a more rationally constituted society, than if the whole belonged
+to one of these families (and it would be no great estate), while the
+other thirty-nine families were tenants and farmers.'
+
+Mr. Laing found the happy agricultural population of Norway 'much
+better lodged than our labouring and middling classes, even in the south
+of Scotland;' and that no nation was at that period either better
+housed, or so well provided with fuel. The standard of living appeared
+to be higher in Norway than in most of our Scotch highland districts,
+although the materials were the same, namely, oatmeal, barley meal,
+potatoes, fish--fresh and salted--cheese, butter, and milk. He
+understood that it was even usual for the yeoman farmers to have animal
+food--'salt beef and black-puddings'--at least twice a week. At all
+events, he says, four meals a day formed the regular fare, and with two
+of those meals even the labourers had a glass of home-made brandy,
+distilled from potatoes by the yeoman, who 'could malt and distil in
+every way he pleased,' and thereby 'make free use of his agricultural
+produce,' with the result of 'increasing the general prosperity,
+improving the condition of the people, and promoting the increase of
+their numbers.'[7]
+
+There was, at the time of Mr. Laing's residence in Norway, 'small
+difference in the way of living between high and low, because every man
+lived from the produce of his farm, and observed the utmost simplicity
+and economy with regard to everything that took money out of his
+pocket.' Furniture and clothes, except the yeoman's Sunday hat, were all
+home-made. 'Here was a whole population, in an old European country,
+dealing direct with Nature, as it were, for every article, without the
+intervention of money, or even of barter.' It was only the small yeomen
+on the verge of the Fjeld, or in the glens, far above the level of the
+land producing corn, and the inhabitants of districts less favoured by
+nature, 'whose common bread consisted of the bark of trees, mixed and
+ground up with ill-ripened oats; but even in their case, trout, dried
+and salted for winter, was no inconsiderable part of their provision,
+their houses being, at the same time, comfortable, though small, with
+wooden floors and glass windows.
+
+Apart from these exceptionally situated proprietors, Mr. Laing found
+there really was 'no difference between the residence of a public
+functionary, of a clergyman, or of a gentleman of larger property and
+that of a _Bonde_, or peasant. The latter are as well, as commodiously
+and even showily, lodged as the former can be, and the properties are as
+good.' Mr. Laing, however, makes a reservation under this head in
+respect of the 'cultivated classes,' as being indisputably superior in
+mental acquirements to the yeoman farmer, and who lived in the same
+manner as the corresponding classes in England.
+
+Towards the end of his stay in Norway, Mr. Laing often heard 'from the
+most intelligent men in the country' that the yeoman farmer lived too
+high; indulged too much in expensive luxuries, as coffee and sugar; in
+frequent and expensive entertainments at each other's houses; in
+carrioles, sledges, and harness of a costly kind; and even in a horse or
+two more than the farm work required; and he certainly thought this had
+resulted in a general want of money among them to pay even the most
+trifling taxes and other sums. A man with land worth three or four
+thousand dollars, and with horses, cows, and all sorts of products in
+abundance, was often at a loss for five or ten dollars. Nevertheless, he
+was of opinion that 'the increase of the tastes and habits which belong
+to property tended to keep population within the bounds of what can be
+comfortably subsisted, and without which the increase of subsistence
+would tend to evil rather than good.' It was, indeed, 'a good thing that
+they all had the ideas, habits, and character of people possessed of
+independent property upon which they were living without any care about
+increasing it, and free from the anxiety and fever of money making or
+money losing.'
+
+Their subsistence, Mr. Laing exultingly and repeatedly points out, was
+derived mainly from husbandry, carried on under less favourable
+conditions of soil, climate, crops, and pasturage than in the Scotch
+highlands;--
+
+     'but on the simple Norwegian system, to live on the produce
+     of the land being the main object, and the labourer (the
+     cotter) being paid chiefly in land, a good crop would be an
+     unmingled blessing; whereas in countries where agriculture
+     is carried on as a manufacture, a succession of good crops
+     may glut the markets, ruin the tenant, and even reduce the
+     money wages of the labourer. In Norway neither good nor bad
+     crops can affect the proportion of population to the land
+     that could in ordinary seasons subsist on it. Paying no
+     rent, the Norwegian yeoman farmer is not usually employed in
+     prospective improvements, but simply in raising food, so
+     that he can see at once whether the land is sufficient to
+     produce subsistence for himself and his labourers. If grain
+     and potatoes for the use of the farm, and a little surplus
+     for sale to pay the land-tax and buy luxuries with, can be
+     raised by the farm, all the purposes of farming in Norway
+     are answered.
+
+On the subject of pauperism, Mr. Laing alleges that 'the dread of
+poverty was less influential in Norway, where extreme destitution is as
+rare as great wealth, and where there is so much less difference in the
+comforts and consideration of the richer and poorer classes.' The
+indigent were farmed out for a week or so at a time among the yeomen
+farmers, 'whose poor-rate like the tithes of the Church, was too
+inconsiderable to mention.' The state of property, and its general
+diffusion throughout the social body, had also, he had no doubt, a
+beneficial effect on the moral condition of the people. 'The desire for
+wealth being considerably blunted, it was not the same actuating,
+engrossing principle of human action, the spring of much that was evil
+and immoral being thus removed.' Only one case of downright
+drunkenness--that of a Laplander--had come under his personal
+observation, and it was only on special occasions that the yeoman farmer
+could be seen a little elated. His theory, however (we may remark in
+passing), respecting the influence of property on the moral condition of
+the people is not supported by other facts which he quotes, namely, that
+owing to the restraints upon marriage, 'exercised as in Paris or London,
+by a high standard of living,' the 'proportion of illegitimate to
+legitimate children in Norway was 1 in 5,' while in a parish he
+specifies, it was (between 1826 and 1830) 'as high as 1 in 3-26/136.' He
+mentions that engagements between couples lasted generally one, two, and
+often several years, especially in the case of servants in husbandry
+waiting for a house and land to settle in as cotters. In such cases, he
+says, 'it too often happened that the privileged kindness between
+betrothed parties was carried too far,' and 'the betrothed became a
+mother before she was a wife.'
+
+We quit this painful phase of peasant proprietorship with the
+observation that, notwithstanding a still wider diffusion of property
+and of moral qualities which, according to Mr. Laing, that diffusion is
+calculated to engender, 8.38[8] per cent. of the live children born in
+Norway between 1866 and 1870 were born out of wedlock, the corresponding
+proportion in 1836 having been 7.07 per cent. It is natural to find,
+under these circumstances, that the marriage rate was 6.84 per 1000 of
+the population in 1866-75 against 7.31 per 1000 between 1834 and 1836,
+with a fractional decrease of the total number of births in the former
+period, the average per family remaining slightly over four.
+
+The ancient Allodial Right and the happy social system based upon it,
+Mr. Laing found jealously guarded by the yeomanry, 'who have not only
+the legislative power and the election of the Storthing' (or Parliament)
+'almost entirely in their own hands, but also the whole civil business
+of the community.' He may, therefore, well say, without fear of
+contradiction, that 'the Norwegian people enjoy a greater share of
+liberty, have the framing and administering of their own laws more
+entirely in their own hands, than any European nation of the present
+time;' and, further, that 'it is not a little extraordinary that almost
+the only result' of the universal delirium of 1790,[9] 'which approaches
+in reality to the theories of that period, has been the Norwegian
+Constitution.'
+
+The paramount influence of the agrarian class over the destinies of the
+kingdom may be judged by the circumstances that the rural districts are
+permanently represented in the Storthing by two-thirds of the total
+number of members, limited by the Constitution to 114; and that
+practically the suffrage is now universal, the principal conditions of
+its possession being, under recent legislation, a qualification of age
+(25 years) and a residence of five years in the country. It is well
+known that the Parliament thus elected (under a system of double
+election), with its _de facto_ single Chamber, subdivided for the more
+rapid and effective discharge of certain business into what Mr. Laing
+chooses to call an 'Upper House' and a 'House of Commons,' has, within
+very recent days, in virtue of the largely predominant rural, radical
+vote, exercised its power of impeaching and punishing, by fine and
+dismissal from office, an entire Cabinet, for the crime of having
+advised the King that his veto was not merely suspensive, but absolute,
+in the matter of any Bill affecting the principles of the Constitution,
+and that the questions in dispute between the Sovereign and the
+Storthing were of a constitutional character, involving indirectly not
+only the stability of a monarchical form of government, but also that of
+the personal union between the crowns of Norway and Sweden--a stability
+pre-eminently essential in both respects to the highest interests of
+Scandinavia, and in no small degree also to the maritime and political
+interests of this country. It is this form of Parliament that Mr. Laing
+extols 'as a working model of a constitutional government on a small
+scale, and one which works so well as highly to deserve the
+consideration of the people of Great Britain.'
+
+We have at last done with Mr. Laing's remarkable statements, views, and
+recommendations; and the principal question we now have to consider is:
+What is the latest phase (after an interval of half a century) of the
+development of the peculiar social organization of Norway, and
+especially of its system of land tenure, differing, as both do, from the
+organization and system evolved out of feudality in Great Britain and
+Ireland? We therefore intend to enquire: (1) Has the system of land
+tenure in Norway prevented, as foretold by Mr. Laing, an excessive
+subdivision of land? (2) Has a dead level of ease and contentment been
+maintained? (3) Has the diffusion of land by a natural process, under
+the widest form of home rule, kept the rural population of Norway within
+the bounds of possible modern existence? (4) Has no pauperism affected
+the taxation of landed property? and (5) generally, Is the Norwegian
+yeoman farmer in a more thriving condition at the present time than the
+tenants and agricultural labourers elsewhere, from whom is still
+withheld the freehold possession of land to which, it is alleged by a
+certain school of politicians, they have a natural right, disputed only
+by monopolists and land-grabbers?
+
+These are the questions we shall endeavour to answer with the aid,
+exclusively, of the latest publications of the Norwegian Government. We
+must, however, preface our replies by sketching roughly the influences
+that have sprung into operation since Mr. Laing published the Journal of
+his residence in Norway.
+
+In his time the towns contained only about eleven per cent. of the total
+population of the kingdom, whereas at the present moment the proportion
+is double that of 1835.[10] This urban agglomeration, Dr. Broch shows,
+has been 'due principally to causes which have operated in the rest of
+Europe. Facilitated means of communication promoted the migration of the
+agricultural population towards the towns, where the development of
+industry and commerce offered the lure of gains or salaries higher than
+those in rural districts.' One of the causes, he justly adds, of the
+displacement of the population has been the immense and laudable
+progress of public instruction, 'and the growing taste for intellectual
+and material enjoyments which gave a great force of attraction to the
+towns.'
+
+As in other advancing countries, the attraction of towns, and the
+facilities for obtaining employment in them, operate also in Norway, to
+the disadvantage of the yeomen farmers of the present day. Among the
+causes of the economic decline of the Province of North Bergen, the
+Prefect mentions that
+
+     'the disinclination of young men of the yeoman farmer class
+     to take permanent service is very general in this district,
+     and is easily explained by the ease with which men in the
+     prime of their strength obtain occupation as labourers in
+     the fisheries. The great bulk of the day labourers do not
+     seek with any great eagerness for work in the fields, so
+     long as they hold previously acquired means sufficient to
+     provide them with the necessaries of life, however scantily.
+     As a rule, so long as want does not look in at the window,
+     they will not engage themselves for such work, except at
+     very good wages. The wages for a yearly labourer have
+     doubled during the last twenty years.[11] At the same time
+     the houseman has lost the command he previously had over his
+     workmen, and consequently does not get the same amount of
+     work out of them as formerly. Fishing attracts labour by a
+     larger immediate return, acquired with less bodily exertion
+     than in husbandry. It gives the population less taste for
+     harder work.'
+
+We leave Mr. Laing in doubt whether the steam-engine could 'ever be
+brought to perfection.' That doubt was speedily removed, and in 1852
+Norway followed in the wake of other European nations by building
+railways, their total length in 1883 having reached very little short of
+a thousand English miles. Nor did their construction, with capital
+raised chiefly abroad and punctually repaid, arrest the improvement or
+the laying down of ordinary roads, to the extent of 4000 miles, between
+1845 and 1875. In addition to this extensive opening-out of
+communication by rail and road, the introduction of steamers on inland
+waters and their employment as coasters and sea-going vessels, the
+construction of telegraphs, and development of fisheries, of ship
+building, of banking and other companies, and generally of trade and
+industry, produced gradually a wide disturbance in the social economy
+found by Mr. Laing. The expansion and prosperity of the towns, as well
+as the more refined habits of life adopted by the clergy and the
+officials of Government, were viewed by the yeomen farmers with a
+jealousy that was undoubtedly the original cause of their present
+radical proclivities, the old conservatism being relegated to towns,
+contrary to the experience of other European countries, and particularly
+to that of Great Britain, until the metaphorical three acres and a cow
+were dangled before the eyes of its rural population.
+
+Under all these influences, and we may include among them the effect of
+a constantly-increasing number of travellers, equipped with the modern
+appliances of civilization, and demanding accommodation and other
+material comforts of a more and more superior character, the Robinson
+Crusoe existence of the yeoman farmer, as depicted by Mr. Laing, has
+suffered so much invasion that it has well-nigh disappeared.
+
+In the matter of clothing, an assimilation to general, central European
+dress has for years past been noticeable even in districts the most
+remote, to the prejudice of home-spinning and weaving. Ancient silver
+ornaments have been largely discarded by the women, and converted, first
+into money, and eventually into articles of modern use or embellishment,
+to an extent that now renders travellers more and more suspicious of the
+Brummagem origin of the objects that remain for sale. And it is the same
+with old furniture and with the multifarious knicknacks which travellers
+less recent delighted to find in the country at reasonable prices.
+
+The value of money has become more generally appreciated since Mr. Laing
+admired the absence of all incentive to 'money-making and money-losing,'
+and the previously unambitious character of the yeoman and his sons has
+undergone a tolerably complete change since education has opened out the
+widest avenues to personal advancement, even from the plough. They no
+longer live by bread alone, and therefore their artificial wants have
+been increasing at a greater ratio than their means of satisfying them
+out of the produce of the land. Without entering here upon the important
+effect of the corn supplies from America, and of the depreciation of the
+value of the Norwegian timber, owing to the increased competition of
+America and other countries, we may sum up this imperfect prefatory
+sketch by stating that, from a general point of view, the Gamle Norge
+(Old Norway) of Mr. Laing's days has for many years been passing through
+a process of transformation, the latest results of which we shall now
+describe.[12]
+
+Mr. Laing's contention, that when land is held in freehold, not as a
+rule in tenancy, the relative size or value of the estates into which
+the land is divided will remain the same at one period as at another, is
+entirely refuted by the official statistics of Norway. In the first
+place, the total number of properties, which was about 111,000 in 1838,
+had grown, in 1870, to 149,000 (34-1/2 per cent.), and is still higher
+at the present day, with a continued tendency to multiplication by
+partition. Secondly, the proportion that existed in 1838 between the
+various sizes of agricultural holdings has undergone a notable change,
+marking a very considerable increase in the relative number of small
+plots.
+
+As it was found practically impossible to estimate the value of landed
+property on the basis of its acreage (the physical conditions of the
+country giving such great variety to the value of estates), the
+'Cadastre' introduced in 1836, established, for purposes of assessment,
+a classification based on 'skylddaler,' or taxable, value. This unit of
+taxation was assumed to represent a mean capital value of about 89l.,
+arrived at by estimating the net income derived at that period from the
+working of land during an average year.
+
+The following statement exhibits the cadastral classification of
+properties,[13] and the changes that have occurred in the several groups
+between 1838 and 1870.
+
+                                              1838.      1870.
+Estates below 0.2 skylddaler in value         8,866      26,048
+   "    between 0.2 and 1      "             31,265      52,067
+   "       "    1    "  2      "             28,652      33,427
+   "       "    2    "  5      "             32,854      29,498
+   "       "    5    " 10      "              7,043       6,012
+   "       "   10    " 20      "              1,791       1,617
+   "     above         20      "                315         344
+                              Total         110,786     149,013
+
+It is thus evident that, even fifteen years ago, the increase in the
+total number of properties, as compared with the number in 1838, had
+affected only the three groups of smaller holdings, and particularly the
+group (below 0.2) which, according to Dr. Broch, 'includes the sites of
+houses and cottages owned by labourers, fishermen, seamen, and artizans,
+but estimated to yield an average of 5-1/2 bushels of corn, 8 bushels of
+potatoes, and grass for half a cow. The holdings more purely
+agricultural, and designated by the same authority as 'small
+properties,' are those comprised in the two next categories, namely,
+parcels of land over 0.2 and under 2 skylddaler in value. In 1870, we
+find that a little more than one-half of the landed properties in Norway
+and one-third of the total cadastral area, were included in those two
+groups. The average yield of those small properties is estimated by Dr.
+Broch at '55 bushels (20 hectol) of cereals, and 82-1/2 bushels (30
+hectol) of potatoes, with fodder for four cows, seven sheep or goats,
+and half a horse.' He states, nevertheless, that--
+
+     'without subsidiary means of existence, the most frugal
+     families cannot subsist on them, even when free from debt
+     and other incumbrances. There can be no question of
+     employing hired labour on such farms, although a domestic
+     servant is sometimes kept. The owners or tenants of such
+     small properties seek their principal means of existence in
+     fishing, forest work, and a variety of other occupations.'
+
+The group of properties more particularly admired by Mr. Laing is that
+which is officially classed under 'Properties of medium size,' ranging
+between two and ten skylddaler in cadastral value. They represented in
+1870 only 24 per cent. of the total number of properties, but 59 per
+cent. of the cadastral area of Norway. These are the farms which can, on
+an average, feed fifteen head of cattle, thirty or forty sheep or goats,
+and a couple of pigs, and yield 30 imperial quarters of cereals, 40
+imperial quarters of potatoes, and fodder for a couple of horses.
+
+     'Agriculture on these properties,' continues Dr. Broch, 'is
+     not only the most important means of existence, but also in
+     many cases the only resource. _They suffice for a family of
+     simple habits, provided the proprietor is not crippled with
+     debt, that he has not to pay too heavy "föderåa"_
+     (annuities, incumbrances) _and on condition that he lives as
+     a peasant, assisting personally in the work of the
+     firm_,[14]
+
+Estates of an assessed value of more than ten 'skylddaler' are
+designated as 'Large Properties.' They cover 13.4 per cent. of the total
+cadastral area, but represent only 1.3 per cent. of the total number of
+properties; and it is exclusively these that afford, according to Dr.
+Broch, 'easy circumstances to their possessors, who are not infrequently
+ship-owners, forest-owners, engaged in the fishery-trade,' &c.
+
+It is thus manifest that, in 1878, when Dr. Broch drew up his Report for
+the Universal Exhibition at Paris, the diffusion of property in Norway
+had left only about 25 per cent. of the yeomen farmers (excluding the
+group of 'Large Properties') capable of maintaining themselves and their
+families on their freeholds on conditions which, as we shall presently
+show, no longer exist, and that the great bulk of the landed proprietors
+were in occupation of such small patches of land that their subsistence
+was entirely dependent upon other employments. This view is very fully
+borne out by the 'Reports of the Norwegian Prefects for the Quinquennial
+Period 1876-80.' Their observations on the growing subdivision of land
+as one of the causes by which the agricultural economy has been
+disturbed, to its great disadvantage, are well worth attention.
+
+An increasing subdivision of land is reported from the provinces of
+North Bergen, Romsdal, South Trondhjem, and Tromsö. The Prefect of North
+Bergen points to it as one of the reasons of the unfavorable condition
+of the province:--
+
+     'It may,' he writes, 'with just cause be said to exist when
+     the properties parcelled out are insufficient for the
+     maintenance of a family, and when the farms are situated in
+     a locality which does not afford the opportunity of some
+     kind of subsidiary employment, or if the proprietor of such
+     a small holding cannot attach himself to another man as a
+     labourer for hire. When utilised, however, by the
+     inhabitants of the coast, such subdivision cannot be
+     regarded as excessive, for the owners of the small patches
+     are able to obtain for themselves and their families the
+     necessaries of life by fishing. When, however, a landowner,
+     on account of the insignificant extent or the small
+     productiveness of his farm, finds himself unable to subsist
+     without seeking the wages of a labourer, his position is not
+     better, or but little better, than that of the cotter
+     (Husmand) alongside of him, notwithstanding that the latter
+     is not owner of the land he cultivates. It is a matter of
+     course that such farmers will be destitute of economical
+     power, and unable to give the communal or the provincial
+     exchequer any visible contribution towards the funds that
+     have to be raised in order to meet the public expenditure.
+     The existence of such small proprietors is not, on the
+     whole, desirable.'
+
+In the province of South Trondhjem the great increase of the
+indebtedness of the landowners is ascribed in part to the subdivision of
+property by the creation of _Myrmoend_, literally 'bogmen'
+(bog-trotters?), or men supplied gratuitously, in recent times, with
+small plots of waste land, for the purpose of qualifying them as voters.
+Subdivision has likewise resulted from the partition of holdings in
+common, which, according to Dr. Broch, formed, in 1870, 13.4 per cent.
+of all the properties in Norway; principally in the Western Provinces,
+from the Naze to the Fiord of Trondhjem, where they constituted at that
+period, on the average as much as 30 per cent. of the landed property.
+Under a law passed in 1857, those lands are now divisible or
+exchangeable, and it appears from the report of the Prefects that the
+demands in that direction cannot be satisfied by the Government
+officials with sufficient promptness. In the province of South
+Trondhjem, for instance, about 40 per cent. of the properties were still
+held in common in 1875, but between 1876 and 1880 the partition of such
+lands was advancing 'at the rate of about twenty farms per annum.'
+
+The Prefect of Romsdal enumerates the causes of an increasing
+subdivision of landed property as follows: 1. The clearing of land for
+fields and meadows with the view of affording support to more families
+than one. 2. The desire of a proprietor to let more of his children than
+the nearest _Odelsberretige_[15] come into the possession of his estate.
+3. In the case of an indebted proprietor, the necessity of parting with
+a portion of his land in order to get clear of his creditors; and 4. The
+desire on the part of persons who have no real property to come into the
+possession of land, especially tenants and cotters. The yeomen farmers
+themselves, he reports:
+
+     'bring forward as a substantial reason for the increasing
+     subdivision of land the fact that, owing to the growing
+     difficulty of obtaining labourers, _it does not pay to
+     remain in possession of a larger estate than can be worked
+     by the family itself_.'
+
+Consequently, the number of holdings was increased in that province by
+nearly 10 per cent. between 1876 and 1880. A corroboration of this view
+is to be found in other Reports, particularly in the Report from the
+Province of North Trondhjem, in which the yeomen farmers are declared to
+be compelled to 'cultivate the land with the resources of their own
+households.' The effect of the conversion of cotters into small
+proprietors may be estimated from the following opinion of another
+Prefect: 'The burden of bad times is often felt more heavily by the
+proprietor than by the cotter;' and all the Reports show that 'the
+times' are as bad in Norway as they are in the United Kingdom, with this
+aggravation, that 70 to 80 per cent. of the population of Norway is
+settled on the land, and steeped in debt.
+
+Most of the Prefects report unfavourably on the condition and prospects
+of agriculture, and on the depressing influence of American competition
+in corn, which began to make itself distinctly felt about the year
+1875,[16] when also the forest industry, so intimately connected with
+agriculture, first encountered the effects of a greatly increased
+shipment of timber from America and other countries to Europe. But these
+are not the only reasons, over and above the subdivision of property
+already dwelt upon, to which they ascribe a very general decline in the
+economic condition of the yeomen farmer. In one province, 'habits of
+thrift and providence had been awakened and replaced by new habits of
+life, with greater demands for comforts and enjoyments.' High prices
+previously realized for timber had caused luxury to enter into all the
+circumstances of life, stimulating in many quarters a reckless waste of
+money earned.' In another, 'the demand for comforts of life has risen,
+and it is not all that have found it easy to limit the satisfaction of
+their wants,' and 'more has been consumed than means allowed.' The
+female part, more particularly, of the population of North Bergen, is
+reproached with an inability to withstand the temptation of buying the
+wares of all kinds, 'neither useful nor necessary,' which the present
+great number of country storekeepers insidiously placed before their
+eyes. 'The improved mode of living introduced during a previous,
+flourishing period, has also contributed to ruin the economic condition
+of the people, who in the harder times that have succeeded have not
+known how to cut their coats according to their cloth.' At the same
+time, the Prefect adds, 'the mode of living, taking the rural population
+as a whole, is very frugal; yes, far too frugal. It is very desirable
+that they should have more substantial food than they have at present,
+but they must first have the means to obtain it.' Even so far north as
+the Provinces of Nordland and Tromsö, a similar tendency to live beyond
+means, the absence of good economy, and the dissipation of money 'on no
+particular system,' are reported to be the present characteristics of
+the people who are largely engaged in the fisheries.
+
+No one who has travelled in Norway can fail to endorse the assertion,
+that the fare of the yeomen farmer, however many may be his cows, is of
+a character which no English agricultural labourer would be satisfied
+with. Oatmeal cakes, potatoes, porridge, butter and milk, and of late
+years American pork (when within reach of the yeoman's means) are the
+principal articles of food; and the hardiest traveller, whether native
+or alien, would not venture to leave the main arteries of communication
+without making his own provision of potted meats, or trusting for his
+sustenance to the fish and game to be killed by himself. Mr. Laing's
+'salted meat and black-puddings' are certainly not to be found, except
+at farms that are few and far between. On the high roads, where
+tourists' gold circulates, the traveller suffers no deprivation, and the
+houses and stations are so comfortable and well-appointed, that only the
+most exacting foreigner can find fault with the accommodation provided.
+Mr. Laing's observations in this respect apply at present only to
+establishments of this kind, and to the very few farms at which the
+servants are still 'called to and from their work by means of a bell.'
+
+Except, therefore, along the course of the tourists' gold stream, and in
+the vicinity of towns, the mode of living is rude in the extreme, and
+the lament of the Prefect of North Bergen is in reality applicable to
+the great bulk of the yeomen farmers of Norway, as well as to their
+tenants and cotters. Nor is there any trace of that equality in the mode
+of living which Mr. Laing found in existence among the several classes
+of the rural population--'the public functionary, the clergyman, the
+gentleman of larger property, and the _Bonde_ or peasant.' Refinement
+and culture, equal to what exists amongst corresponding classes of this
+country, are wanting only to the yeomen farmers; and their efforts to
+adopt a 'higher standard of living,' and to acquire the 'comforts of
+life,' have in no small degree conduced to the encumbrance of their
+estates. From the Reports of the Prefects it is evident that the gravest
+symptom of the decline of the rural economy in Norway, and, at the same
+time, one of its principle causes, is the heavy indebtedness of the
+yeomen farmers, great and small. Its origin is traceable to the year
+1816, when the Bank of Norway was founded, chiefly for the purpose of
+'advancing on its own notes, upon first securities over land, any sum
+not exceeding two-thirds of the value of the property' mortgaged to it.
+Mr. Laing alludes to it as 'the peculiar, and for the wants of the
+country, well-imagined, Bank of Norway,' which 'facilitates greatly the
+family arrangements with regard to land.' Its capital was originally
+raised by a forced loan or tax upon all landed property, and the
+landholders became shareholders according to the amount of their
+respective shares. The borrower repaid half-yearly to the Bank the
+interest of the sum that might be to his debit at the rate of 4 per
+cent. per annum, and was also bound to pay off 5 per cent. yearly of the
+principal, which was thus liquidated in twenty years. Although Mr. Laing
+was of opinion that 'a circulation of paper money on such a basis is
+evidently next, in point of security, to that of the precious metals,'
+he fails to mention that the Bank was forced to suspend specie payments
+three years after its establishment, and that the resumption of those
+payments was not commenced until 1823, when the notes of the Bank began
+to be convertible at little over half their original value; the
+operation of raising them to par, on a graduated scale, having been
+completed only in 1842, a period since which the Bank, with an increased
+Reserve Fund, has maintained an uninterrupted and unimpeachable
+stability. But while the Bank still advances money on the security of
+landed property, two-thirds of its resources are now employed in the
+discount of mercantile bills. At the end of 1883, its loans to the
+landed proprietors amounted only to 626,000l.
+
+In 1852, however, the State had come again to the assistance of the
+landowners for the extinction of private mortgages and the consolidation
+of old debts by the creation of a special 'State Mortgage Bank,' with an
+original capital of 291,000l., increased by successive issues of bonds
+representing advances on the security of real property, bearing interest
+at the rate of 4 per cent, (at present 4-1/2 per cent.), and repayable
+by drawings over a period of thirty years. The amount of the bonds
+issued up to 1884 was about 3,812,000l., and in 1878 about
+three-quarters of the bonds were held in the country itself, their
+market value being still almost at par.
+
+It is principally into this Bank that the yeomen farmers have been
+dipping their estates at a rapidly increasing rate. Thus, while the
+loans on the security of real property in rural districts averaged
+57,500l. per annum between 1853 and 1855, and 220,600l. between 1876 and
+1880, the advances made in 1883 amounted to 396,500l. At the end of that
+year the balance of outstanding loans had reached the sum of
+3,752,000l., of which about 77 per cent., or 2,889,000l., represented
+advances in rural districts, the remaining 23 per cent, having been
+borrowed in towns. The interest payable on those loans is respectively
+4-1/4 and 4-3/4 per cent., according to whether the borrowers have been
+supplied with bonds bearing interest at the rate of 4 or 4-1/2 per cent.
+per annum; and 3 per cent. of the capital is repayable per annum until
+the extinction of the debt over a period of thirty years.
+
+There is a third public source available to the landed proprietors for
+loans on mortgages and on bonds or bills, namely the Savings Banks. In
+1884, the savings-banks, in rural districts alone, held in 'mortgage
+bonds' and in 'bonds and bills' a sum of about 3,553,000l.; but in what
+proportion that debt was incurred by local traders and by farmers, it is
+impossible to say. It is, however, clear that the yeomen farmers have
+benefited largely by the deposits made in those banks by the
+comparatively few who have been able to accumulate, instead of
+borrowing, money. Thus, the Prefect of Hedemarken reports that, 'while
+large amounts, realized by the sale of timber, were deposited in the
+savings-banks, extensive loans were made by those establishments to
+persons in less favourable circumstances,' and that 'the savings-banks,
+to be found in so many parishes, have, by the easy access they afford to
+loans, beguiled many into a needless borrowing of money, subsequently
+squandered.'
+
+Over and above these facilities for borrowing money from public
+institutions, the yeomen farmers are undoubtedly heavily in debt to
+local storekeepers, and to merchants and traders in the towns. In fact
+the great bulk of the landed proprietors have been borrowing in every
+direction as much as they could raise by mortgage or by bill. Owing to
+the excellent system of registration that exists in Norway, there is no
+difficulty in ascertaining the extent to which the charges on real
+property in rural districts have increased between the years 1876 and
+1880. It appears from the Reports of the Prefects that, between those
+dates, the balance of mortgages newly effected over those extinguished
+in rural districts amounted to a sum of about four millions sterling.
+The State Mortgage Bank is bound not to advance more than six-tenths of
+the value of land and buildings (forests excepted), and it is supposed
+that the loans have so far not exceeded four-tenths of the value of
+mortgaged property; but as the yeomen farmers generally contrive to
+borrow on second mortgages, it may safely be assumed, that their estates
+are charged with interest at 4-1/4 to 6 per cent. on a considerable part
+of the nominal value of what is not purely forest land, in addition to
+an annual repayment of 3 per cent. of the capital borrowed from the
+State Mortgage Bank. The forests, on the other hand, have been largely
+used up in paying the interest and capital on those loans, either by
+cutting them down, or by leasing or pawning them to traders, or to
+yeomen who have been able to keep their heads above water and to profit
+by the economic distress of the great majority of their
+fellow-landowners. The difficulty experienced by that majority in
+meeting the payment of interest and capital, especially at a time when
+the value of agricultural produce has been considerably diminished by
+American competition, and when also the competition of American and
+Baltic timber has simultaneously reduced the profits of the forest
+industry to a point that hardly repays the felling of trees, is clearly
+shown from the statistics of forced sales, of auctions and of distraints
+in the rural districts, and from an accompanying increase in the number
+of lawsuits before Courts of First Instance. It appears from the
+Reports of the Prefects that the sales of real property for debt have
+increased in every Province between the two periods 1871-1875 and
+1876-1880 to an extent that ranges from 30 per cent. to 600 per cent.,
+the greatest increase having taken place in the Provinces of
+Kristiansamt (600 per cent.), Norland, Nedenæs, Buskerud, Hedemarken and
+Akershus, where it ranged between 600 per cent. and 146 per cent. From
+another official source we obtain the following statement:--
+
+1876-1880.
+
+                               Number.    Amount.
+1. Compulsory sales
+    of real property
+    in rural districts.        2513     563,000l. averaging 224l. per sale.
+2. Do. of personal
+    property.                  5136     134,000l. ditto 26l. per sale.
+3. Distraints for arrears
+    of taxes, &c.              --      1,089,000l.
+
+But since real property is of comparatively low value in Norway, and
+personal property limited mostly to the veriest necessities of life, it
+is not so much the total of the amounts realized by forced sales, or the
+sums for which 'executions' and 'distraints' were effected, that give
+the measure of the depressed condition of the yeomen farmers, as the
+great and steady increase that took place between 1876 and 1880 in the
+number of those operations. Thus, while the number of forced sales of
+real property in towns, as well as in rural districts, was 424 in 1876,
+it had grown to 1378 in 1880. It is therefore not surprising to find in
+the Reports of the Prefects from which we have so largely drawn our
+figures that 'the means of meeting liabilities and of paying taxes at
+the proper time have grown more feeble, and recourse to legal
+enforcement of pecuniary claims has consequently become more frequent.'
+'The condition of this Province' (Kristiansamt) 'is all the worse from a
+pretty widespread misuse of credit during the previous period'
+(1871-75). In another province (N. Bergen) we find that the depression
+in 1879 and 1880 'compelled those who had claims to enforce them
+rigorously. Mortgages, distraints, sales, &c., have therefore increased,
+and there has been an exceptionally, large number of suits before the
+Courts of Mutual Agreement. 'The value of agricultural produce has
+fallen, owing to a great extent to a scarcity of money and to great
+competition from a desire to convert as much produce as possible into
+money.' In the northern province of Tromsö 'merchants have suffered from
+the impoverishment of their customers' (mostly fishermen as well as
+landowners), 'and have caused them to be made bankrupts. Credit has
+been misused on a large scale. Its facility induces the population to
+live beyond its means. It also encourages traders to set up in business
+and get customers with ease, without having capital or means of their
+own. The one misuse reacts on the other. All products are sunk
+considerably in value, and this fall is even greater in the case of real
+estate.'
+
+The latter statement is not generally applicable to the remaining
+provinces, for we find that while the average value of the 'skylddaler,'
+or unit of assessment, was 153l.,[17] according to prices paid for land
+in 1871-1875, it has risen to about 180l. in 1876-1880, thus confuting
+Mr. Laing's theory, that the peculiar succession of property would tend
+to keep land at a low value. It would not, however, be right to conclude
+from these figures that landed property has, on the whole, increased of
+late years in value, despite the general indebtedness of its owners.
+Land in the vicinity of towns and railways must naturally become more
+and more valuable, and the relatively much higher prices paid for such
+land have no doubt had the effect of raising the total average deduced
+from sales of every description of landed property. It may also be
+assumed that the demand for land is artificially increased by the
+facility with which it may be purchased, since at least one-half of the
+purchase money generally remains on mortgage, in addition to other
+encumbrances. At the same time, the financial institutions, to which so
+large a proportion of the real property in Norway is mortgaged, are
+interested in maintaining its value, and attain their object by
+abstaining from offering at any one period too many defaulting
+properties for sale; and it may also be suspected that the statistics of
+forced sales represent only cases in which no compromise could be
+effected, or in which it was expedient or possible to have recourse to
+the ultimate means of recovery without sensibly deteriorating locally
+the value of landed property. Cases are, in fact, not infrequent in
+which the mortgagees find themselves compelled to retain the property of
+the defaulter, and either to place it in the hands of caretakers, with
+the hope of future realization on more favourable terms, or to sell it
+in small lots as opportunity occurs. In any case, the full and exact
+effect of the pawning of all the landed property of the country at a
+time when its agriculture has to compete with American cereals, its
+timber industry with supplies from America and the Baltic, and its
+wooden ships with iron steamers transporting cargoes at an almost
+nominal freight, is not yet to be found in statistical records.
+
+The indisputable fact remains that, notwithstanding the existence of a
+system of land tenure which, according to Mr. Laing, was so perfect
+between 1834 and 1836 as to render its adoption in this country, and
+especially in Ireland, highly desirable, the yeomen farmers of
+Norway--framers of their own laws and absolute masters of their own
+destinies--are not only at present suffering from the commercial and
+agricultural depression that obtains in other countries of Europe, in
+which the social state is more or less differently constituted, but also
+find themselves, in face of that depression, with exceptionally heavy
+burdens on their backs in the form of pecuniary indebtedness at a rate
+of interest which mere agriculture, under the most favourable
+circumstances, cannot possibly afford to pay.
+
+This heavy indebtedness has not, as a rule, been incurred for productive
+purposes, such as drainage, improved methods of agriculture, the
+increase of stock, &c.; and although the use of simple agricultural
+machinery is somewhat on the increase in Norway, yet agriculture remains
+very much in the same primitive condition in which it was found by Mr.
+Laing.[18] The Prefects attribute this backwardness to want of skill on
+the part of the proprietors (Romsdal), to the poverty of the soil, to
+the dearness of agricultural labour, and generally to the unremunerative
+results of husbandry since the depreciation of the value of its
+products. In a letter addressed last year to the 'Morgenblad,' the
+leading Journal at Christiania, by a native authority on the subject of
+agriculture, it is urged that the landed proprietors of Norway have 'for
+some years past been going down hill;' the hopes of improving the
+condition of agriculture, entertained about thirty years ago, when
+efforts were first commenced in that direction, being now entirely
+dissipated.
+
+     'It is painful,' he says 'to see how the forests are
+     decreasing and how land once under cultivation is lying
+     unused. When asked the reason, the proprietors reply that
+     the prices of corn and other agricultural products are so
+     low and the wages of labour so high, owing to emigration,
+     that they have not the means to cultivate a large portion of
+     the land, and could derive no advantage from it even if the
+     means were available.'
+
+The yeomen farmers, being therefore in a distressed condition, and
+their children and best hands forced to leave their homes in order to
+cultivate the fruitful soil of America, to the growing detriment of
+those who remain to till the soil of Norway--those farmers, he points
+out with great force of argument, must have the same protection which is
+accorded to the industrial classes, if agriculture is to be saved from
+final ruin. In fact, this remarkable letter points to an agitation in
+favour of the imposition of a 'fiscal duty,'[19] on corn, food of all
+kind, cattle, dairy produce, &c.; and supports this conclusion with the
+argument used by Prince Bismarck on the second reading of his recent
+Corn Duties Bill:
+
+     'The trade of the Baltic will suffer nothing from protective
+     duties. As regards agriculture, I am opposed to all
+     legislation against the subdivision of land ... but if you
+     want to have small occupiers of land, you must vote for
+     duties on corn.'
+
+Account must at the same time be taken of the heavy and increasing
+charges that fall on landed property for the administration of rural
+districts in Norway. While the inhabitants of the rural communities
+contribute towards the support of the Central Administration only in the
+form of Customs and Excise duties, stamps, succession duties, and
+contributions towards the construction of highways, the burthen of local
+administration, justice, police, prisons, the Church, public
+instruction, poor relief, sanitary service, parochial roads, posting
+stations, interest on communal loans, &c., falls on their landed
+property. This self-assessed and self-imposed burthen has naturally been
+growing more heavy, from year to year, under the exigencies of modern
+progress. Thus, while the total communal expenditure in 1853 was
+167,000l., it had risen to 497,000l. in 1880, or 197-1/2 per cent. About
+one half of the requisite resources is derived from a tax on the
+cadastral value of real property; the remaining half is raised by a tax
+on capital and income. In 1880 the communal impositions on land
+represented a taxation of about 6s. 7d. per head of the rural
+population. That the whole of the communal expenditure is not covered by
+taxation is apparent from the fact, that in the same year the rural
+districts had increased the amount of their total debts to about half a
+million sterling, from 312,000l. in 1874.
+
+In this respect it is certainly significant to discover that Poor
+Relief, organized by a law passed in 1863, is the largest item of
+communal expenditure, being indeed very little less than half of the
+total annual liabilities of the rural districts, in a country in which,
+in the halcyon days of Mr. Laing, only the infirm were supported for a
+few days at a time by the yeomen farmers. He appears to have attributed
+this to the absence of collieries, the introduction of coal as fuel
+having, he argues, been coëval in England with the imposition of a rate
+for the poor, deprived by that industry of the work of chopping up
+firewood which gave so much employment to idle hands in Norway. However
+that might be, in 1880 and 1881 the number of persons in receipt of
+relief or maintained in hospital, at the charge of rural communities
+alone, was respectively 109,688 and about 114,000, or in both years a
+little over 7 per cent. of the total rural population. Inclusive of
+urban districts the same totals amounted in those years to 81 and 83 per
+1000, or above 8 per cent. of the population of the kingdom, the cost of
+support having been about 3s. 10d. per head of the entire population,
+which contributed 2s. 9d. per head in special taxation for that object,
+and the balance in an indirect manner, apparently by housing paupers,
+&c.
+
+These paupers include cotters and labourers, as well as the ruined among
+the smaller yeomen. Farmers who had previously been able to employ
+labour, 'no longer find their advantage in it,' and consequently--
+
+     'even able-bodied workmen (in Hedemarken) were compelled to
+     seek relief from the Poor Fund when their families were
+     large. The smaller farmers and the labourers are in the
+     worst plight, since the falling off in the timber trade has
+     made them feel the want of the usual steady demand for
+     labour at high wages.' Further: 'it has become very
+     difficult for the least affluent and for labourers to gain a
+     livelihood in the prevailing money and timber crisis.... The
+     depression must for a long time be felt by many.
+
+We need only point out that, in the United Kingdom, the percentage of
+persons in receipt of relief during the year 1881 was 3 per cent. in
+England and Wales, 2.6 per cent. in Scotland, and 11 per cent. in
+Ireland,[20] involving an expenditure at the rate respectively of 6s.
+3d., 4s. 6d., and 3s. 9d. per head of population.
+
+Obviously, the relatively greater cost of relieving the poor in Great
+Britain is due to the more expensive character of the support afforded,
+and to the very heavy sums paid for salaries and other establishment
+charges; but it is unquestionably a damaging fact against the system of
+land tenure in Norway, that the pauperism by which it is in the present
+day accompanied, with a strong tendency to increase, is equalled only by
+the state of things in Ireland, which certain legislators now desire to
+remedy by the creation of peasant proprietors.
+
+The relative state of matters in Great Britain and in Norway has
+therefore greatly changed since Mr. Laing wrote:
+
+     'The distribution of the wealth and employment of a country
+     has much more to do, than the amount, with the well-being
+     and condition of the people. The wealth and employment of
+     the British nation far exceed those of any other nation; yet
+     in no country is so large a proportion of the inhabitants
+     sunk in pauperism and wretchedness.'
+
+An increasing rate of pauperism is one of the symptoms of agricultural
+distress in Norway, but the strong tide of emigration from rural and
+urban districts marks with equal force the depression and congestion
+from which the country is suffering in the same degree as the United
+Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Aided by improved and cheapened
+means of transport, the number of emigrants from Norway ranged between
+20,212 in 1880 and 22,167 in 1883, giving an average of 1.3 to 1.5 per
+cent. of the total population, the contingent of the rural districts
+being about 70 per cent. of the total number. As in the case of
+pauperism, the corresponding rate of emigration from Ireland, namely 1.5
+per cent., exhibits a remarkable similarity, and affords another
+convincing proof that peasant proprietorship is no _panacea_ for rustic
+indigence.
+
+Those who have not studied the present economic condition of the yeoman
+farmer and agricultural labourer in Norway, or who have not taken into
+consideration the change that has come over the entire country, and the
+ambition, as distinguished from previous apathy, which education and
+communication with an outer world, no longer closed to them, has
+awakened among the classes with which we are dealing, are inclined to
+attribute a good part of this emigrating tendency to the influence and
+the material assistance of those who have gone before. Indisputably, the
+Norwegian emigrant, by his persevering labour and steady conduct, rarely
+fails to succeed in Wisconsin and other States, in which he is always a
+welcome settler; and consequently he soon finds himself able to transmit
+money for the purpose of enabling his brothers and sisters, and not
+seldom his father and mother, to join him. No State or other aid is
+afforded for such purposes to Norwegians, although it is occasionally
+the case, that the hard cash with which the emigrant leaves his home is
+derived from the proceeds of a loan raised by the head of his family for
+the purpose of buying out co-heirs under the _Odels ret_, adding
+thereby, as we have already shown, to the indebtedness with which the
+land is burdened. Others, also, maintain that many young men emigrate
+from Norway in order to avoid military conscription, which, although
+milder there in its demands than in most other European countries where
+that system exists, undoubtedly diminishes the quantity and deteriorates
+the quality of agricultural labour. The strongest incentive to
+emigration, however, is the desire to escape from the misery and penury
+which accompany in Norway, as in every other part of Europe, the
+condition of a small landowner, cotter, or labourer who is unable to
+find regular employment on adjoining estates that can be kept going, if
+nothing more, with the aid of scientific knowledge, machinery and
+capital.
+
+There is, however, yet another proof of the prevalent material _malaise_
+in Norway, particularly among its rural classes, and strangely enough it
+bears the same character as that which has brought the 'three acres and
+a cow' and Irish land bills, past and expected, into such prominent
+relief in our country of lack-lands, namely political agitation.
+Whatever may be its merits or demerits on this side of the North Sea,
+our readers will scarcely be prepared to learn that a corresponding
+ferment has been engendered of late years on the opposite shores. We are
+told this by the Prefect of South Trondhjem, one of the most important
+provinces of a country where, in the days of Mr. Laing, there was a
+dead-level of contentment, where the widest form of home-rule has been
+in operation since the early part of the present century, and where the
+Crown Administration has all that time been more pure, blameless and
+efficient than in any other country on the Continent of Europe. His
+significant words are:
+
+     'As everywhere else in Norway, particularly in rural
+     districts, politicians (_i. e. agitators_) are here taking
+     more and more hold over the minds of the people. Political
+     unrest increases, and immature and extreme opinions are
+     being advanced more than is desirable. The quiet, temperate,
+     but progressive development to which Norway had previously
+     been accustomed, and with which the great bulk of the nation
+     had been well content, is in danger of being replaced by a
+     progress in fits and starts, accompanied by leaps in the
+     dark.'
+
+No less painful and suggestive is it to find, in the Report from the
+Prefect of Hedemarken, that 'the Christian earnestness of the people has
+suffered under the influence of the many misleading writings and
+tendencies which have in recent times found their way into every stratum
+of society.' As at home, so in Norway, the question of Church
+Disestablishment, with all its consequences, is approaching within
+measurable distance of practical solution.[21]
+
+Supported by official publications, we have now described the present
+condition of the yeomen farmers of Norway, and from the facts and
+figures we have marshalled, the following replies may confidently be
+given to the Socialistic theories and conclusions of Mr. Laing:
+
+1. Notwithstanding, or rather in part owing to, the existence of the
+Allodial Right [which has proved in its results to be an exaggerated
+form of primogeniture involving a greater multiplication of encumbrances
+even than exists under the system of land tenure in the United Kingdom],
+an excessive subdivision of the land has occurred and is still
+proceeding in Norway, to the prejudice of estates which in 1836, and
+even later, afforded moderate ease and contentment to their owners, and
+relatively well remunerated labour to the workman and the cotter.
+
+2. The dead-level of comfortable subsistence, attributed by Mr. Laing to
+the parcelling-out of land into small estates, has been converted, by
+the influence of irresistible economic laws, into one of general
+distress and discontent among the rural classes.
+
+3. The rates of pauperism and emigration prove that the agrarian
+population has not, as prophesied by Mr. Laing, kept 'within the bounds
+of possible modern existence.'
+
+4. The taxation of landed property, for local purposes, has greatly
+increased, particularly under the head of Poor Relief; and
+
+5. The distressed condition of the yeoman farmer in Norway is strongly
+attested by his heavy and growing indebtedness. He may now, in fact, be
+classed with the proverbially derided Fife laird, owning 'A wee bit of
+land, a great lump of debt, and a dookit.'[22]
+
+Such being the result of our enquiries into the economic condition of
+the great bulk of the yeoman farmers of Norway, the ideal fabric reared
+by Mr. Laing at a time when the Norse old world was still asleep, falls
+utterly to the ground, and there remains but one of his statements that
+we can with any advantage submit to the earnest attention of our
+readers, namely, that '_A single fact brought home from such a country
+is worth a volume of speculations._' We go further and say, that facts
+in relation to the question of land tenure collected in any other part
+of Europe are of equally inestimable value; and they have already been
+supplied in great abundance from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and
+Switzerland.[23] Nothing can truly be more fatal to the successful
+solution of such intricate problems than the relief of the agricultural
+distress of England and Scotland, or the satisfaction of the alleged
+earth-hunger of the Celtic population of Ireland, than to initiate
+legislation on the hypothesis that circumstances alter cases, and that
+our own country can with impunity be withdrawn from the operation of
+economic laws that have asserted their supremacy throughout the entire
+Continent of Europe.
+
+As history repeats itself, so are the laws of civilized development both
+general and inexorable. Even in the extreme case of Russia, it has been
+proved, in an article we published a few years ago,[24] that a heavy and
+ruinous price has been paid for the emancipation of the serfs on a
+Socialistic and partly Communistic basis, and on the erroneous
+assumption, that the continued existence of the 'Mir' (the ancient
+village community even of India) was an institution indigenous to the
+country itself, and therefore worthy of being perpetuated by
+legislation. Millions of a rural population, freed from personal
+servitude, were chained anew to the land by the indebtedness incurred in
+the expropriation of the lords of the soil. The allotments, averaging
+ten acres, parcelled out among them in 1861, were estimated to be
+sufficiently large and productive to provide not only for their support,
+but also, firstly, for the payment of the 'redemption dues' with which
+the allotted lands were charged for a limited period of years at an
+average rate of only 1s. 9d. per acre, and secondly, for the punctual
+payment of the moderate poll-tax, which the exigencies of the State
+required them to contribute. Those expectations began to vanish soon
+after they had been formed, and at the present time we see the
+previously rich agricultural plains of Russia, abandoned, as they almost
+wholly are, to the slovenly husbandry of a rude and greatly demoralized
+peasantry, deteriorating from year to year in the quality of their
+produce, and thereby opposing less and less impediment to the successful
+competition of other corn-growing countries.[25] The great fall that has
+taken place in the value of Russian cereals is apparent from the fact
+that, notwithstanding the depreciation of the paper currency of the
+country to the extent of about 25 per cent. since the serfs were
+emancipated (and nearly 37 per cent. from the par value of the standard
+rouble), the corn-grower in Russia actually receives for his produce, in
+paper money, some 40 per cent, less than he obtained for it when the
+currency was less debased.
+
+Despair, and the absence of that restraint which education, and the
+moral elevation inseparable from it, are establishing in other European
+countries, have driven the rural inhabitants of entire districts, and
+even provinces, into habits of drunkenness stronger and more general
+than those which existed before the autocratic creation of 'peasant
+proprietors' in Russia.
+
+Among the earliest measures adopted in Russia during the present reign
+was that of a reduction and partial remission of the 'redemption dues,'
+which, on the 1st of January, 1885, represented the interest and sinking
+fund on nearly 113 millions sterling,[26] expended by the Government in
+the partial expropriation of the now ruined landlords of the
+country.[27]
+
+During the year 1884, alone, those reductions and remissions inflicted a
+loss of 1,135,000l.[28] on the Imperial Treasury. The most recent
+measure of alleviation has been the total abolition of the poll-tax[29]
+(to be completed by the end of the present year); and, consequently, the
+State-contribution of at least 85 per cent. of the population of Russia
+is being limited to the excise duty on drink, an item of revenue with
+which the Imperial Government cannot possibly dispense, since it brings
+in a sum more than adequate for the maintenance of the imposing military
+forces of the Empire.
+
+Simultaneously, 'Peasant Land Banks' have been established by the State
+in order to facilitate the purchase of still more land by the ex-serfs.
+The Minister of Finance was authorized in 1882 to issue annually for
+that purpose a sum of 500,000l. in bonds, bearing 5-1/2 per cent.
+interest. But, by the 1st of January, 1886, these banks had already
+advanced over three millions sterling to 785 Communes, 1576
+'partnerships,' and 359 individual peasants, representing an aggregate
+number of 112,765 householders. On loans for 24-1/2 years the interest
+and sinking fund, payable by the borrowers, amount to 8-1/2 per cent.,
+and on those for 34-1/2 years, to 7-1/2 per cent., the lands purchased
+by such means remaining inalienable until the extinction of the
+mortgages, except with the consent of the mortgagees, _i. e._ the banks.
+The effects of this new departure in the direction of providing small
+landed proprietors with State funds, will no doubt soon be apparent.
+
+Whether, therefore, we examine the experience of a civilized, orderly,
+home-ruled country like Norway, with a steady, laborious, and, we may
+almost say, abstemious, population in many respects akin to our own, or
+that of a State still at an immensely distant stage of social
+development,--and under a very different form of Government,--the
+salient results of bolstering up, by means of State loans, or of
+artificially creating, equally at the cost of the State, a numerous body
+of small landed proprietors, have been strikingly identical in regard to
+the ultimate economic condition of the agrarian classes.
+
+Insisting, as we do, on the strength of the facts we have adduced, that,
+in old Europe, the operation of economic laws affecting land tenure,
+admits of no exceptions or extenuating circumstances in favour of their
+violation, it appears impossible, without presumptuous sophistry or
+political dishonesty, to resist the conclusion, that the infringement of
+those laws in any part of the United Kingdom could only terminate,
+infallibly and speedily, in damage to the State, after ruin to the
+individual.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] The physical results of intermarriage with the object of
+concentrating property, are very apparent in many of the older _Bonde_
+families in Norway.
+
+[6] It would not be right to allow this observation to pass without
+mentioning, even at the cost of destroying so fascinating a picture of
+pastoral felicity, that the hard-working dairy-maids of Norway are never
+accompanied by their sweethearts to the soeters, where, except from
+Saturday night until Monday morning, when the young men find time to
+visit them, they lead the most solitary lives, and are busy all day in
+milking cows and goats and making butter and cheese.
+
+[7] In 1833 the total production of spirits in the rural districts
+amounted to about 3-1/2 gallons per head of the population. The
+demoralization that resulted from its increase necessitated the
+enactment of restrictive measures, and at last, in 1848, the small
+stills were purchased by the State, and private distillation was
+prohibited. As in Great Britain, the vice of drunkeness is now
+decreasing in Norway, owing partly to the reduced means of the
+population, but chiefly to the influence of education and of temperance
+societies.
+
+[8] The average proportion of 1851-52 was 9.32 per cent. There is a
+difference of only 1 per cent, between the rates of illegitimacy in
+rural and urban districts, to the disadvantage of the latter.
+
+[9] 'The French Constitution of 1791 is one of the principal sources of
+the Fundamental Law of Norway. The suspensive veto has been derived from
+it.'--O. I. Broch.
+
+[10] At the end of 1882, the total population was estimated at
+1,922,500, or a decrease 3900 as compared with 1881, when the increase
+was only 1000 from the year preceding.
+
+[11] In 1880, the average rate of wages for labourers engaged by the
+year in agricultural districts was 8l. 10s. per annum, and that of daily
+labour, without food, 1s. 9d. per diem; the corresponding rates in towns
+having been 11l. 6s. 8d. and 2s.
+
+[12] Our readers must, however, bear in mind that we are dealing only
+with the rural economy of Norway, and that the facts we shall submit on
+that subject affect but slightly the general financial condition of a
+country which continues to derive its earnings mainly from the supply of
+timber, fish, wood-pulp, ice, &c., to foreign countries, and from its
+extensive carrying trade in sailing vessels and steamers. The prosperity
+of the towns is influenced chiefly by the state of trade in the rest of
+Europe, while being (to the extent of 122 out of 128) situated on the
+seaboard, their successful development reacts but little on the
+prosperity of the inland agricultural districts.
+
+[13] In the 'Tables of Landed Property,' published in 1880, the holdings
+(in 1865) are classified as follows:--
+
+Properties under 5 acres                 34,224 or 15.5 per cent.
+    "      between 5 and 12-1/2 acres    42,984  " 32.1    "
+    "         "    12-1/2 and 50  "      48,575  " 36.2    "
+    "      above 50 acres                 8,208  "  6.2    "
+
+[14] The italics our own. The author states that it is the custom among
+the peasants of Norway that when the eldest son or the daughter of the
+house (when there is no son), marries, the parents surrender the
+property, but retain a right of subsistence upon it. This, he shows,
+explains the existence of the large number of detached dwellings on the
+same estate, for very often cottages have to be built for the
+accommodation of persons who have a right to subsistence, which is not,
+however, limited to a dwelling-house, but frequently includes the
+usufruct of a small plot of land and, almost always fodder for a certain
+number of cows and goats. See also p. 386.
+
+[15] The eldest of kin having allodial right.
+
+[16] Between 1871 and 1875 Norway imported about 46 per cent. of the
+cereals required for home consumption, in addition to pork, butter, and
+other articles of food.
+
+[17] From statistics recently published, it appears that between 1881
+and 1883 the price of land, estimated on actual sales, has shown a
+tendency to rise in the Provinces which have a coast line, populated by
+fisherman, &c., and to fall in most of the inland, more purely
+agricultural districts.
+
+[18] Dr. Broch shows that in 1875, which was an average year for crops,
+the production of cereals and potatoes (reduced to the value of barley)
+was 3125 hectol. per 1000 inhabitants in Norway; whereas the average
+crops in France yielded 7400 hectol. per 1000 of the population.
+
+[19] In 1884 a motion to that effect was made in the Swedish Rigsdag by
+a peasant proprietor. At present the duty on cereals imported into
+Norway is merely nominal, averaging about 2-1/2 per cent. _ad valorem_.
+
+[20] From special causes, the number of persons relieved in 1881 and
+1882 was exceptionally high in Ireland. In 1879 it was 7-1/2 per cent.,
+and in 1883 about 8 per cent. of the population.
+
+[21] Hereditary nobility is already abolished. Under a law passed in
+1821, all titles of nobility become extinct in the persons of those who
+were born before 1822.
+
+[22] _I. e._ dovecot.
+
+[23] Lady Verney's 'Cottier-owners, Little Takes and Peasant
+Proprietors,' published last year, is replete with facts drawn from
+actual life, showing that small peasant-proprietorship is proving
+ruinous on the Continent, even where the system has grown up naturally.
+
+[24] In No. 302, April 1881.
+
+[25] It is certainly remarkable to find that Australian tallow, Indian
+linseed, and German barley are being imported at St. Petersburg, whence
+those articles were, in the days of large landed properties, extensively
+exported. The Minister of Finance, following the example of Prince
+Bismarck, attempts to check this competition with the staple products of
+the small landed proprietors by imposing protective duties.
+
+[26] Rs. 846,068,368, at the exchange of 32d., current when the great
+bulk of the expropriations were effected.
+
+[27] In provinces of Russia Proper alone, the landed proprietors
+(exclusive of the ex-serfs) have mortgaged their estates in various land
+and other banks to the extent of 30-3/4 per cent. of their aggregate
+acreage, the total remaining debt on such lands being about 49 millions
+sterling at the present reduced value of the rouble, or 65 millions
+sterling at the rate of exchange adopted in estimating the indebtedness
+of the peasantry.
+
+[28] At the same rate of exchange.
+
+[29] This tax had previously given to the Imperial Treasury a sum of
+about 5-1/2 millions sterling, at the depreciated rate of exchange. It
+was assessed at rates that varied in the different Provinces between 2s.
+7d. and 4s. 4d. per head of the male registered population, or 'per
+soul.'
+
+
+
+
+Art. V.--_A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq.;
+Secretary, First to the Council of State, and afterwards to the Two
+Protectors, Oliver and Richard Cromwell._ In Seven Volumes, containing
+authentic Memorials of the English affairs from the year 1638 to the
+Restoration of King Charles II. Vol. III. London, 1742.
+
+
+The character of Oliver Cromwell might, for our part, have rested
+undisturbed among the 'old, unhappy, far off things' of history, had it
+been our intention to fight over again, on the old lines, the contention
+whether he was a hero or a knave. On the contrary, towards the solution
+of that question a method, as yet untried, has been adopted. Instead of
+attempting a review of Cromwell's whole career, to gain an idea of what
+manner of man he was, a single train of events, in which his hand was
+visible throughout, has been subjected to some degree of scrutiny. A
+man's words and deeds, although arising only on one occasion, may supply
+an effectual test of his real self. There could, for instance, be hardly
+any doubt regarding the leading bias of his disposition, if a supremely
+able ruler, that he may procure his safety, consents to--
+
+                              'play one scene
+    Of excellent dissembling, and let it look
+    Like perfect honour.'
+
+These lines disclose our case. With prescient genius Shakspeare has
+described the part that Cromwell took in an event which occurred under
+his Protectorate, the so-called Insurrection of March 1655; and in our
+examination into the secret history of that occurrence lies the test
+that we have applied to Cromwell's character.
+
+The revelation that we are attempting is not, however, free from
+inherent difficulty. In these days of literature made easy, the products
+of close research are not readily acceptable. To open up a new vista in
+history, much has to be cut down, much put into new order; and the
+reader must unavoidably share in the labours of the writer. And though
+some curiosity may be aroused by the discovery of that which has
+remained hidden, for over two centuries; still, to gratify that
+curiosity, many an ingrained idea must be laid aside. Difficult as it
+may seem to many, Cromwell at the outset must be regarded not as 'our
+heroic One,' but as a man who sold himself to falsehood, that he might
+'ride in gilt coaches, escorted by the flunkeyisms, and most sweet
+voices.' Nor to appreciate the secret of our character-test, can the
+assertion of any historian, from Clarendon down to Carlyle's last
+imitator, be credited, that 'a universal rising of Royalists combined
+with Anabaptists' broke out in March 1655. On the contrary, it must be
+accepted as a preliminary condition in this investigation that England
+was, at that time, in a state of immovable tranquillity, and that any
+insurrectionary movement during the year 1655 sprang from a far-reaching
+design, which Cromwell practised alike on friends, neutrals, and
+enemies.
+
+That this was the case has hitherto escaped notice. Every historian, who
+has taken part in the Cromwelliad, regards that revolt as 'a very tragic
+reality;' they all agree, that it was 'prevented from breaking into a
+dangerous flame by vigilance, prompt action, and by necessary severity.'
+That this event might be regarded in a very different light was an idea
+far from every one of them. Proof, however, goes before disproof. The
+historians should have their say first; and our readers must endure, for
+a few moments, what may be termed the received version of the
+Insurrection of March 1655.
+
+According to Godwin, 'A general rising was meditated about the beginning
+of March 1655, by the Royalist party in various parts of
+England,--Yorkshire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, Devon and Wilts,' and
+also in North Wales. 'Wilmot, about this time created Earl of Rochester,
+came over to England' to head the enterprise, 'accompanied by Sir J.
+Wagstaff. Charles II., who had spent the winter at Cologne, now came
+privately to Middleburg in Holland, that he might be ready to pass over
+to England, if the condition of affairs authorized such a measure. The
+activity of Cromwell and his assistants speedily defeated these
+multiplied intrigues. It does not appear that hostilities anywhere were
+actually commenced, except in Yorkshire and the West of England.'
+
+As historians persist that on Marston Moor, the scene of the
+'hostilities' in Yorkshire, an actual affray occurred,--Carlyle throws
+in 'a few shots fired';--we must turn to the 'Perfect Proceedings' News
+Letter, of March 1655, for a truer description of that event:--
+
+     'York. The 8th of March instant, there was a meeting
+     appointed by the Malignants in Yorkshire to surprise York
+     City. To that end a party was to come on the west side of
+     the City, where Sir Richard Malliverer, with divers others,
+     was on their March. About 100 horse came with a cart load of
+     arms and ammunition to Hessey (i. e. Marston) Moor. And at
+     the wynd-mill upon the Moor there came some intelligence,
+     that a party, that sh'd' have come on the other side of the
+     City, was not ready that night. And more company failing,
+     which they expected to meet them that night upon the Moor
+     they suddenly and disorderly retreated; some Pistols was
+     scattered and found next morning, and a led horse, with a
+     velvet saddle, left in Skipbrig Lane, which was found next
+     day.'
+
+In Wiltshire, however, the Royalists effected a brief revolt, an
+incident which the following quotation from Carlyle will readily recall
+to mind:--
+
+     'Sunday, March 11th, 1655, in the City of Salisbury, about
+     midnight, there occurs a thing worth noting. Salisbury was
+     awakened from its slumbers by a real advent of Cavaliers.
+     Sir John Wagstaff, "a jolly knight" of those parts, once a
+     Royalist Colonel: he, with Squire, or Major Penruddock, "a
+     gentleman of fair fortune," Squire, or Major Grove, and
+     about two hundred others, did actually rendezvous in arms
+     about the Big Steeple, that Sunday night, and ring a loud
+     alarm in those parts. It was Assize time; the Judges had
+     arrived the day before. Wagstaff seizes the Judges in their
+     beds, seizes the High Sheriff, and otherwise makes night
+     hideous;--proposes on the morrow to hang the Judges, as a
+     useful warning; but is overruled by Penruddock and the rest.
+     He orders the High Sheriff to proclaim King Charles; High
+     Sheriff will not, not though you hang him; Town-crier will
+     not, not even though you hang him. The Insurrection does not
+     spread in Salisbury, it would seem. The Insurrection quits
+     Salisbury on Monday night, marches with all speed towards
+     Cornwall, hoping for better luck there. Marches;--but
+     Captain Unton Crook marches also in the rear of it; marches
+     swiftly, fiercely; overtakes it at South Molton in
+     Devonshire, "on Wednesday about ten at night," and there, in
+     a few minutes, put an end to it. We took Penruddock, Grove,
+     and long lists of others; Wagstaff unluckily escaped ... and
+     this Royalist conflagration, which should have blazed all
+     over England, is entirely damped out. Indeed so prompt and
+     complete is the extinction, thankless people begin to say
+     there had never been anything considerable to extinguish.
+     Had they stood in the middle of it,--had they seen the
+     nocturnal rendezvous at Marston Moor, seen what Shrewsbury,
+     what Rufford Abbey, what North Wales in general, would have
+     grown to on the morrow,--in that case, thinks the Lord
+     Protector, not without some indignation, they had
+     known!--Carlyle's 'Cromwell,' vol. iv. pp. 129, 130.
+
+If Carlyle had been more heedful he might have taken the hint furnished
+by those 'thankless people.' Men are not usually thankless if preserved
+from a real and obvious danger. Carlyle, however, thought that he knew
+more about those transactions than the men who might have witnessed
+them; and so we will accept his somewhat incautious invitation, and our
+readers, if they choose to do so, shall perceive, perhaps, 'not without
+some indignation,' what the Lord Protector 'had known' about the
+insurrection of March 1655; they shall, to a certain extent at least,
+regard that event from his point of view. And to enable them to do so
+as promptly as possible, they may be at once informed, that the
+Protector himself admitted the Earl of Rochester, Sir John Wagstaff, and
+their associates into England, in order that they might, in his behalf,
+play the part of the conspirator. The circumstance being appreciated,
+the Protector's position becomes quite clear. It is obvious that he
+wished his subjects to believe, in common with his historians, that
+England was, during the opening months of 1655, 'from end to end of it,
+ripe for an explosion.'
+
+Taking then for granted, upon Cromwell's own showing, that he wanted an
+insurrection, the assistance toward that end on which he could rely, and
+the obstacles that stood in his way, must be considered. The assistance
+which Cromwell had at hand, lay in the little band of courtiers who hung
+in penury, and vexation of heart, round Charles II. Wanderers on the
+Continent, in total ignorance of English opinion, acutely sensible of
+their own discomfort, raging against their great Tormentor, the King's
+'over sea' counsellors were, by irritation and by 'zeal, made so blind,'
+that they were 'soon persuaded of good success' in any possible attempt
+to overthrow the Protector.[30] The chief hindrance to Cromwell's
+projected insurrection was his palpable prosperity. It was notorious
+during the winter and spring of the year 1655, that he had appeased
+discontent among his soldiery; had quieted, in prison, Harrison,
+Wildman, and the leaders of the Anabaptists; that the Levellers were
+reduced to inaction; and that therefore the Royalists were powerless.
+And for this reason. Every Englishman, even the most 'Wildrake' among
+the Cavaliers, knew full well, that they, unassisted, could not for a
+moment stand before Cromwell's armies; and they knew equally well, that
+if the King landed on our shores, at the head of a foreign army, all
+England would meet him with passionate resistance. Even at the best, the
+most confident Royalists knew that a young man, nurtured by a popish
+mother, and amidst papists, would not be readily accepted as our King.
+
+But one chance, therefore, remained to the Royalists, both at home and
+abroad: and that was the possibility that Anabaptist fanaticism and army
+discontent might unite together against the Protector. If that could be
+reckoned on, and if a rising of the Royalists, all over England, could
+be timed so as to explode, when the Levellers broke into action, that
+would offer a chance indeed, especially if some of the mutineers could
+be won over to the King. That chance was, at this season, wholly denied
+to the Royalists. The King's most trusted English advisers, the Council
+styled 'The Sealed Knot,' repeatedly warned him during January 1655,
+that 'since no rising of the Army is to be hoped for, any rising of the
+King's party would only be to their destruction.'[31]
+
+To a person who desired to stimulate an insurrection against the
+Protector the course was therefore clear. He must act on the impatient
+credulity of those who shared in their King's exile. Far from the scene
+of action, they might be persuaded that the Anabaptists and the
+discontented soldiers had leagued together, and that the warnings of the
+'Sealed Knot' might be set at naught. Charles was thus acted upon. As
+the wicked King of Israel was lured on to his destruction by the cry of
+false prophets bidding him to go up and prosper, the King was persuaded
+to disregard his best counsellors, to believe that 30,000 Royalists were
+armed and ready to join in an organized revolt, so skilfully planned
+that it would break out, at one moment, all over England, with the
+co-operation of the Levellers, and of a portion of Cromwell's army.
+Charles was also assured, that if he would but fix the day, the
+insurrection would immediately take place.
+
+The King was hard to persuade; young as he was, his sagacity was not
+wanting. He long remained incredulous: he did not believe the
+'expresses' which reached him 'every day' from England: he felt sure
+that those zealous emissaries were deceived. More messengers accordingly
+crossed the water: they were confident that 'the rising would be
+general, and many places seized upon, and some declare for the King
+which were in the hands of the army, for they still pretended, and did
+believe, "that a part of the army would declare against Cromwell, at
+least, though not for the King."'
+
+Those messengers, however, would promise nothing, if Charles did not,
+when the Earl of Rochester and his associates started for England,
+approve the reality of the plot, by stationing himself on the sea coast,
+that he might 'quickly put himself into the head of the Army, which
+would be ready to receive him.' And he was warned that this was his last
+chance, and that 'if he neglected that opportunity,' his followers would
+desert him, as one hopelessly apathetic. Besides these threats, the
+persons, who dispatched those messengers from England, resorted to other
+means to force Charles into the enterprise. They appointed the day for
+the outbreak: he was not able 'to send orders to contradict it:' so he
+felt constrained, 'with little noise,' to quit Cologne for Middleburg,
+to await there the summons to England.
+
+Whilst Charles was being thus cajoled, the bright anticipations of his
+companions were suddenly saddened. In the midst of their preparations,
+Cromwell arrested several noted Royalists in London: it was obvious that
+he had discovered 'the design.' But that dark cloud had its silver
+lining; it was even converted into an augury of success. The
+conspirators at Cologne were 'cheered by letters' from their colleagues
+in England, assuring them 'that none of their particular friends at the
+intended sea-ports were known.'
+
+Clarendon, and his associates, little knew how much was known by
+Cromwell. He afterwards repeated in public, almost word for word, 'all
+those particulars' which these 'expresses' 'communicated in confidence'
+to the Royal Court 'to let them know in how happy condition the King's
+affairs were in England;' he was forewarned of the very day when Charles
+would 'with little noise' quit Cologne for Middleburg 'ten days before
+he did stir;' and if so, even Clarendon would have perceived, that the
+Protector felt quite assured about the safety of his sea-ports.[32]
+
+That the project proved in the end, as Charles expected at the
+beginning, a weak and improbable attempt, Clarendon admits, and that
+they had been befooled; but he maintained, to the end, that those
+messengers were 'very honest men, and sent by those who were such.'
+Clarendon's opinion is not so indisputable, but that it may be
+questioned. The utter failure of the promises that those messengers held
+out, might have aroused his doubt as to their good faith. Who was it
+then that instructed those false prophets? So improbable were the
+expectations which they urged upon Charles, that it is impossible to
+credit any true Royalist with the creation of those false hopes: to
+dispel them, the King's wisest English advisers did their utmost. Those
+encouragements then must have been the counsels of false friends. And
+who could be, as we shall prove, a warmer, or a falser friend to the
+enterprise of March 1655, than Cromwell?
+
+Even without direct proof of Cromwell's guilty complicity in that
+attempt, it is brought home to him by a variety of antecedent
+circumstances. He knew precisely how to spread the only lure that could
+ensnare the King; for the counsels of the 'Sealed Knot' were no secret
+to Cromwell. He was aware that the King had, in consequence, written,
+4th Jan. 1655, to Mr. Roles, 'his loving friend,' and probably also the
+Protector's friend, in a tone of utter despair.[33] And who could set
+against the King a stream of systematic false encouragement, sufficient
+to dispel his just despair, except Cromwell, who had all the secret
+agents at home and abroad at his command? or who would undertake so
+difficult a task as the creation of such an elaborate scheme of
+deception, but one who was anxious that the outbreak should take place?
+And we know that such was his wish.
+
+In every way this is apparent. Even though no actual assistance be
+given, still complete foreknowledge of a coming mischief, unfollowed by
+corresponding precautions, implies a sanction. And this form of sanction
+Cromwell gave to the Insurrection. In a tone of triumphant cunning he
+assured his Parliament, during the ensuing year, that he had possessed
+'full intelligence of' the conspiracy; though, with characteristic
+craft, he concealed the most effectual informant 'of these things,' the
+clerk who wrote out the despatches in the King's closet; and poor
+Manning, 'as he was dead,' was credited with the discovery; although his
+term of espial was not commenced soon enough to supply that 'full
+intelligence,' of which his employer boasted.[34]
+
+Cromwell could even have informed his corps of informers, of the course
+that the coming movement would pursue. Two months before they began to
+reflect back to him an account of his own design, Cromwell's detection
+office in Whitehall contained a report from a supposed Leveller, who had
+passed from Essex to Cornwall, and then from Cornwall to Scotland, that
+a rumour was afloat, that the republicans in the army who were 'resolved
+to stand by their first principles, in opposition to the Government,'
+had banded together, under noted leaders, and had chosen the very places
+afterwards selected by the Royalists, namely, Salisbury Plain and
+Marston Moor for the rendezvous where they might show their strength.
+Other informers reported to Cromwell that the Royalists in London, and
+in Northumberland, hoped, that if they appeared in arms, they would be
+able to 'make use of a good part of the army;' and similar evidence
+warned the Government that a man claiming to be a Royalist had been at
+work, during February, journeying to and fro between Gloucestershire and
+Wiltshire, tempting Royalists to join with him in an insurrection,
+because 'the design was first put on foot by the Levellers, who were to
+be aiding and assisting the Cavaliers.'[35]
+
+This information reached Cromwell in ample time for action. A word from
+him to his agents abroad, a hint to the editors of the News Letters, or
+a proclamation, would have dispersed those mischievious rumours, and
+would have reduced Charles to inaction. Although he knew that Charles
+based his sole hope of success upon an Anabaptist revolt, and a mutiny
+in the army, Cromwell did nothing of the kind. Not that he failed to
+secure himself by some ostensible precautions. 'It having pleased God to
+make some further notable discovery to Us of the Conspiracy, and the
+particular Persons engaged therein,' Cromwell arrested some Royalists,
+shortly before the outbreak, but, as we know on the best authority, he
+touched none of those 'engaged therein.' He secured London: he moved
+troops from Ireland to Liverpool, and may thereby have disconcerted the
+Lancashire Cavaliers; but he did not forewarn the Customs House officers
+at Dover, or guard that port; just as he, subsequently, somehow failed
+to station soldiers near those obvious points of danger, Marston Moor
+and Salisbury Plain.[36] 'Oliver, Protector,' evidently 'understood his
+Protectorship moderately well, and what Plots and Hydra-Coils were
+inseparable from it.'
+
+Cromwell thus assisting us, we had before us the relative positions of
+all engaged in the Insurrection, during the last weeks of February 1655.
+Charles was on the Dutch coast awaiting a possible summons to England;
+to that end he had despatched the expedition, composed of the Earl of
+Rochester, Sir John Wagstaff, Major Armourer, Mr. O'Neale, and their
+companions, about fourteen in number; and Cromwell was watching them,
+and was preparing for their reception at Dover, not soldiers, but the
+friendly assistance of his servant, Mr. Day, the Clerk of the Passage.
+In true Cavalier fashion the Earl of Rochester and his comrades
+approached our shores, with ostentatious contempt of danger. They came
+not in a small party, dropping over one by one, selecting different and
+out-of-the-way spots for landing, but almost in a body, in quick
+succession, they alighted at Dover. That was the most public port they
+could have chosen; and being courtier Cavaliers, long resident abroad,
+they were, in dress and look, marked men, and most unfitted to play the
+part they chose, of traders resident in France or Holland. Their
+selection of Dover was not, however, so ill-advised as it seemed, for
+they also reckoned on the help of Mr. Day, the Clerk of the Passage.
+
+Thus in appearance, at least, the conspirators did everything they could
+to get themselves into trouble. And, as might be anticipated, Major
+Armourer, alias 'Mr. Wright,' and his man 'Morris,' that is to say, Mr.
+O'Neale, the first of that company to set foot in Dover, were
+immediately arrested. Armourer was imprisoned in the Castle, and O'Neale
+in the Sergeant's house. Their detention, however, was of but brief
+duration. Armourer at once sought for help through Mr. Day's agency; but
+one greater than the Clerk interposed; and after about three days
+captivity, Mr. Wright, together with some other captured suspects, was
+released by the Dover Port Commissioners 'on receipt of a Commission
+from H.H.' the Protector.[37]
+
+That Commission from His Highness was no ordinary proceeding. By it
+Cromwell disturbed order and discipline in the chief entrance-gate to
+England, and drove the Port Commissioners into direct collision with the
+officers of Dover Castle. Captain Wilson, the Deputy-Lieutenant, who had
+charge over the Castle prisoners, was, as shown by his letters, a
+straightforward servant of the Protector. Such a serious interference
+with his duties, as the release of one of his own prisoners, disturbed
+him; and the more so, as it was authorized by the Protector himself.
+Accordingly he wrote to Thurloe, greatly troubled, to free himself from
+any connection with so untoward an event as the escape of Mr. Wright,
+who,--of all the men that Wilson 'had secured'--was the very one with
+whom he was most unsatisfied.' Thurloe also felt that it was an awkward
+affair; and to avert suspicion from his Master and himself, he reverted
+to a mean trick, the causeless accusation of an innocent man. He
+reproved Wilson for neglecting to warn Whitehall of the detention of
+such a noted suspect as Mr. Wright; although Thurloe was in no ignorance
+of that event, and knew all about the prisoner. For besides the
+knowledge which he shared with Cromwell, of the near advent of the Earl
+of Rochester and his associates, Thurloe held a letter signed 'N.
+Wright,' dated 'Dover Castell, 14th February,' to Sir R. Stone, a
+supposed friend, who, forwarding it to Thurloe, informed him that Morris
+therein mentioned was a 'gentleman to the Princess Royal;' whilst it
+was evidently presupposed by Stone, that the Secretary would know who it
+was 'that writ' the enclosed letter; as, indeed, is proved by Thurloe's
+indorsement, '_Nicholas Armourer to Sir Robert Stone_.' And
+again, within seven days after Armourer's release, a similar
+'cross-providence' occurred. A Mr. Broughton, evidently another
+Royalist, was taken out of Captain Wilson's custody, much to his
+surprise and vexation, and set free by the Mayor of Dover.
+
+The release of one or two prisoners under a Commission from H.H. the
+Protector does not, however, prove that he purposely admitted into
+England that gang of conspirators. But even that can be proved. Thurloe
+and Cromwell knew on the best authority that the Royalists regarded Mr.
+Day as their ally; for Armourer, in that letter, mentions 'Mr. Robert
+Day, Clarke of the Passage' as a man ready to do him service. Yet
+Cromwell, knowing that Armourer and O'Neale were the precursors of even
+more dangerous associates, who would also resort to Mr. Day, retained
+him in his post; and in spite of prompt and repeated warnings from the
+Continent, that Day was a traitor, he acted as Clerk of the Passage
+until, during the following July, he had seen safe back across the
+Channel the conspirators whom he had admitted in March. And as if the
+more fully to trick the Royalists, Day was permitted by the Protector to
+intervene actively in their behalf. The Clerk of the Passage obtained,
+by his personal undertaking for Armourer's good conduct, the requisite
+pass inward, and certified that he was, in truth, a merchant from
+Rotterdam.[38]
+
+It follows from the assistance which the Protector gave to Armourer,
+that his man 'Morris' was restored to his master, and that the Earl of
+Rochester, after repeated detention and examination, was set free. And
+again Cromwell reappears as the patron of the conspiracy. According to
+information imparted to the King by Cromwell's nephew, Colonel William
+Cromwell, 'my Lord of Rochester was known to Cromwell to be in England
+as soon as he landed,' and was met by pretended agents from the army,
+Rochester's friends 'in show,' but the Protector's 'really,' who, to
+make the Earl 'have the greater confidence' in the enterprise, gave him
+false offers of co-operation, and assurances that Cromwell's soldiers
+were ripe for mutiny.[39] And facts confirm Colonel Cromwell's words.
+
+Immediately after his final escape from the custody of Captain Wilson,
+the Earl of Rochester 'found Mr. Morton, who carries on their trade
+there, ready to come, with some account of his business.'[40] If Morton
+had been a true Royalist, in momentary fear for himself, and for the
+success of an insurrection that was to overthrow the Protector, would he
+have risked a meeting with the Earl of Dover, in a place where he had
+been twice arrested, instead of awaiting his arrival in the security of
+London? Such a strange course arouses strong suspicion that Morton was
+the Protector's emissary referred to by Col. Cromwell; and assuredly a
+Mr. Morton is mentioned to Thurloe, by one of his continental agents, as
+a friend, and fellow sham-Royalist, who might assist him in enticing
+some of the King's retinue into projects, such as the 'murther of H. H.
+the Protector.'[41]
+
+Nor was Mr. Morton the only agent busy in doing all he could 'to ripen
+the design of a general rising.' During January and February, 1655,
+messengers passed to and fro through the Northern and Western districts
+of England to prepare the way for the Earl of Rochester and his
+associates, who spread abroad rumours that the 'Levellers were to be
+aiding and abetting the Cavaliers,' and that on the 8th of March, a
+general rising would take place. Two men can be traced who thus prepared
+Wiltshire for insurrection, one of whom was the chief instigator of
+Wagstaff's rising at Salisbury.
+
+Both of them were obscure men, not known in that part of England. An
+unnamed emissary came from Yorkshire, passing through London, to
+Dorsetshire, taking, on the way, the house, near Lewes, of Col. Bishop,
+a Leveller, one of the Wildman faction.[42] The other, Mr. Douthwaite,
+reached Wiltshire from Somersetshire. This circumstance, of itself,
+aroused suspicion; and he was asked why, if the revolt, as he asserted,
+was to be throughout all England, he did not choose Somersetshire,
+instead of Wiltshire, for the scene of action. The reason he gave for
+that choice had in it a strong dash of unreality. His motive was, he
+declared, because 'if he did any mischief, or killed anybody,' he
+preferred to do mischief 'among strangers, where he was not known.' So
+unsatisfactory was his demeanour, that a recruit, whom he endeavoured to
+cajole, refused to join the conspiracy, declaring that 'he was confident
+this was a plot of my Lord Protector's own devising, and that he had
+some of his own agents in it.' And as, during that winter, the
+Dorsetshire Cavaliers had 'whispered that the plot' then 'so loudly
+talked on at Court, is nothing but a trick of the great Oliver's,' this
+idea seems to have been prevalent in the West of England. Some such
+whisper, undoubtedly, had a marked influence on the Wiltshire revolt.
+Not a single landowner of importance went out with Wagstaff. Though he
+had been told off by the King expressly for that service, no Royalist of
+eminent position answered the King's call. They, also, doubtless
+suspected Douthwaite, an unknown, low-class stranger, who took upon
+himself to summon them to arms against the Protector. And Douthwaite was
+undoubtedly the chief instigator of that attempt, 'the very principal
+verb' in the affair: a very capable witness, Major Butler, so described
+him. In itself this was a suspicious circumstance. And another reason
+may be urged for deeming that Cromwell, and not the King, was served by
+Douthwaite. Like a shady witness, he proved too much. Antedating the
+event by at least three weeks, he asserted in February, that Charles had
+left Cologne for the Dutch coast, 'for an opportunity to sail for
+England.' This was a startling piece of news, and most arousing to a
+hearty Royalist: and the King did take that step on the 4th of March.
+But it is noteworthy that a foreknowledge of the King's movements, which
+was undoubtedly possessed by Cromwell and Thurloe in London, should have
+been so speedily communicated to Douthwaite, in the depths of
+Somersetshire.[43]
+
+Whilst England was thus being prepared for the coming insurrection, the
+Earl of Rochester went to London, where, although soldiers were
+stationed at the ends of the streets, and extra precautions taken
+against the Royalists, 'he consulted,' as Clarendon observes, 'with
+great freedom with the King's friends.' Nor were he and his comrades
+hindered from traversing England, and passing on into Wiltshire and
+Yorkshire, that they might head the intended rendezvous of the Royalists
+on Salisbury Plain and Marston Moor; the very places, it should be
+remembered, that rumour had designated for a gathering of the Levellers.
+Cromwell was powerless: he dared not touch the men he had passed into
+England: the object for which he had admitted them must be fulfilled,
+even to the end.
+
+That the end, which Cromwell desired, followed the lines indicated by
+his master hand, might be anticipated. But he could not allow the
+project to become too real; a necessity that rather stood in his way.
+His power of creating the semblance of an actual insurrection was
+limited. Of the 'hidden works,' all over England, which he attributed
+to the Royalists, but one mine actually exploded, one nearly went off,
+and the rest remained dormant. The tameness of that shadowy meeting on
+Marston Moor evidently caused Cromwell much vexation. As his dupes
+refused to exhibit themselves, and as not a soldier was near at hand,
+paragraphs in the News Letters, 'some pistols scattered' on the heath,
+and 'a led horse, with a velvet saddle,' were all the proofs that
+Cromwell could show that aught had happened on Marston Moor, during the
+night of the 8th of March. Nor could he solemnize the event, as he
+desired, by the appearance on the scaffold of a single Yorkshireman.
+
+He sent, for that purpose, to York as Judges, Baron Thorpe, Mr. Justice
+Newdigate, and Mr. Serjeant Hutton; but they refused to obey his
+bidding. They declined to try upon a capital charge the men that had
+been arrested by the Protector's informers, not in arms nor on
+horseback, nor even on the highway, but in their own houses. The judges
+were doubtful 'whether in point of law,' a possible midnight ride could
+be declared by them 'to be treason.' It was in vain that Colonel
+Lilbourne used 'diligence' to 'pick up such as are right,' to serve on
+the jury. The judges even left York altogether, objecting that due
+notice, under which they could try that 'great affair,' had not been
+given.
+
+Pressure was renewed upon Newdigate and Hutton; they were despatched
+back to York, to undertake the trial of the Marston Moor prisoners.
+Cromwell's law officer, however, found them at Doncaster, on their
+return to London, and in a very contrary state of mind. They again
+refused to act; and they based their refusal on an objection, which
+affected not those prisoners alone, but all Cromwell's prisoners. They
+asserted, evidently reckoning on Baron Thorpe's concurrence, that they
+could not, as judges, put in force the Ordinance, by which Cromwell had
+adapted the Statute Law of England to meet the crime of high treason
+against himself, because it was of no validity! They thus anticipated,
+in the most unpleasant way, Mr. Coney's refusal to pay taxes imposed,
+not by an Act of Parliament, but by an 'Ordinance.' Cromwell was forced
+to yield; the Yorkshiremen preserved their lives, but not their liberty
+or their estates; and almost immediately, 'Judges Thorpe and Newdigate
+were put out of their places, for not observing the Protector's pleasure
+in all his commands.'[44]
+
+Cromwell's 'pleasure' was, however, served by Mr. Serjeant Glyn and Mr.
+Recorder Steele, and by the jurymen, 'such as were right,' over whom
+they presided, in the trial of the Salisbury insurgents. Those poor
+dupes pleaded what may be termed, Baron Thorpe's plea. They argued that
+their indictment was not founded on an Act of Parliament, and that
+'there can be no treason by an Ordinance.' They urged that a sentence
+pronounced by the Serjeant and the Recorder, who were mere 'pleaders,
+servants to the Lord Protector,' would be illegal; and they asserted
+their right to be tried by Baron Thorpe, 'a sworn judge.' The prisoners,
+who could not be convicted of high treason, were condemned to death as
+horse stealers. They vainly pleaded, that to requisition a horse for a
+warlike enterprise was not felony, and that 'the country knew we did not
+intend to steal,' but acted 'as the soldiers did now at London, and
+elsewhere, who came against us.'[45] About fourteen of those poor
+fellows were put to death, with Grove and Penruddock; and seventy were
+sold into West Indian slavery. Accordingly Cromwell was able, as Thurloe
+exulted, to prove 'that the Plot was real,' as 'the persons were real,'
+who, in consequence, lost their lives, or were condemned to lifelong
+misery.
+
+Thus Cromwell, by a deliberate course of fraud, compassed the death of
+men, who might otherwise have lived void of offence against his
+government. He next proceeded to delude all his subjects by means of the
+sham conspiracy by which he had ensnared his victims on to the scaffold.
+This development in Cromwell's course of deception brings us back to the
+ordinary path of history. Every historical text-book mentions that
+Cromwell, within a few months after the Insurrection of March 1655,
+subjected England to the authority, almost unlimited, of twelve
+Major-Generals. To each one a separate province was allotted, with power
+to imprison, fine, or sell as slaves, all that he might select. The
+Major-Generals also were directed by Cromwell to pay themselves, and the
+soldiers under them, by the levy of a tax of ten per cent. on the
+incomes of all but the poorest Royalists, which he imposed for that
+purpose. As historians have believed in the reality of the Insurrection
+of March 1655, they hold that Cromwell, therefore, 'found himself
+compelled to divide England into districts, over which he set
+Major-Generals,' and to inflict upon the Royalists the tax, 'known by
+the name of the Decimation.' Yet, curiously enough, these hearty
+believers in Cromwell have ignored that solemn confirmation of their
+opinion, which he addressed to his subjects, namely, the 'Declaration of
+his Highness, by the advice of his Council, showing the Reasons of their
+Proceedings for Securing the Peace of the Commonwealth, upon occasion
+of the late Insurrection and Rebellion,--October 31, 1655.'
+
+Than this document, no more admirable illustration could be given of the
+manner in which Cromwell carried on his Protectorate. By that
+'Declaration' he engrafts into his policy the deception he had practised
+on the Royalists, and adapts it to the benefit of the whole nation, by a
+description of the pious uses to which it could be applied. And for our
+purposes this document is especially convenient, for, whilst it proves
+what Cromwell wished his people to believe about the Insurrection, it
+enables us to disprove throughout the statements that he makes. But
+before we can reach that portion of our disclosure, the operative
+clauses of the 'Declaration' must be dealt with. It commences with a
+justificatory recital of the misdeeds of the Royalists. As God, Cromwell
+argues, 'by His gracious dispensation,' had 'subjected' the Royalists
+'to the power of those whom they had designed to enslave and ruin,' 'the
+Parliament's party' might, Cromwell asserts, have 'extirpated those men,
+with designs of possessing their Estates and Fortunes.' Their
+conquerors, however, refrained themselves, 'it having pleased God in his
+providence, so to order things;' and the Royalists were allowed to live
+and 'enjoy their freedom, and have equal protection in their persons and
+estates, with the rest of the Nation.' But what return, the Protector
+declares, has been made by the Malignants for the lenity thus extended
+to them? 'The actings of that party' proves that 'neither the
+dispensations of God, nor kindness of men, would work upon them;' that
+'they were implacable in their malice and revenge'; and he cites 'the
+late Insurrection and Rebellion,' 'as the greatest and most dangerous'
+of all 'their hidden works of darkness.'
+
+The Protector therefore announces, that as 'he knows by experience, that
+nothing but the Sword will restrain the late King's party from blood and
+violence,'--'We do now not only find Ourselves satisfied, but obliged in
+duty, both towards God and this Nation, to proceed upon other grounds
+than formerly,'--and that, to secure 'the Peace of this Commonwealth, We
+have been necessitated to erect a new and standing Militia of Horse, in
+all the Counties of England, under such Pay as might be a fitting
+encouragement to the officers and soldiers. And We, therefore, have
+thought fit, to lay the burthen of Maintaining those forces, upon those
+who have been engaged in the late Wars against the State.' And Cromwell
+declares, in conclusion, that 'We can with comfort appeal to God,
+whether this way of proceeding with 'the Royalists' hath been the matter
+of Our Choice, or that which We have sought occasion for; or whether
+contrary to Our own inclinations, We have not been constrained and
+necessitated hereunto, and without the doing whereof, We should have
+been wanting to Our Duty to God and these Nations.'
+
+Such words uttered by a man who, with utmost fervour, has claimed for
+himself, that 'I have learned too much of God, to dally with Him, and to
+make bold with Him in these things,' ought surely to be believed; and if
+there be any one who is still unconvinced that Cromwell, of his own
+'choice,' enticed the Earl of Rochester and his associates across the
+Channel, and admitted them into England, that they might constrain and
+necessitate him to appoint those Major-Generals, 'we can with comfort
+appeal' to that 'Declaration' and ask such a believer in Cromwell to
+follow us in a comparison between what he really did, with what he
+declared he did, 'for securing the Peace of the Commonwealth upon the
+occasion of the late Insurrection.'
+
+In order that his subjects might appreciate the skill and vigilance, by
+which the 'contrivements' of the 'cruel and bloody enemy had been
+thwarted, Cromwell commenced the account of his execution of his duty as
+England's Protecter by a general description of the projects of the
+Royalists in March 1655. He asserted that they intended to surprise and
+seize London, and all the principal ports and cities throughout England,
+and that they reckoned on the support of more than 30,000 armed men.
+This description of the projects and resources of the Royalists may be
+at once, and contemptuously set aside: it was founded upon lies supplied
+by such men as Manning, the spy, or Bamfield, the informer. Cromwell's
+words were contradicted by the abortive and petty nature of the
+insurrection, by the obvious refusal of all England to join in the
+enterprise, and by the conduct of the Protector himself. For he would
+not have placed England at the mercy of the Earl of Rochester and his
+companions, had he thought that they could call 30,000 men to arms, or
+that every important town from London to York, was in danger. Having
+thus dealt out fiction by wholesale, and ascribed the overthrow of that
+'great and general design' to 'The Lord,' Cromwell proceeds, according
+to this method, to show how that was accomplished.
+
+Beginning with the rising at Salisbury, he declared that
+
+     'the Insurrection in the West was bold and dangerous in
+     itself, and had in all likelihood increased to great Numbers
+     of Horse and Foot by the conjunction of others of their own
+     party, besides such Foreign forces, as in case of their
+     success, and seizing upon some place of Strength, were to
+     have landed in those parts, had they not been prevented by
+     the motion of some troops, and diligence of the officers,
+     in apprehending divers of that Party a few days before; and
+     also been closely pursued by some of our Forces, and in the
+     conclusion supprest by a handful of men, through the great
+     goodness of God.'
+
+As Charles had not at his disposal a single ship, or one soldier in the
+pay of any foreign Power, the possibility of a foreign invasion needs no
+disproof. And how did Cromwell deal with his enemies at home? Shortly
+before the rising of the 11th of March, troops were undoubtedly moved
+about in Wiltshire: their course can be traced from day to day. As the
+Protector, according to his habit, bases his statements as far as he
+can, on facts, so far we can agree with him. But as certainly as they
+were marched about, Cromwell's soldiers were marched not towards, but
+away from Salisbury.
+
+During the latter part of February, Major Butler, the officer in charge
+over Wiltshire, wrote to Thurloe, telling him that as Bristol was in 'a
+peaceable state,' the Major intended to leave that city. He did so: just
+eleven days before the outbreak he was on the march to his central
+station, at Marlborough, when a messenger from the Protector, summoned
+him back to Bristol. Butler was, in consequence, detained there, whilst
+the event took place; nor did he reach Salisbury until the third day
+after the insurgents had left the town. Cromwell knew what he was about:
+on the very Sunday when Wagstaff took possession of Salisbury, Cromwell
+occupied Chichester by horsemen, sent there at daybreak; and he
+dispatched a warning to Portsmouth, that 'some desperate design was on
+foot.' But he kept his soldiers away from Salisbury. He took this
+course, although he knew that Salisbury Plain had been named as a
+Levellers' rendezvous; and although he had received a report, about
+three weeks before the 11th of March, from an officer sent to Salisbury
+on police duty, 'that it would be convenient for some horse to be
+quartered hereabouts,'[46] because the Royalists in the neighbourhood
+were restless.
+
+And Cromwell himself proves why Major Butler was detained at Bristol:
+for when he did reach the scene of the revolt, though the insurgents had
+been two days at large in the neighbourhood, and were disbanding,
+drifting aimlessly towards Devonshire, Butler was withheld from active
+operations by orders from Whitehall. He was directed to keep at a
+distance from the insurgents for fear of a mishap. This is shown by the
+opening words of Butler's letter of remonstrance to the Protector. 'Now,
+my Lord,' Butler wrote, 'though I know it would be of sad consequence if
+we assaulting them should be worsted,' still, he pleaded with much
+earnestness that he, under 'the good providence of The Lord' would
+assuredly be successful. So palpably absurd it was to suppose that his
+four troops of horsemen could not make short work of that undisciplined,
+badly armed, and disheartened band of men, that Butler declared, that he
+could not 'with any confidence stay' here at Salisbury, 'nor look the
+country in the face, and let them alone.''[47]
+
+The Protector, however, was resolute. Butler was forced to let the enemy
+alone; and, after four days' delay, they yielded at South Molton to one
+troop of horse sent after them from Weymouth. Thus it was Cromwell, and
+not Butler, as was surmised by a contemporary observer, who kept his
+troopers 'at a distance in the rear' of the Royalists, 'to give them an
+opportunity of increasing.'[48]
+
+With this suspicion afloat, and Major Butler unable 'to look the country
+in the face,' Cromwell felt that to ascribe the suppression of
+Wagstaff's attempt mainly to the 'close' pursuit of the enemy 'by some
+of Our Forces,' would hardly suffice. He accordingly also attributed
+that happy result 'to the goodness of God,' and to 'the diligence of the
+officers in apprehending some of the party.' In this statement Cromwell
+made some approach to the truth. Butler had been diligent; and though he
+failed to seize Douthwait, that mysterious 'principal verb', still,
+during the last two weeks of February, he did arrest suspects in the
+West of England, but none within the district round Salisbury.[49]
+Wagstaff and his comrades were undisturbed, whilst preparing for their
+attempt. Nor is it an unfounded assumption, if their security is
+attributed to the same influence which sanctioned Wagstaff's repair to
+the rendezvous, and which protected him from Major Butler's horsemen.
+
+Having thus dealt with that 'bold and dangerous insurrection in the
+West,' Cromwell turned northward, and took in hand that rather vague
+affair at Marston Moor, on which, as he asserted, 'the enemy most
+relied.' His account of that event was, that the Royalists who met there
+dispersed and ran away in confusion, partly because of a failure among
+the plotters; but also, 'in respect that Our Forces, by their marching
+up and down in the country, and some of them providentially, at that
+time, removing their Quarters, near to the place of Rendezvous, gave
+them no opportunity to reassemble.' Again, Cromwell is, to a certain
+extent, correct. Divided counsels did keep one of the principal
+Yorkshire Royalists from the meeting, and he may have had followers;
+and others were stayed, when on the march, by a timely warning that they
+were on a fool's errand. But the assertion, that the Royalists were
+dispersed by a providential movement of troops, and by 'Our Forces
+marching up and down' Yorkshire, is utterly false. And, as before, the
+witness against Cromwell is one of Cromwell's servants. An officer,
+responsible for the peace of Yorkshire, reported to his chief in London
+regarding himself and his comrades, that 'notwithstanding all our
+frequent alarums from London of the certainty of this plot, carried on
+with such secrecy on the traitor's part, though we were upon duty, and
+in close quarters, we had no positive notice of it till the day was
+past.' And no other soldiers were in that neighbourhood during the night
+of the 8th of March. The only martial display that the occasion called
+forth, was the march of two troops of horsemen into York about three or
+four days subsequently; and the officer in command reported that if more
+men were wanted, they must be drawn from Durham, Newark, or Hull.[50]
+
+Thus it was that Cromwell dealt with 'the Insurrection of Yorkshire.' If
+the Royalists had, in truth, 'reckoned on 8000 in the North,' or if York
+had been in danger, soldiers, and not 'alarums' would have been sent
+into Yorkshire. Nor was he mistaken in deeming that the Royalists relied
+most on that attempt. Hoping to find a large gathering of Levellers in
+arms against the Protector, many of the principal Yorkshire landowners,
+of higher rank and more influential than poor Penruddock or any of his
+comrades, met that night on Marston Moor. And probably it was owing to
+their social position, that the trick was not fully played out, and
+that, sorely to Cromwell's disappointment, they saved their lives.
+
+Besides the insurrectionary displays at Salisbury and Marston Moor, it
+was arranged that on the 8th of March similar symptoms should appear in
+various other places, to create the idea that 'the Design was great and
+general.' Cromwell was accordingly able to declare that 'the coming of
+300 foot from Berwick' dispersed 'those who had rendezvoused near
+Morpeth to surprise Newcastle:'--that in North Wales and Shropshire,
+where they intended to surprise Shrewsbury, 'some of the chief persons
+being apprehended, the rest fled:'--and that, 'at Rufford Abbey, Notts,
+was another rendezvous, where about 500 horse met, and had with them a
+cart load of horse-arms, to arm such as should come to them; but upon a
+sudden, a great Fear fell upon them,' and they, also, dispersed
+themselves, and 'cast their arms into the pond.' Nor did the Protector
+omit to describe the action of 'other smaller Parties,' also in motion
+during the night of the 8th of March, who, 'as in the Town of Chester
+designed the surprise of the Castle there, but they, failing in their
+expectations, were discouraged for that time.' 'And thus by the goodness
+of God, these hidden works of darkness' were discovered. 'Fear' was 'put
+into the hearts' of the cruel and bloody enemy, and their great and most
+dangerous design was 'defeated, and brought to nothing.'
+
+The depositions on which Cromwell based his description of the minor
+passages of the Insurrection are all mere informers' tales, none rising
+above the inanity of the story of a tobacco-pipe-maker's attack on
+Chester Castle, of which more anon; and, from Carlyle's point of view,
+this sample of Thurloe's papers might assuredly be classed among 'human
+stupidities.' But Carlyle has overlooked the fact, that to Cromwell
+these depositions were an important element in his government, and were
+worked up into his speeches and the 'Declaration of October 1655. Hence
+the greater the absurdity of those documents, the greater their
+historical importance, as showing, not only how the Royalists were
+duped, and how Cromwell duped his subjects, but also that the tricks of
+his trepanners were so clumsy that, almost without exception' no
+Cavaliers of any standing were drawn into the Protector's game.
+
+An apt example of the kind of evidence on which Cromwell based his
+statements, and also a comical illustration of his propensity to cling
+to fact in the midst of fraud, is afforded by that alleged 'rendezvous'
+of Royalists 'to surprise Newcastle.' If his spies are to be believed,
+presumably with that object, on the 8th of March, 'about 3 score and 10
+horsemen armed with swords and pistols' met by night 'at a place called
+Duddo;' and then vanished, not, however, for fear 'of 300 foot coming
+from Berwick,' but because the conspirators were warned 'that there was
+300 sail of ships come into Newcastle, for fear of whom they durst not
+fall upon Newcastle at that time.' Much in the same way, and during the
+same night, a party of Royalist gentlemen and their servants, repaired
+to the inn on Rufford Abbey Green; and a real cart was driven to the
+door containing 'horse-arms,' fifty-six pair of pistols, two buff coats,
+two suits of arms, &c., and was then driven away, and the party broke
+up. So far the Protector's words are verified by the very full
+information that Thurloe collected regarding the Rufford Abbey incident;
+but if to the conspirators therein specifically mentioned, a large
+addition be made for 'divers unnamed gentlemen,' seen 'coming in and
+going out of the inn-door,' the plotters cannot be rated at much above
+20, instead of at Cromwell's 500.
+
+The Protector's concluding statements may be briefly disposed of.
+Shrewsbury Castle was to have been taken by 'two men in the apparel of
+gentlewomen,' acting in combination with their comrades, 'in certain
+alehouses near unto the said castle;' and the determined purpose of
+these plotters may be tested by the temper of their ringleader, who
+urged his recruits to appear at the rendezvous, but refused for his
+part, to join with them, 'because his wife was not well.'[51] The
+Shropshire insurrection was, indeed, of so visionary a nature, that
+zealous Commissary Reynolds could not manipulate it into any definite
+shape. Though sent to Shrewsbury that he might develop the existence of
+'a general plot of the malignants' in the West of England, he entirely
+failed. And so annoyed was he at his failure, that he suggests to
+Thurloe, that it would 'not to be unfit to make' the malignants 'speak
+forcibly, by tying matches, or some kind of pain, whereby they may be
+made to discover the plot;' and as he re-urges his craving to inflict
+torture on his prisoners, the proposal had drawn no disapproval from the
+Secretary.[52]
+
+An account of the 'great and signal disappointment, as great as any this
+age can produce,' which the 'goodness of God' inflicted upon that
+'smaller party,' 'who' according to Cromwell, 'designed the surprise of
+the castle' of Chester, forms an appropriate close to this portion of
+our narrative. An 'exceeding poor' dupe, Francis Pickering, tells the
+story, and the duper was a Colonel Worthing. After enticing Pickering
+into the plot by assurances of a general rising against the Protector,
+on the night of the 8th of March, Worthing announced that his part in
+the design 'was principally to surprise the Castle of Chester;' and as
+related by Pickering, while he and the Colonel remained quietly at home.
+
+     'Accordingly that night three or four went, sent by Col.
+     Worthing' to seize the Castle: they were all inhabitants of
+     Chester, and one of them is commonly known by the name of
+     Alexander, the tobacco-pipe-maker. These persons brought
+     back word to Col. Worthing that at the place where they
+     intended to raise a ladder to surprise the Castle, they
+     heard a sentinel walk and cough. At which report Col.
+     Worthing was very much startled! and sent them back again to
+     seize any other convenient place; and they brought back word
+     that they had centinels walking.'[53]
+
+No third attempt was made by Mr. Alexander and his friends; and next day
+Pickering was told by Worthing 'that he was much troubled, for that he
+could not contrive how to take said Castle;' and, in due time, Pickering
+found himself in custody.
+
+In singular contrast to the vague and absurd stories told by 'exceeding
+poor' and foolish men, such as Mr. Pickering and his fellow plotters,
+are the numerous and positive assurances that Cromwell received from his
+own officers, that all was well with England both before, during, and
+after the Insurrection of March 1655. Headed by Thurloe, they are all
+unanimous in reporting 'that the nation was much more ready to rise
+against, than for Charles Stuart;' that, in the town of Leeds, 'not
+thirty men were disaffected to the present Government;' and that 'there
+was no design on foot' even in 'the most corrupt and rotten places of
+the Nation,' such as Hampshire, Dorsetshire, Kent, and the Eastern
+Counties. From Bristol to York all was quiet, or wished to be so, during
+February, March, and April, 1655.[54]
+
+Further illustration of this statement is needless. For, if Cromwell had
+thought otherwise, even though he might in his wisdom have admitted the
+Earl of Rochester and his associates into England, he certainly would
+not have allowed them to remain here, apparently as long as they chose,
+after their enterprise was over. That the Protector gave them this
+freedom of action is made singularly clear by the Thurloe Papers': they
+contain repeated indications of the 'whereabouts' of the Earl of
+Rochester, the leader of the revolt. He and Major Armourer did not,
+after the Marston Moor failure, fly to the coast, or seek separate
+hiding-places. They journeyed together, with two servants, leisurely
+through England towards London: and to guard his safety, Rochester would
+not disturb his bedtime, or his dinner-hour. After the outbreak, people
+were naturally anxious to pick up what they could, by arresting 'the
+great ones.' Of these, Rochester was the greatest; and he and Armourer
+were arrested at Aylesbury. The resident magistrate gave a warrant to
+the constable, desiring him to keep safely the bodies of the Earl and
+his three companions, 'in the name of my Lord Protector.' The warrant
+was acted upon; the prisoners evidently were 'persons of great quality.'
+Yet somehow, both magistrate and constable left the Earl and the Major
+in charge of the innkeeper 'where they lay;' and naturally enough, 'when
+the constable came in the morning, he found that the innkeeper had let
+the two chiefs escape,' taking with them 'all their rich apparel.'[55]
+Had this been merely a sample of Aylesbury carelessness, the incident
+need not have been noticed. But the example of the magistrate and
+constable was followed by Cromwell. Although the escape of Rochester and
+Armourer was promptly known, and their course was closely tracked, and
+though Cromwell was informed where they might be found, they 'wrote very
+comfortably from London;' and they endeavoured 'to lay the foundation of
+some new design.' And at last, as if he were an ordinary traveller,
+sending his servants before him, Rochester left England for the
+Continent, having been a resident here for about five months; and the
+latter part of his stay in England was a season of extraordinary
+severity against the Royalists. In like manner, every one of his
+thirteen comrades returned 'weekly without difficulty' to their King's
+presence, apparently at their pleasure; whilst Cromwell's continental
+informers repeated their warnings that 'Day, the Clerk of the Passage,'
+is 'a rogue,' and that if the Protector had 'been ruled' by them 'all
+these had not escaped.'[56]
+
+In this matter, and indeed throughout his connection with the
+Insurrection of March 1655, Cromwell was not his own master. The
+conditions under which he obtained the espial of one of the King's most
+trusted friends, and a member of the 'Sealed Knot,' formed a complete
+protection to the Earl of Rochester and his associates. Nor for his own
+sake could he touch those conspirators. Their seizure would have
+disclosed the fact, that 'persons in the very bosom of our enemies' gave
+him 'intelligence;' and hence, if 'he once discovered the grounds, he
+would destroy the intelligence.'[57] Anyhow, it is evident that Cromwell
+could with entire safety allow his most determined enemies to remain in
+England, and lay foundations for new projects against him.
+
+Having seen Cromwell's conspirators safe home again, tribute must be
+paid to his amazing dexterity. The Prince of Wire-Pullers, he made his
+puppets perform what part he chose. Some jerked the royal doll Charles,
+against his liking, from Cologne to Middleburg, and some warned him to
+keep quiet, and others seemed to fight against the manager of the show,
+though in reality they fought in his behalf: all played Cromwell's game,
+whilst they thought they were playing their own; and even the most
+innocent outsiders were pressed into his service. With comic audacity he
+assured his audience that the more trivial was the scene at Salisbury,
+the more they ought to recognize its dramatic force. 'Observe,' he said,
+'when this Attempt was made--it was made when nothing but a well-formed
+Power could hope to put us into disorder. Do you think that' such a
+company of mean fellows 'would have attacked Us, if they had not been
+supported by vast unseen forces behind the scenes.'[58] With what cruel
+craft, but seeming indifference, the artful old showman treated his
+manikins! He cut off the heads of some amongst those who responded most
+vigorously to his touch; whilst others, not less free upon the wire,
+were carefully packed up, and sent home safe. By seizing and boxing up
+in the Tower mere bystanders, wholly unconcerned in the sport, he made
+his 'little tin soldiers' fancy that he did not see their antics. The
+only hitch in his 'knavish piece of work' arose when, too assured, he
+placed upon the boards a real live judge, who refused to take the bench
+in the manager's sham Court of Justice. In every other respect the
+mystery play was a complete success; everybody was puzzled, players,
+spectators, and the gentlemen of the press; not one even guessed at the
+true meaning of the performance; though a few 'men of wicked spirits'
+would try to peep behind the curtain. But they never found him out; they
+all danced to Cromwell's tune, but none discovered that the pipe they
+heard was in their Protector's mouth. Even Ludlow, with all the
+proverbial opportunities of a bystander, though most anxious to know his
+great opponent's game, never guessed that he had patched up the
+Insurrection of March 1655, from the beginning to the end.
+
+And such was Cromwell's power of deception, that though dead, he still
+deceived; his works did follow him, as he desired, out of sight. He
+seems to have anticipated that the records of his detective department
+might remain as a witness against him, and to have cast over the
+'Thurloe Papers' a spell, that has hitherto rendered them invisible. For
+nearly 150 years these evidences of his 'hidden works of darkness' have
+been before the world; but Cromwell has preserved his secret; he has
+humbugged every historian as effectually as he hoodwinked his
+contemporaries. The 'Thurloe Papers' were published in 1742, well
+edited and indexed; they contain the documents which Cromwell himself
+read and handled, the notes of his speeches, the information of his
+spies, the letters of his enemies and of his clerks. Though called after
+Thurloe, those papers are, in fact, Cromwell's own. Yet such is the
+glamour that he has cast over all that has approached him, that they
+have accepted his words without question, or, if they have read his
+writings, they have read them according to his inspiration.
+
+Yet there was much even in that Insurrection itself to arouse suspicion.
+Cromwell, in January 1655, assured his Parliament that he had crushed
+the various conspiracies which were then on foot against him, all most
+'real dangers,' and that he had disarmed and rendered powerless those
+conspirators; yet within six weeks they had organized a universal
+revolt, and had secreted stores of arms and ammunition all over England.
+This universal revolt broke out at Salisbury, 'bold and dangerous'; and
+it was put down by a single troop of horsemen, after the rebels had
+paraded, disheartened and deserted, across England. Except on that
+occasion, the vast design was suppressed without the aid of a single
+soldier or even a beadle. And, strangely enough, the Protector himself
+supplied a hint which might have provoked some curiosity about the
+nature of that 'Rebellion.'
+
+For surely it is odd that 'such a terrible Protector this; no getting of
+him overset!' should have been compelled to contend with the notorious
+and obstinate incredulity of the members of his Parliament regarding the
+late attempt to overset him? Yet Cromwell's speech of September 1656 is
+pervaded with expressions such as these, regarding the 'bold and
+dangerous Insurrection' of March 1655,--'I think the world must know and
+acknowledge, that it was a general design,'--'I doubt if it be believed,
+that there was any rising,' either in North Wales or at Shrewsbury, or
+on Marston Moor, 'at the very time when there was an Insurrection at
+Salisbury'--' therefore, how men of wicked spirits may traduce Us in
+that matter--I leave it!'[59] Surely 'sluggish mortals, saved from
+destruction,' not caused by secret agencies, but from an actual
+'Rebellion,' which threatened to bring every one of them into 'blood and
+confusion,' need not be required to believe in the very existence of so
+great and conspicuous a danger!
+
+And Cromwell felt that he could not afford to leave that 'matter'
+untouched. A suspicion was prevalent, during the whole of Cromwell's
+reign, that plots were manufactured to suit his purposes. He knew that
+full well; he knew also the danger of such a suspicion. The surmises of
+the 'men of wicked spirits,' were those 'half tales,' that 'be truths.'
+It had been hoped that such a 'real plot' as 'the late Insurrection,'
+would give that suspicion a quietus. When it was safely transacted,
+Thurloe and his associates congratulated each other over that hope.[60]
+But it was not fulfilled. Hence arises the tone of angered honesty,
+which Cromwell so repeatedly assumed when he addressed his Parliament,
+and Carlyle's indignant protest--'What a position for a hero, to be
+reduced continually to say he does not lie!'
+
+But what was Cromwell's motive in the fabrication of this Insurrection
+of March, 1655? It was not, as might be suggested, a device to thwart by
+a premature explosion, a dangerous conspiracy during a critical moment
+in the Protectorate. Cromwell himself asserts in his 'Declaration,' that
+'this Attempt was made, when nothing but a well-formed Power could hope
+to put Us into disorder; Scotland and Ireland being perfectly reduced;
+Differences with most Neighbour Nations composed; our Forces, both by
+Sea and Land, in order and consistency.' Nay, he artfully converted the
+very security of his Government into a proof that 'the pretended King'
+would not have sent over his servants, and that the Royalists would not
+'have actually risen' at Salisbury, had the insurrection been other than
+'a general design,' based on a vast secret organization. No one in all
+England possessed more certain knowledge, than did Cromwell, that such
+was not the case, and that he could not plead in his behalf the poor
+excuse, that the Nation as a Nation needed a severe lesson, or that it
+was to save England from civil war that he had sacrificed the lives of
+those fourteen victims of his deception, and consigned that band of
+seventy or eighty Englishmen to the horrors of West Indian slavery.
+
+But if Cromwell could not claim that excuse, what then was his motive?
+Dark as was the light within him, he was not in such utter darkness as
+to encompass himself about with written, spoken, and acted lies merely
+to gratify caprice, or that he might indulge in causeless cruelty. His
+motive was a very simple one. He was forced to obey his servant, the
+Army. The men whom he had made, and who had made him, demanded a visible
+share in the power and profit that he enjoyed. Reverting to the autumn
+of 1654, much had then occurred to disquiet the Army. Cromwell had taken
+a distinct step towards Kingship, by attempting to persuade Parliament
+to make the Protectorate hereditary. Parliament had made a distinct
+movement towards a large reduction in the Army and Navy. If rumour be
+evidence, there was, during November, 'a great division in the army.'
+And it is certain that, at the close of that month, Cromwell and his
+military men came to terms. At a meeting held in St. James's Palace, the
+staff of the army agreed 'to live and die with Cromwell.'[61] And a
+train of events, occurring in direct sequence after that meeting, proves
+that it was at this conjuncture that Cromwell agreed to parcel out his
+Protectorship among the leading officers of the Army. Parliament was
+dissolved 22nd January, 1655, on the pretext that under its shadow,
+conspiracy and discontent had thriven; and Cromwell gave an alarming
+account of the 'real dangers,' of imminent insurrection and anarchy,
+that threatened England. That speech was the prologue; then came the
+tragedy itself, the Insurrection of March, 1655; then came its
+consequence, the appointment of the Major-Generals. And in the end, the
+reason why they were appointed, was brought to light by a state of
+affairs, very identical with that which had raised them to power.
+
+Cromwell had renewed the attempt that he had made in the autumn of 1654,
+and in his quest after Kingship he had come, during February 1657,
+almost within sight of the throne. Again the army officers interfered;
+and again Cromwell was forced to meet them face to face; to receive, on
+this occasion, their protest against his acceptance of the Crown. He
+made a compromise as he had done before; but in speech, he was not
+conciliatory. If the Protectorate had been a failure, he told his former
+comrades, it was their fault. It was they, and not he who had governed;
+as for himself, 'they had made him their drudge upon all occasions: to
+dissolve the Long Parliament,' and 'to call a Parliament or Convention
+of their naming,' which proved so unsuccessful; and then another
+Parliament, alike in unsuccess; and he concluded that catalogue of their
+untoward interferences with his government, by reminding his hearers
+that they thought it was necessary to have Major-Generals; adding that
+so they 'might have gone on,' if they had not insisted on his calling
+the Parliament of 1656, against his will, which had given them 'a
+foil.'[62]
+
+
+That speech is the most exceptional, in some respects the most
+important, of all Cromwell's speeches. Spoken if not 'in haste,'
+certainly 'out of the fulness of the heart,' that is caused by anger, it
+is, though unusually brief, delightfully incautious. Being addressed to
+men who could not well be deceived, the speech must be true, at least so
+far as they are concerned, in every particular; it does not contain a
+single appeal to God; and of no other among Cromwell's speeches, are the
+original MS. notes in existence. This speech, of the utmost historic
+importance, is essentially unheroic in tone and circumstance,--the
+querulous complaint of a master against servants who have overmastered
+him,--an assertion of supremacy made by a man, who felt that he was not
+really supreme. But the singularity that attends the address to the
+recalcitrant officers is not yet exhausted. Surprise may well be felt
+that Carlyle, with this speech before him, ventured on the construction
+of his false image of Cromwell, the Hero. Judged even as an ordinary
+ruler, he must have been a very sorry Protector who, according to his
+own showing, was only a sham supreme magistrate,--the minister, the
+'drudge,' of his servants but real masters--who had compelled him to
+call, and to dissolve Parliaments, and to impose on England those
+military despots.
+
+Carlyle has endowed his ideal Protector 'with the virtue to create
+belief,' by the force of self-assertion, which still finds its
+imitators, by pouring out contempt on all who differ from him, and by
+implying that, as all other Cromwellian authorities are 'stupidities and
+falsities,' he alone was wise and true. This was but a risky basis on
+which to exhibit 'this Oliver' to the world, as the noblest Hero 'among
+the noblest of Human Heroisms, this English Puritanism of ours,' and as
+'not a Man of falsehoods, but a Man of truths.' But reading over these
+words, and calling to mind the confidence with which Carlyle compels all
+to join with him in his Cromwell-worship, it is impossible to resist the
+conviction, that it was with good faith that he could see in Cromwell
+'the glimpses,' even the revelation 'of the god-like,' and that he would
+not attend to aught that disclosed Cromwell 'not' as 'august and divine,
+but hypocritical, pitiable, detestable.' Even though he claimed a
+familiar acquaintance with the 'Thurloe Papers,' he must have been
+ignorant, it is impossible to think otherwise, of the black stories
+which Cromwell's 'expertest of secretaries' could publish against his
+master.
+
+And passing from the worshipper to the Idol; surely it is but in
+accordance with common sense and common charity to hope that, as with
+Carlyle, so also with his Oliver, the real Cromwell was wholly shrouded
+from Cromwell's sight. That hope might, indeed, be forbidden by some. It
+might be argued that, although many a wrong-doing, such as bloodshed,
+oppression, or even treachery, has been committed by men in the sincere
+belief that they were doing God service, Cromwell cannot be placed among
+that group of self-deceivers: that he stands by himself, and on a lower
+level. It was to save himself, to propitiate a gang of mutinous
+servants, that Cromwell contrived and wrought out the deception of
+March, 1655, and obtained in the bloodshed that it produced, the
+essential result that he desired. And then, to give validity to his
+imposture, to grace it with the Divine sanction, he ascribed his course
+of acted and uttered lies, and the cruelty and misery they had
+engendered, to God himself.
+
+Undoubtedly that statement is true. But yet on the other hand it may be
+pleaded, that nothing but an intense living conviction, that God was
+with him in all his ways, could have enabled Cromwell to make 'with
+comfort' his 'appeal to God, whether' the Insurrection of March 1655
+'hath been the matter of Our Choice' or 'according to Our own
+inclinations?'
+
+This is but a sorry plea to urge in Cromwell's behalf. The blackness and
+the fury of the storm, which roared across England during his dying
+hours, cannot have exceeded the blinding energy of that strong delusion,
+that ever drove him onward, through his cruel and crooked devices, fully
+persuaded that 'God was even such a one as' himself. Though all may
+agree in believing that it was not from the lips, but truly from the
+heart--not to cheat his hearers, but in a veritable ecstasy--that
+Cromwell claimed to stand before God, as one who 'had learned too much
+of God, to dally with him,' still it must be felt, that such an
+assertion, coming from such a Protector, reveals a mental condition that
+baffles the understanding. But as man, when he shrinks from passing
+judgment on another, ever takes the better part; and as even with the
+best amongst us, the relation of the soul to God is a question which, of
+all others, should not be intermeddled with, assuredly we must leave
+Cromwell, whose being is one of 'the deep things of God,' to His
+judgment.--'Hell and destruction are before the Lord: how much more then
+the hearts of the children of men?'
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] 'Report of French Ambassador in Holland.' Thurloe, iii. 322.
+
+[31] 'Clarendon' (Bodleian Papers), iii. II.
+
+[32] 'Clarendon,' ed. 1839, 871. 'Clarendon' (Bodleian Papers), Cal.
+iii. 13 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2535. fo. 637.
+
+[33] We thus found this conjecture: Cromwell held an intercepted letter
+from the King to Mr. Roles, addressed to him under his alias, Mr. Upton,
+expressed in terms of entire confidence (Thurl. iii. 75); but Roles was
+not arrested. And the suspicion inspired by the immunity which Cromwell
+granted to such a conspicuous Royalist, was confirmed by finding that
+Thurloe in a letter (dated 6th April, 1655) to Manning the spy, refers
+to 'Mr. Upton' as their common friend. (Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2542.
+fo. 166.)
+
+[34] Masonet. See Note, 'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian) Cal. iii. 14
+Carlyle, iv. 108.
+
+[35] Information of J. Dallington, R. Glover, J. Stradling, E. Turner.'
+Thurloe iii. 35, 74, 146, 181, 222.
+
+[36] Several Proceedings, &c. Thurs., 8th Feb.--15th Feb. 1655.
+'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian Cal.) iii. 16.
+
+[37] Thurloe, iii. 164.
+
+[38] Thurloe, iii. 137, 180, 190, 198, 224.
+
+[39] Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2535, fo. 637. This communication appears
+in an anonymous letter addressed to Nicholas. Mr. Warner, with that
+ready help that he and his department afford, by a comparison of the
+handwriting, attributes that letter to Col. Price, who shared in
+Rochester's expedition.
+
+[40] 'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian), Cal. iii. 23.
+
+[41] Thurloe, iii. 573.
+
+[42] Ibid., iv. 344.
+
+[43] Thurloe, iii. 122, 182. Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus., 2535, fo. 627
+
+[44] Whitlock, 625. Thurloe, iii. 359, 382.
+
+[45] Thurloe, iii. 391.
+
+[46] Thurloe, iii. 162 172, 177, 182, 219, 243, Rolls Cal. (1655), 73.
+
+[47] Thurloe, iii. 238, 243.
+
+[48] Heath's Chronicle, 367.
+
+[49] Thurloe, iii. 176, 181, 191.
+
+[50] 'Rolls Cal.' (1655), p. 216; Baynes Coll., Add. MSS. Brit. Mus.
+21,424 fo. 50; Thurloe, iii. 226.
+
+[51] Thurloe, iii. 210, 222, 228, 241, 253.
+
+[52] Ibid., iii. 298, 356. In addition to constant terror of 'the
+Barbadoes,' to which all Cromwell's prisoners were subject, a Royalist
+in the Tower mentions, in a pencilled letter, that he had been
+threatened with torture; and that the Protector himself used the menace
+of the rack rests on the evidence of another prisoner's
+brother.--'Clarendon Papers,' Bodleian Cal., iii. 82, 87.
+
+[53] Thurloe, iii. 676.
+
+[54] Pell Coll. Landsdowne MSS., 752. fo. 275, 282. Baynes Coll. Add.
+MSS. 21, 423, fo. 74. Thurloe, iii. 170, 224, 246, 248, 253, 281, 284.
+'Rolls Cal., 1655, 81, 84, 88, 99, 200.
+
+[55] Thurloe, iii. 281, 335.
+
+[56] 'Clarendon Papers,' Bodleian Cal., iii. 27, 34, 36. 'Rolls Cal'
+(1655), 193, 245. Thurloe, iii. 358, 530, 561, 659.
+
+[57] Whalley's Statement; Burton, iv, 155.
+
+[58] Adapted from the 'Declaration' of Oct. 1655, and Speech. Carlyle,
+iv. 107, Vol. 162.--_No. 324_
+
+[59] Carlyle, iv. 108, 111.
+
+[60] Pell Corresp., Landsdowne MSS. Brit. Mus. 752, fo 275, 289. Hist
+Rec. Comn. 6th Report, 438.
+
+[61] 1 Dec. 1654. Pell Corr., Lans. MSS. Brit. Mus., 752 fo. 215, 220.
+
+[62] 27 Feb. 1657. Burton, i. 383. Carlyle, iv. 177.
+
+
+
+
+Art. VI.--1. _Oceana, or England and her Colonies._ By James Anthony
+Froude. London, 1886.
+
+2. _Through the British Empire._ By Baron von Hübner. 2 vols. London,
+1886.
+
+3. _The Western Pacific and New Guinea._ By Hugh Hastings Romilly,
+Deputy Commissioner of the Western Pacific. London, 1886.
+
+
+In days when proposals for the dismemberment of the Empire can be put
+forward by great leaders of public opinion without exciting either
+indignation or surprise, it may be worth the while of Englishmen to
+spend a few hours in making themselves acquainted with the volumes which
+we have cited at the head of this article. Most men are so absorbed in
+what is going on immediately under their eyes, that they seldom bestow a
+thought upon the remoter portions of the vast territory which
+acknowledge allegiance to the Queen. They have but the most vague ideas,
+or none at all, concerning the thoughts, wishes, and purposes, of the
+large and growing communities which sprung from these islands, and which
+have hitherto been proud of their English origin. It is true that this
+pride has not been increasing of late years. The neglect or contempt
+with which the Colonies have been treated by successive Liberal
+Administrations did much to estrange the people, especially of Canada
+and Australasia, and the whole foreign policy of England under Mr.
+Gladstone's rule served to strengthen the general impression that our
+decadence had not only set in, but was advancing with a rapidity which
+was palpable to all the world except to those who were chiefly concerned
+in arresting it. Mr. Froude tells us that one of the shrewdest and most
+eminent of all the colonists whom he met expressed his amazement at the
+popularity in this country of Mr. Gladstone,--an amazement which, Mr.
+Froude adds, is felt 'wherever the English language is spoken' outside
+England itself. We can fully confirm this statement. The hold which Mr.
+Gladstone retains upon the country, after the long series of
+unparallelled mistakes which a faithful view of his career must forever
+associate with his name--the mistakes abroad, the mistakes at home, the
+crowning and almost incredible mistakes in Ireland; that he should still
+keep his hold of power and popularity after all this, absolutely passes
+the understanding of our fellow-subjects abroad, no matter what politics
+they profess. To them, we appear to be a people controlled by some
+Circean spell, having cast common-sense and prudence to the winds, and
+decided to be ruled henceforth by the man who can tickle our ears with
+the longest speeches and the smoothest words. Byron was accustomed to
+say that he looked upon the opinion of America as the verdict of
+posterity. It is certain that our own kinsfolk beyond the seas are
+sometimes in a far better position to realize the consequences of what
+we are doing here than those who are actually playing the game. We are
+too much wrapped up in self-complacency to allow their opinions to have
+any weight with us, but they have the satisfaction, such as it is, of
+seeing all their prognostications verified one after the other, and of
+knowing that a rude and stern awakening from our dreams is hanging over
+us.
+
+Of the three books to which we invite attention, Mr. Froude's is least
+like the average book of travel, and undoubtedly is the most suggestive
+of thought. Whether we agree with Mr. Froude or whether we do not, it is
+always a pleasure to read him. The 'shoddy' work which extends to
+everything in the present day, and which is eating into the very heart
+of our new literature, has not corrupted the older handicraftsmen among
+us. Not one record of travel in a hundred deserves to be mentioned in
+the same breath with 'Oceana;' there are not very many books of the kind
+in the language which excel it in variety, in vigour of style, in
+picturesqueness of description, or in vivid glimpses of insight into
+personal character. Baron Hübner is a more genial, discursive, and
+garrulous traveller. He tells us everything that comes into his mind,
+and has a note about everything he saw. We must add that these notes
+are, generally speaking, of great interest, and often very amusing. He
+undertook a journey over the greater part of the British Dominions, at a
+somewhat advanced period of life, for his readers ought to be reminded
+that he is the last survivor of the Congress of Paris, and that few men
+have had more valuable experience in the diplomatic service. Before he
+started, the Baron heard that his project was freely discussed at the
+Traveller's Club. Some said, 'what a plucky old fellow he is!' His
+comment upon this shows that he knows something of men as well as of
+places: 'If any harm befals me, they will say, "what an old fool he
+was!"' Happily, there was no occasion for pronouncing this judgment upon
+him. He followed out his prescribed route with wonderful success, and he
+has presented a graceful and highly interesting narrative of his
+adventures. His observations may, in many respects, be usefully compared
+with those of Mr. Froude, though it will not do to carry this comparison
+much further. We must, however, do the Baron the justice to acknowledge,
+that he always manifests an earnest desire to be fair and just. As for
+the third book on our list, it has the advantage of being short and to
+the point, and the additional advantage of being founded upon a
+personal residence in one of the islands of the Western Pacific. Travels
+based upon something more substantial than a mere flying visit are not
+too common, and we are grateful to Mr. Romilly for making a very
+entertaining addition to the number. We should be equally glad to
+receive the account of North New Guinea which a Russian gentleman, Mr.
+Miklaho Maclay, is so well able to furnish. It so chanced that he was
+landed one night on the north coast of New Guinea, and in the morning
+the natives found him sitting upon his portmanteau, like a man waiting
+for a train. They took him for a being of supernatural origin, but by
+way of making sure, they fired arrows at the stranger, tied him to a
+tree, and forced spears down his throat. As he survived these injuries,
+though by a narrow chance, the first impression of the natives was
+confirmed, and Mr. Maclay was afterwards treated in a manner which seems
+to have left him little ground for complaint. Thus far Mr. Maclay, as
+Mr. Romilly informs us, has declined to commit any account of his
+experience to paper; but a resolution of this kind is seldom unalterable
+when a man has anything new to tell the world.
+
+Mr. Froude, as we have already intimated, intersperses the records of
+travel with weighty reflections, or with valuable information, no part
+of which can be prudently ignored by the reader. We do not know, for
+instance, where in a short compass the arguments for and against
+Colonial Federation have been so clearly set forth. As a rule, the
+colonists everywhere view with great aversion the idea of placing
+themselves under the direct authority of Downing Street, and no one will
+be surprised at this who recollects the treatment they have almost
+invariably received from that quarter. On the other hand, they are by no
+means impatient or eager to proclaim their independence. 'British they
+are,' says Mr. Froude, 'and British they wish to remain.' It will not be
+their fault, but ours, if total separation ever becomes a popular cry in
+Australasia or in Canada. There have been projects of a purely _local_
+colonial confederation, but they are not regarded with much favour by
+the leading public men. Mr. Dalley of Sydney, expressed strongly his
+disapproval of the scheme, and he also objected to the plan of having
+the colonies represented in the Imperial Parliament by Colonial
+Agents-general. The one thing which seems at present to be universally
+desired is a better organization of the Navy. 'Let there be one Navy,'
+Mr. Dalley said, 'under the rule of a single Admiralty--a Navy in which
+the colonies should be as much interested as the mother country, which
+should be theirs as well as ours, and on which they might all rely in
+time of danger.' In these respects, the ideas of modern colonists differ
+widely from those held in the last century. The great grievance of the
+American colonists was that they were not represented in the British
+Parliament. Had that demand been conceded, Mr. Froude is of opinion that
+'Franklin and Washington would have been satisfied.' We do not quite
+agree with him, for the party of Independence, though small at first,
+was never likely to remain long contented with any compromise.
+Originally, indeed, as we all remember, the leaders of the Revolution
+disclaimed any intention of bringing about a separation. Franklin to the
+last protested his desire to keep the colonies united to the mother
+country; but Franklin was not the most sincere or straightforward of
+men. Undoubtedly, however, the American colonists did not begin the
+Revolution with the least desire to create a separate nationality, any
+more than in the great civil war of 1861-65 there was at first, or for a
+long time, any intention of effecting the abolition of slavery. Both
+ideas were acquired by the people by slow degrees. Massachusetts, New
+Hampshire, Virginia, and other States gave emphatic instructions to
+their delegates in 1774 to 'restore union and harmony between Great
+Britain and her Colonies,' and the party of independence was thoroughly
+unpopular down even to the close of the struggle. One of its leading
+spirits gave emphatic testimony on this point. 'For my own part,' wrote
+John Adams, 'there was not a moment in the Revolution when I would not
+have given everything I possessed for a restoration to the state of
+things before the contest began, provided we could have a sufficient
+security for its continuance.' This feeling had no small share in
+misleading George III. on the American question, and in deepening his
+determination not to let the colonies go--a fact which was brought out
+for the first time, we believe, by one of the ablest and most judicious
+of modern historians--Mr. Lecky. He also was the first to show, in a
+very striking manner, that the American Revolution was practically the
+work of a small minority, who, as he remarks--and the remark has no
+slight application to the other revolution now going on in our
+midst--'succeeded in committing an undecided and fluctuating majority to
+courses for which they had little love, and leading them step by step to
+a position from which it was impossible to recede.'[63] Nearly one-half
+of the Revolutionary army consisted of Irish, who have ever since played
+so important a part in the politics of the United States.
+
+In the present day, our colonists do not seek for separation,
+neither--if Mr. Froude is right--do they ask for representation at
+Westminster. They 'are passionately attached to their Sovereign,' and
+they desire that their Governors 'should be worthy always of the great
+person whom they represent.' They wish to have their trade encouraged,
+as it might so easily have been a few years ago, if we had possessed
+foresight enough to adopt a system of differential duties; they wish to
+have good immigrants, and they see the growing necessity for a strong
+navy. The information on these subjects which Baron Hübner acquired
+should be considered in connection with Mr. Froude's statements. It will
+be found that the two writers substantially agree. Baron Hübner found
+that the Australian colonists fully comprehend the disadvantage which
+complete independence would be to them. They are practically independent
+now, but they are spared the political and social turmoil in which the
+periodical election of a President would necessarily involve them. 'The
+Queen,' said one of the Baron's friends, 'sends every five years a
+Governor, who is not an autocrat like the President of the United
+States, but the representative of constitutional royalty. In America
+every four years, business is arrested, public order is disturbed, and
+passions are let loose to the point sometimes of threatening even public
+life itself. And why? In order that the nation may elect an absolute
+master, irremovable by law during his period of office. Here every one
+understands this, and every one knows how to leave well alone.' We do
+not quite see how the President of the United States can be described as
+an 'autocrat' or as an 'absolute master,' but the Australians are right
+in their conclusion, that the American system would be a sorry
+substitute for the arrangement which gives them a Governor without
+inconvenience to themselves, and without any risk of infringement upon
+their liberties.
+
+In the Cape Colony, the problem presents itself in a different form. In
+its origin--as everybody ought to know, but does not--it is not an
+English, but a Dutch Colony, and the Boers have never been disposed to
+render to English sovereignty more than a passive obedience. The chief
+facts in their recent history are but too easily recalled. When the
+Transvaal was annexed by Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the people at first
+submitted quietly; but the new Commissioner aroused first their fears,
+and then their anger, by various encroachments which were regarded as
+invasions of their rights. The Boers took up arms, English troops were
+despatched from the Cape to suppress the rising, and these troops were
+beaten at Lang's Neck. General Colley, who then commanded the forces at
+Natal, hastened forward with more troops in the hope of retrieving this
+disaster, but was himself beaten at Ingogo. He then, without waiting for
+the reinforcements which were on their way to him, took up a new
+position, was attacked by the Boers, and defeated in the memorable
+disaster at Majuba Hill. Mr. Gladstone forthwith surrendered everything,
+and since that time the Boers have been, as a matter of course, more and
+more antagonistic to the English power. 'They came to Africa,' says
+Baron Hübner, 'in 1652, with the intention of remaining there, and they
+do remain there. The future and Africa belong to them, unless they are
+expelled by a stronger power, the blacks or the English. They accept the
+struggle with the blacks, and they avoid all contact with the English.'
+Mr. Froude takes now, as he has always taken, a very strong view of our
+own responsibility for all the difficulties which have arisen with the
+Boers. We have, he says with some bitterness, 'treated them unfairly as
+well as unwisely, and we never forgive those whom we have injured.' The
+story is long, and it has been treated more than once, and we believe
+with strict fairness and impartiality, in these pages. Mr. Froude
+himself does not deny, that the effect of the surrender after Majuba
+Hill 'was to diminish infallibly the influence of England in South
+Africa, and to elate and encourage the growing party whose hope was and
+is to see it vanish altogether.' The work was not half done. We insisted
+upon a new Treaty, which was immediately broken by the Boers. Mr. Froude
+once more recommends us to 'leave the Cape alone'--not to get out of it,
+but to allow the Boers to manage their affairs in their own way. 'Our
+interferences,' he tells us, 'have been dictated by the highest motives;
+but experience has told us, and ought to have taught us, that in what we
+have done or tried to do, we have aggravated every evil which we most
+desired to prevent. We have conciliated neither person nor party.'
+
+Baron Hübner arrived at his conclusions by a totally different road from
+that pursued by Mr. Froude, but the burden of his story is much the
+same. It is the indecision of the Central Government, the uncertainty in
+which the Colony is always kept as to what will happen to them next,
+which causes nearly all the mischief. We have treated the Cape Colony as
+we have treated Ireland, and with every prospect of bringing about the
+same results. First 'coercion,' then abject surrender, then coercion
+again--'a process,' as Mr. Froude justly remarks, 'which drives nations
+mad, as it drives children, yet is inevitable in every dependency
+belonging to us which is not entirely servile, so long as it lies at the
+will and mercy of so uncertain a body as the British Parliament.' Baron
+Hübner, who stands beyond the influence of our party politics, tells us
+the same thing in other words. We want a policy, he says, in effect,
+which shall be permanent in its application, and therefore not affected
+by changes in Ministries. The fact is that we want such a policy for
+many parts of our Empire besides South Africa, and we are likely to want
+it. With Parliaments elected at short and frequent intervals, and
+depending largely on shifting caprices, there is not likely to be any
+fixed principle in dealing with political problems arising either at our
+own doors or thousands of miles away.
+
+There is one question in which all the colonists take a deep interest,
+and that is the condition and prospects of our trade. The Colonies are
+now our best customers, and we sincerely hope they will continue to be
+so, for with them we may possibly get, even yet, something like Free
+Trade, whereas no chance of securing even an approach to it can be
+looked for in the rest of the world. The Colonies will always raise at
+the Custom House the greater part of the money they want for the
+expenses of internal government, but they may be induced to offer
+England more favourable terms than other nations receive. In Australia,
+as elsewhere, it begins to be doubted whether 'England can trust
+entirely to Free Trade and competition to keep the place she has
+hitherto held.' If all our Colonies were bound with us in one commercial
+federation, we could make sure of Free Trade over a large part of the
+world's surface. 'We should have purchasers for our goods,' remarks Mr.
+Froude, 'from whom we should fear no rivalry; we should turn in upon
+them the tide of our emigrants which now flows away.' But at present,
+and with the fiscal system of 1846 still regarded as sacred and
+inviolable, nothing can be done. When we are prepared to acknowledge
+that the world has moved since 1846, and that we must move with it,
+there may be a possibility of widening the field of our
+commerce--unless, indeed, we delay too long. Public opinion in England
+is beginning to stir upon the subject. The demand for a great and
+radical change will come, when it does come, from the working men, and
+they are already showing signs of deep interest in a matter which
+concerns the very means of their livelihood. They are in advance of
+Parliament and Ministries on this subject. Mr. Froude is well within
+bounds in asserting that 'those among us who have disbelieved all along
+that a great nation can venture its whole fortunes safely on the power
+of underselling its neighbours in calicoes and iron-work, no longer
+address a public opinion entirely cold.' What, perhaps, has tended as
+much as anything else to open our eyes is the discovery, that other
+nations begin to be able to undersell us, not only in foreign markets,
+but even in our own--here in England, at Sheffield, Birmingham, and
+Manchester. Carlyle usually defined the Free Trade theory as the system
+of 'cheap and nasty.' As we have never had Free Trade, and therefore as
+it has never been properly tested, it is impossible to say what effects
+it was capable of producing, properly worked out. The great fact which
+confronts us to-day is that no other nation in the world, and not even
+our own colonists, will have anything whatever to do with it on any
+terms. This fact, at least, the English workingmen are beginning to see
+and to understand, and results will flow from it at present not
+anticipated by 'statesmen,' who know little or nothing about the hard
+matter-of-fact conditions under which trade is carried on, and who are
+assiduously primed by underlings with statistics which they repeat by
+rote, and as to the real value or signification of which they are
+completely and hopelessly in the dark.
+
+According to Baron Hübner, the Australian colonists have not abandoned
+the hope of forming a customs' union with the mother country, and they
+are far from regarding the proposals for giving them representation in
+Parliament with the indifference which Mr. Froude imagines that he
+detected. No one yet seems to have made even an effort to settle the
+details of a scheme by which a navy could be kept up for the defence of
+the Colonies, and an Imperial Zollverein formed between England and her
+foreign possessions. But the 'advanced men,' according to Baron Hübner,
+feel convinced that the idea can be carried out, and they are desirous
+of finding, as a preliminary, direct representation in some form at
+Westminster. The growth of this idea, says Baron Hübner, 'of a grand
+confederation, which would completely revolutionize Old England, or
+rather, which would create a new England by the handiwork and after the
+pattern of her children in Australia--the growth of this idea among the
+masses is, to my mind, an indubitable fact.' More improbable things have
+happened than that England, weakened at home by the selfish ambition of
+her statesmen, and by the frenzy of party warfare, may be saved by the
+patriotism of her descendants in other lands. The first opportunity
+which the colonists have had of evincing their determination to stand by
+the old country was promptly taken advantage of, and with a heartiness
+of spirit that we hope is not yet forgotten, quickly as all events,
+great or small, are nowadays crammed into 'the wallet of oblivion.' The
+offers of colonial aid during the Egyptian war roused a feeling
+throughout the Colonies which astonished all Europe, and probably took
+many of the colonists themselves by surprise. 'When English interests
+were in peril,' Mr. Froude tells us, 'I found the Australians, not cool
+and indifferent, but _ipsis Anglicis Angliciores_, as if at the
+circumference the patriotic spirit was more alive than at the centre.
+There was a general sense that our affairs were being strangely
+mismanaged.' The men who think and talk like this are not struggling for
+place and power amid the demoralizing surroundings of modern
+Parliamentary life. They are able to take a cool and dispassionate view
+of us and our affairs, and they begin to think that public life has
+degenerated into a mere scramble for the spoils of office. Their
+indignation, when Gordon was deserted by the Government which he had
+tried to serve, was far greater than we seem to have had any experience
+of amongst ourselves. They looked upon him as 'the last of the race of
+heroes who had won for England her proud position among the nations; he
+had been left to neglect and death, and the national glory was sullied.'
+They volunteered to come over and help us fight our battles. The
+Colonial Office, then under Lord Derby, was for a few days disposed to
+turn the cold shoulder to these efforts of assistance. But the feeling,
+which had been aroused in the country by the first announcements in the
+newspapers, was too deep to be mistaken. It broke through the ice in
+which the Colonial Office is usually imbedded, and compelled Lord Derby
+to make a warm and grateful response to the Colonies. In reality, the
+people there are, as many travellers besides Mr. Froude have remarked,
+more English than the English themselves in their sensitiveness as
+regards the national honour. We talk very coolly here of 'standing
+aside,' of 'having seen our best days,' and of giving up one part of our
+inheritance after another; but the Englishmen abroad are animated by
+very different sentiments. The love of the 'old home' is strong in them,
+even though they may have been born in the Colonies. It shows itself in
+a thousand different ways. At Ballarat, Mr. Froude seems to have been
+struck with a garden which might have been attached to an old cottage in
+Surrey or Devonshire. There were cabbage-roses, pinks, columbines,
+sweet-williams, laburnums, and honey-suckle--all prized because they
+were the flowers of Old England. The people everywhere speak the
+language with remarkable purity. The aspirate is rarely misplaced,
+unless by a recent immigrant. The misuse of the aspirate is, indeed, a
+peculiar part of the birthright of an Englishman. No one ever yet heard
+it from the poorest or most illiterate class in the United States. In
+Australia, says Mr. Froude, 'no provincialism has yet developed itself.
+The tone is soft, the language good.' The young people looked fresh and
+healthy, 'not lean and sun-dried, but fair, fleshy, lymphatic.' Mr.
+Froude could not see any difference between his countrymen at home and
+those who had settled down in this new and wider field of industry. 'The
+leaves that grow on one branch of an oak are not more like the leaves
+that grow upon another, than the Australian swarm is like the hive it
+sprung from.' Mr. Service, the Prime Minister of Victoria, fully shares
+the English predilections of his fellow colonists, but he appears to
+feel some irritation at the tone so frequently adopted by the Liberal
+press and party in this country, and emphatically urged in their day by
+Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright. This tone is founded upon the argument, 'The
+Colonies are of no use to us; therefore the sooner they take themselves
+off the better.' If some leaders and members of the Liberal party had
+their way, we should be without a colony in the world, without India,
+and with Ireland close to our own doors a hostile and an independent
+Foreign Power.
+
+With regard to India it is to Baron Hübner's records of a very
+remarkable journey, that we must turn for the notes of the most recent
+traveller. The work is not so exhaustive, especially as regards the
+Native States, as M. Rousselet's 'L'Inde des Rajahs,' but it is
+eminently readable and lively, and the author gives abundant evidence,
+that he took with him everywhere an earnest desire to arrive at the
+truth, and a determination to form his conclusions with strict
+impartiality. It is evident that in India he soon began to feel the
+influence of that peculiar spell which the country exercises over most
+persons of a susceptible or imaginative temperament. 'India,' he says,
+'has always fascinated me, 'and few who have travelled there will not be
+ready to make the same confession. It is much to be hoped that the
+Radicals will be induced to listen to Baron Hübner's testimony
+concerning the way in which we carry on government in our great Eastern
+dependency. Nowhere, strange as it may appear, but in our own country is
+English rule misunderstood or misrepresented. Injustice is
+systematically done to the purest, most conscientious, and most
+industrious Civil Service in the whole world; and our countrymen who are
+spending the best part of their lives in the effort to promote the
+welfare and prosperity of India, are too often held up to opprobrium as
+examples of merciless tyrants, whose only object is to grind down the
+natives into the dust. We seem to be losing many of the characteristics
+which formerly distinguished us in the world, but there is one which
+marks us out very plainly from all other nations--the habit of
+disparaging our own achievements and vilifying our own reputation. We do
+not find the Germans pertinaciously seeking to bring into disrepute the
+efforts now being made to extend their colonial possessions; the
+Americans have a motto, upon which they invariably act: 'our
+country--right or wrong.' This may be carrying a good principle a little
+too far; but it is better than the course we pursue, of striving with
+might and main to dishonour our past, and to place our country in the
+most contemptible light before the rest of mankind. Instead of our
+having any reason to be ashamed of what we have done in and for India,
+we have every cause to be proud of it; and, if English people had an
+adequate knowledge of that work, and were in a position to exercise
+their common-sense on the question, untrammelled by agitators and
+demagogues, they would acknowledge gladly that they were heartily proud
+of it. We believe that the great body of Englishmen in India are
+honestly endeavouring to do their duty, according to the measure of
+their abilities, and that, if any event occurred to cause our removal
+from the country, it would inflict the direst forms of suffering and
+calamity upon the people. It is important to hear what a foreigner, not
+unduly prejudiced in our favour, has to say upon these points. First,
+then, in reference to the men who are engaged in the practical work of
+government--the Civil Service--Baron Hübner says:--
+
+     'I have met everywhere men devoted to their service, working
+     from morning till evening, and finding time, notwithstanding
+     the mutiplicity of their daily labours, to occupy themselves
+     with literature and serious studies. India is governed
+     bureaucratically, but this bureaucracy differs in more than
+     one respect from ours in Europe. To the public servant in
+     Europe one day is like another; some great revolution, some
+     European war, is needed to disturb the placid monotony of
+     his existence. In India it is not so. The variety of his
+     duties enlarges and fashions the mind of the Anglo-Indian
+     official; and the dangers to which he is occasionally
+     exposed serve to strengthen and give energy to his
+     character. He learns to take large views and to work at his
+     desk while the ground is trembling beneath his feet. I do
+     not think I am guilty of exaggeration in declaring that
+     there is not a bureaucracy in the world better educated,
+     better trained to business, more thoroughly stamped with the
+     qualities which make a statesman; and, what none will
+     dispute, more pure and upright than that which administers
+     the government of India.'
+
+Of late years, as everybody is aware, a demand has sprung up for 'local
+self-government' in India--a demand not originating with natives
+themselves, but with the sentimentalists and philosophers who are doing
+their best and their worst to take all the manliness out of the English
+character. Lord Ripon was the mechanical mouthpiece of this sect, and
+there can be no doubt whatever that no Governor-General or Viceroy of
+India ever did so much harm in so short space of time. He and his school
+tried their utmost to persuade the natives that what they want is 'Home
+Rule'--that panacea for all the evils of modern life which is likely to
+entail so many new burdens and trials upon us. The natives of India
+never suspected, until Lord Ripon strove to impress it upon them, that
+Home Rule is indispensable to their happiness. They are perfectly well
+aware that if our hold upon the country is ever relaxed, there will be
+nothing but chaos all through the land,--internecine wars, rebellions,
+and massacres, such as marked the history of India until our rule became
+well established there. Lord Ripon closed his eyes to all
+this--_doctrinaire_ at heart, he could see nothing but his own
+crotchets. The native, he declared, must have local self-government. But
+Baron Hübner found that the people did not understand or desire this
+much vaunted contrivance. The native, he says, 'refuses to be elected by
+his equals. He wishes to be chosen by his superiors, and his superiors
+are the English officials, represented in this case by the district
+officer or magistrate. In the North-Western Provinces, this opposition
+was so strong that the Supreme Government have been obliged, much
+against their own views, to give to the Governor of those Provinces the
+power of constituting the municipalities.' The sentimentalists may try
+to develop the 'native mind' as they please, but they will never
+persuade Hindoos or Mussulmans to trust their own countrymen as they
+trust us. We have a reputation among them for fairness and for justice
+which no native would ever aim to deserve, although he is not incapable
+of understanding and admiring it. An East Indian of any race or religion
+will never speak the truth if he can possibly help himself, but he has a
+certain respect for the man who can and does. No doubt, the very
+earnestness, with which we seek to dispense equal justice among all
+classes, is a stumbling-block in our path, and always has been so. The
+native likes to deal with a judge who will wink at perjury, and who is
+not above taking a bribe. Yet the Englishman is everywhere trusted. 'If
+proof were needed,' says Baron Hübner, 'to show how deeply rooted among
+the populations is English prestige, I would quote the fact that
+throughout the peninsula the native prefers, in civil and still more in
+criminal cases, to be tried by an English judge. It would be
+impossible, I think, to render a more flattering testimony to British
+rule.' But these are facts which had no signification for Lord Ripon. He
+pursued a policy which, designedly or undesignedly, was calculated to
+bring our rule to an end. 'Lord Ripon's resolution,' some one told
+Baron Hübner, 'means nothing or means this: The Government foresees that
+the time will come when we must leave India to herself.' Then there was
+the Ilbert Bill, placing Europeans in the country districts under the
+jurisdiction of native judges. How could the natives of all classes fail
+to look upon this as another evidence that the reins of power were
+dropping from our nerveless hands? The point of the whole matter was
+thus put by one of the civilians to Baron Hübner:--'The principle, that
+the jurisdiction over European subjects of the Crown must be reserved
+for judges and magistrates who are also European subjects, has always
+been maintained. And it has always been recognized that in this
+principle lies the only possible effectual guarantee to Europeans living
+in country districts against the perjury and false witness so common
+among the rural populations.' The Ilbert Bill proposed to take away
+these safeguards from the European, and would have left him at the mercy
+of native judges and native witnesses, whose only idea of justice is to
+make a few rupees out of its administration.
+
+The school of Radicals represented only too numerously in the present
+Parliament--unreasoning, ignorant of India, impulsive, narrow and
+insular--is also represented among the more recent importations of
+'competition wallahs.' Baron Hübner met with many of them. 'In their
+opinion,' he says, 'the ideal of a sound English policy is the
+dismemberment of the British Empire, and above all the abandonment of
+India. To save England, it is necessary first to destroy her.' To the
+shrewd and experienced Austrian diplomatist, these ideas seem to be
+absolutely ruinous, but the oddity of it is that thousands of persons in
+England cling to them with a sort of idolatry, as if within them was
+compressed the sum and substance of human wisdom. The Radical party
+to-day lives upon these theories of dismemberment, although it is
+careful to keep its ultimate aim as much as possible in the background.
+In India, its adherents are doing an immense amount of harm. Baron
+Hübner seems to have been struck with amazement at the phenomenon. 'This
+is, indeed,' he exclaims, 'a curious and perhaps a unique spectacle--an
+immense administration, managed according to doctrines which are
+repudiated by the large majority of those who compose it.' The natives
+who are educated in our schools and colleges emerge from them filled
+with ideas of Socialism and Atheism. We break down their faith in their
+own creeds, without succeeding in inducing them to adopt Christianity.
+They find themselves free to construct a religion of their own, or to do
+without any religion. As regards the Government, they are led to
+believe that it ought not to be where it is, and that India should be
+ruled by its own people. The native press is full of sedition. Let us
+hear what Baron Hübner has to say upon this subject, for it is worth
+attention:--
+
+     'Is there any public opinion in India? It is declared that
+     there is none. And yet people agree in saying that the
+     natives who have been educated in the State colleges have
+     become singularly importunate of late years, that they are
+     beginning to adopt a high tone, and that they take especial
+     delight in criticising the acts of the Government, who,
+     unwisely, as it seems to me, encourage if not provoke such
+     criticism. These baboos and their newspapers, I am told,
+     would only become dangerous at a crisis; and by a crisis is
+     understood a disastrous European war. But the life of
+     nations, like that of individuals, is nothing but a series
+     of successes and reverses. Looked at from this point of
+     view, the baboo is not such an insignificant being as he
+     appears to be considered.'
+
+No doubt our Radicals would contend that the Austrian's notion, that it
+is unwise on the part of the Government to encourage criticism directed
+against itself, is worthy of a man who has seen the Napoleonic _régime_,
+and who perhaps admires the 'one man' form of government. But what is
+the English Radical party itself living under now? Was ever the 'one man
+form of government' carried out in so relentless a fashion as we see it
+now in Parliament? Is there not one man in the Government, surrounded by
+a crowd of nonentities--the one man filling the exact position for which
+the Americans have invented the significant word 'Boss'? All liberty of
+thought or freedom of action is gone. The principle insisted upon is 'do
+whatever our leader tells us; go where he leads; give what he asks--all
+without murmuring or discontent. The man who murmurs must be drummed out
+of the ranks.' If we saw the French submitting to this system, no words
+that we could use would be strong enough to express our contempt for
+them. As we happen to be doing it ourselves, it must, of course, be good
+and wise. Granted that it is so, we may fairly ask even the Radicals
+whether they are quite sure that it is wise to think of giving up India?
+With what do they propose to replace our government? The testimony of
+every fair-minded man is that we have accomplished an incalculable
+amount of excellent work there. Our magnificent highways and railroads,
+our appliances for irrigation, would alone make our name immortal in the
+country. The people thrive under our rule; every man is secure in the
+possession of his property; war no longer devastates the country. We
+recommend everybody who is unaware of these and similar facts to
+consider well the evidence adduced by Baron Hübner:--
+
+     'Materially speaking, India has never been as prosperous as
+     she is now. The appearance of the natives, for the most part
+     well clothed, and of their villages and well-furnished
+     cottages, and of their well-cultivated fields, seems to
+     prove this. In their bearing there is nothing servile; in
+     their behaviour towards their English masters there is a
+     certain freedom of manner, and a general air of
+     self-respect; nothing of that abject deference which strikes
+     and shocks new comers in other Eastern countries. I have no
+     means of comparing the natives of to-day with the natives of
+     former generations, but I have been able to compare the
+     populations who owe direct allegiance to the Empress with
+     the subjects of the feudatory princes. For example, when you
+     cross the frontier of Hyderabad, the climate, the soil, the
+     race, are the same as those you have just quitted, but the
+     difference between the two States is remarkable, and
+     altogether to the advantage of the Presidency of Madras or
+     of Bombay.'
+
+He goes on to say, that no one can deny that the British India of to-day
+presents a spectacle that has no parallel in the history of the world:
+
+     'What do we see? Instead of periodical, if not permanent,
+     wars, profound peace firmly established throughout the whole
+     Empire; instead of the exactions of chiefs always greedy for
+     gold, and not shrinking from any act of cruelty to extort
+     it, moderate taxes, much lower than those imposed by the
+     feudatory princes; arbitrary rule replaced by even-handed
+     justice; the tribunals, once proverbially corrupt, by
+     upright judges whose example is already beginning to make
+     its influence felt on native morality and notions of right;
+     no more Pindarris, no more armed bands of thieves; perfect
+     security in the cities as well as in the country districts,
+     and on all the roads; the former bloodthirsty manners and
+     customs now softened, and, save for certain restrictions
+     imposed in the interests of public morality, a scrupulous
+     regard for religious worship, and traditional usages and
+     customs; materially, an unexampled bound of prosperity, and
+     even the disastrous effects of the periodical famines, which
+     afflict certain parts of the peninsula, more and more
+     diminished by the extension of railways which facilitate the
+     work of relief. And what has wrought all these miracles? The
+     wisdom and the courage of a few directing statesmen, the
+     bravery and the discipline of an army composed of a small
+     number of Englishmen and a large number of natives, led by
+     heroes; and lastly, and I will venture to say principally,
+     the devotion, the intelligence, the courage, the
+     perseverance, and the skill, combined with an integrity
+     proof against all temptation, of a handful of officials and
+     magistrates who govern and administer the Indian Empire.'
+
+Such is the testimony of an Austrian. It ought to bring a flush of shame
+to the faces of not a few Englishmen.
+
+We have scarcely alluded to the lighter parts of Baron Hübner's
+volumes--to the excellent touches of description or sketches of
+character which enliven his pages, or to the numerous pleasantly-told
+anecdotes of personal adventure. One of these anecdotes is worth
+repeating, though the author must pardon us if we tell it in our own
+way. It is too characteristic of life in New York--too full of valuable
+hints for future travellers--to be lost sight of.
+
+It appears that on his last morning in New York, the Baron found that
+his note-book had been taken from his room in the hotel. His servant and
+his baggage had already gone on to the steamer, and the Baron prepared
+to follow. First, however, as he still had two hours to spare, he
+thought he would take a final glimpse of Fifth Avenue. These are the
+little accidents which generally decide our fate in life--the visit to
+some friend, the call on a stranger, the unpremeditated walk. As the
+Baron was passing along, a carriage suddenly stopped, a
+'fashionably-dressed gentleman' jumped out, and ran up to the traveller
+with a cordial salutation. He introduced himself as a guest who had
+dined, with the Baron, at a dinner given by Lord Augustus Loftus in
+Sydney. 'I am one of the admirers,' he said, 'of your "Promenade autour
+du Monde," and I venture to ask you to do me the favour of writing your
+name in my copy of that book. In return, pray accept a volume of
+Longfellow's poems, with the author's autograph.' The fashionable
+stranger had skilfully touched the weak place in an author's heart.
+Baron Hübner consented to be driven back to his hotel, where his new
+friend was also residing. On the way, the stranger suddenly bethought
+himself that the two books were at the house of an acquaintance, 'two
+steps from the hotel.' He put his head out of the window, gave some
+fresh directions to the coachman, and the Baron soon found himself being
+whirled along at a furious rate along streets which he did not
+recognize. Still, the old traveller had no suspicion of anything wrong.
+His voyages and adventures certainly seem to have left him in a more
+than ordinarily unsophisticated condition. At last the carriage stopped,
+our author was conducted into the dark passage of a small house, and
+then into a little dirty room, where he found a tall man seated before a
+table, with his back to a mirror. In that mirror, the Baron saw his dear
+friend from Sydney gently lock the door, and put the key in his pocket.
+Then he understood all about it.
+
+Of course the tall man was polite, and after promising to go and fetch
+the volume of Longfellow, he proposed to the gentleman from Sydney a
+game at cards. While the two men played their sham game, the Baron had
+time to reflect; he saw that he had been pounced upon very skilfully--in
+less than two hours the 'Bothnia' would sail, all the people at the
+hotel would think he had gone by her, no one would miss him, no one
+would search for him. He might be murdered with impunity--with what
+impunity the Baron would have fully realized if he had known a little
+more of New York. No city in the world presents greater facilities for
+getting rid of the evidences of foul play. We have not seen the recent
+statistics of murders in New York, and doubt whether they have been
+published; but in the five years between 1870 and 1875, we happen to
+know that 281 'homicides' were committed there, and that only seven of
+the murderers were hanged. Twenty-four were sent to prison--nominally
+for life, although that is a mere form--and more than one-fourth of the
+criminals were never brought to trial at all. If Baron Hübner had known
+all this, he would have regarded his two new acquaintances with even
+greater interest than he did.
+
+How and why they let him go scot-free is to us a mystery. They invited
+him to take a hand in the game, and he declined. They pretended to play
+for him; won, and offered him the stakes. He told them he had no money
+with him, that they would get nothing for their trouble, that the French
+Consul was to meet him on board the 'Bothnia' to bid him adieu; if he
+were not there a hue and cry at once would be raised. 'Then,' adds the
+Baron, 'turning to my friend from Sydney, I said to him, "Open the
+door." The ruffians gave in without further trouble. There was an
+exchange of looks between them, and the tall man said to the other,
+'show him out.' We have heard of many strange things happening in New
+York, but never of one so strange as that.' When I stepped upon the deck
+of the "Bothnia," says the Baron, 'a few minutes before departure, I
+felt that I had had a narrow escape.' Very narrow; we should advise
+Baron Hübner, if ever again he finds himself in New York, not to tempt
+his good fortune by taking a drive with strangers who admire his
+writings.
+
+For the novel and stirring incidents of travel, we must turn to Mr.
+Romilly's narrative of his experiences in the Western Pacific. He
+transports us to a comparatively little known region, and it was his
+good or ill fortune to come into contact with phases of life which must,
+it is to be hoped, for ever remain unknown to most of us. Few living
+men, for instance, have been present at a great feast on human flesh,
+cannibalism being one of the habits of savage life which is found to
+yield at the first touch of civilization. In New Ireland, however, Mr.
+Romilly happened to be present at a sort of state banquet, given in
+honour of a victory over the enemy. The enemy himself supplied the
+materials of the repast. The details of the preparation of the horrible
+food may be read in Mr. Romilly's pages by all who have a curiosity on
+the subject. Some few particulars concerning a compound called 'Sak-sak'
+may here be given:--
+
+     'They, [the heads of the victims] were then disposed of in
+     various ways, and when I asked what would be done with them,
+     I was told, "They will go to improve the sak-sak." The
+     natives on the East coast of New Ireland prepare a very
+     excellent composition of sago and cocoa-nut, called sak-sak.
+     I used to buy a supply of this every morning, as it would
+     not keep, for my men. Now it appeared that for the next week
+     or so, a third ingredient would be added to the sak-sak,
+     namely, brains. I need hardly say that for the next two days
+     of my stay I did not taste sak-sak, though my men made no
+     secret of doing so. The flesh in the ovens had to be cooked
+     for three days, or until the tough leaves in which it was
+     wrapped were nearly consumed. When taken out of the ovens
+     the method of eating it is as follows. The head of the eater
+     is thrown back, somewhat after the fashion of an Italian
+     eating macaroni. The leaf is opened at one end, and the
+     contents are pressed into the mouth until they are finished.
+     As Bill, my interpreter put it, "they cookum that fellow
+     three day; by-and-by cookum finish, that fellow all same
+     grease." For days afterwards, when everything is finished,
+     they abstain from washing, lest the memory of the feast
+     should be too fleeting.'
+
+Mr. Romilly was informed by the natives that human flesh tastes even
+better than pork. One is satisfied to take their word for it. In the New
+Hebrides it appears that the people prefer to eat it dried, or 'jerked.'
+At present, we are told,
+
+     'the cannibals in the world may be numbered by millions.
+     Probably a third of the natives of the country where I am
+     now writing (New Guinea) are cannibals; so are about
+     two-thirds of the occupants of the New Hebrides, and the
+     same proportion of the Solomon Islanders. All the natives of
+     the Santa Cruz group, Admiralties, Hermits, Louisiade,
+     Engineer, D'Entrecasteaux groups are cannibals, and even
+     some well-authenticated cases have occurred among the "black
+     fellows" of Northern Australia. I do not know that the fact
+     of a native being a cannibal makes him a greater savage.
+     Some of the most treacherous savages on this coast are
+     undoubtedly not cannibals, while most of the Louisiade
+     cannibals are a mild-tempered, pleasant set of men.'
+
+This testimony can do no harm in England, but it is to be hoped that Mr.
+Romilly will not repeat it too often among his black friends, or the
+moral of it might be misunderstood.
+
+The Solomon Islands still form a part of the world of which very little
+is known. They are rarely visited, and travellers who have gone for the
+purpose of 'taking notes,' have either altered their minds in good
+season, or never returned. Some years ago, Mr. Benjamin Boyd, a member
+of the Royal Yacht Squadron went out in his yacht, the 'Wanderer,' and
+was captured by the natives. Search was made for him from time to time,
+and his initials were found carved on trees. A notice was placed on all
+the goods sent to the natives to this effect: 'B. B., we are looking for
+you'--but no tidings were ever heard of the missing man. Mr. Romilly was
+told by the captain of a labour schooner that somewhere on the south
+coast he had noticed a European skull in a sort of temple; he recognized
+it as European from its size, and he also observed that one of the teeth
+was stopped with gold. We take it for granted that the dentists among
+the Solomon Islanders do not use gold for filling teeth. This, then, was
+probably the skull of the hapless owner of the 'Wanderer.' The Solomon
+Islanders now make a practice of killing white men, if it can be done
+safely, in revenge for the way in which they have been 'kidnapped' for
+the labour traffic. The diseases introduced by their treacherous white
+friends have made terrible ravages among them, and their own habits tend
+still further to reduce their numbers. There are several places,' says
+Mr. Romilly, 'where it is the custom to kill all, or nearly all, of the
+children soon after they are born.' This is the only region we ever
+heard of where so frightful and unnatural a custom exists. Female
+children are, or used to be, destroyed in many countries; but the
+indiscriminate slaughter of all children is decidedly uncommon. These
+islanders have another device which is supported by an argument not
+entirely devoid of strength. 'In a battle the victorious party, if they
+can surprise their enemies sufficiently to admit of a wholesale
+massacre, kill not only the men, but also the women and children. "We
+should be fools," say they, "if we did not. This must be revenged some
+day, if there are any men to do it; but how can they get men if we kill
+the women and children?"' The same thought has doubtless occurred to
+modern conquerors elsewhere, though, happily, circumstances have not
+enabled them to carry it into practical effect. Some other curious
+details respecting this group of islands, are given by Mr. Romilly. The
+old women it appears, become adepts in the occult sciences, and the men
+occasionally find the trade of wizard lucrative. They are chiefly called
+upon to bring about a change in the weather, and their plan of
+operations is to gain time. It resembles, in some striking features, the
+method adopted by the 'inspired statesman' of our own latitudes when he
+is trying to feel his way towards the development of some scheme which
+he is half afraid of himself, and which the public view with profound
+suspicion. Surely the most of us could find a counterpart to the
+individual described in the following passage:--
+
+     'One old sorcerer of my acquaintance was a most interesting
+     study. If he was asked for fine weather (which, by the way,
+     in the Solomons is the usual request, the rainfall being
+     enormous), he used to temporize in a truly masterly manner.
+     First he would hold out for more payment. This policy he
+     could continue for an indefinite length of time, as he would
+     of course require payment in a form which he knew was
+     difficult or impossible for the natives to comply with.
+     Then, if he thought there was any likelihood of fine weather
+     for a day or two, he would become possessed of a devil which
+     would leave him at once if the sun made its appearance, but
+     if the bad weather lasted the devil would last too; and
+     finally, if the bad weather was very obstinate and would not
+     come, he would hold out again for more payment. In this
+     manner my old sorcerer was very seldom mistaken in his
+     forecasts, and the influence he exerted over the clerk of
+     the weather must have been very irksome to that functionary.
+
+This leader of his tribe, we are further informed, had a 'great hold
+over the imagination of his dupes.' We are more civilized--or _we_ think
+so--than the islanders of the Western Pacific; but human nature is
+pretty much the same there as here. As for the philosophy of such
+matters, it is thus summed up by Mr. Romilly: 'I have often wondered
+what the sorcerer thinks of himself; whether he really believes himself
+to be a magician, or whether he realizes the fact that he is an arrant
+old humbug. I think there is a mixture of both feelings.' It would be
+useless to pursue this enquiry any further.
+
+Another of the unexplored islands of these seas forms a part of the
+Admiralty group, and is called Jesus Maria. It was visited by the
+'Challenger' in 1875, and again by Mr. Romilly on two occasions, the
+last in 1881, in H.M.S. 'Beagle.' The natives, a fierce and warlike
+race, crowded round the vessel, eager to sell everything they had
+including their babies. Bottles and hoop-iron were eagerly sought for.
+While engaged in carrying on this simple traffic, the party on board
+noticed, to their amazement a white man on shore who fired off a gun to
+attract their attention. The next day a boat rowed to the beach, and
+there stood the white man. He proved to be a Scotchman named David Dow,
+who was collecting _béche de mer_, and found his trade prospects so good
+that he desired to remain where he was. The Admiralty Islanders have
+some 'very singular customs,' not to be met with anywhere else; but
+after thus piquing our curiosity, Mr. Romilly ruthlessly balks it by
+remarking 'that they are, unfortunately, of a nature which cannot be
+described here.' We share his regret upon his being obliged to keep the
+secret; for when a traveller has found out anything absolutely fresh and
+startling, common humanity should, in these dull and overcast times,
+induce him to disclose it. But no doubt Mr. Romilly has his reasons for
+silence, and we must submit to them. The Germans have recently hoisted
+their flag upon several of these islands, and we may trust them to tell
+all that they can find out, and more.
+
+In the Laughlan islands--a small group--the Germans are also to be
+found. Indeed, they are spreading rapidly, over the Pacific Isles. As
+the spirit of adventure is dying out among Englishmen, it appears to be
+increasing in other nations. The genius for colonization appears to have
+fled from us to Germany. Certain it is that Germans are everywhere
+displaying that daring and enterprise in which we once shone above all
+other people in the world. They will probably end by becoming masters of
+the larger part of the Western Pacific. As for the Laughlan Islands, it
+cannot be said that any one whose lot takes him there need be regarded
+as an object of pity. The climate is good; food is abundant; life is
+tolerably easy. True, there are no newspapers and no Parliament; but
+existence has often been found supportable in the absence of these
+things. The natives are friendly; and there are no animals anywhere, not
+even rats. The men are decently clad, and the women wear a very
+voluminous kilt, sometimes two or three of them, over each other. These
+garments are made of grass, leaves, or fibre, stained various colours.
+'In wearing two or three, care is taken to produce an æsthetic mixture
+of colours--a little vanity which is met with sometimes at home amongst
+ladies who like to display petticoats of many colours. It is considered
+just as essential here to walk well as it is at home, but the two styles
+are not quite the same. The Laughlan lady, in walking, at each step
+gives a little twist to the hips, which has the effect of making the
+kilts fly out right and left, in what is considered a highly fashionable
+and beautiful manner. Though a somewhat similar effect to this may, I am
+informed, occasionally be seen in petticoats at home, still I fear that
+the firm stride of the Laughlan lady could hardly be reproduced in
+English boots. To see ten or twelve of these ladies walking in the
+unsociable formation of single file, which they adopt, with their
+many-coloured kilts flying out on either side, is a very pretty sight.'
+Evidently, a judicious traveller and observer might do worse than take a
+tour to the Laughlans.
+
+Two other interesting spots to visit are Thursday Island and Norfolk
+Island, both British possessions, and the first a place of some
+importance, as the centre of the Torres Straits pearl-shell fishery.
+This trade has demoralized the natives, who now seem to spend a great
+part of their time in getting drunk, the Europeans too often setting the
+example, 'It is a common thing,' says Mr. Romilly, 'for a diver to go
+down three-parts drunk. The dress is supposed to have a very sobering
+effect.' Here is a little story which will produce a pang of regret in
+the minds of the jewellers of Bond Street:--
+
+     'The best pearl I ever saw was in the possession of a
+     celebrated diver who was a shipmate of mine from Thursday
+     Island to Brisbane. He was offered on board the ship two
+     hundred pounds for it, which could not have been a third of
+     its value. But he refused every offer, as he had just been
+     paid off, and had plenty of money. I felt sure it would go
+     the way of all pearls when his money was finished, and
+     accordingly I informed a Sydney jeweller of it, and where he
+     could see it. When I was in Sydney a few weeks later I made
+     inquiries about it, and the jeweller told me that it was the
+     finest pear-shaped pearl he had ever seen, but that it was
+     unsaleable at its proper value in Australia, and he had
+     therefore made no attempt to buy it.'
+
+But the pearl fishery on these coasts is becoming less lucrative every
+year, and it is now falling almost entirely into the hands of natives,
+who can stay under water longer than men of our own race, and seem to be
+endowed with greater powers of endurance. As for the 'labour trade' of
+which we all have heard so much, Mr. Romilly gives us to understand that
+it is dying out. It arose under the stimulus which the American war gave
+to cotton growing, and to the sudden necessity for procuring assistance
+for the planters. At first, the natives were found ready enough to
+volunteer for the service, but the treatment they received was not
+calculated to encourage the spirit of volunteering. Then all sorts of
+artifices were tried to deceive them. Sometimes the labour-hunters
+pretended to be missionaries. 'On the usual question being asked, "Where
+shippy come?" they would reply, "Missionary." Perhaps they would all
+pretend to sing a hymn very slowly, while the hatches would be left
+open, and several tins of biscuits would be put into the hold.'
+Curiosity would gradually draw the natives aboard, and then the hatches
+would be clapped on, and the man-stealers made off for Queensland or
+Fiji. It is to be hoped that Mr. Romilly is right in stating that these
+practices have ceased, but unless we are mistaken, accounts have
+appeared in colonial journals, within a very recent period, of organized
+raids upon these coasts for the purpose of carrying off the natives. It
+is needless to say, that a sentiment of hostility to all white men is
+likely to remain as the permanent result of this abominable system.
+
+The fact is, that the white men who had the run of these islands down to
+a few years ago were chiefly the off-scourings of other countries. They
+found among the savages far fewer vices than they brought with them from
+the civilized world. Some of them had run away to escape from the
+vengeance of the laws which they had outraged; others were attracted by
+the freedom which an entirely new life opened up to them. From them have
+sprung a brood of half-castes who are the curse of the islands--like
+many other half-castes, they manage to combine the evil qualities of
+both races. The chief traders along the Pacific are now becoming much
+more respectable. Some of them, indeed, appear to emulate the style and
+condition of the prosperous English merchant. Mr. Romilly knows such a
+man, living 'within a day's march' of the wildest cannibals in the
+Pacific, who keeps up an establishment of forty or fifty men, with a
+French _chef_. 'In a hitherto almost unknown island, he will give you a
+dinner, every night, which could not be equalled at any private house or
+club in Australia.' He keeps a yacht for private exploring expeditions,
+and is to-day the principal 'trader and pioneer in the Pacific.' A
+narrative of his observations and experiences would be of very unusual
+interest, but like the Russian settler before referred to, he reserves
+for his own benefit the knowledge he has acquired. The Germans are
+pushing us hard, and in many respects they are better fitted for their
+work than English traders. There seems a fair prospect of a gradual
+elevation of social as well as of commercial life throughout the
+Pacific. Already, lawlessness is discouraged. Not so very many years
+ago, piracy was carried on openly in these seas. Mr. Romilly gives a
+very interesting and curious account of one of the last pirates, a
+desperado known as 'Bully Hayes,' once a boatman on the Mississippi.
+This man began life by robbing his father, and soon afterwards made his
+appearance on the Pacific coast the proud proprietor of a fifty-ton
+schooner. 'How he had obtained possession of this schooner,' says Mr.
+Romilly, 'was a matter of surmise, but he had been seen at Singapore not
+long before this time, and a fifty-ton schooner had mysteriously
+disappeared from that port without the knowledge of her captain and
+owner.' He carried on a bold career of plunder for many years, and only
+came to grief at last by an accident which he could not have foreseen.
+He had stolen another vessel, and was making for some of his favourite
+haunts along the coast, when the cook, who was steering, happened to
+give him some offence. At that time, Hayes was accustomed to settle all
+disputes off-handed with his revolver, and in accordance with this plan
+he ran below to get his 'shooting irons.' Mr. Romilly thus relates the
+sequel:--
+
+     'The cook objected, and, catching up the first piece of wood
+     he saw, got on to the top of the little deck-house over the
+     ladder, and, the moment Hayes showed his head above deck,
+     gave him a blow which killed him on the spot. This cook
+     seems to have been some what doubtful as to whether Hayes
+     was even now dead, so he fetched the largest anchor the
+     cutter possessed, and bound the body to it, after which he
+     hove anchor and body overboard, remarking, "For sure Massa
+     Hayes dead this time."'
+
+Mr. Romilly, in the course of his wanderings, made a journey to New
+Guinea, a portion of which has now been placed under British protection.
+Little is known of the resources of this country, trading operations
+having hitherto been almost entirely confined to the south coast. Mr.
+Romilly's visit was brief, and he was not enabled to add much to our
+previous stock of information. He does not seem to be aware of the
+progress which the Germans are making in this island, or of the results
+of the energetic support which Prince Bismarck invariably extends to his
+adventurous countrymen.
+
+Here, then, are three works which ought to have the effect of reviving
+the interest of the English people in their possessions abroad, if they
+have not sunk into a hopeless state of indifference and apathy on the
+subject. We do not for a moment believe that the working men are
+indifferent to the present and future welfare of our Colonies, but they
+need to be instructed as to the true value of their great inheritance,
+and therefore it is that we earnestly wish such books as these could be
+made readily accessible to them. It would be difficult to exaggerate the
+importance of convincing them that it is our duty as a nation to hold
+fast to all that we have added, from time to time, to the dominions of
+the Crown. The foreign policy of the country, no less than the domestic
+policy, must henceforth be directed mainly in accordance with their
+opinions; and if those opinions are left to be influenced and guided by
+the hereditary dislike of the Colonies which infects all Radicalism, our
+position in the world will soon be reduced to one of comparative
+insignificance. Baron Hübner concludes his volumes with these words:
+'Had I to sum up the impressions derived from my travels, I should say,
+"British rule is firmly seated in India; England has only one enemy to
+fear--herself."' That is the whole truth of the matter. We have to fear
+our own party divisions, the want of true public spirit among too many
+of our 'politicians,' the tendency of Radical leaders to teach the
+doctrine that England ought to shut herself within her own island
+boundaries, and cast off all outside responsibilities. Sentiments of
+this kind may be, and are, loudly cheered in the House of Commons, but
+very few Liberals are daring enough to advocate them in the country.
+Lancashire knows how valuable India is to her, and the manufacturing
+districts generally see the growing importance to them, merely from a
+commercial point of view, of the Australian Colonies. The anti-Colonial
+policy is growing less and less popular among the people. To discredit
+it altogether, it is only necessary to distribute, far and wide among
+the working men, facts and considerations of the kind furnished in the
+works to which we have endeavoured to call attention.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] See Mr. Lecky's 'History of England in the Eighteenth Century,'
+vol. ii, p. 443, &c.
+
+
+
+
+ART. VII.--_The Apostolic Fathers: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp._ Revised
+Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. By J.
+B. Lightfoot, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Bishop of Durham. London, 1885. 2
+vols.
+
+
+This a great book, dealing principally with a great subject--the
+'Ignatian Epistles.' The two volumes contain altogether 1849 Pages, 1311
+being devoted to St. Ignatius, the remainder to St. Polycarp. It is no
+exaggeration to say that they are full of the most valuable information,
+dealing with matters of vital ecclesiastical importance, the whole
+presented in the most lucid style, and marked by broad, strong,
+scholarship. They are the result of 'a keen interest in the Ignatian
+controversy conceived long ago' by the Bishop of Durham. 'The subject
+has been before me,' he writes in his Preface, 'for nearly thirty years,
+and during this period it has engaged my attention off and on in the
+intervals of other literary pursuits and official duties.' The
+conception, execution, and production of the work had therefore been
+protracted. The volumes as they are issued to-day are not in the form
+they were originally written. Thus, the 'Appendix Ignatiana' was in type
+several years before the commentary on the genuine Epistles of Ignatius,
+and the Introduction and texts of the 'Ignatian Acts of Martyrdom'
+passed through the press in 1878. In 1879 Cambridge and London
+surrendered their great teacher to Durham; and there in the intervals,
+few enough, snatched from official duties, the first volume has been
+written, and from thence sent forth. It is necessary to bear this in
+mind; because it will, on the one hand, explain absence of reference to
+some works published since 1878; and on the other hand it increases the
+value of the Bishop's results, when reached in entire independence of,
+and yet in entire accordance with, those of other scholars in the same
+field.
+
+This work testifies to the truth, that it is a mark of true greatness to
+be modest. The most superficial examination of these volumes exhibits a
+_Corpus Ignatianum_ superior to anything yet published. It is, says Dr.
+Harnack,[64] 'without exaggeration the most learned and careful
+Patristic monograph which has appeared in the nineteenth century.' It
+exhibits 'a diligence and knowledge of the subject which show that Dr.
+Lightfoot has made himself master of this department, and placed himself
+beyond the reach of any rival.... There is nothing in it that is not up
+to date, and the whole treatise forms a well-knit unity.' This is the
+willing testimony of one of the ablest of the scholars of Germany who
+have handled the great questions connected with Ignatius; the testimony,
+moreover, of one who, as we shall see presently, finds himself at
+variance with the Bishop upon two points, especially which, more than
+any other, materially affect the genuineness of the Epistles and their
+date. Such, however, is not the Bishop of Durham's thought. As he looks
+back upon the work to which he has consecrated the prime of his life, he
+speaks of it in language touching in its modesty--
+
+     'I have striven to make the materials for the text as
+     complete as I could.... Of the use which I have made of the
+     critical materials I must leave others to judge. Of the
+     introductions, exegetical notes, and dissertations, I need
+     say nothing, except that I have spared no pains to make them
+     adequate, so far as my knowledge and ability permitted. The
+     translations are intended not only to convey to English
+     readers the sense of the original, but also (where there was
+     any difficulty of construction) to serve as commentaries on
+     the Greek. My anxiety not to evade these difficulties forbad
+     me in many cases to indulge in a freedom which I should have
+     claimed, if a literary standard alone had been kept in
+     view.'
+
+He follows up such words by others, conveying his thanks to those who
+have helped him in his work, and the generosity of his recognition of
+their services does but enhance the reserveful simplicity with which he
+comments upon his own. The 'English reader' and the 'others' whose
+judgment he desires, will, at least in England, unite in rendering to
+him a respectful and grateful homage. The subject treated by the Bishop
+is in a very real sense an Englishman's subject. For three centuries
+English critics have not only entered the literary arena, in which the
+great historic and ecclesiastical questions connected with his subject
+have been discussed, but they have contributed largely to the materials,
+offensive and defensive, which the combatants have employed. Ussher,
+Pearson, Churton, and Cureton, have been English champions whose merits
+all have acknowledged. The Bishop of Durham has now entered the lists to
+support what has been proved sound in their conclusions, to remove what
+was weak, and do battle for the truth. An impartial English public will
+appreciate the gravity of this challenge, and may be trusted to grant or
+withhold the victory he puts forth his best powers to win.
+
+The volumes lend themselves by their construction to an easy statement
+of their contents, if those contents by their fulness must be of
+necessity the despair of critic and reviewer. First there is the life of
+the Saint, then the discussion of the manuscripts and versions which
+delineate the Saint and his literary remains. These are followed by
+exhaustive discussions upon all that tells for or against their
+genuineness, the whole being treated both historically and critically.
+Such will be found, briefly stated, the mode of discussing the life and
+works both of St. Ignatius of Antioch and of St. Polycarp of Smyrna; and
+two results will reward a patient persual of these volumes. The Bishop
+has indeed limited these results to the study of the Ignatian Epistles,
+but--under his guidance--the reader will find what is affirmed of one to
+be true of both:--
+
+     'The Ignatian Epistles are an exceptionally good
+     training-ground for the student of early Christian
+     literature and history. They present in typical and
+     instructive forms the most varied problems, textual,
+     exegetical, doctrinal, and historical. One who has
+     thoroughly grasped these problems will be placed in
+     possession of a master key which will open to him vast
+     storehouses of knowledge.
+
+     'But' (continues the Bishop) 'I need not say that their
+     educational value was not the motive which led me to spend
+     so much time over them. The destructive criticism of the
+     last half century is, I think, fast spending its force. In
+     its excessive ambition it has "o'erleapt itself." It has not
+     indeed been without its use. It has led to a thorough
+     examination and sifting of ancient documents. It has
+     exploded not a few errors, and discovered or established not
+     a few truths. For the rest, it has by its directness and
+     persistency stimulated investigation and thought on these
+     subjects to an extent which a less aggressive criticism
+     would have failed to secure. The immediate effect of the
+     attack has been to strew the vicinity of the fortress with
+     heaps of ruins. Some of these were best cleared away without
+     hesitation or regret; but in other cases the rebuilding is a
+     measure demanded by truth and prudence alike. I have been
+     reproached by my friends for allowing myself to be diverted
+     from the more congenial task of commenting on St. Paul's
+     Epistles; but the importance of the position seemed to me to
+     justify the expenditure of much time and labour in
+     "repairing a breach" not indeed in the "House of the Lord"
+     itself, but in the immediately outlying buildings.'
+
+St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp (together with St. Clement of Rome) are
+the links which connect the Apostolic age proper with the Fathers of the
+second and third centuries; and this fact has made them and their scanty
+literature the hope and despair, the pride and the scorn, of opposing
+factions. In the whirl and confusion of discordant criticisms it is
+everything to study and to build up by the help of one who has caught
+the spirit of the master-lives he expounds. There breathes throughout
+the volumes of the Bishop of Durham the spirit of St. Ignatius's
+counsel--
+
+     'Speak to each man severally after the manner of God. Bear
+     the maladies of all, as a perfect athlete. Where there is
+     much toil, there is much gain. If thou lovest good scholars,
+     this is not thankworthy in thee. Rather bring the more
+     pestilent to submission by gentleness.... The season
+     requireth thee, as pilots require winds, or as a
+     storm-tossed mariner a haven, that it may attain unto God.
+     Be sober, as God's athlete. The prize is incorruption and
+     life eternal, concerning which thou also art
+     persuaded.'--(Ep. of St. Ignatius to St. Polycarp, I, 2.)
+
+Ignatius of Antioch: Men of old loved to find in his name (or its
+Syriace quivalent, Nurono, [Greek: youra = phyr], _fire_) a prescience
+of the torch of divine love which blazed in him. The fancy may pass, if
+etymologically unsound; for Ignatius, 'the Inflamed,' was a true child
+of the fiery East. Contrast him and his letters with St. Clement of Rome
+and his Epistle to the Corinthians. Nothing is more notable in the Roman
+'than the calm equable temper,' the 'sweet reasonableness.' He is
+essentially a _moderator_. On the other hand, impetuosity, fire,
+strong-headedness, are impressed on every sentence in the Epistles of
+Ignatius. He is by his very nature an _impeller_ of men. Both are
+intense, though in different ways. In Clement, the intensity of
+moderation dominates and guides his conduct. In Ignatius it is the
+intensity of passion--passion for doing and suffering--which drives him
+onward. In Clement we listen to the voice of a judge delivering calmly
+his sentence from his throne; in Ignatius we
+
+     'are startled by the ringing cry of the trumpet-call--sharp,
+     stirring, penetrating--sounding for the battle. The fire of
+     the hot East bursts in, like a sun, strong and impassioned;
+     a vivid personality, in flame with love, flashes in upon
+     the world, quivering as a sword of the cherubim; a rhetoric
+     in which the rapid, electric thought breaks out of the
+     strained and formless chaos of the _imagination_, as
+     lightning out of the rolling and dark thunder-cloud; a
+     theology, which, by the intense passion of metaphor, forces
+     an almost violent entrance into the secrets of the Most
+     High; a morality which can carry forward into the heights of
+     holiness the madness of faith, the extravagance of zeal, the
+     recklessness of enthusiasm, the audacity of love, dragging
+     them into the service of Christ at the chariot-wheels of
+     God's triumph--such are the characteristics of Ignatius of
+     Antioch.'[65]
+
+The Roman name of Ignatius (or Egnatius) tells nothing as to his birth
+or origin. It was not unknown in Syria and Palestine, and was sometimes
+borne by Jews. But another and a second name--Theophorus--of regular
+recurrence in the seven genuine Epistles records at least his spiritual
+birth. Ignatius probably assumed the name of 'the God-bearer' at the
+time of his conversion or his baptism; the precedent lay before him of a
+Saul commemorating a critical incident in his career (Acts xiii. 9) by a
+similar adoption of a name; and that assumed by Ignatius became in its
+turn an epithet freely applied to the Fathers at the Oecumenical
+councils. The name gave birth to more than one beautiful legend. Was not
+Ignatius, according to the Eastern belief, the 'God-borne' [Greek:
+theophoros], the very child whom the Lord took into His arms (St. Mark
+ix. 36, 37)? Was he not the 'God-bearer' [Greek: theophoros] on the
+fragments of whose heart according to Western tradition, was found
+stamped in golden letters the name of Jesus Christ? Whether he were a
+slave or not must remain uncertain. It is a more probable deduction from
+his own language that he--the 'untimely birth,'[66]--the 'one born out
+of due time' and 'the last' of the faithful, had been rescued from a
+pagan life, such as Antioch on the Orontes, the home of panders and
+dancing girls, and 'Daphnici mores' would have applauded.
+
+     'His,' says Bishop Lightfoot, 'was one of those "broken"
+     natures out of which God's heroes are made. If not a
+     persecutor of Christ, if not a foe to Christ, as seems
+     probable, he had at least been for a considerable portion of
+     his life an alien from Christ. Like St. Paul, like
+     Augustine, like Francis Xavier, like Luther, like John
+     Bunyan, he could not forget that his had been a dislocated
+     life; and the memory of the catastrophe, which had shattered
+     his former self, filled him with awe and thanksgiving, and
+     fanned the fervour of his devotion to a white heat.
+
+There is no chronological inconsistency in supposing that Ignatius was a
+disciple of some Apostle, if nothing can be affirmed as to the date of
+his accession to the ministry or episcopate. On the supposition that he
+was martyred, as an old man, about A. D. 110, his birth may be placed
+about A. D. 40. When 25 years of age, or in A. D. 65, companionship
+would still have been opened to him with St. Peter and St. Paul; or, if
+his teacher were St. John, his conversion may be brought to A. D. 90,
+when he would be about 50 years of age. Confessedly all this is
+conjectural or traditional, as are also any details of episcopal
+administration.' A 'pitchy darkness' envelopes the life and work of
+Ignatius, till it is 'at length illumined by a vivid but transient flash
+of light.' The story of Ignatius begins and ends with the story of his
+death. 'If his martyrdom had not rescued him from obscurity, he would
+have remained like his predecessor Euodius, a mere name.' His martyrdom
+has made him a distinct and living personality, a true father of the
+Church, a teacher and example to all time.'
+
+Thrilling though the narrative of this martyrdom must ever be, the
+barest outline only can be given here. The Martyrologies, if they are to
+be set aside as not containing authentic history, will fascinate afresh
+the student who turns to them to find in the notes and discussions light
+cast upon many a critical and ecclesiastical problem. The genuine
+Epistles have furnished the Bishop with the materials of a sketch of
+terror which every one will read with the deepest interest.
+
+For some unknown reason the Church of Antioch was by God's will deprived
+of its venerable head; and with other 'convicts,' collected from the
+provinces to be
+
+    'Butcher'd to make a Roman holiday.'
+
+Ignatius was led Romeward. His journey lay along a route which in part
+had been traversed by Xerxes. The procession of the Persian, foremost
+among his myriads of men for beauty and stature, halting near Sardis to
+decorate a beautiful plane-tree with golden ornaments, and commit it to
+the custody of an 'immortal'[67] is in vivid contrast to the procession
+of 'criminals,' the Christian leader 'bound amidst ten leopards (or
+soldiers) who wax worse when kindly treated,' halting also at Sardis,
+his own decoration the 'bonds' which are to him 'spiritual pearls,' and
+at Smyrna, writing letters which shall make him immortal.[68] At Troas,
+like another St. Paul, he looked upon the shores of the Europe which was
+in later ages to rise up and call them blessed; and from thence he
+wrote how prepared, how eager he was to meet the 'fire, the sword, the
+wild beasts,' how to be 'near to the sword was to be near to God; to be
+encircled by wild beasts was to be encircled by God.' And then Rome at
+last!--among those who thirsted for his blood, among those whose very
+love he dreaded lest it should do him the injury of keeping him from
+martyrdom. Touching is the appeal he had sent before him to the Church
+'filled with the grace of God without wavering and filtered clear from
+every foreign stain':--
+
+     'Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through them I can
+     attain unto God. I am God's wheat, and I am ground by the
+     teeth of wild beasts that I may be found pure bread of
+     Christ. Entice the wild beasts that they may become my
+     sepulchre and may leave no part of my body behind, so that I
+     may not, when I am fallen asleep, be burdensome to any one.'
+
+Into the colossal pile, erected for the display of the bloodiest of
+inhuman crimes, he was led; and his own impassioned appeal was answered:
+
+     'Come fire and cross, and grapplings with wild beasts! Come
+     cuttings and manglings, wrenching of bones, hacking of
+     limbs, crushings of my whole body! Come cruel tortures of
+     the devil to assail me! Only be it mine to attain unto Jesus
+     Christ!'
+
+Men, with tear-stained faces, looked away from his death to 'form
+themselves'--as he had bidden them--
+
+     'into a chorus in love and sing to the Father in Jesus
+     Christ. God had vouchsafed that the Bishop from Syria should
+     be found in the West, having summoned him from the East.
+     Good was it to set from this world unto God, that he might
+     rise unto Him.'
+
+Love is perhaps wrong in asserting that his remains were brought back to
+Antioch: it is unerringly right in having raised the Epistle to the
+Romans--'his pæan prophetic of his coming victory'--to be the martyr's
+manual of a grateful posterity.
+
+     'The glory of Ignatius as a martyr,' writes the Bishop of
+     Durham, 'has commended his lessons as a doctor. His teaching
+     on matters of theological truth and ecclesiastical order was
+     barbed and fledged by the fame of his constancy in that
+     supreme trial of his faith.'
+
+If interest in the heresies he combated may be said to be confined
+to-day to scholars who study them as a chapter in heresiology, or seek
+in them a bone of contention, the interest in the points of
+ecclesiastical order delineated by him was never more intense than now.
+Only last year the testimony of the Ignatian Epistles to the burning
+question of Apostolical succession was one point in the discussion
+between Canon Liddon of St. Paul's and Dr. Hatch; this year, the view
+presented by the Bishop of Durham meets with its ablest antagonist in
+Dr. Harnack. In very truth the letters of the martyr have been the
+battlefield of the controversy, which affirms or disallows the threefold
+ministry of the Church of Christ.
+
+It will be perceived at once how much turns, not first upon the
+interpretation of the Epistles, but upon the genuineness of the text
+presenting itself for interpretation. What is the text? Never before
+have the lovers of textual criticism had the opportunity of examining
+and answering this question as they have now in the Bishop of Durham's
+volumes. He first describes at length the Manuscripts and Versions, on
+which a true text may be reasonably founded, and then gives the text,
+together with the Versions, accompanied by Introductions and Notes which
+leave nothing to desire. The labour necessary for massing and bringing
+together all this information is only equalled by the exactness and
+orderliness with which it is presented. But the Bishop writes not only
+for the scholar, but for the man of general culture and intelligence,
+who can enter with interest into a problem historical and antiquarian,
+as well as textual and critical. To many the battle of the giants, over
+the 'long,' the 'middle,' and the 'short,' form or recension of the
+Ignatian Epistles, will be an intellectual treat, as he watches the
+fence and scholarship of the various disputants. He will see that in
+literary as in political controversy the spirit of compromise is to-day
+in the ascendant, and that 'middle'-men have for once their value.
+
+To explain these terms. By the 'short' form is meant that which consists
+of _three_ Epistles only--to St. Polycarp, to the Ephesians, and to the
+Romans. This exists only in a Syraic version. By the second, 'the middle
+form,' are understood these three Epistles, and four more, namely,
+Epistles to the Smyrnæans, Magnesians, Philadelphians, and Trallians.
+This form is originally Greek, and is found also in Latin, Armenian,
+and--in a fragmentary state--in Syriac and Coptic. The third or 'long'
+form, contains the seven already enumerated in a more expanded state,
+together with six others, the recension being in a Greek and in a Latin
+translation.[69]
+
+Practically the contest as to the truest form has been reduced to a
+duel between the 'short' and the 'middle.' The 'long' form can be shown
+to be the work of an unknown author, probably of the latter half of the
+fourth century, and constructed from the genuine Ignatian Epistles by
+interpolation, alteration and omission. But the 'long' form died hard,
+and mainly through the thrusts of our own Ussher.
+
+     'The history of the Ignatian Epistles,' says the Bishop, 'in
+     Western Europe before and after the revival of letters, is
+     full of interest. In the Middle Ages the spurious and
+     interpolated letters alone have any wide circulation.
+     Gradually, as the light advances, the forgeries recede into
+     the background. Each successive stage diminishes the bulk of
+     the Ignatian literature, which the educated mind accepts as
+     genuine; till at length the true Ignatius alone remains,
+     divested of the accretions which perverted ingenuity has
+     gathered about him.'
+
+In the 'long' recension there is a letter to one Mary of Cassobola. This
+was made the parent of a 'correspondence between St. John and the
+Virgin,' bearing the name of Ignatius: and it is not improbably
+connected with the outburst of Mariolatry in the eleventh and following
+centuries. But with 'the first streak of intellectual dawn this Ignatian
+spectre vanished into its kindred darkness.' The forgery was 'consigned
+to the limbo of foolish and forgotten things.' This pretender set aside,
+St. Ignatius was represented in Western Europe by the epistles of the
+'Long' recension. The Latin text was printed in 1498, and the Greek in
+1557. At first no doubt was felt about their genuineness. Gradually,
+however, unwelcome critics pointed out gross anachronisms and blunders.
+Men, with unpleasant habits of comparison, noted that Eusebius, the
+Church historian (C. A. D. 310-25), quoted from only seven epistles, and
+that the divergence of the 'long' text from that given by early
+Christian writers[70] fully warranted the comment of Ussher, that it was
+difficult to imagine 'eundem legere se Ignatium qui veterum ætate
+legebatur.' Theological and ecclesiastical prejudice lent bitterness to
+the rising strife. On the Continent, Reformer and Romanist ranged
+themselves in opposite camps: the one quoting with delight passages
+which favoured Roman supremacy, or advocated Episcopacy; the other
+throwing them over as 'nursery stories' (or 'silly tales,' _nænia_), and
+denouncing 'the insufferable impudence of those who equipped themselves
+with ghosts like these for the purpose of deceiving' (Calvin). After the
+publication of the edition of Vedelius, a Genevan Professor, in 1623,
+Anglican writers, such as Whitgift, Hooker, and Andrewes, seem to have
+accepted without hesitation the twelve (the seven named by Eusebius and
+five others) contained in that edition; but in England as on the
+Continent, the absence of so much, which could alone lead men to a right
+conclusion, prevented the consideration of the question on its true
+merits:--
+
+     'Episcopacy was the burning question of the day; and the
+     sides of the combatants in the Ignatian controversy were
+     already predetermined for them by their attitude towards
+     this question. Every allowance should be made for their
+     following their prepossessions, where the evidence seemed so
+     evenly balanced. On the one hand, external testimony was so
+     strongly in favour of the genuineness of certain Ignatian
+     letters; on the other hand, the only Ignatian letters known
+     were burdened with difficulties. At the very eve of Ussher's
+     revelation, a fierce literary war broke out on this very
+     subject of Episcopacy--evoked by the religious and political
+     troubles of the times.'
+
+On the one side were Hall's (Bishop of Exeter) 'Episcopacy by Divine
+Right asserted' (1639), and 'An Humble Remonstrance' on behalf of
+Liturgy and Episcopacy (1641); Ussher's 'The original of Bishops and
+Metropolitans,' and Jeremy Taylor's 'Of the Sacred Order and Offices of
+Episcopacy' (1642); on the other, the five Presbyterian ministers whose
+initials composed the monstrous name Smectymnuus,[71] issued their
+'Answer to the Book entituled an Humble Remonstrance' (1641), and
+Milton, in his short treatise 'Of Prelatical Episcopacy' (1641),
+fulminated with 'fiery eloquence and reckless invective' against Ussher.
+
+     'Had God,' wrote Milton, 'intended that we should have
+     sought any part of useful instruction from Ignatius,
+     doubtless He would not have so ill-provided for our
+     knowledge as to send him to our hands in this broken and
+     disjointed plight; and if He intended no such thing, we do
+     injuriously in thinking to taste better the pure evangelic
+     manna by seasoning our mouths with the tainted scraps and
+     fragments from an unknown table, and searching among the
+     verminous and polluted rags dropped overworn from the
+     toiling shoulders of Time, with these deformedly to quilt
+     and interlace the entire, the spotless, and undecaying robe
+     of Truth. What impiety,' he added, 'the confronting and
+     paralleling the sacred verity of St. Paul with the offals
+     and sweepings of antiquity, that met as accidently and
+     absurdly as Epicurus his atoms to patch up a Leucippean
+     Ignatius.'
+
+'Out of his own mouth,' says Bishop Lightfoot, 'he was soon convicted.'
+The "better provision for knowledge" came full soon. To the critical
+genius of Ussher belongs the honour of restoring the true Ignatius.
+Ussher observed that the quotations from this Father in three English
+writers, Robert (Grosseteste) of Lincoln (c. 1250), John Tyssington (c.
+1381), and William Wodeford (c. 1396), agreed--not with texts hitherto
+known (the Greek and Latin of the 'long' Recension), but--with the
+quotations in Eusebius and Theodoret. He concluded that somewhere in the
+libraries of England he ought to find MSS. of a version corresponding to
+this earlier text of Ignatius: and he discovered two--(1.) _Caiensis_
+395 [L1], a MS. given to Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge, in
+1444 by Walter Crome; and (2.) _Montacutianus_ [L2], a parchment from
+the library of Bishop Montague or Montacute, of Norwich. Of the first a
+transcript was made for Archbishop Ussher, and is still in the library
+of Dublin University (D.3.II), and is dated 20 June, 1631. It is full of
+inaccuracies, arising sometimes from indifference to spelling on the
+part of the transcriber, or to carelessness and inattention, but most
+frequently from ignorance of the numerous and perplexing contractions.
+The second has disappeared, probably on the day when Parliament ordered
+the Archbishop's books to be seized and confiscated (1643). Bishop
+Lightfoot has in part restored it by drawing attention to the collation
+of this Montacute MS., which occurs between the lines or in the margin
+of the Dublin transcript of the Caius MS. Archbishop Ussher's
+examination of the Latin version, thus discovered, induced in his mind a
+suspicion that Bishop Grosseteste was himself the translator. A marginal
+note, for example, betrayed the nationality of its author; 'Incus est
+instrumentum fabri; dicitur Anglice _anfeld_ [anvil].' Who so likely to
+have had the ability to translate from a Greek version as Robert
+Grosseteste, one of the very few Greek scholars of his age? Evidence is
+not wanting that the Ignatian Epistles were imported from Greece, and
+translated under the Bishop's direction by one or other of the Greek
+scholars who were with him: and it is significant, in connection with
+this point, that Tyssington and Wodeford belonged to the Franciscan
+Convent at Oxford to which Grosseteste left his books.
+
+The result of Ussher's discovery was to determine, that this Latin
+translation--valuable for critical purposes on account of its extreme
+literalness[72]--represented the Ignatius known to the Fathers of the
+fourth and fifth centuries. The Greek text still remained unknown, and
+Ussher attempted to restore it from the 'long' recension by the aid of
+his newly discovered Latin version. This he did by bringing the former
+as nearly as possible into conformity with the latter. Ussher's book
+appeared in 1644. It was marred by one blot. Eusebius had mentioned
+seven Epistles, but Ussher--deceived by a mistake on the part of St.
+Jerome--exscinded the Epistle to Polycarp, and condemned it as spurious.
+Two years later, Isaac Voss published the Greek of six Epistles from a
+Florentine MS., the Epistle to the Romans having disappeared from the
+copy; and this omission was finally rectified in 1689 by Ruinart. From
+the middle of the seventeenth century disputants ceased to trouble
+themselves about the 'long' form. Controversy, presently to be noted,
+raged about the Vossian letters, Daillé (1666) attacking them, Pearson
+defending them.
+
+It is a great leap to the year 1845, but not till then did a new era
+dawn upon the questions at issue. It was in that year that Cureton
+published the 'Antient Syriac Version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius to
+St. Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the Romans.' This version was
+discovered in two MSS. at the British Museum, and contained the Epistles
+named in a shorter form than either of the Greek or Latin texts.[73]
+Cureton's contention was that he had discovered the genuine Ignatius,
+and that the remaining four Epistles of the Vossian collection, as well
+as the additional portions of these three, were forgeries. Cureton was
+opposed by Dr. Wordsworth, the late Bishop of Lincoln, then Canon of
+Westminster, and defended by Bunsen. There followed quickly the
+_Vindiciæ Ignatianæ_ (1846) and _Corpus Ignatianum_ (1849), in which
+Cureton was considered to have not only refuted his adversary, but also
+to have presented arguments which rallied to his standard Ritschl,
+Lipsius, Pressensé, Ewald, Milman, and Böhringer. Opposition to
+Cureton's view was not, however, wanting. The Orientalists, Petermann
+and Merx, united with the Conservative critical school, represented by
+Denzinger and Uhlhorn, in preferring the Vossian collection; while the
+Tübingen school (Baur and Hilgenfeld) opposed itself to Ignatian
+letters, short, middle, or long, as utterly subversive of their theories
+of the growth of the Canon, and of the history of the Early Church. The
+Bishop of Durham was himself, at that time on Cureton's side, 'led
+captive' (as he says) 'for a time by the tyranny of this dominant
+force.' We can but record the change in his opinions, and leave to the
+reader to follow, in the Bishop's own pages, the reasons which induced
+him to abandon a method and decline results that would not stand the
+test of a searching criticism. Independent investigation of the
+phenomena of the Armenian version and of the Syriac fragments led him to
+regard the 'short' or Curetonian recension as an abridgment or
+mutilation, rather than the nucleus, of the 'middle' or Vossian form;
+and Zahn's monograph, _Ignatius von Antiochien_(1873), never yet
+answered, dealt a fatal blow at the claims of the Curetonian letters.
+Since then Lipsius has been convinced by Merx; Renan and Harnack are
+agreed; and most scholars will come to the conclusion, that through the
+Bishop of Durham's own serious investigation of the diction and style of
+the 'short' form, 'the last sparks of its waning life have been
+extinguished.' The collection was directed by no doctrinal, Eutychian or
+Monophysite, motive, nor composed (as Hefele suggested) in support of
+moral aim or monastic piety. It is simply a 'loose and perfunctory
+curtailment of the middle form, neither epitome nor extract, but
+something between the two,' and to be dated about the year A. D. 400 or
+somewhat earlier.
+
+The ground having been thus cleared from the accretions of the 'long'
+form and the mutilations of the 'short,' the Bishop of Durham considers
+in the next place the genuineness of the seven Epistles known to
+Eusebius, and preserved to us not only in the original Greek, but also
+in Latin and other translations. It is a bitter reflection, that
+discussion on this subject was (and--in a less degree--is still) evoked,
+not so much by critical and textual variations and difficulties, as by
+the exigencies of party spirit and theological animosity. A dreary, if
+necessary, page of ecclesiastical history has to be studied, when French
+Protestant and English Puritan turned passionately against the discovery
+of Ussher and Voss. It is small comfort to the charitably minded to be
+told that, had no Daillé attacked[74] the Ignatian letters, Pearson
+would not have stepped forward as their champion.
+
+The consideration of the genuineness of the Seven Epistles falls
+naturally under the head of external and internal evidence.
+
+The Bishop gives his conclusion on the external evidence in the
+following words:--
+
+     '(1.) No Christian writings of the second century, very few
+     writings of antiquity, whether Christian or pagan, are so
+     well authenticated as the Epistles of Ignatius. If the
+     Epistle of Polycarp be accepted as genuine, the
+     authentication is perfect. (2.) The main ground of objection
+     against the genuineness of the Epistle of Polycarp is its
+     authentication of the Ignatian Epistles. Otherwise there is
+     every reason to believe that it would have passed
+     unquestioned. (3.) The Epistle of Polycarp itself is
+     exceptionally well authenticated by the testimony of his
+     disciple Irenæus. (4.) All attempts to explain the phenomena
+     of the Epistle of Polycarp, as forged or interpolated to
+     give colour to the Ignatian Epistles, have signally failed.'
+
+These four propositions sum up an examination minute and masterful. Not
+only is the testimony of the Epistle of Polycarp adduced, but also that
+of Irenæus; that of the letter of the Smyrnæans, giving the account of
+the martyrdom of Polycarp; that of Lucian, and that of Origen (middle of
+third century). After the age of Eusebius (half a century later than
+Origen) 'no early Christian writing outside the Canon is attested by
+witnesses so many and so various in the ages of the Councils and
+subsequently.' Dr. Harnack, however, is opposed to the Bishop's
+conclusions, and considers that, 'if we do not retain the Epistle of
+Polycarp, the external evidence on behalf of the Ignatian Epistles is
+exceedingly weak, and hence is highly favourable to the suspicion that
+they are spurious.' This is not the place to enter into the dispute. We
+can but record our opinion, that in the Bishop's pages Dr. Harnack's
+objections are met by anticipation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The internal evidence is treated by the Bishop under six heads.
+
+1. The Historical and Geographical Circumstances dealing specially with
+the condemnation and the journey to Rome. Under this section are
+collected also the personal notices yielding their testimony to the
+genuineness of the letters in a manner not less striking, because
+incidental and allusive, than the testimony of the geographical section.
+The reader will linger here over the thought of the consolation and
+refreshment brought to the good Ignatius on his way to martydom. We
+learn to love Crocus and Alce, 'names,' says Ignatius, 'beloved by me,'
+Burrhus and the widow of Epitropus, for the love they bore the Saint; we
+learn to see in the Bishop of Durham's pages how such names bear
+undesigned testimony to the Epistles which record them.
+
+2. The Theological Polemics.
+
+3. The Ecclesiastical Conditions. To these we shall return immediately,
+after a few words on--
+
+4. The Literary Obligations, 5, The Personality of the Writer, and 6,
+The Style and Diction of the Letters. As regards the Literary
+Obligations, the Bishop lays down the following maxim: 'A primary test
+of age in any early Christian writing is the relation which the notices
+of the words and deeds of Christ and His Apostles bear to the Canonical
+writings;' and he adds, 'Tried by this test, the Ignatian Epistles
+proclaim their early date. There is no sign whatever in them of a Canon
+or authoritative collection of Books of the New Testament.' There are
+frequent references to the facts of Christ's life, death, and
+resurrection, and Gospel sayings are given; but there is 'not a single
+reference to written evangelical records, such as the "Memoirs of the
+Apostles," which occupy so large a place in Justin Martyr.' The same
+holds good of the Apostolic Epistles.
+
+     'I would ask,' the Bishop concludes, 'any reader who desires
+     to apprehend the full force of these (facts with reference
+     to Ignatius) to read a book or two of Irenæus continually,
+     and mark the contrast in the manner of dealing with the
+     Evangelical narratives and the Apostolic letters. He will
+     probably allow that an interval of two generations or more
+     is not too long a period to account for the difference of
+     treatment.'
+
+The personality of the writer is no doubt unusual. A power of
+communication with angels,[75] 'extravagant' humility and
+self-depreciation;[76] and a not less 'extravagant' desire for martyrdom
+(confined, however, to the Epistle to the Romans), are not certainly
+what a later age commended or found in the Martyrs; but due allowance
+being made for the temperament of the Saint and the circumstances of the
+case, 'it is a picture much more explicable as the autotype of a real
+person than as the invention of a forger.'
+
+Once more, the Style and Diction of the Letters may be, as Daillé and
+his followers have thought, 'forced and unnatural' in the use of images,
+'confused' as to language, and 'bombastic' as to diction. But what then?
+asks the Bishop:--
+
+     'What security did his position as an Apostolic Father give
+     that he should write simply and plainly, that he should
+     avoid solecisms, that his language should never he
+     disfigured by bad taste or faulty rhetoric?'
+
+     'It may not,' he continues, 'be considered very good taste
+     to draw out the metaphor of a hauling engine (Ephes. 9)--to
+     compare the Holy Spirit to the rope, the faith of the
+     believers to the windlass, &c. But on what grounds, prior to
+     experience, have we any more right to expect either a
+     faultless taste or a pure diction in a genuine writer at the
+     beginning of the second century, than in a spurious writer
+     at the end of the same?'
+
+Elaborate compounds, Latinisms, reiterations, are no proof of
+spuriousness.
+
+It is not, however, so much on these as on so-called anachronisms that
+assailants have attacked the letters. In every instance a supposed
+success has ended in a reverse. Thus the term 'leopard,' applied to the
+soldiers who conveyed Ignatius,[77] was said to have been unknown before
+the age of Constantine; and it was argued that the forger of these
+letters had antedated the word by two centuries. Pearson pointed out an
+example of the word about A. D. 202; but the Bishop of Durham has found
+it in a rescript of the Emperors Marcus and Commodus (A. D. 177-80), and
+in an early treatise written by Galen, which carries it back within
+about half a century of Ignatius. Evidently it was then a familiar term.
+Another alleged anachronism is the use of the term 'Catholic
+Church.'[78] Cureton and others have urged, that a period of full fifty
+years must have intervened between the time when Ignatius wrote and the
+first trace we find of the term 'Catholic Church.' This, says Bishop
+Lightfoot, 'is founded on the confusion of two wholly different
+things'--Catholic as a technical, and Catholic as a general term.
+Centuries before the Christian era, the word Catholic [Greek:
+katholikos] is found in the sense of 'universal'; both before and
+after the age of Ignatius it is common in writers, classical and
+ecclesiastical. 'In this sense the word might have been used at any
+time, and by any writer, from the first moment that the Church began to
+spread, while yet the conception of its unity was present to the mind.'
+It was only later that the term 'Catholic' acquired a technical
+meaning--orthodoxy as opposed to heresy, conformity as opposed to
+dissent. In Smyrn. 8, 'where Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic
+Church,' the word is used in its sense of 'universal,' as contrasted
+with the Smyrnæan or local Church over which Polycarp presided. Not only
+is its use here not indicative of a later date, but this archaic sense
+emphasizes an early one. After the word 'Catholic' had acquired its
+later and technical use, it could not have been employed in its earliest
+meaning without the risk of considerable confusion.
+
+We must refer our readers to a similarly thorough refutation of the
+charge of anachronism brought against these letters on account of their
+use of the term 'Christian,' and suggest to them an examination of the
+interesting proofs of the position next secured,[79] that certain
+characteristics of style and diction tell largely in favour of their
+genuineness.
+
+We turn, after noting the summary of the internal evidences attesting
+the genuineness of these letters, to the headings omitted (2, 3) on the
+Theological Polemics and the Ecclesiastical Conditions. That summary is
+as follows (i. 407):--
+
+     'The external testimony to the Ignatian Epistles being so
+     strong, only the most decisive marks of spuriousness in the
+     Epistles themselves, as, for instance, proved anachronism,
+     would justify us in suspecting them as interpolated, or
+     rejecting them as spurious.--But so far is this from being
+     the case, that one after another the anachronisms urged
+     against these letters have vanished in the light of further
+     knowledge.--As regards the argument which Daillé calls
+     "palmary"--the prevalence of episcopacy as a recognized
+     institution--we may say boldly that all the facts point the
+     other way. If the writer of these letters had represented
+     the churches of Asia Minor as under presbyterial government,
+     he would have contradicted all the evidence which, without
+     one dissentient voice, points to episcopacy as the
+     established form of Church government in these districts
+     from the close of the first century.--The circumstances of
+     the condemnation, captivity, and journey of Ignatius, which
+     have been a stumbling-block to some modern critics, did not
+     present any difficulty to those who lived near the time, and
+     therefore knew best what might be expected under the
+     circumstances; and they are sufficiently borne out by
+     example, more or less analogous, to establish their
+     credibility.--The objections to the style and language are
+     beside the purpose.--A like answer holds with regard to any
+     extravagances in sentiment, or opinion, or character.--While
+     the investigation of the contents of these Epistles has
+     yielded this negative result in dissipating the objections,
+     it has at the same time had a high positive value, as
+     revealing indications of a very early date, and therefore
+     presumably of genuineness, in the surrounding circumstances,
+     more especially in the types of false doctrine which it
+     combats, in the ecclesiastical status which it presents, and
+     in the manner in which it deals with the evangelical and
+     apostolic documents.--Moreover, we discover in the personal
+     environments of the assumed writer, and more especially in
+     the notices of his route, many subtle coincidences which we
+     are constrained to regard as undesigned, and which seem
+     altogether beyond the reach of a forger.--So likewise the
+     peculiarities in style and diction of the Epistles, as also
+     in the representation of the writer's character, are much
+     more capable of explanation in a genuine writing than in a
+     forgery.--While external and internal evidence thus combine
+     to assert the genuineness of these writings, no satisfactory
+     account has been or apparently can be given of them as a
+     forgery of a later date than Ignatius. They would be quite
+     purposeless as such; for they entirely omit all topics which
+     would especially interest any subsequent age.'
+
+The Section upon 'Ecclesiastical Conditions' deals with the ministry of
+men, the ministry of women, and the liturgy of the Church. Interesting
+though the two last points are of necessity to any student of Church
+organization and ritual, we pass them by to consider the 'Ecclesiastical
+Polemics.' The Bishop of Durham's view of the ministry of
+men--especially of episcopacy--as furnished by the Seven Epistles is
+briefly as follows. The name of Ignatius is inseparably connected with
+the championship of episcopacy. Such extracts as the following
+sufficiently attest the prominence and authority he assigns to the
+office: 'We ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself; 'Vindicate'
+(O Polycarp) 'thine office in things, temporal as well as spiritual. Let
+nothing be done without thy consent, and do thou nothing without the
+consent of God;' 'Give heed (ye Smyrnæans) to your bishop, that God also
+may give heed to you;' 'Let no man do anything pertaining to the Church
+without the bishop.' Further, the extension of the episcopate in the
+time of Ignatius is quite clear. He is himself the bishop 'belonging to
+Syria.' He salutes and names the Bishops of Ephesus, of Magnesia, and
+Tralles. In those parts of Asia Minor and Syria, with which he is
+brought into contact, the episcopate properly so called is an
+established and recognized institution. This is in accordance with what
+the Bishop of Durham traces elsewhere in the history of the origin and
+development of episcopacy;[80] but it is not in accordance with Dr.
+Harnack's view. 'The evidence,' says the Bishop, 'points to episcopacy
+as the established form of Church government in these districts from the
+close of the first century.' Not so, says Dr. Harnack:--
+
+     'Ignatius' conception of the position and significance of
+     the bishop has its earliest parallel in the original
+     conception of the author of the Apostolic Constitutions (_i.
+     e._ the end of the 3d cent.); and the Epistles show that the
+     Monarchical Episcopate in Asia Minor was so firmly rooted,
+     so highly elevated above all other offices, so completely
+     beyond dispute, that on the ground of what we know from
+     other sources of early Church history, no single
+     investigator would assign the statements under consideration
+     to the second, but at the earliest to the third century.'
+
+Let the reader, however, look up the references under the head of
+"Apostolical Constitutions" in the Index to vol. i. of the Bishop's
+work, and we shall be very much surprised if he agree with Dr. Harnack's
+first conclusion. Will there not be even a lurking apprehension that Dr.
+Harnack, in arguing from the 'original conception of the author of the
+Apostolic Constitutions,' is confounding the 'long' and the 'middle'
+Recensions of the letters? Possibly the anxiety of determination to fix
+upon the third century rather than the close of the first as the date of
+the establishment of Episcopacy may have been tolerable in the time of
+Daillé, but is it tolerable or should it be repeated now when the means
+of a far more critical study of the question is open to all? In fact,
+Dr. Harnack is evidently disturbed by the _parti pris_ of his position;
+and he may be said to abandon it immediately for a more negative one:
+but even so, how can a critic with the authorities placed before him
+come even to his second and modified conclusion:--'The statements of
+Ignatius regarding the rank to which the Episcopate has attained,
+occupy, so far as our knowledge goes, an altogether isolated position in
+the second century.' Isolated! This can be examined upon evidence. The
+point is this: Are there, or are there not, witnesses to show that
+monarchical Episcopacy had been developed in the later years of the
+Apostolic Age? Irenæus (born c. 130, according to Lipsius) was a scholar
+of Polycarp, and Polycarp was a scholar of St. John. He delighted to
+recal the reminiscences of his teacher, as did Polycarp those of St.
+John. He was a travelled scholar; if born in Asia Minor, he lived at
+Rome during middle life, and was Bishop of Lyons in Gaul in his later
+years. He was probably the most learned Christian of his time. 'The
+appreciation of the position of the man,' urges Bishop Lightfoot, 'is a
+first requisite to an estimate of his evidence.' And what is his
+evidence? Just that which is marked by such development as the man, his
+time, and circumstances, would lead us to expect, when compared with the
+Ignatius, from whom he is separated by about two generations. To
+Ignatius, the bishop is the centre of ecclesiastical unity; so Irenæus,
+the depositary of Apostolic tradition. Irenæus overlooks the identity of
+'bishop' and 'presbyter' in the New Testament, and speaks of 'bishops
+_and_ presbyters from Ephesus and the other cities adjoining' coming to
+St. Paul at Miletus. It is to him an undisputed fact, that the bishops
+of his own age traced their succession back in an unbroken line to men
+appointed to the episcopate by the Apostles themselves. Thus he points
+out the sequence of the bishops of the Church of Rome 'founded by the
+blessed Apostles,' St. Peter and St. Paul, up to his own day; and in the
+case of the Church in Smyrna, he finds in Polycarp not only one
+'instructed by Apostles and who had conversed with many who had seen
+Christ,' but also 'one who was appointed bishop in the Church of Smyrna
+by Apostles in Asia.'[81] Similar opinions are reflected in many
+passages, and they lead up to this conclusion:--
+
+     'After every reasonable allowance made for the possibility
+     of mistakes in details, the language (of Irenæus) from a man
+     standing in his position with respect to the previous and
+     contemporary history of the Church leaves no room for doubt
+     as to the early and general diffusion of episcopacy in the
+     regions with which he was acquainted.'
+
+Yet it is by fastening upon alleged 'mistakes in details,' and through
+counter-conclusions with respect to some of the passages quoted, that
+Dr. Harnack affirms that 'from the words of Irenæus there is absolutely
+nothing gained in regard to the origin of the episcopate and its spread
+during the period between A. D. 90 and 140.' His method is somewhat
+vexatious. He takes, for example, the list of the Bishops of Rome, and
+he says, 'Irenæus communicates this list, and declares that the Apostles
+had _ordained_ Linus as Bishop of Rome;' and he adds, 'that this is
+false can be proved, and is not denied even by Lightfoot.' The
+marvellous part of this statement is, that Irenæus says nothing of the
+kind. The word 'ordination' does not occur in the passage in question.
+The sentence is far from faithfully translated by the Bishop of
+Durham:[82] Linus 'was entrusted with the office of the bishopric' by
+the Apostles. Again, what is 'false'? the whole list, or the statement
+as regards Linus individually? Neither is false when rightly understood,
+and no denial is therefore forthcoming from the Bishop of Durham, or
+required for what is not questioned. But Dr. Harnack--not satisfied with
+having refuted an imaginary foe--next proceeds to ask, 'What reliance
+then can we have in the statement of Irenæus, that Polycarp was ordained
+a bishop by the Apostles'? It might be answered, 'Your first premiss was
+wrong, and until that be mended, further argument is unnecessary.' But
+examine the question on its own merits--viz. that due to 'an
+appreciation of the position' of Irenæus--and its veracity is beyond
+question.
+
+The Bishop of Durham supports the language of Irenæus by the testimony
+of Polycrates, of Ephesus, his contemporary, if junior; but without
+dwelling upon that and other passages of more general reference, we can
+come nearer to the time of Ignatius by reference to his contemporary,
+Polycarp. We assume, with Bishop Lightfoot, that the testimony of
+Irenæus to Polycarp is of the highest value; but that assumption is no
+rash one. Every one can verify the value of the testimony by perusing
+the Bishop's interesting pages on the subject. The relation of Polycarp
+to the Apostles has been given above. It is to his language about
+episcopacy that we wish to refer. In Polycarp's letter to the
+Philippians, the Bishop of Smyrna speaks at length about the duties of
+presbyters, deacons, widows, &c., but he makes no mention either of the
+bishop, or--in other parts where it might have been expected--of
+obedience due to him. This is naturally explained on the supposition
+that the see was then vacant, or that ecclesiastical organization was
+not fully developed at Philippi. How rash, however, it would be to
+affirm the non-existence of episcopacy, or to raise objections to it
+such as would render incredible the statements of Ignatius, may be
+inferred from the 'Letter of the Smyrnæans,' which, speaking of 'the
+glorious martyr Polycarp, who was found an Apostolic and prophetic
+teacher in our own time, a bishop of the Holy Church which is in
+Smyrna,' attests at once the respect paid to the office by the writer of
+the Letter and to the title by which Polycarp himself was usually
+called.
+
+Other contemporaries of Polycarp's were Clement of Rome and Papias. Do
+they give no testimony to the development of monarchical episcopacy in
+the later years of the Apostolic Age? Polycarp, if not acquainted with
+Clement personally, was yet intimately acquainted with his genuine
+letter, the first Epistle to the Corinthians. In this letter there is no
+mention of episcopacy properly so-called. With St. Clement, as in the
+New Testament, bishop and presbyter are convertible terms. He even drops
+all mention of his own name though bishop of the Church in Rome. There
+is not even the 'I' of Polycarp, but a 'we,' which defines that the
+letter is written in the name of the Church and speaks with the
+authority of the Church. The name and personality of the individual are
+absorbed in the Church of which he is the spokesman.[83] The same
+phenomena are observed in the letter written by Ignatius to the very
+Church--Rome--in which alone they are noticed as occurring. The Epistle
+of Ignatius to the Romans--save for the mention of his own
+rank--contains no indication of the existence of the episcopal office,
+inculcates no obedience to bishops, and says not a word about a bishop
+of Rome. A like phenomenon is to be noticed in the next (chronologically
+speaking) document, emanating from the Church of Rome--viz. the Shepherd
+of Hermas. What does this contrast throughout mean, but that where--as
+in Asia Minor--false doctrine and schismatical teachers prevailed, there
+episcopacy was a safeguard; where these were absent--as in Rome--there
+the episcopate had not yet assumed the same sharp and well-defined
+monarchical character as in the Eastern churches: and what does this
+contrast tend to disprove but the opinion of Dr. Harnack?--'Apart from
+the Epistles of Ignatius we do not possess a single witness to the
+existence of the monarchical episcopate in the churches of Asia Minor so
+early as the times of Trajan or Hadrian' (_i. e._ A. D. 98-138).
+
+Turning to the other point--the Theological Polemics--disputed by
+Harnack, Bishop Lightfoot has dealt with the subject on its positive and
+negative sides respectively. The positive side yields results of real
+importance in attestation of the date of the letters. The heresy
+combated by Ignatius is a type of Gnostic Judaism, the Gnostic element
+manifesting itself in a sharp form of Docetism. This marked type of
+Docetism, far from being a difficulty, is an indication of early date,
+since the tendency of Docetism was to mitigation, as time went on. The
+negative side is educed by cross-questioning the writer's silence. There
+were certain controversies which rent the Church in the middle and
+latter half of the second century. These were such as, first, the
+Paschal controversy (the proper day and mode of celebrating the Paschal
+festival); secondly, the controversy about Montanism, the theatre of
+which was the very region with which these Epistles are concerned. Yet,
+not a word, not a hint is there, that the writer felt any interest in,
+or was disturbed by, anxieties about either. A similar silence points to
+the same conclusion, when we consider the absence of allusion to the
+three great heresiarchs, Basilides, Marcion, and Valentinus. Give to the
+first a period of notoriety conterminous with the reign of Hadrian (A.
+D. 117-38), yet there is not the slightest allusion in Ignatius to the
+tenets of the leader or his followers. Place Marcion some years before
+the middle of the second century. Remember that he was a native of Asia
+Minor and taught at Rome that there he was denounced by Polycarp as the
+'first born of Satan;'[84] and that he enjoyed a world-wide reputation
+for evil (according to some), for good (according to others). Yet in the
+Ignatian letters there is not the faintest aquaintance with the man or
+his teaching. Valentinus also taught at Rome (c. A. D. 140-60), and his
+strange theories about _Æons_ and Ogdoads, about spiritual, psychical,
+and material men, or any other fantasy of his speculative mythology,
+were not thought beneath the criticism of an Irenæus, a Clement of
+Alexandria and a Tertullian. Yet no hint is there in the Seven Epistles
+that these thoughts were familiar to the writer. At one time an exultant
+Daillé found in his reading of 'Magn.' 8 an attack on Valentinianism,
+and consequently a welcome anachronism which proved the writer of the
+letters a forger. The discovery of the true reading has been followed
+not only by the collapse of the objection, but also by the adhesion to
+the belief, that the writer's use of certain expressions is a testimony
+to his existence in a pre-Valentinian epoch, when language had not been
+abused to heretical ends.
+
+Dr. Harnack has little to say against the Bishop of Durham's conclusions
+from the negative side of the investigation of these theological
+polemics; but he has much to say against the Bishop's deductions from
+the positive aspect of them. Though, says Bishop Lightfoot,
+
+     'in the Trallian and Smyrnæan letters the writer deals
+     chiefly with Docetism, while in the Magnesian and
+     Philadelphian letters he seems to be attacking Judaism, yet
+     a nearer examination shows the two to be so closely
+     interwoven that they can only be regarded as different sides
+     of one and the same heresy.'
+
+Not so Dr. Harnack. To him
+
+     'the identification of the Judaists and Gnostics in the
+     Ingnatian Epistles is quite inadmissible. Ignatius combats
+     the Doketists in the Epistle to the Ephesians, the
+     Trallians, and the Smyrnæans, while in the Epistles to the
+     Magnesians and Philadelphians he warns against the
+     Ebionistic danger. In the last-named Epistle he warns
+     against other tendencies which threatened the unity of the
+     Church.'
+
+In fact, it is this Epistle to the Philadelphians which, in his opinion,
+has led scholars astray. No one he thinks would have misunderstood 'the
+fact--that the Judaists in the Epistle to the Magnesians were certainly
+not Doketists, and the Doketists described in the Epistles to the
+Ephesians, Trallians, and Smyrnæans were not Judaists--had the Epistles
+of Ignatius come to us without the Epistle to the Philadelphians.' It
+would be beyond the province of this Review to enter into an
+examination of the arguments adduced on each side; it would also be an
+injustice to the disputants to infer that each selects or presses what
+tells most of his view, but certainly a calm and dispassionate
+inspection of these arguments will lead most men to think Uhlhorn,
+Lipsius, and Lightfoot more correct in their unanimous verdict, that but
+one heresy is attacked in the Ignatian letters, than Hilgenfeld and
+Harnack in their preference of two distinct heresies--Ebionism and
+Docetism. This latter conclusion can only be reached by treating the
+Letters of Ignatius as Hilgenfeld has treated St. Paul's Epistles to the
+Colossians; the former is attained by critical methods defining the
+Judaism and Gnosticism observable to be but web and woof of one and the
+same fabric.
+
+The very early date, and the consequent genuineness of these Epistles
+are thus the legitimate conclusion from the study of the internal as
+well as external evidences. That date is placed by the Bishop of Durham
+between A. D. 100-118 in the time of Trajan. Wieseler had placed the
+date of the martyrdom (upon which depends the date of the letters) as
+early as A. D. 107, Harnack as late as A. D. 138; and the latter still
+prefers to place them and the Epistle of Polycarp after the year A. D.
+130. The earlier date reached by the Bishop of Durham is to him 'a mere
+possibility which is highly improbable, because it is not supported by
+any word in the Epistle, and because it rests only upon a late and very
+problematic witness (Eusebius).' Dr. Harnack's present view is, in all
+essentials, the same as that which he previously held. He has had the
+advantage--which he courteously acknowledges--of examining Bishop
+Lightfoot's 'painstaking consideration' of his views held in 1878; but
+nevertheless he considers that the Bishop's method of considering the
+whole question is 'not the proper' one--that his 'admittedly profound
+learning has contributed little or nothing to the main question,' and
+that 'he has not rightly comprehended the problem.'[85] Yet the ordinary
+reader, who examines Dr. Harnack's re-statement of some of his views,
+will feel that to ask the Bishop of Durham to re-examine them will be
+but to ask him to slay afresh the slain. Dr. Harnack still clings, for
+example, to his view, that Polycarp is attacking the Docetism of
+Marcion; a view which, if sound, would convince the writer of an
+anachronism; because in pretending to write between A. D. 100 and 118 he
+has introduced a heresiarch not then notorious. But his view has been
+shown by Bishop Lightfoot to be fallacious; and all that Dr. Harnack can
+now answer is to repeat his preference for his own interpretation of
+two passages adduced in the argument.
+
+From the amenities of this battlefield of friendly criticism we turn for
+a few concluding remarks to the second and shorter life--that of
+Polycarp--which these monumental volumes discuss.
+
+In point of method and treatment, the consideration of the history and
+writings of this saint of the early Church follows the same lines, as
+those followed in the case of St. Ignatius. First, the biography proper.
+Next, one of those collections of passages and documents which render
+these volumes so remarkable. In seventy pages the student will find a
+_corpus_ of original extracts embellished with notes explanatory and
+critical--Such as Imperial acts and ordinances relating to or affecting
+Christianity; Acts and notices of martyrdoms. Passages from heathen
+writers, containing notices of the Christians; Passages from Christian
+writers illustrating the points at issue--most helpful to him in
+apprehending not only the history of the persecutions, but also the
+relations between the Church and the Empire, in the reigns of Hadrian
+(A. D. 117-38), Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-61), and Marcus Aurelius (A.
+D. 161-80). Then come in successive order the examination of the MSS and
+Versions, a collection of quotations and references, the consideration
+of the genuineness of the 'Epistle of Polycarp' and of the 'Letter to
+the Smyrnæans,' closed by a discussion upon the date of the Martyrdom.
+
+The Church of Christ owes a great debt to Polycarp:--
+
+     'In him one single link connected the earthly life of Christ
+     with the close of the second century, though five or six
+     generations had intervened. St. John, Polycarp,
+     Irenæus--this was the succession which guaranteed the
+     continuity of the evangelical record and of the Apostolic
+     teaching. The long life of St. John, followed by the long
+     life of Polycarp, had secured this result. What the Church
+     towards the close of the second century was--how full was
+     its teaching--how complete its canon--how adequate its
+     organization--how wise its extension--we know well enough
+     from Irenæus' extant work. But the intervening period had
+     been disturbed by feverish speculation and grave anxieties
+     on all sides. Polycarp saw teacher after teacher spring up,
+     each introducing some fresh system, and each professing to
+     teach the true Gospel. Menander, Cerinthus, Carpocrates,
+     Saturninus, Basilides, Cerdon, Valentinus, Marcion--all
+     these flourished during his lifetime, and all taught after
+     he had grown up to manhood. Against all such innovations of
+     doctrine and practice there lay the appeal to Polycarp's
+     personal knowledge. With what feelings he regarded such
+     teachers we may learn not only from his own epistle (§ 7),
+     but from the sayings recorded by Irenæus, "O good God, for
+     what times hast Thou kept me, I recognize the firstborn of
+     Satan." He was eminently fitted, too, by his personal
+     qualities to fulfil this function as a depositary of
+     tradition.... Polycarp's mind was essentially unoriginative.
+     It had no creative power. His Epistle is largely made up of
+     quotations from the Evangelical and Apostolic writings, from
+     Clement of Rome, from the Epistles of Ignatius.... A
+     stedfast, stubborn adherence to the lessons of his youth and
+     early manhood, an unrelaxing, unwavering hold of "the word
+     that was delivered to him from the beginning"--this, so far
+     as we can read the man from his own utterances or from the
+     notices of others, was the characteristic of Polycarp. His
+     religious convictions were seen to be "founded," as Ignatius
+     had said long before (Polyc. 1) "on an immovable rock." He
+     was not dismayed by the plausibilities of false teachers,
+     but "stood firm as an anvil under the hammer's stroke."
+     (_ib._ 3).'
+
+The Church has ever claimed for her Saint not so much the reverence paid
+to the martyr, or the deference due to the ruler, or the teachableness
+powerful in the writer, as the attention obligatory to an 'elder.' Why?
+We may give the reason in the Bishop's words:
+
+     'While the oral tradition of the Lord's life and of the
+     Apostolic teaching was still fresh, the believers of
+     succeeding generations not unnaturally appealed to it for
+     confirmation against the many counterfeits of the Gospel
+     which offered themselves for acceptance. The authorities for
+     this tradition were "the Elders." To the testimony of these
+     Elders appeal was made by Papias in the first, and by
+     Irenæus in the second generation after the Apostles. With
+     Papias the Elders were those who themselves had seen the
+     Lord, or had been eye-witnesses of the Apostolic history:
+     with Irenæus the term included likewise persons who, like
+     Papias himself, had been acquainted with these
+     eye-witnesses. And among these Polycarp held the foremost
+     place.'
+
+The existing letter to the Philippians is now recognized as a genuine
+work of the Saint; and this on the testimony of internal evidence, quite
+as much as on the direct testimony of Irenæus, his own disciple. The
+arbitrary method of a Daillé, the interpolation-theory of Ritschl, and
+the wholesale rejection of the Epistle by Schwegler, Zeller, and
+Hilgenfeld, have ceased to command attention or demand refutation. The
+Epistle is too closely confined to the letters and martyrdom of Ignatius
+to warrant our looking for much refutation in it of existing error; but
+the spirit and counsel of the 'elder' is truly there warning against
+false and hypocritical brethren, and impelling his readers to turn unto
+the word delivered unto them from the beginning.
+
+Never was Christian counsel and sturdy faith more needed than in the
+period covered by the lifetime of Polycarp. The Bishop of Durham
+describes it as 'the most tumultuous period in the religious history of
+the world'; and in connection with the Bishop of Smyrna he notes that 'a
+chief arena of the struggle between creeds and cults was Asia Minor.' If
+in the earlier part of the second century (A. D. 112) Pliny, in his
+celebrated letter to Trajan,[86] deplored what Polycarp may have
+witnessed--on the one hand, heathen temples deserted and heathen
+sacrifices starved as to their victims; on the other, young and old, man
+and woman, patrician and peasant, bond and free, attracted to and
+mastered by a 'superstition' which affected alike the city and the
+village, the nobleman's mansion and the herdsman's hut, yet the splendid
+successes of Christianity did not blind either saint or philosopher. 'A
+veritable Pagan propaganda,' as Renan calls it, also set in in the
+second century; and when Polycarp died, it was at its height. Everywhere
+was it supported by the reigning emperors. 'The political and truly
+Roman instincts of Trajan were not more friendly to it than the
+archæological tastes, the cosmopolitan interests, and the theological
+levity of Hadrian. From their immediate successors, Antoninus Pius and
+Marcus Aurelius, it received even more solid and efficient support.'
+
+Smyrna, the see of Bishop Polycarp, was fully exposed to the influences
+of this reviving Paganism. The rhetorician, Aristides--true type of the
+Pagan charlatan who summoned to his aid in subjugating a superstitious
+people the mysterious and occult powers with which astrology and dreams,
+auguries and witchcrafts, invested their possessors--was himself a
+frequent dweller in Smyrna. Often must he have heard of and despised the
+man branded by the titles, 'the teacher of Asia, the father of the
+Christians, the puller-down of our gods, who teacheth numbers not to
+sacrifice nor worship'[87] which--like the inscription over his
+crucified Lord--did unconsciously proclaim the very and only truth.
+Twice did the city of Smyrna, during Polycarp's prime, receive fresh
+honours and privileges for her devotion to the worship of Imperial
+deities. The religious guild of the temples of the Augusti celebrated
+here their festivals with exceptional splendour; the 'theologians' and
+'choristers,' who owed their existence and affluence to the magnificence
+of a Hadrian, not only saluted him as their 'god,' their 'saviour and
+founder,' but by senatorial decree established games--the Olympia
+Hadrianea--grotesquely pompous in titular magnificence. Naturally this
+affected the well-being of the infant Church of Christ in Smyrna; but
+that Church was assailed from another quarter, and by the sharpened
+weapons, not of a scornful superiority, but of fanatical hatred. The
+Jews were both numerous and powerful in Smyrna, and two cruel episodes
+in their late national history accentuated their fury against the
+Christians wherever they met with them. The first was the destruction of
+Jerusalem (A. D. 70). The fugitives from Palestine, who found refuge in
+Smyrna with their fellow-countrymen already settled there, found
+sympathy also--save from one class, the Christians. Compassion these
+last could feel for men whose best blood had welled over the courts of
+the Temple, whose dearest and nearest had perhaps perished in Jerusalem,
+that 'cage of furious madmen, a city of howling wild beasts and of
+cannibals--a hell' (Renan); but they knew to be true what a Titus had
+acknowledged, that 'the hand of God' was in the victory of Rome. They
+saw in the downfall of the Holy City the retribution of the Heavenly
+Father for the crucifixion of the Messiah; and sorrow with the sorrow of
+the weeping patriots of Israel they could not and would not. Their
+refusal was the signal for a determination to seize every opportunity of
+revenge; and the second episode, to which we have alluded, is connected
+with a specially furious outburst of maddened passion against Christians
+on the part of the Jews. Hadrian, fifty years after the fall of
+Jerusalem, had resolved upon rearing on its ruins the city of Ælia
+Capitolina. Then flashed forth the rebellion of the Jew Bar-cochba (A.
+D. 132-4). The 'Son of the Star,' supported by his standard-bearer,
+Akiba, the greatest of the Rabbins, measured his strength with Rome.
+With mouth breathing forth flames,[88] he inspired his partisans with
+confidence, and his enemies with terror. Flung back, disappointed, and
+slain at Bither, the 'Son of a Lie,' as his disappointed countrymen had
+found him to their cost and re-named him, had yet found opportunities of
+inflicting terrible tortures and agonizing deaths upon those Christians
+in Palestine, who had dared to reject his Messianic claims, and refused
+to blaspheme Christ. And the spirit of vengeance spread from the Holy
+Land to the provinces. Twenty years after the death of the rebel leader,
+the Jews of Smyrna--probably to Polycarp 'a synagogue of Satan,' as in
+earlier times St. John his master had described
+
+them (Rev. ii. 9)--found their opportunity. Their vengeance then was
+only slaked by the blood of the Christian Bishop.
+
+The Saint's martyrdom was the crowning consummation of the Saint's life.
+With the Bishop of Durham's help we can now collect all that we shall
+probably ever know of both; and to this we turn in conclusion.[89]
+
+The date of his martyrdom may be accepted as about 155 A. D.[90] If
+Polycarp was then 86 years of age, his birth may be placed in A. D. 60
+or 70, at a time nearly coincident with the date of the destruction of
+Jerusalem. That event was the cause which drove St. John to fix his
+abode ultimately at Ephesus, the traditional home of St. Andrew, and
+near to the Phrygian Hierapolis, where St. Philip the Apostle died and
+was buried. The proximity of Smyrna to Ephesus, and the reputation
+accorded to both in the flattering designation of 'the two eyes' of
+proconsular Asia, would make intercourse between the cities familiar and
+frequent. In the Christian advantages consequent upon such intercourse
+Polycarp had his full share, if it be impossible to assert positively
+that he was a Smyrnæan by birth, and of Christian parentage. But the
+legends at the close of the fourth century, as embodied in the story of
+Pionius, sought and found for his origin a more romantic, if sad,
+beginning. One night, God's Angel appeared to a widow of Smyrna named
+Callisto, rich in worldly wealth, but still more rich in good work.
+'Go,' he bade her, 'to the Ephesian gate. There you will find two men.
+They have with them a young lad for sale. Give them their price, and
+take and keep the child. He is by birth an Eastern.' The child was
+Polycarp. She did as she was bid. She bought and reared him, and
+eventually left to him all her substance. The fact implied in the last
+words, that Polycarp was a comparatively well-to-do man, is the one fact
+out of the above story supported by more authentic documents. Perhaps
+also the picture of the man, so pleasing and natural, drawn by Pionius,
+may present traits faithful to the original:--
+
+     'The love of knowledge and the fondness of the Scriptures,
+     which distinguishes the people of the East, bore rich fruit
+     in him. He offered himself a whole offering to God, by
+     prayer and study of the Scriptures, by spareness of diet and
+     simplicity of clothing, by liberal almsgiving. He was
+     bashful and retiring, shunning the busy throngs of men, and
+     consorting only with those who needed his assistance. When
+     he met an aged wood-carrier outside the walls, he would
+     purchase his burden, would carry it himself to the city, and
+     would give it to the widows living near the gate. The
+     Bishop Bucolus cherished him as a son, and he in turn
+     requited his love with filial care and devotion.'
+
+But we may catch from real and genuine sources three glimpses of the
+man: in youth as the disciple of St. John, in middle age as the champion
+of Ignatius, in closing life as the teacher of Irenæus. Of the circle of
+disciples who gathered round St. John, Polycarp is indubitably the most
+famous. He delighted, in his declining years, to tell his younger
+friends what he had himself heard from eye-witnesses of the Lord's life
+on earth; and he would dwell especially on his intercourse with the
+Apostle of Love. There is nothing improbable in the belief, that he was
+ordained to the episcopate by the venerable Apostle. Among his
+contemporaries were Clement, Papias, and Ignatius. Polycarp knew, as has
+been stated, the letter of the great Bishop of Rome, and Papias--his
+'companion,' as Irenæus[91] calls him--became his neighbour at
+Hierapolis. But it is with Ignatius that the younger man is inseparably
+linked. They met, probably for the first (and only) time, at Smyrna when
+the great Bishop of Antioch was on his way to martyrdom at Rome.
+Touching in their affectionateness are the remarks which each passes
+upon each. Polycarp inspires Ignatius with 'love.' The younger man is to
+the older 'most blessed,' 'clothed with grace,' marked by 'fervid
+sincerity,' a man 'whose godly mind is grounded on an immovable rock'
+(Letter to Polycarp). To Polycarp, Ignatius 'the blessed' is the pattern
+of men, 'obedient unto the word of righteousness and practising all
+endurance,' 'encircled in saintly bonds which are the diadems of them
+that be truly chosen of God and our Lord.' The two men parted, never
+again to meet on earth, yet to be linked together by 'martyrdom
+comformable to the Gospel' But ere that 'birthday' arrived, Polycarp had
+to live for nearly half a century; and potent was his influence upon the
+men of a younger generation. Melito, Claudius Apollinaris, and
+Polycrates, famous among the Fathers of Asia, must have known him well;
+Justin Martyr visited him from Ephesus; but mightiest and dearest of all
+was his pupil Irenæus, the champion of orthodoxy against Gnosticism.
+
+     'When I was still a boy,' wrote Irenæus, '(I was) in company
+     with Polycarp in Asia Minor.... I can tell the very place in
+     which the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed,
+     his goings out and comings in, his manner of life and his
+     personal appearance, his discourses which he gave to the
+     people, and his description of his intercourse with John,
+     and the rest of those who had seen the Lord.'[92]
+
+Those were reminiscences and lessons never forgotten by the future
+Bishop of Lyons. To him, as to 'all the churches of Asia and to the
+successors of Polycarp' himself, the pupil of St. John was 'a much more
+trustworthy and safe witness of the truth than Valentinus and Marcion,
+and all such wrong-minded men.'[93]
+
+The end came at last. A persecution was raging; how or why we know not.
+All that can be known is told in the 'Letter of the Smyrnæans.'[94] The
+simplicity and pathos of the story, as told by this ancient document, so
+moved the great Scaliger, that he felt hardly master of himself. We
+cannot tell the tale of triumph in better words than in those of that
+exquisite piece of ecclesiastical antiquity. The great annual festival
+was being held at Smyrna, presided over by the Asiarch and 'high
+priest'[95] Philip, a wealthy citizen of the wealthy Tralles, and graced
+by the presence of the Proconsul Statius Quadratus. The persecutor had
+asked for blood, and blood had been granted him. Already several
+victims, Philadelphians, 'so torn by lashes that the mechanism of their
+flesh was visible even as far as the inward veins and arteries,' had
+'endured patiently;' showing to the weeping bystanders such bravery that
+the explanation became current--'(these) martyrs of Christ being
+tortured, were absent from the flesh, or rather the Lord was standing by
+and conversing with them.' Others 'condemned to the wild beasts, endured
+fearful punishments, being made to lie on sharp shells and buffeted with
+other forms of manifold tortures, that the devil might, if possible, by
+the persistence of the punishment bring them to a denial; for he tried
+many wiles against them.' Men remembered afterwards how 'the right noble
+Germanicus,' scorning the pity the Proconsul would have extended to his
+youth, 'used violence, and dragged the wild beast towards him.' Such
+bravery, 'the bravery of the God-fearing and God-beloved people of the
+Christians,' only whetted the pagan thirst for blood. There rang out the
+shout, 'Away with the atheists![96] Let search be made for Polycarp!'
+He had gone against his will into the country, probably to one of his
+own farms; and he was found without much difficulty. He placed before
+his captors food and drink, and asked but a single boon of them--'one
+hour that he might pray unmolested.' Those mounted soldiers, 'wondering
+why there should be such eagerness for the apprehension of an old man
+like him,' gave their consent. 'He stood up and prayed; and being full
+of the grace of God, for two hours he could not hold his peace, so that
+they who heard him were amazed, and many repented that they had come
+against such a venerable old man.' They brought him to the city, seated
+on an ass. Steadily did he refuse the real and sincere endeavours of
+compassionate heathen to 'save himself.' 'What harm,' they asked, 'is
+there in saying, Cæsar is Lord, and offering incense?' He would only
+answer, 'I am not going to do what you counsel me.' As he entered the
+stadium, the human roar, fiercer and more cruel than that of wild
+beasts, rose above every other sound. Polycarp did not heed it; a voice
+came to him from heaven, 'Be strong, Polycarp, and play the man;' and,
+nerved by what other Christians had also heard, he stood at last before
+Statius. Words, at first pitiful, greeted him: 'Have respect to thine
+age!--Swear by the genius of Cæsar! Say, "Away with the atheists."' The
+Saint caught up the last word. He 'looked with solemn countenance upon
+that vast multitude of lawless heathen; and groaning and looking up to
+heaven, he said, 'Away with the atheists.' Was he then yielding? The
+Proconsul had misunderstood him, but he pressed him hard and said 'Swear
+the oath, and I will release thee. Revile the Christ!' Polycarp looked
+him in the face, and gave him the answer which can never die. 'Fourscore
+and six years have I been His servant, and He hath done me no wrong. How
+then can I blaspheme my King Who saved me?' The words of pity changed
+into threats. 'I have wild beasts here,' said Statius, 'and I will throw
+thee to them except thou change thy mind.' 'Call them,' was the
+unflinching answer. 'If thou despisest the wild beasts, I will cause
+thee to be consumed by fire.' Polycarp remembered a dream of three days
+before in which he had seen his pillow burning with fire, and which he
+had interpreted to those with him as signifying that he would be burnt
+alive. He answered now, 'Thou threatenest that fire which burneth for a
+season and after a little while is quenched. For thou art ignorant of
+the fire of the future judgment and eternal punishment, which is
+reserved for the ungodly:' and then he added--in his impatience to be
+'made a partaker with Christ'--'But why delayest thou? Come, do what
+thou wilt.' Saying this, 'he was inspired with courage and joy, and his
+countenance was filled with grace.'
+
+The herald's proclamation was soon heard announcing three times,
+'Polycarp hath confessed himself to be a Christian;' and again the human
+yell broke forth from Gentile and Jew, this time fashioning itself into
+distinct speech: 'This is the teacher of Asia, the father of the
+Christians, the puller down of our gods, who teacheth numbers not to
+sacrifice nor worship.... Let the lion loose upon him!' 'That is
+impossible' was the answer of the Asiarch, 'for the sports have closed.'
+They shouted out 'with one accord, "Burn him alive!" Quicker than words
+could tell, the crowds collected timber and faggots from workshops and
+baths, and the Jews especially assisted in this with zeal, as was their
+wont.' They placed around him the 'instruments prepared for the pile,'
+and were going to nail him to the stake. He interposed with his last
+request of men, 'Leave me as I am. He that hath granted me to endure the
+fire, will grant me also to remain at the pile unmoved, without the
+security you seek from nails.' They 'tied him to the stake.' He stood up
+'like a noble ram out of a great flock for an offering, a
+burnt-sacrifice made ready and acceptable to God;' and looking up to
+heaven, made his last request of God in one of the noblest prayers
+preserved in ancient or modern literature. His Amen said, 'the firemen
+lighted the fire. The mighty flame flashed forth,' and men saw then,
+what in later days they saw repeated at the martyrdom of a Savonarola
+and of a Hooper,[97] the fire, 'like the sail of a vessel filled with
+wind, surrounding as with a wall the body of the martyr. It was there in
+the midst, not like flesh burning, but like gold and silver refined in a
+furnace.' Could he not die?
+
+     'Lawless men, seeing that his body could not be consumed by
+     the fire, ordered an executioner to go up to him and stab
+     him with a dagger. And when he had done this, there came
+     forth a quantity of blood,[98] so that it extinguished the
+     fire; and all the multitude marvelled that there should be
+     so great a difference between the unbelievers and the
+     elect.'
+
+The Christians hoped to have taken away the 'poor body,' but 'the
+jealous and envious Evil One, the adversary of the family of the
+righteous,' instigated the Jews to urge upon the magistrate not to give
+up his body, lest they (the Christians) should abandon the crucified One
+and begin to worship this man,... 'not knowing' (add the narrators) 'how
+impossible it would be for them to forsake at any time the Christ Who
+suffered for the salvation of the whole world of those who are
+saved--suffered, though sinless, for sinners--not to worship any other.'
+The body was placed again on the pile and consumed. Then 'the bones,
+more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold,' were
+taken up and laid in a suitable place.
+
+So died a Polycarp as had died an Ignatius, both martyred, and both
+memorable for 'nobleness, patient endurance, and loyalty to their
+Master.' The motto of their deaths was the motto of their lives,
+condensed into the saying of the martyr of Antioch to the martyr of
+Smyrna:--
+
+    '[Greek: hopou pleiôn kopos, poly kerdos.]
+
+    'The greater the pain, the greater the gain.'
+
+We know nothing certain of the tombs which tradition or affection have
+pointed out as the last resting-place of the calcined remains of either
+Saint, but we need no longer such perishable monuments. The
+English-speaking and English-reading race have in the volumes of the
+Bishop of Durham a fitting shrine for those literary remains which
+survive destruction. Scholarship and piety, study and prayer, have here
+combined to shed light upon the writings, and to raise a monument to the
+lives, of those champions of early Christianity, who in their day
+wrought a good work, and still speak, though dead.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] Bishop Lightfoot's 'Ignatius and Polycarp,' by Prof. A. Harnack,
+Ph.D, in 'Expositor' for December, 1885, p. 401.
+
+[65] 'The Apostolic Fathers,' p. 116. By Canon Scott Holland.
+
+[66] [Greek: hechtroma], 'Ep. to the Romans,' 9, with Bp. Lightfoot's
+note. Compare 1 Corinth. xv. 8.
+
+[67] Herod, vii. 31, 187.
+
+[68] 'Ep. to the Rom.' 5, 'to the Ephes.' II, with note
+
+[69] See the useful Table in i. 222, and the excursus on 'Spurious and
+Interpolated Epistles' in i. 223-266. Cf. also the 'Appendix Ignatiana,'
+ii. 587, &c.
+
+[70] Such as Eusebius and Theodoret. Cf. i., pp. 137-40, 161-4. The
+catena of quotations and references from the second to the ninth
+century, given in i. 127-221 (cf. the hint on p. 220) is most important
+for the construction of the text, and as a preliminary to the
+determination of the priority and authenticity of the Epistles.
+Harnack's objections to the quotation from Lucian (i. 129) are not
+shared by Baur or Renan, and are indirectly met by Bishop Lightfoot, i.
+331-5.
+
+[71] Stephen Marshall, Edward Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen,
+William Spurstow.
+
+[72] i, 79 For example, as regards the order of the words in the Greek
+text this latin translation may be treated as an authority. The Greek is
+rigidly followed without any regard for Latin usage. So also Greek
+articles are scrupulously reproduced, in violation of Latin idiom. New
+or unusual Latin words are introduced to correspond as exactly as
+possible to the original; _e.g._ ingloriatio = [Greek: akanchêsia];
+multibona ordinatio = [Greek: to polyeutaktan], &c.
+
+[73] See i. 72. For the text edited by Dr. W. Wright, see ii. 657., &c.;
+and for a translation, ii. 670, &c.
+
+[74] 'De scriptis quæ sub Dionysii Areopagitæ et Ignati Antiocheni
+nominibus circumferuntur,' &c. (1666). The Bishop of Durham
+characterizes Daille's treatment of the Ignatian writings as marked 'by
+deliberate confusion.' He knows the facts, but makes the Vossian letters
+bear all the odium attached to the 'long' recension. Pearson's work,
+'Vindiciæ Epistolarum S. Ignatii,' appeared six years later in 1672.
+This reply as compared with the attack was 'as light to darkness.' In
+England it closed the controversy.
+
+[75] Trall. 5.
+
+[76] See, for example, Rom. 4, 9: Trall. 3, 13; Ephes. 1, 3, 21.
+
+[77] Rom. 5.
+
+[78] Smyrn. 8.
+
+[79] See i. 400, 405.
+
+[80] Consult Bishop Lightfoot's Essay on this subject in his Commentary
+on the Epistle to the Philippians (p. 181, &c.). The 'Teaching of the
+Twelve Apostles,' published in 1884, is rightly referred to now by the
+Bishop of Durham as confirming his positions.
+
+[81] Comp. Irenæus, 'Hær.' iii. 3, § § 3,4; iii. 14, § 2.
+
+[82] Essay in 'Philippians,' p. 218.
+
+[83] Cf. Bishop Lightfoot's edition of 'St. Clement of Rome,' App. p.
+252, &c.
+
+[84] Iren. 'Hær.' iii. 3, 4.
+
+[85] Cf. i. 568, &c.
+
+[86] See i. 50, &c.; ii. 532. The Bishop of Durham's collection of facts
+and references dealing with this subject is an admirable
+specimen--everywhere repeated--of the exhaustive treatment he applies to
+single points.
+
+[87] Letter of the Smyrnæans, § 12.
+
+[88] He had learnt the trick of keeping lighted tow or straw in his
+mouth. See other instances in Milman's 'History of the Jeos,' ii. 429,
+n. _x_.
+
+[89] Cf. Justin Martyr in Eusebius, 'Hist.' iv, 8.
+
+[90] i. 422, 629, &c. Mr. Rendell, in the 'Studia Biblica' (oxf. 1885),
+has come to the same conclusion by an independent treatment.
+
+[91] Hær. v. 33, 34.
+
+[92] Euseb. 'Hist. Eccl.' v. 20
+
+[93] Iren. 'Hær.' iii. 3.
+
+[94] The genuineness of the main document (at least) is unaffected by
+recent attacks. The impugning process of Schürer, Lipsius, and Kelm has
+been successfully resisted by Renan, Hilgenfeld (in part), and the
+Bishop of Durham (i 588, &c.).
+
+[95] The subjects of the Asiarchate, of the identity of Asiarch and
+high-priest, have suggested to the Bishop of Durham another of those
+exhaustive discussions which will win for him the gratitude of the
+students (see ii. 987, &c.)
+
+[96] The name given by the heathen to the Christians, whom they counted
+godless because they had neither image nor visible representation of the
+Deity. See ii. 160, note to line 1.
+
+[97] See i. 599 nn. 1, 6.
+
+[98] On the celebrated reading, 'there came forth a dove and a quantity
+of blood, see ii. 974, note to i. 3. It is to be explained by the
+belief, that the soul departed from the body at death in the form of a
+bird; the dove most readily suggesting itself as the emblem of a
+Christian soul.
+
+
+
+
+Art. VIII.--1. _An Address delivered to the Students of Edinburgh
+University on Nov. 3, 1885._ By the Earl of Iddesleigh, Lord Rector of
+the University of Edinburgh.
+
+2. _Hearing, Reading and Thinking: an address to the Students attending
+the Lectures of the London Society for the Extension of University
+Teaching._ By the Rt. Hon. G.J. Goschen, M.P.
+
+3. _The Choice of Books and other Literary Pieces._ By Frederic
+Harrison. London, 1886.
+
+
+The subject of Books and Reading is _in the air_ at the present time;
+Lord Iddlesleigh raised the question last November, by his admirable
+discourse on Desultory Reading, delivered at Edinburgh. Sir John Lubbock
+was not slow to follow the lead, in his lecture at the Working Men's
+College; and lastly, we have Mr. Goschen's more abstract and despondent
+remarks on Hearing, Reading, and Thinking. The discussion has been
+carried forward from Newspaper to Journal, and from Journal to Magazine,
+and has attracted representatives of the most heterogeneous elements
+into the ever widening circle. Sir John Lubbock wound up by enumerating
+a _hundred_ of the books--
+
+     'most frequently mentioned with approval by those who have
+     referred directly or indirectly to the pleasure of reading,
+     and I have ventured to include some, which though less
+     frequently mentioned, are especial favourites of my own. I
+     have abstained for obvious reasons from mentioning works by
+     living authors.' ('Self Help,' however, is admitted into Sir
+     John's revised list), 'though from many of them, Tennyson,
+     Ruskin, and others, I have myself derived the keenest
+     enjoyment; and have omitted works of Science, with one or
+     two exceptions, because the subject is so progressive. I
+     feel that the attempt is over bold, and must beg for
+     indulgence; but indeed one object I have had in view is to
+     stimulate others, more competent far than I am, to give us
+     the advantage of their opinions. If we had such lists drawn
+     up by a few good guides, they would be most useful.'
+
+The challenge thus thrown down was quickly taken up by the Editor of the
+'Pall Mall Gazette,' who forthwith sent out a Circular to certain
+eminent men of the day, inviting them 'to jot down such a list--not
+necessarily containing a hundred volumes--as would help the present
+generation to choose their reading more wisely.' Whether the majority of
+the 'guides' thus appealed to have responded to the call, we are not
+informed; the replies of several have been published; and our thanks are
+due to those who have been instrumental in opening up a discussion of
+great variety and universal interest; though we must confess to some
+regret that the initiative was not given in a different form. Why the
+number should be fixed at one hundred; why works of Science should be
+excluded; why Biography and Travels should enjoy so meagre a
+representation on Sir John Lubbock's list, are questions to which no
+satisfactory answer has been given.
+
+Who is it, we would ask in the first place, for whom this list is
+primarily intended? Not the man whose love of books is firmly
+established, for he will have chosen for himself his own walk among the
+innumerable highways and byepaths of literature; nor he whose tastes are
+just forming, for the field is too wide, and he would hardly prefer the
+Analects of Confucius, the Shahnameh, and the Sheking, to 'Marco's
+Polo's Travels,' Lockhart's 'Life of Scott,' and 'Æsop's Fables.' No
+list, however, that could be drawn up would escape criticism, and our
+desire is not so much to suggest in what manner the present list might
+be amended, as to indicate how, in our opinion, it might have been made
+to serve some practical purpose.
+
+'Books have brought some men to knowledge and some to madness. As
+fulness sometimes hurteth the stomach more than hunger, so fareth it
+with arts; and as of meats, so likewise of books, the use ought to be
+limited according to the quality of him that useth them.' Thus wrote
+Petrarch, and the comparison between the bodily and mental digestion, if
+trite, is very far from being a mere superficial analogy.
+
+Those who are blessed with a judicial friend, quite competent to make a
+diagnosis of their literary capacity and prescribe a diet, are indeed
+fortunate--'sua si bona norint.' Such prescriptions have been long since
+made, and handed down to us. That written out by Doctor Johnson, for his
+friend the Rev. Mr. Astle of Ashbourne, is brief enough, and savours of
+the drastic remedies fashionable in the last century.[99] If on glancing
+over the Doctor's list our readers are inclined to assume that the Rev.
+Mr. Astle was possessed of a very healthy digestion, we would remind
+them that solid joints and heavy folios were more in vogue at that time
+than in these days of French cookery and periodical literature.
+
+In later times Comte also, among others, has furnished a catalogue, or
+syllabus of books for general reading; but even his faithful follower
+Mr. Harrison admits, half apologetically, that it 'has no special
+relation to current views of education, to English literature, much less
+to the literature of the day. It was drawn up thirty years ago by a
+French philosopher, who passed his life in Paris, and who had read no
+new book for twenty years.'
+
+'What shall I read?' There are few questions more frequently asked than
+this; few, perhaps, to which a thoughtless answer is more frequently
+given. Coming from one of that large class to which Lord Iddesleigh has
+given the name of 'indolent readers,' it might be assumed to be lightly
+asked, and might be as lightly answered by the recommendation of some
+three-volume novel, or the more fashionable shilling's-worth of gruesome
+mystery; but if the enquirer be a young book-lover, a worthy answer is
+far to seek. The diagnosis and opinion of the physician do not present
+greater difficulties, and in many cases are not attended by more
+momentous results. To turn a juvenile adrift in Sir John Lubbock's list
+would be to prescribe an exclusive diet of richly seasoned dishes and
+rare wines to a convalescent patient--to feed him on strong meats, on
+cavaire and truffles, and to omit the simple, wholesome, homely fare on
+which, in his condition, health and efficient progress must in the main
+depend.
+
+How often has the young enquirer been imbued with a distaste for solid
+literature by being compelled to read 'masterpieces' long before he was
+able to appreciate their value, or even to comprehend their history! The
+system at many of our schools is much to blame in this respect. There
+are, we believe, comparatively few boys who acquire, until they seek it
+for themselves, even the roughest general outline of the world's
+history, to which their various episodic studies may be applied, so that
+each may fall into its proper place and order. 'Periods' and 'Epochs'
+are studied minutely and painfully, without any knowledge of the grand
+structure of which they form but a single fragment; and history is too
+often divorced from geography. A schoolboy is set to work on a play of
+Aristophanes before he has made acquaintance with the social and
+political movements of which Pericles and Cleon were the
+representatives. He reads his Bible and his Homer, his Virgil and
+Horace, his Cæsar and Livy, but probably with the vaguest ideas of their
+relations to one another, or their respective positions in the world's
+chronology. Or it may be that the whole of one term is devoted to one or
+two books of 'the Iliad' and 'the Odyssey,' 'the Æneid' or the 'Odes,'
+which are ground out line by line and word by word, all the interest and
+flavour of the complete work being inevitably and hopelessly dissipated
+in the process. Even 'the college prizeman, and the college tutor cannot
+read a chorus in the Trilogy but what his mind instinctively wanders on
+optatives, choriambi, and that happy conjecture of Smelfungus in the
+antistrophe.'[100] But certain books having to be got up for an
+examination by the cramming process, the receptacle for all this
+erudition only looks forward to the time when he may throw his Classics
+behind the fire for ever. No book with the least pretention to permanent
+value can be read purely by and for itself; inevitably it must draw on
+the reader--if he be in any sense worthy of the name--from point to
+point beyond its own immediate sphere, until he finds his interest
+expanding and his tastes forming under a natural and rapid process of
+evolution. Can any intelligent person read his Homer or his 'Æneid,' his
+Boswell, his 'Old Mortality,' or 'The Voyage of the Beagle' without
+asking himself who are these strange characters, and where are these
+strange lands that seem so familiar to us?
+
+He who stands on a hill and surveys a wide landscape, easily recognizes
+the leading features of the country--the river and the homestead, the
+church and the corn-field--they need no guide, they tell their own tale.
+In like manner the great landmarks of the literature of the past are
+well defined and unmistakable to him who has eyes to see and a mind to
+comprehend. The traveller may choose his line, and as he goes his way he
+will not fail to find guides who will give him the directions which
+passing doubts and difficulties may render necessary. The world's great
+books stand out as the old stone walls of some great feudal
+fortress--prominent and indestructible. Their original uses have been
+superseded by the world's advance; but time and change add greatly to
+their interest. He, however, who finds himself entangled in the dense
+jungle of books that are not 'masterpieces,' and are so plentiful in
+modern literature, is in a sorry plight; his way lies through this
+jungle, be it long or short, and he cannot escape it altogether. He has
+heard of the quiet groves of the Academy, and of the heights of
+Parnassus, but he is rarely able to catch a glimpse of them. He is
+whirled along and loses his foothold in the eddying torrent of
+periodical literature; or he is entangled in the briars of controversy,
+and, torn and vexed, is apt to lose his way. Here then it is that he
+particularly needs a guide, and here it is that Sir John Lubbock bids
+good-bye to him, and leaves him to his own resources.
+
+The student, thus perplexed, may be surprised to learn from Mr. Ruskin
+that 'any bank clerk could write a history as good as Grote's,' and that
+Gibbon only chronicled 'putrescence and corruption; 'he may be deeply
+interested in the information that Professor Bryce prefers Pindar to
+Hesiod, that the Lord Chief Justice knows nothing of Chinese or
+Sanskrit, and that Miss Braddon has spent 'great part of a busy life
+reading the "Quarterly and Edinburgh Reviews."' But all this does not
+help him in his bewildering journey among the 10,000 books which are
+annually flooding the world of English speaking readers--a mass of which
+we fear that the quality advances in inverse ratio to the quantity.
+
+Sir John Lubbock's list, as it stands, suggests a gathering of
+illustrious Generals and officers, without any men. They are very
+distinguished and admirable in appearance and qualifications, but would
+be doubly so if seen at the head of the army which they lead and
+represent. Had Sir John commenced by marshalling his hundred books in
+groups, either of subjects to be studied or of readers to be provided
+for, and then called upon the 'guides' to fill up the gaps, and supply
+the rank and file of his army, he would have earned the thanks of all
+book-lovers.
+
+In the selection of books two considerations must alternately be
+paramount. One of these would have reference to the subjects to be
+studied, the other would have reference to the readers to be provided
+for. We are aware of the long controversies and technical difficulties
+involved in this question of Classification, which has stirred the
+hearts of Librarians from time immemorial, but for our present purpose
+the elaboration of an exhaustive scientific system is unnecessary; a
+statement of the rough headings and divisions, under which the books for
+general readers should be grouped, presents no insurmountable obstacles.
+Various minor considerations may subsequently assert themselves; as, for
+example, whether the books are required with the ultimate object of the
+formation of a library, and 'the cultivation of literature is an object
+which cannot be accomplished without the acquisition of a library of a
+greater or less extent,' or for the mere purpose of amusement. To draw
+up such a catalogue as we propose would exceed the capacity of any
+single individual; each section should be the work of one or more
+persons specially versed in the subject.
+
+We are, of course, dealing rather with those who are aspiring to be book
+lovers than with those who, having already attained to that distinction,
+can trust to the guidance of their own inclinations. These aspirants
+must seek first an able and judicious guide for each department of
+study. One guide may be fully competent to make a list of works in
+history or biography, but may lack experience in philosophy or in art;
+while, on the other hand, the regimen prescribed for the country curate
+would hardly be appropriate for the mechanic or the soldier.
+
+But, first, we must endeavour to define, by a rough process of
+elimination, the book lover, whether mature or in embryo. He is not the
+mere 'glutton of the lending library,' who bolts the contents of the
+monthly box without discrimination and without reflection, his main
+object being to while away an idle day or to gain a superficial
+reputation at the next dinner party at which he may be present; nor is
+he the collector of gaudy bindings; nor one who has never possessed nor
+desired to possess a library of his own, who has never read a book more
+than once, and has never committed to memory a single passage. He is not
+the man, in short, who fails to realize that 'the utility of reading
+depends not on the swallow but on the digestion.'
+
+From the American Westerner who buys an Encyclopædia in parts, and finds
+in it all that he requires of instruction and amusement, to the princely
+founders of libraries--the Spencers and Parkers, the De Thous, the
+Sunderlands, and the Beckfords--is a wide interval, and includes all
+sorts and conditions of men, diverse from one another in everything but
+their love of books.
+
+Sir John Lubbock, by his eminence in the world of science and the world
+of commerce, is admirably qualified to draw up a list of works on
+science and trade. But these he has unfortunately excluded from his
+consideration. Such lists would be invaluable to the thousands who from
+intellectual, or more purely mercenary motives, are now seeking for
+light. Had Sir John classified his list on some simple and
+discriminating plan, such as we have suggested, we might, as a result of
+the discussion, have obtained a summary of works on art by Mr. Ruskin,
+or a soldier's library by Lord Wolseley. Others, whose replies have been
+published, would have furnished special lists; and a still wider circle
+would, no doubt, have seen their way to rendering much help and service.
+We should, moreover, have been spared some rather irrelevant and wayward
+criticisms to which the discussion has given rise.
+
+Two or three of the 'guides' have, with more or less success, adopted
+for themselves a definite system. Mr. William Morris has given us a
+list, the perusal of which may perchance arouse serious misgivings in
+the heart of the general reader, who cannot 'even _with_ great
+difficulty read Old German,' and who has not yet been educated up to the
+point of regarding Virgil and Juvenal as 'sham classics.' The
+'Admiral's' list is good, if somewhat too technical; and we would plead
+for the admission of Southey's 'Life of Nelson,' even, if need be, to
+the exclusion of the 'Annual Register' in 110 volumes. The Head Master
+of Harrow 'tried to think how he should answer a boy's question if he
+were to ask, at any point of his school life, what books it were best
+worth while to read before the end (let me say) of his thirtieth year;'
+and we venture to regard Mr. Welldon's list as the best of all in point
+of conciseness and practical value.
+
+The last to enter the lists, though not under the auspices of the 'Pall
+Mall Gazette,' is Mr. Frederic Harrison, who comes armed with a volume
+entitled 'The Choice of Books,' though four-fifths of the contents have
+strayed far away into such remote pastures as 'The Opening of the Courts
+of Justice,' 'A Plea for the Tower of London,' and 'The Æsthete.' With
+the small residue of the book, which has remained faithful to the
+titlepage, we have little fault to find. Mr. Harrison, as might be
+expected, regards everything through the spectacles of Auguste
+Comte--'hinc omne principium, huc refer exitum.' Comte's 'Syllabus,' to
+which we have already referred, was the basis of at least one of his
+essays, and is the subject of his closing remarks.
+
+For our present purpose, the first article, 'How to Read,' is
+undoubtedly the most valuable and practicable. It deals in a
+straightforward and vigorous manner with many of the snares and
+difficulties by which the reader is beset, and sweeps away much of the
+sentimental, sickly, criticism which is unfortunately prevalent at the
+present time. We think, however, that Mr. Harrison is inclined to raise
+the standard of taste too high for the mass of general readers.
+
+     'Putting aside the iced air of the difficult mountain tops
+     of epic, tragedy, or psalm, there are some simple pieces
+     which may serve as an unerring test of a healthy or vicious
+     taste for imaginative work. If the "Cid," the "Vita Nuova,"
+     the "Canterbury Tales," Shakspeare's "Sonnets," and
+     "Lycidas" pall on a man; if he care not for Malory's "Morte
+     d'Arthur" and the "Red Cross Knight"; if he thinks "Crusoe"
+     and the "Vicar" books for the young; if he thrill not with
+     the "Ode to the West Wind" and the "Ode to a Grecian Urn";
+     if he have no stomach for "Christabelle," or the lines
+     written on "The Wye above Tintern," he should fall on his
+     knees and pray for a cleanlier and quieter spirit.'
+
+Now we believe that there is many a humble aspirant to literary taste on
+whom the above paragraph will produce an effect similar to that of 'iced
+air and mountain tops' by taking his breath away. Literary palates are
+mercifully endowed with tastes and appreciations as varied as mere
+bodily palates, and we must protest against any such Procrustean method
+of ascertaining whether a man's 'spirit be cleanly and quiet,' or, which
+is terrible to contemplate, the reverse. On another page Mr. Harrison
+himself loudly deprecates and disclaims any narrow or sectarian view; he
+is nothing if not Catholic in his tastes. 'I protest that I am devoted
+to no school in particular; I condemn no school; I reject none. I am for
+the school of all the great men; and I am against the school of the
+smaller men.'
+
+All taste must be founded on knowledge, and between the hard, dry
+teaching of the Board School or the Examination Room on the one hand,
+and the ætherial atmosphere of Desultory Reading and the purest literary
+discernment on the other, there lies an intermediate region, a
+'penumbral zone,' which differs from the first in that it is entered
+voluntarily, and from the second in that it is attainable by all who
+care to enter it. The way through this region, though pleasant is
+laborious; system, accuracy, and discipline are essential to him who
+would traverse it. To be a desultory reader, in the sense defined by
+Lord Iddesleigh, a man must first have been a student; and not to every
+student is given the temperament, capacity, and opportunity, to become a
+desultory reader--still less can every student aspire to that refined
+literary taste, which Mr. Harrison possesses in so large a measure, and
+which, in its characteristics, he describes so well.
+
+So far as modern literature is concerned, it may be said, that the
+Reviewers are, by their skill and experience, qualified to direct, and
+ever ready to aid the wayfarer; and in theory this is true. But, putting
+aside the few leading journals and periodicals, daily and weekly--of
+which we would only speak with the greatest respect--we fear that the
+reviewer's art is at a low ebb in these days. Often the side breezes of
+controversy, of private jealousy, or of personal interest, intervene to
+divert straightforward criticism; still more often does absolute
+incompetence render these guides worthless. A score of books may be
+seen, huddled together in an unbroken column of so-called criticism,
+with no other bond of union than their publication in course of the same
+week. The interested author, wading through this disconnected mass,
+suddenly stumbles on a few words extracted--possibly perverted--from his
+own preface, to which a line of commonplace commendation is affixed; and
+he then suddenly encounters a subject as far removed from his own as the
+'Republic' of Plato is distant from 'Called Back.'
+
+Among all these discordant voices, who shall help us to detect the true
+ring? Thrice happy are those privileged few who enjoy the loving care
+and supervision of some wise mentor to guide their choice and to watch
+their progress; but for the multitude, to whom such a privilege is
+denied, a good classified list, not excluding recent works, carefully
+sifted and added to by the most prominent men of the day, would be of
+inestimable value.
+
+In the first place, a connected chain of histories, from the earliest
+times to the present day, with a selected list of contemporary memoirs
+and biographies, would throw a guiding gleam of light on thousands who
+are wandering, dark and aimless, in a labyrinth of 'masterpieces.' In
+this enquiry system is essential. Of desultory comments, charming and
+instructive in themselves and valuable in the formation of taste, we
+have abundant store. Who that has read Emerson's 'Essay on Books,' or
+Charles Lamb's 'Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading,' or Isaac
+Disraeli's 'Curiosities of Literature' and 'Literary Character,' or
+Byron's brilliant and impulsive criticisms on books and authors, can be
+without some kindling of enthusiasm and of desire to know more fully the
+great works thus passed in critical review? But the essential
+characteristics of such commentaries as these are snares to the student.
+The temptation to pass from one subject to another is inseparable from
+treatment of this kind, and so becomes a hindrance to more earnest
+application.
+
+Dibdin's 'Library Companion' in some respects fulfils the requirements
+we have mentioned; but apart from the fact, that the information it
+contains is now in a great measure obsolete, too much space is devoted
+to the description and value of choice and rare editions. It is a
+book-buyer's rather than a reader's guide. Perkins's 'The Best Reading'
+is too bald a catalogue, and requires a vast amount of sifting, and the
+addition of a few words of running comment to render it serviceable. It
+lacks, in short, the characteristics of a _catalogue raisonnée_.
+
+The Historical List which we have proposed should be prefaced by a
+chronological table, indicating the epochs into which the World's
+History divides itself, and the periods covered by each of the works
+recommended. This would give the student a bird's-eye view of the field
+which he is about to explore, and enable him, at any moment in his
+exploration, to take his reckonings and verify his position.
+
+Careful distinction should be made between Chroniclers and Historians,
+between those who have provided the materials and those who have
+designed and reared the complete structure. Sometimes these chroniclers
+have furnished merely rough and unhewn stones, useful in themselves,
+but with no pretence to artistic finish or individuality of character;
+and these have been absorbed into the building. Other chronicles, again,
+are perfected in form, and are not merely integral, essential portions
+of the complicated structure, but become a source of endless pleasure
+from the merit of their workmanship. Thucydides and Clarendon are
+universally read, while Hecatæus has all but vanished; and Thomas May's
+'History of the Long Parliament,' though pronounced by Lord Chatham to
+be a 'much honester and more instructive book of the same period than
+Lord Clarendon's,' is relegated to the shelves of the specialist or the
+bookworm.
+
+Histories are scarcely less ephemeral than books of science; and the
+object of the list we are advocating is not to provide an exhaustive
+catalogue, a task which in these days would overtax the capacity of
+half-a-dozen Dr. Johnsons, but to select those works which will give the
+best continuous narrative of the period under discussion, and represent
+the most recent scholarship; omitting those which have been absorbed or
+superseded.
+
+Mitford and Gillies have given place to Thirwall and Grote; and even the
+star of Hallam, outshining De Lolme, is beginning to wane before the
+searching light which, by the publication of State Papers and other
+archives, is being brought to bear on the History of England and of
+Modern Europe. But such materials, though ruthlessly relegating much of
+what we have hitherto regarded as the 'Pearls of History' to the
+category of 'Mock Pearls,' cannot immediately be made available for the
+ordinary student, or become absorbed into the popular histories of the
+day. We can ill spare from our list the names of those writers, who,
+from Livy to Lord Macaulay, have added a fascination to the study of
+history; though in their works most beautiful Mock Pearls abound. But
+the student should be warned against implicit reliance on their records.
+
+To Clarendon has been ascribed the honor of being the first Englishman
+who wrote History, as we regard it; his predecessors having been in the
+main mere chroniclers or annalists. Clarendon elaborated the picture of
+which these annalists had merely supplied the materials; and the
+eighteenth century saw the development of this new method in the
+brilliant triad of contemporaries, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Our own
+age has witnessed a further advance in the school of philosophical
+historians, who, without aiming at any connected narrative of events,
+present to us the profound lessons which history teaches; pointing out
+the far-reaching causes which have influenced and are influencing
+events occurring in widely distant countries; causes and events which to
+the superficial observer seem totally disconnected. This philosophical
+category would form one of the most interesting, and in these days, when
+political empiricism shows a growing tendency to supplant statesmanlike
+research, not the least important portion of our historical list. If to
+this main stem of History there be added the due complement of branches
+and leaves--memoirs and biographies--the Plutarchs and Pepyses, the
+Walpoles and St. Simons, the Crokers and Grevilles of each
+generation--we shall have a tree of knowledge which would yield to none
+in point of interest and utility.
+
+We have dwelt at some length on this part of the subject, first, because
+of its almost unlimited extent; and secondly, because, owing to this
+extent, there is such difficulty in making a genuine and trustworthy
+selection. There is, besides, an apparently constant antagonism in
+history between the qualities of strict accuracy and literary
+brilliancy. The two are not incompatible, but the striving after
+literary merit is as great a snare to the writer as its attainment by
+the writer is, in too many cases, to the student.
+
+Of voyages and travels, 'I would also have good store, especially the
+earlier, when the world was fresh and unhackneyed, and men saw things
+invisible to the modern eye: They are fast-sailing ships to waft away
+from present troubles to the Fortunate Islands.'[101] Grouped under each
+quarter of the globe, we should have selections of the works of those
+travellers, who, from Herodotus to Mr. Stanley, and from Marco Polo or
+Captain Cook down to Miss Bird, have made us who stay at home familiar
+with the remotest corners of the earth. Much of the romance of travel
+has of necessity perished in these matter-of-fact days; but as the
+writing of history has developed from a mere chronicle of events into a
+scientific and philosophical method, so the art of travelling is now
+assuming a political form under pressure of the gigantic problems which
+are exercising the mind of the civilized world; and a section of
+political travels, of which Mr. Froude and Baron von Hübner have
+recently given us examples, should not be omitted.
+
+Without pretending to enumerate all the departments which our catalogue
+should comprise--and most of them are too obvious to require
+enumeration--we would suggest a good selection of the best translations
+and editions of the Greek and Roman Classics. In mentioning translations
+we, of course, disclaim any recommendation of the common 'crib,' but
+refer to those scholarly works which have brought the classical
+masterpieces to the very doors of the general public; such, for example,
+as Rawlinson's 'Herodotus,' or Prof. Jowett's 'Plato and Thucydides;' as
+Lord Derby's 'Iliad,' Gifford's 'Juvenal,' or Conington's 'Virgil:' nor
+is the crib more widely removed from such works as these, than, in the
+matter of editions, is Anthon's 'Virgil,' for example, from Munro's
+'Lucretius.' In the opinion of Mr. Harrison, this 'is the age of
+accurate translation. The present generation has produced a complete
+library of versions of the great Classics, chiefly in prose, partly in
+verse, more faithful, true, and scholarly than anything ever produced
+before.' Mr. Harrison's own essay on the 'Poets of the Old World,' goes
+far to supply one at least of the branches of this section. Last, but by
+no means least, do we plead for a guide to 'Children's Books.' We run
+some risk in these days of competitive examinations and 'higher
+education,' of placing instruction too prominently in the front, to the
+exclusion of pure amusement; forgetting that it is through the
+imagination that the interest of a child is most readily aroused, and
+that, unless the interest be aroused, our educational labours will be
+worthless. A child can live in an atmosphere of genial fiction, and
+appreciate it, without the danger which lurks in a misrepresentation of
+what passes around him in his daily experience. It is exaggeration, not
+fiction, that is liable to injure the mind of a child.
+
+On the vital question, 'how to read,' the student has received matter
+for careful and deliberate consideration, alike from Lord Iddesleigh and
+Mr. Goschen, from Mr. Harrison and Mr. Lowell. The burden of their
+advice is the same, though the forms differ; they all unite in
+deprecating and deploring the hurry, the want of application, the want
+of restraint which prevail in the present day. The hurrying reader, on
+the one hand, and the indolent reader, on the other, are the types to be
+avoided with the most scrupulous care. We suffer from an excess of
+opportunities, and require to be constantly reminded that 'it is
+impossible to give any method to our reading till we get nerve enough to
+reject.'
+
+If we look through the long list of English literary celebrities, we
+cannot but be struck with the large proportion of those who have
+received little or no regular education in their early days, and whose
+opportunities of study have been of the scantiest. Ben Jonson working as
+a bricklayer with his book in his pocket: Wm. Cobbett reading his
+hard-earned 'Tale of a Tub' under the haystack, or mastering his grammar
+when he was a private soldier on the pay of 6d. a day; when 'the edge of
+my berth or that of my guard-bed was my seat to study in; my knapsack
+was my bookcase; a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing table,
+and the task did not demand anything like a year of my life:' Gifford,
+as a cobbler's apprentice, working out his problems on scraps of waste
+leather; or Bunyan, confined for twelve years in Bedford jail with only
+his Bible and 'Foxe's Book of Martyrs,' are but a few among scores of
+instances which will immediately suggest themselves.
+
+There are many persons who are possessed with a strange and
+unaccountable conviction, that to read a book and to write a book are
+processes which require little, if any, previous training or
+preparation. The one error is sufficiently obvious to all who pay any
+attention to the great mass of cheap literature which is pouring from
+our printing-presses; the other is less easy of detection. 'The first
+lesson in reading is that which teaches us to distinguish between
+literature and merely printed matter,' is the admirable maxim laid down
+by Mr. Lowell, and this is one of the essential points in which the
+personal influence of an experienced friend is of inestimable value. As
+the latent beauties of some great masterpiece of art unfold themselves
+to our eye under the guidance of a Kugler or a Ruskin, and we are thus
+enabled to detect their presence or their absence in the works of other
+hands and other schools, so in the masterpieces of literature the
+realization of the points, wherein the chief merits of each lie, places
+us in a position to form a standard--to possess a talisman, which shall
+enable us unerringly to detect the true from the false. Mrs. Knowles
+said of Dr. Johnson, 'He knows how to read better than any one; he gets
+at the substance of a book directly; he tears the heart out of it.' This
+faculty, which was exhibited in a marvellous degree also in Southey and
+Macaulay, is as rare as it is enviable; but there are not a few who
+erroneously suppose themselves to be possessed of it. The hurried,
+careless, method of reading is one of the chief dangers a student should
+guard against. In studying a work of biography, for example--but above
+all in studying the classics--the first requisite, and one which is, as
+we have said, sadly overlooked in public school teaching, is the
+acquisition of a simple, general outline of the period to which the work
+relates. In the fashionable phrase of the day, the books so read are
+frequently not in correspondence with their environment. To him whose
+views of Roman history are but a shapeless mist, if not an absolute
+void, Virgil and Horace are sealed books; nor can any one who is
+ignorant of Scotland and her traditions penetrate beyond the husk of
+'Waverley' or 'Old Mortality.' To the young beginner a few judicious
+words of explanation at the commencement of a book may serve to awaken
+that interest without which reading is useless, and to make darkness
+light; and, similarly, a few words of discussion, when the book is
+completed, will have the effect of consolidating the floating ideas to
+which the perusal has given rise. The habit of casting aside a book as
+soon as the last page is read, without pondering over its contents and
+recalling the argument and refreshing the memory where it has failed, or
+allowing the 'frenzied current of the eye to be stopped for many moments
+of calm reflection or thought,' is apt to render worthless all the
+previous effort. Lord Erskine, we are told, was in the habit of making
+long extracts from Burke, and Lord Eldon is said to have copied out
+'Coke upon Littleton' twice with his own hand. 'Writing an analysis,'
+says Archibishop Whately,[102] 'or table of contents, or index, or
+notes, is very important for the study, properly so called, of any
+subject. And so also is the practice of previously conversing or writing
+on the subject you are about to study.' Reading can produce a beneficial
+result only in proportion to the extent and accuracy of information
+previously stored in the mind of the reader. Such information is like
+the roots of some flourishing oak; every fresh fact is, as it were, a
+new fibre confirming and strengthening the growth of the tree, and
+attracting nourishment from new soil.
+
+'The moment you have a definite aim, attention is quickened, the mother
+of memory; and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself in an
+order that is lucid, because everywhere and always it is in intelligent
+relation to a central object of constant and growing interest.'[103]
+Bearing this in mind, we would urge the student to investigate every
+unfamiliar allusion which may occur in the course of his reading or
+conversation. A fact or subject thus sought out fixes itself more firmly
+in the memory than most of those which are merely passed in the ordinary
+course of reading.
+
+The use of odd moments should not be overlooked. 'Blockheads,' wrote Sir
+Walter Scott, 'can never find out how folks cleverer than themselves
+came by their information. They never know what is done at
+dressing-time, meal-time even, or in how few minutes they can get at the
+sense of many pages.' It is not possible always to have a book at hand,
+but any one who will take the trouble to copy out, from time to time,
+passages which have attracted his attention, and carry them about with
+him to learn by heart at odd moments, may perhaps be astonished to find
+how much may be acquired in this manner.
+
+There are some books which by their nature lend themselves to a snatchy
+method of perusal, and a few minutes may often be well employed in
+reading an ode of Horace, or the disjointed conversations of Dr.
+Johnson, but such moments should as a rule be devoted to books which are
+already more or less familiar. The habit of frivolously taking up, and
+as frivolously casting aside, a book is, however, one which should be
+guarded against with the utmost care. It was a strict rule in the family
+of Goethe the elder, that any book once commenced should be read through
+to the end. Dr. Johnson, on the other hand, considered a rule of this
+kind 'strange advice; you may as well resolve that whatever men you
+happen to get acquainted with, you are to keep them for life.'
+
+A snare, which did not exist in the time of Goethe or of Dr. Johnson,
+presents itself in these days to the reader, in the ever-increasing mass
+of periodical literature. But the busy man, who has not time to turn
+aside from his own work to the thorough investigation of the topic of
+the hour, may sometimes, in the pages of a magazine, find the case
+stated tersely by distinguished advocates on both sides; and he may thus
+at least discern the main positions of assailant and assailed. An
+exhaustive and genuine review of a book is occasionally afforded by
+periodical literature, more rarely perhaps than is generally believed;
+but such essays to have any value, should be read only after the work to
+which they relate, a condition that is, we fear, seldom fulfilled.
+
+The 'desultory reader' has now been defined and elevated. We can hardly
+be mistaken in considering that by reason of Lord Iddesleigh's admirable
+remarks the expression has acquired a new signification; at least a
+large number of those who may have fondly imagined themselves to be
+desultory readers have now been effectually eliminated from the
+category.
+
+We live in days of 'specialism,' and the book-making specialist of our
+generation probably yields to none of his predecessors in the literary
+roll in respect of industry, skill, and accuracy; but his subject, as a
+rule, is his business, his breadwinner. The desultory reader regards
+literature as his pastime and recreation. Happy is he who has the time,
+the opportunity, and the education, to become a desultory reader, in
+Lord Iddlesleigh's sense of the word.
+
+But admitting that Desultory Dilettanteism may under certain favourable
+conditions be both profitable and a fascinating attainment, and claiming
+as we do a very high value for good guidance in the choice of books, we
+must not lose sight of the fact, that the basis on which the main
+practical question of the selection and proper use of books rests, is
+not what is good in general, or in special literature, but what is
+fitted for each individual man. And to discover this the man himself, or
+his immediate ancestor, the youth or boy, must be examined. The
+foundation of success in any sphere of life is physical and mental,
+nervous and moral aptitude; and those who have to direct, or to decide
+for, or to advise the young respecting their career in life, should make
+the personal condition of their protégés their careful study. From the
+ascertained condition the capacity of each may be discerned, and his
+future capabilities may be, to some extent, foreseen. These capabilities
+are the indicators of the course of reading first required; by them the
+youth's career should chiefly be selected and decided on. Unfortunately
+in most cases careful forethought is neglected. Qualities that actually
+make the man are, in a decision that affects his hopes and happiness for
+life, too often overlooked; and some mere transient incident, esteemed
+perhaps a stroke of fortune, is accepted, without any hesitating thought
+about the suitability of its results, as a sufficient introduction to
+the business of the world. The consequence of this neglect is obvious
+enough. In every social and commercial sphere we find men drudging on in
+hopeless slavery, or ruined by the natural revolt of sensibilities that
+could not be controlled, against the influence of circumstances wholly
+inappropriate, and for which these sensibilities, most useful in their
+proper sphere, were not of course designed.
+
+A young man's very desultory reading will perhaps be one of the most
+useful means for finding what his life's career should be. Knowing
+himself, or being known, as has been said, by those directing him, and
+by his own discursive reading having learnt what work for his peculiar
+abilities is open for him in the world, he probably will judge quite
+readily what line of study he should at first pursue, and following out
+this clue, at first by the aid of judicious external guidance, he will,
+with ever-increasing self-reliance and discrimination, proceed to fulfil
+the requirements of education and the inclination of his own mental
+disposition. This method of development is the natural order by which
+intellectual growth, by means of books, or any other means, proceeds. To
+make a choice of certain hundred books for any man's perusal, in his
+youth or afterwards, is but a feat of cleverness, arousing curiosity or
+wonder, but evolving nothing--ending in the choice. A man may be
+possessed of any number of good books; and possibly a thousand books
+might be selected, all of which would be by general consent called
+excellent, and worth possessing; and perhaps he would be none the
+better for them all. Young men do not require a hundred books at once.
+Indeed the fewer well-selected books a youth has to begin with, the more
+safe he is against excessive loss of time. His most important question
+is not, what shall I read? but, what need I read? The student's care
+should be to read as little, and to think as much as possible. Thus, he
+will find what thing it is that he at any time immediately requires to
+know, and he will make this pressing need the object of his next
+acquirement in books. This method tends to education; it develops mental
+power, and makes a cultivated man. A hundred books procured and read
+without appropriate sympathy, and interest, and thought, will merely
+make an animated bookcase of the man.
+
+Not only should the student's books be few, but as he reads he should be
+constantly upon his guard. Most readers read to be informed or to be
+entertained; and books of information are absorbed as if all printed
+statements must of course be true, or even if not true must, as a
+record, be worth knowing. This omnivorous, careless style of reading is
+a grievous waste of life and energy. Were books read with critical,
+enquiring thought, the time misspent in reading would be wholesomely
+reduced, and readers would increase in mental power in due proportion to
+their increased information.
+
+In books of entertainment, and especially of fiction, corresponding
+carefulness is necessary. There are books among the best which are, in
+various degrees and ways, of evil influence, and should be read with
+caution and reserve. To yield one's self to the enjoyment of an
+entertaining book may be as foolish as to give one's self into the hands
+of an untried agreeable companion. Ability to please is to these
+incautious subjects of it a most dangerous influence; and books as well
+as men when most attractive should be treated warily. In Rabelais and
+Swift, in Fielding and Smollett, coarse manners must be reprobated. In
+George Eliot's novels, with exceptions, and in 'Jane Eyre,' there is a
+subtle taint that is unwholesome to the unguarded reader. Thackeray too
+frequently compels us to associate with evil company; and, while
+admiring the writer's skill, the reader should keep well outside of
+almost every group in Thackeray's novels.
+
+Distinct alike from the progressive student and the discriminating
+reader, is an abundant class who, without individuality, and mere
+omnivorous devotees of books, chiefly reading the lighter literature of
+the day. These people, through excess and self-indulgence, become
+feeble-minded, intellectually dissipated, and incapable of serious
+study. In every rank of life the book-devouring vice abounds; but
+chiefly among women, girls, and boys; men finding in the newspapers
+their daily pabulum. This thoughtless, fragmentary, reading has
+debilitated the contemporary mental fibre of the nation; and has so
+absorbed the time, we cannot say the attention, of the immense majority
+of the reading public, that many of them are ignorant even of the
+existence of the standard works of literature. The late discussion,
+therefore, about books has been of use; it has made known to the great
+community of people, who now can read, the fact, that there are certain
+books, a hundred more or less, far more worth reading than the popular
+and periodical literature of the day. If this discovery could be
+impressed upon the public mind with practical effect, the result would
+be a beneficial change in their condition. The abundant tattle and
+affected interest about names and things of mean and transient
+notoriety, and the discursive dinner-table gossip of the world would
+then perhaps subside; and English conversation would become a constant
+and a beneficial intellectual enjoyment.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[99] Croker's 'Boswell,' pp. 767, 8vo. ed.
+
+[100] 'The Choice of Books,' p. 37.
+
+[101] Mr Lowell's Address at the dedication of the Free Public Library,
+Chelsea, Massachusetts.
+
+[102] Notes to Bacon's 'Essays.'
+
+[103] Mr. Lowel.
+
+
+
+
+Art. IX.--1. _Popular Government. Four Essays._ By Sir Henry Sumner
+Maine. Second Edition. London, 1886.
+
+2. _Democracy in America._ By Alexis de Tocqueville. Translated by Henry
+Reeve. New Edition. London, 1862.
+
+3. _On the State of Society in France before the Revolution of 1789._
+Translated by Henry Reeve. Second Edition. London, 1873.
+
+4. _Correspondence and Conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with
+Nassau W. Senior, 1834-59._ London, 1872.
+
+5. _On the Government of Dependencies._ By Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
+London, 1841.
+
+6. _On the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion._ By the Same.
+London, 1849.
+
+7. _A Dialogue on the best Form of Government._ By the Same. London,
+1863.
+
+8. _The English Constitution._ By Walter Bagehot. Revised Edition.
+London, 1883.
+
+
+Of the latest Work on the Characteristics of Democracy we are precluded
+from speaking, as Sir Henry Maine's valuable Essays first appeared in
+the pages of this Review. But we desire on the present occasion to call
+attention to some writers on the subject, who are almost unknown to a
+younger generation, or known only by occasional references made to them
+by those who were well acquainted with the writers and their works. And
+among these half-forgotten names few perhaps will recur more frequently
+in the recollections of the best-informed men of from forty-five to
+sixty, or more surprise those who have entered on life since their
+owners left it, than those of Alexis de Tocqueville, Nassau William
+Senior, and Walter Bagehot. Among the statesmen of the last generation,
+few who will fill so small a space in history are so often or so
+reverently quoted by those who remember Lord Palmerston's Government,
+the Crimean War, and the Indian Mutiny, as Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
+Most men under forty will hear with surprise that in the City, at least,
+he was deemed a sounder and safer financier than Mr. Gladstone; honoured
+as the Chancellor of the Exchequer who first redeemed the financial
+reputation of the Whigs from the discredit that had clung to the party
+of retrenchment and reform for a whole generation. Of the small minority
+who know him as the founder of the English school of historical
+sceptics, how many have heard of his multifarious literary and political
+works, or his shrewd, genial, two-edged, criticisms on public and social
+life? It seems too probable that our grandchildren will retain nothing
+of his save the characteristic saying, that 'life would be very
+tolerable but for its pleasures;' and _that_, probably, will be assigned
+to some more famous and far less wise _causeur_ or phrasemaker, losing
+half its force in the transfer. Even Mill is known to the passing and
+the rising generation by different works and diverse characteristics. To
+the one he is little more than the greatest, most original, and most
+heretical of English economists; a standard author on logic and
+metaphysics. The other prefers to remember him by his later and lesser
+writings; those sexagenarian and posthumous Essays, in which the riper
+wisdom of a mind, very slow to learn the lessons of practical life, was
+gathered, and the wilder errors of his earlier theories modified or
+corrected. Much of that which is really best in his thought and
+teaching, set forth in these last writings, bears a close analogy to the
+views of Tocqueville Senior, and Bagehot, and shows that a tardy,
+hardly-acquired, unwillingly accepted, knowledge of men and women, of
+the real and ineradicable tendencies of human nature, brought the giant
+of the closet into nearer accord with the practical philosophy of a man
+like Sir George Cornewall Lewis, wise, calm, and judicial, by natural
+temper, wiser yet by the closet-study which had analysed the experiences
+of the literary, business, and political, world, of administration,
+Parliament, and the Cabinet.
+
+One common and very striking feature characterizes the political
+thought of all these men--all of them Liberals in more than mere nominal
+profession or party connection. All regarded the triumph of Democracy as
+near and inevitable, and all, from different points of view, regarded it
+with a mixture of resignation and distrust, strangely significant in men
+of such different views, of such diverse character, mental training, and
+personal experience. None of them were fatalists, much less pessimists;
+none inclined _à priori_ to that political superstition which
+recognizes, in the tendencies of a thing so uncertain and changeful as
+the spirit of the age, the hand of Providence, or the indication of
+'manifest destiny.' All were men of more than average independence of
+temper, an independence which, in one or two, approached nearly to that
+which practical politicians call impracticability. None of them were
+disposed to be silent when the many-headed Cæsar had spoken. Mill's most
+striking, and--to the credit of Democracy be it spoken--most popular
+characteristic, was a stern and almost pardoxical defiance alike of
+personal consequences and of public opinion. On the verge of his
+entrance into public life he affronted the working-classes by telling
+them, with more than Carlylese directness and exaggeration, that they
+were 'mostly liars.' If ever there were a man sure to protest to the
+last against false doctrines and mischievous tendencies, to protest the
+more fiercely the more certain their victory seemed, it was John Stuart
+Mill.
+
+Tocqueville, conscious of no common political and administrative
+capacity--a statesman whose strong popular sympathies, practical wisdom,
+contempt of popular catchwords, knowledge of and respect for concrete
+facts; above all, whose signal freedom from the characteristic
+weaknesses and vices of French statesmanship, rendered him the fittest
+of all men to direct the destiny of France, whose counsels and guidance
+would have saved her from all the worst mistakes and most signal
+disasters--was content to spend a lifetime first in opposition,
+afterwards in absolute exile from public life, rather than go 'the way
+that was not his way for an inch.' An Orleanist, an enthusiastic lover
+of Parliamentary institutions, he would not stoop with Guizot and Thiers
+to serve a King whose power was founded on corruption. A minister of the
+President, he held aloof as sternly from the despotism of the Empire as
+from the factions of the Republican Assembly. He never designed to
+conceal or soften the expressions of the most unpopular sentiments or
+convictions.
+
+Sir George Cornewall Lewis was an eminently English statesman, fully
+aware of the necessity of mutual concession--more willing than most to
+be guided as a Minister by the tradition of his office, to leave the
+administration for which he must answer in Parliament to the practical
+experience of his permanent subordinates--but one whom, assuredly, no
+one ever accused of undue pliancy, or excessive deference to party or
+popular feeling.
+
+Mr. Bagehot alone of the three was a man likely, _coeteris paribus,_
+to prefer the winning side; to believe that the belief of the many was
+likely to be right; looking, however, to the opinion of the many
+educated and thoughtful rather than of the many ignorant and
+over-occupied. Yet all agree at once in treating the coming rule of
+numbers almost as a law of nature, which it were folly to criticize and
+madness to resist; and in anticipating its advent with doubt and
+distrust, with deep and sometimes gloomy apprehension. Their constant,
+thoughtful concurrence in both convictions, their equal assurance that
+pure Democracy was dangerous and that it was inevitable, deserves a
+profound significance from their utterly distinct points of view; from
+the utter unlikeness of their tempers, their experience, and their
+natural bias.
+
+Sir George Cornewall Lewis, as a Liberal politician, was decidedly
+distrustful of electoral reform, and accepted it only as a party
+necessity. His personal delight in the exposure of popular errors, his
+insistence on the value of authority, and the immense extent of the
+sphere in which the thought and conduct of the many are necessarily
+controlled by the authority of the few, the spirit of such books as his
+'Essay on the Government of Dependencies' are those of a mind wholly
+adverse to democratic theories, and intensely mistrustful of popular
+judgments. He was not fascinated by what he describes as 'the splendid
+_vision_ of a community bound together by the ties of fraternity,
+liberty, and equality, exempt from hereditary privilege, giving all
+things to merit, and presided over by a government in which all the
+national interests are faithfully represented.' He put these words into
+the mouth of the advocate of Democracy in his 'Dialogue on the best form
+of Government,' which he published shortly before his death. In this
+work his own views are expressed in the person of Crito.
+
+     'Even if I were to decide in favour of one of these forms,
+     and against the two others, I should not find myself nearer
+     the solution of the practical problem. A nation does not
+     change the form of its government with the same facility
+     that a man changes his coat. A nation in general only
+     changes the form of its government by means of a violent
+     revolution.... The history of forcible attempts to improve
+     governments is not cheering. Looking back upon the course of
+     revolutionary movements, and upon the character of their
+     consequences, the practical conclusion which I draw is, that
+     it is the part of wisdom and prudence to acquiesce in any
+     form of government, which is tolerably well administered,
+     and affords tolerable security to person and property. I
+     would not, indeed, yield to apathetic despair or acquiesce
+     in the persuasion that a merely tolerable government is
+     incapable of improvement. I would form an individual model,
+     suitable to the character, disposition, wants, and
+     circumstances of the country, and I would make all
+     exertions, whether by action or by writing, within the
+     limits of the existing law, for ameliorating its existing
+     condition, and bringing it nearer to the model selected for
+     imitation; but I should consider the problem of the best
+     form of government as purely ideal, and as unconnected with
+     practice; and should abstain from taking a ticket in the
+     lottery of revolution, unless there was a well-founded
+     expectation that it would come out a prize.'
+
+The conservatism of Lewis was that of a profoundly sceptical instinct,
+of practical cautious incredulity. Bagehot's was the conservatism of
+middle-class English thought and experience. Tocqueville's was that of
+wide observation and bitter disappointment. Mill was a Conservative only
+so far as conservatism was forced upon a mind essentially radical and
+even revolutionary, imbued with a profound faith in abstract principles
+leading far beyond universal suffrage to, if not across the verge of
+communism, by the danger which he foresaw to individual liberty and
+unfettered intellectual freedom from the ascendency of mere numbers.
+Upon this point he agreed closely with Tocqueville, though upon nearly
+every other their views were as opposite as their character and
+experience; and their teaching has been fully confirmed by the actual
+working of the most successful, the most tolerant, and the most
+fortunately situated democracy that the world has ever seen.
+
+The tendency of Democracy to naked despotism is obvious enough in the
+recent history of France; but sanguine democrats ascribe the special
+experience of France to the intense centralization inherited, as
+Tocqueville shows, by the Republic, the Constitutional Monarchy and the
+Empire from the _Ancien Régime_; the absence of any local school of
+practical discussion, mutual tolerance, and co-operation; the bitterness
+of factions fighting not for administrative or legislative control, but
+for fundamentally incompatible forms of Government,--to anything rather
+than the unfitness of the French nation for Teutonic liberties.
+Conservative pessimists and democratic optimists can only find a common
+ground, a test which both will accept, in the experience of the United
+States. Whatever vices are found in American democracy must be inherent
+in democracy itself; and it must be granted that, looking on the surface
+of public life, the larger facts of national history, and the material
+condition of the people, there is no evidence, obvious to the hasty
+observer, of interference with personal freedom, of any demoralizing or
+weakening influence on individual character exercised by political or
+social equality. It is outside of the proper field of politics, in facts
+invisible to distant observers, and not visible at a glance to
+thoughtful travellers, that we must seek for proof of the bearing of
+democratic institutions and ideas upon personal and social liberty, upon
+the maintenance of individual and collective rights.
+
+Upon such a point the remarks of a leisurely, thoughtful, cultivated
+writer, like Richard Grant White, a man who had enjoyed exceptional
+opportunities of comparing the effect upon daily life of English
+aristocracy and American democracy, are more instructive than the
+elaborate treatises of political theorists or the generalizations of
+historians. The testimony of such writers bears out the inference which
+careful students might draw from English history, that the influence of
+a local and landed aristocracy is far more favourable, than that even of
+a landed democracy, to the jealous and resolute assertion of legal
+rights, to a strenuous and successful resistance to the encroachments of
+power, social or political, upon the property, the comfort, the liberty,
+and the privileges, of individuals or communities. The moral of Mr.
+Grant White's sketches of English and American life is, that the English
+peasant or tradesman is far safer from practical oppression or injustice
+than the American farmer or citizen; that an Englishman, whatever his
+rank, is far more free to speak his mind, and far more likely to have a
+mind worth speaking, than one of the same position in France, or even in
+Massachusetts. The lively interest in, the diffused knowledge of,
+politics and public matters, found among educated, and even
+half-educated men and women throughout the upper and middle classes of
+England, evidently impressed Mr. White by the contrast it presented to
+the indifference of American 'Society' to State and Federal politics. He
+notes particularly the higher tone, the wider knowledge, the freedom
+from petty class and personal concerns, the broader range of thought,
+the familiarity with subjects of general human interest, which
+characterize the conversation of an English dinner-table or
+drawing-room, as compared with that of American clubs and parlours. He
+speaks, with the bitterness of a man often and deeply bored, of the
+limited range of American table-talk, the prominence of the 'shop,' the
+professional interests of each chance assemblage; the price of stocks
+and railway shares, and the chances and changes of Wall Street; the
+inferior tone of thought among men and women alike, in the best or at
+least the wealthiest society of New York and Philadelphia. In this he is
+incidentally confirmed by so observant and candid a social critic as
+Laurence Oliphant. There is an American society of higher cultivation
+and loftier interests; but that society, except in Boston, is
+necessarily scattered and somewhat exclusive; and, standing wholly aloof
+from politics, lacks the knowledge of history, of legislation, of social
+and economic interests, of current opinion, of foreign affairs--which is
+in itself a sort of liberal, if necessarily superficial, education.
+American ladies, and even gentlemen, hardly know who are the Senators
+for their State, much less who is the representative of their district;
+care nothing for, and know little of, the debates in Congress, still
+less in the State Legislature, deeply as these may affect the well-being
+of the community, the laws under which they and their children are to
+live.
+
+But this lack of interest in public affairs has a deeper and far more
+reaching consequence. Everybody's business is nobody's business. In a
+community really democratic there are no natural leaders; none bound by
+rank, station, and recognized primacy, to originate resistance; none too
+strong to be crushed by the animosity of a Fiske or a Gould, or
+grievously wronged by a corrupt corporation like that of New York, a
+dishonest political organization like Tammany Hall, or a powerful
+Tramway or Railway Company. The consequence is, that not only the
+individual citizen, but a whole community submits to high-handed
+oppression, to administrative and judicial corruption, to impudent
+usurpation and flagrant illegalities, such as the greatest of English
+corporations would never dream of attempting. Perhaps the most
+oppressive and insolent exactions, to which living Englishmen have as
+yet submitted, are those of the Water Companies of London; but the
+offenders have repeatedly been resisted and brought to justice; and it
+is in London alone, the one English city which lacks natural leaders and
+protectors, which is too large for any citizen or body of citizens--save
+that great City Corporation which English Radicalism has marked for
+destruction--to speak and act in its name, that the Water Companies
+would have been endured for five years. Even in London, no such
+high-handed interference with the rights of property and the comfort of
+families, as the Elevated Railways of New York, with their uncompensated
+destruction of individual privacy and comfort throughout many of the
+wealthiest streets of the first city in the Union, would have been
+obviously and utterly impossible.
+
+The tolerance of Democracy for what seem to English ideas the grossest
+form of oppression--oppression systematic and legal, arbitrary power and
+class privilege, formally embodied in the law and made a fundamental
+principle of government--is illustrated by that clause of the Code
+Napoleon, which exempts the whole bureaucracy of France from civil or
+criminal liability. No official can be prosecuted, no redress sought at
+law for the abuse of powers the most extensive, affecting every man's
+daily life--powers which enable their holder to harass and almost ruin
+individuals and communities at his pleasure--save by permission of the
+Council of State, a body of officials inclined of course to believe and
+to shield its subordinates. This law has been sustained by each
+successive Government that has seized the reins of centralized power;
+nor are we aware that any serious effort has been made to repeal it.
+
+The tyranny of democracy is, as Mill insists, the most formidable,
+searching, and irresistible of all. Under an autocracy or oligarchy,
+public opinion is the protector of the injured, and imposes limits on
+arbitrary power. Assassination is the resort of the victim driven to
+frenzy by individual oppression, and tempers the sternest despotism; but
+Demos wields opinion and defies the dagger. By general confession life
+is far less free, individual taste, caprice or eccentricity is kept
+under far sharper restraint by fashion and feeling, in America than in
+aristocratic England. At every epoch of American history, the freedom of
+opinion has been curtailed at certain points within strict if
+ill-defined limits. The patriots of Virginia proclaimed in 1775 that any
+who dared 'by speech or writing to maintain' Royalist or Constitutional
+views should be treated as an enemy of his country. A similar ban was
+put some fifty years ago upon the Abolitionists of Illinois and
+Connecticut. A time came when it was almost equally dangerous to
+maintain the constitutional doctrines which the Abolitionists had
+assailed. Nowadays, of actual persecution there is little, because there
+is little need; because the repression acts, save with the most
+independent, original and contradictious tempers, upon thought rather
+than expression. No human intellect or character can resist the
+universal, insensible, unconscious, pressure of the atmosphere which
+surrounds it from the cradle. Upon certain political, social, and
+ethical dogmas, wherever national pride and democratic prejudice are
+touched, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say, that the 'unanimous
+opinion' of the North and West has demoralized or extinguished thought
+itself.
+
+Demos is not only tyrant but Pope. He feels, and his courtiers venture
+openly to claim for him, not only the royalty which can do no wrong, but
+the infallibility which can define right and wrong themselves. He
+resents, we are told upon democratic authority, all pretension to
+special knowledge.
+
+     'No observer of American polities' (Mr. Godkin admits in his
+     reply to Sir Henry Maine) 'can deny that, with regard to
+     matters which can become the subject of legislation, the
+     American voter listens with extreme impatience to anything
+     which has the air of instruction; but the reason is to be
+     found not in his dislike of instruction so much as his
+     dislike in the political field of anything which savours of
+     superiority. The passion for equality is one of the very
+     strongest influences in American politics. This is so fully
+     recognized now by politicians, that self-depreciation, even
+     in the matter of knowledge, has become one of the ways of
+     commending one's self to the multitude, which even the
+     foremost men of both parties do not disdain. In talking on
+     such subjects as the currency, with a view of enlightening
+     the people, skilful orators are very careful to repudiate
+     all pretence of knowing anything more about the matter than
+     their hearers. The speech is made to wear as far as possible
+     the appearance of being simply a reproduction of things with
+     which the audience is just as familiar as the speaker.
+     Nothing is more fatal to a stump orator than an air of
+     superior wisdom on any subject. He has, if he means to
+     persuade, to keep carefully, in outward seeming at all
+     events, on the same intellectual level as those whom he is
+     addressing. Orators of a demagogic turn, of course, push
+     this caution to its extreme, and often affect ignorance, and
+     boast of the smallness of the educationale opportunities
+     enjoyed by them in their youth, and of the extreme
+     difficulty they had in acquiring even the little they know.
+     There is nothing, in fact, people are less willing to
+     tolerate in a man, who seek office at their hands, than any
+     sign that he does not consider himself as belonging to the
+     same class as the bulk of the voters--that either birth, or
+     fortune, or education has taken him out of sympathy with
+     them, or caused him, in any sense, to look down on them.'
+
+Historians treat the vote of the present generation as decisive, morally
+as well as practically, on the issues of the past. The people has, by
+chance or caprice, passed judgment upon questions, in discussing which
+consummate statesmen with intimate practical knowledge of their bearings
+profoundly differed; and that judgment concludes the controversy,
+determines the right or wrong, the wisdom or folly, of men like J.Q.
+Adams, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. We have seen too
+much of this abject superstition in recent English historical essays, as
+well as in political polemics. It is needless to point out the debasing
+effect upon all discussion of such anticipatory appeal to the arbitrary
+decision of Pope or posterity. No man can reason vigorously, frankly,
+forcibly, and fully, who feels that he, or the heirs of his thought, may
+be forced not merely to accept defeat, but to cry '_peccavi_.' The maxim
+'_securus judicat orbis terrarum_' has no place in historical
+criticism; and if it had, one nation is not the world, nor the next
+generation a posterity on whose experience and impartiality reliance
+might be placed.
+
+M. de Tocqueville is known to the world chiefly by two great works. His
+'Democracy in America' was the production of his early manhood. In New
+England he saw democracy at its best and brightest; saw nothing of that
+deterioration which the decay of the old Puritan severity, the infusion
+of a strong foreign element, the corruption and the passions of the
+Civil War, have confessedly caused. The colonial traditions and
+principles were still in modified force; simple habits of life, a
+general prevalence of competence, the absence of ostentatious wealth and
+luxury, left women content to be mothers and housekeepers; a position of
+which, as trustworthy witnesses allege, modern luxury, culture, and love
+of leisure, have rendered them impatient; while the impossibility of
+devolving their domestic duties upon servants makes the family a burden,
+and maternity no longer the deepest instinct and strongest hope of
+womanhood. He saw no beginning of that manifold change of morals and
+manners which the survivors of an elder generation now regard with deep
+dismay. His portrait of Democracy, as seen in New England, is decidedly
+rose-coloured. He saw enough in the Middle and Southern States of the
+working of democracy under different social conditions, to tinge that
+picture with the hues of doubt, if not yet with the sombre colours of
+deep apprehension.
+
+How apt to be partial is the widest and closest political observation is
+shown by the very partial lessons derived from the experience of the New
+World. Few observe how signally the history of Central and South America
+contradicts the inferences so confidently drawn from the United
+States--or rather from the New England of yesterday, and the present
+condition of California and the States bounded by the Lakes and the
+Ohio, the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. Among the States of Spanish
+and Portuguese speech and civilization--it would be too much to say
+blood--the failure of democracy has been complete, glaring, and ruinous.
+Social and political anarchy, utter insecurity of life and property,
+incessant revolution and murderous war, have been its only fruits. The
+happy accident of hereditary princes, exceptionally wise, able, and
+forbearing, has barely saved Brazil. The one prosperous, solvent,
+orderly State between the Rio Grande and Cape Horn is the aristocratic
+republic of Chili. So large, striking, and impressive a fact can hardly
+have escaped a thinker like Tocqueville, whose French birth and
+experience protected him in great measure from the insular ignorance,
+rather than arrogance, which leads the ablest English writers to base
+their political philosophy exclusively upon Anglo-Saxon experience and
+examples: yet it is strange to find so striking a lesson so lightly
+touched by the wisest, widest, most reflective, and best-informed, among
+the political teachers of his age.
+
+In the _Ancien Régime_ we see the seeds of all that is worst and most
+dangerous in the modern French polity: the hothouse which fostered into
+a growth, unknown elsewhere, that passion of envy, which Tocqueville
+regards as the radical vice, the paramount impulse, the fundamental
+principle, of Democracy. The peculiar reasons for this dominant
+sentiment of hatred and jealousy in the democracy of France will be
+found in his own writings. Much as there was to admire in the old
+nobility of France, the people saw it only in an aspect calculated to
+excite unmingled hatred and contempt. It had ceased to govern, to render
+any service in return for privileges, exemptions, and exactions so
+odious, vexatious, and oppressive that no service could atone for them.
+Even these were forgiven to the resident aristocracy of La Vendée. But
+absentees supported by such exactions, an Order known to the people not
+even by neglected duties and ill-directed interference, but solely by
+demands and extortions unconnected with any remaining or remembered
+functions, a class whose wealth and luxury were supported not by rents
+or other returns paid by the tillers of the soil to its original owners,
+holders, or 'lords,' but by rates, tithes, fines, heriots, monopolies
+(to use the nearest English equivalents) levied for their benefit, and
+levied in the worst possible way--what feelings could these excite among
+a people consciously fainting beneath the load of taxes, _corvées_,
+restrictions and imposts, fees and stamps, of which only a part ever
+reached the empty Treasury of the State? Is it strange that so monstrous
+a fabric, when those on whose living bodies it was built rose in revolt,
+should have fallen with a great ruin, and have crushed all whom it had
+sheltered? 'The guilt of an Order cannot palliate the massacre of its
+Innocents.' True; but human nature being what it is, the unreasoning
+burst of fury which strove to stamp out every trace of old institutions,
+to exterminate the race of the unconscious oppressors, was less strange
+than the fidelity of the Vendéans.
+
+And yet that massacre is in itself suggestive. The wholesale butcheries
+of the Terror are accountable; even the attempt of Robespierre, St.
+Just, and Barère to suppress revolt and discontent by _noyades_ and
+_mitraitlades_, if fiendish, is intelligible. It had a political aim. It
+satisfied a definite if diabolical desire. But the executions of
+veteran philosophers, of grey-haired parish-priests, of harmless
+nuns--the deliberate cold-blooded cruelty which punished with death the
+resentment, the imprudence, often the mere birth, of orphaned lads; the
+prayers or the tears of schoolgirls who might well hav urged the piteous
+plea of Sejanus' infant daughter--these recal the indiscriminate
+ferocity of wild beasts, the atrocities occasionally committed by
+destructive maniacs in an excess of fury, or the infectious frenzies of
+lycanthropy and similar forms of epidemic madness, rather than such
+human cruelty as prompted the massacre of Drogheda, the butchery of
+Melos, or the destruction of Carthage. What could schoolboys have done
+worthy of the guillotine, even in the eyes of the Jacobin Club? Girls,
+like children, can try the temper and patience of manhood, and among
+rough men or in rough times get roughly punished; but when, save in
+1793, did men ever think of killing them? There was but one fault
+besides their birth--a fault almost inseparable from their birth--which
+the boy-ensigns and pages, the convent-bred demoiselles, shared with
+their parents; that inalienable, instinctive, inborn grace, that sense,
+air, and bearing of superiority, which we find acknowledged alike by the
+noble and the _bourgeois_, the _von Adel_ and the _bürger_, acknowledged
+by those who regret or resent as distinctly as by those who would uphold
+it. The unpardonable sin of the _noblesse_, the inheritance of which
+they could not be deprived but with their lives, the secret sting that
+maddened the Jacobin to slay not merely the beardless heirs but the
+innocent and helpless daughters of the captured chateau, may perhaps be
+hinted in a question and answer like the following, between Senior and
+De Tocqueville, after the third Revolution had proved its impotence to
+efface the footmarks of nature:--
+
+     'I said that I was told that the distinction between noble
+     and _roturier_ existed in its full force in real life.
+
+     '"Yes," said Tocqueville, "it does, meaning by noble,
+     _gentilhomme_; and it is a great misfortune, since it keeps
+     up distinctions and animosities of caste; but it is
+     incurable--at least, it has not been cured, or perhaps much
+     palliated, by our sixty years of revolution. It is a sort of
+     Freemasonry. When I talk to a _gentilhomme_, though we have
+     not two ideas in common, though all his opinions, wishes,
+     and thoughts are opposed to mine, yet I feel at once that we
+     belong to the same family, that we speak the same language,
+     that we understand one another. I may like a bourgeois
+     better, but he is a stranger." I mentioned the remark to me
+     of a very sensible Prussian, _bürger_ himself, that it was
+     unwise to send out as ambassador any not noble. I said it
+     did not matter in England, where the distinction is unknown.
+     "Yes," he replied, "unknown with you; but you may be sure
+     that when any of our _bürger_ ministers meets one who is
+     _von Adel_, he does not negociate with him on equal terms;
+     he is always wishing to sneak under the table."'
+
+In these conversations, preserved in a separate series of Senior's
+Journals, we have the best, latest, and wisest, of De Tocqueville's
+thoughts; none the less valuable, and to English readers all the more
+intelligible and impressive, that we have them in undress; put into the
+terse, pithy, concentrated style of summarized oral conversation by the
+recorder, instead of being elaborately tricked out in all the formal
+grace of French literary diction by one of the most fastidious of French
+writers. Senior, who habitually wrote down in his Journals the
+conversation of the great, wise, and thoughtful--the leaders of
+political action or literary criticism, the statesmen and thinkers--with
+whom in the course of a leisurely life of social observation he was
+brought into intimate intercourse, had a gift of getting from each man
+the best he had to give. His friends knew that their table-talk was
+recorded, often themselves read and corrected the record, and therefore
+gave him what they were willing to give not to the contemporary world,
+but to posterity; those opinions upon the current facts of the day by
+which they were willing to be judged hereafter. No opinions upon the
+tendencies and consequences, the prospects and passions, the strength
+and weakness of democracy, could well be more valuable than those which
+the painter of Democracy in America--after the experience of many years
+in the public life of France, in the Representative Chamber of the
+Orleans Monarchy, and in the Legislature of the Republic,--delivered for
+the benefit of readers far removed by time and distance, during the
+latter months of the rickety infancy of that ill-starred Government and
+the first period of the Second Empire. Tocqueville spoke from a point of
+vantage, such as few other men have attained, upon a theme which he had
+studied profoundly in youth, and upon which Fate had ever since been
+writing elaborate commentaries. He spoke with a mind naturally calm,
+candid, and judicial, enriched by a deeper knowledge than any other
+Continental writer enjoyed of the working of popular institutions in
+England and America, matured by the experience of a lifetime; spoke
+while the most critical experiments in democratic Constitutionalism and
+democratic Cæsarism were being worked out before his eyes.
+
+Founding a so-called Constitutional Monarchy upon a corruption as gross
+as that of Walpole, Louis Phillippe had rendered his power absolute at
+the price of sapping its foundation; and Tocqueville had predicted the
+Revolution long before accident precipitated it--predicted it as an
+inevitable result of the corruption he denounced, and indicated the
+forces of silent discontent which were sure to overthrow it. In 1848,
+and still more in 1871, the people of France at large turned
+instinctively to those natural leaders whom at all other times they had
+so persistently ostracized. Alarmed in the first case by an unexpected
+and undesired triumph of the Parisian populace--in the second, chastened
+by a great national disaster, without definite views or objects of their
+own--they deliberately trusted their interests to the larger landowners,
+whose interests must coincide with theirs; to the men of hereditary
+culture, of thoughtful habits, and wider experience, in whom they
+recognized a natural capacity to deal with problems that bewildered
+themselves, with events that had taken them utterly unawares. But, save
+at such times, and under the sobering influence of such lessons,
+equality, and not liberty, is the root of French Democracy. To equality,
+liberty is readily and unhesitatingly sacrificed.
+
+     _'"Égalité,"_ said Tocqueville, "is an expression of envy.
+     It means in the real heart of every Republican, 'No one
+     shall be better off than I am;' and while this is preferred
+     to good government, good government is impossible. In fact,
+     no party desires good government. The first object of the
+     reactionary party is to keep down the Republicans; the
+     second, if it be the second, object of each branch of that
+     party, is to keep down the two others. The object of the
+     Republicans is, as they admit, _égalité_--but as for
+     liberty, or security, or education, or the other ends of
+     government, no one cares for them."'
+
+It was the passion for Equality that made the Second Empire possible.
+The city _prolètariat_ would endure anything but a privilege of class, a
+constitutional monarchy associated in their experience with an
+artificial peerage and a narrow uniform franchise; the _bourgeoisie_,
+terrified by socialism--that is, confiscation--would accept any
+Government strong enough to put and keep down the Reds, the Anarchists,
+who under the Republic had kept Paris always within a week--had brought
+her more than once within twenty-four hours--of sack and pillage. The
+peasantry hated privilege and Socialism with an equal and impartial
+hatred. The First Empire had given them much of what they most prized in
+their actual condition, and was credited with all. Its one hateful
+association was incessant and at last disastrous war, anticipated
+conscriptions, and foreign invasion. The Second Empire, with its promise
+of peace, was the embodiment of their ideal. It promised work to the
+operative, opportunities of fortune to the restless, and safe investment
+to the prudent among the middle-class. Its protectorate of the Pope
+secured the clergy and the women; and it mattered nothing that, crushing
+under foot the freedom at once of the press and the tribune, it incurred
+the bitter hatred of the intellectual classes in a country where pure
+intellect is more ambitious and more immediately powerful than in any
+other. It stood firm and unshaken while it kept its promise of peace and
+prosperity--the firmer that it embodied so distinctly the errors and
+illusions of the many, and not the less popular that it showed so
+profound and cynical a contempt for the intelligence of the few. Its
+Budgets alone would have been fatal to a Government resting on and
+responsible to Opinion, for the rapid growth of the Debt in a time of
+peace and plenty would have terrified men accustomed to sift the
+'capital' and 'revenue' accounts of great Companies, and to calculate
+the resources of Empires as a peasant the yield of his farm. But the
+millions were content; the worse the credit of the State, the higher the
+interest on their savings; the embellishment of Paris and other great
+public works were a practical acknowledgement of the _droit au travail_;
+and the calculations of those, who criticised the fearful waste
+(_coulage_) of such a system, proved to demonstration that a spendthrift
+State must come to the end of a spendthrift _rentier_--with what
+consequences the Commune of 1871 bare witness--found no attention; spoke
+in a tongue not understood by the people. The masses were not even
+alarmed by the warnings of veteran statesmen, consummate financiers, and
+_doctrinaires_ of every school. Only in those great crises when all that
+is left to wisdom is a choice of calamities, as in 1848 and 1871, does
+Demos abdicate; recognize for a moment that all men are not born, much
+less trained to remain, free _and equal_, and entreat the pilots by
+hereditary profession to see the ship of State through the breakers.
+
+In the criticism, and especially in the best, most thoughtful, and least
+obvious criticism, provoked by the long foreseen electoral settlement of
+last year, the direct and indirect influence of Mr. Bagehot's writings
+was constantly to be traced. On this subject he had looked back and
+looked forward farther than most political reasoners. Household suffrage
+seemed to him the inevitable consequence, the logical development, of
+the reform of 1832. It was at that point, as he considered, that the
+right and wrong path had diverged; that chance and destiny, rather than
+choice, determined at the moment the adoption of that which led
+necessarily and logically to sheer Democracy. The practice of the old
+system had become throughly vicious, but the underlying principle was
+sound and safe. All classes, all interests, were represented; but
+accident had given, not to wealth or birth, but to a particular kind of
+wealth, a certain set of families, an enormously disproportionate
+representation. The landed interest was wronged in the utterly
+inadequate representation of the counties. Ireland was misrepresented;
+and the Scotch people could not be said to be represented at all. But
+every class, every great interest, had its spokesmen; exercised a direct
+and independent influence in the national councils. Rotten or pocket
+boroughs were not only nurseries of professional statesmanship, but a
+back door through which interests, whose direct representation was
+impossible, found access to Parliament. The West Indian interest, the
+East India Company, and the statesmen trained in its service, with their
+special knowledge and zealous care for the welfare of our Oriental
+empire, could secure a hearing for views to which no English
+constituency would listen. Under such a system our Australian Colonies,
+the great Dominion of Canada, the English minority which sustains the
+Imperial cause in South Africa, would never have complained, as now,
+that their voice was unheard, their feelings unreflected, in an assembly
+which is no longer merely the Parliament of Great Britain, but the
+Senate of an Empire greater than that of Rome.
+
+The working classes were represented through those numerous
+constituencies in which the scot and lot franchise prevailed. It was
+imperative that the abuses of the system should be redressed; that the
+new communities which had grown up since the Restoration should be
+directly represented; that the borough proprietors and the great
+families should be deprived of their excessive weight in Parliament;
+that the middle class should acquire a power more adequate to its new
+social and political importance; that Scotland, again, should be really
+and directly represented. But in Mr. Bagehot's view universal and varied
+representation was of more consequence than arithmetical proportion. No
+class, no interest, represented in the House of Commons, was likely to
+be grossly wronged, none could be neglected or unheard. No class
+intelligent enough to understand its own grievances, to have distinct
+ideas and desires of its own, would have failed, under a reform
+retaining the principle of the old system, to command attention and
+secure redress. Had Pitt been able to carry out his well-known and
+thoroughly sincere scheme of practical reform, or had Canning and his
+followers sided with the Whigs upon this as upon almost every other
+question, reform might have anticipated revolution. It was the weakness,
+rather than the will, of the Whigs that compelled them to go not only
+farther and faster, but in another direction, than their actual opinions
+and traditional inclinations would have carried them. They were
+compelled to present a scheme broad, simple, and extreme enough, to
+attract irresistible support.
+
+When once uniformity of franchise and proportionate representation were
+made the basis of the electoral system, the extension of the former, the
+more and more accurate adjustment of the latter, became a mere question
+of time. The poorest class of householders in towns in 1886 are probably
+as intelligent and competent as were the ten-pounders of 1832. The
+masses might have been satisfied with the gradual enlargement of their
+old representation; having been once disfranchised by wholesale, it was
+certain that they would ere long demand and ultimately secure that
+wholesale enfranchisement, by which every other class must necessarily
+be swamped. Minority representation, electoral districts, and single
+seats, are at best lame and unsatisfactory methods of engrafting on pure
+democracy securities and checks, which were essential and natural parts
+of the old representation of classes and interests. When once every
+borough below a certain numerical standard had been extinguished, and
+all below another deprived of their second member, the upward extension
+of the principle became a logical and historical necessity. So again
+much, perhaps most, of what has been written upon the contrast between
+the American and English constitutions--the two great types of popular
+government, Parliamentary and Presidential, the direct and indirect
+election of the actual Executive, terms fixed by law or dependent upon
+Parliamentary favour--was anticipated in the best chapters of Mr.
+Bagehot's 'English Constitution.'
+
+Few writers so terse, compact, and clear, have been so completely free
+from the temptation of deliberate phrase making as Mr. Bagehot; yet few
+professional phrase-makers have left in the minds of their readers so
+many telling, forcible, and suggestive phrases; sentences in which a
+novel or striking thought, an impressive view of new or old truth, a
+principle apt to be forgotten or imperfectly appreciated, is vivified
+and incarnated in a few emphatic words. It would be difficult to quote
+any passage of ten times the length half so suggestive of the
+exceptional conditions that have secured to England peace and stability
+during the last two centuries of storm and shipwreck, revolution, and
+reaction abroad, any phrase so expressive of the distinctive character
+of the nation and its Government, as the two aptly chosen epithets
+employed by Mr. Bagehot--the 'dignified parts' of the English
+Constitution and the 'deferential tendency' of the English people. In
+both instances he has, as we think, overstated his point. The dignified
+parts of the Constitution are more real and living, are more intimately
+associated with the practical work of Government, than he was disposed
+to allow. Popular deference is paid more to truth and less to fiction
+than he supposed. It is eminently characteristic of the cautious English
+temper, the distrust of sharp contrasts and clever paradoxes engrained
+in his nature, that (so far as we remember) he never adopts the familiar
+saying of Thiers, that a constitutional Prince _règne et ne gouverne
+pas_. But his actual conception of the English monarchy approaches far
+too near that misleading and mischievous fallacy.
+
+It is a little strange that so devoted a disciple of Darwin, a writer
+who applied the principle of Evolution with so much skill, insight, and
+success, to the life of nations and the course of politics, should have
+allowed so little weight to the natural selection which operates so
+powerfully upon the character of hereditary Princes and aristocracies.
+It is far from obvious why so close and careful an observer should have
+drawn his illustrations of the working of constitutional monarchy so
+exclusively from the past, and especially from the examples of George
+III. and William IV., ignoring so completely the experience of the
+present reign; the deep, lasting, and for the most part wholesome,
+influence exercised in European politics by men like Leopold I., Prince
+Albert, and the present Emperor of Germany. Prince Bismarck owes to
+Royal favour and trust the foundation of his power, the strength which
+enabled him in the teeth of a short-sighted Liberal opposition to create
+that Prussian army, to carry out that ruthless but eminently successful
+policy of blood and steel, which excluded Austria from her place in the
+Confederation, put an end to the old dualism, and achieved the union of
+Germany. Italy owes everything to Cavour; but she owed Cavour to Victor
+Emmanuel. The selection of Russian, Austrian, and German ministers, the
+consistency of their policy, the power or rather authority, most
+judiciously used by the Crown at more than one critical period of recent
+English history, completely refute Mr. Bagehot's theoretical and
+historical doctrine that a Parliament must be wiser than an average
+sovereign. He forgets that a Prince is exempt from the influence of
+party, whose disastrous action in the great crisis of the national
+fortunes has been brought home of late with painful force to all
+thoughtful Englishmen.
+
+Nor has he escaped that influence in his criticism of George III. It
+would be easy to show that the modern theory of Parliamentary
+Government, the theory accepted by his immediate predecessors and now
+firmly established, was one on which no scrupulous and conscientious
+Prince in the position of George III. could possibly have acted. The
+King found throughout the earlier years of his reign, until the younger
+Pitt obtained an actual potent and controlling influence in the Houses
+and in the closet, that the influence which secured a Parliamentary
+majority was not his ministers' but his own. The dismissal of the elder
+Pitt and Newcastle broke at once the strongest coalition of aristocratic
+and popular influence, the mightiest league between intellect sustained
+by national confidence, borough-mongering wealth, and family interest,
+that ever dominated the unreformed Parliament. It was in the King's
+power to give the control of the House to whom he would--to Chatham,
+Grafton, Rockingham, or North. The one thoroughly unconstitutional use
+of the Royal influence, with which the King can fairly be charged, was
+employed to defeat the most unconstitutional and indefensible measure
+ever brought forward by a corrupt and unprincipled coalition--the India
+Bill, which endeavoured to secure for Fox and North personally the power
+and patronage of our Oriental Empire. The King could not shift the
+responsibility of administration upon ministers who owed office and
+Parliamentary support to himself. The American war was not his work. The
+Stamp Act was brought in during his first illness by the minister he
+most hated. The Tea Duty was the madness of Townshend; and the step,
+which gave the signal for revolt, was really a remission of two-thirds
+of that duty. True that the King was the last man to agree to the
+disruption of the empire, the abandonment of thousands of American loyal
+subjects, to lower the flag of England before her coalesced European
+enemies; but in that perseverance, surely not unkingly, he had one
+enthusiastic supporter; and those who censure the King pass the same
+censure on the dying speech of Lord Chatham. The one fatal error of a
+long and conscientious reign should be laid to the account less of
+George III. than of those who betrayed Pitt's counsels and played upon
+the conscientious vagaries of a half-crazed brain.
+
+Mr. Bagehot dwells exclusively upon the unfavourable incidents of a
+royal education. He overlooks the direct and indirect influences which
+are brought to bear from the very cradle upon an hereditary Prince--the
+sense of responsibility, the consciousness of a great position, the
+familiarity with the gravest interests, a youth passed under the tuition
+of the ablest masters, and above all that constant intercourse with the
+finest intellects of the age, which secure for a future King a moral and
+intellectual training unequalled in its excellence. The effect of that
+training we see in our own Royal family, unfortunate as they have been
+in the withdrawal at the most critical period of a father's control and
+guidance. Of the Queen's daughters it is needless to speak. Her sons
+are, by general admission, soldiers and sailors of more than average
+professional ability. The Crown Prince of Germany, the late King of
+Spain, the present heir of the House of France, Leopold II. of Belgium,
+and King Humbert of Italy, are generally credited with high ability; and
+more than one of them would take rank among the first statesmen of his
+Kingdom. A Prince of fair abilities, with such a training and such
+knowledge of the men with whom he is necessarily brought into contact,
+has every means of knowing, at least as well as Parliament, who are the
+most competent and most trustworthy statesmen to whom he can commit the
+fortunes of his Kingdom. His continuous, experience of politics,
+legislation, and government, his access, especially with regard to
+foreign affairs, to wider and more impartial sources of information,
+lend to his counsels an authority which no prudent or thoughtful
+statesman will disregard. He looks at affairs from a higher point of
+view, with a wider survey as a rule, and also with a calmer and more
+unbiassed judgment.
+
+Mr. Bagehot dwells at length on what may be called the fictitious value
+of Constitutional Monarchy; and this he was evidently inclined to
+exaggerate. The English people, he thought, are, as a rule, too ignorant
+to understand what the Queen's Government really is--how completely it
+is carried on in the Royal name by Parliamentary Ministers. For them the
+law is really incarnate in the Sovereign; in yielding obedience to
+magistrates and policemen, to common law and Parliamentary statutes, in
+forbearing or resisting riot, they obey or uphold the Royal authority.
+Were they aware that at each general election they choose their real and
+effective rulers for an indefinite period, they would be confused,
+alarmed, and bewildered, to a degree which would render them incapable
+of a real and intelligent choice. The people--the lower orders--may have
+been, when Mr. Bagehot wrote, and probably are now, somewhat wiser and
+better informed as to the real character of the Government--the actual
+responsibility for particular measures--than their critic supposed. But
+it is beyond doubt that the Queen's name is a great power. The law is
+too mere an abstraction, the names of Ministers represent too much party
+feeling, excite too much antagonism, to command the prompt obedience,
+the loyal reverence, the enthusiastic support which is rendered to the
+name of the Sovereign. In France and America a very different feeling
+prevails.
+
+Mr. Senior, than whom no Englishman of his day was more intimate with a
+number of French statesmen of different parties, views and
+character--than whom there was, perhaps, no cooler, closer, or more
+constant observer of French politics--remarks that Frenchmen are always
+weak and timid in upholding, daring, resolute, and even fierce in
+resisting the powers that be. Confidence, enthusiasm, conviction, seem
+in every case of insurrection and dangerous riot to be on the side of
+the mob. The revolution of 1848 afforded very striking examples of this
+contrast. The overthrow of Louis Philippe, deeply as the King himself
+was disliked and despised, narrow as was the electorate, unpopular as
+was the Ministry, was the act of a small minority. The Republic was
+imposed upon France by a knot of reckless journalists and
+semi-communistic dreamers, backed by the dreaded populace of Paris,
+against the will of the peasantry who formed four-fifths of the voters,
+and of the educated or semi-educated classes, amounting to one half of
+the remaining fifth. Again and again was the Provisional
+Government--though backed by all who had anything to lose, by all who
+dreaded anarchy--on the point of overthrow, and saved only by
+Lamartine's eloquence from the conspiracy of a few thousand desperadoes,
+and the stormy passions of a mob that hardly knew what it wanted. The
+Assembly itself was invaded and terrorized for several hours: the lives
+of the leaders, to whom all France looked up with reverence, were in
+imminent peril at the hands of a faction numerically insignificant. Only
+in the terrible days of June did the National Guard, after four months
+of distress and incessant panic, of daily and hourly fear of sack and
+pillage, act with energy and decision; and even then the struggle
+between the army, supported by the National Guard and the Anarchist
+faction of the barricades, was long balanced and doubtful: yet the party
+of order in Paris itself constituted an overwhelming majority.
+
+In America, New England perhaps excepted, the mob and the people, the
+party of lawless force and law-abiding principle, meet on more equal
+terms. No one dreams of disputing, in the last resort, the authority of
+the Sovereign, but that Sovereign is invisible and inaccessible. It must
+be remembered, moreover, that more than one of the hundred popular
+risings, that the Union has seen during its hundred years' existence,
+were risings, not against the law, but for the law against the laxity of
+its administrators. This very fact makes it the more clear how uncertain
+and ineffective is the authority of abstract law and an impersonal
+Sovereign. The legal authorities, State or Federal, are not necessarily
+representative of the power by which they are elected. In California,
+after a period of anarchy, the respectable classes rose with the tacit
+support of the people against the State Government which the people had
+elected; deposed it almost without an effort, and established in its
+place the arbitrary rule of a self-appointed Vigilance Committee, whose
+members no one knew. That lawless Government hanged as many rowdies,
+pilferers, highway robbers and card sharpers as it thought fit;
+banished hundreds under penalty of death--a penalty sure to be
+enforced--re-established order, and laid down its power without having
+encountered the shadow of legal or popular resistance. We have seen an
+actual insurrection of the better elements of society provoked by the
+escape of murderers and other criminals through the hands of lax or
+corrupt juries, and of an administration whose use of the prerogative of
+mercy was imputed to partisanship or to bribery. But in a great majority
+of instances, riots that have reached the proportions of insurrection
+have been simply anarchical or rebellious. It is not so long since the
+railway employes of Pennsylvania, striking work upon an every-day
+quarrel between employer and employed, took possession of the iron
+highways of the State, intercepted communication, seized the great
+railway arsenal of Pittsburg, and fought a pitched battle against the
+militia, as obstinate and almost as sanguinary as the minor combats of
+the Civil War. While we write, another strike of the same class has
+suspended the traffic of the great Western railway line. In three States
+the militia have been called out to protect property and liberty, the
+rights of capital, the freedom of labour, the interest of the public,
+against a class insurrection; the public authorities have been forcibly
+resisted, and lives have been lost in a skirmish with fire-arms between
+the _posse_ of the Sheriff and the insurgent Knights of Labour. Every
+American mob feels itself invested with something of the majesty of the
+sovereign people. Every body of English rioters--political, social, or
+simply lawless--knows and feels itself guilty of resistance to the
+Sovereign. The truncheon of the police, the uniform of the soldier,
+unquestionably represents the legal will of the Sovereign; and before
+that will the largest and most excited multitude gives way at once.
+
+Mr. Bagehot overlooks the _certainty_ which personal sovereignty gives:
+the absence of a moment's possible doubt on which side is that supreme
+arbiter, sure to be backed by nine-tenths of the physical forces of
+society. He underrates, if he does not altogether ignore, the much wider
+and deeper influence of the Royal name; its power over passion as well
+as over ignorance. The omnipotence of Parliament, even when, in the
+belief of half the nation, a Parliamentary majority represents a
+minority of the people, is due less to traditional respect for the House
+of Commons, or superstitious reverence for a majority vote, such as
+prevails in America, than to the fact, that resistance means rebellion,
+visible, unmistakable disobedience to the Queen. It is therefore deeply
+to be regretted, not for any sentimental reason, but for the sake of
+order and the protection of life and property, that the democratic
+changes in our Constitution are gradually undermining the habit of
+submission to the Queen's Majesty which still characterizes, to a great
+extent, the English people. The Services still feel proud to consider
+that they serve, in their own phrase--not the State but--'the Queen.'
+That sentiment of loyalty, which Mr. Bagehot ascribes to the ignorant
+alone, is as strong in the upper or middle as in the lower orders; has a
+far wider, deeper influence than he allows, than it was consistent with
+the whole scope of his work on the English constitution to recognize.
+
+One of the most remarkable and interesting points in Tocqueville's
+conversations, as recorded by Mr. Senior, is the value which he and
+other interlocutors ascribe to the English Poor Law. Mr Senior had seen
+its essential principle, the right of subsistence, worked out
+farther--to extremer and more dangerous consequences--than perhaps any
+other political or social experiment, before the practical common sense
+of England interfered. Under the old Poor Law, at least in the rural
+districts, the income of a household was regulated by its number. Every
+head of a family was entitled to an allowance, increasing with its
+increase, and wholly independent of his earnings. Nominal wages had been
+actually forced down _below_ the starvation point. The law had
+demoralized industry by placing the idlest ditcher on a level of comfort
+with the best ploughman, and threatened to swallow up property in the
+support of poverty. Tocqueville and his friends had seen the danger from
+another point of view. The most popular and most formidable of the
+dogmas of that Socialism, which had infected so deeply the _prolétariat_
+of Paris and other French cities, was in another and yet more insidious
+and destructive form the doctrine of the Poor Law. The right of
+subsistence was admitted by the establishment of the _ateliers
+nationaux_, and asserted by the insurgents of June, 1848, under the
+nobler and more dignified guise of the _droit au travail_. The State was
+bound, according to that doctrine, not to keep the idle alive, but to
+furnish the industrious with work suited to their skill at market rate
+of wages; a rate which had no right to fall below the average standard
+of an artizan's needs, or rather of his habits.
+
+A principle which contradicts the laws of nature is obviously false; and
+the right to subsistence--if claimed not for all who do, but for all who
+may, exist in a given country--yet more clearly the _droit au travail_
+of which this is the practical meaning--involves the demand, that
+agricultural production shall keep pace with population. But, save for
+checks all ultimately reducible to the fear of want, checks which it is
+the essential object of a Poor Law to relax, population would rapidly,
+in any old country, overtake subsistence. That, were the population of
+England or France to multiply at an American rate, it would soon lack
+standing room, is mathematically demonstrable. A poor law then must be
+attended by checks on population as effective as those of Nature
+herself; and from their artificial character necessarily more offensive,
+revolting, and difficult to enforce. None the less, Englishmen familiar
+as Senior with the ruinous operation of the old Poor Law, Frenchmen
+confronted like Tocqueville by the terrible theory of the _droit au
+travail_, the alarming experience of the _ateliers nationaux_, were
+inclined to regard that admission of the right to subsistence--limited
+to those actually born--which is the fundamental principle of the
+present Poor Law, as a most valuable, if not an indispensable, guarantee
+of social security; a signal instance of that practical English wisdom,
+which refuses to push admitted principles, sound or false, to
+consequences undeniably logical, but practically dangerous.
+
+It might be thought that in a Christian, and especially a Roman Catholic
+country, the danger of starvation could never be very practical--that
+men, and still more women and children, bearing in their forms and faces
+the stamp of actual want, of pinching hunger, would never be denied. But
+Senior's experiences of the Irish famine pointed to a different
+conclusion. Death by famine is at last rapid, sudden, and unexpected. On
+the road to Kenmare, from which many Irish emigrants were despatched to
+America, corpses were daily found with collapsed stomachs _and money in
+their pockets_. Hoping to reach the port, keeping their money to pay
+their passage, death had overtaken them unawares; and this in the face
+of organized measures of relief, the largest and most liberal that
+public or private charity has ever provided. In cases of prolonged and
+extreme distress, but for the Poor Law, hundreds would die of want
+almost unawares, before want had overcome their reluctance to beg. And
+if actual starvation were rare, yet in the absence of a recognized right
+to food and shelter, the fear of starvation must be ever present. This
+spectral horror, Tocqueville evidently thought, haunted the imagination
+of the French operative; and had much to do with the popularity of
+Socialism in a country of diffused property and general thrift, and with
+the ferocity of Socialistic or Red Republican insurrections. Charity,
+however liberal, is an uncertain and--to their credit be it spoken--to
+the majority of French operatives, a repulsive and degrading resource.
+It cannot exorcise the hideous spectre of actual famine, which, though
+remote, seems ever to threaten them, their wives and their children; and
+which in times of distress and depression looms terribly near, distinct,
+and horrible. No wonder that men haunted by such a spectre should be
+driven to gloomy envy, sullen hate, and outbreaks of ferocity worse than
+those provoked by actual suffering. No wonder that any schemes, however
+frantic and however unrighteous, should have charms for a class whose
+reason is disturbed by the perpetual vision of that ultimate but
+undeniably possible horror. We have seen in France within the last few
+weeks moral portents which can hardly be ascribed to any other final
+cause an atrocious murder committed by workmen, and, what is infinitely
+worse, extenuated and almost approved by responsible legislators. It is
+probable that the Belgian riots approach as near as any witnessed in
+Europe during the last two centuries to a revolt of actual want. Belgium
+has secured an artificial manufacturing prominence--a disproportionate
+trade to hard toil and low wages. The latter had lately been forced down
+to the _minimum_, as profits had been well-nigh extinguished, by the
+general depression of business. In fear of actual want, the populace
+rose, wasted farms, destroyed factories, plundered and levied
+blackmail--in a word, tried to inflict on others the misery that had
+maddened themselves. The word has been given to the most quiet and
+law-abiding people in Europe _to defend themselves_: a step far more
+significant of stern intentions than the sharpest military repression.
+Yet the Government is forced to accompany its preventive measures with
+an expenditure of 20_s_ per head of the population on public
+works--equivalent to an English rate in aid of twenty millions! Could
+there be a more conclusive proof that the dread of hunger is a real and
+a terrible power for evil among Continental nations; that their choice
+lies, in a word, between a recognition of the right to subsistence--a
+Poor Law with severe labour tests and restrictions--and periodical,
+spasmodic measures of relief enforced by insurrection? Or can there be a
+doubt, that the latter is infinitely the more dangerous and demoralizing
+alternative: that only the adoption of a Poor law can prevent the
+lessons of 1886 from shaking the very foundations of order, property and
+civil government in countries situate as are France and Belgium?
+
+It seems strange that French Democracy should not have long since
+insisted on laying for ever the spectre of starvation by a Poor Law more
+liberal than that of England. It must be remembered, however, that the
+democracy of France is a propertied and landed democracy, heavily
+burdened with taxes and interest on mortgages, pinched by necessity,
+and pinching itself by thrift. No class is so hard to want, so ruthless
+to idleness, as a peasantry which wins for itself a bare subsistence by
+constant toil, and provides for the future by constant self-denial.
+
+The temper of a progressive and prosperous democracy is very different.
+Many, perhaps most of the American States, are without a Poor Law.
+Slavery dispensed with it, and the race antagonism consequent on the
+manner and circumstances of emancipation has rendered a thorough
+revision of social relations--a systematic attempt to meet the new and
+very exceptional conditions of Southern society in its present
+form--hitherto impossible. Yet, by the confession of one of their
+bitterest enemies, no people are so tender, so generous, so lavish of
+active sympathy towards the sick, the bereaved, and the unfortunate. In
+States which, probably from an instinct under their circumstances just
+and wise, refuse to recognize the right to subsistence by a legal
+provision for the poor, whereby the idle and vicious would chiefly
+benefit, nevertheless paupers by the visitation of God--the aged and
+infirm, the blind, the deaf, and dumb, lunatics and idiots--are amply
+provided by public and private charity with all that can alleviate their
+lot: or teach them, as far as possible, the means of self-dependence.
+American charity towards the victims of great natural catastrophes, far
+more common there than here--communities burned out by a forest fire, or
+ruined by a flood--and yet more the personal sacrifices made, the
+readiness with which men and women devote their leisure thought, and
+energy to the supervision of public institutions, the efficient
+distribution of public subscriptions, the succour and nursing of a
+community stricken by pestilence, are above praise. A careful study of
+Transatlantic examples might put our own boasted lavishness of charity
+to shame.
+
+Even in England, organized private charity, wisely directed, might
+surely contrive to effect a discrimination between those who are paupers
+by vice, unthrift, and idleness, and those whom God has striken for no
+fault that humanity is entitled to pass judgment upon; between the
+fitting inmates of the workhouse, and those--helpless from age,
+infirmity, accident, and disease--to whom the associations of the
+workhouse are humiliating, painful and demoralizing. Nothing is more
+essential, under democratic rule, than the maintenance of due severity
+towards those who will not work; nothing more likely to relax that
+needful severity than its indiscriminate application to those who
+cannot.
+
+
+
+
+ART. X.--1. _Fourth Midlothian Campaign._ Political speeches delivered,
+November, 1885, by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P. Edinburgh, 1886.
+
+2. John Morley: _The Irish Record of the New Chief Secretary, 1886._
+
+3. _Ireland; A Book of Light on the Irish Problem._ Edited by Andrew
+Reid. London, 1886.
+
+4. _Home Rule._ Reprint from the 'Times' correspondence, &c. 1886.
+
+5. _Social Order in Ireland. Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union._ Dublin,
+1886.
+
+6. _Speech of Mr. Gladstone in the House of Commons, April 8, 1886, on
+moving for leave to bring in a Bill to make provision for the future
+Government of Ireland._
+
+
+The fate of the scheme for the Government of Ireland, which Mr.
+Gladstone disclosed in the House of Commons last week, has been
+practically determined. Whether the Bill be rejected on the second
+reading, whether amidst the currents of adverse opinion which have
+already set in, it slowly goes to wreck upon the shoals of Parliamentary
+procedure, its ultimate doom is already settled, but the mischief which
+has been done will not be removed so promptly. A great blow has been
+struck at the United Kingdom. The proposal to recognize Irish
+nationality as a political force apart from Great Britain--a proposal
+made by a Prime Minister, a leader of a great Parliamentary party--will
+for many a day to come stimulate in Ireland all the elements of
+disorder, which a noble series of statesmen, from Burke to Peel, have
+resolutely laboured to eradicate.
+
+It was no surprise to the House that had listened to the marvellous
+dream of Mr. Gladstone, when Mr. Parnell rose to express his gratitude
+in terms almost of emotion:--
+
+     'It will prove a happy and fortunate thing, both for Ireland
+     and England, that there was one man living, one English
+     statesman living, with the great power and the extraordinary
+     ability of the right hon. gentleman to lend his voice on
+     behalf of poor helpless Ireland. He had devoted his great
+     mind, his extraordinary energy to the unravelling of this
+     question and to the construction of this Bill.... To none of
+     the sons of Ireland--at any time has there ever been given
+     the genius and talent of the right hon. gentleman--certainly
+     nothing approaching to it in these days.'
+
+The people, whom a few months ago Mr. Parnell denounced as representing
+to him and his friends 'imprisonment, chains and death,' now came to
+offer him a scheme of Irish nationality, and Shylock, recognizing the
+wisdom of the sham Balthazar, was not more appreciative: 'A Daniel come
+to judgment, yea a Daniel,' but, like Shylock, Mr. Parnell relied upon
+his bond. Whilst he accepted the offering with the effusion of a
+successful speculator, he took care to remind his hearers that he was
+not bound to take it in discharge of his claim. He reserved any
+'definite or positive expression of opinion;' 'there were undoubtedly
+great faults and blots in the measure,' but he could safely say,
+'whavever might be the fate of the Bill, the cause of Ireland, the cause
+of Irish autonomy, will enormously gain by the genius of the right hon.
+gentleman.' This is the solid result of the strange events which have
+been passing for the last three months. A distinguished public man has
+been called to office by the Parnellite vote. He has demanded and
+obtained ample time to consider the difficulties of his position and
+offer his solution.
+
+A glance at the new scheme shows that the proposal is at once
+disingenuous and fantastic. The Prime Minister shrinks from admitting
+the nature of the work he is engaged in. He breaks up the unity of the
+Kingdom, but he will not allow that his Bill involves the repeal of the
+Union. But whatever quibbles may be indulged in, the main principle of
+the Act of Union, that Ireland should be represented at Westminster is
+swept away. As Irish nationality is not to be ignored, it finds
+expression in a Parliament in Dublin; but Ireland is to pay a
+contribution towards the debt and towards public defence, and in the
+application of this money is to have no voice. Thus we have Irish
+nationality started with machinery which sets aside the first principle
+of free governments, that there should be no taxation without
+representation; and the internal arrangements of the Dublin Parliament
+are equally suggestive of confusion in the future.
+
+The Prime Minister does not ask Parliament to disregard the risks to
+which property and loyalty will be exposed in the Dublin Assembly, and
+he proposes to satisfy our conscience by giving them the security of
+representation in Dublin by a special Order. The Dublin Parliament is
+divided into two Orders, each of which shall have a veto on the
+legislation of the majority. The First Order consists of persons who
+must be possessors of 4000l. or an equivalent income. That is their
+personal qualification, and they are to be elected by occupiers rated at
+25l. Property qualification for Members of Parliament was abolished in
+England some thirty years ago. Rating, as a qualification for electors,
+has been abandoned in a series of deliberate public measures from 1866
+to 1885; but it is these old clothes of English Parliaments which Mr.
+Gladstone offers to his new nationality. Why should these expedients be
+adopted in Ireland? Checks upon legislative action, a second Chamber, a
+Second or a First Order, are questions upon which theorists are divided.
+They are certainly not questions which have occupied the National
+League. These 'Orders' in Parliamentary life are not native Irish ideas.
+These reproductions of quaint customs, such as we might find in some
+ecclesiastical synod, or in the village organization of some old
+Scandinavian community, are England's guarantees for the security of
+property in the Sister Island. That Island, we know, has been abandoned
+for some years to the National League, whose power was founded on their
+opportunities of excommunicating any one who did not subscribe to their
+funds and obey their decrees. The principle of the National League was
+that property in land was an outrage on Irish opinion; and we are asked
+to believe that this American-Irish organization, clothed with
+Parliamentary power in Dublin, will be kept in check by a device, which
+has no sanction in ancient tradition, in local sympathy, in recognized
+opinion. The First Order in the new Chamber will be so many people
+marked out for plunder. If any one possessing 4000l. worth of property,
+which he can convert into cash, is venturesome enough to accept a seat
+in the Chamber, what will become of him and his electors, people who are
+scheduled in each locality as the owners of property rated at 25l. a
+year? The majority of them in the South and West will be tenants who
+have not dared to pay their rents, because the National League
+prohibited the payment. Let us suppose people are found to constitute
+the First Order, and they veto some scheme of the majority, and a
+general election occurs, will the expedients which have made the League
+what it is be suddenly forgotten? Can we doubt that the First Order and
+its electors would be straightway boycotted out of existence? The
+Ministerial proposal is an attempt to meet the views of Mr. Parnell;
+and, without admitting that it is all he requires, the Irish leader
+cordially accepts it, but he wants, he has told us, 'the full and
+complete right to arrange our own affairs and make ours a nation--to
+secure for her, free from outside control, the right to direct her own
+course among the peoples of the world.' We are asked to suppose that he
+and his friends, started in their new career, will be stopped by such a
+ridiculous invention as this First Order. And it is a project like this,
+inconsistent with itself, implying constitutional degradation of the
+very people whom it is supposed to conciliate, patched up with strange
+curiosities as unknown in England as in Ireland, which Parliament is
+asked to accept as a 'final settlement' of our Irish difficulties.
+
+The Bill proposed settles nothing. Its only result is a renewed
+manifestation of the power and influence of the Irish agitator. In this
+extraordinary state of affairs men are apt to forget the series of
+events which have brought about our present condition. Ministries come
+and go at the bidding of Mr. Parnell. English policy in the future,
+important schemes affecting the gravest concerns of England, of
+Scotland, of Ireland, depend not on any principle accepted by the
+British public, but on the humour of the Irish leader. The existence of
+the House of Lords, the legal position of the Church of Scotland, the
+maintenance of our most important military reserve, the right of the
+Sovereign in relation to peace and war, are exposed to critical
+divisions, not because British opinion is eager for revolution, or has
+become indifferent to the vast interests involved, but because the
+Nationalist party wish to remind us of their voting power.
+
+Our alarm at all this should not make us lose sight of the antecedent
+facts which have built up this force of mischief. Mr. Gladstone is Prime
+Minister by the favour of the Irish party, and this party is the outcome
+of Mr. Gladstone's own policy. Whether the fluent rhetorician foresaw
+his present position, whether perched on his slender ledge of power he
+now enjoys it, we need not stop to consider. What we would remind our
+readers is that for nearly twenty years past he has, in the main line of
+his public life, notwithstanding some convulsive oscillations, pursued
+with the pertinacity of one possessed the policy of which the present
+Irish organization is the natural and the logical development. The
+National League represents the spirit to which Mr. Gladstone appealed at
+Southport in 1867. In the December of that year he charged the new
+voters, in words of solemn adjuration, to look at Ireland from the Irish
+point of view. This appeal had an electric effect upon the population of
+that island. In the years which have passed since, his own injunction
+has been sometimes rudely disregarded by Mr. Gladstone himself, but he
+never long delayed to turn again to his favourite theory, to make
+another effort to justify the principle with which he had started, and
+at each renewal of his enterprise he plunged himself and his party
+deeper into the morass of Hibernian disorder. Mr. Gladstone's admirers
+are very proud of his numerous successes in carrying important Bills
+through Parliament, but it is forgotten that his Irish Bills, though
+carried, have never attained the ends for which they were passed. Twice
+have all the resources of his genius, all the machinery of his party,
+been called into requisition to bring about a final settlement of the
+Irish Land question, and yet the work is still to be done. The
+explanation is not far to seek. Mr. Gladstone's passionate recklessness
+committed him in 1867 to an enterprise, the magnitude of which excited
+his vanity, the actual nature of which he only dimly perceived.
+
+In the year we have named he was trying to recover his footing after a
+heavy fall in his first start as leader of the Liberal Party. A scheme
+of Parliamentary reform, carried by his political opponent, had marked
+the commencement of another epoch. In the new arena of public life two
+centres of political energy were certain to be strongly represented in
+the organization which Mr. Gladstone hoped to lead back to office. The
+Spirit of Dissent was all powerful among the English householders. The
+Irish tenant, whose electoral strength, directed by the Roman
+priesthood, had been exhibited with much effect in 1852, was sure to
+receive a great increase of power under the new Reform Bill. To combine
+these influences was one of the conditions of any prolonged tenure of
+office by the Liberal party. The Irish Establishment had been forsaken
+by English opinion in previous years. Its overthrow would be hailed with
+enthusiasm by the Dissenting communities, whilst the Irish priesthood
+would regard disestablishment with undoubted satisfaction. The condition
+of Irish Land Tenure was admitted by all parties to require amendment,
+and its settlement would be a substantial benefit to the Irish farmer.
+
+These were subjects which naturally tempted the daring energies of a man
+occupying Mr. Gladstone's position in the winter of 1867. Turned out of
+office after the death of Lord Palmerston, his subsequent management of
+the reform question, as leader of the Opposition, had only increased the
+distrust of his party. He was without a constituency at the coming
+election, and he went down to Lancashire to seek in that great centre of
+hard-headed Englishmen the confiding constituency which he subsequently
+found in Midlothian. New legislation on the Irish Church, a reform in
+Irish Land Tenure, were subjects for which his party, for which the
+majority of Englishmen were pretty well prepared. The Liberal Churchmen,
+like Sir Roundell Palmer, who held back on the subject of
+Disestablishment, were more than counterbalanced by the Dissenters, who
+were attracted by the scheme. Popular Legislation on these subjects
+might have been granted to Ireland as the matured outcome of British
+opinion. Such a mode of approaching the work in hand did not suit the
+exuberant temperament of Mr. Gladstone. Whilst the report of the
+Clerkenwell explosion was still echoing through the land, he announced
+his policy as one to be recommended, not because the great British
+community had examined and adopted the proposed measures, but because
+Irish opinion was to be henceforth accepted as our guide in Irish
+Legislation. With characteristic recklessness he hurried to turn to the
+account of his own ambition the throb of excitement which he saw
+traversing the nation. He appealed to his audience to regard the Fenian
+outrages as a sort of revelation from heaven, to commune with their own
+hearts, not on the state of Ireland, and the remedies sensible men could
+offer, but on the sentiments of Irishmen. His final test of legislation
+was to be, not its consonance with the judgment of the British people,
+but with the demand of the Irish crowd.
+
+     'Ireland is at your doors. Providence has placed her there.
+     Law and legislation have been a compact between you. You
+     must face these obligations. You must deal with them and
+     discharge them. As to the modes of giving effect to this
+     principle I do not now enter upon them. I am of opinion they
+     should be dictated, as a general rule, by that which may
+     appear to be the mature, well-considered, and general sense
+     of the Irish people.'--20th Dec. 1867.
+
+At this date 'the general sense of the Irish people' was, to Mr.
+Gladstone's mind, the policy formulated by the Irish Episcopacy, the
+scheme which at a later stage of the campaign in the following year he
+described as the lopping off the three branches of the Upas tree of
+Protestant ascendancy. He failed in Lancashire, but his success in other
+parts of the kingdom was complete; and then ensued the abolition of the
+Irish Establishment and an adjustment of the land question which carried
+the recognition of local customs farther than Englishmen had
+anticipated.
+
+The Liberal party had been charged to consult Irish opinion. As long as
+Cardinal Cullen and Mr. Gladstone were agreed all went merrily, even if
+some rude coercion like the Westmeath Act was required to deal with
+Irish ideas which did not find expression in the Cardinal. But whilst
+the English Minister and the Irish Primate declared, that Ribbonism was
+an impudent pretender to any representative character and must be rooted
+out, a third organ of opinion claimed the benefit of the Southport
+principle in the form of the Home Rule Association, and Mr. Gladstone at
+Aberdeen replied with angry scorn:
+
+     'Can any sensible man, can any rational man, suppose that,
+     at this time of day, in this condition of the world, we are
+     going to disintegrate the capital institutions of this
+     country for the purpose of making ourselves ridiculous in
+     the sight of all mankind, and crippling any power we possess
+     for bestowing benefits, through legislation, on the country
+     to which we belong?'--26th Sept. 1871.
+
+The ideas expressed by the Roman hierarchy, attracted by the
+Disestablishment, substantially interested in the better position of the
+farmer, and confidently anticipating for themselves the acquisition of a
+power over public education such as their order enjoyed nowhere else in
+the world, these were ideas which Mr. Gladstone recognized as national.
+On the subject of education, however, he was not able to go as far as
+the Ultramontane party required. They directed the Irish members to vote
+against him. The coalition between Dissent and the Roman Hierarchy was
+dissolved. The Minister, who had brought it about, suddenly awoke to a
+sense of the evil teaching of his late allies in the government of
+Ireland, and '_Vaticanism_' held them up to the reprobation of
+Protestant England.
+
+The new Liberal discovery, the principle of Irish ideas, had broken down
+as a party engine. It had made the Ministry of 1868, but it had failed
+to preserve it. Mr. Gladstone retired from the leadership of the party
+to the greater freedom of an independent member of Parliament, and in
+this capacity led the stormy agitation against Lord Beaconsfield, making
+the foreign policy of England a party question.
+
+Meanwhile the theory of the Southport speech, and the results which had
+attended it, were not forgotten in Ireland. The Home Rule movement,
+which was denounced so angrily at Aberdeen, enlisted all the resources
+of local sentiment, feelings similar to those which make a Lancashireman
+proud of Lancashire, a Scotchman delight in Scotch associations. Among
+its promoters were professors, poets, Irish Catholics, who were glad to
+show themselves on a public platform without being the puppets or the
+opponents of their bishops, Irish Protestants, who were irritated at the
+desertion of the Irish Church, a number of well-meaning people who were
+attracted by the opportunity of talking eloquently and vaguely about
+nothing in particular. This Academic scheme of Home Rule found an
+admirable exponent in Mr. Butt, an able lawyer of ambitious politics.
+
+What answer were Liberals to give to this new embodiment of their great
+statesman's theory? They denounced Mr. Butt, pondering feebly meanwhile
+what it all meant; but the Home Rule organization, once set a-going, was
+soon permeated by the Fenian spirit. Platitudes about 'patriotism' and
+'green Erin' meant to an Irish crowd, 'Down with England and with
+landlords.' That great hotbed of disatisfaction, Irish popular feeling,
+supplied stimulating nutriment to the new party. In proportion as
+hostility to England was more openly declared, funds came in rapidly
+from the Irish in America. Year by year the Home Rule members gained in
+parliamentary power, one section of the Liberal party after another
+giving them encouragement--in the first place because they were
+troublesome to a Tory Ministry, in the second because the flaccid
+thought of modern Liberalism made them welcome any organization, which
+would save them the trouble of facing the difficulties of Irish
+administration.
+
+In 1880 the public took no heed to Lord Beaconsfield's historic warning,
+that danger was brewing in Ireland. The Liberal legislation of ten years
+before had, they tried to believe, disposed of Irish difficulties in
+their most serious aspect. Both before and after the General Election
+they were assured by Mr. Bright and Mr. Gladstone, that Irish affairs
+were proceeding satisfactorily. The new Ministry had, however, to face a
+formidable parliamentary party, who refused to recognize the legislation
+of 1869 and 1870 as any settlement of the Irish question. Their first
+device was to abandon the Act of their predecessors, passed in 1875,
+which applied some of the milder provisions of the Westmeath Act to the
+whole of Ireland. A reconstruction of the Local Government of the United
+Kingdom, and a new Reform Bill, were the tasks assigned by public
+opinion to the second Gladstone Ministry; but finding the abandonment of
+coercion did not conciliate the Irish party, the Premier returned with a
+rush to the policy of 1867. He determined to justify his claim to be the
+statesman who had found out the secret of Irish administration. Within
+two months after the Ministry was formed the public were warned that
+they were within measurable distance of civil war. This danger was not
+urged as a reason for recurring to accepted principles of government; on
+the contrary, it was a plea for new expeditions in pursuit of the _ignis
+fatuus_ of Irish opinion. We know the events which followed.
+
+The Compensation for Disturbance Bill seemed a small matter in itself,
+but involved principles fatal to all security for property. During the
+next autumn and winter, Ireland was abandoned to the savage dominion of
+the Land League. The quiescence of the Government excited remonstrance
+even from advanced Radicals like Mr. Leonard Courtney. That stalwart
+Liberal had not been then in office, had not had the experience he has
+since acquired. He had not yet learned the dutiful lesson that, whatever
+his own convictions, the probabilities were in favour of the view that
+his great leader was in the right, or at least, might be successful. As
+a concession to public opinion, a Coercion Act was passed, new fangled
+and hesitating. But it was not so much on effective legislation and a
+resolute determination to curb disorder that the Ministry relied, as on
+the recognition of Irish opinion which the Land Act of 1881 embodied.
+It was truly said of that measure by an exulting Radical, that it struck
+a blow at property which was felt in every country in Europe. In his
+main calculation, his purpose to win popularity in Ireland, Mr.
+Gladstone failed, as he has so often failed; and as usual the failure
+was due to the wickedness or perversity of some one else. In 1874 it was
+Pius IX. and the Jesuits who had misled his Irish friends. In 1881 the
+evil influence was Mr. Parnell.
+
+In the autumn the Prime Minister startled his hearers at Leeds by a
+passionate complaint, that--
+
+     'a small band of men had arisen who were not ashamed to
+     preach in Ireland the doctrine of public plunder ... now
+     that Mr. Parnell is afraid, lest the people of England by
+     their long continued efforts should win the hearts of the
+     whole Irish nation, he has a new and enlarged gospel of
+     plunder to proclaim.'
+
+He went back with a swing to the high-handed policy he had so often
+denounced. Irishmen must be made to recognize Gladstone, and not
+Parnell, as their true friend. The Land League was dissolved by
+proclamation, its principal leaders, including Mr. Parnell, were clapped
+into jail, and it was proclaimed at Knowsley that the Cabinet were going
+'to relieve the people of Ireland from the weight of a tyrannical yoke.'
+
+These speeches, full as they were of denunciation of Mr. Parnell, were
+still on the lines of the Southport speech. They were not declarations
+of the opinion of the British community, warnings to Ireland to take
+account of the settled judgment of the nation, of which the sister
+island must always form part. They contrasted with the manly utterance
+of Mr. Chamberlain on this subject, the same month, at Birmingham. They
+were angry appeals to Ireland to quarrel with her chosen leaders. Mr.
+James Lowther was denounced for stating, that 'the party headed by Mr.
+Parnell commanded the support of the large majority of the people of
+Ireland.' Mr. Gladstone added, 'The proposition here made is one on
+which we are entirely at issue. I profoundly disbelieve it; I utterly
+protest against it. I believe a greater calumny on the Irish nation,...
+a more gross and injurious statement could not possibly be made against
+the Irish nation.'
+
+In the following year it was found that the recognition of Mr.
+Gladstone, as the father of the Irish people was still remote; whilst
+Mr. Forster declared, that a stronger Coercion Bill was necessary, if
+life was to be protected in Ireland. Then came another plunge after the
+coveted ideal. Mr. Forster, who had so generously devoted himself to
+his party and his leader in the pursuit of a new Irish policy, was
+abandoned to the Irish members, and to Mr. John Morley's crusade against
+him in the columns of the 'Pall Mall Gazette.' Mr. Parnell was called
+out of jail to secure votes to the Government, and order in Ireland, by
+the help of Mr. Sheridan and other ex-convicts. The Phoenix Park
+murder, following on the Kilmainham Treaty, postponed the full carrying
+out of this arrangement. The sort of measure, which Mr. Forster had been
+refused a month before, was now passed with provisions of excessive
+stringency; and Lord Spencer, who had been sent to Ireland to win that
+popularity, which the late Chief Secretary had been unable to obtain,
+was chiefly occupied in curbing the violence which that Minister had
+denounced, in bringing to justice the criminals whom he had not been
+allowed to reach. We recollect that the new Viceroy was exposed to a
+storm of unpopularity so violent and outrageous, that the public readily
+forgot the discreditable folly of his original enterprise, and honoured
+the resolution and dignity with which he discharged the laborious duties
+of a thankless office.
+
+The construction of the Irish Government at this time was such as to
+make the Lord Lieutenant personally responsible for the administration
+of justice, and the carrying out of the main provisions of the Crimes
+Act. He was in the Cabinet, whilst his chief Secretaries, Mr. Trevelyan
+and Mr. Campbell-Bannerman, were only subordinate members of the
+Ministry. They conducted Irish business in the House of Commons,
+representing in their relations with the Irish members, as far as
+circumstances allowed, their leader's yearning after Irish popularity,
+whilst Lord Spencer, the Whig Earl, who belonged to things that had been
+rather than to the rising power of the Radical party, bore all the odium
+of unpopular imprisonments or executions.
+
+The significance of such an arrangement was not lost on the Irish crowd.
+By the end of 1882 the Land League was reconstructed under the name of
+the National League. The new organization, of which 'United Ireland' was
+the especial organ, gradually established branches from one end of
+Ireland to the other. Strong as the provisions of the Crimes Prevention
+Act were, no attempt was made to bring the new society under its
+operation. The columns of 'United Ireland,' on the other hand, bore
+plenty of evidence of a disposition to move on. The Irish farmers were
+reproachfully asked if they were content with a paltry reduction of
+rent. 'Had they no other account to settle with England?' The leaders
+reminded their followers that the Crimes Act would expire before long.
+They renewed with savage energy that campaign against the _personnel_
+of the Irish administration, which Mr. John Morley had so warmly
+espoused up to the murder of Mr. Burke. A continual storm of abuse and
+calumny was directed against Lord Spencer and every one else concerned
+with Irish government. Mr. Clifford Lloyd and Mr. Trevelyan were removed
+by way of warning, that there was no room in Ireland for public servants
+who did their duty. The National League, in fact, became in each
+district a conspicuous and formidable power. Their representatives in
+Parliament received much attention from the Prime Minister and his
+colleagues. They exercised great influence and had many chances before
+them in the new organization of the electorate. With all these
+advantages on the side of the Irish Revolution, the Queen's Government
+had nobody to champion it but the not imposing personality of Lord
+Spencer.
+
+It is not surprising that in such a state of things Ireland was already,
+at the commencement of 1885, like a country occupied by two hostile
+armies. There was the National League camp with its scouts and
+emissaries all over the country, with a vigorous Press proclaiming its
+policy and success. The Government forces remained within their lines,
+attempting nothing, doing nothing, unless some outrage by a moonlight
+gang compelled them to make some show of interference to check violation
+of the truce between treason and loyalty. The greatest care was taken
+not to identify the Government with the scattered Loyalists. They might
+be very worthy persons, but they were the special aversion of the
+Nationalist party, and the business of the Government was not to protect
+or encourage loyalty, but to prevent Nationalism from going too fast.
+The Nationalist aspirations of Mr. Gladstone's friends were not to be
+irritated by attentions shown to their adversaries.
+
+When Parliament reassembled in the spring of 1885, men asked what
+provision was made for renewing the Crimes Act, which would expire in
+the autumn. Week after week passed, month after month; and it was
+impossible to extract from the Ministry what their policy was as regards
+the government of Ireland. At length, in the summer, it was announced
+that on a day, which was never fixed, a Bill would be introduced
+renewing certain provisions of the expiring Act. This announcement from
+the Treasury Bench was followed at once by a notice from Mr. John Morley
+to oppose the Bill. So much time had already been lost, that it was
+practically impossible for any Ministry to carry a Coercion Bill against
+the determined opposition of the Irish members, without the most
+resolute effort on the part of Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues. Were
+they prepared to make these exertions? One of the conditions, on which
+the Reform question had been settled, was the definite postponement of a
+dissolution until after the 1st November. Each day men became more and
+more engrossed with the great question of the winter--the new
+election--more indifferent to the business of the Session; the
+Parnellite party more exultant and defiant. Rumours of dissensions in
+the Cabinet, had been already rife, and grew more frequent every day.
+The country awoke one morning to find that the second Gladstone
+Ministry, with its clear majority of over eighty, was at an end. Rather
+than confess their disunion, the ministry had allowed themselves to be
+defeated on another question, and Mr. Parnell came before his countrymen
+as the avenger who had chastised the suggestion of renewed coercion by
+destroying the Government which made it.
+
+In this collapse of administration the only course open to the Tory
+party was to prepare as rapidly as possible for an appeal to the
+country, doing what they could meanwhile in foreign and in home affairs
+to mitigate the mischief which they were powerless to remedy. When the
+dissolution came, Mr. Gladstone opened his canvass in Midlothian by many
+sneers at the election policy of the Irish Nationalists. He reminded his
+hearers, that the subject of extending local government in Ireland must
+come forward in the new Parliament, and urged that, 'in dealing with
+this question the unity of the empire was not to be compromised or be
+put in jeopardy.' 'Nothing was to be done which should tend to
+impair,--visibly or sensibly to impair,--the unity of the Empire.'
+Auditors who had made no special study of Mr. Gladstone's phraseology
+interpreted these words as a declaration against a separate Parliament
+in Dublin. He apparently was prepared for large schemes of
+decentralization, either specially for Ireland or in connection with the
+projected reform of local government in England; but there was to be
+nothing which should 'visibly impair' the Imperial unity. He went on to
+dwell on the danger of 'condescending either to clamour or to fear,' and
+added:--
+
+     'But quite apart from the names of Whig and Tory, one thing
+     I will say, and will endeavour to impress, and it is this,
+     that it will be 'a _vital danger_ to the country if at the
+     time that the demand of Ireland for large powers of
+     self-government is to be dealt with--it will be a _vital
+     danger_ to the Empire if there is not in Parliament ready to
+     deal with that subject, ready to influence the proceedings
+     upon that subject, _a party totally independent of the Irish
+     vote_.'
+
+Even the most enthusiastic followers of the Liberal chief have learnt to
+be very cautious in saying what meaning is to be attributed to his
+utterances, but there can be no doubt that this language was read by
+the public as saying, 'whatever lengths I may go in working out the
+principle of local government, whatever may be the understanding between
+the Home Rulers and the Tories, I at least will not accept the principle
+of an Irish Parliament.' Not only was this the natural reading of Mr.
+Gladstone's declarations at the election, but nearly every member of his
+party, who referred to this question at all, spoke in the same sense.
+Mr. Campbell Bannerman denounced the Parnellite demands as 'separation
+under one name or another,' and many other Liberals were equally
+emphatic, whilst a still larger number never alluded to the subject.
+
+Well may Lord Hartington protest against the competence of the present
+Parliament to deal with the legislation now proposed.
+
+     'There was no thought, no warning held out to the country,
+     that a radical reform in the relations between Great Britain
+     and Ireland would be the main work of the present
+     Parliament.... The country had no sufficient warning--I
+     think I may say the country had no warning at all--that any
+     proposals of the magnitude and vastness of those which were
+     unfolded to us last night were to be considered in the
+     present Parliament, much less were to form the first subject
+     of consideration upon the meeting of this Parliament. I am
+     perfectly aware that there exists in our Constitution no
+     principle of the mandate. I know that the mandate of the
+     constituencies is as unknown to our Constitution, as the
+     distinction between fundamental laws and laws which are of
+     an inferior sanction. But, although no principle of a
+     mandate may exist, I maintain that there are certain limits
+     which Parliament is bound to observe, and beyond which
+     Parliament has morally not the right to go in its relations
+     with the constituencies. The constituencies of Great Britain
+     are the source of the power, at all events, of this branch
+     of Parliament, and I maintain that in the presence of an
+     emergency which could not have been foreseen, the House of
+     Commons has no moral right to initiate legislation,
+     especially upon its first meeting, of which the
+     constituencies were not informed, and of which the
+     constituencies might have been informed, and as to which, if
+     they had been so informed, there is, at all events, the very
+     greatest doubt what their decision might be.'
+
+Over and over again in the Parliament of 1874 and of 1880 have we heard
+Mr. Gladstone appealing to this principle, that schemes of crucial
+importance ought to be discussed before the constituencies; yet the most
+important proposal made in Parliament for some generations is presented
+after a general election, in which the constituencies were invited by
+the Prime Minister and his colleagues to believe, that this particular
+question was outside the region of practical politics.
+
+No sooner had it become apparent that the country had refused that
+renewal of power which Mr. Gladstone had asked for, than his resolution
+not to accept defeat was promptly manifested. Public men remembered his
+use of the Royal prerogative in 1872, to carry into execution a scheme
+for which he had sought and failed to obtain the consent of Parliament.
+He had not been a week at Hawarden after his journey from Scotland, when
+people became conscious that the return to office, which he had told the
+country would be their security against Mr. Parnell, he was now ready to
+seek with the aid of that leader.
+
+It was on the 8th of December, just after the main results of the
+elections were settled, that Mr. Herbert Gladstone wrote from Hawarden
+to a casual correspondent, 'If five-sixths of the Irish people wish to
+have a Parliament in Dublin, for the management of their own local
+affairs, I say in the name of justice and wisdom, let them have it.' A
+few days afterwards the Press announced that the Liberal chief had, in
+consultation with some former colleagues, matured a scheme which
+embodied the points desired by Mr. Parnell. The announcement was
+immediately followed by a telegram from Hawarden, denying the accuracy
+of the scheme as sketched in the Press. On the main point, whether he
+was prepared to co-operate with the Home Rule Party, whether he had
+recovered from the fear he expressed at Edinburgh, that it would be a
+'vital danger' to the Empire, if Home Rule came on for discussion
+'without the presence in Parliament of a party totally independent of
+the Irish vote,' on these questions, with which all England was busy,
+Mr. Gladstone said never a word. He relied on the virtue he assumed to
+protect him from inconvenient questionings, and meanwhile the
+Nationalists were invited to reflect during the Christmas holidays, that
+perhaps after all their best friend was at Hawarden.
+
+Mr. Chamberlain followed up the rumour of a settled scheme by a prompt
+denial that he was a party to it, and added an emphatic statement of the
+way in which he and his friends read the Midlothian speeches--'all
+sections of the party were determined that the integrity of the Empire
+should be a reality, and not an empty phrase.' Mr. Chamberlain had
+listened to his great leader too long not to be aware of the importance
+of marking the distinction between a 'reality' and a 'phrase.' In a few
+days Lord Hartington too wrote to say, that he was no party to the
+suggested policy.
+
+The ultimate result of the elections left the government at Christmas
+only 251 votes, and the Liberals 333. Had it been clear that the
+Liberal party were united in a scheme, which was consistent with the
+current of British opinion, the solution would have been simple enough.
+Had the appeals for straightforward dealing, made more than once during
+the election by Lord Salisbury and Lord Randolph Churchill, been
+responded to, the Government might have made way for a Liberal Ministry,
+the best men on both sides recognizing, what the soundest public opinion
+required, that the Irish vote of 86 should be disregarded on questions
+affecting the existence of a Cabinet; but before the elections were all
+over, the divisions in the Liberal party were obvious. Mr. Gladstone had
+returned with more eagerness than ever to the policy of Irish ideas,
+whilst experience had at length opened the eyes of his ablest
+lieutenants.
+
+In such a condition of affairs, the only course for Lord Salisbury's
+Government was to await the onset of their opponents, meanwhile applying
+themselves to settle that scheme of Irish policy which they as a party
+were prepared to champion in office or out of office. They met
+Parliament with an emphatic declaration to maintain the Union, and a few
+days afterwards announced that further legislation in defence of public
+order was necessary. This announcement was made on the 26th of January,
+when several of the Amendments in the Address were still on the paper.
+Before the House rose, the Government had ceased to exist. By a majority
+of 79, in a House of 583; a Resolution in support of a policy advocated
+by the Radical section of the Liberal party was carried against the
+Government. The motion of Mr. Jesse Collings was, it must be remembered,
+not a necessary assertion of a particular principle. The importance of
+the questions of allotments was acknowledged by the Ministry
+collectively and individually. It was not supposed, even by Mr. Collings
+himself, that the carrying of this particular Motion on the Address
+would advance legislation on the subject by a single day. The motion was
+one of those demonstrations of opinions, ordinary enough in Parliament,
+and generally resulting in a debate without a division or if pushed to a
+division, in the withdrawal from the House of all but declared
+partizans. On this particular occasion the motion was taken up and
+pressed to a division, in order that the National League was to be put
+down, was followed in a few hours by a vote which, in the existing
+constitution of parties, necessarily involved the restoration of Mr.
+Gladstone to power. So transparent was the object of the division that
+13 Liberals voted with the Ministers, among others such staunch
+adherents of Liberalism as Lord Hartington and Sir Henry James.
+
+When the new Ministry was formed, two extraordinary circumstances came
+to light. Lord Hartington, the heir-apparent to the Liberal Leadership,
+Lord Derby, Mr. Gladstone's most distinguished proselyte, Lord Selborne,
+and other eminent colleagues in the conduct of the Liberal party, would
+have nothing to do with the new scheme for the final settlement of
+Ireland for the third time. Another still more singular fact was soon
+disclosed. All the members of the new Cabinet, who had any future before
+them, had come in with reservations of a right of further consideration,
+when the subject of Irish policy should be brought up for discussion.
+
+One remarkable ally, however, Mr. Gladstone had found in his momentous
+enterprise. The appointment of Mr. John Morley to the principal post in
+the Government of the part of the kingdom, which had fallen under the
+sway of such an organization as the National League, was in itself a
+revolution. The new Chief Secretary had no official experience, and no
+parliamentary position. A favoured person, who had audience of great
+Trades' Union gatherings, he was observed with some interest by the late
+Parliament, busy with speculations on the character of the new
+Electorate. But, if his parliamentary work had been slight, he had
+considerable literary reputation, and had taken an active part, in the
+press, in discussions on the Irish question. The apologist of Danton,
+the champion of the Jacobin Club, he was the one English political
+writer who believed himself able to find in the throes of the French
+Revolution valuable examples of public policy. The figures of that
+terrible convulsion did not attract him so much by their range of human
+passion, by the largeness of the space they filled in a great drama of
+humanity. It was their fanaticism which inspired him. Their capacity to
+combine, with the perpetration of atrocious crimes, an ardent apostolate
+of abstract ideals, had for him a vivid fascination. A gentle critic of
+Robespierre, he could see in the execution of Marie Antoinette traces of
+discriminating statesmanship. Entering on political work with such
+dispositions, he was early attracted to the seething cauldron of Mr.
+Gladstone's Irish policy. Having satisfied himself that Ireland was in a
+state of revolution, he regarded murder and robbery as necessary
+incidents. When an unfortunate lady driving in the evening along a
+country road was shot dead beside her husband, whose only offence was
+that of being a landlord, the public were lectured for the inconsequence
+of their indignation. On the Dublin conspirators, who were watching to
+murder Mr. Forster, were not lost the lessons which Mr. Morley had been
+preaching on the vileness of the permanent officials at the Castle. They
+determined to murder Mr. Burke, and in killing him slew his companion
+also; and Mr. Morley deprecatingly reminded his readers, that the death
+of Lord Frederick Cavendish was 'almost an accident.' With these
+professed opinions, it was easy for him to acknowledge what Mr.
+Gladstone might have hesitated to confess, that Mr. Parnell and the
+National League were the true expression of 'the general sense of the
+Irish people.'
+
+The Nationalist party had long recognised the value of his aid in
+Parliament. They felt the truth of the saying, that he was 'Mr. Parnell
+in an Englishman's skin,' and consequently enjoying more freedom of
+action, able, on occasion, to do more service for the National League in
+a Parnellite Cabinet than Mr. Parnell himself. Although the principles
+he had laid down, strictly applied, would oblige him to say, let Ireland
+take care of herself and work out her own destiny, he has qualified his
+faith--he has never very clearly explained why--by a declaration in
+favour of the integrity of the Kingdom. A believer in revolution, Mr.
+Morley is astute enough to be ready to take what he can get. 'We do
+wrong,' he said, writing after the breakdown of the Kilmainham Treaty,
+'in being content with nothing short of perfection and finality. If we
+see our way to the next step, that is enough.' 'Perfection' in Irish
+affairs would perhaps be that Irish opinion should be organized in a
+convention at Dublin, and then, tempered by a full course of revolution,
+should come to the conclusion, that the Union after all was the best
+thing for both islands. As the public are not yet prepared for trying
+this experiment, we are to have a succession of 'next steps.'
+
+As a set off to Mr. Morley's want of official experience and of weight
+in the House of Commons, Mr. Gladstone placed the consideration he
+enjoyed with the Parnellite party and a disposition, composed of
+fanaticism and adroitness, fitting him well to co-operate in the schemes
+which were to follow from the wild passion of the National League in
+combination with the skill of the 'old Parliamentary hand.'
+
+No sooner was the new Ministry formed than the Nationalist party
+recognized the greatness of their opportunity. An attitude of reserve
+was taken up by the Nationalist members and their Press. The Ministry
+had not been a week in office, when the most advanced and outspoken of
+the Irish leaders, Mr. John Dillon, presiding at a meeting of the
+National League, frankly declared 'he never felt more inclined to say
+nothing than to-day, the present Ministry had been formed on one
+question and on one question alone, and that was the rights of the Irish
+nation.' With Mr. Gladstone in office, the policy of the League was to
+apply the policy of silence so often inculcated by Mr. Parnell. Speaking
+out might only embarrass their new allies.
+
+The country, up to a week ago, knew nothing of the momentous scheme on
+which the Ministry were engaged. One Cabinet council considered it with
+the result, that the collective action of the Cabinet ceased for the
+next fortnight; and then the only two public men of weight, whom Mr.
+Gladstone had induced to give his scheme the compliment of a hearing,
+retired from the Ministry. Our readers are now in possession of so much
+of the new scheme as they may be able to discern through the glamour of
+Mr. Gladstone's rhetoric; but the condition of affairs during the last
+three months is a picture to remember for all time.
+
+When the Hawarden scheme was disclosed before Christmas, Mr. Gladstone's
+principal organ in the London Press declared within a week that the game
+was up. The public would have none of it. The return of Mr. Gladstone to
+office, with Mr. John Morley as Irish Secretary, suddenly revived the
+hopes of the 'Pall Mall Gazette.' His new start in pursuit of the Irish
+ideal banished the despair which had settled upon even the most reckless
+of his adherents. The age, the physical power of the Premier, his long
+public career, called up reflections which could not be disposed of in a
+moment by foes, still less by former allies. He claimed time, and he has
+taken the most important part of the Session, to mature his plans,
+amidst the silence of the Opposition and of his Home Rule allies.
+
+But, if his opponents were silent, his nomination of Mr. Morley to the
+most important place in his Cabinet was not lost upon the motly crowd
+outside. All the dancing dervishes of politics rushed upon the scene to
+amaze a bewildered public with fantastical gyrations. 'The Empire of
+Liberty,' cried one, 'can never employ coercion.' Another enthusiast
+exclaimed, after reviewing the course of events since the Hawarden
+revelations, 'To call these things to mind does one's heart good. It
+seems as if nothing need be despaired of, as if words of hope need never
+be empty words.' A well-known economist tried to ease the public
+conscience, and to neutralize the resistance of the unfortunate Irish
+landlord, by a nebulous scheme for buying up the landlords' rights, but
+what the supply of money is to be, and who is to supply it, are
+questions to which the answers vary every hour. A separate Parliament is
+to be accompanied by a system of guarantees, and Professor Rogers
+declares that the surest guarantee was the hostages we have in the two
+millions of Irish inhabiting Great Britain; as if these unfortunate
+persons could be made liable to imprisonment or torture in order to
+secure the good conduct of Mr. Parnell's Dublin Cabinet, as if such an
+arrangement, if made, would have the slightest effect upon the Irish
+revolutionists.
+
+But whilst Mr. Gladstone lingered, waiting to see how far the outer
+public could be brought into sympathy with his schemes, he did not
+hesitate a moment to consolidate the power of the National League. The
+subject of evictions for non-payment of rent was brought before the new
+Government in the form of a question, alleging that a particular
+eviction was not in strict conformity with the landlord's right. Mr.
+Morley offered to consider the question of right, and added that what
+was much wanted in Ireland was 'a strict and scrupulous and literal
+spirit of legality.' Later on the same evening, Mr. Dillon made a
+vigorous appeal to the Chief Secretary not to give the aid of armed
+force to carry out evictions. Mr. Morley responded with alacrity. 'I for
+one am not prepared to admit that we are justified in every case, in
+which a shadow of legal title is made out, to bring out the military
+force to execute decrees which, on the ground of public policy as well
+as that of equity, may seem inadvisable and unnecessary.' Legal right,
+if it is relied on in favour of the subjects of the Land League, must be
+interpreted in a 'scrupulous and literal spirit.' If it is acted on by
+the landlord, there come in considerations of public policy and of
+equity.
+
+The result of a long debate was that organized resistance to the
+execution of the law would not be interfered with, unless the Government
+were satisfied that in particular circumstances equity required such
+interference. We have thus arrived at once at a system of official
+despotism. The law is not to be a guarantee of the rights of the
+subject, unless so far as the Minister may think fit to permit it. And
+this dispensing power is to be exercised in favour of the subjects of
+the National League.
+
+The self-sufficiency of the Liberal party had been vigorously appealed
+to during the years 1883-5. Liberals tried to persuade themselves, that
+the comparative repose of Ireland was due to, or was likely to generate,
+a Conservative feeling amongst the farmer class. Their harvests were
+good, and they had got so much from the Land Bill, they had so much, in
+fact, to lose now, in comparison with their condition in former years,
+men argued, that they would not care to risk their well-being in pursuit
+of Nationalist projects, with the certainty of being subject to the
+village ruffians Mr. Forster had described whilst the struggle was going
+on, with the probability of having to share what they had with these
+same ruffians as soon as an Irish Parliament obtained power.
+
+This reasoning took little account of historical experience in cases
+where property is suddenly given to one class by an arbitrary act. Care
+for what one possesses, forethought to avoid its loss, come only with
+habits of acquisition. The Irish farmer was confessedly careless in the
+past, because, it was said, providence could be of so little use to him
+in the then state of the law, but his prosperity under the legislation
+of 1881 was not the result of his own industry. It was due to a long
+course of agrarian outrage in Ireland and of Parliamentary outrage at
+Westminster. A favourite commonplace of Land Reformers is the
+conservatism of the French peasant, turned into a proprietor by the
+decrees of the Legislative Assembly of 1791. We are reminded of his
+industry, his self-denial, his distrust of the revolutionary spirit
+which rages in the towns, but we forget the date at which this sober,
+assiduous, conservatism made its appearance in history. The immediate
+result of the change made in 1791 was a savage orgie of bloodshed and
+outrage, nor was the wild fury, once let loose, sated by the blood of
+Frenchmen. It was nearly a generation before the fire of Revolution
+burnt itself out. The French peasantry of 1815 only came to value the
+land they acquired, to devote their lives to its cultivation, after
+twenty-three years of savage warfare had strewed the bones of their
+fathers and their brothers over every battlefield from Salamanca to
+Borodino, after Teuton and Cossack and Saxon had traversed French
+territory from end to end.
+
+Nor does the work of revolution produce other effects among the backward
+turbulent British population, whom Irish rhetoric describes as the Irish
+nation. Whatever we might hope from the children or grandchildren of
+those farmers who profited by the change which Mr. Parnell had already
+brought about, to suppose that prudence and a judicious spirit of
+self-interest would come to them as rapidly as the reduction of their
+rents, was to ignore all the facts of human nature. The desire for
+further winnings possessed them, as the passion of a gambler. Mr.
+Parnell's triumphant personality was the first thought in their minds.
+He had already taken 20 per cent. off their rents. Next time they were
+confident he would take off 50 per cent. or abolish rent altogether.
+
+The Liberals who had been dreaming complacently about the happy results
+of Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy awoke to find Ireland in possession of
+the powerful, well-organized, hostile, combination known as the National
+League.
+
+To make our readers understand what this power means, we should like to
+be able to bring them within the closed doors of the room where the
+League Committee sits in the remote country village. We should then hear
+the report of the member, respecting the funds obtained, their review of
+the wealth and independence around them, within their reach, but not yet
+brought under tribute, the gleeful narrative of resistance subdued, the
+dark hints of resources for future conquest. The details of the action
+of the League, as avowed by their press, have been published by the
+Loyal and Patriotic Union, and would fill many pages of this Review.
+
+The rapid growth of the new organization is easily understood. They had
+the past success of Mr. Parnell to work on, and this success was both
+appreciable in their balance of unpaid rent at the Bank, and stimulating
+to the imagination. The whole island was busy observing the execution of
+Mr. Parnell's behests in the re-adjustment of contracts for land. The
+Ministry, which had rebelled against his criticism and sprung at his
+throat, had been compelled to bring him out of jail supplicating for his
+alliance. The object of creating the new body was not so much to move
+forward as to keep Mr. Parnell's friends well together, to take
+advantage of the effect on the popular mind, which Mr. Parnell's
+achievements were producing in every hamlet. The practical advantages
+already won were an earnest of the future, secured new support, and
+would give greater momentum and unity to the Parnellite movement; when
+the time came for another attack upon property. The suspects who had
+been imprisoned by Mr. Forster, constituted local centres for the
+establishment of branches of the League. Every country public-house was
+a place of meeting for the branches or their agents. Once the League was
+organized in a particular district, the next point was to secure
+subscriptions. Land-grabbing, that is, becoming tenant of land from
+which some one else had been evicted, was the offence against which the
+League in the first place directed its energies, and this disregard of
+popular opinion was punished by social excommunication; but the system
+of boycotting once called into requisition involved new duties and
+responsibilities. If a man had not taken land himself, he might have
+worked for some one who had, or bought cattle from a land-grabber. The
+League in Kerry enjoined the following procedure on their subscribers:--
+
+     'That any person found communicating with a few obnoxious
+     individuals in this locality will be expelled from the
+     league. That every person presenting cattle for sale at a
+     fair shall produce his card, and that no buyers shall
+     purchase from any person without producing the same.
+
+     'That no individual shall sell to any dealer without
+     presenting his card, as it is the only way to detect those
+     employed by the Defence Unionists, and that we call on the
+     other branches to follow this example.'--'United Ireland,'
+     Dec. 12th, 1885.
+
+As the power of the League became better established, the subscribers
+were guaranteed against the caprice of their customers by such
+resolutions as the following, adopted at New Ross:--
+
+     'That we hereby give final notice to Mr. Murtagh Stafford,
+     that if he does not give back his work to the Nationalist
+     blacksmiths, Messrs. Bowe and Busher, we cannot retain him
+     on our league. That we inform all members of our branch that
+     we expect them to patronize National blacksmiths, artisans,
+     etc., if they wish to remain members.'--'New Ross Standard,'
+     Jan. 9th, 1886.
+
+The complicated equities, which arose under the operation of these local
+tribunals, are illustrated by another case reported from Wexford.
+
+     'Farrell and a man named Shee had been partners in a
+     thrashing machine. Shee was boycotted in 1883 for having
+     taken an evicted farm, and accordingly the machine was
+     allowed to remain idle. Under these circumstances both
+     agreed to dissolve partnership, and Farrell purchased Shee's
+     share in the machine for 370l., a sum of 60l. being paid in
+     ready cash and the remainder being secured by a bill of
+     sale. Farrell then went to the Tullogher branch to get
+     "absolution for the machine," but his application was
+     refused, it being decided that Shee still had a certain
+     interest in it. In the "New Ross Standard," on Sept. 30th,
+     1885, Farrell, it is reported, being desirous of appealing
+     to the Central League in Dublin, had forwarded his statement
+     to the Tullogher branch and declared he was now ready to
+     verify it on oath. His request to have it sent on to the
+     Central League was, however, refused by the local
+     branch.'--'New Ross Standard.'
+
+The election to local public offices soon engaged the attention of the
+League. The branches were not content with nominating candidates and
+interfering with the elections; they next assumed the direction of the
+proceedings of Boards of Guardians and Town Councils. At Ennis this
+intervention was publicly announced by resolution.
+
+     'That in every future election to any office under the
+     board, no candidate shall be supported by the National
+     Guardians _unless he be a member of the National League_ for
+     at least six months previous to the date of the election,
+     and produces his certificate, signed by the chairman and
+     secretary of the branch, and further, that when selecting a
+     candidate to be put forward for election, the minority of
+     the National guardians should be bound to act on vote with
+     the majority present and voting.'--'Clare Journal,' Nov.
+     11th, 1885.
+
+Contracts were only to be given to Members of the League. No one could
+be elected to a country dispensary or engaged as solicitor by any
+electoral body without the sanction of the League. A large portion of
+the struggling professional classes in the South and West were forced by
+a sense of self preservation to join the local associations. To remain
+outside the ranks of the League was to forfeit a man's best chances of
+getting on in life, and might any day become a personal danger. Mr.
+Harrington M.P., who has been for some years in charge of the Central
+Office of the League, tells us that 'at Meetings of the branches of the
+Organization discussions frequently occur upon incidents in the
+locality.' We can quite believe it, and are not surprised to find from
+the columns of 'United Ireland' what is the result of these discussions.
+
+In a system of pillage and tyranny so elaborated, there was no necessity
+to perpetrate acts of violence, frequently or continually. The daily
+operation of the League was a standing outrage, bringing a proof of its
+power to every man's door. A limited number of conspicuous crimes was
+sufficient for the purposes of the League. Curtin was murdered in
+November; Finlay, in the West of Ireland, in February; and the local
+persecution of the families of the victims was even a more awful tribute
+to the sway of the popular organization.
+
+It is not surprising that Mr. Lecky, in former years the most
+distinguished advocate of Irish Nationalism, in what may be called its
+social aspects, should say of the organ of the National League, 'United
+Ireland,' 'any English statesman who reads that paper, and then proposes
+to hand over the property and the virtual government of Ireland to the
+men whose ideas it represents, must be either a traitor or a fool.'
+
+There is no occasion to dwell on the existence of this body or the
+character of its operations. They are part of the case of the
+Government. Mr. Morley has frankly told us, that we ought to pass the
+new Bill, because the League is so strong. If we did not, we should have
+to quarrel with the League, and to meet not only this great association
+as we knew it in its times of prosperity, but the League as supported by
+all the reserve forces of Mr. Egan and Mr. Ford. At present these
+leaders of public opinion send money; but if the National League, its
+staff, its secretaries, its branches, its newspapers and Members of
+Parliament, are not enough, they are ready to send dynamite.
+
+One remarkable fact, however, in connection with the National League
+deserves special consideration, for it illustrates the singularly
+disastrous character of Mr. Gladstone's interposition in Irish affairs.
+The society, which we have endeavoured to describe, and which Mr.
+Morley recommends to our attention as the _locum tenens_ of dynamite and
+the dagger, is now officered in nearly every village by the priests of
+the Roman Church. At the beginning of his career, Mr. Parnell personally
+was regarded by the Roman Catholic hierarchy with suspicion, if not with
+hostility. Mr. Butt had never succeeded in securing their hearty
+co-operation in his Home Rule scheme. Mr. Parnell was not only a
+Protestant, but expressed his contempt very freely for the adherents of
+the Roman Church, whilst he avowed his sympathy with Revolutionists,
+whom the Irish Catholic had been taught to regard as enemies of the Holy
+Father. We can always trace in the history of this Church two forces at
+work; the principle of order and authority, worldly and calculating, in
+sympathy with the powers that be, trusting by skill and caution to
+manipulate them for its own ends; and on the other hand, the wilder
+spirit of sacerdotal ambition ready to ride the storm and dare
+catastrophe. Before Mr. Gladstone's second Administration, the former
+influence was gaining much strength in Ireland. Even if we make
+allowance for the social origin of the Irish priests, filled from their
+infancy with the rebel sentiment of the peasantry, there are many sins
+that the disposition of their Church was until very recently to rely
+upon intrigue and organization for gaining its ends, rather than to ally
+itself openly with the Irish Revolution. Even after Mr. Parnell had
+secured the allegiance of the farmer class by his great largess in the
+shape of 20 per cent. reduction of rent, not only did Cardinal McCabe
+continue to oppose him, but Archbishop Croke evinced a desire to act on
+the side of Government.
+
+Such a line of action, however, was only possible on the supposition,
+that government was to be maintained in Ireland; and the tenure of
+Ireland by Lord Spencer gave no such assurance. We know the passionate
+efforts which Mr. Gladstone made to exclude Archbishop Walsh from the
+See of Dublin. Sir George Errington was sent to Rome to get the Pope to
+do what Mr. Gladstone dare not do himself--bid defiance to the Irish
+leader. That resolute politician had a policy; the English Minister had
+none. A quarrel with the Nationalist party meant to the Roman Church
+loss of income, loss of influence--influence which, in these
+iconoclastic days, it might take them generations to recover; and, after
+all their sacrifices, they might find that Mr. Gladstone had
+capitulated, and had handed them and the rest of Ireland over to the
+National League. Their only practical course, as discreet politicians,
+was to throw in their lot with the great Nationalist leader, relying on
+the old traditions of the Irish peasant to protect clerical interests
+against the host of Revolutionists, who would, on Mr. Parnell's triumph,
+flock into Ireland from all the ends of the earth. The priests do not
+forget that the member for Cork denounced their co-religionists. They
+have no enthusiasm for a revolutionary dictator, who, whatever his
+opinions on religious matters, cannot be claimed as a son of the Church.
+Mr. Gladstone, however, left the sacerdotal power no choice but to make
+the best terms they could with the Irish leader, who was only too glad
+to secure their co-operation. Archbishop Walsh has been accepted as a
+sort of ecclesiastical assessor to Mr. Parnell's government, and at the
+last election the priests went as one man for the National League.
+
+It is an Ireland, thus abandoned for years to the evil spirits evoked by
+the rhetorician of Southport--an Ireland, in which the natural springs
+of Conservatism have been dried up by the fever of slumbering
+revolution--that England is now called upon to deal with, and the remedy
+of the Ministry is to call into power a public opinion schooled in
+conspiracy and violence; for now at length Mr. Gladstone has given up
+the notion of intervening between Mr. Parnell and the Irish crowd. The
+preachers of the gospel of plunder are invited to share in the
+government of a part of the Kingdom.
+
+We shall not attempt to examine further the scheme which Mr. Gladstone
+has foreshadowed, but which, as we write, is not yet published in
+detail. One characteristic, we may note, in the Prime Minister's speech
+was very unusual with him. It is full of admissions which seem to be due
+not so much to his habitual daring as to unconsciousness of their
+import. He is ready to buy out the landlords at a great cost to the
+English taxpayer, because the idea of landed property came to the
+Irishman in English garb, and is therefore not likely to be respected in
+the new system; but why should he be obliged to make special provision
+for the Irish judges? They are men of ability, of stainless character.
+They do not belong to any particular party, or race, or creed; they are
+members of a great profession which all civilized societies require.
+They have that experience of their profession which would make their
+services particularly useful to a community entering on a new social
+stage; but the mere fact, that they have been engaged in applying the
+law, makes their position dangerous, and Mr. Gladstone is obliged to ask
+England to provide that they shall not suffer in purse from the opening
+of the new era which he proposes in that part of the United Kingdom
+where he has undertaken to reconstruct society.
+
+For the moment Mr. Morley prefers the _rôle_ of Siéyes rather than of
+Danton, but the outcome of the legislation, proposed by the Ministry
+with the assent of Mr. Parnell, must be to advance, if not to
+consummate, the theory of Irish Independence. We thus arrive at that
+result which Mr. Morley, on his own principles, would find it difficult
+to refuse assent to. He has told us that his policy is to be 'thorough.'
+A separate Irish nationality or reconquest must be the ultimate
+consequence of any substitution of local institutions in Ireland for the
+Parliament at Westminster, unless so far as the proposed substitution
+were part of a scheme common to all four components of the kingdom. Most
+people will agree with the old Duke of Wellington, that 'the repeal of
+the Union must be the dissolution of the connection between the two
+countries.'
+
+To withdraw the English flag from Ireland as we did from the Ionian
+Isles, to have a Convention called at Dublin to determine the future
+government of the Island, such a plan would have the advantage that it
+recognizes the one political opinion, which we can trace in Irish
+popular expression--the desire to be done with England. It is true, that
+the policy of Irish ideas declared at Southport was a means to an
+end--the better union of the two countries--but pledged to two
+antagonistic principles, Mr. Gladstone must some time choose which he
+will abandon.
+
+On the other hand, in accepting Irish independence we shrink from
+responsibility for the acts of England. We know that the disorder now
+ruling in Ireland is, to some extent, the result of English
+misgovernment in past generations, and instead of attempting by firmness
+and patience to remedy the mischief our fathers have done, we leave the
+future to Providence. In this aspect of the question, we would remind
+our readers of the words used in our article on 'Disintegration' not
+three years ago:--
+
+     'The highest interests of the Empire, as well as the most
+     sacred obligations of honour, forbid us to solve this
+     question by conceding any species of independence to
+     Ireland; or, in other words, any licence to the majority in
+     that country to govern the rest of Irishmen as they please.
+     To the minority, to those who have trusted us, and on the
+     faith of our protection have done our work, it would be a
+     sentence of exile or of ruin. All that is Protestant--nay,
+     all that is loyal--all who have land or money to lose, all
+     by whose enterprize and capital industry and commerce are
+     still sustained, would be at the mercy of the adventurers
+     who have led the Land League, if not of the darker
+     counsellors by whom the Invincibles have been inspired. If
+     we have failed after centuries of effort to make Ireland
+     peaceable and civilized, we have no moral right to abandon
+     our post and leave all the penalty of our failure to those
+     whom we have persuaded to trust in our power. It would be an
+     act of political bankruptcy, an avowal that we were unable
+     to satisfy even the most sacred obligations, and that all
+     claims to protect or govern any one beyond our own narrow
+     island were at an end.'--'Quarterly Review,' October, 1883,
+     pp. 593, 594.
+
+Mr. Gladstone assured his hearers last week, that he was bent on
+consolidating the unity of the kingdom; he would not tolerate that his
+new constitution should be called a repeal of the Union; but his final
+argument was this, 'Do not let us disguise this from ourselves. We stand
+face to face with what is termed "Irish nationality."' Now, what is this
+'Irish nationality'? Let us examine it from the point of view of the
+welfare of the Irish population. It may be conceded at once that there
+is a strong current of local sentiment running through the Irish
+population of the south and west. This is a tender, home feeling--a very
+different thing from the stronger, more complex, and more highly
+developed, conception round which a political nationality gathers. It is
+such a sentiment as exists in one form or another in every group of
+counties, in every county, in every country-side, in almost every
+village. It is a kindly recollection of old memories, associated with a
+disposition to stand up for our own. It is the result of intimate
+knowledge of certain habits and ideas, and a tender reminiscence of the
+best types of character associated with those habits. This sentiment of
+local feeling is the germ of nationality, but it exists in many regions
+where the wider ideas of nationality have never supervened. There are
+many other places again, where this same feeling remains fresh and
+vigorous after the political nationality connected with it has passed
+away, merged in larger conceptions, in a sense of more extended
+interests.
+
+Such was the feeling of Cicero when he said that he had two countries.
+His Volscian home was the country of his affection, but Rome that of
+duty and right. Arpinum will always be my country, said he, but Rome
+still more my country, for Arpinum has its share in the honours and
+dominion of Rome.
+
+Such is the feeling of the proud and vigorous nationality occupying
+North Britain, various in race, in creed, and in social condition, but
+united in mutual knowledge, in local sympathies, and in self-respect.
+The Scotch, as an aggregate, are intellectually, physically, and in
+their local institutions and habits one of the most distinct national
+types existing. They are drawn together by a strong sentiment of
+patriotism, but they are as little likely to demand a separate political
+system, a parliament sitting at Edinburgh, as the members from
+Hampshire and Wiltshire are likely to combine for the establishment of
+parliamentary government on the banks of the Itchin.
+
+Now what is Ireland, and what indications has that portion of the
+population known as Nationalist given of a capacity to form itself into
+a nation? Ireland has a geographical boundary in a sea channel crossed
+from Great Britain in three hours or in an hour and a-half, according to
+the line of passage selected. It is inhabited by some five millions,
+whose native language is English, with the exception of a decimal
+percentage of mountaineers, who nearly all speak English as well as
+Irish. The race is more mixed than in any other district of the kingdom
+containing the same amount of population. The northern coasts are
+thickly peopled by Scotch settlers. In the south and west are many
+varieties of race not of English introduction, but strongly different
+from each other. In many of the most Catholic districts of Munster and
+Leinster we find, in the names, physique, and temper, of the people,
+evident results of the Cromwellian settlements, although the faith and
+political principles of their forefathers have passed away. With this
+mixed population we have a social cleavage probably the most remarkable
+in Europe. The mass of the people, except in about one-fifth of the
+island on the north-east coast, are Roman Catholic, Celtic in their
+traditions and habits, and extremely poor. The Northern fifth is
+industrious, order-loving, prosperous, Protestant, and British in
+sentiment. Next to the masses of the population in importance are the
+great landowners, of whom six-sevenths are Protestants, and nearly the
+whole of Norman, Scotch, or English origin. There is no important
+mercantile class, except in the towns of Belfast, Dublin, and Cork; and
+the professional classes, with the exception of the Catholic priesthood,
+are chiefly Protestant and British.
+
+This population, so strangely wanting in homogeneity, have no history
+which might attract them into unconsciousness of their differences. It
+has been well said, that 'anybody who knew nothing of the Irish past,
+except what he got from the speeches of Irish Nationalists, would
+suppose that at some comparatively recent period the green flag had
+floated over fleets and armies, and that Irish kings had played a part
+of some kind in the field of modern European politics.' But as a matter
+of fact Ireland has no part in European history before its conquest by
+England. Not only was the kingdom of Ireland, as the style of the island
+went before 1800, an English creation; but the name of Ireland has never
+had any political significance except in connection with the English
+crown.
+
+External signs of difference between English and Irish there are many;
+nimble apprehension, fluent utterance, genial demeanour, the attraction
+of the flashing Celtic face, distinguish an Irish from an English group,
+but characteristics like this do not prove any original or consistent
+power of thought. They rather perhaps indicate the absence of it. It is
+not on qualities like these, cemented even by strong feelings of home
+sentiment, that we can expect to see the foundation of a new Nationality
+happily laid. With one exception there is not a single idea, which an
+orator could present to an Irish crowd, that could not be urged with
+equal chance of sympathy upon an English crowd. Personal liberty, the
+principles of no taxation without representation, of trial by jury,
+freedom of conscience, sympathy with the prosperity of the greatest
+number, all these are English ideas and must be illustrated, where they
+need illustration, by the events of history peculiar to England or
+common to the British dominion. The one topic, which is specially
+attractive to an Irish meeting, is abuse of England as the source of
+Irish misery. Community of hatred the mixed Nationalist population has,
+but whether such a passion is sufficiently creative to build up a new
+national type the reader can judge for himself. With this exception,
+laws, political teachings, commercial habits, are all of English origin.
+
+Mr. Gladstone, in recommending to the House of Commons his scheme for
+the establishment of an independent Parliament in Ireland, cited as
+precedents the independent Legislatures of Sweden and Norway, and of
+Austria and Hungary. He dwelt particularly upon the precedent of
+Norway:--
+
+     'The Legislature of Norway has had serious controversies,
+     not with Sweden, but with the King of Sweden, and it has
+     fought out those controversies successfully upon the
+     strictest constitutional and Parliamentary grounds. And yet
+     with two countries so united, what has been the effect? Not
+     discord, not convulsion, not danger to peace, not hatred,
+     not aversion, but a constantly-growing sympathy; and every
+     man who knows their condition knows that I speak the truth
+     when I say, that in every year that passes the Norwegians
+     and the Swedes are more and more feeling themselves to be
+     the children of a common country, united by a tie which
+     never is to be broken.'
+
+If Mr. Gladstone had been better acquainted with the recent historic and
+economic condition of Norway, of which we have given some account in our
+present number,[104] he might have quoted that country as a warning
+rather than an example. The 'Storthing,' or Parliament of Norway, is
+omnipotent, and two-thirds of its representatives are permanently in the
+hands of the peasant proprietor. The King has only a suspensive veto on
+Bills enacted by the Storthing, which therefore become law, if passed in
+their original form by three successive triennial Parliaments. The
+recent dispute between the King and the Parliament, to which Mr.
+Gladstone alluded, related to the right of the King to exercise an
+absolute veto in the case of Bills affecting the principles of the
+Constitution. The existence of such a right was denied by the Radical
+majority in the Storthing, which established in 1884 a Supreme Court of
+Justice composed exclusively of Radical members, and the Judges of the
+ordinary High Court of Justice. It was a packed Court, bound to secrecy;
+and the tribunal thus constituted condemned, in violation of the first
+principles of justice, all the King's Ministers in Norway to deprivation
+of office and to pecuniary fines, for having advised their master, that
+the Constitution could not be altered without his sanction. The King was
+compelled to yield, though he was supported in his opposition to the
+Storthing by his Swedish Cabinet; and his ultimate submission to the
+Radical majority in Norway was followed by a Ministerial crisis in
+Sweden. The Swedes rightly argue that, if the King has no absolute veto
+on matters affecting the principles of the Constitution in Norway, there
+is no obstacle to an abolition of the Monarchical form of government in
+that kingdom, or to a repeal of the union between the two countries.
+There is in consequence much discontent in Sweden at the conduct of
+Norway; and the Norwegians, on their side, have an intense and
+ever-growing 'hatred and aversion' to the Swedes. Hence has arisen a
+considerable tension in the official relations between the two countries
+instead of the 'constantly growing sympathy' of which Mr. Gladstone
+spoke. It is characteristic of the Prime Minister's mode of stating a
+case, that he tells us the Norwegian controversies are 'not with Sweden
+but with the King of Sweden.' Sweden has nothing to say in Norwegian
+affairs, except in the person of the King. The King is the only
+connecting link between the two countries. If the Dublin Parliament
+should impeach the Irish Viceroy, we suppose Mr. Gladstone would tell us
+that the difficulty was not with England but with Queen Victoria.
+
+Nor was Mr. Gladstone much happier in his allusion to Hungarian
+Nationality in recent times. For more than 150 years Austria endeavoured
+to extinguish the national life of Hungary. In 1867 this policy was
+definitely abandoned, and Hungary was called to a share in the Empire of
+the Hapsburgs. As recently as last October Mr. Parnell, when insisting
+that Ireland must have an independent Parliament, said: 'We can point
+to the example of other countries--to Austria and to Hungary--to the
+fact that Hungary, having been conceded self-government, became one of
+the strongest factors in the Austrian Empire.' The favour, with which
+these references have been received by the Liberal party, is a singular
+example how far afield they are ready to go in search of an argument.
+Austria, in 1867, was a great military despotism, tottering to its fall
+amidst a group of eager rivals. A general appeal to the nation, such as
+France made at the commencement of the Revolutionary war, was out of the
+question. Differences of race, differences of language, differences of
+social condition, made national unity impossible within the wide
+dominions of the House of Austria. The government at Vienna consented to
+the division of its territories into groups of nearly equal strength. In
+each of these groups various alien nationalities were clustered round a
+central power more advanced in politics, in civilization, and in wealth,
+than the adjacent territories. Instead of trying to weld their multiple
+varieties of race into one great popular community, Austria, smitten at
+Sadowa, shared her dominion with Hungary, and asked her to take charge
+of the Government of the East Leithan Slavs, whilst the German
+population of Austria dealt with the Czechs and Moravians and
+Carinthians on the western side of the river.
+
+Sir Henry Elliott has well pointed out, that what success the experiment
+has had is in no small degree due to the large powers still enjoyed by
+the Crown, and to the personal character and influence of the Emperor
+Francis, the connecting link between the two dominions; but apart from
+this actual result, the feasibility of the dual scheme depended on the
+following considerations. In the first place, there was no alternative
+in the condition in which the House of Austria found itself in 1867,
+defeated in battle and bankrupt in finance. Without some such
+arrangement civil war was inevitable, with the ultimate prospect of the
+absorption of the various races by the hostile neighbouring Powers. In
+the second place, the allies were pretty nearly equal in strength as
+regards each other, whilst they were each similarly weighted by the
+difficulty of holding their own within the respective territories
+assigned them. They were each so busy with their subordinate territories
+and the less advanced populations inhabiting them, that it was not their
+interest or their inclination to bring about conflicts with each other.
+Hungary boasts a larger area than Austria, and a population equal to
+three-fourths that of the Western Monarchy. On the western side of the
+Leitha the dominant race, dominant by force of nature, by brain power,
+and the traditions and acquirements this power has given them, are 36
+per cent. of the whole population. In the Transleithan provinces the
+race similarly situated, the Magyar, constitutes about 40 per cent. of
+the whole population.
+
+There is not a single circumstance in the relations between England and
+Ireland to make reference to the creation of the Empire-Kingdom anything
+but an absurdity. Ireland never can compare with Great Britain in
+material resources. Her population is hardly one-sixth that of the
+larger island, whilst her area is little more than a third. She is
+deficient in climate, in soil, in mineral resources, and in population.
+Not only is she without a well-organized aristocracy skilled in
+political science, such as Hungary boasted; Ireland, as the term is
+understood by the National League, is without an educated class. Her
+intellect is represented by the moonlight maurauder and the fanatic
+priest. As regards England, the parallel is still more preposterous: She
+is not a military despotism, but a well-organized community, boasting
+parliamentary traditions of a thousand years. Her shores are guarded by
+sea from foreign interference. Notwithstanding many scandalous
+shortcomings in her rulers, her influence and her power are still
+unrivalled in the world. However long Mr. Gladstone may rule, her Sadowa
+is yet to come; and, if it did come, the example of the Dual State would
+offer no solution of our Irish difficulties, for none of the conditions
+which made the Dual State possible exist in the case of the two chief
+British Islands.
+
+The delusive character of Mr. Gladstone's reference to the Dual State is
+best illustrated by the facts, that the council for common affairs
+consist of an equal number of representatives from each side of the
+dominion, that this council is concerned with military and foreign
+affairs, two subjects on which, according to the new scheme, Ireland is
+to have no vote.
+
+It will be found, on a little examination, that appeals to the example
+of the foreigner are as misleading as the theory of nationality. All
+such arguments are only endeavours to divert the public from the
+exercise of their own judgment and common-sense in dealing with the
+mischiefs which the perverse genius of Mr. Gladstone has created.
+Recognized principles of government, the ordinary traditions of England
+applied with the happy immunity from friction, which the commercial
+policy of modern times makes possible, would have long since settled the
+difficulty, but it would have been settled in disregard of that popular
+Irish feeling which, in 1867, Mr. Gladstone pledged himself to follow.
+He would have had to admit that his new Irish policy was a mistake; and
+he never admits that he has made any mistake--unless it be in Egypt--or
+in acting on the opinion of other people. When he has discovered a new
+line of policy, he believes himself infallible. Let us assume for a
+moment, that the combination of the personal adherents of Mr. Gladstone
+and of Mr. Parnell enables the Prime Minister to pass some measure on
+the lines he has selected, or on those laid down by Mr. Davitt, and that
+the rowdy treason of a Dublin Cabinet proceeds to bring within the
+sphere of its operations what wealth and civilization has hitherto
+escaped the National League.
+
+In the struggle which must ensue, we shall have within three hours of
+our shores a raging volcano of revolution, threatening the peace of
+Europe and our own. Fenians, Nihilists, and Irish Yankees, will flock to
+the new vantage ground. The conflict between Socialism and property,
+between infidelity and superstition, will be fought out amidst the
+strangest complications of local hatred and of fiscal disorder. If
+foreign governments abstain from interfering, and we escape consequent
+difficulties with them, are we sure that we ourselves will be able to
+remain passive spectators? Many of us are old enough to recollect the
+agitation which shook this kingdom during the struggle between North and
+South on the other side of the Atlantic. No question of Home politics
+for generations past had so deeply moved our people. It required all the
+exertions of the most sober part of the nation to prevent our becoming
+involved in the conflict, and we recollect the help this party of wisdom
+got from the impulsive statesman who has undertaken for the third time
+the final settlement of the Irish question. If the great American Civil
+War, desolating a country three thousand miles away, thus stirred
+popular feeling, what will be the result of a Civil War between, on the
+one side, the Irish Celt animated by religious hatred and love of
+plunder, and supported by the Irish American, and on the other the
+loyalty, endurance and Protestantism of Ulster--a Civil War almost
+within sight of our shores?
+
+But, if we turn from the suggestions of empiricism and vanity and come
+to those practical considerations which affect men's minds in matters so
+important as political organization, the main argument pressed on
+English people is that we cannot go on as we are. 'Irish Government is a
+failure.' 'We must close this terrible crisis as rapidly as possible.'
+'Separation itself, could not be worse than the present state of
+things.' 'The Act of Union has completely failed. After eighty-four
+years it has given an Ireland more hostile to England than at any period
+of its history.' Mr. Gladstone recites the number of Coercion Acts,
+which have been passed since 1832, and declares 'we are like the man
+who, knowing that medicine may be the means of his restoration to
+health, endeavours to live upon medicine.'
+
+Before considering whether this confession of failure is true, we would
+remind our readers what it implies, what it leads up to. It is now
+proposed as an argument for establishing a separate Parliament in
+Dublin. The establishment of this separate Parliament is necessary,
+because we must give Ireland the opportunity of doing what we ourselves
+are unable to do, to find the best machinery they can to carry on the
+business of government. But, when this machinery is once found and
+invested with the resources and influence of a Government, we cannot
+suppose that our troubles will be at an end. If disputes arise in the
+working out of the new Irish Constitution, the popular majority will not
+be slow to call in the aid of the American Irish who have founded the
+National League. Mr. Jennings, whose opinion on this matter is entitled
+to great weight, from his long residence in the United States, reminded
+the House that
+
+     'one consideration which they must bear in mind was that of
+     the formidable difficulties which would inevitably arise
+     from the action of the great body of Irish Americans. If
+     this Bill granted to Ireland a free and independent
+     Parliamentary Assembly with full powers over the Executive,
+     as proposed by the Prime Minister, there would inevitably
+     come a time when either the payment of the interest due, or
+     some other cause, would bring the Irish Parliament into
+     antagonism with the English. If they were to endeavour to
+     demand what was necessary, whether payment of interest or
+     what not, and to threaten to use force, could any one
+     suppose that the great body of Irish Americans would stand
+     by silently and see that done? He believed that the United
+     States would say to them: "You have acknowledged your
+     incompetence to govern Ireland; you have given her practical
+     independence, now you must take your hands off her; we will
+     not stand by and see her crushed." He believed that there
+     was no government in the United States which could withstand
+     such pressure as that which would be brought to bear on it
+     by the Irish Americans, especially if a Presidential
+     election were near.'
+
+But is this allegation of failure actually true? For our part we are
+inclined to agree with Lord Hartington, that the argument founded on the
+paralysis of government in Ireland in recent years is allowed more
+weight in this question than it should have. In the first place, it is
+difficult to see how any government conducted as ours has been during
+the last few years, could be other than disastrous, Mr. Gladstone, at
+the commencement of his career as leader of the Liberal party, pledged
+himself to the policy of Irish ideas, ignorant, if not reckless, of what
+the term meant. Year by year he has been getting a closer view of the
+creed he had unconsciously adopted, and, after a struggle, he accepts
+one dogma, then another. The great dogma of all in the Home Ruler's
+creed, that Englishmen should be sent bag and baggage out of Ireland,
+has not yet been adopted; and naturally the Home Ruler keeps his
+resources ready for that ringing of the chapel bell to which Mr.
+Gladstone alluded in speaking of the Clerkenwell explosion and its
+effect on the question of the Irish Establishment. The 'dynamite and the
+dagger,' to which Mr. Morley recently appealed as conclusive reasons for
+passing the Cabinet scheme, retain their fascination for the Irish mind.
+
+As long as Mr. Gladstone is a power in English public life, and his
+pledges given in Lancashire are unredeemed or unrepudiated, the Home
+Rule party will press him without mercy; but it is not reasonable to
+argue from their success, a success which Mr. Gladstone has given them,
+that they exercise a permanent influence on Irish affairs. When the
+Southport pledges were given, the Irish land laws were yet without that
+reform which a series of Governments, Tory as well as Whig, had admitted
+to be necessary. It could not be said until after 1870 that the book of
+English neglect of Irish interests was finally closed, and that is only
+sixteen years ago. During this period we have seen the great English
+Parliamentary Ruler continually plunging after coercion, and returning
+to make some other big concession to agitation. Thus Ireland has had no
+chance of trying what a good system of laws consistently administered
+could supply. The principle of the Land Act of 1870 was a provision for
+the protection of property--the tenants' property recognized by custom
+during a long course of years, although ignored by the law and exposed
+to confiscation by the reckless Whig legislation of 1850-2. The Land Act
+of 1881 was an arbitrary attempt to remedy the misfortunes of an
+improvident agricultural interest by legislative interference with
+contract. Contracts were readjusted and finally settled for fifteen
+years to come. Political economy was bidden to take itself off, but
+prices varied quite regardless of Mr. Gladstone's arrangements, and the
+weather did not pay them the least consideration. The passion for
+revolution was stimulated, and a large number of Mr. Gladstone's clients
+are as badly off as before. Might it not be worth while to try for a
+time how far good government, after the removal of all substantial
+grievances, might supply that 'real settlement,' 'that finality,' which
+the country is now asked to find in Dublin Parliaments, First Orders,
+and bribes at the cost of the English taxpayer?
+
+This counter-policy of maintaining order and good government in Ireland
+should be emphasized by measures to make that island, even more
+completely than she now is, a part of the United Kingdom. The Queen's
+laws in Ireland are the same, except in some slight details, as in
+England. The Irish judicature might be made part of the High Court at
+Westminster. The Queen's writs from Westminster should run throughout
+Ireland as they have done for hundreds of years throughout Wales.
+Limerick or Sligo are not so remote from London now as Harlech or Durham
+were in the reign of George I. The Irish judges would form no
+undistinguished addition to the English Bench, while the presence of
+English judges on circuit in Ireland would have the best effect in
+disarming the animosity of the people against the law. It is too often
+forgotten in these days that, however rapidly we move from place to
+place, however swift the transmission of intelligence, the human mind
+has not yet acquired the nimbleness of the telegraph needle. Habits of
+thought are not changed as rapidly as the fashions of our dress. It is
+only sixteen years since our Irish legislation has assumed its present
+form, and we are ready to throw to the winds all maxims of statecraft,
+all principles hitherto recognized in the delicate work of government.
+We are in despair, and call in the company of _à priori_ statesmen--men
+whose sole qualification to deal with complex questions is the fact that
+they have studied the science of revolution. Why should we not try, now
+that we have provided for manifest Irish grievances, what time, and
+resolution, and common-sense, might do for us and our Irish
+fellow-subjects?
+
+The first part of the Government policy is disclosed. We have still to
+learn what its complement, the Land Purchase Bill, is to be, what
+proposal is to be made about loyal Ulster, the subject on which Mr.
+Gladstone was so strangely vague, on which Mr. Parnell was discreetly
+silent. These further manifestations of Cabinet wisdom can hardly save
+the scheme now lingering on to death. We wish we could be certain, that
+this collapse would rid Parliament and Ireland of all such projects for
+the future. But, whatever be the fate of the present Ministry, we may be
+sure that the end is not yet, unless Mr. Parnell's faction is completely
+broken, unless the policy urged by Lord Hartington is firmly adopted,
+and party life reorganized in England, on the principle of excluding the
+Irish vote from consideration in our party conflicts. If no such
+resolution is enforced by English patriotism, Irish Nationalists will
+return to their demands, enhanced in power and renown by the tribute
+they have extorted from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
+
+On these events of the future we shall not now speculate; but if past
+history throws any light on the character of our population, one thing
+may be confidently predicted. If Home Rule should be ultimately conceded
+to Ireland, the political party which may be responsible for the
+carrying of the scheme, will have to look forward to a long period of
+exclusion from public confidence. However the British people may be
+worried or deluded into forgetfulness of their duty to themselves and to
+Ireland, the working of a Dublin Parliament will soon rouse them, the
+reaction will set in; and the authors of the scheme will have before
+them as lengthened a banishment from power, as the country gentlemen
+suffered when their chivalrous devotion to the House of Stuart blinded
+them for a time to the practical interests of England; as was the fate
+of the Whigs at the beginning of this century, when they identified
+their party with implacable opposition to Pitt's struggle to deliver
+Europe from the tyranny of Bonaparte.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] See Art. IV. 'Yeomen Farmers in Norway.'
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO THE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME OF THE QUARTERLY REVIEW.
+
+
+A.
+
+St. Alban's Abbey, 305
+  its revenue, 307
+  culture of the vine, 308
+  its Grammar School, 310
+  the Scriptorium, 312, 313
+  Historiographers, 314
+  Abbot's, 316, 317.
+
+Alford, Dean, on the severance of the Church from the State, 7.
+
+Apostolic Fathers, the, by the Bishop of Durham, 467
+  Ignatius contrasted with St. Clement, 470
+  his uncertain birth and origin, 471
+  martyrdom, 472, 473
+  testimony to the Apostolical succession, 474
+  the 'short,' 'middle' and 'long' form, _ib._
+  forgery in the 'long' recension, 475
+  literary war on episcopacy, 476
+  Milton's invective, _ib._
+  Archbp. Ussher's discovery, 477
+  condemns the Epistle to Polycarp, 478
+  Cureton's version, _ib._
+  genuineness of the seven Epistles known to Eusebius 479, 480
+  style and diction, 481
+  external testimony, 483
+  'Apostolical Constitutions,' 485
+  Irenæus on Apostolic succession, 485, 486
+  Linus at Rome, 486
+  Polycarp on episcopacy, 487
+  Clement of Rome and Papias, _ib._
+  Theological Polemics, 488
+  Judaists and Gnostics, 489
+  _S. Polycarp_, his history and writings, 491
+  reverence paid to him, 492
+  reviving Paganism, 493
+  legend of his youth, 495
+  meets Ignatius, 496
+  reminiscences by Irenæus, _ib._
+  his martyrdom, 498, 499.
+
+Aracan. _See_ Burma.
+
+Archives of the Venetian Republic, 356. _See_ Venetian.
+
+d'Aumale, Duc his 'Histoire des Princes de Condé,' 80
+  his tribute to Gen. France d'Houdetot, 107.
+
+
+B.
+
+Bagehot, Mr. Walter, his 'English Constitution,' 518
+  his character, 521
+  influence of his writings, 532
+  universal and varied representation, 533
+  clear style, 534
+  the principle of evolution, 535
+  on royal education, 536
+  Constitutional monarchy, 537.
+
+Banker, the Country, by Mr. George Rae, 133
+  Joint Stock Banking, 134
+  loanable capital, 135
+  trade interests, 136
+  individual responsibility, _ib._
+  limited liability, 137
+  uncovered advances, _ib._
+  prosperity of Scotland, 138
+  difference between a mortgage and a bill of exchange, 139
+  fixed capital, 140
+  floating capital, 141
+  telegraphic transfer, _ib._
+  personal security, 142
+  'runs' on a bank, 143-145
+  banking reserve, 145
+  panics, 146, 147
+  the Act of 1844, 147
+  the Golden Age, 149
+  Bank Law of Germany, 149, 150
+  National Banks of the U.S., 150
+  Swedish Banks, 151
+  banking system of Australasia, 152
+  'Popular Banks in Italy, 153
+  contrasted with the Post Office Savings-banks in England, 154.
+
+Batchelor, Rev. H., sermon upon 'The Bishops on Disestablishment,' 38.
+
+Beaconsfield, Lord, his historic warning in 1880 of danger in Ireland, 551.
+
+Bismarck, Prince, his opinion of Mr. Gladstone, 281, 282.
+
+Books and Reading, 501
+  Sir John Lubbock's list, _ib._
+  Comte's catalogue or syllabus, 502
+  indolent readers, 503
+  perplexity of the student, 504
+  difficulties in classification, 505
+  Mr. Weldon's practical list, 507
+  Mr. F. Harrison's 'Choice of Books, _ib._
+  the desultory reader, 508
+  Dibdin's 'Library Companion,' 509
+  Chroniclers and Historians, _ib._
+  philosophical histories, 510
+  Voyages and Travels, 511
+  Children's Books, 512
+  Mr. Lowell's maxim for reading, 513
+  use of odd moments, 514
+  periodical literature, 515
+  selection of books, 516
+  students' books, 517
+  fragmentary reading, 518.
+
+Brewer, Prof., his 'Introductions,' 293
+  Essay on 'New Sources of English History,' 294
+  draws attention to the value of the 'Calendars,' _ib._
+
+British Empire. _See_ Travels.
+
+Broch, Dr., '_Le Royaume de Norvège et le Peuple Norvégien_,' 384
+  his Report for the Exhibition at Paris, 397
+  production of cereals and potatoes in Norway, in 1875, 405 _note_.
+  _See_ Yeomen.
+
+Brown, Rev., on the control exercised in the Dissenting Churches, 37.
+
+----, Mr. Rawdon, the late, his facsimiles of the Autographs in the
+      _Lettere Principi_, 377.
+  _See_ Venetian.
+
+Burma, Past and Present, 210
+  number of rivers, 211
+  influence of India and China, _ib._
+  chief nationalities, 213
+  the Karens, _ib._
+  influence of Buddhism, 214
+  affinity with Ceylon, _ib._
+  Hindoo nomenclature, 215
+  architectural remains, _ib._
+  the city of Pagân, 216
+  Niccolo de' Conti's geographical accuracy, 217
+  Pegu captured, _ib._
+  the _Yuva Raja's_ gorgeous court, 218
+  extravaganzas of F. M. Pinto, _ib._
+  splendour of the monarchy, 219
+  internal and external wars, _ib._
+  reign of Nicote, 220
+  his execution, 221
+  decay of the power of Ava, _ib._
+  resistance of Alompra, _ib._
+  his successes and death, 222, 223
+  Ran-gûn founded, 222
+  conquest of Aracan, _ib._
+  peace concluded between China and Ava, _ib._
+  Capt. Symes, Envoy to the Burmese Court, 224
+  Lord Wellesley's endeavours for a treaty of alliance, _ib._
+  geographical extent of the Empire, 225
+  Sir A. Campbell's conquests, 226
+  Col. H. Burney's residence, 227
+  Lord Dalhousie annexes Pegu, _ib._
+  Capt. A. Phayre's successful administration of Pegu, 228
+  death of Mengdûn-Meng, and succession of Theebau, _ib._
+  massacre of the prisoners, 229
+  revolt at Hlain, 230
+  English Residency withdrawn, 231
+  relations with France cultivated, 232
+  Gen. D'Orgoni's mission, 233
+  the French Envoy's secret articles disavowed, 234
+  French occupation of the Anamite provinces, _ib._
+  Franco-Burmese Treaty, 235
+  and Bank at Mandalay, 236
+  the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation, 237
+  Ultimatum of the Indian Government, 238
+  resources of, 287.
+
+
+C.
+
+'Calendars,' the, of Letters and Papers, Prof. Brewer's 'Introductions' to,
+293, 294.
+
+Cape Colony, the, treatment of, 448.
+
+Carlyle's account of the Royalist attack on Salisbury, 416
+  his false image of Cromwell, 441.
+  _See_ Cromwell.
+
+Cervantes, Life of, 58.
+  _See_ 'Don Quixote.'
+
+Chamberlain, Mr., his bribe to the rural voters, 258
+  on Mr. Gladstone's manifesto, 290.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+Christian Brothers, the, Religious Schools in France and England, 325
+  the _Frères Chrétiens_ founded by De la Salle, 330
+  work at Paris, 331
+  vow of dedication, _ib._
+  Articles of rules for the Society, 332
+  laymen appointed in preference to priests, 333
+  the five vows and rule of daily life, _ib._
+  Manuals for their guidance, 334
+  conditions of punishment, 335
+  success of the work, _ib._
+  abolished during the Reign of Terror, 337
+  revived under Napoleon, _ib._
+  discouragements, 338
+  Our Duties towards Ourselves, 339
+  Morals, 340
+  Freedom of Labour, _ib._
+  Gregory on Competition, 341
+  Political Duties, 342
+  Cross of honour awarded after the Prussian invasion, 354
+  scholarships gained, 355.
+
+Church and State, 2
+  Lord Hartington's loyalty, 3
+  imputation on the Tories, _ib._
+  Liberationist tactics, 4, 7
+  Mr. Gladstone's manifesto, 5, 6
+  finances of the Liberation Society, 8, 9
+  Scottish subscriptions, 10
+  Welsh Nonconformists, 11
+  characteristics of Democracy, _ib._
+  Liberation leaflets, 13-16
+  cost of 'voluntary schools,' 16
+  Pope Gelasius on tithes, 17
+  the Church in Wales and London, 18-21
+  number of adult baptisms, 21
+  Mr. G. Rogers on Disendowment, 22
+  the 'Radical programme,' 23, 24
+  Bp. Magee on Disestablishment, 25
+  M. Scherer on Democracy, 27
+  the question of inequality, 28
+  history and effects of Establishment, 29
+  misstatements, 30
+  spiritual influence, 31
+  example of the United States, _ib._
+  results of the voluntary system, 32, 33
+  denominational rivalry, 34
+  Mr. Bancroft on the Church in Virginia, 35
+  danger of rashness in any change, 36
+  control in the Dissenting Church, 37
+  case of Jones _v._ Stannard, _ib._
+  Rev. H. Batchelor's sermon, 38
+  decrease of Baptist and Congregational pastors, 39
+  the Bp. of Rochester's estimate of the parishes that would suffer, 40
+  Bp. of Derry's experience, _ib._
+
+Cid, the, Poem of, 46.
+  _See_ 'Don  Quixote.'
+
+Clement, St., compared to Ignatius, 470.
+
+Colonies, the British. _See_ Travels in British Empire.
+
+Condé, the House of, 80
+  character of Henri, the third Prince, 81
+  married to Charlotte de Montmorency, 82
+  avidity for wealth, 83
+  applies for a bishopric for his infant son, 84
+  Richelieu's reply, 85
+  imprisonment, 85-89
+  joined by his wife, 89
+  birth of his son Duc d'Anguien, 90
+  his education, 91-93
+  at the Military Coll., Paris, 94
+  government of Burgundy, _ib._
+  his child-bride, 95
+  imprisonment at Vincennes, 96
+  first campaign, 97
+  Richelieu's domination, 98
+  efforts for his safety, 99
+  treatment of the Cardinal-Archb., _ib._
+  changes on Richelieu's death, 100
+  his appearance described, 101
+  military talents, 102
+  generals, 103
+  personal courage, 104.
+
+Constitution, English, 518 _sqq._
+
+Cowper, Lord, his letter on supporting the Land-Act of 1881, 277.
+
+Cromwell, Oliver:
+  his character illustrated by himself, 414
+  received version of the Insurrection of March, 1655, 415
+  meeting at Marston Moor, _ib._
+  attack on Salisbury, 416
+  endeavours to stimulate an insurrection, 417
+  counsels of false friends, 419
+  secret agents, 420
+  intercepted letter to Mr. Roles, 420 _note_
+  Earl of Rochester and his comrades land at Dover, 421
+  arrested and released, 422, 423
+  Morton, the sham-Royalist, 424
+  Mr. Douthwaite's movements, suspected, 424, 425
+  the Judges refuse to try the Marston Moor prisoners, 428
+  trial of Salisbury insurgents, 427
+  twelve Major-Generals, _ib._
+  'Declaration' to secure the Peace of the Commonwealth, 428
+  projects of the Royalists in March, 1655, 429
+  officers and soldiers kept from Salisbury, 430
+  Major Butler forbidden to take active operations, _ib._
+  his account of the dispersal of the Royalists at Marston Moor, 432
+  alleged 'rendezvous' of Royalists to surprise Newcastle, 433
+  the Rufford Abbey incident, _ib._
+  Shropshire insurrection, 434
+  Pickering's story about Chester Castle, _ib._
+  Earl of Rochester and Armourer arrested at Aylesbury, 435
+  their escape, 436
+  power of deception, 437
+  the 'Thurloe Papers,' _ib._
+  incredulity of the members of his Parliament, 438
+  motive for the fabrication of the Insurrection, 439
+  speech on the dissolution of Parliament in Jan. 1655, 440
+  Carlyle's false image of the Hero, 441
+  claims the Divine sanction, 442.
+
+
+D.
+
+Dalley, Mr., of Sidney, on a better organization of the Navy for
+    the Colonies.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Darwin's view of primitive human society, 182.
+  _See_ Patriarchal Theory.
+
+Davitt, Mr., on Irish landlords, 292.
+
+Democracy, M. Scherer on, 2
+  characteristics of, 518
+  its tendency to despotism, 522
+  Mr. G. White on English aristocracy and American democracy, 523
+  its tolerance of oppression, 525
+  Mr. Godkin on American politics, 526
+  failure of, in the Spanish and Portuguese States, 527
+  political aim of the Reign of Terror, 528, 529
+  real meaning of equality, 531
+  Mr. Bagehot's views, 532
+  universal and varied representation, 533
+  influence exercised by hereditary Princes and aristocracies, 535
+  errors of George III.'s reign, 536
+  royal education, _ib._
+  of Constitutional Monarchy, 537
+  'Vigilance Committee' in California, 538
+  strikes in Pennsylvania, 539
+  value of the English Poor Law, 540
+  Irish famine, 541
+  Belgian riots, 532
+  American charity, 543.
+
+Democracy, 11, 25.
+  _See_ Church.
+
+Dibdin, Mr., on the present features of Establishment, 29.
+  _See_ Church.
+
+'Don Quixote,' Mr. Ormsby's, 43
+  ignorance of Spanish literature in England, _ib._
+  a key to the history of Europe, 45
+  popularity of the work, 46
+  translations, 47-49
+  Doré's illustrations, 50
+  proverbs, 51, 52
+  opening of the 2nd Part, 53
+  emendations, 54
+  'Life of Cervantes,' 58
+  his personal history little known, 59
+  early years, 61
+  at Rome, and at the battle of Lepanto, _ib._
+  prisoner in Algiers, 62
+  liberated, 63
+  marriage, 64
+  collector of revenue at Granada, _ib._
+  life in Madrid, 65
+  death, 66
+  no known portrait of him, 67
+  describes his own features, _ib._
+  theories for the popularity of his work, 68-71
+  broad humour, 71
+  chivalry, 72
+  C. Kingsley's opinion, 73
+  madness of the knight, 74
+  Sancho's character, 76
+  ordinances for good government, 78.
+
+Dörpfeld, on the method of lighting at Tiryns, 122.
+  _See_ Tiryns.
+
+Doyle, Sir F., translation of the Olympian Ode, 178.
+  _See_ Pindar.
+
+
+E.
+
+Education, royal, 536
+  religious, in France. _See_ Christian Brothers.
+
+Eusebius. _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+
+F.
+
+Fergusson, Mr. J., on lighting the Parthenon, 123.
+  _See_ Tiryns.
+
+France, primary schools of, 338.
+  _See_ Christian Brothers.
+
+Froude, J. A., his 'Oceana, or England and her Colonies,' 443
+  our responsibility with the Boers, 448
+  Free Trade, 449
+  love of 'old home' in the Colonies, 451.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Fustel de Coulanges, M., his 'Recherches sur quelques problèmes
+d'Histoire', 187.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gaius, the Commentaries of, found by Niebuhr, 183.
+
+Gasparin, Comte Agenor, on the titles of landowners, &c., 17.
+  _See_ Church.
+
+Gildersleeve, Prof., his contribution to Pindaric literature, 161, _note_.
+
+Gladstone, Mr., his manifesto on Church Establishment, 5
+  ambiguity, 6
+  preparations for Home Rule in 1882, 261
+  enigmatical replies, 263
+  'healing measures' for Ireland, 265
+  his 'Divine light' and Irish policy, 266
+  coercions and concessions, 268
+  speech at Leeds, 273 belief in him, 275
+  on the Irish question, 275, 276
+  foreign policy, 281
+  the advances of Russia, 282, 283.
+
+Gladstone-Morley Administration, the, 544
+  the two 'Orders' for the Irish Parliament, 545
+  voting power of the Nationalists, 547
+  Mr. Gladstone's appeal to Southport in 1867, 547-549
+  abolition of Irish Establishment, 549
+  the Home Rule Association denounced at Aberdeen, _ib._
+  Mr. Butt on Home Rule, 550
+  Lord Beaconsfield's warning in 1880, 551
+  the Compensation for Disturbance Bill, and a Coercion Act, _ib._
+  the Land League dissolved, Mr. Parnell and its leaders in jail, 552
+  Mr. Forster's exertions, 553
+  Lord Spencer's responsibilities, _ib._
+  the National League, _ib._
+  removal of Mr. Clifford Lloyd and Mr. Trevelyan, 554
+  delay in renewing the Crimes Act, _ib._
+  declarations of Imperial unity, 555
+  Mr. C. Bannerman on the Parnellite demands, 556
+  Lord Hartington's protestation, _ib._
+  Mr. Gladstone's telegram denying the scheme as sketched in the Press, 557
+  Mr. Chamberlain's denial of being a party to it, _ib._
+  declaration of Lord Salisbury's Government to maintain the Union, 558
+  Mr. J. Collings's motion, _ib._
+  new Ministry, 559
+  Mr. J. Morley's appointment; his inexperience, 560
+  system of guarantees, 561
+  evictions, 562
+  example of the French peasantry, 563
+  power of the National League, 563, 564
+  instance of Farrell and Shee, _ib._
+  election to local public offices, _ib._
+  Mr. Lecky on the National League, 566
+  sympathy of the Irish priests, 567
+  Archbp. Walsh, 567, 568
+  provision for Irish judges, 568
+  our responsibilities to Ireland, 569
+  Irish nationality, 570
+  population, 571
+  compared to Norway and Hungary, 572-574
+  deficient resources of Ireland, 575
+  Mr. Jennings on an Irish Parliament, 577
+  the Land Purchase Bill, 579.
+
+Goschen, Mr., his 'Hearing, Reading, Thinking,' 501.
+  _See_ Books.
+
+Grant White, Mr. R., his sketches of English and American Life, 523.
+
+Grosseteste's Letters, 300.
+
+
+H.
+
+Hahn, F. von, on Roman Law, 187.
+
+Hallam's 'Hist. of the Middle Ages,' ignorance of English Monasticism, 298.
+
+Harcourt, Sir William, his prophecy about the Tory party, 261.
+
+Hardy, Sir T. Duffus, on the Madden Hypothesis, 301
+  on the St. Albans Scriptorium, 312.
+
+Harnack, Dr. on episcopacy, 484-486.
+  _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+Harrison, Mr., 'Choice of Books', 507.
+
+Hartington, Lord, on Disestablishment, 3
+  on the Law of the Land League, 267
+  no warning being given of the proposed legislation for Ireland, 556.
+
+Haxthausen, Baron von, on Slavonic and Russian society, 193-195.
+
+Historians of Greece and Rome, their superficial area, 323.
+
+Historical Commission, the, publication of the House of Lords MSS., 242.
+  _See_ Lords.
+
+Home Rulers, increased strength of, 260.
+  _See_ Parliament, Gladstone, &c.
+
+Homicides, number in New York, 459.
+
+Horses, breed of, upheld in Hellas, 159.
+
+d'Houditot, Gen. C., tribute to his memory by the Duc d'Aumale, 107.
+
+Hübner, Baron, his 'Through the British Empire,' 444
+  on the disadvantage of complete independence to the Australian
+    Colonist, 447
+  the Boers in Africa, 448
+  idea of a grand confederation, 450
+  the Civil Service of India, 452
+  devotion and daily labours of the officials, 453
+  no desire for self-government, 454
+  Socialism and Atheism, 455
+  the native Press, 456
+  prosperity, 457
+  his adventure in New York, 458.
+
+Hughes, Mr., on the voluntary system in the United States, 32.
+
+
+I.
+
+Iddesleigh, Earl of, address to the Students at Edinburgh, 501.
+
+Ignatian Epistles, the Bp. of Durham on the, 467.
+  _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+Ignatius, meaning of his name, 470.
+
+Indemnity, the Act of, 249.
+
+India, our administrations of, 453.
+
+Italy, the Popular Banks of, 152.
+
+Ireland. _See_ Gladstone-Morley, Land Bill, National League.
+
+
+J.
+
+Jennings, Mr., on an Irish Parliament, 577.
+  _See_ Gladstone-Morley.
+
+
+K.
+
+Killigrew, Tom, Charles II.'s representative at Venice, 382, 383.
+
+
+L.
+
+Labour trade in the Pacific, 464.
+
+Laing, Mr., his 'Journal of a Residence in Norway during 1834, 35
+    and 36,' 384.
+  _See_ Yeomen Farmers.
+
+Land Bill, the, for Ireland, effect of it, 278
+  progress in Scotland and Wales, 279.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+Lewis, Sir G. C., his practical philosophy, 519
+  an eminent statesman, 520
+  distrustful of electoral reform, 521
+  his Conservatism, 522.
+
+Liberal Press, the, activity of, 257.
+
+Liberation Society, the, financial report of, 8, 9
+  its ability and skill, 11
+  its publications, 13-16.
+
+'Liberator,' the, on Mr. Gladstone's ambiguity, 7.
+
+Lords, the, and Popular Rights, 239
+  vague accusations, 241
+  discovery of the House of Lords MSS., 242
+  attitude towards constitutional freedom, _ib._
+  moderate counsels and religious toleration, 242, 252
+  important position in the early years of Charles I., 244
+  appeals and petitions, 244-246
+  extensive jurisdiction, 246
+  protection of private rights, 247
+  intervention for peace, 248
+  the Restoration, 249
+  the Acts of Indemnity, &c., _ib._
+  restitution of property, 250, 251
+  execution of Vane, 251
+  the Act of Uniformity, 252
+  the Five Mile Act, 253
+  opposed to the re-establishment of Popery, 254
+  the Declaration of Indulgence and the Test Act, _ib._
+  advantage of the bicameral system, 255
+  excesses of the House of Commons, 255, 256.
+
+Luard, Dr., his edition of Cotton's Chronicle, 299
+  'Letters of Robert Grosseteste,' 300
+  'Chronica Majora,' 302
+  on the St. Alban's School of History, 314.
+
+Lubbock, Sir John, his list of books for reading, 501, 505.
+
+
+M.
+
+Maclay, Mr. Miklaho, his reception in New Guinea, 445.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Madden, Sir F., Hypothesis about the 'Historia Minor,' 301
+
+Magee, Bp., on Disestablishment, 25.
+
+Mahaffy Mr., on the destruction of Tiryns and Mycenæ, 114.
+
+Maillé-Bréze, Clemence de, her marriage with Condé, 95
+  heads an insurrection in his favour, 96
+  imprisoned for life at Châteauroux, _ib._
+
+Maine, Sir H. S., on the lowering effect of democracy, 12
+  describes the Patriarchal Theory, 182
+  on monogamy, 206.
+  _See_ Patriarchal.
+
+Maitland, Dr., his 'Essays on the Dark Ages,' 298.
+
+Mayne, Mr. J. D., his article on the Patriarchal Theory, 190.
+
+Mezger, Prof. F., his '_Pindar's Siegeslieder_,' 163.
+
+Milton on the Ignatian Epistles, 476.
+
+Monachism, British, in the 13th century, 303.
+  _See_ Paris, Matthew.
+
+Monasteries at end of 13th century, 304
+  popularity, 307
+  farming and pisciculture, 308
+  a place of refuge, 309.
+
+Monod, G., on the policy of the late Chamber in France, 338, _note_.
+
+Morgan, Mr. L. E., on 'group marriage,' 205.
+  _See_ Patriarchal Theory.
+
+Morice, Rev. F. D., his 'Pindar for English Readers, 156.
+  _See_ Pindar.
+
+Morley, Mr. J. _See_ Gladstone-Morley.
+
+Mortgages & Bills of Exchange, 139.
+
+
+N.
+
+National League, the, 563-565.
+
+---- Records, the, Commission for methodizing and digesting, 295.
+
+Navy, the, and the Colonies, 445.
+
+Norway, the Bank of, 400
+  State Mortgage Bank, and Savings Bank, 401.
+  _See_ Yeomen.
+
+
+O.
+
+Oldham, business record of the co-operative spinners for 1885, 285.
+
+Ormsby, Mr., his 'Don Quixote,' 43
+  'Poem of the Cid,' 46.
+
+
+P.
+
+Pacific Islands. _See_ Romilly, Travels.
+
+Paris, Mathew, 293
+  early years, 315
+  a monk at St. Alban's, 316
+  various accomplishments, _ib._
+  sent to Norway, 317
+  succeeds Roger of Wendover as historiographer, _ib._
+  utilizes facts and documents, 318
+  lashes the enemies of the abbey, 319
+  his denunciations of the Pope, 319, 320
+  anecdotes, 321
+  omens and portents, _ib._
+  weather reports, _ib._
+
+Parliament, the New, 257
+  activity of the Liberal press, _ib._
+  Radicalism based on pure ignorance, 258
+  Mr. Chamberlain's bribe to the rural voters, 258, 259
+  state of parties in 1880 and 1885, 260
+  the Home Rulers, 261
+  Mr. Gladstone and Home Rule in 1882, _ib._
+  Lord Salisbury's remarks on it, 262
+  the 'Quarterly Review' of Jan. 1882, _ib._
+  the scheme of separation and two Parliaments, 264
+  Mr. Gladstone's 'healing measures' for Ireland, 265-268
+  Sir J. Stephen on the Irish Parliament, 269
+  English capital in Ireland, 271
+  Davitt on landlordism, 272
+  Parnell on Home Rule, _ib._
+  dissentients in the press, 276
+  'strenuous policy' of the American war, _ib._
+  Lord Cowper on the Land Act of 1881, 277
+  opinions on the Land Bill, 278
+  its progress in Scotland and Wales, 279
+  Mr. G. Smith on concession, _ib._
+  good effect of Lord Salisbury's accession to power, _ib._
+  tone of European opinion, 280
+  Mr. Gladstone's foreign policy, 281
+  Prince Bismark's opinion of great orators, 282
+  Russian advances, 282, 283
+  state of trade, 284
+  the co-operative spinners of Oldham, 285
+  indifference of the Liberals, 286
+  new channel for trade in Burma, 286, 287
+  formation of a German Syndicate, 288
+  discordant element of the Liberal party, 290, 291.
+
+Parnell, Mr., on national independence, 267
+  Protective tariffs, 270
+  private property, 271
+  Home Rule, 272
+  encomium on Mr. Gladstone, 544.
+
+Patriarchal Theory, the, 181
+  described by Sir H. Maine, 182
+  Darwin's view, _ib._
+  the Patria Potestas and Agnation, 185
+  analogy in England, 186
+  Teutonic and Roman families, 187
+  Salic Law, 188
+  family system of the Hindus, 189
+  Agnates and Cognates, _ib._
+  Mr. J. D. Maynes's article, 190
+  religious origin of Civil law, 191
+  Mahommedan law, 191, 192
+  system among the Arabian tribes, 192
+  Slavonic and Russian society, 193-195
+  legend of Queen Libussa, 196
+  rejection of Roman law, 198
+  maternal uncles and nephews, 200
+  want of history with savages, _ib._
+  theory of the origin and growth of the Family, 201
+  Hordes and their Totems, _ib._
+  infanticide, _ib._
+  fewness of women, 202
+  female descents, 203
+  Exogamy, 204
+  Polyandry, _ib._
+  two schools of 'agriologists,' 205
+  Sir H. Maine on monogamy, 206
+  Darwin on the habits of primitive men, 207
+  ancestor worship, 208.
+
+Peddie, Mr. Dick on Liberationist Literature, 10.
+
+Pegu, annexation of, 227.
+  _See_ Burma.
+
+Pentecost, Dr. G. F., on Denominational rivalry in America, 34.
+
+Phayre, Sir A., his works on Burma, 210
+  wise ministration in Pegu, 228.
+
+Pindar's Odes of Victory, 156
+  reverence paid to him, _ib._
+  imperfectly comprehended, 157
+  Voltaire's opinion, _ib._
+  the English and the ancient Greek mind, 158
+  public games, 159
+  Olympic festivals, 160
+  constructive skill of the Odes, 161
+  Prof. Mezger's work, 163
+  names of the members of the Terpandrian nome, _ib._
+  structural phenomena, 165
+  fifth Isthmian Ode, _ib._
+  innovation in the structure, 169
+  word-pictures, 170
+  reference to architecture, 171-173
+  structure, 173, 174
+  turgidity and bombast explained, 175
+  main source of obscurity, 176
+  the love of Apollo and Cyrene, _ib._
+  the genius of Pindar and Bossuet compared, 178
+  his human sympathies, 180.
+
+Polycarp, St. _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+Poor Law, the English, its value, 540
+  in Norway, 408.
+  _See_ Democracy.
+
+
+R.
+
+'Radical Programme,' the, 23.
+
+Radicalism based on ignorance, 258.
+
+Rae, Mr. George, 'The Country Banker,' 133.
+  _See_ Banker.
+
+Rangoon founded, 222.
+  _See_ Burma.
+
+Religious Schools in England, 344
+  Tables of Accommodation, 345
+  Registers, attendance, and voluntary contributions, 346
+  Training Colleges, 347
+  Diocesan Inspection, 349
+  schools visited in 1884, 350
+  expense of education, _ib._
+  question of gratuitous elementary education, 351.
+
+_Revue Contemporaine_, the, on Lord Salisbury's accession to power, 280.
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal. _See_ Condé.
+
+Riley, Mr., his 'Chronica Monasterii Sancti Albani,' 300.
+
+Rochester, Bishop of, his estimate of the number of parishes which would
+suffer from Disendowment, 40.
+
+Rogers, Mr. Guinness, on the good work of the Church, 22.
+
+Romilly, Sir John, of the Rolls, 295
+  proposal for the publication of the 'Rolls Series,' 297.
+
+----, Mr., his 'Western Pacific and New Guinea,' 445
+  cannibalism, 459
+  the Solomon Islands, 461
+  a sorcerer, 462
+  the ladies of Laughlan Islands, 463
+  describes a fine pearl, 464
+  labour trade, _ib._
+  'Bully Hayes,' 465.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Russia, advances of, in Asia, 282
+  effect of allotments upon the emancipated serfs, 411
+  fall in value of cereals, _ib._
+  'redemption' dues, 412
+  Peasant Land Banks, 412.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sagredo, Giovanni, his mission from Venice to Cromwell, 376.
+
+Salisbury, Lord, on the Home Rulers, 262.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+Salle, J. B. de la, 325
+  Canon of the Cathedral of Rheims, 326
+  takes charge of an orphanage for girls, 327
+  patron of other schools, 328
+  spends his fortune on the poor, 329
+  prayer for guidance, _ib._
+  founder of the Christian Brothers, 330
+  his self-dedication, 331
+  success of his work, 335
+  death, 337.
+
+Scherer, M., on Democracy, 11, 27.
+
+Schliemann, Dr. H. _See_ Tiryns.
+
+Schmidt, C. A., on Roman Law, 187.
+
+Scottish Council, its contribution to the Liberation Society, 10.
+
+Senior, Nassau, W., 'Correspondence and Conversations of A. de
+Tocqueville,' 518
+  his intimate acquaintance with French statesmen, 537
+  the English Poor Law, 540
+  the Irish famine, 541.
+  _See_ Democracy.
+
+Smith, Mr. Goldwin, on concession in Ireland, 279.
+
+----, Rev. G. Vance, on the control exercised in Dissenting churches, 37.
+
+Spain. _See_ Don Quixote.
+
+Stephen, Sir James, on an Irish Parliament, 269.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+
+T.
+
+Theebau, King, atrocities at the beginning of his reign, 228.
+
+Tiryns, Schliemann's 108
+  the excavations mainly architectural, 110
+  the plain of Argolis, 111
+  site of the citadel, _ib._
+  history, 113
+  Mr. Mahaffy's theory, 114
+  style of pottery, 116
+  upper citadel, 117
+  arrangements of the palace, 118
+  propylæum, 120
+  men's forecourt, _ib._
+  portico, 121
+  megaron and hearth, 122
+  basilican lighting, 123
+  bath-room, 124
+  women's apartments, 125
+  cyanus frieze, 127
+  Cyclopean walls, 128
+  Phoenician origin asserted by Dörpfeld, 129
+  Greek architecture, 130, 131
+  date of the fall, 132.
+
+Tocqueville, M. Alexis de, 'Democracy in America,' 518
+  his practical wisdom, 520
+  conservatism, 522
+  rose-coloured portrait of democracy, 527
+  his _Ancien Régime_, 528
+  the distinction between noble and _roturier_, 529
+  _Égalite_, 531.
+
+Travels in the British Empire, 443
+  Colonial Federation, 445
+  better organization of the Navy, 445
+  the American Revolution, 446
+  no desire for separation in our Colonists, 447
+  Cape Colony, _ib._
+  its treatment from England, 448
+  conditions and prospects of trade, 449
+  Free Trade, 449, 450
+  offers of aid in the Egyptian war, 450
+  love of 'old home,' 451
+  purity of language, _ib._
+  India and its Civil Service, 452
+  Lord Ripon's endeavours to promote 'self-government,' 454
+  the Ilbert Bill, 455
+  Radical ideas of dismemberment, _ib._
+  native press of India, 456
+  prosperity of British India, 457
+  cannibalism in New Ireland, 460
+  murder of children in the Solomon Islands, 461
+  sorcerers, 462
+  David Dow, _ib._
+  the Admiralty, Laughlan, Thursday, and Norfolk Islands, 462-463
+  the labour trade, 464
+  'Bully Hayes,' 465
+  commercial importance of the Australian Colonies, 467.
+
+
+U.
+
+Uniformity, Act of, 252.
+  _See_ Lords.
+
+United States, National Banks of the, 150.
+  _See_ Banker.
+
+
+V.
+
+Venetian Republic, Archives of the, 356
+  their preservation and order, 357
+  Constitution and the Great Council, 358
+  the Senate or Pregadi, 360
+  the Zonta, _ib._
+  Collegio or Cabinet of Ministers, 361
+  the Savii, _ib._
+  Ducal Councillors, 362
+  the Doge, 363
+  election of, 363, 364
+  Council of Ten, 365
+  political training of the nobles, 367
+  the Ducal, Secret, and Inferior Chancelleries, 368, 370, 371
+  duties of the Grand Chancellor, 369
+  College of Secretaries, _ib._
+  Senatorial papers, 372
+  the Relazioni, 373
+  Paullizzi's despatches, 375
+  Sagredo's mission to Cromwell, 376
+  diplomatic connection with England, _ib._
+  of the Collegio and the Lettere Principi, 377
+  curious document of one Charles Dudley, 378
+  letters from James Stuart, _ib._
+  'Espozione Principi,' _ib._
+  reception of Lord Northampton, 479-482
+  Tom Killigrew's expedient, 482.
+
+Verney, Lady, 'Cottier-owners and Peasant Proprietors,' 410, _note_.
+
+Villemain, M., his comparison of the genius of Pindar and Bossuet, 178.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wales, the Church in, 18-21.
+
+Water Companies of London, oppressive and insolent exactions, 524.
+
+Wendover, Roger of, a monkish historiographer, 314
+  at St. Albans, 316, 317.
+
+Westphal, R., his examination of the Choric Odes of Æschylus, 163.
+
+Wotton, Sir H., goes to Scotland from Venice to warn James VI. of a  design
+on his life, 374.
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yeomen Farmers in Norway, 384
+  condition of peasant proprietors in 1834, 385
+  the _Odels ret_, or Allodial Right, _ib._
+  division of land, 386
+  life on the _Soeters_, 387
+  private distillation of spirits prohibited, 388,
+  pauperism, _ib._
+  illegitimacy, 390
+  the agrarian class permanently represented in the Storthing, 391, _ib._
+  attraction of the rural population to towns, 392
+  rate of wages, 393
+  railways, _ib._
+  dress and ornaments, 394
+  value of money, _ib._
+  classification of properties, 395
+  increasing subdivisions of land, 397, 398
+  creation of _Myrmænd_ in South Trondhjem, 397
+  influence of American competition in corn, _ib._
+  absence of good economy, 399
+  fare of the rural population, _ib._
+  heavy indebtedness of the farmers, 400
+  Banks and Savings Banks, 401-402
+  sales of real property for debt, 403
+  primitive condition of agriculture, 405
+  heavy and increasing charges on landed properties, 406
+  Poor Relief, _ib._
+  increase of paupers, 407, 408
+  emigration, _ib._
+  political agitators, 409
+  Church Disestablishment, _ib._
+  hereditary nobility abolished, 409, _note_
+  effects of subdivision of land in Norway, &c., 410
+  Lady Verney on peasant proprietors, 410, _note_.
+
+
+END OF THE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No.
+324, April, 1886, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK QUARTERLY REVIEW, APRIL, 1886 ***
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324, April, 1886.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324,
+April, 1886, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324, April, 1886
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26439]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK QUARTERLY REVIEW, APRIL, 1886 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h4>THE</h4>
+
+<h1>QUARTERLY REVIEW.</h1>
+
+<h3>NO. CCCXXIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;APRIL, 1886.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; VOL. CLXII.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS:</h2>
+
+<p>
+I. <a href="#ART_I_Matthaei_Parisiensis_Monachi_Sancti_Albani_Chronica_Majora">Matthew Parish<br /></a>
+<br />
+II. <a href="#Art_II_1_The_Christian_Brothers_their_Origin_and_Work_with_a">The Christian Brothers.&mdash;Religious Schools in France and England.</a><br />
+<br />
+III. <a href="#Art_III_The_State_Papers_of_the_Venetian_Republic_namely">Archives of the Venetian Republic.</a><br />
+<br />
+IV. <a href="#Art_IV_1_Journal_of_a_Residence_in_Norway_during_the_years_1834">Yeomen Farmers in Norway.</a><br />
+<br />
+V. <a href="#Art_V_A_Collection_of_the_State_Papers_of_John_Thurloe_Esq">Oliver Cromwell: his character illustrated by himself.</a><br />
+<br />
+VI. <a href="#Art_VI_1_Oceana_or_England_and_her_Colonies_By_James_Anthony">Travels in the British Empire.</a><br />
+<br />
+VII. <a href="#ART_VII_The_Apostolic_Fathers_S_Ignatius_S_Polycarp_Revised">The Bishop of Durham on the Ignatian Epistles.</a><br />
+<br />
+VIII. <a href="#Art_VIII_1_An_Address_delivered_to_the_Students_of_Edinburgh">Books and Reading.</a><br />
+<br />
+IX. <a href="#Art_IX_1_Popular_Government_Four_Essays_By_Sir_Henry_Sumner">Characteristics of Democracy.</a><br />
+<br />
+X. <a href="#ART_X_1_Fourth_Midlothian_Campaign_Political_speeches_delivered">The Gladstone-Morley Administration.</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+PHILADELPHIA:<br />
+LEONARD SCOTT PUBLICATION COMPANY,<br />
+1104 <span class="smcap">Walnut Street</span>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4>THE</h4>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Leonard Scott Publication Co's</span>.,</h3>
+
+<h2>PERIODICALS.</h2>
+
+<h4>Single Copies for sale by the following Dealers in Cities named:</h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>BALTIMORE, MD.,</td><td align='left'>Baltimore News Co.,</td><td align='left'>Sun. Iron Building.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>BOSTON, MASS.,</td><td align='left'>Cupples, Upham &amp; Co.,</td><td align='left'>283 Washington St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CHICAGO, ILL.,</td><td align='left'>Brentano Bros.,</td><td align='left'>101 State St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CINCINNATI, OHIO.</td><td align='left'>Robert Clarke &amp; Co.,</td><td align='left'>61 West 4th, St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>HALIFAX, NOVA SCO.,</td><td align='left'>T. C. Allen &amp; Co.,</td><td align='left'>124 Granville St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>HAMILTON, CANADA.</td><td align='left'>J. Eastwood &amp; Co.,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MONTREAL, CANADA.</td><td align='left'>Dawson Bros.,</td><td align='left'>233 St. James St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>NEW ORLEANS, LA.,</td><td align='left'>Geo. F. Wharton &amp; Bro.,</td><td align='left'>5 Carondelet St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>NEW YORK CITY, N. Y.,</td><td align='left'>Brentano Bros.,</td><td align='left'>5 Union Square.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>PHILADELPHIA, PA.,</td><td align='left'>Leonard Scott Pub. Co.,</td><td align='left'>1104 Walnut St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>PROVIDENCE, R. I.,</td><td align='left'>S. S. Rider.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>RICHMOND, VA.,</td><td align='left'>Beckwith &amp; Parham.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.,</td><td align='left'>J. C. Scott.</td><td align='left'>22 Third St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ST. JOHN, N. B.,</td><td align='left'>A. &amp; J. McMillan.</td><td align='left'>98 Prince William St.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ST. LOUIS, MO.,</td><td align='left'>St. Louis News Co.,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>TORONTO, CANADA.</td><td align='left'>Hart &amp; Co.,</td><td align='left'>31 King St., W.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VICTORIA, BR. COL.,</td><td align='left'>T. H. Hibben &amp; Co.,</td><td align='left'>Masonic Building.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>WASHINGTON, D. C.,</td><td align='left'>Brentano Bros.,</td><td align='left'>1015 Penna. Av.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Annual Subscriptions Received by all Booksellers and Newsdealers.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+THE LEONARD SCOTT PUB. CO.,<br />
+1104 WALNUT STREET.<br />
+PHILADELPHIA, PA.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS OF NO. 324.</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+Art.                                                              <span class="tocnum">Page</span><br />
+<br />
+I.&mdash;Matth&aelig;i Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica
+Majora. Edited by Henry Richards Luard, D.D., Fellow of
+Trinity College, Registrary of the University, and Vicar of
+Great St. Mary's Cambridge. Published by the Authority of
+the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, under the
+direction of the Master of the Rolls. 7 vols. 8vo. London,
+Vol I. 1872&mdash;Vol. VII. 1883.                                       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_293'>293</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+II.&mdash;1. The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work, with
+a sketch of the Life of their Founder, The Venerable Jean
+Baptiste de la Salle. By Mrs. R. F. Wilson. London, 1883.<br />
+<br />
+2. La Premi&egrave;re Ann&eacute;e d'Instruction Morale et Civique:
+notions de droit et d'&eacute;conomie politique (Textes et R&eacute;cits)
+pour r&eacute;pondre &agrave; la loi du 28 Mars 1882 sur l'enseignement
+primaire obligatoire: ouvrage accompagn&eacute; de R&eacute;sum&eacute;, de
+Questionnaires, de Devoirs, et d'un Lexique des mots
+difficiles. Par Pierre Laloi. Quatorzi&egrave;me Edition. Paris,
+1885.<br />
+<br />
+3. Report of the Committee of Council on Education (England
+and Wales). 1884-85.<br />
+<br />
+4. Seventy-fourth Annual Report of the Incorporated National
+Society. 1885.<span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+III.&mdash;The State Papers of the Venetian Republic; namely,
+Cancelleria Inferiore, Cancelleria Ducale, Cancelleria
+Secreta, preserved in the Convent of the Frari, at Venice.
+<span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_356'>356</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+IV.&mdash;1. Journal of a Residence in Norway during the years
+1834, 1835, and 1836. By Samuel Laing, Esq. London, 1837.<br />
+<br />
+2. Le Royaume de Norv&egrave;ge et le Peuple Norv&eacute;gien. Par le Dr.
+O. I. Broch. Christiania, 1878.<br />
+<br />
+3. Official Reports of Prefects on the Economic Condition of
+the Provinces of Norway in 1876-80. Christiania, 1884.<br />
+<br />
+4. Publications of the Statistical Bureau Christiania.             <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_384'>384</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+V.&mdash;A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq.;
+Secretary, first to the Council of State, and afterwards to
+the Two Protectors, Oliver and Richard Cromwell. In Seven
+Volumes, containing authentic Memorials of the English
+affairs from the year 1638 to the Restoration of King
+Charles II. Vol. III. London, 1742.                                <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_414'>414</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+VI.&mdash;1. Oceana, or England and her Colonies. By James
+Anthony Froude. London, 1886.<br />
+<br />
+2. Through the British Empire. By Baron von H&uuml;bner. 2. vols.
+London, 1886.<br />
+<br />
+3. The Western Pacific and New Guinea. By Hugh Hastings
+Romilly, Deputy Commissioner of the Western Pacific. London,
+1886.                                                              <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_443'>443</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+VII.&mdash;The Apostolic Fathers: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp.
+Revised Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and
+Translations. By J. B. Lightfoot, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
+Bishop of Durham. London, 1885. 2 vols.                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_467'>467</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+VIII.&mdash;1. An Address delivered to the Students of Edinburgh
+University on Nov. 3, 1885. By the Earl of Iddesleigh, Lord
+Rector of the University of Edinburgh.<br />
+<br />
+2. Hearing, Reading and Thinking: an address to the Students
+attending the Lectures of the London Society for the
+Extension of University Teaching. By the Rt. Hon. G. J.
+Goschen, M.P.<br />
+<br />
+3. The Choice of Books and other Literary Pieces. By
+Frederic Harrison. London, 1886.                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_501'>501</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+<br />
+IX.&mdash;1. Popular Government. Four Essays. By Sir Henry Sumner
+Maine. Second Edition. London, 1886.<br />
+<br />
+2. Democracy in America. By Alexis de Tocqueville.
+Translated by Henry Reeve. New Edition. London, 1862.<br />
+<br />
+3. On the State of Society in France before the Revolution
+of 1789. Translated by Henry Reeve. Second Edition. London,
+1873.                                                              <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_518'>518</a></span> <br />
+<br />
+And other Works.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+X.&mdash;1. Fourth Midlothian Campaign. Political Speeches
+delivered, November, 1885, by the Right Hon. W. E.
+Gladstone, M.P. Edinburgh, 1886.<br />
+<br />
+2. John Morley: The Irish Record of the New Chief Secretary,
+1886.<br />
+<br />
+3. Ireland: A Book of Light on the Irish Problem. Edited by
+Andrew Reid. London, 1886.                                         <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_544">544</a></span><br />
+<br />
+And other Works.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ART_I_Matthaei_Parisiensis_Monachi_Sancti_Albani_Chronica_Majora" id="ART_I_Matthaei_Parisiensis_Monachi_Sancti_Albani_Chronica_Majora"></a>ART. I.&mdash;<i>Matth&aelig;i Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica Majora.</i>
+Edited by Henry Richards Luard, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
+Registrary of the University, and Vicar of Great St. Mary's, Cambridge.
+Published by the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's
+Treasury, under the direction of the Master of the Rolls. 7 vols. 8vo.
+London, Vol. I. 1872&mdash;Vol. VII. 1883.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Some of our readers are not likely yet to have forgotten the remarkable
+essay which the late Professor Brewer contributed to our pages in 1871,
+and which has since been reprinted in the volume of 'English Studies,'
+published shortly after the author's death in 1879. English History owes
+a larger debt to few men of our time than it owes to Mr. Brewer. As a
+teacher whose pupils were always eager to listen to all that fell from
+his lips, and whose enthusiasm never failed to awake a kindred spark in
+the minds of those who looked to him for light in dark places and
+guidance along tortuous paths of research, Mr. Brewer has had few
+equals, and perhaps has left no successor who can compare with him. As a
+writer he was always brilliant, lucid, and vigorous, and his unrivalled
+'Introductions' to the Calendars of Letters and Papers, concerned with
+the reign of Henry VIII., will long continue to be read by all students
+of our History, as necessary and indispensable interpreters of the vast
+storehouses of original documents which he did so much to rescue from
+the oblivion or obscurity to which they had previously been consigned.
+But it was as an organizer of research that Mr. Brewer earned his
+greatest fame and achieved his greatest success, and it was to him more
+than to any one man, to his immense persistence in urging upon the
+powers that be a more generous freedom of access to our Records, and to
+his prodigious powers of work in arranging and tabulating the enormous
+masses of documents of all kinds which constitute the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> <i>Apparatus</i> of
+English History, that this country stands indebted, and will remain
+indebted as long as our literature lasts.</p>
+
+<p>In the Essay on 'New Sources of English History' the learned author has
+given us a startling account of the deplorable condition into which some
+of the most precious of our national manuscripts had been allowed to
+fall&mdash;of the utterly chaotic state of our depositories&mdash;of the
+hopelessness, the despair which must needs have come upon one student
+after another who might be fortunate enough to be turned loose into the
+various prison-houses of our muniments&mdash;and of the efforts made, and
+happily at last made with splendid success, to cleanse the Augean
+stable, and to let the world know something of the wealth it contained.
+With characteristic modesty Mr. Brewer said nothing of his own part in
+all that laborious and sagacious organization which resulted in our
+obtaining the magnificent <i>Calendars</i>, which have opened out to us all
+'that new world which is the old' that had become almost forgotten or
+unknown. He was not the man to assert himself, he knew that posterity
+would give him his due, but with a simple desire to stimulate research,
+and to show how much remained to be done, and how much to be discovered
+and made known, he drew the attention of his readers chiefly and
+primarily to the value of the Calendars, and to the important results
+which those Calendars had already produced, and were destined to produce
+hereafter. He had quite enough to say upon this point, and if his life
+had been spared, it is probable that he would eventually have given us a
+more comprehensive account of the series of volumes which, though now
+issuing from the press <i>pari passu</i> with the Calendars, were originally
+undertaken a little later. Such an Essay by such a master would indeed
+have been an important aid to the student, but at the time of Mr.
+Brewer's lamented death the day had hardly come for such a <i>r&eacute;sum&eacute;</i>; and
+even now, though so much has been achieved, so much and so well, the
+hour has hardly arrived nor the man for taking a comprehensive survey,
+and giving to the public an intelligent and intelligible account of that
+other Library of Chronicles, and biographies, and letters, and
+cartularies, and those other memorials of the Middle Ages in England,
+which it is to be feared are hardly as well known as they ought to be,
+nor as widely studied as they deserve.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile it is high time that attention should be drawn to that noble
+series of volumes now issuing from the press under the editorship of
+scholars whose reputation is assured, and whose work continues to
+enhance their reputation&mdash;high time that we should begin to do something
+like justice to the labourers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> who have deserved so well at the hands
+of such Englishmen as have any sentiment of loyalty to the great
+thoughts, the great doings, and the noble lives of their forefathers.
+The philosopher, who 'holds the mirror up to nature,' has not of late,
+as a rule, missed his reward. The historian, who in his dogged, patient,
+toilsome fashion holds the mirror up to the life of bygone ages, has
+received among us scant recognition, and generally is rewarded with but
+barren honour. What has been done and still is doing will be best
+understood by briefly reviewing the progress of that movement, which has
+brought about the great revival of English Historical study, and under
+the influence of which the opinions and convictions of educated men have
+passed through a very decided change, one destined to produce still
+greater and more unlooked for changes of sentiment and belief before the
+present century shall have closed.</p>
+
+<p>It is just fifty years since 'the Father of Record Reform,' as he has
+been justly called, received his patent creating him Master of the
+Rolls. Although as far back as the year 1800 a Commission was issued for
+the methodizing and digesting the National Records, and for printing
+such calendars and indexes as should be thought advisable; and though
+during the next twenty-seven years many works of supreme interest and
+importance were printed at the public expense, the enormous extent of
+our National Records were known to few, and the difficulty of consulting
+them, (dispersed as they were through a score of different depositories)
+was enough to deter all but the most resolute enquirers. It was Lord
+Langdale who first set himself to reduce the chaos of our archives into
+something like order. When the old Record Commission expired in 1837, it
+was by Lord Langdale's influence that the Public Record Act was passed
+on the 14th of August, 1838, whereby the Records named therein were
+placed under the custody of the Master of the Rolls for the time being,
+and hereupon a new era began. Nevertheless it was not till July 1850
+that a vote was obtained from the Treasury for the erection of a
+national depository, wherein our vast archives should be assembled under
+a single roof, and not till 1855 that the magnificent <i>Tabularium</i> in
+Fetter Lane was opened for the reception of our muniments.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Langdale died in April 1851;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> he was succeeded in the Mastership
+of the Rolls by Lord Romilly, then Sir John. A happier choice could not
+have been made. To Lord Langdale belongs the credit of carrying out the
+grand scheme for consolidating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> the various collections of documents,
+which, as we have said, had up to this time been widely dispersed, and
+the very existence of the larger mass of which was known only to a few
+experts. To Lord Romilly we owe it that the great original sources of
+English History so assembled have been rendered accessible to any
+student who desires to consult them; and it is to him, too, that we are
+indebted for the issue of that unrivalled series of 'Chronicles and
+Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland, from the Invasion of the Romans
+to the Reign of Henry VIII.,' which has laid the foundation for a
+science of history firmer and deeper and wider than before was believed
+to be even attainable.</p>
+
+<p>Great men are at once the leaders and the product of their age. When
+Lord Langdale set himself to his task he was only attempting that which
+had been talked of since the reign of Edward II. For five centuries the
+unification of our National Records had been recommended and advised by
+lawyers, statesmen, and scholars from generation to generation, but no
+practical scheme had ever been suggested, and the difficulties in the
+way of reform were supposed to be insuperable. It was a Herculean task,
+and one that grew ever more arduous the longer it was postponed. During
+the first quarter of the present century profound dissatisfaction had
+begun to be felt at the condition of our historical literature. The
+ordinary text-books were full of fables, more than suspected to be
+fables, and which yet it was extremely difficult to disprove
+satisfactorily. Theories which had long passed current were being rudely
+assailed, and yet&mdash;in the face of the obstacles that hindered
+research&mdash;stubbornly held their ground, or were repeated with peremptory
+dogmatism. A deep distrust of the old methods and the old assumptions
+had given rise to a widespread desire to drag forth from their
+hiding-places any documents, however dry or recondite, which might throw
+some clear light upon our national life and manners, and not only upon
+mere events of national importance during Medieval times. A desire to
+know the truth was <i>in the air</i>. The science of history had passed out
+of its infancy, and the stirrings of a new craving&mdash;the passion of
+Research&mdash;were making themselves felt in that mysterious restlessness
+which indicates that the old smooth-faced docility, the old childish
+submission to tutelage, the old unquestioning acceptance of authority,
+has gone for ever, and a new life has begun. The year before Lord
+Langdale received his appointment as Master of the Rolls, the Surtees
+Society had been founded for the printing of unedited MSS. illustrative
+of the history of the northern counties; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> in the same year that the
+old Record Commission expired, the English Historical Society was
+started, a society which numbered amongst its promoters such men as the
+late Mr. Kemble, Mr. H. O. Coxe, Sir T. Duffus Hardy, and Mr.
+Stevenson&mdash;the leaders and teachers of that school of younger men who
+have so ably followed in the steps of their seniors, and who, mounting
+on the shoulders of the giants, have gained a wider view than it was
+given to those others to attain. The five years that followed saw the
+foundation of the Camden, the Percy, and the Chetham Societies, not to
+mention many another that has done useful work in its way. The labours
+of these pioneers soon made it quite apparent that the sources of our
+national history&mdash;social, ecclesiastical, and political&mdash;were quite too
+voluminous for private enterprise to deal with, and would demand the
+co-operation of a body of trained scholars and the resources of the
+public exchequer to make them available as apparatus for the teachers of
+the future.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of January, 1857, Sir John Romilly submitted to the Treasury
+his memorable proposal for the publication of certain materials for the
+History of England;<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and on the 9th of February a Treasury Minute was
+put forth approving of the plan that had been drawn up as one 'well
+calculated for the accomplishment of this important national object in
+an effectual and satisfactory manner within a reasonable time.'
+Forthwith arrangements were made for the issue of that series of works
+which is now known as the 'Rolls Series,' a collection which has already
+extended to upwards of 200 volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The lines laid down by Sir John Romilly were almost exactly those which
+had been followed by the English Historical Society. Every editor was to
+'give an account of the MSS. employed by him, of their age and their
+peculiarities;' he was to add 'a brief account of the life and times of
+the author, and any remarks necessary to explain the chronology; <i>but no
+other note or comment</i> was to be allowed, except what might be necessary
+to establish the correctness of the text.' The restriction was
+absolutely necessary if only for this, that when the 'Rolls Series' was
+first commenced even the most accomplished of its editors were mere
+learners. The time had not yet arrived for comments. The text was wanted
+first in its completeness and integrity.</p>
+
+<p>Looking back to this period&mdash;little more than a quarter of a century
+ago&mdash;it is difficult for us to realize the deplorable condition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> into
+which our historical literature had been allowed to fall. Kemble's great
+work, the 'Codex Diplomaticus &aelig;vi Saxonici,' the first volume of which
+appeared in 1839, and his 'History of the Saxons in England,' published
+in 1849, came upon the great body of intelligent men as the revelation
+of new things. It is sufficient to turn to the chapter on the
+Constitutional History of England before the Conquest, in Hallam's
+'History of the Middle Ages,' to be assured how meagre and superficial
+even Hallam's knowledge was of everything before the Norman invasion. It
+was no fault of his; he made good use of all such materials as were then
+accessible to the student&mdash;that is, all such as had been printed; for
+that incomparably larger <i>apparatus</i> which since Hallam's days has been
+published to the world, it was for all practical purposes as if it had
+never existed at all. Even men of culture and learning were persuaded
+that all that was ever likely to be known about the religious houses had
+been collected in the new edition of Dugdale's 'Monasticon.' It is
+hardly too much to say that of the history of English monasticism Hallam
+knew nothing. Dr. Lingard himself had very little more to say of the
+great Abbeys than his predecessors, and had a very inadequate conception
+of the part they played in the development of our institutions; and when
+Dr. Maitland wrote his brilliant 'Essays on the Dark Ages,' he hardly
+names St. Edmundsbury or St. Alban's, and though one of his most
+fascinating chapters is concerned with the early days of Croyland, his
+only authority for the beautiful story, which he has handled so
+skilfully, is a romantic narrative attributed to Ingulphus, which has
+been demonstrated to be a somewhat clumsy though a clever forgery. Of
+the Mendicant Orders&mdash;of the work they did, of the influence they
+exercised, and of the attitude adopted towards them in the 13th century
+by the parochial clergy on the one hand, and by the monks on the
+other&mdash;even less was known, if less were possible, than of their
+wealthier rivals.</p>
+
+<p>Two years had scarcely elapsed since the issue of the Treasury Minute of
+February, 1857, before it began to be said that the history of England
+would have to be written anew. In the single year 1858 <i>eleven</i> works of
+the highest importance were printed, and it was evident that neither
+original materials nor scholarly editors would be wanting to make the
+'Rolls Series' all that it was desired it should become. The 'Chronicles
+of the Monasteries of Abingdon and of St. Augustine at Canterbury,' the
+contemporary 'Life of Edward the Confessor,' and the priceless
+'Monumenta Franciscana,' telling the wonderful story of the settlement
+of the Minorites among us, were printed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> from unique MSS. Next year the
+'Chronicle of John of Oxnedes' was brought out by Sir Henry Ellis, and
+the 'Historia Anglicana' of Bartholomew Cotton, by Dr. Luard, neither
+work having ever before been printed. Volume followed volume in rapid
+succession, a steady improvement becoming observable in the style of
+editing, as the several editors became more familiar with the results of
+their predecessors' labours.</p>
+
+<p>It was while working at Bartholomew Cotton that Dr. Luard was brought
+into intimate relations with the 13th century. Hitherto the <i>composite</i>
+character of such chronicles as had been published had indeed been
+perceived, but no attempt had been made to trace the original authority
+for statements repeated in the same words by one writer after another.
+Dr. Luard opened out a new line of enquiry, and in his edition of
+Cotton's Chronicle he endeavoured to distinguish in every instance the
+material which might fairly be called original from that which his
+author had borrowed from older writers and incorporated into his text.
+The borrowed matter was printed in smaller type, and the sources from
+which it had been derived were indicated by references given at the foot
+of the page. Cottons' own additions were printed in a bolder type, so as
+at once to catch the eye. While conducting the laborious researches
+necessitated by this new method of editing his text, it became clear to
+Dr. Luard that Cotton had borrowed largely from Matthew Paris&mdash;who had
+lived just a generation before him&mdash;and that he had also borrowed from a
+mysterious writer much read in the 14th and 15th centuries, who went by
+the name of Matthew of Westminster. As to this Matthew of Westminster,
+Dr. Luard postponed dealing with him till some future time. He might
+prove a mere mythic personage, and it was suspected he would; but
+Matthew Paris was certainly no shadow, but a very real man, whose
+greatness seemed to grow greater the more he was studied and the better
+he was known. Yet as Dr. Luard became more familiar with the text of
+Paris, he was soon convinced that in its printed form it was bristling
+with the grossest inaccuracies of all kinds. Originally it had been
+published under the authority of Archbishop Parker in 1571; and though
+other editions had appeared, in this country and on the Continent,
+several times since then, Paris's great work had remained exactly in the
+same state as Parker (or whoever his agent was) had left it three
+centuries ago. That is to say, that by far the most important work on
+English history during the 13th century&mdash;not to mention European
+affairs&mdash;and by far the most minute and trustworthy picture of English
+life and manners during the reign of Henry III.&mdash;a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> record, too, drawn
+up by a contemporary writer of rare genius and literary skill&mdash;was
+defaced by blunders, audacious tampering with the text and gross
+inaccuracies, to such an extent that no conscientious student could
+allow himself to quote the printed work without first referring to one
+of the very MSS. which the Archbishop professed to have used.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the task of bringing out a critical edition of the
+'Chronica Majora' did not appear less formidable as fresh sources of
+information cropped up; and Dr. Luard shrank from the immense labour
+that such an edition involved, it was because he had formed a correct
+notion of its magnitude. In 1861 he brought out in the same series the
+'Letters of Robert Grosseteste,' the heroic and magnanimous Bishop of
+Lincoln; and while working at this volume, the England of the 13th
+century became more and more alive and present to the mind of the
+student.</p>
+
+<p>But distinctly and grandly as one noble character after another revealed
+itself, there was a strange mist that required to be dispelled before
+even the importance of great events could be rightly estimated. The
+inner life of the monasteries, great and small, must be enquired into,
+so far as it was possible to get any information on so obscure a
+subject; and, above all, the paramount influence which so magnificent an
+institution as the Abbey of St. Alban's exercised upon the intellectual
+life of the country must be studied with patient impartiality. Before a
+scholar with so lofty an ideal of an editor's duty could venture upon
+his <i>magnum opus</i>, there was indeed an enormous mass of preliminary work
+to get through. The horizon seemed to widen everywhere as the years of
+historical discovery went on. It was left to Mr. Riley to attack that
+wonderful collection of documents to which he gave the title of
+'Chronica Monasterii Sancti Albani'&mdash;a series occupying twelve thick
+volumes, and which furnish us not only with a priceless <i>apparatus</i>, by
+the help of which a hundred problems perplexing the historian are
+furnished with a clue towards their solution&mdash;but which afford such an
+insight into the life of the greatest monastery in England during its
+best times as nobody expected could ever be forthcoming. While Mr. Riley
+was occupied with the <i>Chronicles</i> of St. Alban's and the lives of its
+Abbots, Dr. Luard was engaged in collecting all the <i>Annals</i> of the
+lesser monasteries which he could lay his hands on. Some of these had
+already been printed more or less carelessly; others had never seen the
+light since they were written. Such as were printed were extremely
+difficult to procure&mdash;scarce and costly. Dr. Luard took six years in
+bringing out his five volumes&mdash;volumes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> referring to the golden age of
+English Monasticism, which threw all sorts of side-light upon Mr.
+Riley's 'Chronicles,' while they were in turn continually being
+explained and illustrated by them.</p>
+
+<p>While the 'Monastic Annals' were passing through the press, a very
+startling announcement was made by no less a person than Sir Frederick
+Madden, Keeper of the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum.
+Sir Frederick declared that he had come upon a copy of what was commonly
+called the 'Historia Minor' of Matthew Paris, not only written by the
+author himself, but actually annotated, corrected, and illustrated with
+drawings by his own hand. Such an announcement made by an expert of
+European reputation, one who had been handling MSS. all his life,
+necessarily created a sensation in the literary world. If it were
+accepted and proved true, it was one of the most curious romances in the
+history of literature. But was it true? To most critics the antecedent
+improbability of the theory put forth by Sir Frederick was so great as
+to relegate it to the domain of extravagant paradox; but the name and
+fame of its supporter were too high to allow of its being dismissed
+without refutation. For two or three years no one ventured to enter the
+lists against so formidable a champion who had staked his reputation
+upon the issue. At last another great specialist, not a whit less
+competent than the other, came forward to controvert the opinions and
+theory which had been so confidently maintained by Sir Frederick. In
+1871 Sir Thomas Duffus Hardy brought out the third volume of his
+<i>Catalogue</i>, and it was in the famous Introduction to this volume that
+the Madden Hypothesis was first assailed with damaging effect. Sir
+Thomas, it must be remembered, was Deputy Keeper of the Records. Sir
+Frederick was Keeper of the Department of Manuscripts at the British
+Museum. Each was the representative man in his own department, and a
+very pretty quarrel arose. Into the merits of that quarrel it is
+impossible to enter here; it is a matter for specialists, not for
+outsiders, to pronounce upon. This, however, may be said with
+confidence, that if we except that school of very able and accomplished
+experts which the British Museum has trained, experts whose <i>range</i> of
+diplomatic knowledge must needs be wider than that of any 'Record man,'
+the refutation of Sir Frederick Madden by Sir Thomas Duffus was
+generally regarded as unanswerable and triumphant. With the exception
+indicated&mdash;a very important exception indeed&mdash;the Madden Hypothesis was
+believed to be utterly demolished, in fact 'blown into the air.'
+Nevertheless there are those, from whom something may be expected some
+day in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> the way of rejoinder who are by no means sure that the last word
+on this question has been said that deserve to be said, and even so
+scrupulous and sagacious a critic as Dr. Luard seems to be less certain
+than he was that Madden was quite wrong in <i>all</i> he affirmed, and Hardy
+quite right in <i>all</i> he denied.</p>
+
+<p>The attention which had been drawn to Matthew Paris by this remarkable
+controversy could not but have its effect in awakening a desire for that
+critical edition of the larger Chronicle which Dr. Luard had been so
+long preparing. The way was cleared for such an edition now; it was not
+likely that any more MSS. of the author would be discovered. Such as
+were deposited in the various libraries had been carefully scrutinized,
+or their homes were known, and the long years of preparatory study had
+been turned to good account&mdash;no pains had been spared nor any labour
+grudged. In 1872 the first volume of the 'Chronica Majora' appeared in
+the 'Rolls Series.' In 1884 the seventh and last volume was issued,
+containing the learned editor's last preface, glossary, and emendations,
+and an Index to the whole work, extending over nearly 600 pages. It is a
+long time since an English scholar has had the good fortune to carry to
+its completion so important a work as this, projected on so large a
+scale, executed with such conscientious care&mdash;characterized by so much
+critical skill and scrupulous accuracy&mdash;all this achieved single-handed
+in the midst of other duties, professional and academical, which would
+be quite sufficient to exhaust the energies of an ordinary man.</p>
+
+<p>Now that the work has been done, and done so thoroughly that it may
+safely be asserted the <i>standard edition</i> of the 'Chronic Majora' has
+been published once for all, we are in a better position than we ever
+were heretofore for taking a survey of the life and labours of its
+author, and for answering the enquiries which of late have been made
+with increasing frequency, and made too among those who might have been
+expected to be able to answer them. Who and what was Matthew Paris? What
+did he do, and what did he write that the learned few should speak of
+him with so much reverence, though to the unlearned many he is little
+more than a famous and familiar name?</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps before dealing with his personal history, or entering into any
+examination of his literary labours, it will be well first to answer the
+question&mdash;<i>What</i> was Matthew Paris? for it is simply impossible to
+estimate rightly the debt we owe to him, or to understand the brief
+account that could be drawn up of his career till we have learned to
+know something of the <i>profession</i> to which he belonged, and the great
+foundation of which he was so distinguished an ornament. By profession
+Matthew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> Paris was a monk. A monk 'professed' is a term indicating the
+higher grade to which not every brother in a monastery attained. The
+very term 'profession' may be traced to the cloister. In its usual
+acceptation it is modern.</p>
+
+<p>To dilate upon the various monastic orders, which were almost as
+numerous in the 13th century as the different religious denominations
+are in the 19th, would be out of place here. Suffice it to say that the
+English monasteries in Henry III.'s time counted by hundreds. But there
+were monasteries and monasteries. Some the homes of the scholar, the
+devout and the high-minded, the seats of learning and the resting-places
+of the studious and the aged, who hated war and tumult, and only longed
+for repose. Some that were mere hiding holes for the lazy and the
+incompetent, the failures among the younger sons of the gentry, who had
+not the power of pushing their way in the world, or whose career had
+been a disappointment. Such men, where all else failed, could get
+themselves admitted into some smaller religious house by the interest of
+the patron; sometimes bringing in a trifling addition to the common
+property, sometimes simply 'pitchforked' into a vacancy, it is difficult
+to say how. Then they became 'brethren' of the monastery, and sharers in
+most of the good things that it could offer; they were almost exactly in
+the same position as Fellows of Colleges were twenty years ago, holding
+their preferment for life, with this difference, that a Fellowship at
+the smallest College in Oxford or Cambridge always implied <i>some</i>
+qualification for the post. A College Fellow, at the worst, must have
+had some claims to learning or culture; whereas in the smaller and more
+remote monasteries a man might be scandalously ignorant, and yet gain
+admittance as a brother of the house.</p>
+
+<p>Between the highest and the lowest of that great army of monks,
+dispersed through the length and breadth of the land, when English
+monarchism had declined from its earlier ideal, there was as great a
+distance as there is at this moment between the Fellows of Balliol or
+Trinity, and the poor brethren of the Charterhouse, or the bedesmen in
+the cathedrals of the old foundation.</p>
+
+<p>In the first half of the 13th century English monarchism was at its
+best; the 12th century was emphatically the reformation age of British
+monarchism. All the many schemes for starting new orders with improved
+<i>Rules</i>, and all the efforts to improve the discipline of the religious
+houses and fan the fire of devotion among their members, assumed that
+the monasteries were then living institutions with vast powers for good;
+and institutions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> which needed only to be reformed to make them all that
+the most earnest and ardent enthusiast claimed that they ought to be,
+and might become. In the fifty years preceding the accession of King
+John, more than 200 monasteries had been built and endowed&mdash;some of them
+munificently endowed, and the only purely English order (that of St.
+Gilbert of Sempringham) had been founded, and in little more than fifty
+years could count no less than fourteen considerable houses. Englishmen
+believed in the monastic system as they have never believed in anything
+else since then; never have such prodigious sacrifices been made, never
+has such lavish munificence been shown by the <i>upper classes</i> as during
+the century ending with the accession of Edward I. In the next hundred
+years they were chiefly the townsmen and traders, not the landed
+proprietors, who emptied their money-bags into the lap of the Begging
+friars. Certainly the great religious houses at the end of the 13th
+century had the entire confidence of the country, and it is impossible
+to understand the long reign of Henry III. unless we are fully awake to
+the fact that then, too, the monasteries were not only thriving and
+powerful, but were institutions on whose help and power the people leant
+with an assured confidence, because they were pre-eminently the people's
+friends. But between the old foundations which had a history and the new
+houses that were springing up in every shire, some feeling of jealousy
+and soreness was sure to arise. The old abbeys, with a history that
+looked back into a past all clouds and mist, but none the less glorious
+for that, affected a supercilious tone towards the mushrooms that had of
+late sprouted into vigorous life. A man need not be an old man who can
+remember when the Eton and Winchester boys at the Universities affected
+an air of contempt for all the 'modern' places of education, and
+disdained to number such institutions as Cheltenham or Clifton among the
+'public schools.' These were all very well in their way, but where were
+their traditions? So with the older and grander Benedictine monasteries,
+with charters from Saxon kings, let alone anything else. Glastonbury,
+where men said two of the Apostles had built themselves a house of
+prayer, and where St. Patrick and St. Dunstan lay entombed; Canterbury,
+where Augustine, the English apostle, found a home; Malmesbury, where
+St. Aldhelm preached to the barbarous people, and when they tired of his
+sermon played to them upon his harp, and, anticipating Mr. Sankey, sang
+David's Psalms to the crowds that moved by him as they passed over the
+bridge of Avon. These venerable foundations, about whose origin a
+glamour of mystery had gathered, whose history had become strangely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+obscured by the body of myths that had grown up in the lapse of
+centuries&mdash;which had survived pillage and anarchy, and all the horrors
+of fire and sword, desolating, devastating&mdash;were there before men's
+eyes, testifying to the amazing vitality which a millennium of strange
+vicissitude had not only not destroyed, but not even impaired. Such a
+mighty pile of buildings, as had risen up to heaven there in the old
+Roman town of Verulam, appealed to the imagination of mankind&mdash;the very
+materials of the massive tower, ruddy in the blaze of the noon-day, must
+have been a wonder and astonishment to many an awe-struck pilgrim
+perplexed at the first sight of Roman bricks burnt on the spot a
+thousand years ago. There stood the mighty Roman rampart, vast,
+enormous&mdash;the ground beneath his feet teeming with the tangible memories
+of grisly conflict, or of an old civilization that had been blotted out
+long ago&mdash;the swords of Roman legionaries, the bones of British heroes,
+coins with legends that few could read turned up by the ploughman's
+share. Yonder, men said, away there at Redburn, the heathen pursuers had
+come upon England's proto-martyr and slain the saint of God, whose bones
+since then had been gathered up, and were now resting in their sumptuous
+shrine. When the Norman came, and the new order was set up in the
+land&mdash;not a day before it was needed&mdash;the thirteenth Abbot of St.
+Alban's was of the blood royal, and heir, they said, to Cnut, the Danish
+king, who had passed away. It was to him that the awful Conqueror made
+oath he would bind himself by the Confessor's laws, an oath which, if he
+ever meant to keep, he meant to interpret according to his mood. Even
+the very laxity and shortcomings of the abbots of generations back,
+which tradition, and something more to be trusted than tradition,
+declared to have been matters of scandal, proved no more than that the
+great Abbey could live through evil times, outride the storms which
+would wreck weaker vessels, and right itself, though overloaded with
+abuses which timid pilots would have shrunk from throwing overboard: and
+now that 400 years had passed since Offa, the Saxon king&mdash;(stirred
+thereto by Karl, the Emperor)&mdash;had founded the monastery in St. Alban's
+honour, and from generation to generation vast building operations had
+been going on almost without interruption, and the old Abbey still held
+up its head proudly, its Abbot taking precedence of every other in the
+land; any man might be excused for thinking that to become a monk of St.
+Alban's Abbey was to become a personage of no small consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Verily it was a great abbey in the days of King John. There, in the
+eighth year of that King's reign, was held that memorable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> council
+which, if it had been let alone, would doubtless have issued its protest
+against the intolerable aggression of the Pope and his <i>curia</i>. There,
+six years afterwards, another assembly was convened; the first occasion
+on which we find any historical proof that representatives were summoned
+to a national council in England. Eight times during his reign the
+ruffian King was himself a guest at the Abbey. Once after John's death,
+when Louis was desperately struggling to hold his own against young
+Henry's friends and supporters, he too came to St. Alban's, and
+threatened to give it over to fire and sword: only money saved it from a
+sack. There was always something to take, and yet always wonderful state
+kept up. The magnates in Church and State were for ever going in and
+out; the mere domestic expenditure was enormous. Yet, even when the
+country was groaning under horrible anarchy, and grinding taxation, and
+war and poverty, the building went on as if men lived only to glorify
+the great house, and to raise its church tower, or beautify the west
+front, or fill the windows with stained glass, or erect the splendid
+pulpit in the nave&mdash;a miracle of art.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a very great mistake to conclude that all this lavish
+expenditure implied the enjoyment of large rents from land. The revenue
+derived from the tenants of the Abbey and the profits of farming were no
+doubt considerable; but that revenue could never have sufficed alone to
+defray the cost of keeping up the establishment. In point of fact, when
+a monastery, great or small, depended wholly upon its landed property,
+it invariably got into debt; sometimes it got hopelessly into debt. It
+is clear that before the Dissolution a very large number of the
+religious houses were insolvent. The striking paucity in the number of
+'religious' at the time of the suppression&mdash;for hardly one house in ten
+had its full complement of inmates&mdash;is by no means wholly to be
+attributed to the reluctance on the part of people in general to take
+upon themselves the monastic vows. Where a monastery was financially in
+a critical condition, the brotherhood resorted to the expedient which is
+at this moment being carried out at more than one College in Oxford and
+Cambridge. Now, when times are bad, we temporarily suppress a
+Fellowship; then, on the death of a brother of the house, they chose no
+monk into his place.</p>
+
+<p>The income from landed estates at St. Alban's was probably at no time
+equal to what may be called the extraordinary income. The offerings at
+the shrines of SS. Alban and Amphibalus, the proceeds of the offertory
+at those magnificent and dramatic functions in which the multitude
+delighted, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> <i>douceurs</i> that were always expected and almost
+always given in return for hospitality, which only in theory was
+free,&mdash;these and many another source of profit, which the universal
+habit of giving money for 'pious uses' supplied, all made up a sum
+total, in comparison with which the proceeds of the rent-roll were
+insignificant. In the taxation of Pope Nicholas (<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 1291) the whole
+revenue of the Abbey from rent and dues in the liberty of St. Alban's is
+set down at 392<i>l.</i> 8<i>s.</i> 3-1/4d., a sum which in those days would go as far
+as 5000<i>l.</i> a-year now. Even granting that this was only half the net
+income derivable from the Abbey's estates, which were widely
+distributed, an expenditure of 10,000<i>l.</i> a year would go in our own time
+a very little way towards meeting the charges which such an enormous
+establishment involved. The mere keeping up the buildings at all times
+entailed a very heavy annual outlay. Already in the 13th century the
+precincts of the Abbey were overcrowded with palatial edifices, which
+were never pulled down except to make room for larger ones. There were
+acres of roofs within the Abbey walls.</p>
+
+<p>And what return was being made to the nation, that every rank and every
+class were keeping up a rivalry in munificence in favour of such an
+institution as this? What had they done, what were they doing, these
+seventy men, with their Abbot at their head, who were in the enjoyment
+of an income larger than that of many a principality? How was it that no
+one <i>in those days</i> accused them of being indolent drones? Mere burdens
+upon the earth, as they were called frequently enough, and loudly
+enough, and angrily enough, three centuries later? It was the age for
+the expansion of the monastic system&mdash;none then wished to sweep the
+monks away. One of the reasons why the monasteries had retained their
+hold upon the affection of the people, and were regarded with reverence
+and pride and confidence, lay in this, that they had moved with the
+times, and that the monasticism of the 13th was very different indeed
+from the monasticism of the 9th century. The primitive asceticism had
+almost vanished; it had not, however, died, leaving nothing in its
+place. No one now expected to find the religious houses filled with
+religious people, everyone holy, devout, and fervent; the personal
+sanctity of the inmates was one thing, the sanctity of their churches
+and shrines was quite another. In the old days the monks were separate
+from the world, living to save their own souls at best; examples to such
+as trembled at the wrath of God, and longed for the life to come. As
+time went on they mixed more boldly with the sinful world, and gradually
+they became more and more the illuminators of the darkness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> round them.
+Now they were regarded as in great measure the salt of the earth, and if
+that salt should lose its savour, where was such virtue elsewhere to be
+found? Personally, the men might be worldly&mdash;vicious, as a rule, they
+certainly were not&mdash;they were, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, what in our time
+would be called cultured gentlemen, courteous, highly educated and
+refined, as compared with the great mass of their contemporaries; a
+privileged class who were not abusing their privileges; a class from
+whence all the art and letters and accomplishments of the time emanated,
+allied in blood as much with the low as the high, the aristocracy of
+intellect, and the pioneers of scientific and material progress. The
+model farming of the 13th century would be regarded as barbaric by our
+modern theorists; but such as it was, it was only to be met with on the
+demesne lands of the larger monasteries, and was a prodigious advance
+upon the <i>petite culture</i> of the open fields. The Priory at Norwich made
+an income out of its garden in the days of Edward III., and probably
+much earlier; the pisciculture of the religious houses remains a mystery
+as yet unsolved; the skill exhibited in the management of the
+water-power of many a district round even the smaller houses, still
+awakes wonder in those who think it worth their while to study it. At
+St. Alban's, as at Glastonbury, St. Edmund's Abbey, and elsewhere, the
+culture of the vine was made profitable for generations. The monasteries
+were the first to give personal freedom to the villeins, and the first
+to commute for money payments the vexatious <i>services</i> which worried the
+best men and maddened the worst. The landlords in the 13th century were
+real <i>lords</i> of the <i>land</i>. They were, as a class, very poor, spite of
+the privileges they enjoyed and the power that they possessed of making
+themselves disagreeable; and though the constitution of a <i>manor</i> was a
+limited monarchy, and the <i>limits</i> were very many, yet the lord could
+exercise a great deal of petty tyranny in his little kingdom if he were
+so disposed. In the manors which were in the possession of the religious
+houses the lord was necessarily non-resident, and the tenants were left
+to manage their own affairs with very little interference. The tenants
+of the monasteries were in a far more favoured condition than the
+tenants of some small lord, needy and greedy, who extorted his dues
+literally to the last farthing, and who knew exactly what the best beast
+was, on the land that owed him a heriot; and, when the tenant was <i>in
+extremis</i>, kept a sharp look-out that a fat bullock or a promising young
+horse should not be driven off before the owner died.</p>
+
+<p>So the monasteries at the time we are now concerned with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> were regarded
+at once with pride and affection by the great bulk of the people; they
+were places of refuge where, in a turbulent time, men and women who had
+been stricken, bereaved or wronged, might find a quiet refuge and hide
+their heads and be forgotten and fall asleep, with the prayers of other
+sufferers to console and support them in their passage through the
+valley of the shadow of death. The gentlest spirits here could taste the
+bliss of a holy tranquillity; the ascetic could indulge his most
+fantastic self-immolation; the morbid visionary could dream at his will
+and give his imagination full play, none hindering him; evil demons
+might chatter and gibe and twit him at his prayers; choirs of angels
+might calm his despair with celestial lullabies; awful forms might rise
+from clouds of incense as the gorgeous procession moved along the vast
+church aisles, or stopped before some glittering shrine. What then? Who
+would question the reality of a miracle, or doubt that sublime
+revelations might be made to any holy monk as he wrestled in prayer with
+a rapture of the soul, and found himself lifted to the seventh heaven in
+ecstasy unutterable?</p>
+
+<p>What has been said applies mainly to the older houses, those which were
+under what may be called the <i>primitive</i> Benedictine rule. If men were
+moved to rigid asceticism, however, and had a taste for bald simplicity;
+if art, and music, and ornate architecture, had no charm for them, and
+they dreamt that God could only be sought and found in the wilderness,
+the Cistercian houses offered such a congenial asylum. The Cistercians
+were the Puritans of the monasteries, and appealed to that mysterious
+sentiment which makes some minds shrink with fear from the touch of
+luxury, and regard culture as antagonistic to personal holiness. The
+sentiment was strong in the reign of Henry II., when nineteen Cistercian
+houses were founded; but it is not improbable that other motives, beside
+mere taste for a stricter discipline, led to the foundation of eight
+more in the reign of King John. Meanwhile the Benedictines had become by
+far the most learned and most <i>educating</i> body in the land, and
+pre-eminent above them all was the great Abbey of St. Alban's. If it was
+not at this time the centre of intellectual life in England, it was
+because at this time centralization was unknown. Eadmer, Florence of
+Worcester, Gervase of Canterbury, William of Malmesbury, Simeon of
+Durham, were all 12th-century Benedictines. They were all students and
+writers of history, and history meant <i>literature</i> till Peter Lombard
+arose at the end of the 12th century and revolutionized the world of
+thought&mdash;at any rate the domain of logic. John of Salisbury fiercely
+assails the intellectual innovators of his time on the ground that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+new lights of the 12th century disdained to be students of history and
+affected contempt for the past. It was the old story; literary culture
+found itself in antagonism with scientific culture, and the vigorous
+childhood of scientific research was aggressive, insolent, and noisily
+insubordinate. The old seminaries, whose homes were in the Benedictine
+monasteries, refused to welcome the new learning. Its teachers settled
+themselves elsewhere; at Paris, on the other side of the water, they had
+a hard fight of it. Once in 1209 the Synod of Paris actually prohibited
+the reading of Aristotle's 'Metaphysics.' At Oxford they seem to have
+met with a more generous reception. Perhaps it was because that
+reception was too enthusiastic that King Stephen at the close of his
+miserable reign expelled Vacarius, the first teacher of scientific law
+in England. Whereupon young men of parts and ambition crossed the
+Channel, seeking and finding at Pavia and Bologna what was not to be had
+at home. The monastic schools held their own, and went on in the old
+groove; the intellectual revolution which soon came about by the agency
+of the Mendicant Orders was not yet dreamt of. St. Alban's, Malmesbury,
+and other such mighty foundations, stuck to the old studies, just as
+Eton and Winchester stuck to Latin Verse as the one thing needful, and
+reluctantly gave into the newfangled notion of having a 'modern side.'</p>
+
+<p>Outside the Abbey precincts, a hundred yards from the great gate, and
+separated from it by the <i>Rome land</i>, which may possibly have served the
+boys as a playground, stood the Grammar School. Whether it offered a
+different training from that which was usually supplied to the scholars
+who were under training in the cloister, it is difficult to say. Within
+the precincts, when the 13th century began, there stood the great
+church&mdash;enriched by the accumulated offerings of centuries, and glowing
+with dazzling splendour of jewels and cloth of gold, and glass that
+glorified the very sunshine, and wonders of sculpture and colour and
+needlework filling the heart to overflowing with inexplicable hopes and
+longings for an ideal that seemed possible of realization, if only the
+Church in heaven should be as far removed above the actual of the Church
+on earth, as the glories of the Church on earth were removed above the
+squalid life of the common workday world. All this in witness that the
+great Abbey was, first and foremost, a religious foundation, raised in
+the first instance to the glory of God, and meant to help forward the
+worship of God, and make the worship worthy of the Most High.</p>
+
+<p>But besides being primarily and emphatically a religious foundation, the
+Abbey in the 13th century had grown into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> something else, and had become
+the home of a corporation of scholars and students, who were the leaders
+of art and culture in an age when art and culture were to be met with
+nowhere outside the walls of a great monastery. There, in what might be
+called the museum of the Abbey, you might see no mean collection of
+antique gems that had once been the pride of Roman magistrates.
+Mysterious specimens of barbaric goldwork, fashioned by unknown
+craftsmen for the necks of nameless chieftains who had drawn the sword
+and perished, none knew when. Engraved gems that had been dug up in
+mysterious sepulchres, about which even imagination despaired of telling
+any story; relics of saints and martyrs, charters of Saxon kings,
+granted centuries before the Normans came to ring out the old and ring
+in the new. The wealth of mere arch&aelig;ological specimens at St. Alban's
+made it such a museum of antiquities as provokes wonder and bitterness,
+as we read the catalogue of what was once there, and has perished
+utterly and for ever.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>The range of buildings to the south of the church covered a far larger
+area than that which the church itself occupied. Uncertain though the
+exact site may be and is, there had already been added in Brother
+Matthew's time what we should now call an Art school, a Library, and,
+almost more famous than all, the Scriptorium. By-and-bye, too, came the
+printing-press which John Herford set up in 1480. Wynkyn de Worde was
+sometime schoolmaster of Saint Alban's, and Lady Juliana Berners' famous
+volume issued from the Abbey Press, while Caxton was still pursuing his
+craft in the almonry of another monastery at Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>In the days of King John, however, people had so little idea of the
+possibility of the printing-press, that they were almost equally
+ignorant of such a material as paper for literary purposes. Yet it is a
+huge mistake which has not yet been exploded, as it ought to be, that
+reading and writing were rare accomplishments in the 13th century.
+Knowledge of a certain kind was disseminated far more effectively and
+far more universally than is generally believed. The country parson was
+expected to be the schoolmaster of his parish, and generally was so, and
+there was hardly a village in England during the reign of Henry III, in
+which there were not one or more persons who could write a <i>clerkly</i>
+hand, draw up accounts in <i>Latin</i>, and keep the records of the various
+petty courts and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> gatherings that were continually being held, sometimes
+to the annoyance and grievous vexation of the rural population. The
+professional <i>writers</i> were so numerous, and their training so severe,
+that they had got for themselves privileges of a very exceptional kind;
+the <i>clerk</i> took rank with the <i>clergyman</i>, and the <i>writer</i> of a book
+was almost as much esteemed as its <i>author</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The scriptorium of a great monastery was at once the printing-press and
+the publishing office. It was the place where books were written, and
+whence they issued to the world. With the traditional exclusiveness of
+the older monasteries there was less desire, no doubt, to diffuse and
+disperse than to accumulate books, but the composing and the
+multiplication of books was always going on. The scriptorium was a great
+writing school too, and the rules of the art of writing which were laid
+down there were so rigidly and severely adhered to, that to this day it
+is difficult to decide at a glance whether a book was written in St.
+Alban's or St. Edmund's Abbey. Sometimes as many as twenty writers were
+employed at once, and besides these there were occasionally
+supernumeraries, who were professional scribes, and who were paid for
+their services; but nothing short of perfect penmanship, such trained
+skill, for instance, as would now be required for an engraver, would
+qualify a copyist to take part in the finished work, which the copying
+of important books required.</p>
+
+<p>One of the conclusions which Sir Thomas Hardy arrived at during the
+course of his minute examination of Sir Frederick Madden's theory is so
+curious, and opens out such an unexpected view of the way in which our
+monasteries may have been brought under the influence of foreign
+literature, that it is worth while in this connection to quote the great
+critic's own words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'After minutely examining every page of the manuscripts in
+question, as well as others, which were undoubtedly written
+in the monastery of St. Alban's, and comparing them with
+others executed in various parts of England and on the
+Continent, I can come to no other conclusion than that
+during the latter half of the 13th century, and perhaps a
+little earlier, there prevailed among the scribes in the
+Scriptorium of St. Alban's, a peculiar character of writing
+which is not recognizable in any other religious house in
+England during that period; but which is traceable in some
+foreign manuscripts, and even in private deeds executed in
+England in the neighbourhood of St. Alban's during the 12th
+and 13th centuries. These facts lead me to the inference,
+that <i>the schoolmaster who taught the art of writing to
+Matthew Paris and the other members and scholars of the
+establishment at St. Alban's was a foreigner</i>; that his
+pupils not only imitated their instructor in the formation
+of his letters, but also in his exceptional orthography.'</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>What questions suggest themselves as we accept the conclusion arrived
+at! Who was he, this 'foreigner,' who had come from across the sea to
+bring in his outlandish novelties into the great scriptorium? Was he
+some 'Frenchman' imported from sunny Champagne, where Thibaut, the
+mawkish singer was making verses which his people loved to listen to?
+Did he teach the young novices French as well as writing? Did he touch
+the lute himself on Feast-days, and charm them with some new lyric of
+Gasse Brusl&eacute;, or delight them with one of Rutebeuf's merry ditties?
+France was all alive with song at this time, and princes were rivals now
+for poetic fame. It may be that this 'foreigner' brought in a taste for
+light literature as well as for a new fashion in penmanship, and made
+known to his pupils such alluring novelties as the 'Roman d'Alexandre,
+soon to be eclipsed by the 'Roman de la Rose.'</p>
+
+<p>The scriptorium at St. Alban's was founded by Abbot Paul, a kinsman of
+Archbishop Lanfrance, when the great Abbey had already existed for three
+centuries. Paul became Abbot eleven years after the Conquest, and he
+showed himself an able and earnest administrator. From this time
+learning and a love of books became a tradition of the house. Abbot
+after abbot continued to add to the collection of MSS., and to increase
+the value of the library. But St. Alban's had never had a great
+historian of its own. Strange and shameful fact! East and west and north
+and south, all over the land, there were great writers holding up their
+proud heads. Out in the desolate wilds there at Peterborough, they had
+been actually keeping up a chronicle for centuries&mdash;aye, and written in
+the vernacular too. The lonely monastery of Ely, among the swamps, had
+its historian. Malmesbury boasted her learned William; and Worcester,
+which St. Wulstan had raised from the dust, as it were, only the other
+day, had already her Florence. In the great houses of the Northern
+Province there had been no lack of writers to whom the past was an open
+book. Even Westminster had long ago had her <i>chronographer</i>, and far
+away in furthest Wales, Geoffrey, the Monmouth man, was making men open
+their eyes very wide indeed with tales&mdash;idle tales they might be, but
+they were well worth the reading&mdash;and there was talk too of another
+young Welshman, Giraldus, who was on the way towards outdoing the other
+by-and-bye. What are we coming to? Holy St. Alban, shalt thou and thy
+house be put to shame?&mdash;that be far from us!</p>
+
+<p>Thus it came to pass that about a century after the foundation of the
+scriptorium, and when the library had grown to an imposing size, Abbot
+Simon bestirred himself, and a new office<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> was created in the Abbey, to
+wit, that of Historiographer. In our time we should have given this
+functionary a grander title, and called him Professor of History; but in
+the 12th century, they called him what he was, a writer of history, and
+from this time, in fact, the writing of history, after a certain
+authorized method, began, and what had been called, and deserves to be
+called, the St. Alban's School of History took its rise.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that before the 13th century had well begun, an historical
+compendium of great value had already been drawn up, which must have
+been compiled by careful students with a command of books such as during
+this age was rare.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The compilation,' says Dr. Luard, 'whenever and by
+whomsoever it was written must be regarded as a very curious
+and remarkable one. The very large number of sources
+consulted, the miscellaneous character of many of the
+extracts, the mixture of history and legend, the giving
+fixed years to stories which even writers like Geoffrey of
+Monmouth had left undated, the care at one time and the
+carelessness at another, the slavishness with which one
+authority is followed, and the recklessness with which
+another is altered, the frequent confusion of dates, their
+ignorance and want of care, the blunders displayed in many
+instances from the compiler not understanding the author
+whom he is copying, as is especially the case in the
+extracts from the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;" all these
+characteristics may well earn for the author the title that
+Lappenberg has given to him, though under the name of
+"Matthew of Westminster," namely, that of the "Verwirrer der
+Geschichte." At the same time there is no doubt that he had
+access to some materials which we no longer possess: and my
+object has been to trace all his statements, where possible,
+to their source, and to distinguish any additions that the
+compiler has made when they are merely rhetorical
+amplifications of his own, or when they are really from some
+source not now extant.'&mdash;Pref. to vol. i., p. xxxiii.</p></div>
+
+<p>After all that can be said, the work surprises us by the erudition it
+displays. Nor is that surprise lessened when we have gone through the
+masterly analysis of its contents, which Dr. Luard has given us in the
+Preface to his first vol. Such as it was, it became the great text-book
+on which Roger of Wendover founded his own labours when he incorporated
+it into the chronicle which he left behind him. Roger of Wendover did
+good work, and laboriously epitomized, supplemented and improved, but he
+was a mere literary monk after all; a student, a bookworm, simple,
+conscientious, and truthful; a trustworthy reporter, 'a picker-up of
+learning's crumbs,' a monkish historiographer, in short; but by no means
+a historian of large views and of original mind. Roger of Wendover died
+in 1236, and Matthew Paris succeeded to his office and work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From what has been said, the reader may be presumed to have gained
+something like an answer to our first question: <i>What</i> was Brother
+Matthew? Briefly, he was a representative monk of the most powerful
+monastery in England during the 13th century, when that monastery was at
+its best, and doing the work which in after times the Universities and
+great schools of the country took out of the hands of the religious
+houses; work, too, which since those days has been done by the
+printing-press, and by many other institutions better fitted to deal
+with the requirements of an immensely larger population, and to be the
+instruments of diffusing culture and refinement through the nation after
+it had outgrown the older machinery.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to look into the personal history of Brother Matthew, the
+details of his biography need not detain us long. Sir Henry Taylor's
+famous line is only half true, after all;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'The world knows nothing of its greatest men'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>really means that the world knows less about them than it would like to
+know. And yet the world knows almost as much about them as is good for
+it. The leading facts of a man's career are all that concern most of
+us&mdash;the main lines&mdash;not the details. Of Matthew Paris we know enough,
+because he has himself given us so faithful a picture of his times, and
+so charming an insight into the daily life which he led.</p>
+
+<p>Unnecessary doubt has been suggested as to his parentage, and whether
+his extraction was or was not from a stock that could boast of gentle
+blood. For our part we incline strongly to the belief, that Brother
+Matthew was called Paris because that was his name, and had been his
+father's name before him. A family of that name held lands in
+Bedfordshire in Henry III.'s time; others of the same stock were settled
+in Lincolnshire earlier still; and the Cambridgeshire family (one of
+whom was among the visitors of the monasteries under Henry VIII.)
+boasted of a long line of ancestors, and retained their estates in the
+Eastern Counties till late in the 17th century. Young Matthew probably
+received his education in the school at St. Alban's, and soon showed a
+decided taste for learning and the student's life, and that in the 13th
+century meant an inclination for the life of the cloister. Many a
+precocious lad is even now taught from his childhood to look forward to
+the glories of a College Fellowship, and the career which such an
+academic success may open to him; and in the 13th century a schoolboy's
+ambition was directed to the goal of admission to a great
+monastery&mdash;that step on the ladder which whosoever could reach, there
+was no knowing how high he might climb&mdash;how high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> above the common sons
+of earth or, if he preferred it, how high towards the heaven that is
+above the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Matthew was probably born about the year 1200, and in January 1217 he
+became a monk at St. Alban's, <i>i. e.</i>, he became a <i>novice</i>. At this
+time a lad could commence his noviciate at 15; but the age was
+subsequently advanced to 19, the younger limit having been found, as a
+rule, too early even for the preliminary discipline required. On the day
+after the lad was admitted, a frightful scene took place in the
+monastery. A band of Fawkes de Breaut&eacute;'s cut-throats had stormed the
+town of St. Alban's, burst into the Abbey, and slaughtered at the door
+of the church one Robert Mai, a servant of the Abbot. William de
+Trumpington was Abbot at this time, a vigorous and resolute personage,
+who ruled the convent with a firm hand. Like all really able men, he was
+ably seconded, for he knew how to choose his subordinates. At first the
+monks had repented of their choice, and there were quarrels and
+litigation and appeals to the Pope, and many serious 'unpleasantnesses;'
+but as time went on, Abbot William had won the allegiance of all the
+convent, and they were proud of him. He was a man of books, among his
+other virtues, and had an eye for bookish men; and when he deposed Roger
+de Wendover from being Prior of Belvoir with a somewhat high hand, and
+brought him back to St. Alban's, he doubtless did so because he knew
+that at Belvoir he was a square man in a round hole, while in the
+scriptorium of the Abbey he would be in his right place. Certainly the
+event proved that the Abbot was right, and it was to this judicious
+removal of a student and man of letters to his proper home that we owe
+so much of our knowledge of those interesting minuti&aelig; of English history
+which the writer has revealed. It was under the eye of Robert de
+Wendover that Matthew Paris grew up, rendering him every year more and
+more substantial assistance in the library and in the scriptorium.</p>
+
+<p>But the young man was not only a bookworm and a copyist, he soon got to
+be looked upon as a prodigy. He was a universal genius; he could do
+whatever he set his hand to, and better than any one else. He could
+draw, and paint, and illuminate, and work in metals. Some said he could
+even construct maps; he was versed in everything, and noticed everything
+from 'the cedar that is in Lebanon to the hyssop upon the wall;' he was
+an expert in heraldry; he could tell you about whales, and camels, and
+buffaloes, and elephants&mdash;he could even draw an elephant&mdash;illustrate his
+history, in fact, with the elephant's portrait, the first elephant, he
+says, that had ever been seen in our northern climes. It was centuries
+before men had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> dreamt of what the science of geology would one day
+reveal. Then, too, he had vast capacity for work, and was a courtly
+person, and he had the gift of tongues, and had been a great traveller;
+he had early been sent by the convent to study at the University of
+Paris, and wherever he went, he was the man to make friends. When the
+Benedictines in Norway had convinced themselves that there was sore need
+of a reform of their rule and discipline, they applied to Pope Innocent
+IV. to send them a Visitor furnished with the necessary authority for
+carrying out so delicate and difficult a mission, and they made choice
+of Matthew Paris as the fittest possible person for such a work.
+Reluctantly Brother Matthew was compelled to undertake the task; he
+started on his northern voyage in 1248, and was absent about a year. In
+Norway he soon grew into high favour with King Hacon, who peradventure
+would have kept him at his side if he could. This seems to have been the
+most important episode in his otherwise uneventful life. But the
+advantages and opportunities which were at the command of any ambitious
+and studious young monk at St. Alban's were in themselves extraordinary.
+We have said that building was always going on. It was going on on a
+very large scale indeed in Abbot William's time. That means that there
+were the plans and sections and working drawings to be copied for the
+architect, and measurements and calculations by the thousand to be
+made&mdash;<i>a school of architecture</i>, in short: and besides that, what Roger
+de Wendover was in the scriptorium, that Walter of Colchester, <i>pictor
+et sculptor incomparabilis</i>, was in the painting room. Walter was a
+sculptor; indeed he wrought at his marvellous pulpit which the Abbot set
+up in the middle of the church: and he carved the story of St. Alban
+upon the great beam over the high altar, and did many another thing of
+which we have only too brief descriptions. Then, too, there was Richard,
+the monk who decorated the grand new guests' hall <i>deliciose</i>, as we are
+told, and who painted pictures and carried out other works of
+embellishment at a pace which none could have kept up, but that he had
+his father to help him with his brush, and another artist, John of
+Wallingford, to carry out his great designs, and many more skilled
+limners whose names have gone down into silence.</p>
+
+<p>When Abbot William's reign came to an end, the monks were unanimous in
+choosing John of Hertford as his successor, and the new Abbot lost no
+time in showing favour to Matthew Paris. Next year Roger de Wendover
+died, and who could there be so worthy to succeed him as historiographer
+as the versatile and accomplished brother, who by this time was the
+boast of the great house? And historiographer accordingly Matthew
+became&mdash;<i>mutatis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> mutandis</i>, a sort of 13th-century editor of the
+'Times;' his business was to gather from all points of the compass, if
+not the latest news, yet the best and most trustworthy reports upon
+whatever was worth recording. He had his correspondents all over Europe,
+and that he sifted the evidence as it came to him we know.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever there was any great event that deserved a place in the Abbey
+Chronicle, some splendid pageant to describe, some battle, or treaty, or
+pestilence, or flood, or famine, straightway tidings came to the
+vigilant historiographer; and there was a comparison of the evidence
+brought in, and some testing of witnesses, and finally the narrative was
+drawn up and incorporated into Matthew's history. Again and again it
+happened that a great personage who, while himself <i>making</i> history, was
+anxious that his own part in a transaction should be represented
+favourably, would try and get the right side of the famous chronicler,
+and would furnish him with private information. Even the King himself
+thought it no scorn to communicate facts and documents to Brother
+Matthew. Once when Henry saw him in a crowd on a memorable occasion, he
+picked him out, and bade him take his seat by his side, and see to it
+that he made a true and faithful report of what was going on; and it is
+evident that the royal favour which he enjoyed through life must have
+extended to furnishing him with many a story and many a detail which
+none but the King could have supplied. The minute account of the attempt
+to assassinate Henry in 1238; the curious State paper giving a narrative
+of the dispute between the King and his nobles in 1242; the strange
+scene at the tomb of William Marshall in 1245, and scores of other
+incidents in the career of Bishop Grossteste and Richard of Cornwall,
+were evidently 'inspired,' and can only have come from eye-witnesses of
+the events recorded. Nevertheless Matthew, though he was willing enough
+to receive information, and to utilise facts and documents, was by no
+means the man to reproduce them exactly in the form in which they came
+to him. More than once he ventured to remonstrate with the King, and
+very much oftener than once he expresses his opinion of him in no
+measured terms. Some of the severest censures he had marked for
+omission, and some expressions he modified considerably, for we have the
+good fortune to possess his chronicle both in an earlier and in a later
+form; but even though the fuller and more outspoken record had perished,
+we should still have had enough proof to make it clear that we have in
+Matthew Paris an instance of a born historian, one who never consented
+to be a mere advocate, taking a side and seeing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> only half the truth of
+anything; but a man gifted with the judicial faculty, that precious gift
+without which a man may be anything you please&mdash;a rhetorician, a special
+pleader, a picturesque writer, a laborious collector of facts; but an
+historian never. And yet Matthew Paris was a magnificent hater, with a
+fund of indignant scorn and righteous anger which never fails him upon
+occasion. Friend of King and nobles as he was, he will not spare his
+words of wrathful censure upon the tyrant, or upon any that he held
+deserving of rebuke for cruelty, oppression and avarice. When he has to
+lay the lash on such as had proved themselves enemies to his much-loved
+Abbey, or who had wronged and defrauded it, he is well-nigh as fierce as
+Dante. He singles them out&mdash;the doomed wretches&mdash;and holds them, as it
+were, over the fire of hell before he drops them down into the burning
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>Did Ralph Cheinduit, that blustering, burly knight, cry aloud 'A fig for
+St. Alban and his monks! Since they excommunicated me&mdash;look you! I have
+only increased in girth, behold me fat and jolly, in faith almost too
+big for my saddle. A fig for them all!' Did he say so, the impious
+wretch? Be it known that from that very day Sir Knight began to shrink
+and waste and pine, and if he had not repented and been absolved in
+time, he had gone down to the bottomless pit with never a hope of
+deliverance.</p>
+
+<p>Did not Sir Adam Fitz William show the evil spirit that was in him when
+he sided against us time and again? And now, look to his awful end!
+Gorged with meat and drink one night, he sprawled upon his bed,
+<i>indigestus</i>, as you may say, and he never woke more. Aye! and he died
+intestate too. And as though that was not bad enough, his wife too died,
+straightway, like another Sapphira slain by the shock of the tidings.
+And then there was Alan de Beccles, too, always notorious for setting
+himself against us and our house, he too perished as the other did, for
+he loved choice dainties overmuch, and he dined late and he ate as none
+should eat, and when he could eat no more, suddenly his speech failed
+him and his veins burst, smitten with an apoplexy. And many another,
+whom it would take too long to name, following his evil course, and
+being prosecutors of Holy Alban's Church, perished for ever by God's
+vengeance.</p>
+
+<p>It is no longer the fashion now to denounce the Pope and his myrmidons,
+but if the rage of Exeter Hall should ever recur, and the orators of the
+old platform should revive a taste for anti-papal agitation, they might
+find in Matthew Paris as rich a repertory of testimonials against Roman
+aggression and greed as the most rabid Irish Protestant could desire. 'O
+thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> Pope,' he bursts out once, 'thou the father of all the fathers in
+Christ, how it is that thou sufferest the realms of Christendom to be
+fouled by such creatures as are thine?' The 'creatures' were the papal
+legates and nuncios and all their belongings, who were plundering
+England without shame. 'Harpies they were and blood-suckers,' says
+Matthew, 'mere plunderers, skinning the sheep, not shearing them only.'
+Then there were the King's Justiciars&mdash;'Justice'&mdash;nay, with that they
+had nothing to do. Why tell of their unrighteous deeds? he asks. 'Better
+forbear from vainly writing about the <i>wrongers</i>, and return to the
+story of the wronged.'</p>
+
+<p>Of course the friars come in for their share of strong words&mdash;chiefly
+because the Pope made use of them so vilely, and not less because they
+set themselves above their betters&mdash;us, to wit&mdash;monks of the old houses.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'They started with such fair professions, they were going to
+be so very poor, and so very unworldly, and were going to
+supplement our work and interfere with nobody, and give us
+all a helping hand. Look at them now!' says Matthew; 'they
+march through the streets in pompous array with banners
+flaunting in the sun and waxen tapers, and rich burghers in
+holiday garments joining in the long train, and if they have
+no land they have money, good store, and as for their
+churches, they are eclipsing us all. Their invasion of our
+territory is a dreadful scandal, and they sneer at us and at
+all other religious men and women and they flout the parish
+priests and call them humdrums, and schism is at work
+horribly, and the people are running away from the old
+guides, and there is no end to them. Actually in the year of
+grace 1257,' he says, 'a new order of these fellows turned
+up in London. Friars of the sack, forsooth, because they
+were clothed in sackcloth! Of course they came armed with a
+papal licence as usual. What did these fellows come for? Was
+it to make confusion worse confounded? Alas! Alas! If we had
+only been as we were in the golden age, these friars would
+never have had a chance&mdash;not they! We too are not as the
+monks of old were; they lived the guileless life&mdash;austere,
+hard, self-denying, saintly! What are we in comparison with
+them?</p>
+
+<p>'Did not we find the bones of our brethren there, hard by
+the High Altar, when we were beautifying the same? O ye
+degenerate sons of this degenerate age! Two centuries ago
+and our monks were men of faith and prayer. In the year of
+grace one thousand two hundred and fifty-one, we found more
+than thirty of them buried together, and their bones were
+lying there, white and sweet, redolent with the odor of
+sanctity every one; each man had been buried as he died, in
+his monastic habit, and his shoes upon his feet too. Aye,
+and <i>such</i> shoes&mdash;shoes made for wear and not for
+wantonness. The soles of these shoes were sound and strong,
+they might have served the purpose for poor men's naked feet
+even now, after centuries of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> lying in the grave. Blush ye!
+ye with your buckles, and your pointed toes and your fiddle
+faddle. These shoes upon the holy feet that we dug up were
+as round at the toe as at the heel, and the latchets were
+all of one piece with the uppers. No rosettes in those days,
+if you please! They fastened their shoes with a thong, and
+they wound that thong around their blessed ankles, and they
+cared not in those holy days whether their shoes were <i>a
+pair</i>. Left foot and right foot each was as the other: and
+we, when we gazed at the holy relics&mdash;we bowed our heads at
+the edifying sight, and we were dumbfounded, even to awe, as
+we swung our censers over the sacred graves of the ages
+past!'</p></div>
+
+<p>The anecdotes and out-of-the-way pieces of information in the 'Chronica
+Majora,' which may be said to represent the <i>paragraphs</i> of modern
+journalism, are countless. Brother Matthew enlivens his history with
+these cross-lights at every page, and what gives to these scraps an
+added charm is that Matthew himself seems to be always with us when he
+prattles on. Not even Herodotus has succeeded more entirely in
+impressing his quaint personality upon his narrative. It is always
+something which he has seen, or heard from some living man who saw it
+with his own eyes.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'There was my friend John of Basingstoke, had studied at
+Paris, and a wonder of learning he was, but he told me
+himself that his best teacher by far was the young lady
+Constantina, daughter of an archbishop she. Archbishop of
+Athens, too&mdash;archbishops may marry out there! Before she was
+twenty she knew all that men may know; she was worth two
+universities of Paris any day; she foretold the coming of
+plagues and storms, and eclipses&mdash;and&mdash;more wonderful
+still&mdash;the coming of earthquakes too: and John of
+Basingstoke was her scholar, and whatever he knew that was
+deep and rare, he learnt it of the lady Constantina, the
+Archbishop's daughter.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Matthew is very great when he has to tell of omens and portents:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'We were scurvily treated by Pope Innocent III.,' he says,
+'in the days of Abbot John. Spite of all our privileges and
+indulgences, the Pope would have him come to Rome every
+third year; a sore burden and harm to us all. Forthwith evil
+omens came. Thrice in three years was our tower struck by
+lightning. After that wrong of his Holiness it was no wonder
+that the impression of the papal seal in wax, which we had
+taken good care to fix on the top of the steeple, availed
+not to keep off the thunderbolt&mdash;small good you see in that
+kind of thing.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Besides the miscellaneous paragraphs, there are periodical reports of
+the weather, and the storms, and the droughts, and the harvests.
+Moreover, there are what answer to our police<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> reports, and details of
+criminal proceedings against Jew and Gentile, and births and deaths and
+marriages, and now and then brief notes upon the state of the markets,
+and sometimes hints and reflections upon the desirability of certain
+reforms in Church and State; and all this not in the spirit of modern
+journalism, which at its best too often bears the marks of haste, and
+betrays the literary soldier of fortune paid for his work at so much a
+column, but genuine, hearty, throbbing with a certain passionate loyalty
+to a tradition, or an idea which you may say is exploded, grotesque, or
+fanciful, but which in the 13th century honest men and devout ones lived
+by and lived for, and were trying in their own way to carry out into
+action.</p>
+
+<p>But now that we have got this precious 'Chronicle,' not to mention other
+works in the composition of which Brother Matthew had at least a large
+share&mdash;though our space forbids us dwelling upon them or their contents,
+and we must refer our readers to Dr. Luard's elaborate prefaces if they
+would desire to know all about them&mdash;another question suggests itself,
+which sooner or later will become a pressing question&mdash;What are we going
+to do with such a national work of which this country has great reason
+to be proud?</p>
+
+<p>The days are gone by when a man was supposed to be educated in
+proportion as he was familiar with the literature of Greece and Rome and
+ignorant of everything else. Already at Oxford candidates for the
+highest honours in the final schools think it no shame to read their
+Plato or their Aristotle in English translations, and in half the time
+that was needed under the old plan they get a mastery of their
+Thucydides or Herodotus, devoting themselves to the subject-matter after
+they have proved at 'Moderations' that they have a respectable
+acquaintance with the language of the authors.</p>
+
+<p>May the day be far off when Homer and &AElig;schylus shall cease to be read in
+the original! The great writers of Hellas and Italy were poets or
+orators, great teachers or great thinkers; but they were something more.
+They were perfect instrumentalities too. Their thoughts, their lessons,
+their aspirations, their regrets, you may interpret and transfer into
+the speech and the idioms of the moderns; but the music of their
+language, the subtleties of melody and rhythm, and harmony and tone, can
+no more be translated than a symphony for the strings can be adequately
+represented upon the organ. You may persuade yourself that you have got
+the substance; you have missed the perfection of the form. Yet who but a
+narrow pedant will insist that the study of any literature, ancient or
+modern, is valuable chiefly for familiarizing us with the language, not
+for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> enriching our minds with the subject matter? Do we desire to
+understand the past and so to be better able to estimate the importance
+of great movements that are going on in the present or, by the help of
+the experience of bygone ages, to forecast the future? Then it behoves
+us to see that our induction shall be made from as wide a view as may
+be, and to avail ourselves of any light that may be gained. But it is
+mere waste of time to be for ever staring at the lamp which may be
+pretty to look at in itself, but is then most precious when it serves as
+a means to an end. If we are ever to construct a Science of History, the
+old methods must give place to something which may approximate to
+philosophic enquiry. When we come to think of it, how very small an area
+of time or space is covered by the historians of Greece and Rome: how
+small an area and how superficially dealt with! Even Thucydides hardly
+ventures to lift the veil which separates the civilization of his own
+age from that of an earlier period; he lifts it for a moment, then drops
+the curtain and passes on. It is true indeed that Herodotus introduces
+us to a world that is not Hellenic, and brings us into some sort of
+relation with men whose habits and art and religion had a character of
+their own; but then these nations were not as we, and not as men even of
+our race could ever become. We never seem to be <i>in touch</i> with Egypt or
+Assyria, and when he prattles on about these nations it is less as a
+historian than as an observant traveller that Herodotus delights and
+allures. Xenophon's passing notices of the manners and education, of the
+<i>feudalism</i> and the social life of the Medes, are too brief to be
+anything but tantalizing; but the neglect of Xenophon by professed
+students is not creditable, however significant. Perhaps of all the
+Greek writers Polybius was the man who had the truest conception of the
+historian's vocation; perhaps, too, it was just because he was so much
+before his age that his voluminous and ambitious work has come down to
+us little more than a fragment. Because he was something better than a
+compiler of annals, they who read history only to be amused found him
+dull, and the moderns have not yet reversed the verdict which was passed
+upon him. Who ever heard of a candidate for honours taking Polybius into
+the schools?</p>
+
+<p>It is from the Latin historians that we might have expected so much and
+from whom we get so little. What do they tell us of ancient Spain&mdash;the
+Spain that Sertorius pretended he was going to regenerate, and whose
+civilization, literature, and national life he did so much to
+extinguish? If it were not for what Aristotle has told us in the
+<i>Politics</i>, what should we know of that mighty commercial Republic which
+monopolized the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> carrying trade of the old world? It never seems to have
+occurred to Livy that the political organization of Carthage could be
+worth his notice. His business was to glorify Rome, and to tell how Rome
+grew to greatness&mdash;grew by war and conquest and pillage, and the
+ferocious might of her relentless soldiery. The 'Germania' of Tacitus
+stands alone&mdash;unique in ancient literature; but what would we not give
+for such a monograph upon the Britain which C&aelig;sar attempted to conquer,
+or the Gaul which he plundered and devastated? The great captain's
+famous missive might be inscribed as the motto of his 'Commentaries.'
+Veni! vidi! vici! sums up in brief the substance of what they contain.
+It was always Rome's way! Rome swept a sponge that was soaked in blood
+over all the past of the nations she subdued. She came to obliterate,
+never to preserve. Her chroniclers disdained to ask how these or those
+doughty antagonists had grown formidable, how their national life had
+developed; whether their progress had been arrested by the conquerors or
+whether they had become weak and enervated by social deterioration or
+moral corruption. Enough that they were <i>Barbarians</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The science of history can be but little advanced by writers such as
+these, who pass from battlefield to battlefield&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Crimson-footed, like the stork,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Through great ruts of slaughter,'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and to whom the silent growth of institutions and the evolution of
+ethical sentiments and the development of the arts of peace were matters
+which never presented themselves as worthy of their attention. You may
+call this history if you will, in truth it is little better than
+Empiricism. The world is a larger world than Rome or Athens dreamt of,
+and students of history are beginning to realize that not quite the last
+thing they have to do is 'to look at <i>home</i>.' Such a work as the
+'Chronica Majora' of Matthew Paris is a national heritage which it is
+shameful to allow much longer to be known only by the curious and
+erudite. Now that there is no excuse for our neglect, is it too much to
+hope that the day may not be far distant when the name of this great
+Englishman may become as familiar to schoolboys as that of Sallust or
+Livy, of Cornelius Nepos or C&aelig;sar&mdash;his name as familiar, and his
+writings better known and more loved?</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Lord Langdale resigned three weeks before his death.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The proposal to print and publish the <i>Calendars</i> had been
+approved by authority of the new Record Commissioners as early as
+January 1840. <i>See</i> preface to Mr. Lemons' 'Calendar' (Domestic,
+1547-1580), p. viii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> In Luard's sixth volume there are two facsimiles of certain
+coloured drawings of the more precious gems at St. Alban's, with careful
+descriptions of them, these and the illustrations being most probably
+<i>executed by Mathew Paris himself</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Art_II_1_The_Christian_Brothers_their_Origin_and_Work_with_a" id="Art_II_1_The_Christian_Brothers_their_Origin_and_Work_with_a"></a>Art. II. 1.&mdash;<i>The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work, with a
+sketch of the Life of their Founder, The Venerable Jean Baptiste de la
+Salle.</i> By Mrs. R. F. Wilson, London, 1883.</h2>
+
+<h2>2. <i>La Premi&egrave;re Ann&eacute;e d'Instruction Morale et Civique: notions de droit
+et d'&eacute;conomie politique (Textes et R&eacute;cits) pour r&eacute;pondre &agrave; la loi du 28
+Mars 1882 sur l'enseignement primaire obligatoire: ouvrage accompagn&eacute; de
+R&eacute;sum&eacute;, de Questionnaires, de Devoirs, et d'un Lexique des mots
+difficiles.</i> Par Pierre Laloi. Quatorzi&egrave;me Edition. Paris, 1885.</h2>
+
+<h2>3. <i>Report of the Committee of Council on Education</i> (England and
+Wales). 1884-85.</h2>
+
+<h2>4. <i>Seventy-fourth Annual Report of the Incorporated National Society.</i>
+1885.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Most travellers in France will have met occasionally in Paris and in the
+provincial towns a school of boys walking two and two, and followed by a
+serious-looking superintendent of very solemn deportment. The boys are
+in no marked respect different from other boys, but they are orderly and
+well conducted. They are probably on their way to a church; and if you
+watch them, you will see them march in with much propriety. The
+superintendent is evidently not an ordinary schoolmaster; you would
+suppose that he is an ecclesiastic of some kind. He wears a loose black
+cloak, a hat with a low crown and a portentous brim, and bands such as
+were much worn by English clergymen till late years, and which, when
+strongly developed, were supposed to indicate a sympathy with
+Calvanistic theology. Nevertheless, the solemn-featured young man is not
+an ecclesiastic, neither is he a Protestant minister. He is one of the
+Fr&egrave;res Chr&eacute;tiens, or Christian Brothers; and the boys whom he has under
+his charge are pupils in one of the &Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes, or Christian
+Schools.</p>
+
+<p>We will venture to assume, that some of our readers are not well
+acquainted with the story and the principles of the remarkable
+institution known as the Schools of the Christian Brothers, or with the
+life of their remarkable founder. We propose in this article to supply
+some information upon the subject, not only because we think that such
+information will be interesting in itself, but also because we believe
+that from the story of the work and principles of the French schools of
+the Christian Brothers, we may proceed without difficulty, and almost by
+necessary consequence, to some useful considerations with respect to
+English schools as now established and conducted amongst ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>Jean Baptiste de la Salle was born in Rheims, April 30,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> 1651. The house
+in which he was born is still standing, and is regarded with reverence.
+He came of a noble family, which was originally of Bearn. His
+grandfather settled at Rheims, of which he became an honoured citizen,
+but was apparently in no way himself remarkable. His second son, Louis,
+was the father of a child, who received the name of Jean Baptiste on the
+same day as that upon which he was born.</p>
+
+<p>This child, whose career we purpose briefly to follow as that of the
+founder of the Christian Brothers, exhibited early signs of a devotional
+spirit; he learned to recite the Breviary from his grandfather, and
+continued to do so even before being bound to the practice by his
+ordination vows; and he soon made it clear to himself and to others that
+his vocation was that of the priestly office. His conduct as a student
+in the University of Rheims, which he entered at eight years old, was
+marked by diligence in study and gentle docility.</p>
+
+<p>Before he had reached the age of sixteen he was made a canon of the
+cathedral; such were the strange ecclesiastical possibilities of those
+times. An aged relative resigned in his favour, and died the following
+year. The preferment, however, did not spoil him; he looked upon it as a
+call to duty. He was diligent in attendance upon the offices of the
+Church, diligent in private prayer, diligent in study&mdash;in every way a
+remarkable boy-canon!</p>
+
+<p>In October 1670 he entered the seminary of St. Sulpice in Paris, where,
+amongst other fellow-students, was F&eacute;nelon, subsequently the great
+Archbishop of Cambrai. Little is recorded of his seminary life, except
+that it was gentle, modest, blameless. In 1672 he lost his father, and
+in the same year returned to Rheims to take charge of his younger
+brothers and sisters. The responsible position in which he was thus
+placed seems to have shaken for a time his persuasion that he had a true
+vocation for the priesthood; but after consultation with a friend who
+knew him well, his doubts vanished, and on the eve of Trinity Sunday in
+this same year he was admitted to the subdiaconate.</p>
+
+<p>Then follow six years of quiet home work and retirement. During this
+time he attended the theological course of the University, provided for
+the education of his brothers and sisters, and gave himself very
+earnestly to prayer and good works. In the year 1678, on Easter Eve, he
+was ordained Priest.</p>
+
+<p>During all this time De la Salle's attention does not seem to have been
+turned to that which ultimately became the great work of his life. As
+not unfrequently happens, the real bent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> was given to his energies by
+what might be described as accidental circumstances. The friend whom he
+consulted when in doubt concerning holy orders was one Canon Roland.
+This good man had interested himself much about an orphanage for girls
+at Rheims, which had fallen under bad management, and urgently needed
+reform. Canon Roland was taken ill just before De la Salle's ordination,
+and, dying not long after, left the young priest his executor,
+commending to his special care the orphanage just mentioned. De la Salle
+could not refuse the charge; it was not much to his taste, but it was
+the bequest of his friend; it was the leading of God; and he girded
+himself to the task. He applied through the Archbishop to the King for
+letters patent recognizing the institution, and thus put it upon a
+lasting foundation; he bore the expense of the whole transaction; then
+he supplemented the funds out of his own means; and having thus
+satisfied his obligations to his deceased friend, he returned to his
+quiet devotional life. The thought that this orphanage for girls would
+constitute a valuable training school for schoolmistresses seems already
+to have crossed his mind.</p>
+
+<p>Now comes the turning-point of De la Salle's life, and it comes in a
+curious way. There was a certain rich, fashionable, and extravagant
+married lady living in Rouen, who, like the rich man in the parable, was
+clothed in fine linen and fared sumptuously every day, while Lazarus lay
+at the gate. One day a poor beggar, who had been harshly repulsed from
+the door, touched the heart of a servant by his manifest misery, and was
+received into the stables, where he died the same night. The dead man
+must needs be buried; so the servant went to the mistress, confessed his
+fault, received some violent language and notice of dismissal, but at
+the same time procured a sheet to serve as a shroud for the corpse. At
+dinner-time the lady perceived the very sheet, which she had given for
+the burial, folded up and lying in her own chair; some mysterious hand
+had brought back the ungracious present, as though the deceased beggar
+would not receive a favour in death from one who had been so cruel to
+him in life.</p>
+
+<p>This strange and apparently not very important occurrence changed the
+whole course of the lady's life. She gave up all her old habits of
+magnificence and extravagance, lived the life of a devotee, and soon
+succeeded in separating from herself all her old companions and friends,
+who, in fact, deemed her mad. After her husband's death she became still
+more strict in her habits, and devoted to the service of the poor a
+large part of her fortune.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Amongst other charities which she assisted was the female orphanage, of
+which we have already spoken as having been cared for by Canon Roland,
+and after his death by M. de la Salle. She conceived the idea of
+establishing something of the same kind for boys in her native town of
+Rheims, and she consulted Canon Roland on the subject. Ultimately she
+engaged a devout layman, named Adrien Nyel, who had experience of poor
+schools in Rouen, promised him maintenance for himself and a young
+assistant, gave him a letter of introduction to her relative M. de la
+Salle, and sent him to Rheims to open a school there for poor boys.</p>
+
+<p>This school, which was commenced in 1679, was the germ of the great
+system of <i>&Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes</i>. Its success led a pious lady in Rheims
+to wish to establish another of the same kind in a different part of the
+town. She consulted M. de la Salle, who had become patron of the first
+school, on the subject; and thus he became, without any special wish or
+intention of his own, drawn into the work of the education of poor boys.
+His own account of the matter is worth quoting:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'It was,' he wrote, 'by the chance meeting with M. Nyel, and
+by hearing of the proposal made by that lady [to whom
+reference has been made], that I was led to begin to
+interest myself about boys' schools. I had no thought of it
+before. It was not that the subject had not been suggested
+to me. Many of M. Roland's friends had tried to interest me
+about it, but it took no hold of my mind, and I had not the
+least intention of occupying myself with it. If I had ever
+thought that the care which out of pure charity I was taking
+of schoolmasters would have brought me to feel it a duty to
+live with them, I should have given it up at once; for as I
+naturally felt myself very much above those whom I was
+obliged to employ as schoolmasters, especially at first, the
+bare idea of being obliged to live with such persons would
+have been insupportable to me. In fact, it was a great
+trouble to me when first I took them into my house, and the
+dislike of it lasted for two years. It was apparently for
+this reason that God, who orders all things with wisdom and
+gentleness, and who does not force the inclinations of men,
+when He willed to employ me entirely in the care of schools,
+wrought imperceptibly and during a long space of time, so
+that one engagement led to another in an unforeseen way.'</p></div>
+
+<p>This passage somewhat anticipates events; but it is convenient for the
+condensed character of this narrative that it should be so. We will
+therefore briefly fill up the gap left by M. de la Salle's own statement
+by saying, that he found the work of directing schools for the poor
+increase upon his hands in a wonderful manner. The success of those
+which he visited and superintended led to the establishment of others.
+Soon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> masters themselves formed a small body which required
+superintendence and guidance. He took a house in which he placed them;
+the home of course needed rules for its orderly and efficient working;
+these M. de la Salle supplied. But still all was not quite as it should
+be. Cathedral duties took up much of the Canon's time; these duties were
+of primary obligation, and left comparatively little of the day to be
+given to the superintendence of schoolmasters. But more than this, the
+difference of station and comfort and habits between a well-endowed
+Canon of a Cathedral, enjoying in addition a private fortune of his own,
+and poor schoolmasters taken from the humblest ranks, and living in the
+most humble manner, was quite immeasurable. It was comparatively easy to
+have the whole company to dine with him, and so to meet them half way
+down the social hill; but this was not enough. M. de la Salle began
+gradually to realize the fact, that his great undertaking of supplying
+schools and schoolmasters for the gratuitous education of the poor,
+could only be crowned with complete success on the condition of his own
+adoption of poverty in all its thoroughness. Accordingly he determined
+to resign his canonry and spend his fortune upon the poor. Not
+altogether so easy a thing as might at first sight appear. Great
+opposition was made by his friends: the Archbishop was unwilling to
+accept his resignation: nothing but persevering determination on the
+part of De la Salle could have carried the business through; but he was
+full of perseverance and full of determination, and in 1683 he at last
+succeeded in divesting himself of his Cathedral preferment. The sale of
+his property, and spending the money upon the poor, was an easier
+matter, especially as the year 1684 was one of dearth; in the course of
+that year and the following he managed to get rid of all.</p>
+
+<p>This parting with his money, instead of spending it upon his great work,
+may well seem to be a conduct of doubtful wisdom; especially as at a
+later period much difficulty was encountered for want of funds. But it
+is hard, and perhaps not justifiable, to find fault with a man, who
+adopts the course of selling all that he has and giving to the poor,
+after using devoutly such a prayer as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'My God, I do not know whether to endow or not. It is not
+for me to found communities, or to know how they should be
+founded. It, is for Thee, Oh my God. Thou knowest how, and
+canst do it in the way which is pleasing to Thee. If Thou
+foundest them, they will be well founded. If Thou foundest
+them not, they will be without foundation. I beseech Thee,
+my God, make me know Thy will.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Soon after the last livre was spent, De la Salle had occasion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> to make a
+journey in connection with his work. He went on foot, as needs he must,
+and begged his way. An old woman gave him a piece of black bread; he ate
+it with joy, feeling that now he was indeed a poor man. He had at this
+time reached the age of thirty-three years.</p>
+
+<p>Behold the Society of the Christian Brothers, and the Christian Schools,
+taking form at last with De la Salle at the head! Let us examine that
+work and see how matters stand.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, so far as the founder was himself concerned, his
+life was one of asceticism, but still more of prayer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'He prayed by day and by night&mdash;his life was one incessant
+communion with God. He would fain have avoided even the
+interruption caused by sleep, and he grudged every moment
+given to it, because it shortened his time of prayer. He
+slept on the ground, or sometimes in his chair, and was the
+first to rise at the sound of the morning bell. While at
+Rheims he regularly spent Friday night in the Church of
+Saint R&eacute;mi; he made the sacristan lock him in, and there
+poured out his soul in prayer for help, and guidance, and
+success in his work.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The Superior and the Brothers of course lived a common life. The great
+principle of bringing himself exactly to the level of those who worked
+under him, which had led to his resignation of his stall and the sale of
+his property, made it quite certain that he would not call upon the
+Brothers to do or to bear anything which he was not willing to do and to
+bear himself. But the burden was heavier to him than to them. They were
+poor men originally, accustomed to hard work and rough fare; while he
+had been brought up in ease and plenty, and had never known what want
+and poverty were. Consequently it cost De la Salle much effort and
+self-denial to enter upon his new life; but he was satisfied with no
+half measures; the sacrifice was to be absolute and complete; he fought
+the battle and gained it,&mdash;yet not he, but the grace of God that was in
+him. At the first starting of the Society there was no distinct rule,
+but the following arrangements were made:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The food was to be substantial but frugal, fit for labourers engaged in
+hard toil; nothing costly, nothing but what was necessary; on the other
+hand no special rigour of abstinence, beyond that demanded of other
+Christians.</p>
+
+<p>For dress was adopted a capote, such as was common in the country, made
+of coarse material, and black; together with a black cassock, thick
+shoes, and a broad-brimmed hat.</p>
+
+<p>For a name they chose that of 'Fr&egrave;res des &Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes,' or, as
+commonly abbreviated, 'Fr&egrave;res Chr&eacute;tiens.'</p>
+
+<p>With regard to vows, De la Salle decided that they should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> take the
+three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but for three years
+only. They might make them perpetual the following year.</p>
+
+<p>As to the Superior himself, he had little difficulty with regard to the
+first two points, for his only possessions were a New Testament, a copy
+of the 'Initiation,' a Crucifix and a Rosary; and to celibacy he was
+already committed. With regard to obedience, the fulfilment of the vow
+was not easy to a man in his position; but he endeavoured to find a way
+to make this vow also a practical one, by the method of resigning his
+post and putting one of the Brothers in his place; this he ultimately
+succeeded in doing, though only for a short time.</p>
+
+<p>We must leave to the reader's imagination the manner in which the work
+grew under such remarkable auspices, the growth of M. de la Salle's
+reputation as a saint, and the constantly increasing load of
+responsibilities of all kinds which rested upon his shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1688 the work extended to Paris. When De la Salle arrived
+there he left behind him in Rheims a principal house containing sixteen
+Brothers, and a training college for country schoolmasters, containing
+thirty men, besides fifteen lads in their noviciate. For the purpose of
+his work in Paris he hired a house in the village of Vaugirard; this he
+occupied for seven years, collecting the Brothers about him in their
+vacations, and making it a home for the sick and weary, and a place
+where postulants might make proof of their profession. We shall not
+follow his footsteps during this time, except to say that the work
+flourished wonderfully well under his hand, as it always did,
+notwithstanding all kinds of difficulties. We may produce, however, a
+striking document of self-dedication which belongs to this period. The
+Brothers seem to have been strongly moved by the desire of making their
+vows perpetual, instead of only for three years; the Superior opposed
+the innovation, but finding them resolute, he at length gave way, and
+commenced the new system by a formal dedication of himself, expressed in
+the following remarkable words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Most Holy Trinity, Father, Son and Holy Ghost, prostrate in
+deepest reverence before Thine infinite and adorable
+Majesty, I consecrate myself wholly to Thee, to seek Thy
+glory in all ways possible to me, or to which Thou shalt
+call me. And to this end I, Jean Baptiste de la Salle,
+Priest, promise and vow to unite myself to, and abide in
+society with, the Brothers [here follow twelve names], and
+in union and association with them to hold free schools in
+any place whatsoever (even though, in order to do so, I
+should have to beg for alms, and live on dry bread), or to
+do in the said Society any work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> which may be appointed for
+me, whether by the Community or by the Superior who shall
+have the direction of it. For which reason I promise and vow
+obedience as well to the Society itself as to the Superior
+of it. And these vows of association with, and steadfastness
+in, the said Community, and of obedience, I promise to keep
+inviolable during my whole life; in witness whereof I have
+signed. Done at Vaugirard, this sixth day of June, being the
+Feast of the Most Holy Trinity, in the year 1694.</p></div>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'(Signed) <span class="smcap">De la Salle</span>.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Having taken this step, De la Salle made a great effort to divest
+himself of his post as Superior, but in vain. He argued, but the
+Brothers were not convinced. He insisted upon an election, and every
+single vote was given for him. He begged for a second voting, but the
+result was the same. The Brothers said it would be time enough for them
+to elect his successor, when death had deprived them of him. So in his
+post of Superior he remained; and doubtless the Brothers were right, and
+he was wrong, as to the point in dispute between them.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now look for a moment at the rule of the Christian Brothers in
+the complete form which it ultimately assumed.</p>
+
+<p>The first article sets forth the purpose of the Society as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Institute of the Fr&egrave;res des &Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes is a
+Society, the profession of whose members is to hold schools
+gratuitously. The object of this Institute is to give a
+Christian education to children, and it is for this purpose
+that schools are held, in order that the masters, who have
+charge of the children from morning to night, may bring them
+up to lead good lives, by instructing them in the mysteries
+of our Holy Religion and filling their minds with Christian
+maxims, while they give them such an education as is fitting
+for them.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus the schools were to be free, and they were to be essentially and
+fundamentally Christian; but there was no intention of making them
+exclusively religious and banishing secular studies. On the other hand,
+the greater part of the time given to the children was devoted, as in
+reason it must be, to secular teaching; and only a small portion
+retained for teaching of a more solemn kind. No doubt De la Salle
+depended for the religious results of schooling more upon the men who
+taught and the general atmosphere of his schools, than upon amount of
+religious lessons actually taught and learnt: this is indicated by the
+following article of the Rule:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Brothers of the Society will have a very deep reverence
+for the Holy Scriptures, and in token of it they will always
+carry about them a copy of the New Testament, and will pass
+no day without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> reading a portion of it, in faith, respect,
+and veneration for the Divine Words which it contains. They
+will look upon it as their prime and principal Rule.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Again:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The spirit of the Institute consists in a burning zeal for
+the instruction of children, that they may be brought up in
+the fear and love of God, and led to preserve their
+innocence, where they have not already lost it; to keep them
+from sin, and to instil into their minds a great horror of
+evil, and of everything that might rob them of purity.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The great purpose of De la Salle was to form men suitable for the work
+of education as thus conceived; and one notable feature of his scheme
+was that they should be laymen; even with regard to the Superior of the
+Society, De la Salle, though himself a Priest, bound the Brethren down
+to a pledge that they would not, when he was gone, elect a Priest into
+his room. It is needless to say that he had no prejudice against the
+priestly office as such; but he was genuinely persuaded that the work
+which he wished to have done could best be performed by laymen; partly
+because they could give themselves up to it more completely, partly
+because they could be had more cheaply, and partly because poor men such
+as he enlisted, and intended to enlist, were more thoroughly on a level
+with the poor, whose children he desired to educate. It was in the same
+spirit that he forbade to the Brothers the knowledge of Latin.</p>
+
+<p>There are five vows in the Society. Brothers who have not attained the
+age of twenty-five years can take them for only three years. No one may
+take them even for three years, until he has been at least two years in
+the Society, and has had one year's experience of the Noviciate, and one
+year's teaching in the schools. The vows are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">1. Poverty.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">2. Chastity.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">3. Obedience.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">4. Steadfastness.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">5. Giving gratuitous instruction to children.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>By this last vow they also bind themselves to take all possible pains to
+teach them well and to bring them up Christianly; and they promise
+neither to ask nor to accept, from the scholars, or from their parents,
+anything, be it what it may, either as a gift, or in any other form of
+remuneration whatsoever.</p>
+
+<p>The rule of daily life is given by the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>4.30 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> Hour of rising.</p>
+
+<p>5. Prayer and meditation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. Attend Mass, reading, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>7.15. Breakfast; prayer and preparation for school.</p>
+
+<p>8 till 11. School, and children taken to Church.</p>
+
+<p>11.30. Particular examination of conscience; dinner and
+recreation.</p>
+
+<p>1 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> Prayer in oratory, and depart to various schools.</p>
+
+<p>1.30 till 5. School; half an-hour given to catechism.</p>
+
+<p>5.30. Spiritual reading and mental prayer. The reading
+begins with a portion of the New Testament, read upon the
+knees.</p>
+
+<p>6. Mental prayer, and confession of faults one to another.</p>
+
+<p>6.30. Supper; reading at all meals; recreation.</p>
+
+<p>8. Study of catechism.</p>
+
+<p>8.30. Prayers in oratory.</p>
+
+<p>9. Retire to dormitory; in bed by 9.15.</p></div>
+
+<p>So much for the Rule of the Christian Brothers. It is sufficiently
+strict; but, as before remarked, not intensified by any special
+austerities. The general order prescribed is, however, strengthened by
+injunctions against unnecessary communications with persons outside the
+Brotherhood, unnecessary possessions, unnecessary exercise of the will:
+the devotion to the rule is absolute, the poverty complete, the
+submission of the will unbounded. Very wonderful all this, but quite
+true.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the rule, it may be well to say a few words
+concerning the manuals which De la Salle composed for the guidance of
+the Brothers. The principal was a book entitled, 'Conduite &agrave; l'usage des
+&Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes;' this was circulated in manuscript, and a copy given
+to each Brother in charge of a school, but was not printed during the
+author's lifetime. He revised it in 1717, when he had retired from his
+post as Superior, and it was printed in 1720, a year after his death. It
+has been the guide of the Brothers ever since, and is read through twice
+a year in every one of their houses. The book shows great insight and
+good sense. Here is an instruction for a lesson in arithemetic:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'After the children have done their sums on the paper,
+instead of correcting them himself the master will make the
+children find out their mistakes for themselves, by rational
+explanation of the processes. He will ask them, for
+instance, why in addition of money they begin with the
+lowest coin, and other questions of the same sort, so as to
+make sure that they have an intelligent understanding of
+what they do.'</p></div>
+
+<p>When the subject is religious teaching, the tone of the book rises to
+the occasion:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The masters will take such great care in the instruction of
+all their scholars, that not one shall be left in ignorance,
+at least of the things which a Christian ought to believe
+and do. And to the end they may not neglect a thing of such
+great importance, they will often meditate earnestly on the
+account which they will have to give to God, and that they
+will be guilty in his sight of the ignorance of the children
+who shall have been under their care, and also of the sins
+into which their ignorance may have caused them to fall.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The faults which De la Salle regards as worthy of being treated with
+most severity are these: untruthfulness, quarrelling, theft, impurity,
+misbehaviour in church. It is notable that idleness and inattention to
+lessons, sauciness, and other boyish faults, which have brought much
+trouble upon many thousands of urchins, are not here enumerated at all;
+probably the wise Superior of the Christian Brothers thought that these
+and the like infirmities could be more successfully treated by other
+means than by severe punishment. We incline to believe that he was
+right. Certainly we shall have no difficulty in assenting to the wisdom
+of the rules laid down as to the conditions of punishment being useful:
+it must be (1) disinterested, that is, free from all feeling of revenge;
+(2) charitable, that is, inflicted from a real love to the child; (3)
+just; (4) proportioned to the fault; (5) moderate; (6) free from anger;
+(7) prudent; (8) voluntary on the part of the scholar, that is,
+understood and accepted by him; (9) received with respectful submission;
+(10) in silence on both sides.</p>
+
+<p>These samples must suffice to indicate M. de la Salle's practical and
+simple wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>The thought of all that we wish to say before concluding this article
+compels us once more to appeal to the reader's imagination with regard
+to the success of De la Salle's work. His fame went through France and
+beyond it; he became the recognized apostle of elementary education;
+when he made an expedition to Calais and the north in the latter part of
+his career, it was almost a triumphal progress; nothing, however, could
+spoil the sweet simplicity of his character, or interfere with his utter
+devotion to his work, and his humble desire to shift the burden upon
+what he believed to be stronger shoulders than his own. This desire was
+at length accomplished, and on the 8th of May, 1717, after much earnest
+consideration and religious observance, a second Superior of their
+Society was unanimously elected by the Christian Brothers.</p>
+
+<p>And now this remarkable man had nothing more to do in this world but to
+await his call and to depart in peace. At the earnest entreaty of the
+Brethren he took up his abode with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> them in their house at Rouen; and
+there, in the midst of increasing infirmities, and in the exercise (so
+far as was possible) of his priestly office, he tarried the Lord's
+leisure. We give the closing scene in the words of the interesting
+volume, the title of which heads this article, and from which we have
+been drawing the materials of our sketch.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Festival of St. Joseph, March 19, was approaching. He
+had always had a special veneration for that great Saint,
+whom he had chosen for patron of his Society, and he had a
+great wish to celebrate once more on that Festival. He could
+hardly have hoped to do so, for he had now for some time
+been quite unable to leave his bed; but in the evening of
+the 18th, about ten o'clock, his pain was unexpectedly
+relieved, and he was conscious of some return of strength.
+The night was quiet, and on the morning of the Festival he
+was able to crawl to the Altar, and to celebrate the Holy
+Mysteries in the presence of all the Brothers, who could
+scarcely believe their eyes. All that day he continued
+better, was able to converse with the Brothers, listened for
+the last time to their confidential talk, and gave them some
+last counsels. But the pain came on again, and he was
+obliged to go to bed.</p>
+
+<p>'The Cur&eacute; of the parish, hearing that he was worse, hastened
+to visit him, and thinking from the bright cheerfulness of
+his face that the dying man was not aware of his own
+condition, said to him, "Do you know that you are dying, and
+must soon appear before the presence of God?" "I know it,"
+was the answer, "and I wait His commands; my lot is in His
+hands, His will be done." In truth, his soul dwelt
+continually in unbroken communion with God, and he only
+waited with longing for the moment when the last ties that
+bound him to earth should be severed. Several days passed
+thus. Feeling that he was getting worse, he asked for the
+Viaticum, and it was arranged that he should receive it on
+the following day, which was Wednesday in Holy Week. He
+spent the whole night in preparation, and his little cell
+was decorated as well as the poverty of the house allowed.
+When the time came, he insisted on being taken out of bed,
+and dressed, and placed in a chair, vested in a surplice and
+stole. At the sound of the bell announcing the approach of
+the Priest, he threw himself on his knees, and received his
+last Communion with the same wonderful devotion which had
+often formerly struck those who assisted at his Mass, only
+with even more of the fire of love in his face. It was the
+last gleam of a dying light, which was being extinguished on
+earth, to shine with undiminished brightness "as the stars
+for ever and ever."</p>
+
+<p>'The next day he received Extreme Unction. His mind was
+still quite clear, and the Superior asked him to give his
+blessing to the Brothers who were kneeling round him, as
+well as to all the rest of the Community. He raised his eyes
+to heaven, stretched out his hands, and said, "The Lord
+bless you all."</p>
+
+<p>'Later in the day he became unconscious, and the prayers for
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> dying were said; but again he revived. About midnight
+the death agony came on: it was the night of the Agony in
+Gethsemane. It lasted till after two: then there was another
+interval of comparative ease, and he was able to speak. The
+Superior asked him whether he accepted willingly all his
+sufferings. "Yes," he replied, "I adore in all things the
+dealings of God with me." These were his last words; at
+three o'clock the agony returned, but only for a short hour.
+At four o'clock in the morning of Good Friday, the 7th of
+April, 1719, he fell asleep.</p>
+
+<p>'As soon as the news of his death was spread abroad, the
+house was beset by crowds desiring to see him. All revered
+him as a Saint, and wanted to look once more on the
+venerable face, and to carry away something in remembrance
+of him. He had nothing belonging to him but a Crucifix, a
+New Testament, and a copy of the Imitation; but his poor
+garments were cut up, and distributed in little bits to
+satisfy the people.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The Christian Brothers since the death of their great founder have
+steadily continued their charitable self-denying work. They have
+received much encouragement from high authorities in Church and State,
+much also from the good opinion which their work has gained for them
+wherever it has been known. Their history, however, records reverses:
+the chief of them connected with the catastrophe of the great
+Revolution. With regard to this, it might have been expected on general
+grounds, that in a social upheaval, which was essentially a rising of
+the poor and oppressed against the rich and the privileged, a society
+which had poverty as its foundation principle, and the free education of
+the children of the poor as its only reason of existence, must have been
+spared by general consent in the midst of the social ruin by which so
+much was overwhelmed. At first it seemed that this might have been so;
+when the Religious Orders were suppressed by decree of the National
+Assembly in 1790, exception was made in favour of those engaged in
+public instruction and the care of the sick; but in 1792 all
+corporations, specially including the Christian Brothers, were
+abolished, on the ground that their existence was incompatible with the
+conditions of a really free State. During the Reign of Terror the
+Institute was broken up, the Brothers scattered, and many suffered.
+There was a revival under Napoleon, which lasted till the Revolution of
+1830. At this time the Institute was shaken, as was almost everything
+else in France; but the recognized merits of the Christian Brothers
+carried them safely through the storm, and one of the most telling and
+triumphant facts in their history is the confidence reposed in them by
+M. Guizot, when Minister of Public instruction under Louis Philippe.
+More than once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> M. Guizot endeavoured, but in vain, to persuade the
+Superior to accept the Cross of the Legion of Honour.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the Christian Brothers in France at the present time is of
+special value; but also carried on under much chilling discouragement. A
+systematic attempt is being made to secularize education, and to drive
+every indication of religious faith from the primary schools. It remains
+to be seen what will be the result of the fanatical opposition to all
+that is dear to the minds of many French men and almost all French
+women, which is carried on so persistently by the Legislature and the
+Government. Already there are signs of reaction; the result of the late
+elections, which has substantially changed the proportion of parties in
+the representative Chamber, is probably not a little connected with the
+enforcement of an utterly godless education.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Meanwhile it would seem,
+as a matter of fact, that the number of children under the teaching of
+the Christian Brothers has increased instead of diminishing: there are
+still some French people left who have not bowed the knee to Secularism,
+and Materialism, and Atheism: even those who tremble at Priestcraft can
+accept the ministration of the Christian Brothers, who cannot (as we
+have seen) be Priests, according to their fundamental rule: and so,
+although the secularist flood is just now frightfully high, there is a
+gleam of hope to be found in the work of the Christian Schools, and the
+light which shines in them and from them may serve as a witness for God
+till the tyranny be overpast, and then may perhaps serve as a light at
+which the torch of religious teaching will be lighted again once more.</p>
+
+<p>We have placed at the head of this article the title of one of the
+manuals in use in the primary schools of France. It is worth studying in
+connection with the work of the Christian Brothers, and on other grounds
+as well. The entire absence of all reference to God or to any kind of
+religious knowledge or religious principle in connection with duty is
+startling, and gives the book a complexion somewhat strange to an
+English mind; and there are portions which can scarcely fail to strike<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+an Englishman as droll; but is full of French ingenuity. It contains a
+vast amount of compressed information, and the dry instruction of the
+text is enforced, or rather sweetened and made palatable, by a series of
+stories in the form of a running commentary or collection of foot-notes,
+in which the heroes of the stories illustrate the lessons which the
+scholars have to learn.</p>
+
+<p>We take two or three specimens from the manual, which we will present in
+a free translation:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Our Duties Towards Ourselves</span></p>
+
+<p>'As you grow older, you become more serious. Consider what
+your duties are.</p>
+
+<p>'You have duties towards yourselves, that is, towards your
+bodies and towards your souls.</p>
+
+<p>'Sound health must be taken care of; weak health must be
+strengthened by a good hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>'Hygiene demands cleanliness; wash your whole body carefully
+and frequently.</p>
+
+<p>'Keep nothing dirty upon you, nor in your house, nor near
+your house.</p>
+
+<p>'Hygiene demands good air: air your bed, your chamber, and
+all places in which you live and work.</p>
+
+<p>'Hygiene forbids all excess, and the use of injurious
+things, as alcohol and tobacco. It prescribes temperance and
+sobriety.</p>
+
+<p>'Hygiene requires you to avoid a sudden change from heat to
+cold. When you are in a perspiration, do not lie down upon
+the ground, do not expose yourself to draughts, and do not
+drink cold water.</p>
+
+<p>'Hygiene requires gymnastic exercises, which make the body
+supple, healthy, and strong.</p>
+
+<p>'<i>Attention to health gives a chance of long life.</i></p>
+
+<p>'In order to fulfil your duties towards your soul, you must
+continue to cultivate your intelligence and to educate
+yourself.</p>
+
+<p>'Do not forget that you can educate yourself at any age.</p>
+
+<p>'You must fight against sensuality, which would make you
+gluttons, drunkards, and debauchees; against idleness, which
+would make you useless to others and a burden to them;
+against selfishness and vanity, which would make others
+detest you; envy, which would render you unhappy and
+hateful; anger and hatred, which might lead you to all kinds
+of evil deeds.'</p></div>
+
+<p>These lessons are enforced by an extract from the French Law, which
+informs scholar that the persons found in a condition of manifest
+intoxication in the street or a public-house are punished by a fine of
+from 1 to 15 francs; that for a second offence the punishment is
+imprisonment for three days; and that for a third breach of the law the
+offender may be sentenced to imprisonment for from six days to a month,
+and to a fine of from 16 to 300 francs. In addition to this, the
+offenders will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> declared incapable of exercising their political
+rights for two years.</p>
+
+<p>This is a very practical teaching; but the duties which little boys owe
+to their bodies and souls are rendered more attractive, than either the
+dicta concerning hygiene or the threatened results of evil ways are
+likely to make them, by the history of a certain Dr. John Burnett, a
+physician, who made an immense fortune in New York. This is found as a
+<i>feuilleton</i> at the foot of the page, under the title 'Un Bon
+Charlatan.'</p>
+
+<p>The pith of the teaching under the head of Morals, is contained in the
+following summary:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'1. I will fulfil my duties towards myself. My duties
+towards my body are, cleanliness, sobriety, temperance,
+precaution against the inclemency of the seasons, exercise.</p>
+
+<p>'2. I will fulfil my duties towards my soul by continuing to
+educate myself, and by combating all bad passions.</p>
+
+<p>'3. I will not do to another that which I would not that he
+should do to me.</p>
+
+<p>'4. I will not do him wrong, either by striking him, or
+robbing him, or deceiving him, or lying to him, or by
+breaking my promise, or by speaking evil of him, or by
+calumniating him.</p>
+
+<p>'5. I will do to another that which I should wish him to do
+to me.</p>
+
+<p>'6. I will love him, I will be grateful, exact, discreet,
+charitable.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Very good resolutions these, but one cannot avoid the thought that the
+little scholar might estimate 3 and 5 not the less, perhaps the more, if
+informed of the life and character of Him who first spoke these apparent
+simple rules in such a manner as to impress them upon the heart of the
+world. Would not all the resolutions gain strength from the belief that
+duty towards God is the true spring of duty towards our neighbours and
+ourselves, and that the grace of God is necessary to make the best
+resolutions practically operative in the life?</p>
+
+<p>We will now give our readers a specimen of the tales by which the
+lessons of the manual are illustrated and enforced. It shall be taken
+from the section entitled <i>Society</i>, the second subsection of which is
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'<span class="smcap">Freedom of Labour</span>.</p>
+
+<p>'In France; labour is free; every one employs, as he
+pleases, his intelligence and his arms.</p>
+
+<p>'You may choose any profession you please; but everybody
+else has the same right as yourself.</p>
+
+<p>'Competition is therefore permitted; never complain of
+competition.</p>
+
+<p>'If you hinder your neighbour from working as he pleases,
+you may yourself be hindered in like manner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>'Competition excites the workman to do his best and at the
+cheapest rate.</p>
+
+<p>'Thus competition is advantageous to all. <i>Never ask Society
+to interfere with the freedom of labour, but work hard
+yourself.</i>'</p></div>
+
+<p>These wholesome lessons on competition are illustrated by the following
+tale:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Gregory's Views on Competition</span>.</p>
+
+<p>'Our friend Gregory is a good husband; but he sometimes has
+little arguments with his wife.</p>
+
+<p>'The other day, Mrs. Gregory was angry, because she had
+found out that a shoemaker was going to establish himself in
+the village. "What do we want another shoemaker for," said
+she "when you and I are here already? The Government ought
+to prevent such things."</p>
+
+<p>'Gregory, who was at his work, lifted his head and said:
+"The Government ought to prevent women from talking
+nonsense. Suppose that I was the shoemaker who had just
+established himself in the village; what would you say if
+any one interfered with my carrying on my trade? You would
+not be very well pleased, I fancy."</p>
+
+<p>'He then explained to his wife the necessity of competition.</p>
+
+<p>'"There is plenty of work for everybody," said he. "If there
+had been already two or three shoemakers in the place, this
+new fellow would not have come to settle here. He would have
+seen that there was nothing for him to do. I am surprised
+that no competing shoemaker has come here before. You know
+very well that we have sometimes to refuse work, and that
+there are people in the village who have to go to the town
+to get their shoes. Beyond doubt the newcomer will take some
+of our custom; but it is our business to look after that. We
+must work better than we have done hitherto; and that's all
+about it."</p>
+
+<p>'Mrs. Gregory was not convinced, but she said nothing.</p>
+
+<p>'"You see," continued Gregory, "you must look a little
+beyond the end of your nose. You wish that there should be
+only one shoemaker in the place. The linendraper wishes that
+there should be only one linendraper; the grocer only one
+grocer; and so on through all the trades. Very well; don't
+you remember when we had only one linendraper how dear
+shirts used to be? And don't you remember some twenty years
+ago, when there was only one smith? You could never get hold
+of him; and when you did, his charges were tremendous. I
+recollect him putting a bell to our front door. When he gave
+me the bill, and I had seen the amount, I said to him, 'my
+good fellow, I didn't order a silver bell.' 'And I have not
+put up a silver bell,' was the reply. 'Oh! I thought from
+the price it must have been silver,' said I. This vexed him,
+and he answered, 'If you are not satisfied, go elsewhere.'
+That was well enough; he was the only smith in the
+neighbourhood. I could not send for a man from Pekin: he
+would have been sure to be lost on the road, and I should
+have been obliged to provide for his family."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>'Gregory made some other good remarks to show that if
+competition prevents a shopkeeper from selling his goods at
+a high price, it enables him to buy from others at a cheap
+rate. "So on the whole," concluded he, "do not let us fuss
+and make ourselves ill. I would much rather have some
+coffee, than be compelled to take medicine."'</p></div>
+
+<p>Gregory must have had some of the saintly qualities of his great
+namesakes to enable him to take so calm a view of the invasion of his
+shoemaking monopoly. We trust that Mrs. Gregory was eventually convinced
+by his wise and philosophical arguments, and still more, that the
+generation of Frenchmen who enjoy such teaching from their early years
+may emulate so bright an example.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot refrain from making one more extract from our little manual.
+The thirteenth section deals with 'The Rights and Duties of the Citizen'
+and the third subsection treats as follows of:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'<span class="smcap">Political Duties</span>.</p>
+
+<p>'The French people ought more than any other people, to
+respect the law made by its own deputies.</p>
+
+<p>'It ought without murmuring to pay the taxes voted by the
+Chambers, and to fulfil its military duties.</p>
+
+<p>'It ought to respect the authority of all the agents of the
+Government, from the lowest to the highest, from the <i>garde
+champ&ecirc;tre</i> to the Ministers and the President of the
+Republic, for the agents of authority are the servants of
+the law, and all are chosen directly or indirectly, by the
+deputies of the people.</p>
+
+<p>'<i>The greater the rights of citizens, the greater their
+duties.</i></p>
+
+<p>'It used to be said, <i>Noblesse oblige</i>. This meant: a
+nobleman ought to behave himself better than another, to be
+worthy of his nobility.</p>
+
+<p>'It should now be said, <i>Libert&eacute; oblige</i>. This means that a
+free citizen ought to behave himself better than another, in
+order to be worthy of liberty.</p>
+
+<p>'You have the duty of putting your name upon the electoral
+roll at the Mairie of the Commune in which you reside.</p>
+
+<p>'You have the duty of voting, and you must vote according to
+your conscience.</p>
+
+<p>'You have not the right of being indifferent to public
+affairs, and of saying that they do not concern you.</p>
+
+<p>'You have an interest in securing to your Commune good
+Municipal Councillors, who will look well after the
+finances, will take care of the schools, and of the roads,
+and attend to all wants.</p>
+
+<p>'You have an interest in securing to your Department good
+General Councillors, who will do for the Department what the
+Municipal Councillors do for the Commune.</p>
+
+<p>'You have an interest in nominating good Deputies and good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>
+Senators, who may make useful and just laws, choose a
+President of the Republic worthy of that supreme honour, and
+keep the Government in good ways.</p>
+
+<p>'You ought to make a good choice, not merely for your own
+interest, but for the love of your country.</p>
+
+<p>'<i>Love those republican institutions which France has
+provided for herself.</i></p>
+
+<p>'Endeavour to make them loved, respecting the while your
+neighbour's opinions, and restraining yourself from all
+hatred and from all violence.</p>
+
+<p>'The future of the Republic depends upon each of you. If
+each of you does his duty, it will be strong: strong enough
+to make our lives happy, and to restore to us one day the
+brothers whom we have lost&mdash;the <span class="smcap">Brothers of Alsace and
+Lorraine</span>.'</p></div>
+
+<p>This is the conclusion of the manual. All works up to <span class="smcap">Alsace and
+Lorraine</span>. (The capital letters are in the original.) Is it not
+delightful? Is it not most truly French?</p>
+
+<p>We should be sorry to see a parody or parallel to this French manual
+introduced into our schools. At the same time we think there is
+something to be learnt from studying it. Our neighbours seem to have in
+some respect learnt better than ourselves the maxim of Horace:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i11">'pueris dant crustula blandi<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The pages of our manual are full of literary <i>crustula</i>; and we imagine
+that most boys would find themselves sufficiently amused to read and
+study the book, whether they were desirous of profiting by the contents
+or not. And after all it is a great thing to <i>get hold</i> of a boy,
+whether it be by the loving and evidently self-sacrificing efforts of
+the Christian Brothers, or by the ingenious mental food provided by the
+Minister of Public Instruction. Notwithstanding such ingenuity, we do
+not, however, believe that the present system of French teaching can
+answer: it is hollow and unsound: it ignores the deepest of motives, and
+disregards the most potent of influences: it may breed a desire to fight
+with Germany for the recovery of Alsace and Lorraine, but it can
+scarcely produce the highest class of citizens and heroes, because it
+does not acknowledge the fear of God as the beginning of wisdom, and the
+love of God as the best foundation of the love of man. The principles of
+duty inculcated in the manual from which we have been exhibiting a few
+elegant extracts will never rear such a character as De la Salle, nor
+supply the foundation of such an institution as that of the Christian
+Brothers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But we must come nearer home&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Nam tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>We have not yet arrived in England at the complete secularization of our
+elementary schools; but we are, in the opinion of some and in the wish
+of others, within measurable distance of the Paradisiacal terminus of
+secularism and secular reform; and therefore, with the thought of what
+has been going on and is still going on in France, we may do well to
+look for a few moments to our own country, and examine what has been
+going on and is going on there.</p>
+
+<p>Let us beware, however, of exaggeration or alarmism. We do not at all
+desire to imply that there is anything approaching to parallelism in the
+conditions and possibilities of the two countries. Had it been proposed
+to do in England what has been done in France, the opposition would have
+been indignant and overwhelming. There is no such desire for
+emancipation from Priests and Priestcraft in England as has long existed
+and still exists in France. To be sure we hear something on this side of
+the Channel of sacerdotal pretensions and unwarrantable clerical claims;
+but the men by whom the offence comes are few in number, and, at the
+worst, they and their conduct are but as a drop in the great bucket of
+the English Church and its influence upon the nation. In France matters
+are painfully different. While the women are largely <i>d&eacute;votes</i>, the men
+are very sparingly <i>d&eacute;vots</i>. Unfortunately the admission of
+superstitious practices, the practical hiding of Holy Scripture, the
+adoption under the patronage of the Church of foolish tales of miracles,
+and the absence of effectual protest against the unwarrantable
+assumptions of the Vatican, have combined to offer to the intellect of
+France an unnecessary obstacle, which in too many instances causes
+shipwreck to faith; and so, while in England the men, who make the laws,
+are, speaking broadly, Christian believers, in France the men, who
+equally make the laws, are as broadly unbelievers. This difference is
+not likely to disappear. France has reached a point at which the disease
+of unbelief may be said to have become chronic; England, on the other
+hand, although there have been of late, and are still, symptoms of
+infidel proclivities, appears nevertheless, so far as her condition can
+be tested to be sound at heart, and in some respects in a more healthy
+state of religious conviction and activity than has been manifested
+hitherto.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the comparative conditions of France and England is one
+with which we have no desire to enter at length; and indeed a native of
+one of the countries is very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> unlikely to be in a condition to take a
+quite just and fair view of the other. We only desire to guard ourselves
+from appearing to assume the probability of the secularization of our
+English schools on the ground of the step having been already taken in
+France. And having premised this caution, we will ask our readers to
+accompany us in the consideration of some details, suggested by the
+Report of the National Society, and by that of the Committee of the
+Privy Council on Education. Afterwards we will submit a few general
+reflections, and so close our article.</p>
+
+<p>It was feared by some and hoped by others fifteen years ago, when the
+law of compulsory education and School Boards was enacted in this
+country, that Voluntary Schools would undergo what was described at the
+time as a 'process of painless extinction,' and that Board Schools would
+reign supreme. These fears and hopes have been curiously falsified; the
+Voluntary Schools have not been extinguished either painlessly or
+otherwise; on the other hand, they have increased, both in work done and
+in support given, to an extent which could never have been anticipated.
+It will be observed that the question is not purely and simply between
+Board and Voluntary Schools; it may be so in some parishes, where with
+unanimity on the part of the parishioners, one Parish School can be made
+to supply the wants of all; but generally the question is that of
+supporting Voluntary Schools and paying towards Board Schools as well;
+the support of one does not exclude the legal claim of the other, as it
+has been frequently argued that it ought in equity to do; consequently
+Voluntary Schools are heavily handicapped, and nothing but a deep sense
+of the advantage of freedom in religious teaching, and an utter dread of
+secularism, can account for the remarkable results exhibited by the
+progress of Voluntary Schools under such manifest difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>The following Tables are so exceedingly instructive, that we make no
+apology for introducing them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h4><i>Accommodation.</i></h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Day Schools, Year ended August 31</td><td align='center'>1882.</td><td align='center'>1883.</td><td align='center'>1884.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Church</td><td align='right'>2,385,374</td><td align='right'>2,413,676</td><td align='right'>2,454,788</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>British, &amp;c.</td><td align='right'>384,060</td><td align='right'>386,839</td><td align='right'>394,009</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wesleyan</td><td align='right'>200,909</td><td align='right'>200,564</td><td align='right'>203,253</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roman Catholic</td><td align='right'>269,231</td><td align='right'>272,760</td><td align='right'>284,514</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Board</td><td align='right'>1,298,746</td><td align='right'>1,396,604</td><td align='right'>1,490,174</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>4,538,320</td><td align='right'>4,670,443</td><td align='right'>4,826,738</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Number on the Registers.</i></h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Day Schools, Year ended August 31.</td><td align='center'>1882.</td><td align='center'>1883.</td><td align='center'>1884.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Church</td><td align='right'>2,133,978</td><td align='right'>2,134,719</td><td align='right'>2,121,728</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>British, &amp;c.</td><td align='right'>339,812</td><td align='right'>337,531</td><td align='right'>333,510</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wesleyan</td><td align='right'>177,840</td><td align='right'>175,826</td><td align='right'>172,284</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roman Catholic</td><td align='right'>232,620</td><td align='right'>226,567</td><td align='right'>226,082</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Board</td><td align='right'>1,305,362</td><td align='right'>1,398,661</td><td align='right'>1,483,717</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>4,189,612</td><td align='right'>4,273,304</td><td align='right'>4,337,321</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4><i>Average Attendance.</i></h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Day Schools, Year ended August 31.</td><td align='center'>1882.</td><td align='center'>1883.</td><td align='center'>1884.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Church</td><td align='right'>1,538,408</td><td align='right'>1,562,507</td><td align='right'>1,607,823</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>British, &amp;c.</td><td align='right'>245,493</td><td align='right'>247,990</td><td align='right'>253,044</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wesleyan</td><td align='right'>125,109</td><td align='right'>125,503</td><td align='right'>128,584</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roman Catholic</td><td align='right'>160,910</td><td align='right'>162,310</td><td align='right'>167,841</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Board</td><td align='right'>945,231</td><td align='right'>1,028,904</td><td align='right'>1,115,832</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>3,015,151</td><td align='right'>3,127,214</td><td align='right'>3,273,124</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4><i>Voluntary Contributions.</i></h4>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Day Schools, Year ended August 31.</td><td align='center'>1882.</td><td align='center'>1883.</td><td align='center'>1884.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>&pound;.&nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>s.</i> &nbsp;&nbsp; d.</td><td align='right'>&pound;. &nbsp;&nbsp; <i>s.</i> &nbsp;&nbsp; d.</td><td align='right'>&pound;.&nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>s.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp; d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Church</td><td align='right'>581,179&nbsp;&nbsp;  5 &nbsp;&nbsp; 3</td><td align='left'>577,313 16 &nbsp;&nbsp; 5</td><td align='right'>585,071&nbsp; 11 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>British, &amp;c.</td><td align='right'>75,132&nbsp;  11&nbsp;&nbsp; 8</td><td align='right'>71,519 &nbsp;&nbsp; 2 &nbsp;&nbsp; 9</td><td align='right'>72,978 10&nbsp;&nbsp;  0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wesleyan</td><td align='right'>15,705&nbsp;&nbsp;  2 &nbsp;&nbsp; 2</td><td align='right'>15,271 14 &nbsp;&nbsp; 1</td><td align='right'>16,802 &nbsp;&nbsp; 2 &nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roman Catholic</td><td align='right'>51,283&nbsp; 11&nbsp;&nbsp;  7</td><td align='right'>51,564 15 &nbsp;&nbsp; 2</td><td align='right'>57,672 &nbsp;&nbsp; 1 &nbsp;&nbsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Board</td><td align='right'>1,545&nbsp;&nbsp;  2 &nbsp;&nbsp; 2</td><td align='right'>1,420 &nbsp;&nbsp; 1 &nbsp;&nbsp; 3</td><td align='right'>1,603&nbsp;&nbsp;  7 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>724,845 12 10</td><td align='right'>717,089&nbsp;&nbsp;  9 &nbsp;&nbsp; 8</td><td align='right'>734,127 12 10</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>From these Tables it appears that in spite of the surrender of some
+Church Schools to Boards, a process which is always to some extent going
+on, and which causes an increase in the number of Board Schools beyond
+that produced by actual building, the accommodation in Church Schools
+rose in 1884 by 41,112, and the average attendance by 45,316. The Church
+was also educating about half as many again as were being educated in
+Board Schools, and the amount voluntarily contributed during the year
+was more than 585,000<i>l.</i>, in addition to a large sum expended on
+buildings and improvements.</p>
+
+<p>This does not look much like speedy extinction, and we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> sincerely trust
+that that event is still far distant. It is not so much that we are
+opposed to Board schools on principle, still less that we disapprove of
+the national determination that every child shall be educated, which
+logically leads to some national machinery involving the principle of
+Board Schools in some form or other,&mdash;not so much this, as that we are
+persuaded that the existence of Voluntary Schools is an unspeakable
+benefit even to the Board Schools themselves. We hold that a definite
+system of religious teaching, according to which the religious studies
+of the school and the secular are co-ordinate and equally regarded, and
+the religious atmosphere which such consideration implies, are of the
+very essence of a rightly ordered school; the ideal may be reached in a
+Voluntary School, it is impossible that it should be reached in a Board
+School; nevertheless, there may be Board schools <i>and</i> Board Schools; in
+some there may be simple secularism, and in others there may be a good
+religious spirit and fair religious teaching; and the degree in which
+the average quality of Board Schools will approximate to the latter
+limit rather than the former, will depend very much upon the standard
+set up by the Voluntary Schools. A reference to the Report of the
+Committee of Council on Education proves that Voluntary Schools are
+worked more cheaply, and, so far as can be judged by the results of
+examination, are secularly not less successful than schools upon the
+Board system; and therefore even with reference to economy there is some
+advantage in keeping the two classes of school going side by side. But
+all questions of comparative economy, and of advantages arising from an
+honourable competition, are as nothing compared with the reflected
+influence in the direction of bringing up the average religious
+character of Board Schools to the highest point which the shackles of
+legislation allow.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the work of voluntary elementary schools, there are two
+other departments in which voluntary efforts are doing much in support
+of the religious and Christian character of English Education.</p>
+
+<p>There are no less than thirty Training Colleges in connection with the
+Church. The pupils trained in these Colleges are not in general bound by
+any rule to accept posts only in Church schools; as a matter of fact,
+many are drafted into Board Schools; but it is impossible to exaggerate
+the importance to the subsequent influence for good, in a school of
+whatever kind, of a thorough religious training in youth upon definite
+religious principles. So far as an opinion can be formed, it would seem
+that these Training Colleges must always rest upon a voluntary
+foundation; it is difficult to conceive of their being carried on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> upon
+State principles; you may make religious teaching optional in an
+elementary day school, and the evil results may be not easily
+perceptable; but when eighty or a hundred young men or young women are
+brought together into one home, to lead a common family life with common
+purposes and prospects, the religious equality principle breaks down;
+you must have common religious teaching and common worship, and these
+must be utterly vapid and miserable, unless there be a hearty agreement
+upon the grounds and articles of faith, such as is only possible for
+those who are of one Church, or at all events of one denomination.
+Doubtless on this very account efforts have been made, and efforts will
+be made, to break down the Church Training College system, or to erect
+something on broader principles which shall gradually extinguish it; but
+on all grounds we trust that these efforts may fail, and that at all
+events no change may be introduced which shall be successful in
+rendering impossible the carrying on of institutions, to which we are
+convinced that the education of the poor children of England is indebted
+more than to almost any other. We have but been working out under new
+conditions the great problem which De la Salle perceived to lie at the
+root of elementary education: the forming of the instrument wherewith to
+do the work was, as he clearly perceived, the great thing to be
+accomplished; and for that purpose personal influence was needed; it was
+necessary to stir up in each young aspirant to the office of a teacher
+something of the enthusiasm of teaching, to breed a high conception of
+the value and responsibilities of the office, to make it felt that
+self-denial and self-devotion were essential conditions of any lasting
+success. English Training Colleges differ very widely from that
+community which De la Salle established, and over which he presided; in
+our opinion, they, at least their managers, might profit by studying his
+work and emulating his spirit; but after all, they will still be widely
+different, and any attempt at exact imitation amongst ourselves would
+perhaps produce a parody rather than an adequate copy. Any one who can
+remember the early work of Derwent Coleridge at St. Mark's, Chelsea, and
+the vast change which was brought about in the training of the
+schoolmaster, the estimate of his qualifications, and his general
+status, by the admirable and laborious efforts of that good and able
+man, will be conscious that a work has been done amongst us in these
+latter days, upon which De la Salle himself would have looked with a
+kindly smile of approval, though in some respects he might have
+imagined, and perhaps with justice, that it was not so thorough as his
+own.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The other department of voluntary action to which we proposed to refer,
+is that which is known as Diocesan Inspection.</p>
+
+<p>This system of inspection is carried on by Clergymen, who are appointed
+with the approval and in connection with the Bishops, and whose stipends
+are provided by voluntary contribution. The action is not uniform
+throughout the Dioceses, but there is scarcely a Diocese in which the
+work is not carried on with great energy. These Inspectors visit the
+schools, in some Dioceses and Board Schools as well as those in
+connection with the Church; they examine the children, confer with the
+masters and mistresses, give advice and encouragement as may seem to be
+necessary and fitting, and make a report upon the general condition of
+the school with reference to religious knowledge. In most Dioceses there
+is in addition some kind of prize scheme, by means of which children are
+encouraged to give special attention to the religious side of their
+education.</p>
+
+<p>We think it worth while to call attention to this system of Diocesan
+Inspection, because it is well that Englishmen, and especially English
+Churchmen, should be awake to the religious needs of our times, and the
+efforts which are being made to meet them. We are aware that all such
+machinery as that which we have described must be ineffectual in
+implanting in the minds of children that 'fear of the Lord,' which is
+'the beginning of wisdom.' No system of inspection and examination, and
+no careful grinding of certain lessons, whether they be taken from Holy
+Scripture or from any other book, into the minds of little children, can
+be a substitute for the true influence of heart upon heart; the teacher
+who would generate religious life in the soul of a child must imitate
+the Prophet, who put his mouth to the child's mouth, and his eyes upon
+his eyes, and his hands upon his hands, and prayed that the child might
+awake to new life; nevertheless on the supposition that no pains are
+spared in obtaining suitable masters and mistresses, much may be done to
+encourage them in their difficult work by making it manifest that the
+heart of England and of England's Church is with them. And indeed it
+<i>is</i> a difficult work: the education of children will never be a simple
+and easy thing as long as the world lasts: the value of the finished
+article may generally be taken as some measure of the labour and care
+necessary to produce it: and the value of a pure, simple-hearted,
+well-taught Christian child is so immeasurably and indescribably great,
+that we may safely conclude that the workmen and workwomen employed in
+producing the result must have spent upon their work an incredible
+amount of honest self-denying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> toil: a perfunctory discharge of the
+office of schoolmaster,&mdash;so many hours a week, and so much pay,&mdash;will
+never do: the master of the Elementary School must ever be a Christian
+Brother in reality, if not in name.</p>
+
+<p>Passing for a moment from the religious side of the educational
+question, the reader may be interested by looking at a few statistics,
+indicating the general position of England, or rather England and Wales,
+with reference to elementary education.</p>
+
+<p>In the year ending August 31, 1884, Her Majesty's Inspectors visited
+18,761 day schools, having on their registers the names of 4,337,321
+children. Of these, 3,273,134 were, on an average, in daily attendance
+throughout the year. The amount of income arising from school-pence, it
+may be worth while noting, was 1,734,115<i>l.</i>, or nearly two millions. The
+Government grants reached 2,722,351<i>l.</i>, or nearly three millions.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the day schools, 847 night schools were examined. In many parts
+of the country these night schools were very important: they afford big
+boys the only opportunity of keeping up their knowledge, or
+intellectually improving themselves. Nearly twenty-five thousand
+scholars over twelve years of age are, on an average, in attendance each
+night.</p>
+
+<p>There are nearly forty thousand certificated teachers at work; and 3214
+students are being prepared in forty-one Training Colleges.</p>
+
+<p>The expense of education at different places varies remarkably, and
+apparently without any intelligible principle. Thus the income per
+scholar from voluntary contributions in Voluntary Schools, and from
+rates in Board Schools, is in certain selected towns as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Voluntary<br /> contributions.</td><td align='left'>Rates.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>&pound; &nbsp;&nbsp;<i>s.</i> &nbsp;&nbsp;d.</td><td align='left'>&pound;&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>s.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp; d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>London</td><td align='left'>0&nbsp;&nbsp;9&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&frac14;</td><td align='left'>1 &nbsp;&nbsp;9&nbsp;&nbsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Brighton</td><td align='left'>0 &nbsp;&nbsp;11 &nbsp;&nbsp;7&frac12;</td><td align='left'>0 &nbsp;&nbsp;17&nbsp;&nbsp; 7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Birmingham</td><td align='left'>0 &nbsp;&nbsp;5&nbsp;&nbsp; 3&frac34;</td><td align='left'>0 &nbsp;&nbsp;13&nbsp;&nbsp; 10&frac34;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bradford</td><td align='left'>0&nbsp;&nbsp; 2&nbsp;&nbsp; 11&frac34;</td><td align='left'>0 &nbsp;&nbsp;13&nbsp;&nbsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sheffield</td><td align='left'>0&nbsp;&nbsp; 2 &nbsp;&nbsp;4&frac34;</td><td align='left'>0&nbsp;&nbsp; 9&nbsp;&nbsp; 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manchester</td><td align='left'>0&nbsp;&nbsp; 4&nbsp;&nbsp; 7</td><td align='left'>0 &nbsp;&nbsp;10&nbsp;&nbsp; 10</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>We submit the above figures and facts to the reader's consideration, and
+we are compelled to confess that we do not find ourselves in a condition
+to offer a satisfactory solution of the difficulties which they suggest.
+We should probably have expected that London would be in an exceptional
+position with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> regard to this as to many other matters; but the
+magnificent manner in which its Board contributions exceed those of any
+other town quite baffles us; it will be observed that the odd shillings
+and pence of London more than pay the whole expense at Sheffield.
+Possibly the practical difficulty of understanding this economical
+anomaly may have had something to do with the results of the late Board
+election in London.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, we English people seem to be solving the national
+education question <i>more nostro</i>. We have got a system not quite
+symmetrical, not quite logical, not the perfect exponent of the
+crotchets of any particular school, but nevertheless one which has on
+the whole produced remarkable results, and seems to have in it
+sufficient powers of adaptation and development. Of late a new question
+has been opened&mdash;and an important one&mdash;namely, that of making elementary
+education entirely gratuitous. There is something to be said in favour
+of the proposal, and it is a pity that the merits of the question should
+have been somewhat obscured by the intolerable, but to some persons
+perhaps attractive, suggestion that the additional expenditure necessary
+for making education gratuitous should be supplied by the robbery of the
+Church, or (in politer phrase) by the appropriation to the purposes of
+education of the national property hitherto supplied to the support of
+religion. This cat can scarcely be said to have been let out of the bag,
+for her head was no sooner seen peeping out than the alarm created was
+dangerously great, and Puss was concealed again in a twinkling; <i>but she
+is inside the bag still</i>. A much less objectionable proposal was
+speedily made, namely, that the deficiency created by the remission of
+school-pence should be supplied by a Parliamentary grant. And this
+proposal, we presume, may be regarded as at present before the country.</p>
+
+<p>Looking upon the matter from a Chancellor of the Exchequer point of
+view, it is a serious thing to think of having to make an addition of
+about two millions to the annual national expenditure; and it may be
+observed that leading statesmen on both sides of politics may be found
+who are at present unconvinced. Doubtless an expenditure of two millions
+would not be grudged by the nation for any necessary purpose; but when
+the proposal is to substitute a payment of two millions by the Exchequer
+for the two millions paid in driblets by the persons most interested,
+for the most part gladly and with special provisions for preventing the
+payment pressing hardly upon the exceptionally poor, it may well be that
+many sensible persons will ask the question, <i>Cui bono</i>?</p>
+
+<p>Independently, however, of any fiscal considerations, it seems<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> to us
+that there are weighty arguments against the proposal of a gratuitous
+education.</p>
+
+<p>It may be observed, and we think it an important observation, that the
+proposal of free education is in the teeth of all our recent policy; and
+some pressing reasons ought to be given for a complete and sudden
+reversal of all that we have hitherto been doing. There are many free
+schools in the country, endowed by 'pious founders,' and established for
+the special purpose of giving free education to the children of
+particular parishes. Some of these schools have had to pass through the
+hands of the School Commissioners and to receive new schemes. It has
+been, we believe, the invariable practice to insert into these new
+schemes the condition of school-pence; the portion of the endowment so
+saved has been applied to the foundation of exhibitions and other
+methods of assisting deserving children. The inhabitants of the parishes
+in which this innovation has been introduced have grumbled and
+submitted; it has in some cases been a bitter pill, but the law-abiding
+character of the Englishman has caused it to be swallowed without noisy
+remonstrance. We cannot, without raising a suspicion of having practised
+educational quackery, retreat from the position which we have thus taken
+up.</p>
+
+<p>What is the argument for the position? It is sometimes stated thus, that
+people value a thing more when it costs them something to get it. The
+argument is not to be despised; but we think that it yields in
+importance to the consideration, that the payment of the school fees is
+almost the only indication left of the great truth, that the parent is
+responsible for his children's education. We have sometimes trembled
+when we have seen in Board Schools directions concerning the doings of
+the children, which would seem to have had a right to come from parents,
+but which do in fact come 'by order of the Board.' We have almost feared
+lest in the Fifth Commandment our boys and girls of the rising
+generation should be tempted to substitute 'Board' for 'father and
+mother.' Certainly there is great danger in virtue of modern social
+arrangements lest parents should forget their highest duties to their
+children, and children cease to honour their parents in the good
+old-fashioned way. We confess, therefore, that we are jealous of the
+proposal to take away from the father the proud privilege of paying for
+his children's schooling, even though it may sometimes cost him an
+effort to do so.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, of course, that every man does pay indirectly, because
+he pays according to his means to the taxes of the country, and that
+therefore the proposal only gives him of his own. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> argument is
+defective, because it ignores the fact that whatever a man may pay
+indirectly in taxes, there is a conscious effort in finding the pence
+for the children's schooling, which morally is of great importance. But
+the argument fails also on other grounds: it assumes that all men have
+children equally; it asserts that the married man with his five children
+has no more responsibility than the elderly spinster who lives next
+door; it supposes that the parents have not a special interest in their
+children, distinct from that which can be felt by any other person
+whatever. It may be further urged, that if a man pays for his children
+while they are in process of education, the pressure comes upon him when
+he is in full vigour, and most able to bear it; whereas if the payment
+of pence be commuted for a perpetual tax, the pressure becomes one of a
+lifelong character, and is not relieved when the powers of earning begin
+to diminish.</p>
+
+<p>We do not deny that painful cases have occurred, and are likely to still
+occur, in which parents are summoned before the magistrates for the
+non-attendance of children at school. But free education will not get
+rid of these painful cases. Already arrangements are made by law for the
+payment of fees for very poor parents who make the proper application;
+and if there be any obstacle in the way of the smooth working of the
+law, the matter should be looked into and the law amended; but the great
+difficulty in the way of good attendance on the part of very poor
+children lies, as we apprehend, not more with school-pence, than with
+school-clothes, and school-dinners. Attendance cannot be enforced
+completely all round, unless free education comprise in its idea free
+food and clothing, as well as free books and lessons.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot but fear also lest the remission of school-pence should be
+another step towards the destruction of Voluntary Schools. It is evident
+that the proposal is so regarded; and though it may not be difficult to
+find arguments to show, that if the loss from school-pence be made up
+from the Exchequer, the compensation will work equally and fairly with
+respect to all schools, whether Voluntary or Board, still there can be
+little doubt that the additional grant will give a handle for proposing
+to introduce some more direct interference with the management of
+Voluntary Schools than has existed hitherto: and it is probably a true
+instinct which leads many friends of Voluntary Schools to look upon the
+free system with sincere apprehension. Certainly the indirect abolition
+of Voluntary Schools would be a great calamity; and if the views already
+expressed be correct, the abolition would leave a legacy of weakness,
+and a permanent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> injury to the Board Schools, when they found themselves
+'monarchs of all they survey,' and without the wholesome rivalry of
+Voluntary Schools.</p>
+
+<p>There was no such objection to the free education offered to his poor
+brethren by the hero of this article, the sainted De la Salle. He made
+himself poor and bound all his disciples to a life of poverty, in order
+that they might have fullest sympathy with the poor, and might teach
+their children for no other payment or purpose but the love of God. The
+atmosphere of a school conducted upon such principles would be so
+saturated with the spirit of holiness and godly love, that there would
+be no danger of duty to parents, or indeed of any duty either to God or
+man, being left out of sight. It would never be forgotten in such
+schools that the formation of character is the chief aim of education:
+<i>manners makyth man</i>&mdash;as William of Wickham, our great English father of
+liberal education, has taught us: and <i>manners</i>, taken in the broadest
+and best sense, even more than the three Rs and all the extra subjects
+of all the standards, is what we want in our elementary schools, and
+what we shall never get, except upon the condition of a religious tone
+and a pure atmosphere, and teachers whose hearts are animated by the
+love of little children and by the love of God.</p>
+
+<p>We gladly turn once more, before laying down our pen, to the volume
+which we have already introduced to the reader, and out of which we have
+told the tale of De la Salle, and the Christian Brothers. We do so for
+the purpose of showing what kind of men these good Brothers are, when
+put to the test in a severe and unexampled manner.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'After the disasters of the Prussian invasion in 1871,' says
+our author, 'the City of Boston, in America, placed at the
+disposal of the French Academy a special prize of two
+thousand francs to be given to whoever should be judged most
+worthy of the honour, on account of services rendered during
+the siege and in presence of the enemy. The Academy could
+find no more fitting recipient of this distinction than the
+Community, which during the whole time of the war had sent
+five hundred infirmarians into the battlefields, one of whom
+had fallen under the fire of the Prussians, among the
+wounded at Bourget. Public opinion fully endorsed the
+decision, when the first literary body in the world adjudged
+this reward to the humble and despised corps of the Fr&egrave;res
+des &Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes. At the same time the National
+Defence Government insisted on decorating their venerable
+Superior with a cross of honour. He would have refused it,
+as he and his predecessors had already done many times, and
+he only yielded when he was told that there was nothing
+personal in the honour; that it belonged to his Institute;
+and that it was only as the representative of the Society
+that he was asked to wear it. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> eminent Dr. Ricord, who
+had been an eyewitness of the devotion of the Brothers, was
+charged with the office of fastening the cross on the
+cassock of Fr&egrave;re Philippe, in the great hall of the
+mother-house. This was the most embarrassing moment in the
+life of that man of God. He could not bear to wear the cross
+of honour, and in fact he never did wear it. When he
+returned after conducting the Doctor to the door at the end
+of the ceremony, he somehow managed that no one should
+perceive his decoration. The cross was not to be seen; and
+it has remained ever since as a kind of myth, or mysterious
+souvenir; it was never found.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus in France Ministers of Public Instruction and Superiors of the
+Fr&egrave;res des &Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes agree in removing the cross from
+elementary schools: but how marvellous the distance between the
+religious principles which lead to the two kinds of removal!</p>
+
+<p>And now, in these days of payment by results, let us look for one moment
+to the &Eacute;coles Chr&eacute;tiennes from this point of view; and then we will bid
+the Brothers a respectful farewell.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'For the last forty years a certain number of exhibitions or
+scholarships (bourses) have been offered by the City of
+Paris for competition amongst the scholars of elementary or
+primary schools, which give to the successful candidates a
+right of free education in the higher class schools. The
+number of scholarships which are offered varies. In 1848
+there were twenty-nine; in 1871, fifty; in 1874, eighty; and
+in 1877 the number was raised to a hundred. Competition is
+open to all elementary schools, whether taught by the
+Christian Brothers, or by lay teachers of no religious order
+or society.</p>
+
+<p>'The result, taking the thirty years from 1847 to 1877, has
+been that of 1445 exhibitions gained by scholars, 1148 have
+been won by boys from the Christian schools, and 297 by
+those from other schools. Or to take the last seven years of
+that period, during which every effort has been made by the
+Government, at a lavish outlay, to promote the efficiency of
+the secular schools, the results, though the numbers are not
+quite so disproportioned, yet show a marked superiority in
+the schools of the Christian Brothers. Out of 490
+exhibitions, 364 have been adjudged to their pupils, and 126
+to those of the secular schools.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Well done, Christian Brothers! You have preached an admirable sermon to
+all those who take an interest in the education of children upon those
+comprehensive and deep-reaching words of Christ, 'Take no thought,
+saying, What shall we eat? or, What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal
+shall we be clothed?... But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and His
+righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> 'The policy of the late Chamber with regard to religion,
+education, and the army had very much greater weight with the
+electors.... The persistent threat held out by certain Republicans to
+destroy the Church, either by a hypocritical fulfillment of the
+Concordat or by the forcible separation of Church and State, has been
+skilfully used by their adversaries amongst the peasantry, who dread
+nothing so much as having to pay their cur&eacute; themselves. The Government
+was so well aware of this fact, that in some of the departments the
+Catechism was ordered to be recited in the schools during the last week
+before the elections, though only two months earlier the teachers had
+been strictly forbidden to use it. This childish stratagem had, as might
+have been expected, no great success.'&mdash;Gabriel Monod, in 'Contemporary
+Review,' of December, 1885.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Art_III_The_State_Papers_of_the_Venetian_Republic_namely" id="Art_III_The_State_Papers_of_the_Venetian_Republic_namely"></a>Art. III.&mdash;<i>The State Papers of the Venetian Republic</i>; namely,
+<i>Cancelleria Inferiore, Cancelleria Ducale, Cancelleria Secreta,</i>
+preserved in the Convent of the Frari, at Venice.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In recent years a new tendency has been given to historical studies by
+the avidity with which scholars have investigated the masses of State
+documents accumulated through centuries, almost untouched, in the Record
+Offices of various nations. This tendency has been in the direction of
+minuteness and accuracy of detail. The finer shades of policy, the
+subtler turns in the game of nations, have been revealed by this
+intimate study of the documents which record them. Among the archives of
+Europe there is none superior, in historical value and richness of
+minuti&aelig;, to the Archives of the Venetian Republic, preserved now in the
+convent of the Frari at Venice. The importance of these archives is due
+to three causes: the position of the Republic in the history of Europe,
+the fullness of the archives themselves, and the remarkable preservation
+and order which distinguishes them, in spite of the many dangers and
+vicissitudes through which they have passed. Venice enjoyed a position,
+unique among the States of Europe, for two reasons. Until the discovery
+of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, she was the mart of Europe
+in all commercial dealings with the East&mdash;a position secured to her by
+her supremacy in the Levant, and by the strength of her fleet; and, in
+the second place, the Republic was the bulwark of Europe against the
+Turk. These are the two dominant features of Venice in general history;
+and under both aspects she came into perpetual contact with every
+European Power. The universal importance of her position is faithfully
+reflected in the diplomatic documents contained in her archives. The
+Republic maintained ambassadors and residents at every Court. These men
+were among the most subtle and accomplished diplomatists of their time,
+and the government they served was exacting and critical to the highest
+degree. The result is that the dispatches, newsletters and reports of
+the Venetian diplomatic agents, form the most varied, brilliant, and
+singular gallery of portraits, whether of persons or of peoples, that
+exists. There is hardly a nation in Europe that will not find its
+history illustrated by the papers which belong to the Venetian
+department for foreign affairs. Nor are the papers which relate to the
+home government of the Republic less copious and valuable. Each
+magistracy has its own series of documents, the daily record of its
+proceedings: in this we find the whole of that elaborate machinery of
+State laid bare before us in all its intricacy of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> detail; and we are
+enabled to study the construction, the origin, development, and
+ossification, of one of the most rigid and enduring constitutions that
+the world has ever seen; a constitution so strong in its component
+parts, so compact in its rib-work, that it sufficed to preserve a
+semblance of life in the body of the Republic long after the heart and
+brain had ceased to beat.</p>
+
+<p>Admirable as are the preservation and order of these masses of State
+papers, it is not to be expected that each series, each magisterial
+archive, should be complete. There are many broad lacun&aelig;, especially in
+the earlier period, which must ever be a cause for regret: for Venice
+growing is a more attractive and profitable subject than Venice dying.
+During the nine hundred and eighty-seven years that the Government of
+the Republic held its seat in Venice, the State papers passed through
+many dangers from fire, revolution, neglect, or carelessness. When we
+recal the fires of 1230, 1479, 1574, and 1577, it is rather matter for
+congratulation that so much has escaped, than for surprise that so much
+has been destroyed. The losses would, undoubtedly, have been much more
+severe had all the papers and documents been preserved in one place, as
+they are now. But the Venetians stored the archives of the various
+magistracies either at the offices of those magistrates, or in some
+public building especially set apart for the purpose. The Secret
+Chancellery, which was always an object of great solicitude, containing
+as it did all the more private papers of the State, was deposited in a
+room on the second floor of the Ducal Palace. Many of the criminal
+records belonging to the Council of Ten were stored in the Piombi under
+the roof of the Palace; and the famous adventurer Casanova relates how
+he beguiled some of his prison hours by reading the trial of a Venetian
+nobleman, which he found among other papers piled at the end of the
+corridor where he was allowed to take exercise. Soon after the fall of
+the Republic, the following disposition of the papers was made. The
+political archive was stored at the Scuola di S. Teodoro; the judicial,
+at the convent of S. Giovanni Laterano; the financial, at S. Procolo. In
+the year 1815, the Austrian Government resolved to collect and arrange
+all State papers in one place. The building chosen was the convent of
+the Frari; and the work was entrusted to Jacopo Chiodo, the first
+director of the archives. The scheme suggested by Chiodo has served as a
+basis for the arrangement that has been already carried out, or is still
+in hand.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Republic it was natural that access to important diplomatic
+papers and to secrets of State should be granted with reserve, and only
+to persons especially authorized to make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> research. The directors
+appointed by the Austrian Government showed a disposition to maintain
+that precedent; and M. Baschet relates that it was only by a personal
+appeal to the Emperor that he obtained access to the archives of the
+Ten. The Italian Government allow nearly absolute liberty; and nothing
+can exceed the courtesy of the officials under their distinguished
+director, the Commendatore Cecchetti.</p>
+
+<p>Any attempt to explain the archives of Venice and to display their
+contents, must be preceded by a statement of the main features of the
+constitution of the Republic upon which the order and the arrangement of
+the archives is based. The constitution of Venice has frequently been
+likened to a pyramid, with the Great Council for its base and the Doge
+for apex. The figure is more or less correct; but it is a pyramid that
+has been broken at its edges by time and by necessity. The legislative
+and political body was originally constructed in four groups, or
+tiers&mdash;if we are to preserve the pyramidal simile&mdash;one rising above the
+other. These four tiers were the Maggior Consiglio or Great Council, the
+Lower House; the Pregadi or Senate, the Upper House; the Collegio, or
+the Cabinet; and the Doge. The famous Council of Ten and its equally
+famous Commission, the Three Inquisitors of State, did not enter into
+the original scheme; they are an appendix to the State, an intrusion, a
+break in the symmetry of the pyramid. Later on we shall explain their
+construction and relation to the main body of government. For the
+present we leave them aside, and confine our attention to the four
+departments of the Venetian constitution above mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Council, as is well known, did not assume its permanent form
+and place in the Venetian constitution till the year 1296. At that date
+the famous revolution, known as the closing of the Great Council, took
+place. By that act, which was only the final step in a revolution that
+had been for long in process, those citizens who were excluded from the
+Great Council remained for ever outside the constitution; all functions
+of government were concentrated in the hands of those nobles who were
+included by the Council; the constitution of the Republic was
+stereotyped as a rigid oligarchy. Previous to the year 1296, a great
+council had existed, created first in the reign of Pietro Ziani (1172);
+but this council was really democratic in character, not oligarchic; it
+was elected each September, and its members were chosen from the whole
+body of the citizens. Earlier still than the reign of Ziani, the
+population used to meet tumultuously and express their opinion upon
+matters of public interest, such as the election of a Doge or a
+declaration of war,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> first in the <i>Concione</i> under their tribunes, while
+Venetia was still a confederation of lagoon-islands; and then in the
+<i>Arengo</i> under their Doge, when the confederation was centralized at
+Rialto. But of these assemblies the latter was disorderly and irregular,
+and the former was of doubtful authority. It is from the closing of the
+Great Council that we must date the positive establishment of the
+Venetian oligarchy, and the completion of that constitution which
+endured for five hundred years, from 1296 till the fall of the Republic
+in 1797.</p>
+
+<p>The age at which the young nobles might take their seats in the Council,
+that is to say, might enter upon public life, was fixed at twenty-five,
+except in the cases of the Barbarelli, or thirty nobles between the ages
+of twenty and twenty-five, who were elected by ballot on the fourth of
+each December, St. Barbara's day; and in the case of those who, in
+return for money advanced to the State, obtained a special grace to take
+their seats before their twenty-fifth year.</p>
+
+<p>The chief functions of the Great Council were the passing of laws, and
+the election of magistrates. But in process of time the legislative
+duties of the Council were almost entirely absorbed by the Senate; and
+the Maggior Consiglio only retained its great and distinguished
+function, the election of almost every officer of State, from the Doge
+downwards. The large number of these magistracies, and the various
+seasons of the year at which they fell vacant, engaged the Great Council
+in a perpetual series of elections. It is not our intention to explain
+in detail the elaborate process by which the Venetians carried out their
+political elections; such an explanation would carry us beyond our
+scope, which is to state the position and functions of each member in
+the constitution of the Republic. But, briefly, the process was this.
+The law required either two or four competitors for every vacant
+magistracy, and the election to that magistracy was said to take place
+<i>a due</i> or <i>a quattro mani</i>, respectively. If the office to be filled
+required <i>quattro mani</i>, the whole body of the Great Council balloted
+for four groups of nine members each, who were chosen by drawing a
+golden ball from among the silver ones in the balloting urn. Each of
+these groups retired to a separate room, and there each group elected
+one candidate to go to the poll for the vacant office. The names of the
+four candidates were then presented to the Council and balloted. The
+candidate who secured the largest number of votes, above the half of
+those present, was elected to the vacant office. Thus the election to
+the magistracy was a triple process; first, the election of the
+nominators, then the election of the candidates, and finally the
+election to the office.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Great Council, as representing the whole Republic, possessed certain
+judicial functions, which were used on rare occasions only, when the
+State believed itself placed in grave danger through the fault of its
+commanders. The famous case of Vettor Pisani, after his defeat at Pola,
+in 1379, and the case of Antonio Grimani, in the year 1499, were both
+sent to the Grand Council, who passed sentence on those generals. But,
+broadly speaking, the judicial functions of the Maggior Consiglio hardly
+existed, its legislative functions dwindled away, and were absorbed by
+the Senate, and its chief duty and prerogative lay in the election of
+almost every State official.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to the second tier in the pyramid of the constitution, the
+Senate, or Pregadi,&mdash;the invited, we find that the Senate proper was
+composed of sixty members, elected in the Great Council, six at a time.
+The elections took place once a week, and were so arranged that they
+should be complete by the first of October in each year. In addition to
+the Senate proper, another body of sixty, called the <i>Zonta</i> or
+addition, was elected by the outgoing Senate at the close of its year of
+office; but it was necessary that the names of the <i>Zonta</i> should be
+approved by the Great Council before their election was valid. The
+Senate and the Zonta together formed one hundred and twenty members; and
+besides these, the Doge, his six councillors, the Council of Ten, the
+Supreme Court of Appeal, and many special magistrates, who presided over
+departments of Finance, Customs, and Justice, belonged <i>ex officio</i> to
+the Senate, and brought the number of votes up to two hundred and
+forty-six. Further, fifty-one magistrates of minor departments also sat,
+with the right to debate, but without the right to vote.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate was the real core of the Administration. The presence, <i>ex
+officio</i>, of so many and such various officers of State sufficiently
+indicates the wide field which was covered by the authority of the
+Pregadi. The large number of the Senatorial body, and the diversity of
+subjects with which it dealt, required that business should be carried
+on with parsimony of time and precision of method; and therefore private
+members were restricted to the right of debate. Only the Doge, his
+councillors, the Savii Grandi and the Savii di Terra ferma had the right
+to move the Senate; and their propositions related to peace, war,
+foreign affairs, instructions to ambassadors, and representatives of
+foreign Courts, to commercial treaties, finance, and home legislation.
+The various measures were spoken to by their proposers, and by the
+magistrates whose offices they affected. As in the case of the Great
+Council, the Senate also on rare occasions exercised judicial functions.
+It was in the discretion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> of the College to send a faulty commander for
+trial either to the Great Council or to the Senate; but in that case the
+charge must be one of negligence or misjudgment; if the charge implied
+treason, it was taken before the Council of Ten. A few of the higher
+officers of State were elected in the Senate, among them the Savii
+Grandi and the Savii di Terra ferma, and the Admiral of the Fleet. The
+functions of the Senate were legislative, judicial, and elective. But
+just as the Great Council was pre-eminently the elective body, so the
+Senate was pre-eminently the legislative body in the constitution of
+Venice.</p>
+
+<p>The Collegio or Cabinet of Ministers, formed the third tier in the
+pyramid. The College was composed of the following members: The Doge,
+his six councillors, and the three chiefs of the Court of Appeal; these
+ten persons formed the Collegio minore, or Serenissima Signoria; in
+addition to these there were the six Savii Grandi; the five Savii di
+Terra ferma, and the five Savii da mar; a body of twenty-six persons in
+all, forming the College. Beginning with the lowest in rank, the Savii
+agli ordini, or da mar, were, as their name implies, a Board of
+Admiralty; but they acted in that capacity under the orders of the Savii
+Grandi upon whom the naval affairs of the Republic immediately depended.
+The Savii agli ordini had a vote but no voice in the College; this post
+was given, for the most part, to young and promising politicians; it was
+a training school for statesmen: 'Officio loro,' says Giannotti, '&egrave;
+tacere ed ascoltare.' The office lasted for six months only; and so
+there was a constant stream of young men passing through the political
+school, and becoming intimately acquainted with the affairs of the
+Republic and the methods of government. How excellent that school must
+have been will become apparent as we proceed to note the functions of
+the College of which the Savii agli ordini formed a silent part.</p>
+
+<p>Next in order above the Savii agli ordini came the Savii di Terra ferma.
+This Board was composed of five members; the Savio alia Scrittura, or
+Minister for War; the Savio Cassier, or Chancellor of the Exchequer; the
+Savio alle ordinanze, or minister for the native militia in the cities
+on the mainland; the Savio ai da m&ograve;, or minister for the execution of
+all measures voted urgent; the Savio ai Ceremoniali, or Minister for
+Ceremonies of State. These Savii di Terra ferma, like the Savii agli
+ordini, held office for six months only.</p>
+
+<p>The six Savii Grandi, who came above the Savii di Terra ferma,
+superintended the actions of the two boards below them, and, if
+necessary, issued orders which would override those of the other
+ministers. They were, in fact, the responsible directors of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> the State.
+The Savii Grandi were required to prepare all business to be laid before
+the College, where it was first discussed and arranged before being
+submitted to the Senate for approval. To facilitate this labour of
+preparation, each of the Savii Grandi took a week in turn, and the Savio
+of the week was, in fact, Prime Minister of Venice. It was he who read
+dispatches, granted audiences to ambassadors, and prepared official
+replies. The Doge presided in the College, it is true, but it was the
+Savio of the week who opened the business, and suggested the various
+measures to be adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these boards of Savii, the College included the Ducal
+Councillors, and the three chiefs of the Court of Appeal. We shall speak
+of these latter when we come to the judicial department of the
+constitution. The office of Ducal Councillor was, perhaps, the most
+venerable in Venice. These six men held, as it were, the Ducal honours
+and functions in commission; they embodied the authority of the Doge to
+such an extent, that without their presence he could not act; he became
+a nonentity unless supported by four at least of his council; while, on
+the other hand, the absence of the Doge in no way diminished the
+authority of the Ducal Councillors. For example, the Doge without his
+council could not preside, neither in the Maggior Consiglio, nor in the
+Senate, nor in the College, but four Ducal Councillors had the power to
+preside without the Doge. The Doge might not open dispatches except in
+the presence of his council, but his council might open dispatches in
+the absence of the Doge. Yet, great as were the external honours of the
+Ducal Councillors, the office was rather ornamental than important. It
+was the Savii Grandi who were the directing spirit through all the
+multitudinous affairs of the College. As we have seen, those affairs
+embraced the whole field of government, except the field of Justice. The
+College had no judicial functions, nor did it legislate. As the Maggior
+Consiglio was the elective member, and the Senate the legislative, so
+the College was the initiative and executive member of the State. The
+College proposed measures which became law in the Senate; and the
+execution of those laws was entrusted to the College which had the
+machinery of State at its disposal. It is this right of initiating which
+distinguishes the College; and it is just upon this point that the Ducal
+Councillors appear to have a slight pre-eminence; for the Doge, his
+council, and the Savii alone, had the right to initiate in the Senate;
+the Doge, his council, and the chiefs of the Ten alone, had the right to
+initiate in the Council of Ten; the Doge and his council alone had the
+right to initiate in the Maggior Consiglio. The Doge and his council<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>
+alone move through all departments of government, presiding and
+initiating, embodying the spirit of the Republic; and yet in no case is
+their power great; for the Savii had more influence in the Senate, the
+Chiefs of the Ten in the Council of Ten; and the Great Council, where
+the Doge and his councillors had the field to themselves, was of little
+importance in the direction of affairs.</p>
+
+<p>At the apex of the constitutional pyramid we find the Doge. The Doge
+also had his distinctive functions in the State; his duties were
+ornamental rather than administrative. Though all the acts of the
+Government were executed in his name, laws passed, dispatches sent,
+treaties made, and war declared, yet it is not in these departments that
+the Doge stands pre-eminent; it is throughout the pomp and display of
+the Republic that he is supreme; and the archive wherein his glory shows
+most brightly is the <i>Ceremoniali</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Doge was elected for life. When a Doge died, the eldest Ducal
+Councillor filled the office of Vice-Doge until the election of the new
+Prince. The remains of the deceased Doge were laid out in the Chamber of
+the Pioveghi, on the first floor of the Ducal Palace, dressed in robes
+of State, the mantle of cloth of gold and the ducal beretta. Twenty
+Venetian noblemen were appointed to attend in the chapelle ardente. On
+the third day the Doge was buried; and the Great Council on the same day
+elected the officers who were to revise the coronation oath, and to
+render its provisions more stringent if the conduct of the deceased had
+revealed any point where a future Doge could exercise even the smallest
+independence in constitutional matters. At the same time the Council
+elected another body of officers, who were required to examine the
+conduct of the late Doge, and, if he had violated his coronation oath,
+his heirs paid the penalty by a fine. Immediately after the appointment
+of these officers, the Maggior Consiglio proceeded to create the
+forty-one electors to the dukedom. The process of election was long and
+intricate, and occupied five days at the least; for there was a
+quintuple series of ballots and votings to be concluded before the
+forty-one were finally chosen. When the forty-one noblemen had been
+appointed they were taken to a chamber specially prepared for them,
+where, as in the case of a papal election, they were obliged to stay
+until they had determined upon the new Doge. They were bound by oath
+never to reveal what took place inside this election chamber. But this
+oath was not always observed in the spirit; and memoranda of the
+proceedings of the forty-one are still preserved in the private archives
+of the Marcello family. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> first step was to elect three priors, or
+presidents, and two secretaries. The presidents took their seats at a
+table on which stood a ballot-box and an urn. The secretaries gave to
+every elector a slip of paper, upon which each one wrote the name of the
+man whom he proposed as Doge. The forty-one slips of paper were then
+placed in the urn, and one was drawn out at hazard. If the noble, whose
+name was written upon the slip, chanced to be an elector, he was
+required to withdraw. Then each of the electors was at liberty to attack
+the candidate, to point out defects and recal misdeeds. These hostile
+criticisms, which covered the whole of a candidate's private life, his
+physical qualities and his public conduct, were written down by the
+secretaries, and the candidate was recalled. The objections urged
+against him were read over to the aspirant, without the names of the
+urgers appearing, and he was invited to defend himself. Attack and
+defence continued till no further criticisms were offered, and then the
+name of the candidate was balloted before the priors. If it received
+twenty-five favourable votes, its owner was declared Doge; if less than
+twenty-five, a fresh name was drawn from the urn, and the whole process
+was repeated until some candidate secured the necessary five-and-twenty
+votes. As soon as this issue was reached, the Signoria was informed of
+the result, and the new Doge, attended by the electors, descended to
+Saint Mark's, where, from the pulpit on the left side of the choir, the
+Prince was shown to the people, and where, before the high altar, he
+took the coronation oath and received the standard of Saint Mark. The
+great doors of the Basilica were then thrown open, and the Doge passed
+in procession round the Piazza and returned to the Porta della Carta. At
+the top of the Giants' Stair the eldest Ducal Councillor placed the
+beretta on his head, and he was brought to the Sala dei Pioveghi, where
+the late Doge had lain in state, and where he too would one day come.
+Then the Doge retired to his private apartments, and the ceremony of
+election closed.</p>
+
+<p>As we have already observed, the position of the Doge in the Republic of
+Venice was almost purely ornamental. The Doge presided, either in person
+or by commission through his councillors, at every Council of State; he
+presided, however, not as a guiding and deliberating chief, but as a
+symbol of the Majesty of Venice. He is there not as an individual, a
+personality, but as the outward and visible sign of an idea, the idea of
+the Venetian oligarchy. The history of the personal authority of the
+Doge falls into three periods. A period of great vigour and almost
+despotic power dates from the foundation of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> Dukedom, in the year
+697, down to the reign of Pietro Ziani in 1172. During this first
+period, the Ducal authority showed a tendency to become concentrated,
+and almost hereditary in the hands of one or two powerful families. For
+example, we have seen Doges of the Partecipazio house, five Doges of the
+Candiani, and three of the Orseoli. But the rivalry and balanced power
+of these great families eventually exhausted one another, and preserved
+the Dukedom of Venice from ever becoming a kingdom. A second period
+extends from the year 1172 down to 1457, and is marked by the emergence
+of the great commercial houses, and the development of the oligarchy
+upon the basis of a Great Council. The aristocracy during this period
+were engaged in excluding the people from any share in the government,
+and in curbing and finally crushing the authority of the Doge. The steps
+in this process are indicated by the closing of the Great Council, the
+revolution of Tiepolo, the trials of Marino Faliero, Lorenzo Celsi, and
+the Foscari. The third period covers what remains of the Republic, from
+1457 down to 1797. During this period the Doge was little other than the
+figurehead of the Republic; the point of least weight and greatest
+splendour; the brilliant apex to the pyramid of the Venetian
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>So far, then, we have examined the four tiers in the original structure
+of the constitution, the Doge, the College, the Senate, and the Great
+Council; and we have seen that, broadly speaking these were,
+respectively, ornamental, initiative and executive, legislative, and
+elective. But this pyramid of the constitution was not perfectly
+symmetrical; its edges were broken. This interruption of outline was
+caused by the Council of Ten. The exact position in the Venetian
+constitution occupied by this famous Council, and its relations to the
+other members of the government, have proved a constant source of
+difficulty and error to students of Venetian history. Leaving aside the
+obscure problem of the origin of the Ten, it is still possible for us to
+indicate the constitutional necessity which called that Council into
+existence. As we have pointed out, the College could not act on its own
+responsibility without the Senate; the Senate could not initiate without
+the College, for the preparation of all affairs passed through the hands
+of the College. To establish connection between these two branches of
+the administration was a process that required some time; it could not
+be done swiftly and secretly. In all crises of political importance,
+whether home or foreign, some instrument, more expeditious than the
+Senate, was required to sanction the propositions of the College. That
+instrument, acting swiftly and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> secretly, with a speed and secrecy
+impossible in so large a body as the Senate, was created with the
+Council of Ten. The Ten were an extraordinary magistracy, devised to
+meet unexpected pressure upon the ordinary machine of government. The
+emergence of the Ten proves this view. Without determining whether the
+Council existed previous to the year 1310, we may take that year as the
+date of its first appearance as a potent element in the State. The
+rebellion of Tiepolo and Querini, an aristocratic revolt against the
+growing power of the new commercial nobility, paralysed the ordinary
+machinery of State, and revealed the danger inherent in a large and
+slow-moving body of rulers. The Ten were called to power, just as the
+Romans created the Dictatorship, in order to save the State in a
+dangerous crisis.</p>
+
+<p>The place of the Ten in the constitutional structure is below the
+College and parallel with the Senate. Below the College the
+administration bifurcates, the ordinary course of business flows through
+the Senate, the extraordinary through the Ten. The Ten possessed an
+authority equal to that of the Senate; the choice of which instrument
+should be used, rested with the College. The Ten appear to be of more
+importance than the Senate, solely because they were used upon more
+critical and dramatic occasions. Wherever the machinery of the College
+and Senate moves too slowly, we find the swifter machinery of the
+College and the Ten in motion. And so not only in political affairs,
+home and foreign, but also in affairs financial and judicial, the
+Council of Ten takes its part. The Ten, as being the readier instrument
+to the hands of the College, gradually absorbed more and more of the
+functions which originally belonged to the Senate. This process of
+absorption, and the extension of the province of the Ten, is marked by
+the establishment of its sub-commissions, that took their place in every
+department side by side with the delegations of the Senate and the
+ordinary magistrates. In politics and foreign affairs there is the
+famous office of the Three Inquisitors of State. In the region of
+Justice all cases of treason and coining, and certain cases of outrage
+on public morals, came before the Ten; and it was always open to the
+College to remove a case from the ordinary courts to the Ten, when State
+reasons rendered it expedient to do so. In the Police department the
+Esecutori contro la Bestemmia, and in Finance the Camerlenghi, were
+officers of that Council. In the War Office the artillery was under
+their control; and in the arsenal certain galleys, marked C.X., were
+always at their disposal.</p>
+
+<p>These five great members of the State, four regular and one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> irregular,
+formed the political and legislative departments of the Venetian
+Government. It would require too many details to give a similar account
+of the Judicial, Educational, and Religious machinery.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable features in the Venetian constitution is the
+infinite subdivision of government, and the number of offices to be
+filled. Nobles alone were eligible for the majority of these offices,
+and if we consider how small a body the Great Council really was, it is
+clear that the larger number of Venetian noblemen must have been
+employed in the service of the State at some time in their lives. The
+great political and administrative activity which reigned inside the
+comparatively small body that formed the ruling caste, as compared with
+the absolute stagnation and quiet which marked the life of the ordinary
+citizen, is one of the most noteworthy points in the history of Venice.
+Every noble above the age of twenty-five was a member of the Maggior
+Consiglio; every week that council had to fill up some office of State,
+had some new candidate before it. The tenure of all offices, except the
+Dukedom and the Procuratorship of St. Mark, was so brief, rarely
+exceeding a year, or sixteen months, that the fret and activity of
+elections must have been nearly incessant. This constant unrest bore its
+fruit in perpetual intrigues, and the censors were appointed to check
+the rampant canvassing and bribery. But the main point which is
+impressed upon us is the universality of political training to which all
+the nobles of Venice were subjected. No matter how frivolous a young
+patrician might be, he would be obliged to sit in the Great Council; he
+would be called upon to assist in electing the Ten, whose omniscience
+and severity he had every reason to dread; he might even find himself
+named to fill some minor post. It was impossible, under these
+circumstances, that he should fail to be educated politically, or that
+he should ever lose the keenest interest in every movement of the State.
+It is to this political activity that we may possibly look for one of
+the reasons which conduced to that extraordinary longevity which the
+constitution of Venice displayed.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the Government offices, many as they were, possessed its own
+collection of papers. These are either still in loose sheets, just as
+they left the office, or bound in volumes. They are indicated by the
+name of the Government department, the subject dealt with, and the date.
+The pages are of three kinds; first, there are the files or <i>filze</i>, the
+original minutes of the Board, written down in actual Council by the
+secretaries, and with the <i>filze</i> are the dispatches or other documents
+upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> which the Council took measures. In many of the more important
+departments, such as the Senate, the Ten, or the College, these <i>filze</i>
+were epitomized; the substance of each day's business was written out in
+large volumes known as <i>Registri</i>; each entry was signed by the
+secretary who had made the digest, and was accepted as authentic for all
+purposes of reference. These registers are, in many cases, of the
+greatest value where the files have been destroyed or lost. They were
+more constantly in use, and therefore more carefully preserved; and now
+they frequently form our sole authority for certain periods. As a rule
+the registers are very full and good; they contain all that is of
+importance in the files; but in making research upon any point it is
+never safe to ignore the files where they exist. In some cases the
+secretaries made a further digest of the registers in volumes known as
+Rubrics, which contain in brief the headings of all materials to be
+found in the registers. As the registers sometimes supply the place of
+lost files, so the rubrics are occasionally our only authority where
+registers and files are both missing. The rubrics are often of the
+highest value. As an instance, we may cite the twenty volumes of rubrics
+to the dispatches from England between the years 1603 and 1748. The
+method of research, therefore, where all three kinds of documents exists
+is this, to examine first the rubrics, then the registers, and then the
+files. But the infinite subdivisions of the Government offices in Venice
+render the task of research somewhat bewildering; and a student cannot
+be certain that he has exhausted all the information on his subject,
+until he has examined a large number of these minor offices. He will
+probably find some notice of the point he is examining in the papers of
+the Senate or of the Ten, and, if it be a matter of home affairs, he can
+trace it thence through the various magistracies under whose cognizance
+it would come; or if it be a matter of foreign policy, he will find
+further information in the papers of the College.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Republic these collections of State papers were not known as
+archives, but as chancelleries. The collections of highest interest, the
+papers to which the student is most likely to turn his attention, are
+those relating to the ceremony, to the home, and to the foreign policy
+of Venice. These three groups are contained in the Ducal, the Secret,
+and the Inferior Chancelleries. The three chancelleries were committed
+to the charge of the Grand Chancellor and his staff of secretaries, who
+received, arranged, and registered the official papers as they issued
+from the various Councils of State. The Grand Chancellor was not a
+patrician; he was chosen from that upper class<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> of commoners known as
+<i>cittadini originarii</i>, an inferior order of nobility, ranking below the
+governing caste, but bearing coat armour. The office of Grand Chancellor
+was of great dignity and antiquity, and was held for life. The
+Chancellor was head and representative of the people, as the Doge was
+head and representative of the patricians; and, when the nobility began
+to exclude the people from all share in the government, the Grand
+Chancellor was allowed to be present at all sessions of the Great
+Council and of the Senate as the silent witness of the people,
+confirming the acts of the Government, and bridging, though by the
+finest thread, the gulf that otherwise separated the governed from the
+governing. The part which the Grand Chancellor took in the business of
+the Maggior Consiglio and of the Senate was a constant and an active
+part. It was his duty to superintend the arrangements for every
+election, to direct the secretaries in attendance, to announce the names
+of the candidates for office, and to proclaim the successful competitor.
+His seat in the Great Council Hall was on the left-hand of the Doge's
+da&iuml;s, and his secretaries sat below him. But the custody of the State
+papers was by far the most important function which the Grand Chancellor
+had to perform. To assist him in these labours he was placed at the head
+of a large College of Secretaries, trained in a school especially
+established to fit them for their duties. In the year 1443 a decree of
+the Great Council required the Doge and the Signoria to elect each year
+twelve lads to be taught Latin, rhetoric and philosophy, and the number
+of the pupils was gradually increased. From this school they passed out
+by examination, and became first extra-ordinaries and ordinaries, called
+Notaries Ducal, then secretaries to the Senate, and finally secretaries
+to the Ten. The post of secretary was one which required much diligence
+and discretion. The secretaries were in constant attendance on the
+various Councils of State, and thus became intimately acquainted with
+all the secret affairs of the Republic. They were frequently sent on
+delicate missions. It was a secretary of the Ten who brought Carmagnola
+to Venice to stand his trial; and, as we shall presently relate, it was
+a secretary of the Senate who announced to Thomas Killigrew, the English
+Minister, his dismissal from Venice. The secretaries were sometimes
+accredited as Residents to foreign Courts, though they were not eligible
+for the post of Ambassador. Inside the Chancellery the secretaries were
+entirely at the disposal of the Grand Chancellor, and their duties were
+to study, to invent, and to read cipher; to transcribe the registers
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> rubrics; to keep the annals of the Council of Ten, and to enter the
+laws in the statute book.</p>
+
+<p>We may now turn our attention to the principal series of State papers
+which issued from the five great members of the Constitution, the
+Maggior Consiglio, the Senate, the Ten, the College, and the Doge, and
+show how these papers were arranged under the three Chancelleries of
+which we have spoken.</p>
+
+<p>The Cancelleria Inferiore was preserved in one large room near the head
+of the Giants' Staircase in the Ducal Palace, and was entrusted to the
+care of the Notaries Ducal, the lowest order of secretaries. The
+documents in this Chancellery related chiefly to the Doge; his rights,
+his official possessions, his restrictions, and his state. Among these
+papers, accordingly, we find the coronation oaths, the Reports of the
+Commissioners appointed to examine those oaths, and the Reports of the
+Commissioners appointed to review the life of each Doge deceased. This
+series is valuable as revealing the steps by which the aristocracy
+slowly curtailed the personal authority of the Doge, and bound his
+office about with iron fetters, and crushed his power. In addition to
+these papers the Inferior Chancellery contained the documents relating
+to the dignitaries of St. Mark's in its capacity as Ducal Chapel; the
+order and ceremony of the Ducal household; the expenditure of the Civil
+List; and the archives of the Procurators of Saint Mark, which contained
+the will, trusts, and bequests of private citizens.</p>
+
+<p>The Ducal Chancellery, which the Council of Ten once called 'cor nostri
+status,' was preserved on the upper floor of the palace, and was reached
+by the Scala d'oro. The papers were arranged in a number of cupboards
+surmounted by the arms of the various Grand Chancellors who had presided
+in that office. The documents of the Ducal Chancellery are of far higher
+importance than those contained in the Cancelleria Inferiore; they
+consist of political papers which it was not necessary to keep secret.
+Among the many interesting series of documents which fell to the Ducal
+Chancellery, the most valuable are the 'Compilazione delle Leggi,' or
+statute-books distinguished by the various colours of their
+bindings&mdash;gold, roan, and green&mdash;to mark the statutes which relate to
+the Maggior Consiglio, the Senate, and the College respectively; the
+Secretario alle voci, or record of all elections in the Great Council;
+the Libri gratiarum, or special privileges. But most important of all is
+the great series of documents which include the whole legislation of the
+State relating to Venetian affairs on sea and land. Of this vast series
+those marked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> <i>Terra</i> contain 3128 volumes of files, 411 volumes of
+registers, and 7 volumes of rubrics; those marked <i>Mar</i> number 1286
+volumes of files, 247 volumes of registers, and 7 volumes of rubrics. It
+will easily be seen how important the Ducal Chancellery is both for the
+verification of dates, and also as displaying so large a tract of the
+Venetian home administration.</p>
+
+<p>But important as the Ducal Chancellery undoubtedly is, it cannot vie in
+interest with the Cancelleria Secreta, which might, with every justice,
+have been called 'cor nostri status', for it is in the papers of that
+Chancellery that the long history of the growth, splendour, and decline
+of the Republic is to be traced in all its manifold details and
+complicated relations. The Secret Chancellery was established by a
+decree of the Great Council in the year 1402. Its object was to preserve
+those papers of the highest State importance, from the publicity to
+which the Ducal Chancellery was exposed. The regulation of the Secret
+Chancellery was undertaken by the Council of Ten, and the rigorous
+orders which they issued from time to time abundantly prove the
+difficulty they experienced in securing the secrecy which they desired.
+The Secret Chancellery became the depository of all State papers of
+great moment; and if we take the chief members of the constitution in
+order, and note the documents issuing from them which fell to the
+custody of the Secreta, we shall see how the great flow of Venetian
+history is to be followed here rather than in any other department of
+the archives.</p>
+
+<p>To begin with the Maggior Consiglio, we have the long series of
+registers containing the deliberations of the Council from the year 1232
+down to the fall of the Republic in 1797, occupying forty-two volumes,
+and distinguished, at first, by such capricious names as Capricornus,
+Philosus, Presbiter, and Fronesis; and later on by the names of the
+secretaries who prepared them, Ottobonus primus, Ottobonus filius,
+Busenellus, and Vianolus. In the special archive of the Avogadori di
+Commun a contemporary series of registers is to be found; it covers from
+1232 to 1547, and should be consulted together with the first series,
+for it is more voluminous and minute. The first reference to England
+that occurs in the Venetian archives is in the volume Fronesis
+(1318-1385). This, and all other documents relating to Great Britain,
+have been collected and rendered accessible in the splendid and
+monumental series of the 'Calendar of State Papers,' edited with such
+diligence and care by the late Mr. Rawdon Brown. Mr. Brown's published
+work goes down to the year 1552; and it is only after that date that any
+work relating to England<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> remains to be done. That work, however, is
+voluminous, for the regular and unbroken series of dispatches from
+England does not begin till the reign of James I. Little more respecting
+England is to be expected from the papers of the Great Council, however;
+for at the date where Mr. Brown's work ends, the Maggior Consiglio had
+ceased to occupy a high position in the direction of Venetian foreign
+policy; its functions were chiefly confined to the election of
+magistrates.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate supplied a far larger number of papers to the Secret
+Chancellery than that yielded by the Great Council. This was to be
+expected, owing to the central position of the Senate in the
+constitution, and its prominent place in the management of Venetian
+policy, home and foreign. The oldest documents in the archives of Venice
+belong to the Senate. They are contained among the volumes of Pacts or
+treaties, seven in number, without including the volume Albus, which is
+devoted to treaties between the Republic and the Eastern Empire, nor the
+volume Blancus, which contains the treaties between Venice and the
+Emperors of the West. The thirty-three volumes of Commemoriali formed a
+sort of commonplace book for the use of statesmen; in them were
+registered briefly the most important events and abstracts of principal
+documents which passed through the hands of the Government. The
+Commemoriali cover the years 1293 to 1797; but after the middle of the
+sixteenth century they were neglected, and they are chiefly valuable
+down to that date only. After the Patti and Commemoriali we begin the
+record of the regular proceedings in the Senate. This series contains
+papers relating to home government, foreign policy, the dominions of
+Venice on the mainland, in Dalmatia and the Levant, ecclesiastical
+matters, relations with Rome, instructions to ambassadors and reports
+from governors. So widely spread and so varied were the attributes of
+the Senate, that the analysis of a single day's proceedings in that
+house would prove most instructive to the student of the Venetian
+constitution, and would, in all probability, bring him into contact with
+a large number of the leading magistracies of the Republic. The series
+of senatorial papers proceeds in almost unbroken completeness from the
+year 1293 down to the close of the Republic; and counting files,
+registers and rubrics, numbers 1599 volumes. This main series is known
+by different names at different periods, and shows signs of that
+tendency to subdivision which characterizes all Venetian Government
+offices. The volumes which run from the year 1293 to 1440 were known as
+Registri misti; those covering from 1491 to 1630, and overlapping the
+first Misti,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> were called Registri secreti. After the year 1630 the
+papers of the Senate are divided into those known as Corti, relating to
+foreign Powers; and those known as Rettori, relating to the government
+of the Venetian dominion.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this great series of Deliberazioni, containing the general
+movement of business in the Senate, there is another voluminous series
+of documents, equally important, and even more interesting to the
+student of general history, the dispatches received from Venetian
+representatives in foreign Courts, and the Relazioni, or reports which
+ambassadors read before the Senate upon their return from abroad.
+Nothing can exceed the brilliancy of this series; and the value of the
+Relazioni at least has been fully recognized. Yet it should be borne in
+mind that the Relazioni are only a part of the series, and that, taken
+alone and isolated from the dispatches, they lose much of their value.
+For we must not forget that the Relazioni were drawn up on more or less
+conventional lines; the headings, under which the report was to fall,
+were indicated by the Government, and were invariable; and, further, the
+home-coming ambassador handed his report to his successor, who
+frequently used it as a basis in drawing up his own. The result is that,
+except in the descriptions of Court life, and in the sketches of
+prominent characters, the Relazioni are apt to repeat themselves. But,
+taken with the dispatches, which arrived almost daily, they form the
+most varied, brilliant, and minute gallery of national portraits that
+the world possesses. The reports and dispatches were made by men whose
+whole political training had rendered them the acutest of observers, and
+they were presented to critics who were filled with the keenest
+curiosity, and were accustomed to demand full and precise information.
+Not a detail is omitted as unimportant; the diurnal gossip of the Court,
+the daily movements of the sovereign and his favourites; are all
+recorded with impartial and unerring observation. The relation of the
+Dispacci to the Relazioni is the relation of the study to the picture.
+The Relazioni are the large canvas upon which the whole nation is
+broadly depicted, the Dispacci are the patient and minute studies upon
+which the excellence of the picture depends. The majority of the
+Venetian Relazioni between the years 1492 and 1699 have been published;
+the earlier part by Signor Alberi, and the later by Signori Barozzi and
+Berchet. The eighteenth century still remains to be worked out. In the
+series of Relazioni and Dispacci, Great Britain occupies a comparatively
+small space. While France, Germany, and Constantinople, each give five
+volumes of reports, England gives one only, dating from 1531 to 1763. Of
+dispatches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> from England there are 139 volumes in all; while from
+Constantinople we have 242, from France 276, from Milan, 230, and from
+Germany 202.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the year 1603, when the regular series of dispatches from
+England begins, there had been intermittent relations between the
+Republic and the English Court. Sebastian Giustiniani was Venetian
+ambassador in London in the reign of Henry VIII. (1515-1519); and in the
+reign of Mary, Giovanni Michiel represented the Republic for four
+years&mdash;from 1554 to 1558. The Protestant reign of Elizabeth caused a
+long break, during which the Republic received its information about the
+affairs of England from its ambassadors in France and Spain. Permanent
+relations were not resumed between the two Powers till the accession of
+James I., one of whose earliest acts was to send Sir Henry Wotton to
+Venice as his ambassador. The appointment of Sir Henry Wotton was a
+movement of gratitude on the part of the King; and the cause of it
+cannot be better told than in the words of Sir Henry's biographer, who
+thus describes this 'notable accident:'</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Immediately after Sir Henry Wotton's return from Rome to
+Florence&mdash;which was about a year before the death of Queen
+Elizabeth&mdash;Ferdinand, the Great Duke of Tuscany, had
+intercepted certain letters that discovered a design to take
+away the life of James, the then King of Scots. The Duke
+abhorring this fact, and resolving to endeavour a prevention
+of it, advised with his Secretary Vietta, by what means a
+caution might be best given to that King; and after
+consideration it was resolved to be done by Sir Henry
+Wotton, whom Vietta first commended to the Duke, and the
+Duke had noted and approved of above all the English that
+frequented his Court.</p>
+
+<p>'Sir Henry was gladly called by his friend Vietta to the
+Duke, who dispatched him into Scotland with letters to the
+King, and with those letters such Italian antidotes against
+poison as the Scots till then had been strangers to.</p>
+
+<p>'Having parted from the Duke, he took up the name and
+language of an Italian; and thinking it best to avoid the
+line of English intelligence and danger, he posted into
+Norway, and through that country towards Scotland, where he
+found the King at Stirling. Being there, he used means, by
+Bernard Lindsey, one of the King's bed-chamber, to procure
+him a speedy and private conference with his Majesty.</p>
+
+<p>'This being by Bernard Lindsey made known to the King, the
+King required his name&mdash;which was said to be Octavio
+Baldi&mdash;and appointed him to be heard privately at a fixed
+hour that evening.</p>
+
+<p>'When Octavio Baldi came to the Presence-chamber door, he
+was requested to lay aside his long rapier&mdash;which,
+Italian-like, he then wore;&mdash;and being entered the chamber,
+he found there with the King three or four Scotch Lords
+standing distant in several corners of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> chamber; at the
+sight of whom he made a stand; which the King observing,
+bade him be bold and deliver his message; for he would
+undertake for the secrecy of all that were present. Then did
+Octavio Baldi deliver his letters and message to the King in
+Italian; which when the King had graciously received, after
+a little pause, Octavio Baldi steps to the table, and
+whispers to the King in his own language that he was an
+Englishman, beseeching him for a more private conference
+with his Majesty, and that he might be concealed during his
+stay in that nation; which was promised and really performed
+by the King, during all his abode there, which was about
+three months. All which time was spent with much
+pleasantness to the King, and with as much to Octavio Baldi
+himself as that country could afford; from which he departed
+as true an Italian as he came thither.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The presence of Sir Henry in Venice, where he was a <i>persona
+gratissima</i>, both for his love of Italy and his knowledge of the
+language, did much to strengthen the new relations between England and
+the Republic. The feeling between Venice and the Stuart kings became
+extremely cordial; but on the outbreak of the Civil War, in 1642, the
+Republic suspended the commission of Vincenzo Contarina, who had been
+appointed to succeed Giovanni Giustinian as ambassador to England. The
+secretary Girolamo Agostino, however, continued to discharge Venetian
+affairs till the year 1645; and his dispatches contain minute
+particulars concerning the progress of the Civil War. In the year 1645,
+Agostino was recalled, and the interests of Venice in England were
+entrusted to Salvetti, the Florentine resident. Agostino left behind him
+in England a secret agent, with instructions to forward a weekly report
+on the progress of affairs to the Venetian ambassador in France, among
+whose dispatches we find these newsletters from London. After the death
+of Charles I it is not likely that the Republic would have been
+represented at the Court of Cromwell, towards whom the feeling of Venice
+was not cordial, had she not been in great straits for help against the
+Turk. But in the year 1652 she resolved to dismiss the representative of
+Charles II, then in Venice; and, at the same time, the Government
+instructed the ambassador at Paris to send his secretary, Lorenzo
+Pauluzzi, to London to open negociations with Cromwell. With Pauluzzi
+the series of dispatches from London recommences; but these dispatches
+are to be found among the communications from the Venetian ambassador in
+Paris, by whom they were forwarded to the Senate. The dispatches of
+Pauluzzi are of great importance, and give us a vivid though hostile
+picture of Cromwell and his surroundings. 'Nell' universale,' he says,
+'ha pochissimo affetto;' and further on, 'non ardiscono tentare alcuna
+cosa n&egrave;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> parlare che tra i denti; ma ognuno sta sperando un giorno
+verificate le profizie che questo governo non possa a lungo durare.' In
+1655 the negociations between England and Venice had advanced so far
+that the Republic had determined to send an Ambassador Extraordinary to
+the Protector's Court. Giovanni Sagredo, ambassador at Paris, was
+chosen, and the closing paragraph of his first dispatch shows how
+strongly Cromwell's personality impressed him. 'Per il resto,' he
+writes, '&egrave; uomo di 56 anni, con pochissima barba, di complessione
+sanguigna, di statura media e robusta e di presenza marziale. Ha una
+fisonomia cupa e profonda. Porta una gran spada al fianco. Soldato
+insieme ed oratore, e dotato di talenti per persuadere e per operare.'
+The result of Sagredo's mission is contained in the long and brilliant
+Relazione which he read in the Senate on his return to Venice in 1656.
+In this splendid specimen of a Venetian report, he gives, with singular
+lucidity and grasp, a brief sketch of the condition of Great Britain; of
+the causes of the Civil War; of Cromwell's rise to power; of his foreign
+relations; and closes with a portrait of the Protector which confirms
+Pauluzzi's unfavourable view, and draws a terrible picture of that
+restlessness and dread which clouded Cromwell's last days&mdash;'pi&ugrave; temuto
+che amato ... vive con sempiterno sospetto.' When Sagredo returned to
+Venice, his secretary Francesco Giavarnia was left behind in England, as
+Venetian resident, and continued to hold that post till the Restoration,
+sending dispatches every week direct to Venice, detailing the close of
+the Protectorate, and the return of Charles II., whom he was the first
+to welcome at Canterbury the day after his landing. In 1661 the Republic
+gladly re-opened full relations with the Stuarts. Giavarnia was
+superseded by two Ambassadors Extraordinary, who conveyed to Charles two
+gondolas for the water in St. James's Park, and from that date onwards
+the diplomatic connection between England and the Republic followed the
+ordinary course.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to the papers of the Council of Ten; all of these were
+committed to the custody of the Secret Chancellery. We have already seen
+that the Council of Ten was an extraordinary office, used upon
+extraordinary occasions, where secrecy and speed were required. Its
+chief occupations may be summed up under three heads&mdash;safety of the
+State, protection of citizens, and public morals. That being the case,
+the number and interest of its documents is very great&mdash;greater than
+that of any other Council of State; but this interest is confined, for
+the most part, to matters affecting the home policy of the Republic;
+foreign affairs finds comparatively little illustration among the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>
+papers of the Ten. The series of documents, containing the ordinary
+business of the Ten, dates from the year 1315 to the close of the
+Republic. The documents are arranged according to the matter they deal
+with, that is to say political matter, <i>parti communi</i> and <i>secreti</i>, or
+criminal matter, <i>parti crimminali</i>. The immense importance and interest
+attaching to the papers of the Ten will be illustrated by the statement,
+that there we find the cases of Marino Faliero, of the Carraresi, of
+Carmagnola, of Foscari, of Caterina Cornaro, and of Foscarini.</p>
+
+<p>Among the papers of the Collegio we find ourselves once more in the
+general current of foreign politics. The ordinary proceedings of the
+College, the papers containing the arrangement and discussion of affairs
+to be presented to the Senate, are included in the volumes of files and
+registers, known as the Notatorii del Collegio. The College was
+entrusted, as we have said, to receive all the representatives of
+foreign Powers and to open all letters and dispatches addressed to the
+Government. It is in the three series known as Lettere Principi,
+Espozioni Principi, and Ceremoniali, that we obtain the fullest
+information about the action of the agents from foreign Courts resident
+in Venice. The series called Lettere Principi, letters from royal
+personages, covers the years between 1500 and 1797, and is contained in
+fifty-four volumes of <i>filze</i>. England is represented by two of these,
+beginning with the year 1570, and ending with 1796, entitled 'Collegio,
+Secreta, Lettere. R&egrave; e Regina d'Inghilterra.' These volumes contain one
+hundred and seventy-one letters, thus distributed among the various
+sovereigns; there are thirteen in the reign of Elizabeth; forty in that
+of James I.; four in that of Charles I.; three from Oliver Cromwell; one
+from Richard Cromwell; one from Speaker Lenthal: ten during the reign of
+Charles II.; five during that of his brother; three during the reign of
+William, including one from the Old Pretender; seven in the reign of
+Anne; eight in that of George I.; twenty-one from George II; and
+fifty-five from George III. These letters are concerned with formal
+announcements and the exchange of courtesies, the credentials of
+ambassadors and notices of royal births, marriages and deaths. Their
+historical importance is very slight. The long series of George III. is
+almost entirely occupied by noting the yearly increase of his family.
+The autographs of the ministers who countersigned the letters, form
+their greatest attraction. The late Mr. Rawdon Brown has published
+facsimiles of these autographs down to the year 1659; but after that
+date we find such interesting endorsements as those of Lauderdale,
+Arlington, Bolingbroke, Carteret, Pitt, Halifax, Henry Conway,
+Shelburne, and Charles James Fox.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> On a loose parchment among these
+letters is one very curious document. It is dated Bologna, 21st
+February, 1671, and begins 'Carlo Dudley per la gratia di Dio Duca di
+Northumbria et del Sacro Romano Impero, Conte di Woruih e di Licester,
+et Pari d'Ingliterra.' The document goes on to state that Charles
+Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, in consideration of the affection and
+partiality always shown towards his person and house, grants to Ottavio
+Dionisio, noble of Verona, the title of Marquis to him and to his eldest
+son, to his younger sons and to his brothers and their sons the title of
+Count, in perpetuity; and this in virtue of the declaration and
+authority of His Holiness Pope Urban VIII., which conferred on Charles
+Dudley and his eldest born the right to exercise all the privileges of
+an independent prince. At the date which this document bears, 1671,
+there was no Duke of Northumberland; that title had lately been bestowed
+by Charles II. on an illegitimate son, and had perished with him. This
+Charles Dudley was probably some pretender to the honours of the Dudley
+family who once held the dukedom of Northumberland. The document is
+curious, for the noble family on whom Charles Dudley conferred this
+title of Marquis still exists, and we do not know if any British
+subject, either before or after, has even claimed to be a fountain of
+honour. But Charles Dudley is not the only English pretender who figures
+among the papers at the Frari. Filza 8 of the loose papers, titled
+'Miscellanea Diversi Manoscritti,' contains the marriage certificate and
+will of James Henry de Boveri Rossano Stuart, natural son of Charles
+II., and seven letters from his son James Stuart, dated Milan, Gemona
+and Padua, 1722 to 1728. The majority of these letters are addressed to
+Cardinal Panighetti, from whom this 'povero principe Stuardo,' as he
+calls himself, hoped to receive money and support in some imaginary
+claims on the Crown of England. The letters are full of a certain
+pathos&mdash;the pathos which cannot fail to attach itself to fallen royalty.
+The handwriting is that of an uneducated man; and James Stuart, in these
+letters, certainly shows no signs of the ability required to meet so
+trying a situation. He appeals to the Cardinal first on the grounds of
+his creed. It is 'for the Faith that he finds himself in the miserable
+little town' of Gemona. Failing upon this line, James Stuart abandons
+himself to astrology, in the hope that the stars may give an answer
+favourable to his hopes. But to all his appeals the Cardinal replies
+with cold reserve, and when he hears of astrology, he adds a sharp and
+crushing reprimand.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the Lettere Principi we come to the last two series of State
+papers of which we shall speak, the Espozioni<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> Principi, or record of
+all audiences granted to ambassadors and of the communications made by
+them in the name of the Power they represented; and the Libri
+Ceremoniali, or record of the great functions of State, coronations and
+funerals of the Doges, the elections of the Grand Chancellors, the
+reception accorded to ambassadors, princes and distinguished travellers.
+The Republic of Venice was as punctilious as any Court of Europe upon
+the points of precedence, ceremony, and etiquette. The reader will not
+have forgotten the amusing account, given by the elder Disraeli, of the
+long struggle between the Master of the Ceremonies and the Venetian
+ambassador at the Court of St. James. The Government required from its
+representatives a minute account of every detail of etiquette observed
+towards them, and replied in kind in their treatment of foreign
+ministers in Venice. The Republic was punctilious abroad, and no less so
+at home. Every stage in the public entry, first audience and <i>cong&eacute;</i> of
+foreign ambassadors were carefully regulated and based upon precedent.
+The ambassadors of Spain and France had each a special volume devoted to
+the ceremonies and etiquette which the Republic observed towards them.
+M. Baschet describes at length the receptions of the French ambassadors,
+for whom he claims the highest rank among the representatives of foreign
+Powers at Venice. Great Britain sent fifty-eight embassies, in all, to
+the Republic, between the years 1340 and 1797. Of these ambassadors, Sir
+Gregory Cassalis filled the office twice, Sir Henry Wotton thrice, the
+Earl of Manchester twice, and Elizeus Burgess twice. The ceremony to
+which the ambassador was entitled may be gathered from the accounts of
+these embassies preserved in the Esposizioni Principi and the
+Ceremoniali.</p>
+
+<p>The reception of Lord Northampton in the year 1762 will afford us the
+most detailed view of the ceremony, for on that occasion some questions
+of precedent arose, and the Cavaliere Ruzzini, who was entrusted with
+the conduct of the affair, presented a long report to the Senate on the
+subject. The ambassador was not officially recognized by the Government
+until he had made his public entry, and presented his credentials at his
+first audience in the College. Until that had taken place, he remained
+incognito, and was in fact supposed not to be in Venice. Before the
+ambassador arrived, the English Consul was expected to hire a palace for
+his use. There was no fixed embassy in Venice; Thomas Killigrew lodged
+at San Cassano, Lord Holdernesse at San Benedetto, Lord Manchester at
+San Stae. John Udny, who was consul at the time of Lord Northampton's
+Embassy, rented the Palazzo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> Grimani at Cannaregio for the ambassador
+whenever his appointment was announced, and an amusing and
+characteristic story attaches to this affair. The palace belonged to a
+Contessa Grimani, and was in bad repair; but the owner promised to
+restore and fit it up for the ambassador. When the consul went to see
+the palace, shortly before the ambassador's arrival, he found that
+nothing had been done to it, and moreover that a gondolier and his wife
+occupied the ground-floor and refused to move. He wrote at once to the
+Contessa requesting her to remove the gondolier, to which he received
+for answer that the gondolier's wife had been nurse to one of the
+Countess's boys, and the Grimanis had promised her twenty ducats a-year;
+if the ambassador liked to pay that amount, the gondolier would turn
+out; if not, they must manage to share the palace between them. The
+consul appealed to the English Resident, John Murray, who wrote an angry
+letter to the Government, complaining of this treatment; 'La carit&agrave;
+della nobile donna,' he says, 'verso la moglie del gondoliere merita
+senza dubbio gran lode, ma il sottoscritto s'imagina che l'avvocato pi&ugrave;
+scaltro si troverebbe bene intrigato di produrre una legge o esempio per
+incaricare l'Ambasciatore Inglese di questa carit&agrave;.'</p>
+
+<p>The matter was probably arranged, for on the 22nd of October Lord
+Northampton arrived, incognito, of course, with all his suite, and took
+up his residence. Lord Northampton was ill, and it was not until the
+beginning of the next year that he took the necessary steps to make his
+entry and to secure his first audience. The etiquette observed upon such
+occasions required that the ambassador should send his secretary to
+leave copies of his credentials at the door of the College, and to ask
+on what day the Doge would receive him. The College reply through one of
+their secretaries that an answer will be sent. The Doge was then
+consulted what day would suit him, and he answers by putting himself at
+the disposal of the College. The Senate is then informed of the
+ambassador's arrival, and sixty senators, under the direction of a
+leader, are appointed to attend the ambassador until the ceremonies of
+his reception shall be completed. The days selected for Lord
+Northampton's reception were the 29th and 30th of May, 1763; and the
+Caveliere Ruzzini was named as head of the sixty senators who were to
+attend the ambassador. Ruzzini informed Lord Northampton of these
+arrangements, and at the same time sent him a programme of the ceremony,
+which was based upon that observed towards Lord Holdernesse, and was
+identical with that which the Republic offered to the ambassador of the
+King of Sardinia. Before his public entry, the ambassador and all his
+suite went<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> to the island of San Spirito, in the lagoon towards
+Malamocco. The fiction of the ceremony supposed all ambassadors to be
+lodged there until they had presented their credentials. San Spirito was
+chosen as the point of departure for the ambassadorial procession
+because the distance between that island and Venice was supposed to
+correspond exactly with the distance between London and Greenwich,
+whence the Venetian ambassador was wont to begin his progress. Sir Henry
+Wotton's second embassy forms a rare exception to this rule, for the
+Venetians were so fond of that charming and accomplished poet, that they
+allowed him to make his entry from San Giorgio Maggiore, which is much
+nearer the city and more convenient. After midday on the 29th, Ruzzini
+and his sixty senators, each in his gondola, arrived at San Spirito, and
+found the household of the ambassador drawn up along the landing-place
+<i>en grande tenue</i>. Lord Northampton was informed of Ruzzini's arrival,
+and came to meet him on the staircase. After exchanging the prescribed
+compliments, Ruzzini, with the ambassador on his right hand, descended,
+and both entered the Cavaliere's gondola. The whole procession left San
+Spirito and proceeded by the Grand Canal to the ambassador's lodging at
+San Girolamo, accompanied, as Ruzzini says, by 'un immenso popolo
+spettatore del nostro viaggio;' for these official entries were among
+the most popular of the Venetian spectacles, and the whole city went out
+to witness them. At the palace fresh speeches and compliments followed.
+Lord Northampton was suffering acutely from an illness of which he died
+that same year, but Ruzzini reports with obvious satisfaction that he
+did not spare him a single ceremony, 'adempi ad ogni parte del consueto
+ceremoniale.' The next day Ruzzini and the sixty senators again attended
+at the ambassador's palace to conduct him to his audience in the
+College. Lord Northampton was worse than he had been the day before; but
+Ruzzini was implacable. It cost the ambassador three-quarters of an hour
+to ascend the Giant's Stair. When at last he reached the door of the
+Collegio, the Doge and all the College rose; the ambassador uncovered
+and made three bows, and, leaving his suite behind him, he mounted the
+da&iuml;s and took his seat on the right hand of the Doge. The ambassador
+then covered his head, and simultaneously one of each order of the Savii
+did the same. The ambassador handed his credentials to the Doge, and
+remained uncovered while they were being read. The Doge made a brief and
+formal reply, welcoming the ambassador to Venice, and each time the
+King's name occurred, the ambassador raised his cap. After repeating his
+three bows,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> the ambassador retired, and was accompanied to his palace
+by the sixty senators who had waited for him at the door of the
+Collegio. This closed the ceremony of entry.</p>
+
+<p>The English Ambassador Extraordinary enjoyed certain privileges which
+were established on the precedent of the embassy of Lord Falconberg,
+Cromwell's son-in-law. Among these privileges was the right to lodging
+and maintenance at the cost of the Republic, a right which the
+ambassador usually compounded for the sum of five or six hundred ducats;
+a box at each theatre in Venice was placed at his disposal, and when he
+took his <i>cong&eacute;</i> the Senate voted him a gold chain and medal of the
+value of two thousand scudi. The ambassadors ordinary enjoyed certain
+exemptions from customs dues. These exemptions were frequently abused,
+and were the cause of constant friction between the Government and the
+representatives of the Powers. In the year 1763 Mr. John Murray's
+Istrian wine was seized, and he only recovered it after expressing
+himself <i>ben mortificato</i>. Mr. Murray was constantly in trouble on this
+subject. The year before he had addressed an indignant letter to the
+Government because 'a certain official of the Custom House had accused
+him of allowing his servants to sell wine and flour at the door of the
+Residency. It is but a poor satisfaction after so long a period of
+suspicion to know that that official is bankrupt and no proof of the
+accusation is forthcoming.' But by far the most curious episode of this
+nature was that which befell Tom Killigrew, the poet, grandfather of the
+Mrs. Anne Killigrew of Dryden's famous ode and a friend of Pepys, who
+recals him as 'a merry droll, but a gentleman of great esteem with the
+King, who told us many merry stories,' this, perhaps, among the number.
+Killigrew was sent to represent Charles II. at Venice in 1649, just
+after the execution of Charles I., and while his son was <i>a ramingo</i>, or
+knocking about, as the Venetian ambassador politely puts it. Killigrew
+was received in the usual way on February 10, 1650, and made his address
+'in lingua cattiva,' as the report affirms. But the Republic soon tired
+of its alliance with an exiled king, and resolved to dismiss Killigrew
+as soon as possible. Killigrew was poor, and his master had little or
+nothing to give him, so he hit upon the expedient of keeping a butcher's
+shop, where he could sell meat, cheaper than any one else in Venice, by
+availing himself of his exemptions from octroi. The Senate resolved to
+fasten upon this illicit traffic as a pretext for dismissing Killigrew;
+and on the 22d of June, 1652, they sent their Secretary, Busenello, to
+tell Killigrew, <i>viv&acirc; voce</i>, that he must go. Busenello went to San
+Fantin, and there found one of Killigrew's butchers, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> told him that
+the Resident only kept his shop there, but lived himself at San Cassano.
+At San Cassano Busenello was told that Killigrew was dining at Murano,
+and would not be home till evening; but very soon after he saw the
+Resident at his window, and insisted on being announced. He explained
+'with all possible delicacy,' as he says, the order of the Senate; but
+Killigrew received the message with every sign of anger and pain. With
+tears in his eyes he declared that it was the other ambassadors who
+robbed the customs, while he had all the blame. It was true that he did
+keep 'a little bit of a butcher's shop to support himself,' but that
+could not hurt the revenue; and he added that, under any circumstance he
+should leave Venice, for he had received his letters of recall from
+France, four days previously. The Senate no more than their secretary
+believed in the existence of this letter of recall; but Killigrew really
+had the letter, dated March 14th, and it was sent into the College,
+along with a brief exculpatory epistle from the Resident, on the 27th of
+June. Killigrew left Venice the same day as he was bound to do by
+ambassadorial etiquette; and Charles had not another recognized agent to
+the Republic until his restoration; for the Venetians definitely adopted
+the policy of courting Cromwell, in the vain hope that he would assist
+them against the Turk.</p>
+
+<p>With the papers of the College we close this notice of the political
+documents in the archives at the Frari. The other departments of the
+Government had each their own series of papers, equally copious and
+valuable. The heraldic and genealogical archives of the Avvogadori di
+Commun, for example, the Charters of the German and Turkish Exchanges
+and the records of the Mint and the public Banks, offer a wide and a
+rich field for study; and in spite of the profound and extensive labours
+of such scholars as Thomas, Checchetti, Barozzi, Berchet, Fulin,
+Lamansky, Mas Latrie, and Rawdon Brown, it will be long before the
+materials in the vast storehouse of the Frari are exhausted or even
+adequately displayed.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Art_IV_1_Journal_of_a_Residence_in_Norway_during_the_years_1834" id="Art_IV_1_Journal_of_a_Residence_in_Norway_during_the_years_1834"></a>Art. IV.&mdash;1. <i>Journal of a Residence in Norway during the years 1834,
+1835 and 1836.</i> By Samuel Laing, Esq. London, 1837.</h2>
+
+<h2>2. <i>Le Royaume de Norv&egrave;ge et le Peuple Norv&egrave;gien.</i> Par le Dr. O. I.
+Broch. Christiania, 1878.</h2>
+
+<h2>3. <i>Official Reports of Prefects on the Economic Condition of the
+Provinces of Norway in 1876-80.</i> Christiania, 1884.</h2>
+
+<h2>4. <i>Publications of the Statistical Bureau, Christiania.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The advocates of a general redistribution of landed property in Ireland,
+as well as those who are holding out to the agricultural labours of
+other portions of the United Kingdom the Arcadian lure figuratively
+known as the 'three acres and a cow,' will find in the work cited at the
+head of this article the amplest materials for the justification of the
+views they are pressing for adoption partly as a remedy for agricultural
+distress, but essentially in application of the Socialist doctrine that
+the people of a country have an inherent right to an absolute,
+proportionate possession of its soil.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Laing's 'Journal' is, indeed, not a record of travel and adventure,
+but a treatise, admirably written and replete with facts, in
+demonstration of the great superiority of the Norwegian system of land
+tenure over that of any other part of civilized Europe. His views have,
+moreover, been to a great extent adopted in the numerous works that have
+since been produced by British travellers who, after a rapid drive over
+the main routes of Norway, have described in terms equally glowing the
+happy and enviable condition of the <i>Bonde</i> or yeoman farmer of that
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Considering there is much in common in regard to race, religion,
+language, character, and civilization, between the inhabitants of that
+interesting little country and its maritime neighbours&mdash;the populations,
+more especially, of England and Scotland, it will be instructive, on the
+eve of the agrarian revolution with which the United Kingdom is
+threatened, to study and analyse the statements and conclusions of Mr.
+Laing, and to trace the subsequent and present operation of the peculiar
+land laws which he so highly extolled in the earlier part of this
+century.</p>
+
+<p>With that object we proceed to describe, almost in Mr. Laing's own
+words, the condition of the peasant proprietors of Norway at a period
+(1835) when, out of a population of 1,194,827, only about eleven per
+cent. inhabited towns, the land in rural districts being held by 103,192
+proprietors and tenants, the proportion of the two latter being
+respectively seventy and thirty per cent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Norwegians,' wrote Mr. Laing, 'are the most interesting
+and singular group of people in Europe. They live under
+ancient laws and social arrangements totally different in
+principle from those which regulate society and property in
+the feudally constituted states. Their country is peculiarly
+interesting to the political economist. It is the only part
+of Europe in which property from the earliest ages has been
+transmitted upon the principle of partition among all the
+children. The feudal structure of society with its law of
+primogeniture, and its privileged class of hereditary
+nobles, never prevailed in Norway. In this remote corner of
+the civilized world we may therefore see the effects upon
+the condition of society of the peculiar distribution of
+property; it will exhibit, on a small scale, what America
+and France will be a thousand years hence.... Here are the
+Highland glens without the Highland lairds.... If there be a
+happy class of people in Europe it is the Norwegian <i>Bonde</i>,
+king of his own land, and landlord as well as king.'</p></div>
+
+<p>This state of happiness is, according to Mr. Laing, the result of the
+still existing <i>Odels ret</i> or Allodial Right, under which, he asserts,
+the land of Norway was always the property of the people, not of a
+feudal class of high nobility. But although this assertion does not much
+affect the main and practical object of our enquiry, it may be as well
+to point out at once that, whatever might have been the inherent right
+of every Norwegian to a portion of the soil on which he was born, Dr.
+Broch, an eminent native authority, maintains that a considerable
+portion of the land belonged anciently to the kings of Norway, and had
+been acquired, as in other countries, partly by confiscation from
+nobles. Those lands were leased and, gradually, to a certain extent,
+sold. In the days of Roman Catholicism, the Church also held great
+landed estates, which the State appropriated at the Reformation. No
+inconsiderable part of the State domains was then leased, and, in short,
+before the middle of the seventeenth century, leases comprised a little
+more than half of the landed property of the country; while even in
+1814, they constituted one-third of it. Later, the State lands, and
+those which had been distributed among nobles at the Reformation, were
+repartitioned among the bulk of the population or sold.</p>
+
+<p>But to return to the <i>Odels ret</i>. It gives, Mr. Laing shows,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'to all the kindred of the Odelsmand in possession, in the
+order of consanguinity, a certain interest in it. If the
+Odelsmand should sell or alienate his land, the next of kin
+is entitled to redeem it on paying the purchase-money; and
+should he decline to do so, it is in the power of the one
+next to him to claim his <i>Odelsbaarn ret.</i>'</p></div>
+
+<p>At the present time, the allodial right is acquired only by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span>
+uninterrupted possession of the same person, his descendants or his
+wife, during a period of at least twenty years, and it is lost if the
+property has been in strange hands for three years. Testamentary
+dispositions, in the case of persons leaving issue, are now limited to
+one quarter of the testator's property; whereas before 1854, a testator
+could not bequeath anything individually. Since the year 1860, also,
+there is perfect equality between the two sexes in the division of real
+and personal property. At the period when Mr. Laing visited Norway, the
+division of land among children had</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'not had the effect of reducing properties to the minimum
+size that would barely support human existence. One sells to
+the other and turns his capital and industry to pursuits
+that would enable him to acquire the necessaries of life.
+The heirs who sell, very often, instead of a sum of money,
+which is seldom at the command of the parties, take a
+life-rent payment or annuity of so much grain, the keep of
+so many cows, so much firewood, a dwelling-house on the
+property, or some equivalent of that kind. Few properties
+have no such burthens.' He argued that 'in a country where
+land is held, not in tenancy merely, as in Ireland, but in
+full ownership, its aggregation by the death of co-heirs,
+and by the marriages of female heirs,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> will balance its
+subdivision by the equal succession of children; and also,
+that in such a condition of society, the whole mass of
+property would be found in such a State to consist of as
+many estates of 1000<i>l.</i>, as many of 100<i>l.</i>, as many of 10<i>l.</i> a
+year, at one period as at another.'</p>
+
+<p>'Norway,' our author urges, 'affords a strong confutation of
+the dreaded excessive subdivision of land. Notwithstanding,
+the partition system, continued for ages, it contains farms
+of such extent that the owner possesses forty cows.'</p></div>
+
+<p>On the whole, the farms appeared to him to be of various sizes: many so
+large that a bell was used to call the labourers to or from their work;
+while some were so small as to have only a few sheaves of corn, or a rig
+or two of potatoes, scattered among the trunks of the trees. These,
+however, were occupied by the farm servants, or cotters, paying for
+their houses and land in work (<i>Husm&oelig;na</i>). Twenty to forty cows could
+be counted on the large farms. In the district of Verdal
+(Trondhjemsfiord) Mr. Laing saw beautiful little farms of forty to fifty
+acres, each having a pasturage or grass tract in the mountains, where
+the cattle were kept during the summer until the crops were taken in,
+and upon each such out-farm, or <i>S&oelig;ter</i>, there was a house and
+regular dairy, to which, he informs us, 'the whole of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> cattle and
+the dairy-maids, with their sweethearts, are sent to junket and to amuse
+themselves for three or four months of the year.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> We can well believe
+that, in such circumstances, Mr. Laing found 'this class of <i>B&ouml;nder</i> the
+most interesting people in Norway,' and that 'there are none similar to
+them in the feudal countries of Europe.' He appears to have been more
+particularly impressed with</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'the farms large enough to keep a score of cows, six horses
+and a small flock of sheep and goats, and to maintain a
+family and servants in all that land usually produces,
+leaving a surplus for sale sufficient to pay taxes, wages,
+and to provide the comforts and necessaries of life to a
+fair extent,' all which could be bought 'for 1000<i>l.</i> or
+1200<i>l.</i>, or even less.'</p></div>
+
+<p>As regards the agricultural labourer, or cotter, Mr. Laing conceived
+'his average condition to be that of holding land on which he could sow
+three-quarters of an imperial quarter of corn and three imperial
+quarters of potatoes, and which would enable him to keep two cows, or an
+equivalent number of sheep or goats.' His wages are stated to have been
+4-1/2<i>d.</i> to 6<i>d.</i> per diem, in addition to his food. It was consequently
+'amusing to recollect the benevolent speculations in our Agricultural
+Reports, of the Sir Johns and Sir Thomases in our midland counties of
+England, for bettering the condition of labourers in husbandry, by
+giving them, at a reasonable rent, a quarter of an acre of land to keep
+a cow on, or by allowing them to cultivate the slips of land on the
+roadside, outside of their hedges.' He also derides 'the agricultural
+writers' who 'tell us, indeed, that labourers in agriculture are much
+better off as farm servants, than they would be as small proprietors,'
+for 'if property is a good and desirable thing, the very smallest
+quantity of it is good and desirable.' It was obvious to Mr. Laing that
+the forty families of two or three Norwegian highland glens, 'each
+possessing and living on its own little spot of ground and farming well
+or ill, as the case might be, were in a better and happier state, and
+formed a more rationally constituted society, than if the whole belonged
+to one of these families (and it would be no great estate), while the
+other thirty-nine families were tenants and farmers.'</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Laing found the happy agricultural population of Norway<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> 'much
+better lodged than our labouring and middling classes, even in the south
+of Scotland;' and that no nation was at that period either better
+housed, or so well provided with fuel. The standard of living appeared
+to be higher in Norway than in most of our Scotch highland districts,
+although the materials were the same, namely, oatmeal, barley meal,
+potatoes, fish&mdash;fresh and salted&mdash;cheese, butter, and milk. He
+understood that it was even usual for the yeoman farmers to have animal
+food&mdash;'salt beef and black-puddings'&mdash;at least twice a week. At all
+events, he says, four meals a day formed the regular fare, and with two
+of those meals even the labourers had a glass of home-made brandy,
+distilled from potatoes by the yeoman, who 'could malt and distil in
+every way he pleased,' and thereby 'make free use of his agricultural
+produce,' with the result of 'increasing the general prosperity,
+improving the condition of the people, and promoting the increase of
+their numbers.'<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>There was, at the time of Mr. Laing's residence in Norway, 'small
+difference in the way of living between high and low, because every man
+lived from the produce of his farm, and observed the utmost simplicity
+and economy with regard to everything that took money out of his
+pocket.' Furniture and clothes, except the yeoman's Sunday hat, were all
+home-made. 'Here was a whole population, in an old European country,
+dealing direct with Nature, as it were, for every article, without the
+intervention of money, or even of barter.' It was only the small yeomen
+on the verge of the Fjeld, or in the glens, far above the level of the
+land producing corn, and the inhabitants of districts less favoured by
+nature, 'whose common bread consisted of the bark of trees, mixed and
+ground up with ill-ripened oats; but even in their case, trout, dried
+and salted for winter, was no inconsiderable part of their provision,
+their houses being, at the same time, comfortable, though small, with
+wooden floors and glass windows.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from these exceptionally situated proprietors, Mr. Laing found
+there really was 'no difference between the residence of a public
+functionary, of a clergyman, or of a gentleman of larger property and
+that of a <i>Bonde</i>, or peasant. The latter are as well, as commodiously
+and even showily, lodged as the former can be, and the properties are as
+good.' Mr. Laing,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> however, makes a reservation under this head in
+respect of the 'cultivated classes,' as being indisputably superior in
+mental acquirements to the yeoman farmer, and who lived in the same
+manner as the corresponding classes in England.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of his stay in Norway, Mr. Laing often heard 'from the
+most intelligent men in the country' that the yeoman farmer lived too
+high; indulged too much in expensive luxuries, as coffee and sugar; in
+frequent and expensive entertainments at each other's houses; in
+carrioles, sledges, and harness of a costly kind; and even in a horse or
+two more than the farm work required; and he certainly thought this had
+resulted in a general want of money among them to pay even the most
+trifling taxes and other sums. A man with land worth three or four
+thousand dollars, and with horses, cows, and all sorts of products in
+abundance, was often at a loss for five or ten dollars. Nevertheless, he
+was of opinion that 'the increase of the tastes and habits which belong
+to property tended to keep population within the bounds of what can be
+comfortably subsisted, and without which the increase of subsistence
+would tend to evil rather than good.' It was, indeed, 'a good thing that
+they all had the ideas, habits, and character of people possessed of
+independent property upon which they were living without any care about
+increasing it, and free from the anxiety and fever of money making or
+money losing.'</p>
+
+<p>Their subsistence, Mr. Laing exultingly and repeatedly points out, was
+derived mainly from husbandry, carried on under less favourable
+conditions of soil, climate, crops, and pasturage than in the Scotch
+highlands;&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'but on the simple Norwegian system, to live on the produce
+of the land being the main object, and the labourer (the
+cotter) being paid chiefly in land, a good crop would be an
+unmingled blessing; whereas in countries where agriculture
+is carried on as a manufacture, a succession of good crops
+may glut the markets, ruin the tenant, and even reduce the
+money wages of the labourer. In Norway neither good nor bad
+crops can affect the proportion of population to the land
+that could in ordinary seasons subsist on it. Paying no
+rent, the Norwegian yeoman farmer is not usually employed in
+prospective improvements, but simply in raising food, so
+that he can see at once whether the land is sufficient to
+produce subsistence for himself and his labourers. If grain
+and potatoes for the use of the farm, and a little surplus
+for sale to pay the land-tax and buy luxuries with, can be
+raised by the farm, all the purposes of farming in Norway
+are answered.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the subject of pauperism, Mr. Laing alleges that 'the dread of
+poverty was less influential in Norway, where extreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> destitution is as
+rare as great wealth, and where there is so much less difference in the
+comforts and consideration of the richer and poorer classes.' The
+indigent were farmed out for a week or so at a time among the yeomen
+farmers, 'whose poor-rate like the tithes of the Church, was too
+inconsiderable to mention.' The state of property, and its general
+diffusion throughout the social body, had also, he had no doubt, a
+beneficial effect on the moral condition of the people. 'The desire for
+wealth being considerably blunted, it was not the same actuating,
+engrossing principle of human action, the spring of much that was evil
+and immoral being thus removed.' Only one case of downright
+drunkenness&mdash;that of a Laplander&mdash;had come under his personal
+observation, and it was only on special occasions that the yeoman farmer
+could be seen a little elated. His theory, however (we may remark in
+passing), respecting the influence of property on the moral condition of
+the people is not supported by other facts which he quotes, namely, that
+owing to the restraints upon marriage, 'exercised as in Paris or London,
+by a high standard of living,' the 'proportion of illegitimate to
+legitimate children in Norway was 1 in 5,' while in a parish he
+specifies, it was (between 1826 and 1830) 'as high as 1 in 3-26/136.' He
+mentions that engagements between couples lasted generally one, two, and
+often several years, especially in the case of servants in husbandry
+waiting for a house and land to settle in as cotters. In such cases, he
+says, 'it too often happened that the privileged kindness between
+betrothed parties was carried too far,' and 'the betrothed became a
+mother before she was a wife.'</p>
+
+<p>We quit this painful phase of peasant proprietorship with the
+observation that, notwithstanding a still wider diffusion of property
+and of moral qualities which, according to Mr. Laing, that diffusion is
+calculated to engender, 8.38<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> per cent. of the live children born in
+Norway between 1866 and 1870 were born out of wedlock, the corresponding
+proportion in 1836 having been 7.07 per cent. It is natural to find,
+under these circumstances, that the marriage rate was 6.84 per 1000 of
+the population in 1866-75 against 7.31 per 1000 between 1834 and 1836,
+with a fractional decrease of the total number of births in the former
+period, the average per family remaining slightly over four.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Allodial Right and the happy social system based upon it,
+Mr. Laing found jealously guarded by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> yeomanry, 'who have not only
+the legislative power and the election of the Storthing' (or Parliament)
+'almost entirely in their own hands, but also the whole civil business
+of the community.' He may, therefore, well say, without fear of
+contradiction, that 'the Norwegian people enjoy a greater share of
+liberty, have the framing and administering of their own laws more
+entirely in their own hands, than any European nation of the present
+time;' and, further, that 'it is not a little extraordinary that almost
+the only result' of the universal delirium of 1790,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> 'which approaches
+in reality to the theories of that period, has been the Norwegian
+Constitution.'</p>
+
+<p>The paramount influence of the agrarian class over the destinies of the
+kingdom may be judged by the circumstances that the rural districts are
+permanently represented in the Storthing by two-thirds of the total
+number of members, limited by the Constitution to 114; and that
+practically the suffrage is now universal, the principal conditions of
+its possession being, under recent legislation, a qualification of age
+(25 years) and a residence of five years in the country. It is well
+known that the Parliament thus elected (under a system of double
+election), with its <i>de facto</i> single Chamber, subdivided for the more
+rapid and effective discharge of certain business into what Mr. Laing
+chooses to call an 'Upper House' and a 'House of Commons,' has, within
+very recent days, in virtue of the largely predominant rural, radical
+vote, exercised its power of impeaching and punishing, by fine and
+dismissal from office, an entire Cabinet, for the crime of having
+advised the King that his veto was not merely suspensive, but absolute,
+in the matter of any Bill affecting the principles of the Constitution,
+and that the questions in dispute between the Sovereign and the
+Storthing were of a constitutional character, involving indirectly not
+only the stability of a monarchical form of government, but also that of
+the personal union between the crowns of Norway and Sweden&mdash;a stability
+pre-eminently essential in both respects to the highest interests of
+Scandinavia, and in no small degree also to the maritime and political
+interests of this country. It is this form of Parliament that Mr. Laing
+extols 'as a working model of a constitutional government on a small
+scale, and one which works so well as highly to deserve the
+consideration of the people of Great Britain.'</p>
+
+<p>We have at last done with Mr. Laing's remarkable statements, views, and
+recommendations; and the principal question we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> now have to consider is:
+What is the latest phase (after an interval of half a century) of the
+development of the peculiar social organization of Norway, and
+especially of its system of land tenure, differing, as both do, from the
+organization and system evolved out of feudality in Great Britain and
+Ireland? We therefore intend to enquire: (1) Has the system of land
+tenure in Norway prevented, as foretold by Mr. Laing, an excessive
+subdivision of land? (2) Has a dead level of ease and contentment been
+maintained? (3) Has the diffusion of land by a natural process, under
+the widest form of home rule, kept the rural population of Norway within
+the bounds of possible modern existence? (4) Has no pauperism affected
+the taxation of landed property? and (5) generally, Is the Norwegian
+yeoman farmer in a more thriving condition at the present time than the
+tenants and agricultural labourers elsewhere, from whom is still
+withheld the freehold possession of land to which, it is alleged by a
+certain school of politicians, they have a natural right, disputed only
+by monopolists and land-grabbers?</p>
+
+<p>These are the questions we shall endeavour to answer with the aid,
+exclusively, of the latest publications of the Norwegian Government. We
+must, however, preface our replies by sketching roughly the influences
+that have sprung into operation since Mr. Laing published the Journal of
+his residence in Norway.</p>
+
+<p>In his time the towns contained only about eleven per cent. of the total
+population of the kingdom, whereas at the present moment the proportion
+is double that of 1835.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> This urban agglomeration, Dr. Broch shows,
+has been 'due principally to causes which have operated in the rest of
+Europe. Facilitated means of communication promoted the migration of the
+agricultural population towards the towns, where the development of
+industry and commerce offered the lure of gains or salaries higher than
+those in rural districts.' One of the causes, he justly adds, of the
+displacement of the population has been the immense and laudable
+progress of public instruction, 'and the growing taste for intellectual
+and material enjoyments which gave a great force of attraction to the
+towns.'</p>
+
+<p>As in other advancing countries, the attraction of towns, and the
+facilities for obtaining employment in them, operate also in Norway, to
+the disadvantage of the yeomen farmers of the present day. Among the
+causes of the economic decline of the Province of North Bergen, the
+Prefect mentions that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'the disinclination of young men of the yeoman farmer class
+to take permanent service is very general in this district,
+and is easily explained by the ease with which men in the
+prime of their strength obtain occupation as labourers in
+the fisheries. The great bulk of the day labourers do not
+seek with any great eagerness for work in the fields, so
+long as they hold previously acquired means sufficient to
+provide them with the necessaries of life, however scantily.
+As a rule, so long as want does not look in at the window,
+they will not engage themselves for such work, except at
+very good wages. The wages for a yearly labourer have
+doubled during the last twenty years.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> At the same time
+the houseman has lost the command he previously had over his
+workmen, and consequently does not get the same amount of
+work out of them as formerly. Fishing attracts labour by a
+larger immediate return, acquired with less bodily exertion
+than in husbandry. It gives the population less taste for
+harder work.'</p></div>
+
+<p>We leave Mr. Laing in doubt whether the steam-engine could 'ever be
+brought to perfection.' That doubt was speedily removed, and in 1852
+Norway followed in the wake of other European nations by building
+railways, their total length in 1883 having reached very little short of
+a thousand English miles. Nor did their construction, with capital
+raised chiefly abroad and punctually repaid, arrest the improvement or
+the laying down of ordinary roads, to the extent of 4000 miles, between
+1845 and 1875. In addition to this extensive opening-out of
+communication by rail and road, the introduction of steamers on inland
+waters and their employment as coasters and sea-going vessels, the
+construction of telegraphs, and development of fisheries, of ship
+building, of banking and other companies, and generally of trade and
+industry, produced gradually a wide disturbance in the social economy
+found by Mr. Laing. The expansion and prosperity of the towns, as well
+as the more refined habits of life adopted by the clergy and the
+officials of Government, were viewed by the yeomen farmers with a
+jealousy that was undoubtedly the original cause of their present
+radical proclivities, the old conservatism being relegated to towns,
+contrary to the experience of other European countries, and particularly
+to that of Great Britain, until the metaphorical three acres and a cow
+were dangled before the eyes of its rural population.</p>
+
+<p>Under all these influences, and we may include among them the effect of
+a constantly-increasing number of travellers, equipped with the modern
+appliances of civilization, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> demanding accommodation and other
+material comforts of a more and more superior character, the Robinson
+Crusoe existence of the yeoman farmer, as depicted by Mr. Laing, has
+suffered so much invasion that it has well-nigh disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of clothing, an assimilation to general, central European
+dress has for years past been noticeable even in districts the most
+remote, to the prejudice of home-spinning and weaving. Ancient silver
+ornaments have been largely discarded by the women, and converted, first
+into money, and eventually into articles of modern use or embellishment,
+to an extent that now renders travellers more and more suspicious of the
+Brummagem origin of the objects that remain for sale. And it is the same
+with old furniture and with the multifarious knicknacks which travellers
+less recent delighted to find in the country at reasonable prices.</p>
+
+<p>The value of money has become more generally appreciated since Mr. Laing
+admired the absence of all incentive to 'money-making and money-losing,'
+and the previously unambitious character of the yeoman and his sons has
+undergone a tolerably complete change since education has opened out the
+widest avenues to personal advancement, even from the plough. They no
+longer live by bread alone, and therefore their artificial wants have
+been increasing at a greater ratio than their means of satisfying them
+out of the produce of the land. Without entering here upon the important
+effect of the corn supplies from America, and of the depreciation of the
+value of the Norwegian timber, owing to the increased competition of
+America and other countries, we may sum up this imperfect prefatory
+sketch by stating that, from a general point of view, the Gamle Norge
+(Old Norway) of Mr. Laing's days has for many years been passing through
+a process of transformation, the latest results of which we shall now
+describe.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Laing's contention, that when land is held in freehold, not as a
+rule in tenancy, the relative size or value of the estates into which
+the land is divided will remain the same at one period as at another, is
+entirely refuted by the official statistics of Norway. In the first
+place, the total number of properties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> which was about 111,000 in 1838,
+had grown, in 1870, to 149,000 (34-1/2 per cent.), and is still higher
+at the present day, with a continued tendency to multiplication by
+partition. Secondly, the proportion that existed in 1838 between the
+various sizes of agricultural holdings has undergone a notable change,
+marking a very considerable increase in the relative number of small
+plots.</p>
+
+<p>As it was found practically impossible to estimate the value of landed
+property on the basis of its acreage (the physical conditions of the
+country giving such great variety to the value of estates), the
+'Cadastre' introduced in 1836, established, for purposes of assessment,
+a classification based on 'skylddaler,' or taxable, value. This unit of
+taxation was assumed to represent a mean capital value of about 89<i>l.</i>,
+arrived at by estimating the net income derived at that period from the
+working of land during an average year.</p>
+
+<p>The following statement exhibits the cadastral classification of
+properties,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> and the changes that have occurred in the several groups
+between 1838 and 1870.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1838.</td><td align='left'>1870.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Estates</td><td align='left'>below</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='left'>skylddaler</td><td align='right'>in</td><td align='left'> value</td><td align='right'>8,866</td><td align='right'>26,048</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>between</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='center'>and</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>31,265</td><td align='right'>52,067</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>28,652</td><td align='right'>33,427</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>32,854</td><td align='right'>29,498</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'> 10</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>7,043</td><td align='right'>6,012</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'> 20</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>1,791</td><td align='right'>1,617</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>above</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='center'></td><td align='center'></td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='right'>315</td><td align='right'>344</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Total</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>110,786</td><td align='right'>149,013</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>It is thus evident that, even fifteen years ago, the increase in the
+total number of properties, as compared with the number in 1838, had
+affected only the three groups of smaller holdings, and particularly the
+group (below 0.2) which, according to Dr. Broch, 'includes the sites of
+houses and cottages owned by labourers, fishermen, seamen, and artizans,
+but estimated to yield an average of 5-1/2 bushels of corn, 8 bushels of
+potatoes, and grass for half a cow. The holdings more purely
+agricultural, and designated by the same authority as 'small
+properties,' are those comprised in the two next categories, namely,
+parcels of land over 0.2 and under 2 skylddaler in value. In 1870, we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
+find that a little more than one-half of the landed properties in Norway
+and one-third of the total cadastral area, were included in those two
+groups. The average yield of those small properties is estimated by Dr.
+Broch at '55 bushels (20 hectol) of cereals, and 82-1/2 bushels (30
+hectol) of potatoes, with fodder for four cows, seven sheep or goats,
+and half a horse.' He states, nevertheless, that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'without subsidiary means of existence, the most frugal
+families cannot subsist on them, even when free from debt
+and other incumbrances. There can be no question of
+employing hired labour on such farms, although a domestic
+servant is sometimes kept. The owners or tenants of such
+small properties seek their principal means of existence in
+fishing, forest work, and a variety of other occupations.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The group of properties more particularly admired by Mr. Laing is that
+which is officially classed under 'Properties of medium size,' ranging
+between two and ten skylddaler in cadastral value. They represented in
+1870 only 24 per cent. of the total number of properties, but 59 per
+cent. of the cadastral area of Norway. These are the farms which can, on
+an average, feed fifteen head of cattle, thirty or forty sheep or goats,
+and a couple of pigs, and yield 30 imperial quarters of cereals, 40
+imperial quarters of potatoes, and fodder for a couple of horses.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Agriculture on these properties,' continues Dr. Broch, 'is
+not only the most important means of existence, but also in
+many cases the only resource. <i>They suffice for a family of
+simple habits, provided the proprietor is not crippled with
+debt, that he has not to pay too heavy "f&ouml;der&aring;a"</i>
+(annuities, incumbrances) <i>and on condition that he lives as
+a peasant, assisting personally in the work of the
+firm</i>,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Estates of an assessed value of more than ten 'skylddaler' are
+designated as 'Large Properties.' They cover 13.4 per cent. of the total
+cadastral area, but represent only 1.3 per cent. of the total number of
+properties; and it is exclusively these that afford, according to Dr.
+Broch, 'easy circumstances to their possessors, who are not infrequently
+ship-owners, forest-owners, engaged in the fishery-trade,' <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus manifest that, in 1878, when Dr. Broch drew up his Report for
+the Universal Exhibition at Paris, the diffusion of property in Norway
+had left only about 25 per cent. of the yeomen farmers (excluding the
+group of 'Large Properties') capable of maintaining themselves and their
+families on their freeholds on conditions which, as we shall presently
+show, no longer exist, and that the great bulk of the landed proprietors
+were in occupation of such small patches of land that their subsistence
+was entirely dependent upon other employments. This view is very fully
+borne out by the 'Reports of the Norwegian Prefects for the Quinquennial
+Period 1876-80.' Their observations on the growing subdivision of land
+as one of the causes by which the agricultural economy has been
+disturbed, to its great disadvantage, are well worth attention.</p>
+
+<p>An increasing subdivision of land is reported from the provinces of
+North Bergen, Romsdal, South Trondhjem, and Troms&ouml;. The Prefect of North
+Bergen points to it as one of the reasons of the unfavorable condition
+of the province:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'It may,' he writes, 'with just cause be said to exist when
+the properties parcelled out are insufficient for the
+maintenance of a family, and when the farms are situated in
+a locality which does not afford the opportunity of some
+kind of subsidiary employment, or if the proprietor of such
+a small holding cannot attach himself to another man as a
+labourer for hire. When utilised, however, by the
+inhabitants of the coast, such subdivision cannot be
+regarded as excessive, for the owners of the small patches
+are able to obtain for themselves and their families the
+necessaries of life by fishing. When, however, a landowner,
+on account of the insignificant extent or the small
+productiveness of his farm, finds himself unable to subsist
+without seeking the wages of a labourer, his position is not
+better, or but little better, than that of the cotter
+(Husmand) alongside of him, notwithstanding that the latter
+is not owner of the land he cultivates. It is a matter of
+course that such farmers will be destitute of economical
+power, and unable to give the communal or the provincial
+exchequer any visible contribution towards the funds that
+have to be raised in order to meet the public expenditure.
+The existence of such small proprietors is not, on the
+whole, desirable.'</p></div>
+
+<p>In the province of South Trondhjem the great increase of the
+indebtedness of the landowners is ascribed in part to the subdivision of
+property by the creation of <i>Myrm&oelig;nd</i>, literally 'bogmen'
+(bog-trotters?), or men supplied gratuitously, in recent times, with
+small plots of waste land, for the purpose of qualifying them as voters.
+Subdivision has likewise resulted from the partition of holdings in
+common, which, according to Dr. Broch, formed, in 1870, 13.4 per cent.
+of all the properties in Norway; principally in the Western Provinces,
+from the Naze to the Fiord<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> of Trondhjem, where they constituted at that
+period, on the average as much as 30 per cent. of the landed property.
+Under a law passed in 1857, those lands are now divisible or
+exchangeable, and it appears from the report of the Prefects that the
+demands in that direction cannot be satisfied by the Government
+officials with sufficient promptness. In the province of South
+Trondhjem, for instance, about 40 per cent. of the properties were still
+held in common in 1875, but between 1876 and 1880 the partition of such
+lands was advancing 'at the rate of about twenty farms per annum.'</p>
+
+<p>The Prefect of Romsdal enumerates the causes of an increasing
+subdivision of landed property as follows: 1. The clearing of land for
+fields and meadows with the view of affording support to more families
+than one. 2. The desire of a proprietor to let more of his children than
+the nearest <i>Odelsberretige</i><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> come into the possession of his estate.
+3. In the case of an indebted proprietor, the necessity of parting with
+a portion of his land in order to get clear of his creditors; and 4. The
+desire on the part of persons who have no real property to come into the
+possession of land, especially tenants and cotters. The yeomen farmers
+themselves, he reports:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'bring forward as a substantial reason for the increasing
+subdivision of land the fact that, owing to the growing
+difficulty of obtaining labourers, <i>it does not pay to
+remain in possession of a larger estate than can be worked
+by the family itself</i>.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Consequently, the number of holdings was increased in that province by
+nearly 10 per cent. between 1876 and 1880. A corroboration of this view
+is to be found in other Reports, particularly in the Report from the
+Province of North Trondhjem, in which the yeomen farmers are declared to
+be compelled to 'cultivate the land with the resources of their own
+households.' The effect of the conversion of cotters into small
+proprietors may be estimated from the following opinion of another
+Prefect: 'The burden of bad times is often felt more heavily by the
+proprietor than by the cotter;' and all the Reports show that 'the
+times' are as bad in Norway as they are in the United Kingdom, with this
+aggravation, that 70 to 80 per cent. of the population of Norway is
+settled on the land, and steeped in debt.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the Prefects report unfavourably on the condition and prospects
+of agriculture, and on the depressing influence of American competition
+in corn, which began to make itself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> distinctly felt about the year
+1875,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> when also the forest industry, so intimately connected with
+agriculture, first encountered the effects of a greatly increased
+shipment of timber from America and other countries to Europe. But these
+are not the only reasons, over and above the subdivision of property
+already dwelt upon, to which they ascribe a very general decline in the
+economic condition of the yeomen farmer. In one province, 'habits of
+thrift and providence had been awakened and replaced by new habits of
+life, with greater demands for comforts and enjoyments.' High prices
+previously realized for timber had caused luxury to enter into all the
+circumstances of life, stimulating in many quarters a reckless waste of
+money earned.' In another, 'the demand for comforts of life has risen,
+and it is not all that have found it easy to limit the satisfaction of
+their wants,' and 'more has been consumed than means allowed.' The
+female part, more particularly, of the population of North Bergen, is
+reproached with an inability to withstand the temptation of buying the
+wares of all kinds, 'neither useful nor necessary,' which the present
+great number of country storekeepers insidiously placed before their
+eyes. 'The improved mode of living introduced during a previous,
+flourishing period, has also contributed to ruin the economic condition
+of the people, who in the harder times that have succeeded have not
+known how to cut their coats according to their cloth.' At the same
+time, the Prefect adds, 'the mode of living, taking the rural population
+as a whole, is very frugal; yes, far too frugal. It is very desirable
+that they should have more substantial food than they have at present,
+but they must first have the means to obtain it.' Even so far north as
+the Provinces of Nordland and Troms&ouml;, a similar tendency to live beyond
+means, the absence of good economy, and the dissipation of money 'on no
+particular system,' are reported to be the present characteristics of
+the people who are largely engaged in the fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>No one who has travelled in Norway can fail to endorse the assertion,
+that the fare of the yeomen farmer, however many may be his cows, is of
+a character which no English agricultural labourer would be satisfied
+with. Oatmeal cakes, potatoes, porridge, butter and milk, and of late
+years American pork (when within reach of the yeoman's means) are the
+principal articles of food; and the hardiest traveller, whether native
+or alien, would not venture to leave the main arteries of communication
+without making his own provision of potted meats, or trusting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> for his
+sustenance to the fish and game to be killed by himself. Mr. Laing's
+'salted meat and black-puddings' are certainly not to be found, except
+at farms that are few and far between. On the high roads, where
+tourists' gold circulates, the traveller suffers no deprivation, and the
+houses and stations are so comfortable and well-appointed, that only the
+most exacting foreigner can find fault with the accommodation provided.
+Mr. Laing's observations in this respect apply at present only to
+establishments of this kind, and to the very few farms at which the
+servants are still 'called to and from their work by means of a bell.'</p>
+
+<p>Except, therefore, along the course of the tourists' gold stream, and in
+the vicinity of towns, the mode of living is rude in the extreme, and
+the lament of the Prefect of North Bergen is in reality applicable to
+the great bulk of the yeomen farmers of Norway, as well as to their
+tenants and cotters. Nor is there any trace of that equality in the mode
+of living which Mr. Laing found in existence among the several classes
+of the rural population&mdash;'the public functionary, the clergyman, the
+gentleman of larger property, and the <i>Bonde</i> or peasant.' Refinement
+and culture, equal to what exists amongst corresponding classes of this
+country, are wanting only to the yeomen farmers; and their efforts to
+adopt a 'higher standard of living,' and to acquire the 'comforts of
+life,' have in no small degree conduced to the encumbrance of their
+estates. From the Reports of the Prefects it is evident that the gravest
+symptom of the decline of the rural economy in Norway, and, at the same
+time, one of its principle causes, is the heavy indebtedness of the
+yeomen farmers, great and small. Its origin is traceable to the year
+1816, when the Bank of Norway was founded, chiefly for the purpose of
+'advancing on its own notes, upon first securities over land, any sum
+not exceeding two-thirds of the value of the property' mortgaged to it.
+Mr. Laing alludes to it as 'the peculiar, and for the wants of the
+country, well-imagined, Bank of Norway,' which 'facilitates greatly the
+family arrangements with regard to land.' Its capital was originally
+raised by a forced loan or tax upon all landed property, and the
+landholders became shareholders according to the amount of their
+respective shares. The borrower repaid half-yearly to the Bank the
+interest of the sum that might be to his debit at the rate of 4 per
+cent. per annum, and was also bound to pay off 5 per cent. yearly of the
+principal, which was thus liquidated in twenty years. Although Mr. Laing
+was of opinion that 'a circulation of paper money on such a basis is
+evidently next, in point of security, to that of the precious metals,'
+he fails to mention that the Bank was forced to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> suspend specie payments
+three years after its establishment, and that the resumption of those
+payments was not commenced until 1823, when the notes of the Bank began
+to be convertible at little over half their original value; the
+operation of raising them to par, on a graduated scale, having been
+completed only in 1842, a period since which the Bank, with an increased
+Reserve Fund, has maintained an uninterrupted and unimpeachable
+stability. But while the Bank still advances money on the security of
+landed property, two-thirds of its resources are now employed in the
+discount of mercantile bills. At the end of 1883, its loans to the
+landed proprietors amounted only to 626,000<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>In 1852, however, the State had come again to the assistance of the
+landowners for the extinction of private mortgages and the consolidation
+of old debts by the creation of a special 'State Mortgage Bank,' with an
+original capital of 291,000<i>l.</i>, increased by successive issues of bonds
+representing advances on the security of real property, bearing interest
+at the rate of 4 per cent, (at present 4-1/2 per cent.), and repayable
+by drawings over a period of thirty years. The amount of the bonds
+issued up to 1884 was about 3,812,000<i>l.</i>, and in 1878 about
+three-quarters of the bonds were held in the country itself, their
+market value being still almost at par.</p>
+
+<p>It is principally into this Bank that the yeomen farmers have been
+dipping their estates at a rapidly increasing rate. Thus, while the
+loans on the security of real property in rural districts averaged
+57,500<i>l.</i> per annum between 1853 and 1855, and 220,600<i>l.</i> between 1876 and
+1880, the advances made in 1883 amounted to 396,500<i>l.</i> At the end of that
+year the balance of outstanding loans had reached the sum of
+3,752,000<i>l.</i>, of which about 77 per cent., or 2,889,000<i>l.</i>, represented
+advances in rural districts, the remaining 23 per cent, having been
+borrowed in towns. The interest payable on those loans is respectively
+4-1/4 and 4-3/4 per cent., according to whether the borrowers have been
+supplied with bonds bearing interest at the rate of 4 or 4-1/2 per cent.
+per annum; and 3 per cent. of the capital is repayable per annum until
+the extinction of the debt over a period of thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>There is a third public source available to the landed proprietors for
+loans on mortgages and on bonds or bills, namely the Savings Banks. In
+1884, the savings-banks, in rural districts alone, held in 'mortgage
+bonds' and in 'bonds and bills' a sum of about 3,553,000<i>l.</i>; but in what
+proportion that debt was incurred by local traders and by farmers, it is
+impossible to say. It is, however, clear that the yeomen farmers have
+benefited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> largely by the deposits made in those banks by the
+comparatively few who have been able to accumulate, instead of
+borrowing, money. Thus, the Prefect of Hedemarken reports that, 'while
+large amounts, realized by the sale of timber, were deposited in the
+savings-banks, extensive loans were made by those establishments to
+persons in less favourable circumstances,' and that 'the savings-banks,
+to be found in so many parishes, have, by the easy access they afford to
+loans, beguiled many into a needless borrowing of money, subsequently
+squandered.'</p>
+
+<p>Over and above these facilities for borrowing money from public
+institutions, the yeomen farmers are undoubtedly heavily in debt to
+local storekeepers, and to merchants and traders in the towns. In fact
+the great bulk of the landed proprietors have been borrowing in every
+direction as much as they could raise by mortgage or by bill. Owing to
+the excellent system of registration that exists in Norway, there is no
+difficulty in ascertaining the extent to which the charges on real
+property in rural districts have increased between the years 1876 and
+1880. It appears from the Reports of the Prefects that, between those
+dates, the balance of mortgages newly effected over those extinguished
+in rural districts amounted to a sum of about four millions sterling.
+The State Mortgage Bank is bound not to advance more than six-tenths of
+the value of land and buildings (forests excepted), and it is supposed
+that the loans have so far not exceeded four-tenths of the value of
+mortgaged property; but as the yeomen farmers generally contrive to
+borrow on second mortgages, it may safely be assumed, that their estates
+are charged with interest at 4-1/4 to 6 per cent. on a considerable part
+of the nominal value of what is not purely forest land, in addition to
+an annual repayment of 3 per cent. of the capital borrowed from the
+State Mortgage Bank. The forests, on the other hand, have been largely
+used up in paying the interest and capital on those loans, either by
+cutting them down, or by leasing or pawning them to traders, or to
+yeomen who have been able to keep their heads above water and to profit
+by the economic distress of the great majority of their
+fellow-landowners. The difficulty experienced by that majority in
+meeting the payment of interest and capital, especially at a time when
+the value of agricultural produce has been considerably diminished by
+American competition, and when also the competition of American and
+Baltic timber has simultaneously reduced the profits of the forest
+industry to a point that hardly repays the felling of trees, is clearly
+shown from the statistics of forced sales, of auctions and of distraints
+in the rural districts, and from an accompanying increase in the number
+of lawsuits before Courts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> of First Instance. It appears from the
+Reports of the Prefects that the sales of real property for debt have
+increased in every Province between the two periods 1871-1875 and
+1876-1880 to an extent that ranges from 30 per cent. to 600 per cent.,
+the greatest increase having taken place in the Provinces of
+Kristiansamt (600 per cent.), Norland, Neden&aelig;s, Buskerud, Hedemarken and
+Akershus, where it ranged between 600 per cent. and 146 per cent. From
+another official source we obtain the following statement:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h4>1876-1880.</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Number.</td><td align='left'>Amount.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. Compulsory sales of real property in rural districts.</td><td align='right'>2513</td><td align='right'>563,000<i>l.</i></td><td align='right'> averaging 224<i>l.</i> per sale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Do. of personal property.</td><td align='right'>5136</td><td align='right'>134,000<i>l.</i></td><td align='right'> ditto 26<i>l.</i> per sale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Distraints for arrears of taxes, &amp;c.</td><td align='center'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1,089,000<i>l.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>But since real property is of comparatively low value in Norway, and
+personal property limited mostly to the veriest necessities of life, it
+is not so much the total of the amounts realized by forced sales, or the
+sums for which 'executions' and 'distraints' were effected, that give
+the measure of the depressed condition of the yeomen farmers, as the
+great and steady increase that took place between 1876 and 1880 in the
+number of those operations. Thus, while the number of forced sales of
+real property in towns, as well as in rural districts, was 424 in 1876,
+it had grown to 1378 in 1880. It is therefore not surprising to find in
+the Reports of the Prefects from which we have so largely drawn our
+figures that 'the means of meeting liabilities and of paying taxes at
+the proper time have grown more feeble, and recourse to legal
+enforcement of pecuniary claims has consequently become more frequent.'
+'The condition of this Province' (Kristiansamt) 'is all the worse from a
+pretty widespread misuse of credit during the previous period'
+(1871-75). In another province (N. Bergen) we find that the depression
+in 1879 and 1880 'compelled those who had claims to enforce them
+rigorously. Mortgages, distraints, sales, &amp;c., have therefore increased,
+and there has been an exceptionally, large number of suits before the
+Courts of Mutual Agreement. 'The value of agricultural produce has
+fallen, owing to a great extent to a scarcity of money and to great
+competition from a desire to convert as much produce as possible into
+money.' In the northern province of Troms&ouml; 'merchants have suffered from
+the impoverishment of their customers' (mostly fishermen as well as
+landowners), 'and have caused them to be made bankrupts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> Credit has
+been misused on a large scale. Its facility induces the population to
+live beyond its means. It also encourages traders to set up in business
+and get customers with ease, without having capital or means of their
+own. The one misuse reacts on the other. All products are sunk
+considerably in value, and this fall is even greater in the case of real
+estate.'</p>
+
+<p>The latter statement is not generally applicable to the remaining
+provinces, for we find that while the average value of the 'skylddaler,'
+or unit of assessment, was 153<i>l.</i>,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> according to prices paid for land
+in 1871-1875, it has risen to about 180<i>l.</i> in 1876-1880, thus confuting
+Mr. Laing's theory, that the peculiar succession of property would tend
+to keep land at a low value. It would not, however, be right to conclude
+from these figures that landed property has, on the whole, increased of
+late years in value, despite the general indebtedness of its owners.
+Land in the vicinity of towns and railways must naturally become more
+and more valuable, and the relatively much higher prices paid for such
+land have no doubt had the effect of raising the total average deduced
+from sales of every description of landed property. It may also be
+assumed that the demand for land is artificially increased by the
+facility with which it may be purchased, since at least one-half of the
+purchase money generally remains on mortgage, in addition to other
+encumbrances. At the same time, the financial institutions, to which so
+large a proportion of the real property in Norway is mortgaged, are
+interested in maintaining its value, and attain their object by
+abstaining from offering at any one period too many defaulting
+properties for sale; and it may also be suspected that the statistics of
+forced sales represent only cases in which no compromise could be
+effected, or in which it was expedient or possible to have recourse to
+the ultimate means of recovery without sensibly deteriorating locally
+the value of landed property. Cases are, in fact, not infrequent in
+which the mortgagees find themselves compelled to retain the property of
+the defaulter, and either to place it in the hands of caretakers, with
+the hope of future realization on more favourable terms, or to sell it
+in small lots as opportunity occurs. In any case, the full and exact
+effect of the pawning of all the landed property of the country at a
+time when its agriculture has to compete with American cereals, its
+timber industry with supplies from America and the Baltic, and its
+wooden ships with iron steamers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> transporting cargoes at an almost
+nominal freight, is not yet to be found in statistical records.</p>
+
+<p>The indisputable fact remains that, notwithstanding the existence of a
+system of land tenure which, according to Mr. Laing, was so perfect
+between 1834 and 1836 as to render its adoption in this country, and
+especially in Ireland, highly desirable, the yeomen farmers of
+Norway&mdash;framers of their own laws and absolute masters of their own
+destinies&mdash;are not only at present suffering from the commercial and
+agricultural depression that obtains in other countries of Europe, in
+which the social state is more or less differently constituted, but also
+find themselves, in face of that depression, with exceptionally heavy
+burdens on their backs in the form of pecuniary indebtedness at a rate
+of interest which mere agriculture, under the most favourable
+circumstances, cannot possibly afford to pay.</p>
+
+<p>This heavy indebtedness has not, as a rule, been incurred for productive
+purposes, such as drainage, improved methods of agriculture, the
+increase of stock, &amp;c.; and although the use of simple agricultural
+machinery is somewhat on the increase in Norway, yet agriculture remains
+very much in the same primitive condition in which it was found by Mr.
+Laing.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Prefects attribute this backwardness to want of skill on
+the part of the proprietors (Romsdal), to the poverty of the soil, to
+the dearness of agricultural labour, and generally to the unremunerative
+results of husbandry since the depreciation of the value of its
+products. In a letter addressed last year to the 'Morgenblad,' the
+leading Journal at Christiania, by a native authority on the subject of
+agriculture, it is urged that the landed proprietors of Norway have 'for
+some years past been going down hill;' the hopes of improving the
+condition of agriculture, entertained about thirty years ago, when
+efforts were first commenced in that direction, being now entirely
+dissipated.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'It is painful,' he says 'to see how the forests are
+decreasing and how land once under cultivation is lying
+unused. When asked the reason, the proprietors reply that
+the prices of corn and other agricultural products are so
+low and the wages of labour so high, owing to emigration,
+that they have not the means to cultivate a large portion of
+the land, and could derive no advantage from it even if the
+means were available.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The yeomen farmers, being therefore in a distressed condition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> and
+their children and best hands forced to leave their homes in order to
+cultivate the fruitful soil of America, to the growing detriment of
+those who remain to till the soil of Norway&mdash;those farmers, he points
+out with great force of argument, must have the same protection which is
+accorded to the industrial classes, if agriculture is to be saved from
+final ruin. In fact, this remarkable letter points to an agitation in
+favour of the imposition of a 'fiscal duty,'<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> on corn, food of all
+kind, cattle, dairy produce, &amp;c.; and supports this conclusion with the
+argument used by Prince Bismarck on the second reading of his recent
+Corn Duties Bill:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The trade of the Baltic will suffer nothing from protective
+duties. As regards agriculture, I am opposed to all
+legislation against the subdivision of land ... but if you
+want to have small occupiers of land, you must vote for
+duties on corn.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Account must at the same time be taken of the heavy and increasing
+charges that fall on landed property for the administration of rural
+districts in Norway. While the inhabitants of the rural communities
+contribute towards the support of the Central Administration only in the
+form of Customs and Excise duties, stamps, succession duties, and
+contributions towards the construction of highways, the burthen of local
+administration, justice, police, prisons, the Church, public
+instruction, poor relief, sanitary service, parochial roads, posting
+stations, interest on communal loans, &amp;c., falls on their landed
+property. This self-assessed and self-imposed burthen has naturally been
+growing more heavy, from year to year, under the exigencies of modern
+progress. Thus, while the total communal expenditure in 1853 was
+167,000<i>l.</i>, it had risen to 497,000<i>l.</i> in 1880, or 197-1/2 per cent. About
+one half of the requisite resources is derived from a tax on the
+cadastral value of real property; the remaining half is raised by a tax
+on capital and income. In 1880 the communal impositions on land
+represented a taxation of about 6<i>s.</i> 7d. per head of the rural
+population. That the whole of the communal expenditure is not covered by
+taxation is apparent from the fact, that in the same year the rural
+districts had increased the amount of their total debts to about half a
+million sterling, from 312,000<i>l.</i> in 1874.</p>
+
+<p>In this respect it is certainly significant to discover that Poor
+Relief, organized by a law passed in 1863, is the largest item of
+communal expenditure, being indeed very little less than half of the
+total annual liabilities of the rural districts, in a country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> in which,
+in the halcyon days of Mr. Laing, only the infirm were supported for a
+few days at a time by the yeomen farmers. He appears to have attributed
+this to the absence of collieries, the introduction of coal as fuel
+having, he argues, been co&euml;val in England with the imposition of a rate
+for the poor, deprived by that industry of the work of chopping up
+firewood which gave so much employment to idle hands in Norway. However
+that might be, in 1880 and 1881 the number of persons in receipt of
+relief or maintained in hospital, at the charge of rural communities
+alone, was respectively 109,688 and about 114,000, or in both years a
+little over 7 per cent. of the total rural population. Inclusive of
+urban districts the same totals amounted in those years to 81 and 83 per
+1000, or above 8 per cent. of the population of the kingdom, the cost of
+support having been about 3<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i> per head of the entire population,
+which contributed 2<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> per head in special taxation for that object,
+and the balance in an indirect manner, apparently by housing paupers,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>These paupers include cotters and labourers, as well as the ruined among
+the smaller yeomen. Farmers who had previously been able to employ
+labour, 'no longer find their advantage in it,' and consequently&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'even able-bodied workmen (in Hedemarken) were compelled to
+seek relief from the Poor Fund when their families were
+large. The smaller farmers and the labourers are in the
+worst plight, since the falling off in the timber trade has
+made them feel the want of the usual steady demand for
+labour at high wages.' Further: 'it has become very
+difficult for the least affluent and for labourers to gain a
+livelihood in the prevailing money and timber crisis.... The
+depression must for a long time be felt by many.</p></div>
+
+<p>We need only point out that, in the United Kingdom, the percentage of
+persons in receipt of relief during the year 1881 was 3 per cent. in
+England and Wales, 2.6 per cent. in Scotland, and 11 per cent. in
+Ireland,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> involving an expenditure at the rate respectively of 6<i>s.</i>
+3d., 4<i>s.</i> 6d., and 3<i>s.</i> 9d. per head of population.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, the relatively greater cost of relieving the poor in Great
+Britain is due to the more expensive character of the support afforded,
+and to the very heavy sums paid for salaries and other establishment
+charges; but it is unquestionably a damaging fact against the system of
+land tenure in Norway, that the pauperism by which it is in the present
+day accompanied, with a strong tendency to increase, is equalled only by
+the state<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> of things in Ireland, which certain legislators now desire to
+remedy by the creation of peasant proprietors.</p>
+
+<p>The relative state of matters in Great Britain and in Norway has
+therefore greatly changed since Mr. Laing wrote:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The distribution of the wealth and employment of a country
+has much more to do, than the amount, with the well-being
+and condition of the people. The wealth and employment of
+the British nation far exceed those of any other nation; yet
+in no country is so large a proportion of the inhabitants
+sunk in pauperism and wretchedness.'</p></div>
+
+<p>An increasing rate of pauperism is one of the symptoms of agricultural
+distress in Norway, but the strong tide of emigration from rural and
+urban districts marks with equal force the depression and congestion
+from which the country is suffering in the same degree as the United
+Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Aided by improved and cheapened
+means of transport, the number of emigrants from Norway ranged between
+20,212 in 1880 and 22,167 in 1883, giving an average of 1.3 to 1.5 per
+cent. of the total population, the contingent of the rural districts
+being about 70 per cent. of the total number. As in the case of
+pauperism, the corresponding rate of emigration from Ireland, namely 1.5
+per cent., exhibits a remarkable similarity, and affords another
+convincing proof that peasant proprietorship is no <i>panacea</i> for rustic
+indigence.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have not studied the present economic condition of the yeoman
+farmer and agricultural labourer in Norway, or who have not taken into
+consideration the change that has come over the entire country, and the
+ambition, as distinguished from previous apathy, which education and
+communication with an outer world, no longer closed to them, has
+awakened among the classes with which we are dealing, are inclined to
+attribute a good part of this emigrating tendency to the influence and
+the material assistance of those who have gone before. Indisputably, the
+Norwegian emigrant, by his persevering labour and steady conduct, rarely
+fails to succeed in Wisconsin and other States, in which he is always a
+welcome settler; and consequently he soon finds himself able to transmit
+money for the purpose of enabling his brothers and sisters, and not
+seldom his father and mother, to join him. No State or other aid is
+afforded for such purposes to Norwegians, although it is occasionally
+the case, that the hard cash with which the emigrant leaves his home is
+derived from the proceeds of a loan raised by the head of his family for
+the purpose of buying out co-heirs under the <i>Odels ret</i>, adding
+thereby, as we have already shown, to the indebtedness with which the
+land is burdened. Others, also, maintain that many young men emigrate
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> Norway in order to avoid military conscription, which, although
+milder there in its demands than in most other European countries where
+that system exists, undoubtedly diminishes the quantity and deteriorates
+the quality of agricultural labour. The strongest incentive to
+emigration, however, is the desire to escape from the misery and penury
+which accompany in Norway, as in every other part of Europe, the
+condition of a small landowner, cotter, or labourer who is unable to
+find regular employment on adjoining estates that can be kept going, if
+nothing more, with the aid of scientific knowledge, machinery and
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, yet another proof of the prevalent material <i>malaise</i>
+in Norway, particularly among its rural classes, and strangely enough it
+bears the same character as that which has brought the 'three acres and
+a cow' and Irish land bills, past and expected, into such prominent
+relief in our country of lack-lands, namely political agitation.
+Whatever may be its merits or demerits on this side of the North Sea,
+our readers will scarcely be prepared to learn that a corresponding
+ferment has been engendered of late years on the opposite shores. We are
+told this by the Prefect of South Trondhjem, one of the most important
+provinces of a country where, in the days of Mr. Laing, there was a
+dead-level of contentment, where the widest form of home-rule has been
+in operation since the early part of the present century, and where the
+Crown Administration has all that time been more pure, blameless and
+efficient than in any other country on the Continent of Europe. His
+significant words are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'As everywhere else in Norway, particularly in rural
+districts, politicians (<i>i. e. agitators</i>) are here taking
+more and more hold over the minds of the people. Political
+unrest increases, and immature and extreme opinions are
+being advanced more than is desirable. The quiet, temperate,
+but progressive development to which Norway had previously
+been accustomed, and with which the great bulk of the nation
+had been well content, is in danger of being replaced by a
+progress in fits and starts, accompanied by leaps in the
+dark.'</p></div>
+
+<p>No less painful and suggestive is it to find, in the Report from the
+Prefect of Hedemarken, that 'the Christian earnestness of the people has
+suffered under the influence of the many misleading writings and
+tendencies which have in recent times found their way into every stratum
+of society.' As at home, so in Norway, the question of Church
+Disestablishment, with all its consequences, is approaching within
+measurable distance of practical solution.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p>
+<p>Supported by official publications, we have now described the present
+condition of the yeomen farmers of Norway, and from the facts and
+figures we have marshalled, the following replies may confidently be
+given to the Socialistic theories and conclusions of Mr. Laing:</p>
+
+<p>1. Notwithstanding, or rather in part owing to, the existence of the
+Allodial Right [which has proved in its results to be an exaggerated
+form of primogeniture involving a greater multiplication of encumbrances
+even than exists under the system of land tenure in the United Kingdom],
+an excessive subdivision of the land has occurred and is still
+proceeding in Norway, to the prejudice of estates which in 1836, and
+even later, afforded moderate ease and contentment to their owners, and
+relatively well remunerated labour to the workman and the cotter.</p>
+
+<p>2. The dead-level of comfortable subsistence, attributed by Mr. Laing to
+the parcelling-out of land into small estates, has been converted, by
+the influence of irresistible economic laws, into one of general
+distress and discontent among the rural classes.</p>
+
+<p>3. The rates of pauperism and emigration prove that the agrarian
+population has not, as prophesied by Mr. Laing, kept 'within the bounds
+of possible modern existence.'</p>
+
+<p>4. The taxation of landed property, for local purposes, has greatly
+increased, particularly under the head of Poor Relief; and</p>
+
+<p>5. The distressed condition of the yeoman farmer in Norway is strongly
+attested by his heavy and growing indebtedness. He may now, in fact, be
+classed with the proverbially derided Fife laird, owning 'A wee bit of
+land, a great lump of debt, and a dookit.'<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such being the result of our enquiries into the economic condition of
+the great bulk of the yeoman farmers of Norway, the ideal fabric reared
+by Mr. Laing at a time when the Norse old world was still asleep, falls
+utterly to the ground, and there remains but one of his statements that
+we can with any advantage submit to the earnest attention of our
+readers, namely, that '<i>A single fact brought home from such a country
+is worth a volume of speculations.</i>' We go further and say, that facts
+in relation to the question of land tenure collected in any other part
+of Europe are of equally inestimable value; and they have already been
+supplied in great abundance from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and
+Switzerland.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Nothing can truly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> be more fatal to the successful
+solution of such intricate problems than the relief of the agricultural
+distress of England and Scotland, or the satisfaction of the alleged
+earth-hunger of the Celtic population of Ireland, than to initiate
+legislation on the hypothesis that circumstances alter cases, and that
+our own country can with impunity be withdrawn from the operation of
+economic laws that have asserted their supremacy throughout the entire
+Continent of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>As history repeats itself, so are the laws of civilized development both
+general and inexorable. Even in the extreme case of Russia, it has been
+proved, in an article we published a few years ago,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> that a heavy and
+ruinous price has been paid for the emancipation of the serfs on a
+Socialistic and partly Communistic basis, and on the erroneous
+assumption, that the continued existence of the 'Mir' (the ancient
+village community even of India) was an institution indigenous to the
+country itself, and therefore worthy of being perpetuated by
+legislation. Millions of a rural population, freed from personal
+servitude, were chained anew to the land by the indebtedness incurred in
+the expropriation of the lords of the soil. The allotments, averaging
+ten acres, parcelled out among them in 1861, were estimated to be
+sufficiently large and productive to provide not only for their support,
+but also, firstly, for the payment of the 'redemption dues' with which
+the allotted lands were charged for a limited period of years at an
+average rate of only 1<i>s.</i> 9d. per acre, and secondly, for the punctual
+payment of the moderate poll-tax, which the exigencies of the State
+required them to contribute. Those expectations began to vanish soon
+after they had been formed, and at the present time we see the
+previously rich agricultural plains of Russia, abandoned, as they almost
+wholly are, to the slovenly husbandry of a rude and greatly demoralized
+peasantry, deteriorating from year to year in the quality of their
+produce, and thereby opposing less and less impediment to the successful
+competition of other corn-growing countries.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The great fall that has
+taken place in the value of Russian cereals is apparent from the fact
+that, notwithstanding the depreciation of the paper currency of the
+country to the extent of about 25 per cent. since the serfs were
+emancipated (and nearly 37 per cent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> from the par value of the standard
+rouble), the corn-grower in Russia actually receives for his produce, in
+paper money, some 40 per cent, less than he obtained for it when the
+currency was less debased.</p>
+
+<p>Despair, and the absence of that restraint which education, and the
+moral elevation inseparable from it, are establishing in other European
+countries, have driven the rural inhabitants of entire districts, and
+even provinces, into habits of drunkenness stronger and more general
+than those which existed before the autocratic creation of 'peasant
+proprietors' in Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest measures adopted in Russia during the present reign
+was that of a reduction and partial remission of the 'redemption dues,'
+which, on the 1st of January, 1885, represented the interest and sinking
+fund on nearly 113 millions sterling,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> expended by the Government in
+the partial expropriation of the now ruined landlords of the
+country.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>During the year 1884, alone, those reductions and remissions inflicted a
+loss of 1,135,000<i>l.</i><a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> on the Imperial Treasury. The most recent
+measure of alleviation has been the total abolition of the poll-tax<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+(to be completed by the end of the present year); and, consequently, the
+State-contribution of at least 85 per cent. of the population of Russia
+is being limited to the excise duty on drink, an item of revenue with
+which the Imperial Government cannot possibly dispense, since it brings
+in a sum more than adequate for the maintenance of the imposing military
+forces of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously, 'Peasant Land Banks' have been established by the State
+in order to facilitate the purchase of still more land by the ex-serfs.
+The Minister of Finance was authorized in 1882 to issue annually for
+that purpose a sum of 500,000<i>l.</i> in bonds, bearing 5-1/2 per cent.
+interest. But, by the 1st of January, 1886, these banks had already
+advanced over three millions sterling to 785 Communes, 1576
+'partnerships,' and 359 individual peasants, representing an aggregate
+number of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> 112,765 householders. On loans for 24-1/2 years the interest
+and sinking fund, payable by the borrowers, amount to 8-1/2 per cent.,
+and on those for 34-1/2 years, to 7-1/2 per cent., the lands purchased
+by such means remaining inalienable until the extinction of the
+mortgages, except with the consent of the mortgagees, <i>i. e.</i> the banks.
+The effects of this new departure in the direction of providing small
+landed proprietors with State funds, will no doubt soon be apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Whether, therefore, we examine the experience of a civilized, orderly,
+home-ruled country like Norway, with a steady, laborious, and, we may
+almost say, abstemious, population in many respects akin to our own, or
+that of a State still at an immensely distant stage of social
+development,&mdash;and under a very different form of Government,&mdash;the
+salient results of bolstering up, by means of State loans, or of
+artificially creating, equally at the cost of the State, a numerous body
+of small landed proprietors, have been strikingly identical in regard to
+the ultimate economic condition of the agrarian classes.</p>
+
+<p>Insisting, as we do, on the strength of the facts we have adduced, that,
+in old Europe, the operation of economic laws affecting land tenure,
+admits of no exceptions or extenuating circumstances in favour of their
+violation, it appears impossible, without presumptuous sophistry or
+political dishonesty, to resist the conclusion, that the infringement of
+those laws in any part of the United Kingdom could only terminate,
+infallibly and speedily, in damage to the State, after ruin to the
+individual.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The physical results of intermarriage with the object of
+concentrating property, are very apparent in many of the older <i>Bonde</i>
+families in Norway.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> It would not be right to allow this observation to pass
+without mentioning, even at the cost of destroying so fascinating a
+picture of pastoral felicity, that the hard-working dairy-maids of
+Norway are never accompanied by their sweethearts to the s&oelig;ters,
+where, except from Saturday night until Monday morning, when the young
+men find time to visit them, they lead the most solitary lives, and are
+busy all day in milking cows and goats and making butter and cheese.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> In 1833 the total production of spirits in the rural
+districts amounted to about 3-1/2 gallons per head of the population.
+The demoralization that resulted from its increase necessitated the
+enactment of restrictive measures, and at last, in 1848, the small
+stills were purchased by the State, and private distillation was
+prohibited. As in Great Britain, the vice of drunkeness is now
+decreasing in Norway, owing partly to the reduced means of the
+population, but chiefly to the influence of education and of temperance
+societies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The average proportion of 1851-52 was 9.32 per cent. There
+is a difference of only 1 per cent, between the rates of illegitimacy in
+rural and urban districts, to the disadvantage of the latter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> 'The French Constitution of 1791 is one of the principal
+sources of the Fundamental Law of Norway. The suspensive veto has been
+derived from it.'&mdash;O. I. Broch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> At the end of 1882, the total population was estimated at
+1,922,500, or a decrease 3900 as compared with 1881, when the increase
+was only 1000 from the year preceding.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In 1880, the average rate of wages for labourers engaged
+by the year in agricultural districts was 8<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i> per annum, and that
+of daily labour, without food, 1<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> per diem; the corresponding rates
+in towns having been 11<i>l.</i> 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> and 2<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Our readers must, however, bear in mind that we are
+dealing only with the rural economy of Norway, and that the facts we
+shall submit on that subject affect but slightly the general financial
+condition of a country which continues to derive its earnings mainly
+from the supply of timber, fish, wood-pulp, ice, &amp;c., to foreign
+countries, and from its extensive carrying trade in sailing vessels and
+steamers. The prosperity of the towns is influenced chiefly by the state
+of trade in the rest of Europe, while being (to the extent of 122 out of
+128) situated on the seaboard, their successful development reacts but
+little on the prosperity of the inland agricultural districts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In the 'Tables of Landed Property,' published in 1880, the
+holdings (in 1865) are classified as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='center'>Properties</td><td align='left'> under</td><td align='left'>5 acres</td><td align='left'>34,224</td><td align='left'>or</td><td align='left'>15.5</td><td align='left'>per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>between</td><td align='left'>5 and 12-1/2 acres</td><td align='left'>42,984</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>32.1</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>12-1/2 and 50 "</td><td align='left'>48,575</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>36.2</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>above</td><td align='left'>50 acres</td><td align='left'>8,208</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>6.2</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The italics our own. The author states that it is the
+custom among the peasants of Norway that when the eldest son or the
+daughter of the house (when there is no son), marries, the parents
+surrender the property, but retain a right of subsistence upon it. This,
+he shows, explains the existence of the large number of detached
+dwellings on the same estate, for very often cottages have to be built
+for the accommodation of persons who have a right to subsistence, which
+is not, however, limited to a dwelling-house, but frequently includes
+the usufruct of a small plot of land and, almost always fodder for a
+certain number of cows and goats. See also p. 386.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The eldest of kin having allodial right.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Between 1871 and 1875 Norway imported about 46 per cent.
+of the cereals required for home consumption, in addition to pork,
+butter, and other articles of food.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> From statistics recently published, it appears that
+between 1881 and 1883 the price of land, estimated on actual sales, has
+shown a tendency to rise in the Provinces which have a coast line,
+populated by fisherman, &amp;c., and to fall in most of the inland, more
+purely agricultural districts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Dr. Broch shows that in 1875, which was an average year
+for crops, the production of cereals and potatoes (reduced to the value
+of barley) was 3125 hectol. per 1000 inhabitants in Norway; whereas the
+average crops in France yielded 7400 hectol. per 1000 of the
+population.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In 1884 a motion to that effect was made in the Swedish
+Rigsdag by a peasant proprietor. At present the duty on cereals imported
+into Norway is merely nominal, averaging about 2-1/2 per cent. <i>ad
+valorem</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> From special causes, the number of persons relieved in
+1881 and 1882 was exceptionally high in Ireland. In 1879 it was 7-1/2
+per cent., and in 1883 about 8 per cent. of the population.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Hereditary nobility is already abolished. Under a law
+passed in 1821, all titles of nobility become extinct in the persons of
+those who were born before 1822.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>I. e.</i> dovecot.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Lady Verney's 'Cottier-owners, Little Takes and Peasant
+Proprietors,' published last year, is replete with facts drawn from
+actual life, showing that small peasant-proprietorship is proving
+ruinous on the Continent, even where the system has grown up naturally.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> In No. 302, April 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> It is certainly remarkable to find that Australian tallow,
+Indian linseed, and German barley are being imported at St. Petersburg,
+whence those articles were, in the days of large landed properties,
+extensively exported. The Minister of Finance, following the example of
+Prince Bismarck, attempts to check this competition with the staple
+products of the small landed proprietors by imposing protective duties.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Rs. 846,068,368, at the exchange of 32d., current when the
+great bulk of the expropriations were effected.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> In provinces of Russia Proper alone, the landed
+proprietors (exclusive of the ex-serfs) have mortgaged their estates in
+various land and other banks to the extent of 30-3/4 per cent. of their
+aggregate acreage, the total remaining debt on such lands being about 49
+millions sterling at the present reduced value of the rouble, or 65
+millions sterling at the rate of exchange adopted in estimating the
+indebtedness of the peasantry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> At the same rate of exchange.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> This tax had previously given to the Imperial Treasury a
+sum of about 5-1/2 millions sterling, at the depreciated rate of
+exchange. It was assessed at rates that varied in the different
+Provinces between 2<i>s.</i> 7d. and 4<i>s.</i> 4d. per head of the male registered
+population, or 'per soul.'</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Art_V_A_Collection_of_the_State_Papers_of_John_Thurloe_Esq" id="Art_V_A_Collection_of_the_State_Papers_of_John_Thurloe_Esq"></a>Art. V.&mdash;<i>A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq.;
+Secretary, First to the Council of State, and afterwards to the Two
+Protectors, Oliver and Richard Cromwell.</i> In Seven Volumes, containing
+authentic Memorials of the English affairs from the year 1638 to the
+Restoration of King Charles II. Vol. III. London, 1742.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The character of Oliver Cromwell might, for our part, have rested
+undisturbed among the 'old, unhappy, far off things' of history, had it
+been our intention to fight over again, on the old lines, the contention
+whether he was a hero or a knave. On the contrary, towards the solution
+of that question a method, as yet untried, has been adopted. Instead of
+attempting a review of Cromwell's whole career, to gain an idea of what
+manner of man he was, a single train of events, in which his hand was
+visible throughout, has been subjected to some degree of scrutiny. A
+man's words and deeds, although arising only on one occasion, may supply
+an effectual test of his real self. There could, for instance, be hardly
+any doubt regarding the leading bias of his disposition, if a supremely
+able ruler, that he may procure his safety, consents to&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i26">'play one scene<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of excellent dissembling, and let it look<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Like perfect honour.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>These lines disclose our case. With prescient genius Shakspeare has
+described the part that Cromwell took in an event which occurred under
+his Protectorate, the so-called Insurrection of March 1655; and in our
+examination into the secret history of that occurrence lies the test
+that we have applied to Cromwell's character.</p>
+
+<p>The revelation that we are attempting is not, however, free from
+inherent difficulty. In these days of literature made easy, the products
+of close research are not readily acceptable. To open up a new vista in
+history, much has to be cut down, much put into new order; and the
+reader must unavoidably share in the labours of the writer. And though
+some curiosity may be aroused by the discovery of that which has
+remained hidden, for over two centuries; still, to gratify that
+curiosity, many an ingrained idea must be laid aside. Difficult as it
+may seem to many, Cromwell at the outset must be regarded not as 'our
+heroic One,' but as a man who sold himself to falsehood, that he might
+'ride in gilt coaches, escorted by the flunkeyisms, and most sweet
+voices.' Nor to appreciate the secret of our character-test, can the
+assertion of any historian, from Clarendon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> down to Carlyle's last
+imitator, be credited, that 'a universal rising of Royalists combined
+with Anabaptists' broke out in March 1655. On the contrary, it must be
+accepted as a preliminary condition in this investigation that England
+was, at that time, in a state of immovable tranquillity, and that any
+insurrectionary movement during the year 1655 sprang from a far-reaching
+design, which Cromwell practised alike on friends, neutrals, and
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>That this was the case has hitherto escaped notice. Every historian, who
+has taken part in the Cromwelliad, regards that revolt as 'a very tragic
+reality;' they all agree, that it was 'prevented from breaking into a
+dangerous flame by vigilance, prompt action, and by necessary severity.'
+That this event might be regarded in a very different light was an idea
+far from every one of them. Proof, however, goes before disproof. The
+historians should have their say first; and our readers must endure, for
+a few moments, what may be termed the received version of the
+Insurrection of March 1655.</p>
+
+<p>According to Godwin, 'A general rising was meditated about the beginning
+of March 1655, by the Royalist party in various parts of
+England,&mdash;Yorkshire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, Devon and Wilts,' and
+also in North Wales. 'Wilmot, about this time created Earl of Rochester,
+came over to England' to head the enterprise, 'accompanied by Sir J.
+Wagstaff. Charles II., who had spent the winter at Cologne, now came
+privately to Middleburg in Holland, that he might be ready to pass over
+to England, if the condition of affairs authorized such a measure. The
+activity of Cromwell and his assistants speedily defeated these
+multiplied intrigues. It does not appear that hostilities anywhere were
+actually commenced, except in Yorkshire and the West of England.'</p>
+
+<p>As historians persist that on Marston Moor, the scene of the
+'hostilities' in Yorkshire, an actual affray occurred,&mdash;Carlyle throws
+in 'a few shots fired';&mdash;we must turn to the 'Perfect Proceedings' News
+Letter, of March 1655, for a truer description of that event:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'York. The 8th of March instant, there was a meeting
+appointed by the Malignants in Yorkshire to surprise York
+City. To that end a party was to come on the west side of
+the City, where Sir Richard Malliverer, with divers others,
+was on their March. About 100 horse came with a cart load of
+arms and ammunition to Hessey (i. e. Marston) Moor. And at
+the wynd-mill upon the Moor there came some intelligence,
+that a party, that sh<sup>d</sup> have come on the other side of the
+City, was not ready that night. And more company failing,
+which they expected to meet them that night upon the Moor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
+they suddenly and disorderly retreated; some Pistols was
+scattered and found next morning, and a led horse, with a
+velvet saddle, left in Skipbrig Lane, which was found next
+day.'</p></div>
+
+<p>In Wiltshire, however, the Royalists effected a brief revolt, an
+incident which the following quotation from Carlyle will readily recall
+to mind:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Sunday, March 11th, 1655, in the City of Salisbury, about
+midnight, there occurs a thing worth noting. Salisbury was
+awakened from its slumbers by a real advent of Cavaliers.
+Sir John Wagstaff, "a jolly knight" of those parts, once a
+Royalist Colonel: he, with Squire, or Major Penruddock, "a
+gentleman of fair fortune," Squire, or Major Grove, and
+about two hundred others, did actually rendezvous in arms
+about the Big Steeple, that Sunday night, and ring a loud
+alarm in those parts. It was Assize time; the Judges had
+arrived the day before. Wagstaff seizes the Judges in their
+beds, seizes the High Sheriff, and otherwise makes night
+hideous;&mdash;proposes on the morrow to hang the Judges, as a
+useful warning; but is overruled by Penruddock and the rest.
+He orders the High Sheriff to proclaim King Charles; High
+Sheriff will not, not though you hang him; Town-crier will
+not, not even though you hang him. The Insurrection does not
+spread in Salisbury, it would seem. The Insurrection quits
+Salisbury on Monday night, marches with all speed towards
+Cornwall, hoping for better luck there. Marches;&mdash;but
+Captain Unton Crook marches also in the rear of it; marches
+swiftly, fiercely; overtakes it at South Molton in
+Devonshire, "on Wednesday about ten at night," and there, in
+a few minutes, put an end to it. We took Penruddock, Grove,
+and long lists of others; Wagstaff unluckily escaped ... and
+this Royalist conflagration, which should have blazed all
+over England, is entirely damped out. Indeed so prompt and
+complete is the extinction, thankless people begin to say
+there had never been anything considerable to extinguish.
+Had they stood in the middle of it,&mdash;had they seen the
+nocturnal rendezvous at Marston Moor, seen what Shrewsbury,
+what Rufford Abbey, what North Wales in general, would have
+grown to on the morrow,&mdash;in that case, thinks the Lord
+Protector, not without some indignation, they had
+known!&mdash;Carlyle's 'Cromwell,' vol. iv. pp. 129, 130.</p></div>
+
+<p>If Carlyle had been more heedful he might have taken the hint furnished
+by those 'thankless people.' Men are not usually thankless if preserved
+from a real and obvious danger. Carlyle, however, thought that he knew
+more about those transactions than the men who might have witnessed
+them; and so we will accept his somewhat incautious invitation, and our
+readers, if they choose to do so, shall perceive, perhaps, 'not without
+some indignation,' what the Lord Protector 'had known' about the
+insurrection of March 1655; they shall, to a certain extent at least,
+regard that event from his point of view. And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> to enable them to do so
+as promptly as possible, they may be at once informed, that the
+Protector himself admitted the Earl of Rochester, Sir John Wagstaff, and
+their associates into England, in order that they might, in his behalf,
+play the part of the conspirator. The circumstance being appreciated,
+the Protector's position becomes quite clear. It is obvious that he
+wished his subjects to believe, in common with his historians, that
+England was, during the opening months of 1655, 'from end to end of it,
+ripe for an explosion.'</p>
+
+<p>Taking then for granted, upon Cromwell's own showing, that he wanted an
+insurrection, the assistance toward that end on which he could rely, and
+the obstacles that stood in his way, must be considered. The assistance
+which Cromwell had at hand, lay in the little band of courtiers who hung
+in penury, and vexation of heart, round Charles II. Wanderers on the
+Continent, in total ignorance of English opinion, acutely sensible of
+their own discomfort, raging against their great Tormentor, the King's
+'over sea' counsellors were, by irritation and by 'zeal, made so blind,'
+that they were 'soon persuaded of good success' in any possible attempt
+to overthrow the Protector.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The chief hindrance to Cromwell's
+projected insurrection was his palpable prosperity. It was notorious
+during the winter and spring of the year 1655, that he had appeased
+discontent among his soldiery; had quieted, in prison, Harrison,
+Wildman, and the leaders of the Anabaptists; that the Levellers were
+reduced to inaction; and that therefore the Royalists were powerless.
+And for this reason. Every Englishman, even the most 'Wildrake' among
+the Cavaliers, knew full well, that they, unassisted, could not for a
+moment stand before Cromwell's armies; and they knew equally well, that
+if the King landed on our shores, at the head of a foreign army, all
+England would meet him with passionate resistance. Even at the best, the
+most confident Royalists knew that a young man, nurtured by a popish
+mother, and amidst papists, would not be readily accepted as our King.</p>
+
+<p>But one chance, therefore, remained to the Royalists, both at home and
+abroad: and that was the possibility that Anabaptist fanaticism and army
+discontent might unite together against the Protector. If that could be
+reckoned on, and if a rising of the Royalists, all over England, could
+be timed so as to explode, when the Levellers broke into action, that
+would offer a chance indeed, especially if some of the mutineers could
+be won over to the King. That chance was, at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> this season, wholly denied
+to the Royalists. The King's most trusted English advisers, the Council
+styled 'The Sealed Knot,' repeatedly warned him during January 1655,
+that 'since no rising of the Army is to be hoped for, any rising of the
+King's party would only be to their destruction.'<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>To a person who desired to stimulate an insurrection against the
+Protector the course was therefore clear. He must act on the impatient
+credulity of those who shared in their King's exile. Far from the scene
+of action, they might be persuaded that the Anabaptists and the
+discontented soldiers had leagued together, and that the warnings of the
+'Sealed Knot' might be set at naught. Charles was thus acted upon. As
+the wicked King of Israel was lured on to his destruction by the cry of
+false prophets bidding him to go up and prosper, the King was persuaded
+to disregard his best counsellors, to believe that 30,000 Royalists were
+armed and ready to join in an organized revolt, so skilfully planned
+that it would break out, at one moment, all over England, with the
+co-operation of the Levellers, and of a portion of Cromwell's army.
+Charles was also assured, that if he would but fix the day, the
+insurrection would immediately take place.</p>
+
+<p>The King was hard to persuade; young as he was, his sagacity was not
+wanting. He long remained incredulous: he did not believe the
+'expresses' which reached him 'every day' from England: he felt sure
+that those zealous emissaries were deceived. More messengers accordingly
+crossed the water: they were confident that 'the rising would be
+general, and many places seized upon, and some declare for the King
+which were in the hands of the army, for they still pretended, and did
+believe, "that a part of the army would declare against Cromwell, at
+least, though not for the King."'</p>
+
+<p>Those messengers, however, would promise nothing, if Charles did not,
+when the Earl of Rochester and his associates started for England,
+approve the reality of the plot, by stationing himself on the sea coast,
+that he might 'quickly put himself into the head of the Army, which
+would be ready to receive him.' And he was warned that this was his last
+chance, and that 'if he neglected that opportunity,' his followers would
+desert him, as one hopelessly apathetic. Besides these threats, the
+persons, who dispatched those messengers from England, resorted to other
+means to force Charles into the enterprise. They appointed the day for
+the outbreak: he was not able 'to send orders to contradict it:' so he
+felt constrained, 'with little noise,'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> to quit Cologne for Middleburg,
+to await there the summons to England.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst Charles was being thus cajoled, the bright anticipations of his
+companions were suddenly saddened. In the midst of their preparations,
+Cromwell arrested several noted Royalists in London: it was obvious that
+he had discovered 'the design.' But that dark cloud had its silver
+lining; it was even converted into an augury of success. The
+conspirators at Cologne were 'cheered by letters' from their colleagues
+in England, assuring them 'that none of their particular friends at the
+intended sea-ports were known.'</p>
+
+<p>Clarendon, and his associates, little knew how much was known by
+Cromwell. He afterwards repeated in public, almost word for word, 'all
+those particulars' which these 'expresses' 'communicated in confidence'
+to the Royal Court 'to let them know in how happy condition the King's
+affairs were in England;' he was forewarned of the very day when Charles
+would 'with little noise' quit Cologne for Middleburg 'ten days before
+he did stir;' and if so, even Clarendon would have perceived, that the
+Protector felt quite assured about the safety of his sea-ports.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p>That the project proved in the end, as Charles expected at the
+beginning, a weak and improbable attempt, Clarendon admits, and that
+they had been befooled; but he maintained, to the end, that those
+messengers were 'very honest men, and sent by those who were such.'
+Clarendon's opinion is not so indisputable, but that it may be
+questioned. The utter failure of the promises that those messengers held
+out, might have aroused his doubt as to their good faith. Who was it
+then that instructed those false prophets? So improbable were the
+expectations which they urged upon Charles, that it is impossible to
+credit any true Royalist with the creation of those false hopes: to
+dispel them, the King's wisest English advisers did their utmost. Those
+encouragements then must have been the counsels of false friends. And
+who could be, as we shall prove, a warmer, or a falser friend to the
+enterprise of March 1655, than Cromwell?</p>
+
+<p>Even without direct proof of Cromwell's guilty complicity in that
+attempt, it is brought home to him by a variety of antecedent
+circumstances. He knew precisely how to spread the only lure that could
+ensnare the King; for the counsels of the 'Sealed Knot' were no secret
+to Cromwell. He was aware that the King had, in consequence, written,
+4th Jan. 1655, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span> Mr. Roles, 'his loving friend,' and probably also the
+Protector's friend, in a tone of utter despair.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> And who could set
+against the King a stream of systematic false encouragement, sufficient
+to dispel his just despair, except Cromwell, who had all the secret
+agents at home and abroad at his command? or who would undertake so
+difficult a task as the creation of such an elaborate scheme of
+deception, but one who was anxious that the outbreak should take place?
+And we know that such was his wish.</p>
+
+<p>In every way this is apparent. Even though no actual assistance be
+given, still complete foreknowledge of a coming mischief, unfollowed by
+corresponding precautions, implies a sanction. And this form of sanction
+Cromwell gave to the Insurrection. In a tone of triumphant cunning he
+assured his Parliament, during the ensuing year, that he had possessed
+'full intelligence of' the conspiracy; though, with characteristic
+craft, he concealed the most effectual informant 'of these things,' the
+clerk who wrote out the despatches in the King's closet; and poor
+Manning, 'as he was dead,' was credited with the discovery; although his
+term of espial was not commenced soon enough to supply that 'full
+intelligence,' of which his employer boasted.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cromwell could even have informed his corps of informers, of the course
+that the coming movement would pursue. Two months before they began to
+reflect back to him an account of his own design, Cromwell's detection
+office in Whitehall contained a report from a supposed Leveller, who had
+passed from Essex to Cornwall, and then from Cornwall to Scotland, that
+a rumour was afloat, that the republicans in the army who were 'resolved
+to stand by their first principles, in opposition to the Government,'
+had banded together, under noted leaders, and had chosen the very places
+afterwards selected by the Royalists, namely, Salisbury Plain and
+Marston Moor for the rendezvous where they might show their strength.
+Other informers reported to Cromwell that the Royalists in London, and
+in Northumberland, hoped, that if they appeared in arms, they would be
+able to 'make use of a good part of the army;' and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span> similar evidence
+warned the Government that a man claiming to be a Royalist had been at
+work, during February, journeying to and fro between Gloucestershire and
+Wiltshire, tempting Royalists to join with him in an insurrection,
+because 'the design was first put on foot by the Levellers, who were to
+be aiding and assisting the Cavaliers.'<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>This information reached Cromwell in ample time for action. A word from
+him to his agents abroad, a hint to the editors of the News Letters, or
+a proclamation, would have dispersed those mischievious rumours, and
+would have reduced Charles to inaction. Although he knew that Charles
+based his sole hope of success upon an Anabaptist revolt, and a mutiny
+in the army, Cromwell did nothing of the kind. Not that he failed to
+secure himself by some ostensible precautions. 'It having pleased God to
+make some further notable discovery to Us of the Conspiracy, and the
+particular Persons engaged therein,' Cromwell arrested some Royalists,
+shortly before the outbreak, but, as we know on the best authority, he
+touched none of those 'engaged therein.' He secured London: he moved
+troops from Ireland to Liverpool, and may thereby have disconcerted the
+Lancashire Cavaliers; but he did not forewarn the Customs House officers
+at Dover, or guard that port; just as he, subsequently, somehow failed
+to station soldiers near those obvious points of danger, Marston Moor
+and Salisbury Plain.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> 'Oliver, Protector,' evidently 'understood his
+Protectorship moderately well, and what Plots and Hydra-Coils were
+inseparable from it.'</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell thus assisting us, we had before us the relative positions of
+all engaged in the Insurrection, during the last weeks of February 1655.
+Charles was on the Dutch coast awaiting a possible summons to England;
+to that end he had despatched the expedition, composed of the Earl of
+Rochester, Sir John Wagstaff, Major Armourer, Mr. O'Neale, and their
+companions, about fourteen in number; and Cromwell was watching them,
+and was preparing for their reception at Dover, not soldiers, but the
+friendly assistance of his servant, Mr. Day, the Clerk of the Passage.
+In true Cavalier fashion the Earl of Rochester and his comrades
+approached our shores, with ostentatious contempt of danger. They came
+not in a small party, dropping over one by one, selecting different and
+out-of-the-way spots for landing, but almost in a body, in quick
+succession, they alighted at Dover. That was the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span> public port they
+could have chosen; and being courtier Cavaliers, long resident abroad,
+they were, in dress and look, marked men, and most unfitted to play the
+part they chose, of traders resident in France or Holland. Their
+selection of Dover was not, however, so ill-advised as it seemed, for
+they also reckoned on the help of Mr. Day, the Clerk of the Passage.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in appearance, at least, the conspirators did everything they could
+to get themselves into trouble. And, as might be anticipated, Major
+Armourer, alias 'Mr. Wright,' and his man 'Morris,' that is to say, Mr.
+O'Neale, the first of that company to set foot in Dover, were
+immediately arrested. Armourer was imprisoned in the Castle, and O'Neale
+in the Sergeant's house. Their detention, however, was of but brief
+duration. Armourer at once sought for help through Mr. Day's agency; but
+one greater than the Clerk interposed; and after about three days
+captivity, Mr. Wright, together with some other captured suspects, was
+released by the Dover Port Commissioners 'on receipt of a Commission
+from H.H.' the Protector.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>That Commission from His Highness was no ordinary proceeding. By it
+Cromwell disturbed order and discipline in the chief entrance-gate to
+England, and drove the Port Commissioners into direct collision with the
+officers of Dover Castle. Captain Wilson, the Deputy-Lieutenant, who had
+charge over the Castle prisoners, was, as shown by his letters, a
+straightforward servant of the Protector. Such a serious interference
+with his duties, as the release of one of his own prisoners, disturbed
+him; and the more so, as it was authorized by the Protector himself.
+Accordingly he wrote to Thurloe, greatly troubled, to free himself from
+any connection with so untoward an event as the escape of Mr. Wright,
+who,&mdash;of all the men that Wilson 'had secured'&mdash;was the very one with
+whom he was most unsatisfied.' Thurloe also felt that it was an awkward
+affair; and to avert suspicion from his Master and himself, he reverted
+to a mean trick, the causeless accusation of an innocent man. He
+reproved Wilson for neglecting to warn Whitehall of the detention of
+such a noted suspect as Mr. Wright; although Thurloe was in no ignorance
+of that event, and knew all about the prisoner. For besides the
+knowledge which he shared with Cromwell, of the near advent of the Earl
+of Rochester and his associates, Thurloe held a letter signed 'N.
+Wright,' dated 'Dover Castell, 14th February,' to Sir R. Stone, a
+supposed friend, who, forwarding it to Thurloe, informed him that Morris
+therein mentioned was a 'gentleman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> to the Princess Royal;' whilst it
+was evidently presupposed by Stone, that the Secretary would know who it
+was 'that writ' the enclosed letter; as, indeed, is proved by Thurloe's
+indorsement, '<i>Nicholas Armourer to Sir Robert Stone</i>.' And again,
+within seven days after Armourer's release, a similar
+'cross-providence' occurred. A Mr. Broughton, evidently another
+Royalist, was taken out of Captain Wilson's custody, much to his
+surprise and vexation, and set free by the Mayor of Dover.</p>
+
+<p>The release of one or two prisoners under a Commission from H.H. the
+Protector does not, however, prove that he purposely admitted into
+England that gang of conspirators. But even that can be proved. Thurloe
+and Cromwell knew on the best authority that the Royalists regarded Mr.
+Day as their ally; for Armourer, in that letter, mentions 'Mr. Robert
+Day, Clarke of the Passage' as a man ready to do him service. Yet
+Cromwell, knowing that Armourer and O'Neale were the precursors of even
+more dangerous associates, who would also resort to Mr. Day, retained
+him in his post; and in spite of prompt and repeated warnings from the
+Continent, that Day was a traitor, he acted as Clerk of the Passage
+until, during the following July, he had seen safe back across the
+Channel the conspirators whom he had admitted in March. And as if the
+more fully to trick the Royalists, Day was permitted by the Protector to
+intervene actively in their behalf. The Clerk of the Passage obtained,
+by his personal undertaking for Armourer's good conduct, the requisite
+pass inward, and certified that he was, in truth, a merchant from
+Rotterdam.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>It follows from the assistance which the Protector gave to Armourer,
+that his man 'Morris' was restored to his master, and that the Earl of
+Rochester, after repeated detention and examination, was set free. And
+again Cromwell reappears as the patron of the conspiracy. According to
+information imparted to the King by Cromwell's nephew, Colonel William
+Cromwell, 'my Lord of Rochester was known to Cromwell to be in England
+as soon as he landed,' and was met by pretended agents from the army,
+Rochester's friends 'in show,' but the Protector's 'really,' who, to
+make the Earl 'have the greater confidence' in the enterprise, gave him
+false offers of co-operation, and assurances that Cromwell's soldiers
+were ripe for mutiny.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> And facts confirm Colonel Cromwell's words.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span></p>
+<p>Immediately after his final escape from the custody of Captain Wilson,
+the Earl of Rochester 'found Mr. Morton, who carries on their trade
+there, ready to come, with some account of his business.'<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> If Morton
+had been a true Royalist, in momentary fear for himself, and for the
+success of an insurrection that was to overthrow the Protector, would he
+have risked a meeting with the Earl of Dover, in a place where he had
+been twice arrested, instead of awaiting his arrival in the security of
+London? Such a strange course arouses strong suspicion that Morton was
+the Protector's emissary referred to by Col. Cromwell; and assuredly a
+Mr. Morton is mentioned to Thurloe, by one of his continental agents, as
+a friend, and fellow sham-Royalist, who might assist him in enticing
+some of the King's retinue into projects, such as the 'murther of H. H.
+the Protector.'<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nor was Mr. Morton the only agent busy in doing all he could 'to ripen
+the design of a general rising.' During January and February, 1655,
+messengers passed to and fro through the Northern and Western districts
+of England to prepare the way for the Earl of Rochester and his
+associates, who spread abroad rumours that the 'Levellers were to be
+aiding and abetting the Cavaliers,' and that on the 8th of March, a
+general rising would take place. Two men can be traced who thus prepared
+Wiltshire for insurrection, one of whom was the chief instigator of
+Wagstaff's rising at Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>Both of them were obscure men, not known in that part of England. An
+unnamed emissary came from Yorkshire, passing through London, to
+Dorsetshire, taking, on the way, the house, near Lewes, of Col. Bishop,
+a Leveller, one of the Wildman faction.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The other, Mr. Douthwaite,
+reached Wiltshire from Somersetshire. This circumstance, of itself,
+aroused suspicion; and he was asked why, if the revolt, as he asserted,
+was to be throughout all England, he did not choose Somersetshire,
+instead of Wiltshire, for the scene of action. The reason he gave for
+that choice had in it a strong dash of unreality. His motive was, he
+declared, because 'if he did any mischief, or killed anybody,' he
+preferred to do mischief 'among strangers, where he was not known.' So
+unsatisfactory was his demeanour, that a recruit, whom he endeavoured to
+cajole, refused to join the conspiracy, declaring that 'he was confident
+this was a plot of my Lord Protector's own devising, and that he had
+some of his own agents in it.' And as, during that winter,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> the
+Dorsetshire Cavaliers had 'whispered that the plot' then 'so loudly
+talked on at Court, is nothing but a trick of the great Oliver's,' this
+idea seems to have been prevalent in the West of England. Some such
+whisper, undoubtedly, had a marked influence on the Wiltshire revolt.
+Not a single landowner of importance went out with Wagstaff. Though he
+had been told off by the King expressly for that service, no Royalist of
+eminent position answered the King's call. They, also, doubtless
+suspected Douthwaite, an unknown, low-class stranger, who took upon
+himself to summon them to arms against the Protector. And Douthwaite was
+undoubtedly the chief instigator of that attempt, 'the very principal
+verb' in the affair: a very capable witness, Major Butler, so described
+him. In itself this was a suspicious circumstance. And another reason
+may be urged for deeming that Cromwell, and not the King, was served by
+Douthwaite. Like a shady witness, he proved too much. Antedating the
+event by at least three weeks, he asserted in February, that Charles had
+left Cologne for the Dutch coast, 'for an opportunity to sail for
+England.' This was a startling piece of news, and most arousing to a
+hearty Royalist: and the King did take that step on the 4th of March.
+But it is noteworthy that a foreknowledge of the King's movements, which
+was undoubtedly possessed by Cromwell and Thurloe in London, should have
+been so speedily communicated to Douthwaite, in the depths of
+Somersetshire.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whilst England was thus being prepared for the coming insurrection, the
+Earl of Rochester went to London, where, although soldiers were
+stationed at the ends of the streets, and extra precautions taken
+against the Royalists, 'he consulted,' as Clarendon observes, 'with
+great freedom with the King's friends.' Nor were he and his comrades
+hindered from traversing England, and passing on into Wiltshire and
+Yorkshire, that they might head the intended rendezvous of the Royalists
+on Salisbury Plain and Marston Moor; the very places, it should be
+remembered, that rumour had designated for a gathering of the Levellers.
+Cromwell was powerless: he dared not touch the men he had passed into
+England: the object for which he had admitted them must be fulfilled,
+even to the end.</p>
+
+<p>That the end, which Cromwell desired, followed the lines indicated by
+his master hand, might be anticipated. But he could not allow the
+project to become too real; a necessity that rather stood in his way.
+His power of creating the semblance of an actual insurrection was
+limited. Of the 'hidden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> works,' all over England, which he attributed
+to the Royalists, but one mine actually exploded, one nearly went off,
+and the rest remained dormant. The tameness of that shadowy meeting on
+Marston Moor evidently caused Cromwell much vexation. As his dupes
+refused to exhibit themselves, and as not a soldier was near at hand,
+paragraphs in the News Letters, 'some pistols scattered' on the heath,
+and 'a led horse, with a velvet saddle,' were all the proofs that
+Cromwell could show that aught had happened on Marston Moor, during the
+night of the 8th of March. Nor could he solemnize the event, as he
+desired, by the appearance on the scaffold of a single Yorkshireman.</p>
+
+<p>He sent, for that purpose, to York as Judges, Baron Thorpe, Mr. Justice
+Newdigate, and Mr. Serjeant Hutton; but they refused to obey his
+bidding. They declined to try upon a capital charge the men that had
+been arrested by the Protector's informers, not in arms nor on
+horseback, nor even on the highway, but in their own houses. The judges
+were doubtful 'whether in point of law,' a possible midnight ride could
+be declared by them 'to be treason.' It was in vain that Colonel
+Lilbourne used 'diligence' to 'pick up such as are right,' to serve on
+the jury. The judges even left York altogether, objecting that due
+notice, under which they could try that 'great affair,' had not been
+given.</p>
+
+<p>Pressure was renewed upon Newdigate and Hutton; they were despatched
+back to York, to undertake the trial of the Marston Moor prisoners.
+Cromwell's law officer, however, found them at Doncaster, on their
+return to London, and in a very contrary state of mind. They again
+refused to act; and they based their refusal on an objection, which
+affected not those prisoners alone, but all Cromwell's prisoners. They
+asserted, evidently reckoning on Baron Thorpe's concurrence, that they
+could not, as judges, put in force the Ordinance, by which Cromwell had
+adapted the Statute Law of England to meet the crime of high treason
+against himself, because it was of no validity! They thus anticipated,
+in the most unpleasant way, Mr. Coney's refusal to pay taxes imposed,
+not by an Act of Parliament, but by an 'Ordinance.' Cromwell was forced
+to yield; the Yorkshiremen preserved their lives, but not their liberty
+or their estates; and almost immediately, 'Judges Thorpe and Newdigate
+were put out of their places, for not observing the Protector's pleasure
+in all his commands.'<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cromwell's 'pleasure' was, however, served by Mr. Serjeant Glyn and Mr.
+Recorder Steele, and by the jurymen, 'such as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> were right,' over whom
+they presided, in the trial of the Salisbury insurgents. Those poor
+dupes pleaded what may be termed, Baron Thorpe's plea. They argued that
+their indictment was not founded on an Act of Parliament, and that
+'there can be no treason by an Ordinance.' They urged that a sentence
+pronounced by the Serjeant and the Recorder, who were mere 'pleaders,
+servants to the Lord Protector,' would be illegal; and they asserted
+their right to be tried by Baron Thorpe, 'a sworn judge.' The prisoners,
+who could not be convicted of high treason, were condemned to death as
+horse stealers. They vainly pleaded, that to requisition a horse for a
+warlike enterprise was not felony, and that 'the country knew we did not
+intend to steal,' but acted 'as the soldiers did now at London, and
+elsewhere, who came against us.'<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> About fourteen of those poor
+fellows were put to death, with Grove and Penruddock; and seventy were
+sold into West Indian slavery. Accordingly Cromwell was able, as Thurloe
+exulted, to prove 'that the Plot was real,' as 'the persons were real,'
+who, in consequence, lost their lives, or were condemned to lifelong
+misery.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Cromwell, by a deliberate course of fraud, compassed the death of
+men, who might otherwise have lived void of offence against his
+government. He next proceeded to delude all his subjects by means of the
+sham conspiracy by which he had ensnared his victims on to the scaffold.
+This development in Cromwell's course of deception brings us back to the
+ordinary path of history. Every historical text-book mentions that
+Cromwell, within a few months after the Insurrection of March 1655,
+subjected England to the authority, almost unlimited, of twelve
+Major-Generals. To each one a separate province was allotted, with power
+to imprison, fine, or sell as slaves, all that he might select. The
+Major-Generals also were directed by Cromwell to pay themselves, and the
+soldiers under them, by the levy of a tax of ten per cent. on the
+incomes of all but the poorest Royalists, which he imposed for that
+purpose. As historians have believed in the reality of the Insurrection
+of March 1655, they hold that Cromwell, therefore, 'found himself
+compelled to divide England into districts, over which he set
+Major-Generals,' and to inflict upon the Royalists the tax, 'known by
+the name of the Decimation.' Yet, curiously enough, these hearty
+believers in Cromwell have ignored that solemn confirmation of their
+opinion, which he addressed to his subjects, namely, the 'Declaration of
+his Highness, by the advice of his Council, showing the Reasons of their
+Proceedings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> for Securing the Peace of the Commonwealth, upon occasion
+of the late Insurrection and Rebellion,&mdash;October 31, 1655.'</p>
+
+<p>Than this document, no more admirable illustration could be given of the
+manner in which Cromwell carried on his Protectorate. By that
+'Declaration' he engrafts into his policy the deception he had practised
+on the Royalists, and adapts it to the benefit of the whole nation, by a
+description of the pious uses to which it could be applied. And for our
+purposes this document is especially convenient, for, whilst it proves
+what Cromwell wished his people to believe about the Insurrection, it
+enables us to disprove throughout the statements that he makes. But
+before we can reach that portion of our disclosure, the operative
+clauses of the 'Declaration' must be dealt with. It commences with a
+justificatory recital of the misdeeds of the Royalists. As God, Cromwell
+argues, 'by His gracious dispensation,' had 'subjected' the Royalists
+'to the power of those whom they had designed to enslave and ruin,' 'the
+Parliament's party' might, Cromwell asserts, have 'extirpated those men,
+with designs of possessing their Estates and Fortunes.' Their
+conquerors, however, refrained themselves, 'it having pleased God in his
+providence, so to order things;' and the Royalists were allowed to live
+and 'enjoy their freedom, and have equal protection in their persons and
+estates, with the rest of the Nation.' But what return, the Protector
+declares, has been made by the Malignants for the lenity thus extended
+to them? 'The actings of that party' proves that 'neither the
+dispensations of God, nor kindness of men, would work upon them;' that
+'they were implacable in their malice and revenge'; and he cites 'the
+late Insurrection and Rebellion,' 'as the greatest and most dangerous'
+of all 'their hidden works of darkness.'</p>
+
+<p>The Protector therefore announces, that as 'he knows by experience, that
+nothing but the Sword will restrain the late King's party from blood and
+violence,'&mdash;'We do now not only find Ourselves satisfied, but obliged in
+duty, both towards God and this Nation, to proceed upon other grounds
+than formerly,'&mdash;and that, to secure 'the Peace of this Commonwealth, We
+have been necessitated to erect a new and standing Militia of Horse, in
+all the Counties of England, under such Pay as might be a fitting
+encouragement to the officers and soldiers. And We, therefore, have
+thought fit, to lay the burthen of Maintaining those forces, upon those
+who have been engaged in the late Wars against the State.' And Cromwell
+declares, in conclusion, that 'We can with comfort appeal to God,
+whether this way of proceeding with 'the Royalists' hath been the matter
+of Our Choice, or that which We have sought occasion for; or whether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
+contrary to Our own inclinations, We have not been constrained and
+necessitated hereunto, and without the doing whereof, We should have
+been wanting to Our Duty to God and these Nations.'</p>
+
+<p>Such words uttered by a man who, with utmost fervour, has claimed for
+himself, that 'I have learned too much of God, to dally with Him, and to
+make bold with Him in these things,' ought surely to be believed; and if
+there be any one who is still unconvinced that Cromwell, of his own
+'choice,' enticed the Earl of Rochester and his associates across the
+Channel, and admitted them into England, that they might constrain and
+necessitate him to appoint those Major-Generals, 'we can with comfort
+appeal' to that 'Declaration' and ask such a believer in Cromwell to
+follow us in a comparison between what he really did, with what he
+declared he did, 'for securing the Peace of the Commonwealth upon the
+occasion of the late Insurrection.'</p>
+
+<p>In order that his subjects might appreciate the skill and vigilance, by
+which the 'contrivements' of the 'cruel and bloody enemy had been
+thwarted, Cromwell commenced the account of his execution of his duty as
+England's Protecter by a general description of the projects of the
+Royalists in March 1655. He asserted that they intended to surprise and
+seize London, and all the principal ports and cities throughout England,
+and that they reckoned on the support of more than 30,000 armed men.
+This description of the projects and resources of the Royalists may be
+at once, and contemptuously set aside: it was founded upon lies supplied
+by such men as Manning, the spy, or Bamfield, the informer. Cromwell's
+words were contradicted by the abortive and petty nature of the
+insurrection, by the obvious refusal of all England to join in the
+enterprise, and by the conduct of the Protector himself. For he would
+not have placed England at the mercy of the Earl of Rochester and his
+companions, had he thought that they could call 30,000 men to arms, or
+that every important town from London to York, was in danger. Having
+thus dealt out fiction by wholesale, and ascribed the overthrow of that
+'great and general design' to 'The Lord,' Cromwell proceeds, according
+to this method, to show how that was accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the rising at Salisbury, he declared that</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'the Insurrection in the West was bold and dangerous in
+itself, and had in all likelihood increased to great Numbers
+of Horse and Foot by the conjunction of others of their own
+party, besides such Foreign forces, as in case of their
+success, and seizing upon some place of Strength, were to
+have landed in those parts, had they not been prevented by
+the motion of some troops, and diligence of the officers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>
+in apprehending divers of that Party a few days before; and
+also been closely pursued by some of our Forces, and in the
+conclusion supprest by a handful of men, through the great
+goodness of God.'</p></div>
+
+<p>As Charles had not at his disposal a single ship, or one soldier in the
+pay of any foreign Power, the possibility of a foreign invasion needs no
+disproof. And how did Cromwell deal with his enemies at home? Shortly
+before the rising of the 11th of March, troops were undoubtedly moved
+about in Wiltshire: their course can be traced from day to day. As the
+Protector, according to his habit, bases his statements as far as he
+can, on facts, so far we can agree with him. But as certainly as they
+were marched about, Cromwell's soldiers were marched not towards, but
+away from Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter part of February, Major Butler, the officer in charge
+over Wiltshire, wrote to Thurloe, telling him that as Bristol was in 'a
+peaceable state,' the Major intended to leave that city. He did so: just
+eleven days before the outbreak he was on the march to his central
+station, at Marlborough, when a messenger from the Protector, summoned
+him back to Bristol. Butler was, in consequence, detained there, whilst
+the event took place; nor did he reach Salisbury until the third day
+after the insurgents had left the town. Cromwell knew what he was about:
+on the very Sunday when Wagstaff took possession of Salisbury, Cromwell
+occupied Chichester by horsemen, sent there at daybreak; and he
+dispatched a warning to Portsmouth, that 'some desperate design was on
+foot.' But he kept his soldiers away from Salisbury. He took this
+course, although he knew that Salisbury Plain had been named as a
+Levellers' rendezvous; and although he had received a report, about
+three weeks before the 11th of March, from an officer sent to Salisbury
+on police duty, 'that it would be convenient for some horse to be
+quartered hereabouts,'<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> because the Royalists in the neighbourhood
+were restless.</p>
+
+<p>And Cromwell himself proves why Major Butler was detained at Bristol:
+for when he did reach the scene of the revolt, though the insurgents had
+been two days at large in the neighbourhood, and were disbanding,
+drifting aimlessly towards Devonshire, Butler was withheld from active
+operations by orders from Whitehall. He was directed to keep at a
+distance from the insurgents for fear of a mishap. This is shown by the
+opening words of Butler's letter of remonstrance to the Protector. 'Now,
+my Lord,' Butler wrote, 'though I know it would be of sad consequence if
+we assaulting them should be worsted,' still, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> pleaded with much
+earnestness that he, under 'the good providence of The Lord' would
+assuredly be successful. So palpably absurd it was to suppose that his
+four troops of horsemen could not make short work of that undisciplined,
+badly armed, and disheartened band of men, that Butler declared, that he
+could not 'with any confidence stay' here at Salisbury, 'nor look the
+country in the face, and let them alone.''<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Protector, however, was resolute. Butler was forced to let the enemy
+alone; and, after four days' delay, they yielded at South Molton to one
+troop of horse sent after them from Weymouth. Thus it was Cromwell, and
+not Butler, as was surmised by a contemporary observer, who kept his
+troopers 'at a distance in the rear' of the Royalists, 'to give them an
+opportunity of increasing.'<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>With this suspicion afloat, and Major Butler unable 'to look the country
+in the face,' Cromwell felt that to ascribe the suppression of
+Wagstaff's attempt mainly to the 'close' pursuit of the enemy 'by some
+of Our Forces,' would hardly suffice. He accordingly also attributed
+that happy result 'to the goodness of God,' and to 'the diligence of the
+officers in apprehending some of the party.' In this statement Cromwell
+made some approach to the truth. Butler had been diligent; and though he
+failed to seize Douthwait, that mysterious 'principal verb', still,
+during the last two weeks of February, he did arrest suspects in the
+West of England, but none within the district round Salisbury.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+Wagstaff and his comrades were undisturbed, whilst preparing for their
+attempt. Nor is it an unfounded assumption, if their security is
+attributed to the same influence which sanctioned Wagstaff's repair to
+the rendezvous, and which protected him from Major Butler's horsemen.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus dealt with that 'bold and dangerous insurrection in the
+West,' Cromwell turned northward, and took in hand that rather vague
+affair at Marston Moor, on which, as he asserted, 'the enemy most
+relied.' His account of that event was, that the Royalists who met there
+dispersed and ran away in confusion, partly because of a failure among
+the plotters; but also, 'in respect that Our Forces, by their marching
+up and down in the country, and some of them providentially, at that
+time, removing their Quarters, near to the place of Rendezvous, gave
+them no opportunity to reassemble.' Again, Cromwell is, to a certain
+extent, correct. Divided counsels did keep one of the principal
+Yorkshire Royalists from the meeting, and he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> may have had followers;
+and others were stayed, when on the march, by a timely warning that they
+were on a fool's errand. But the assertion, that the Royalists were
+dispersed by a providential movement of troops, and by 'Our Forces
+marching up and down' Yorkshire, is utterly false. And, as before, the
+witness against Cromwell is one of Cromwell's servants. An officer,
+responsible for the peace of Yorkshire, reported to his chief in London
+regarding himself and his comrades, that 'notwithstanding all our
+frequent alarums from London of the certainty of this plot, carried on
+with such secrecy on the traitor's part, though we were upon duty, and
+in close quarters, we had no positive notice of it till the day was
+past.' And no other soldiers were in that neighbourhood during the night
+of the 8th of March. The only martial display that the occasion called
+forth, was the march of two troops of horsemen into York about three or
+four days subsequently; and the officer in command reported that if more
+men were wanted, they must be drawn from Durham, Newark, or Hull.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus it was that Cromwell dealt with 'the Insurrection of Yorkshire.' If
+the Royalists had, in truth, 'reckoned on 8000 in the North,' or if York
+had been in danger, soldiers, and not 'alarums' would have been sent
+into Yorkshire. Nor was he mistaken in deeming that the Royalists relied
+most on that attempt. Hoping to find a large gathering of Levellers in
+arms against the Protector, many of the principal Yorkshire landowners,
+of higher rank and more influential than poor Penruddock or any of his
+comrades, met that night on Marston Moor. And probably it was owing to
+their social position, that the trick was not fully played out, and
+that, sorely to Cromwell's disappointment, they saved their lives.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the insurrectionary displays at Salisbury and Marston Moor, it
+was arranged that on the 8th of March similar symptoms should appear in
+various other places, to create the idea that 'the Design was great and
+general.' Cromwell was accordingly able to declare that 'the coming of
+300 foot from Berwick' dispersed 'those who had rendezvoused near
+Morpeth to surprise Newcastle:'&mdash;that in North Wales and Shropshire,
+where they intended to surprise Shrewsbury, 'some of the chief persons
+being apprehended, the rest fled:'&mdash;and that, 'at Rufford Abbey, Notts,
+was another rendezvous, where about 500 horse met, and had with them a
+cart load of horse-arms, to arm such as should come to them; but upon a
+sudden, a great Fear fell upon them,' and they, also, dispersed
+themselves, and 'cast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> their arms into the pond.' Nor did the Protector
+omit to describe the action of 'other smaller Parties,' also in motion
+during the night of the 8th of March, who, 'as in the Town of Chester
+designed the surprise of the Castle there, but they, failing in their
+expectations, were discouraged for that time.' 'And thus by the goodness
+of God, these hidden works of darkness' were discovered. 'Fear' was 'put
+into the hearts' of the cruel and bloody enemy, and their great and most
+dangerous design was 'defeated, and brought to nothing.'</p>
+
+<p>The depositions on which Cromwell based his description of the minor
+passages of the Insurrection are all mere informers' tales, none rising
+above the inanity of the story of a tobacco-pipe-maker's attack on
+Chester Castle, of which more anon; and, from Carlyle's point of view,
+this sample of Thurloe's papers might assuredly be classed among 'human
+stupidities.' But Carlyle has overlooked the fact, that to Cromwell
+these depositions were an important element in his government, and were
+worked up into his speeches and the 'Declaration of October 1655. Hence
+the greater the absurdity of those documents, the greater their
+historical importance, as showing, not only how the Royalists were
+duped, and how Cromwell duped his subjects, but also that the tricks of
+his trepanners were so clumsy that, almost without exception' no
+Cavaliers of any standing were drawn into the Protector's game.</p>
+
+<p>An apt example of the kind of evidence on which Cromwell based his
+statements, and also a comical illustration of his propensity to cling
+to fact in the midst of fraud, is afforded by that alleged 'rendezvous'
+of Royalists 'to surprise Newcastle.' If his spies are to be believed,
+presumably with that object, on the 8th of March, 'about 3 score and 10
+horsemen armed with swords and pistols' met by night 'at a place called
+Duddo;' and then vanished, not, however, for fear 'of 300 foot coming
+from Berwick,' but because the conspirators were warned 'that there was
+300 sail of ships come into Newcastle, for fear of whom they durst not
+fall upon Newcastle at that time.' Much in the same way, and during the
+same night, a party of Royalist gentlemen and their servants, repaired
+to the inn on Rufford Abbey Green; and a real cart was driven to the
+door containing 'horse-arms,' fifty-six pair of pistols, two buff coats,
+two suits of arms, &amp;c., and was then driven away, and the party broke
+up. So far the Protector's words are verified by the very full
+information that Thurloe collected regarding the Rufford Abbey incident;
+but if to the conspirators therein specifically mentioned, a large
+addition be made for 'divers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> unnamed gentlemen,' seen 'coming in and
+going out of the inn-door,' the plotters cannot be rated at much above
+20, instead of at Cromwell's 500.</p>
+
+<p>The Protector's concluding statements may be briefly disposed of.
+Shrewsbury Castle was to have been taken by 'two men in the apparel of
+gentlewomen,' acting in combination with their comrades, 'in certain
+alehouses near unto the said castle;' and the determined purpose of
+these plotters may be tested by the temper of their ringleader, who
+urged his recruits to appear at the rendezvous, but refused for his
+part, to join with them, 'because his wife was not well.'<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The
+Shropshire insurrection was, indeed, of so visionary a nature, that
+zealous Commissary Reynolds could not manipulate it into any definite
+shape. Though sent to Shrewsbury that he might develop the existence of
+'a general plot of the malignants' in the West of England, he entirely
+failed. And so annoyed was he at his failure, that he suggests to
+Thurloe, that it would 'not to be unfit to make' the malignants 'speak
+forcibly, by tying matches, or some kind of pain, whereby they may be
+made to discover the plot;' and as he re-urges his craving to inflict
+torture on his prisoners, the proposal had drawn no disapproval from the
+Secretary.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>An account of the 'great and signal disappointment, as great as any this
+age can produce,' which the 'goodness of God' inflicted upon that
+'smaller party,' 'who' according to Cromwell, 'designed the surprise of
+the castle' of Chester, forms an appropriate close to this portion of
+our narrative. An 'exceeding poor' dupe, Francis Pickering, tells the
+story, and the duper was a Colonel Worthing. After enticing Pickering
+into the plot by assurances of a general rising against the Protector,
+on the night of the 8th of March, Worthing announced that his part in
+the design 'was principally to surprise the Castle of Chester;' and as
+related by Pickering, while he and the Colonel remained quietly at home.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Accordingly that night three or four went, sent by Col.
+Worthing' to seize the Castle: they were all inhabitants of
+Chester, and one of them is commonly known by the name of
+Alexander, the tobacco-pipe-maker. These persons brought
+back word to Col. Worthing that at the place where they
+intended to raise a ladder to surprise the Castle, they
+heard a sentinel walk and cough. At which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> report Col.
+Worthing was very much startled! and sent them back again to
+seize any other convenient place; and they brought back word
+that they had centinels walking.'<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>No third attempt was made by Mr. Alexander and his friends; and next day
+Pickering was told by Worthing 'that he was much troubled, for that he
+could not contrive how to take said Castle;' and, in due time, Pickering
+found himself in custody.</p>
+
+<p>In singular contrast to the vague and absurd stories told by 'exceeding
+poor' and foolish men, such as Mr. Pickering and his fellow plotters,
+are the numerous and positive assurances that Cromwell received from his
+own officers, that all was well with England both before, during, and
+after the Insurrection of March 1655. Headed by Thurloe, they are all
+unanimous in reporting 'that the nation was much more ready to rise
+against, than for Charles Stuart;' that, in the town of Leeds, 'not
+thirty men were disaffected to the present Government;' and that 'there
+was no design on foot' even in 'the most corrupt and rotten places of
+the Nation,' such as Hampshire, Dorsetshire, Kent, and the Eastern
+Counties. From Bristol to York all was quiet, or wished to be so, during
+February, March, and April, 1655.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>Further illustration of this statement is needless. For, if Cromwell had
+thought otherwise, even though he might in his wisdom have admitted the
+Earl of Rochester and his associates into England, he certainly would
+not have allowed them to remain here, apparently as long as they chose,
+after their enterprise was over. That the Protector gave them this
+freedom of action is made singularly clear by the Thurloe Papers': they
+contain repeated indications of the 'whereabouts' of the Earl of
+Rochester, the leader of the revolt. He and Major Armourer did not,
+after the Marston Moor failure, fly to the coast, or seek separate
+hiding-places. They journeyed together, with two servants, leisurely
+through England towards London: and to guard his safety, Rochester would
+not disturb his bedtime, or his dinner-hour. After the outbreak, people
+were naturally anxious to pick up what they could, by arresting 'the
+great ones.' Of these, Rochester was the greatest; and he and Armourer
+were arrested at Aylesbury. The resident magistrate gave a warrant to
+the constable, desiring him to keep safely the bodies of the Earl and
+his three companions, 'in the name of my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span> Lord Protector.' The warrant
+was acted upon; the prisoners evidently were 'persons of great quality.'
+Yet somehow, both magistrate and constable left the Earl and the Major
+in charge of the innkeeper 'where they lay;' and naturally enough, 'when
+the constable came in the morning, he found that the innkeeper had let
+the two chiefs escape,' taking with them 'all their rich apparel.'<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+Had this been merely a sample of Aylesbury carelessness, the incident
+need not have been noticed. But the example of the magistrate and
+constable was followed by Cromwell. Although the escape of Rochester and
+Armourer was promptly known, and their course was closely tracked, and
+though Cromwell was informed where they might be found, they 'wrote very
+comfortably from London;' and they endeavoured 'to lay the foundation of
+some new design.' And at last, as if he were an ordinary traveller,
+sending his servants before him, Rochester left England for the
+Continent, having been a resident here for about five months; and the
+latter part of his stay in England was a season of extraordinary
+severity against the Royalists. In like manner, every one of his
+thirteen comrades returned 'weekly without difficulty' to their King's
+presence, apparently at their pleasure; whilst Cromwell's continental
+informers repeated their warnings that 'Day, the Clerk of the Passage,'
+is 'a rogue,' and that if the Protector had 'been ruled' by them 'all
+these had not escaped.'<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this matter, and indeed throughout his connection with the
+Insurrection of March 1655, Cromwell was not his own master. The
+conditions under which he obtained the espial of one of the King's most
+trusted friends, and a member of the 'Sealed Knot,' formed a complete
+protection to the Earl of Rochester and his associates. Nor for his own
+sake could he touch those conspirators. Their seizure would have
+disclosed the fact, that 'persons in the very bosom of our enemies' gave
+him 'intelligence;' and hence, if 'he once discovered the grounds, he
+would destroy the intelligence.'<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Anyhow, it is evident that Cromwell
+could with entire safety allow his most determined enemies to remain in
+England, and lay foundations for new projects against him.</p>
+
+<p>Having seen Cromwell's conspirators safe home again, tribute must be
+paid to his amazing dexterity. The Prince of Wire-Pullers, he made his
+puppets perform what part he chose. Some jerked the royal doll Charles,
+against his liking, from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> Cologne to Middleburg, and some warned him to
+keep quiet, and others seemed to fight against the manager of the show,
+though in reality they fought in his behalf: all played Cromwell's game,
+whilst they thought they were playing their own; and even the most
+innocent outsiders were pressed into his service. With comic audacity he
+assured his audience that the more trivial was the scene at Salisbury,
+the more they ought to recognize its dramatic force. 'Observe,' he said,
+'when this Attempt was made&mdash;it was made when nothing but a well-formed
+Power could hope to put us into disorder. Do you think that' such a
+company of mean fellows 'would have attacked Us, if they had not been
+supported by vast unseen forces behind the scenes.'<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> With what cruel
+craft, but seeming indifference, the artful old showman treated his
+manikins! He cut off the heads of some amongst those who responded most
+vigorously to his touch; whilst others, not less free upon the wire,
+were carefully packed up, and sent home safe. By seizing and boxing up
+in the Tower mere bystanders, wholly unconcerned in the sport, he made
+his 'little tin soldiers' fancy that he did not see their antics. The
+only hitch in his 'knavish piece of work' arose when, too assured, he
+placed upon the boards a real live judge, who refused to take the bench
+in the manager's sham Court of Justice. In every other respect the
+mystery play was a complete success; everybody was puzzled, players,
+spectators, and the gentlemen of the press; not one even guessed at the
+true meaning of the performance; though a few 'men of wicked spirits'
+would try to peep behind the curtain. But they never found him out; they
+all danced to Cromwell's tune, but none discovered that the pipe they
+heard was in their Protector's mouth. Even Ludlow, with all the
+proverbial opportunities of a bystander, though most anxious to know his
+great opponent's game, never guessed that he had patched up the
+Insurrection of March 1655, from the beginning to the end.</p>
+
+<p>And such was Cromwell's power of deception, that though dead, he still
+deceived; his works did follow him, as he desired, out of sight. He
+seems to have anticipated that the records of his detective department
+might remain as a witness against him, and to have cast over the
+'Thurloe Papers' a spell, that has hitherto rendered them invisible. For
+nearly 150 years these evidences of his 'hidden works of darkness' have
+been before the world; but Cromwell has preserved his secret; he has
+humbugged every historian as effectually as he hoodwinked his
+contemporaries. The 'Thurloe Papers' were published<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> in 1742, well
+edited and indexed; they contain the documents which Cromwell himself
+read and handled, the notes of his speeches, the information of his
+spies, the letters of his enemies and of his clerks. Though called after
+Thurloe, those papers are, in fact, Cromwell's own. Yet such is the
+glamour that he has cast over all that has approached him, that they
+have accepted his words without question, or, if they have read his
+writings, they have read them according to his inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>Yet there was much even in that Insurrection itself to arouse suspicion.
+Cromwell, in January 1655, assured his Parliament that he had crushed
+the various conspiracies which were then on foot against him, all most
+'real dangers,' and that he had disarmed and rendered powerless those
+conspirators; yet within six weeks they had organized a universal
+revolt, and had secreted stores of arms and ammunition all over England.
+This universal revolt broke out at Salisbury, 'bold and dangerous'; and
+it was put down by a single troop of horsemen, after the rebels had
+paraded, disheartened and deserted, across England. Except on that
+occasion, the vast design was suppressed without the aid of a single
+soldier or even a beadle. And, strangely enough, the Protector himself
+supplied a hint which might have provoked some curiosity about the
+nature of that 'Rebellion.'</p>
+
+<p>For surely it is odd that 'such a terrible Protector this; no getting of
+him overset!' should have been compelled to contend with the notorious
+and obstinate incredulity of the members of his Parliament regarding the
+late attempt to overset him? Yet Cromwell's speech of September 1656 is
+pervaded with expressions such as these, regarding the 'bold and
+dangerous Insurrection' of March 1655,&mdash;'I think the world must know and
+acknowledge, that it was a general design,'&mdash;'I doubt if it be believed,
+that there was any rising,' either in North Wales or at Shrewsbury, or
+on Marston Moor, 'at the very time when there was an Insurrection at
+Salisbury'&mdash;' therefore, how men of wicked spirits may traduce Us in
+that matter&mdash;I leave it!'<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Surely 'sluggish mortals, saved from
+destruction,' not caused by secret agencies, but from an actual
+'Rebellion,' which threatened to bring every one of them into 'blood and
+confusion,' need not be required to believe in the very existence of so
+great and conspicuous a danger!</p>
+
+<p>And Cromwell felt that he could not afford to leave that 'matter'
+untouched. A suspicion was prevalent, during the whole of Cromwell's
+reign, that plots were manufactured to suit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> his purposes. He knew that
+full well; he knew also the danger of such a suspicion. The surmises of
+the 'men of wicked spirits,' were those 'half tales,' that 'be truths.'
+It had been hoped that such a 'real plot' as 'the late Insurrection,'
+would give that suspicion a quietus. When it was safely transacted,
+Thurloe and his associates congratulated each other over that hope.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
+But it was not fulfilled. Hence arises the tone of angered honesty,
+which Cromwell so repeatedly assumed when he addressed his Parliament,
+and Carlyle's indignant protest&mdash;'What a position for a hero, to be
+reduced continually to say he does not lie!'</p>
+
+<p>But what was Cromwell's motive in the fabrication of this Insurrection
+of March, 1655? It was not, as might be suggested, a device to thwart by
+a premature explosion, a dangerous conspiracy during a critical moment
+in the Protectorate. Cromwell himself asserts in his 'Declaration,' that
+'this Attempt was made, when nothing but a well-formed Power could hope
+to put Us into disorder; Scotland and Ireland being perfectly reduced;
+Differences with most Neighbour Nations composed; our Forces, both by
+Sea and Land, in order and consistency.' Nay, he artfully converted the
+very security of his Government into a proof that 'the pretended King'
+would not have sent over his servants, and that the Royalists would not
+'have actually risen' at Salisbury, had the insurrection been other than
+'a general design,' based on a vast secret organization. No one in all
+England possessed more certain knowledge, than did Cromwell, that such
+was not the case, and that he could not plead in his behalf the poor
+excuse, that the Nation as a Nation needed a severe lesson, or that it
+was to save England from civil war that he had sacrificed the lives of
+those fourteen victims of his deception, and consigned that band of
+seventy or eighty Englishmen to the horrors of West Indian slavery.</p>
+
+<p>But if Cromwell could not claim that excuse, what then was his motive?
+Dark as was the light within him, he was not in such utter darkness as
+to encompass himself about with written, spoken, and acted lies merely
+to gratify caprice, or that he might indulge in causeless cruelty. His
+motive was a very simple one. He was forced to obey his servant, the
+Army. The men whom he had made, and who had made him, demanded a visible
+share in the power and profit that he enjoyed. Reverting to the autumn
+of 1654, much had then occurred to disquiet the Army. Cromwell had taken
+a distinct step towards Kingship, by attempting to persuade Parliament
+to make the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> Protectorate hereditary. Parliament had made a distinct
+movement towards a large reduction in the Army and Navy. If rumour be
+evidence, there was, during November, 'a great division in the army.'
+And it is certain that, at the close of that month, Cromwell and his
+military men came to terms. At a meeting held in St. James's Palace, the
+staff of the army agreed 'to live and die with Cromwell.'<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> And a
+train of events, occurring in direct sequence after that meeting, proves
+that it was at this conjuncture that Cromwell agreed to parcel out his
+Protectorship among the leading officers of the Army. Parliament was
+dissolved 22nd January, 1655, on the pretext that under its shadow,
+conspiracy and discontent had thriven; and Cromwell gave an alarming
+account of the 'real dangers,' of imminent insurrection and anarchy,
+that threatened England. That speech was the prologue; then came the
+tragedy itself, the Insurrection of March, 1655; then came its
+consequence, the appointment of the Major-Generals. And in the end, the
+reason why they were appointed, was brought to light by a state of
+affairs, very identical with that which had raised them to power.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell had renewed the attempt that he had made in the autumn of 1654,
+and in his quest after Kingship he had come, during February 1657,
+almost within sight of the throne. Again the army officers interfered;
+and again Cromwell was forced to meet them face to face; to receive, on
+this occasion, their protest against his acceptance of the Crown. He
+made a compromise as he had done before; but in speech, he was not
+conciliatory. If the Protectorate had been a failure, he told his former
+comrades, it was their fault. It was they, and not he who had governed;
+as for himself, 'they had made him their drudge upon all occasions: to
+dissolve the Long Parliament,' and 'to call a Parliament or Convention
+of their naming,' which proved so unsuccessful; and then another
+Parliament, alike in unsuccess; and he concluded that catalogue of their
+untoward interferences with his government, by reminding his hearers
+that they thought it was necessary to have Major-Generals; adding that
+so they 'might have gone on,' if they had not insisted on his calling
+the Parliament of 1656, against his will, which had given them 'a foil.'<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>That speech is the most exceptional, in some respects the most
+important, of all Cromwell's speeches. Spoken if not 'in haste,'
+certainly 'out of the fulness of the heart,' that is caused by anger, it
+is, though unusually brief, delightfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> incautious. Being addressed to
+men who could not well be deceived, the speech must be true, at least so
+far as they are concerned, in every particular; it does not contain a
+single appeal to God; and of no other among Cromwell's speeches, are the
+original MS. notes in existence. This speech, of the utmost historic
+importance, is essentially unheroic in tone and circumstance,&mdash;the
+querulous complaint of a master against servants who have overmastered
+him,&mdash;an assertion of supremacy made by a man, who felt that he was not
+really supreme. But the singularity that attends the address to the
+recalcitrant officers is not yet exhausted. Surprise may well be felt
+that Carlyle, with this speech before him, ventured on the construction
+of his false image of Cromwell, the Hero. Judged even as an ordinary
+ruler, he must have been a very sorry Protector who, according to his
+own showing, was only a sham supreme magistrate,&mdash;the minister, the
+'drudge,' of his servants but real masters&mdash;who had compelled him to
+call, and to dissolve Parliaments, and to impose on England those
+military despots.</p>
+
+<p>Carlyle has endowed his ideal Protector 'with the virtue to create
+belief,' by the force of self-assertion, which still finds its
+imitators, by pouring out contempt on all who differ from him, and by
+implying that, as all other Cromwellian authorities are 'stupidities and
+falsities,' he alone was wise and true. This was but a risky basis on
+which to exhibit 'this Oliver' to the world, as the noblest Hero 'among
+the noblest of Human Heroisms, this English Puritanism of ours,' and as
+'not a Man of falsehoods, but a Man of truths.' But reading over these
+words, and calling to mind the confidence with which Carlyle compels all
+to join with him in his Cromwell-worship, it is impossible to resist the
+conviction, that it was with good faith that he could see in Cromwell
+'the glimpses,' even the revelation 'of the god-like,' and that he would
+not attend to aught that disclosed Cromwell 'not' as 'august and divine,
+but hypocritical, pitiable, detestable.' Even though he claimed a
+familiar acquaintance with the 'Thurloe Papers,' he must have been
+ignorant, it is impossible to think otherwise, of the black stories
+which Cromwell's 'expertest of secretaries' could publish against his
+master.</p>
+
+<p>And passing from the worshipper to the Idol; surely it is but in
+accordance with common sense and common charity to hope that, as with
+Carlyle, so also with his Oliver, the real Cromwell was wholly shrouded
+from Cromwell's sight. That hope might, indeed, be forbidden by some. It
+might be argued that, although many a wrong-doing, such as bloodshed,
+oppression,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span> or even treachery, has been committed by men in the sincere
+belief that they were doing God service, Cromwell cannot be placed among
+that group of self-deceivers: that he stands by himself, and on a lower
+level. It was to save himself, to propitiate a gang of mutinous
+servants, that Cromwell contrived and wrought out the deception of
+March, 1655, and obtained in the bloodshed that it produced, the
+essential result that he desired. And then, to give validity to his
+imposture, to grace it with the Divine sanction, he ascribed his course
+of acted and uttered lies, and the cruelty and misery they had
+engendered, to God himself.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly that statement is true. But yet on the other hand it may be
+pleaded, that nothing but an intense living conviction, that God was
+with him in all his ways, could have enabled Cromwell to make 'with
+comfort' his 'appeal to God, whether' the Insurrection of March 1655
+'hath been the matter of Our Choice' or 'according to Our own
+inclinations?'</p>
+
+<p>This is but a sorry plea to urge in Cromwell's behalf. The blackness and
+the fury of the storm, which roared across England during his dying
+hours, cannot have exceeded the blinding energy of that strong delusion,
+that ever drove him onward, through his cruel and crooked devices, fully
+persuaded that 'God was even such a one as' himself. Though all may
+agree in believing that it was not from the lips, but truly from the
+heart&mdash;not to cheat his hearers, but in a veritable ecstasy&mdash;that
+Cromwell claimed to stand before God, as one who 'had learned too much
+of God, to dally with him,' still it must be felt, that such an
+assertion, coming from such a Protector, reveals a mental condition that
+baffles the understanding. But as man, when he shrinks from passing
+judgment on another, ever takes the better part; and as even with the
+best amongst us, the relation of the soul to God is a question which, of
+all others, should not be intermeddled with, assuredly we must leave
+Cromwell, whose being is one of 'the deep things of God,' to His
+judgment.&mdash;'Hell and destruction are before the Lord: how much more then
+the hearts of the children of men?'</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> 'Report of French Ambassador in Holland.' Thurloe, iii.
+322.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> 'Clarendon' (Bodleian Papers), iii. II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> 'Clarendon,' ed. 1839, 871. 'Clarendon' (Bodleian Papers),
+Cal. iii. 13 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2535. fo. 637.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> We thus found this conjecture: Cromwell held an
+intercepted letter from the King to Mr. Roles, addressed to him under
+his alias, Mr. Upton, expressed in terms of entire confidence (Thurl.
+iii. 75); but Roles was not arrested. And the suspicion inspired by the
+immunity which Cromwell granted to such a conspicuous Royalist, was
+confirmed by finding that Thurloe in a letter (dated 6th April, 1655) to
+Manning the spy, refers to 'Mr. Upton' as their common friend. (Egerton
+MSS., Brit. Mus. 2542. fo. 166.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Masonet. See Note, 'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian) Cal. iii.
+14 Carlyle, iv. 108.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Information of J. Dallington, R. Glover, J. Stradling, E.
+Turner.' Thurloe iii. 35, 74, 146, 181, 222.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Several Proceedings, &amp;c. Thurs., 8th Feb.&mdash;15th Feb. 1655.
+'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian Cal.) iii. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 164.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 137, 180, 190, 198, 224.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2535, fo. 637. This communication
+appears in an anonymous letter addressed to Nicholas. Mr. Warner, with
+that ready help that he and his department afford, by a comparison of
+the handwriting, attributes that letter to Col. Price, who shared in
+Rochester's expedition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> 'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian), Cal. iii. 23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 573.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Ibid., iv. 344.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 122, 182. Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus., 2535,
+fo. 627</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Whitlock, 625. Thurloe, iii. 359, 382.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 391.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 162 172, 177, 182, 219, 243, Rolls Cal.
+(1655), 73.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 238, 243.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Heath's Chronicle, 367.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 176, 181, 191.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> 'Rolls Cal.' (1655), p. 216; Baynes Coll., Add. MSS. Brit.
+Mus. 21,424 fo. 50; Thurloe, iii. 226.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 210, 222, 228, 241, 253.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Ibid., iii. 298, 356. In addition to constant terror of
+'the Barbadoes,' to which all Cromwell's prisoners were subject, a
+Royalist in the Tower mentions, in a pencilled letter, that he had been
+threatened with torture; and that the Protector himself used the menace
+of the rack rests on the evidence of another prisoner's
+brother.&mdash;'Clarendon Papers,' Bodleian Cal., iii. 82, 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 676.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Pell Coll. Landsdowne MSS., 752. fo. 275, 282. Baynes
+Coll. Add. MSS. 21, 423, fo. 74. Thurloe, iii. 170, 224, 246, 248, 253,
+281, 284. 'Rolls Cal., 1655, 81, 84, 88, 99, 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Thurloe, iii. 281, 335.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> 'Clarendon Papers,' Bodleian Cal., iii. 27, 34, 36. 'Rolls
+Cal' (1655), 193, 245. Thurloe, iii. 358, 530, 561, 659.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Whalley's Statement; Burton, iv, 155.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Adapted from the 'Declaration' of Oct. 1655, and Speech.
+Carlyle, iv. 107, Vol. 162.&mdash;<i>No. 324</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Carlyle, iv. 108, 111.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Pell Corresp., Landsdowne MSS. Brit. Mus. 752, fo 275,
+289. Hist Rec. Comn. 6th Report, 438.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> 1 Dec. 1654. Pell Corr., Lans. MSS. Brit. Mus., 752 fo.
+215, 220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> 27 Feb. 1657. Burton, i. 383. Carlyle, iv. 177.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Art_VI_1_Oceana_or_England_and_her_Colonies_By_James_Anthony" id="Art_VI_1_Oceana_or_England_and_her_Colonies_By_James_Anthony"></a>Art. VI.&mdash;1. <i>Oceana, or England and her Colonies.</i> By James Anthony
+Froude. London, 1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>2. <i>Through the British Empire.</i> By Baron von H&uuml;bner. 2 vols. London,
+1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>3. <i>The Western Pacific and New Guinea.</i> By Hugh Hastings Romilly,
+Deputy Commissioner of the Western Pacific. London, 1886.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In days when proposals for the dismemberment of the Empire can be put
+forward by great leaders of public opinion without exciting either
+indignation or surprise, it may be worth the while of Englishmen to
+spend a few hours in making themselves acquainted with the volumes which
+we have cited at the head of this article. Most men are so absorbed in
+what is going on immediately under their eyes, that they seldom bestow a
+thought upon the remoter portions of the vast territory which
+acknowledge allegiance to the Queen. They have but the most vague ideas,
+or none at all, concerning the thoughts, wishes, and purposes, of the
+large and growing communities which sprung from these islands, and which
+have hitherto been proud of their English origin. It is true that this
+pride has not been increasing of late years. The neglect or contempt
+with which the Colonies have been treated by successive Liberal
+Administrations did much to estrange the people, especially of Canada
+and Australasia, and the whole foreign policy of England under Mr.
+Gladstone's rule served to strengthen the general impression that our
+decadence had not only set in, but was advancing with a rapidity which
+was palpable to all the world except to those who were chiefly concerned
+in arresting it. Mr. Froude tells us that one of the shrewdest and most
+eminent of all the colonists whom he met expressed his amazement at the
+popularity in this country of Mr. Gladstone,&mdash;an amazement which, Mr.
+Froude adds, is felt 'wherever the English language is spoken' outside
+England itself. We can fully confirm this statement. The hold which Mr.
+Gladstone retains upon the country, after the long series of
+unparallelled mistakes which a faithful view of his career must forever
+associate with his name&mdash;the mistakes abroad, the mistakes at home, the
+crowning and almost incredible mistakes in Ireland; that he should still
+keep his hold of power and popularity after all this, absolutely passes
+the understanding of our fellow-subjects abroad, no matter what politics
+they profess. To them, we appear to be a people controlled by some
+Circean spell, having cast common-sense and prudence to the winds, and
+decided to be ruled henceforth by the man who can tickle our ears with
+the longest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span> speeches and the smoothest words. Byron was accustomed to
+say that he looked upon the opinion of America as the verdict of
+posterity. It is certain that our own kinsfolk beyond the seas are
+sometimes in a far better position to realize the consequences of what
+we are doing here than those who are actually playing the game. We are
+too much wrapped up in self-complacency to allow their opinions to have
+any weight with us, but they have the satisfaction, such as it is, of
+seeing all their prognostications verified one after the other, and of
+knowing that a rude and stern awakening from our dreams is hanging over
+us.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three books to which we invite attention, Mr. Froude's is least
+like the average book of travel, and undoubtedly is the most suggestive
+of thought. Whether we agree with Mr. Froude or whether we do not, it is
+always a pleasure to read him. The 'shoddy' work which extends to
+everything in the present day, and which is eating into the very heart
+of our new literature, has not corrupted the older handicraftsmen among
+us. Not one record of travel in a hundred deserves to be mentioned in
+the same breath with 'Oceana;' there are not very many books of the kind
+in the language which excel it in variety, in vigour of style, in
+picturesqueness of description, or in vivid glimpses of insight into
+personal character. Baron H&uuml;bner is a more genial, discursive, and
+garrulous traveller. He tells us everything that comes into his mind,
+and has a note about everything he saw. We must add that these notes
+are, generally speaking, of great interest, and often very amusing. He
+undertook a journey over the greater part of the British Dominions, at a
+somewhat advanced period of life, for his readers ought to be reminded
+that he is the last survivor of the Congress of Paris, and that few men
+have had more valuable experience in the diplomatic service. Before he
+started, the Baron heard that his project was freely discussed at the
+Traveller's Club. Some said, 'what a plucky old fellow he is!' His
+comment upon this shows that he knows something of men as well as of
+places: 'If any harm befals me, they will say, "what an old fool he
+was!"' Happily, there was no occasion for pronouncing this judgment upon
+him. He followed out his prescribed route with wonderful success, and he
+has presented a graceful and highly interesting narrative of his
+adventures. His observations may, in many respects, be usefully compared
+with those of Mr. Froude, though it will not do to carry this comparison
+much further. We must, however, do the Baron the justice to acknowledge,
+that he always manifests an earnest desire to be fair and just. As for
+the third book on our list, it has the advantage of being short and to
+the point, and the additional advantage of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> being founded upon a
+personal residence in one of the islands of the Western Pacific. Travels
+based upon something more substantial than a mere flying visit are not
+too common, and we are grateful to Mr. Romilly for making a very
+entertaining addition to the number. We should be equally glad to
+receive the account of North New Guinea which a Russian gentleman, Mr.
+Miklaho Maclay, is so well able to furnish. It so chanced that he was
+landed one night on the north coast of New Guinea, and in the morning
+the natives found him sitting upon his portmanteau, like a man waiting
+for a train. They took him for a being of supernatural origin, but by
+way of making sure, they fired arrows at the stranger, tied him to a
+tree, and forced spears down his throat. As he survived these injuries,
+though by a narrow chance, the first impression of the natives was
+confirmed, and Mr. Maclay was afterwards treated in a manner which seems
+to have left him little ground for complaint. Thus far Mr. Maclay, as
+Mr. Romilly informs us, has declined to commit any account of his
+experience to paper; but a resolution of this kind is seldom unalterable
+when a man has anything new to tell the world.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froude, as we have already intimated, intersperses the records of
+travel with weighty reflections, or with valuable information, no part
+of which can be prudently ignored by the reader. We do not know, for
+instance, where in a short compass the arguments for and against
+Colonial Federation have been so clearly set forth. As a rule, the
+colonists everywhere view with great aversion the idea of placing
+themselves under the direct authority of Downing Street, and no one will
+be surprised at this who recollects the treatment they have almost
+invariably received from that quarter. On the other hand, they are by no
+means impatient or eager to proclaim their independence. 'British they
+are,' says Mr. Froude, 'and British they wish to remain.' It will not be
+their fault, but ours, if total separation ever becomes a popular cry in
+Australasia or in Canada. There have been projects of a purely <i>local</i>
+colonial confederation, but they are not regarded with much favour by
+the leading public men. Mr. Dalley of Sydney, expressed strongly his
+disapproval of the scheme, and he also objected to the plan of having
+the colonies represented in the Imperial Parliament by Colonial
+Agents-general. The one thing which seems at present to be universally
+desired is a better organization of the Navy. 'Let there be one Navy,'
+Mr. Dalley said, 'under the rule of a single Admiralty&mdash;a Navy in which
+the colonies should be as much interested as the mother country, which
+should be theirs as well as ours, and on which they might<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span> all rely in
+time of danger.' In these respects, the ideas of modern colonists differ
+widely from those held in the last century. The great grievance of the
+American colonists was that they were not represented in the British
+Parliament. Had that demand been conceded, Mr. Froude is of opinion that
+'Franklin and Washington would have been satisfied.' We do not quite
+agree with him, for the party of Independence, though small at first,
+was never likely to remain long contented with any compromise.
+Originally, indeed, as we all remember, the leaders of the Revolution
+disclaimed any intention of bringing about a separation. Franklin to the
+last protested his desire to keep the colonies united to the mother
+country; but Franklin was not the most sincere or straightforward of
+men. Undoubtedly, however, the American colonists did not begin the
+Revolution with the least desire to create a separate nationality, any
+more than in the great civil war of 1861-65 there was at first, or for a
+long time, any intention of effecting the abolition of slavery. Both
+ideas were acquired by the people by slow degrees. Massachusetts, New
+Hampshire, Virginia, and other States gave emphatic instructions to
+their delegates in 1774 to 'restore union and harmony between Great
+Britain and her Colonies,' and the party of independence was thoroughly
+unpopular down even to the close of the struggle. One of its leading
+spirits gave emphatic testimony on this point. 'For my own part,' wrote
+John Adams, 'there was not a moment in the Revolution when I would not
+have given everything I possessed for a restoration to the state of
+things before the contest began, provided we could have a sufficient
+security for its continuance.' This feeling had no small share in
+misleading George III. on the American question, and in deepening his
+determination not to let the colonies go&mdash;a fact which was brought out
+for the first time, we believe, by one of the ablest and most judicious
+of modern historians&mdash;Mr. Lecky. He also was the first to show, in a
+very striking manner, that the American Revolution was practically the
+work of a small minority, who, as he remarks&mdash;and the remark has no
+slight application to the other revolution now going on in our
+midst&mdash;'succeeded in committing an undecided and fluctuating majority to
+courses for which they had little love, and leading them step by step to
+a position from which it was impossible to recede.'<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> Nearly one-half
+of the Revolutionary army consisted of Irish, who have ever since played
+so important a part in the politics of the United States.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span></p>
+<p>In the present day, our colonists do not seek for separation,
+neither&mdash;if Mr. Froude is right&mdash;do they ask for representation at
+Westminster. They 'are passionately attached to their Sovereign,' and
+they desire that their Governors 'should be worthy always of the great
+person whom they represent.' They wish to have their trade encouraged,
+as it might so easily have been a few years ago, if we had possessed
+foresight enough to adopt a system of differential duties; they wish to
+have good immigrants, and they see the growing necessity for a strong
+navy. The information on these subjects which Baron H&uuml;bner acquired
+should be considered in connection with Mr. Froude's statements. It will
+be found that the two writers substantially agree. Baron H&uuml;bner found
+that the Australian colonists fully comprehend the disadvantage which
+complete independence would be to them. They are practically independent
+now, but they are spared the political and social turmoil in which the
+periodical election of a President would necessarily involve them. 'The
+Queen,' said one of the Baron's friends, 'sends every five years a
+Governor, who is not an autocrat like the President of the United
+States, but the representative of constitutional royalty. In America
+every four years, business is arrested, public order is disturbed, and
+passions are let loose to the point sometimes of threatening even public
+life itself. And why? In order that the nation may elect an absolute
+master, irremovable by law during his period of office. Here every one
+understands this, and every one knows how to leave well alone.' We do
+not quite see how the President of the United States can be described as
+an 'autocrat' or as an 'absolute master,' but the Australians are right
+in their conclusion, that the American system would be a sorry
+substitute for the arrangement which gives them a Governor without
+inconvenience to themselves, and without any risk of infringement upon
+their liberties.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cape Colony, the problem presents itself in a different form. In
+its origin&mdash;as everybody ought to know, but does not&mdash;it is not an
+English, but a Dutch Colony, and the Boers have never been disposed to
+render to English sovereignty more than a passive obedience. The chief
+facts in their recent history are but too easily recalled. When the
+Transvaal was annexed by Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the people at first
+submitted quietly; but the new Commissioner aroused first their fears,
+and then their anger, by various encroachments which were regarded as
+invasions of their rights. The Boers took up arms, English troops were
+despatched from the Cape to suppress the rising, and these troops were
+beaten at Lang's Neck. General Colley, who then commanded the forces at
+Natal, hastened forward with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> more troops in the hope of retrieving this
+disaster, but was himself beaten at Ingogo. He then, without waiting for
+the reinforcements which were on their way to him, took up a new
+position, was attacked by the Boers, and defeated in the memorable
+disaster at Majuba Hill. Mr. Gladstone forthwith surrendered everything,
+and since that time the Boers have been, as a matter of course, more and
+more antagonistic to the English power. 'They came to Africa,' says
+Baron H&uuml;bner, 'in 1652, with the intention of remaining there, and they
+do remain there. The future and Africa belong to them, unless they are
+expelled by a stronger power, the blacks or the English. They accept the
+struggle with the blacks, and they avoid all contact with the English.'
+Mr. Froude takes now, as he has always taken, a very strong view of our
+own responsibility for all the difficulties which have arisen with the
+Boers. We have, he says with some bitterness, 'treated them unfairly as
+well as unwisely, and we never forgive those whom we have injured.' The
+story is long, and it has been treated more than once, and we believe
+with strict fairness and impartiality, in these pages. Mr. Froude
+himself does not deny, that the effect of the surrender after Majuba
+Hill 'was to diminish infallibly the influence of England in South
+Africa, and to elate and encourage the growing party whose hope was and
+is to see it vanish altogether.' The work was not half done. We insisted
+upon a new Treaty, which was immediately broken by the Boers. Mr. Froude
+once more recommends us to 'leave the Cape alone'&mdash;not to get out of it,
+but to allow the Boers to manage their affairs in their own way. 'Our
+interferences,' he tells us, 'have been dictated by the highest motives;
+but experience has told us, and ought to have taught us, that in what we
+have done or tried to do, we have aggravated every evil which we most
+desired to prevent. We have conciliated neither person nor party.'</p>
+
+<p>Baron H&uuml;bner arrived at his conclusions by a totally different road from
+that pursued by Mr. Froude, but the burden of his story is much the
+same. It is the indecision of the Central Government, the uncertainty in
+which the Colony is always kept as to what will happen to them next,
+which causes nearly all the mischief. We have treated the Cape Colony as
+we have treated Ireland, and with every prospect of bringing about the
+same results. First 'coercion,' then abject surrender, then coercion
+again&mdash;'a process,' as Mr. Froude justly remarks, 'which drives nations
+mad, as it drives children, yet is inevitable in every dependency
+belonging to us which is not entirely servile, so long as it lies at the
+will and mercy of so uncertain a body as the British Parliament.' Baron
+H&uuml;bner, who stands beyond the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span> influence of our party politics, tells us
+the same thing in other words. We want a policy, he says, in effect,
+which shall be permanent in its application, and therefore not affected
+by changes in Ministries. The fact is that we want such a policy for
+many parts of our Empire besides South Africa, and we are likely to want
+it. With Parliaments elected at short and frequent intervals, and
+depending largely on shifting caprices, there is not likely to be any
+fixed principle in dealing with political problems arising either at our
+own doors or thousands of miles away.</p>
+
+<p>There is one question in which all the colonists take a deep interest,
+and that is the condition and prospects of our trade. The Colonies are
+now our best customers, and we sincerely hope they will continue to be
+so, for with them we may possibly get, even yet, something like Free
+Trade, whereas no chance of securing even an approach to it can be
+looked for in the rest of the world. The Colonies will always raise at
+the Custom House the greater part of the money they want for the
+expenses of internal government, but they may be induced to offer
+England more favourable terms than other nations receive. In Australia,
+as elsewhere, it begins to be doubted whether 'England can trust
+entirely to Free Trade and competition to keep the place she has
+hitherto held.' If all our Colonies were bound with us in one commercial
+federation, we could make sure of Free Trade over a large part of the
+world's surface. 'We should have purchasers for our goods,' remarks Mr.
+Froude, 'from whom we should fear no rivalry; we should turn in upon
+them the tide of our emigrants which now flows away.' But at present,
+and with the fiscal system of 1846 still regarded as sacred and
+inviolable, nothing can be done. When we are prepared to acknowledge
+that the world has moved since 1846, and that we must move with it,
+there may be a possibility of widening the field of our
+commerce&mdash;unless, indeed, we delay too long. Public opinion in England
+is beginning to stir upon the subject. The demand for a great and
+radical change will come, when it does come, from the working men, and
+they are already showing signs of deep interest in a matter which
+concerns the very means of their livelihood. They are in advance of
+Parliament and Ministries on this subject. Mr. Froude is well within
+bounds in asserting that 'those among us who have disbelieved all along
+that a great nation can venture its whole fortunes safely on the power
+of underselling its neighbours in calicoes and iron-work, no longer
+address a public opinion entirely cold.' What, perhaps, has tended as
+much as anything else to open our eyes is the discovery, that other
+nations begin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span> to be able to undersell us, not only in foreign markets,
+but even in our own&mdash;here in England, at Sheffield, Birmingham, and
+Manchester. Carlyle usually defined the Free Trade theory as the system
+of 'cheap and nasty.' As we have never had Free Trade, and therefore as
+it has never been properly tested, it is impossible to say what effects
+it was capable of producing, properly worked out. The great fact which
+confronts us to-day is that no other nation in the world, and not even
+our own colonists, will have anything whatever to do with it on any
+terms. This fact, at least, the English workingmen are beginning to see
+and to understand, and results will flow from it at present not
+anticipated by 'statesmen,' who know little or nothing about the hard
+matter-of-fact conditions under which trade is carried on, and who are
+assiduously primed by underlings with statistics which they repeat by
+rote, and as to the real value or signification of which they are
+completely and hopelessly in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>According to Baron H&uuml;bner, the Australian colonists have not abandoned
+the hope of forming a customs' union with the mother country, and they
+are far from regarding the proposals for giving them representation in
+Parliament with the indifference which Mr. Froude imagines that he
+detected. No one yet seems to have made even an effort to settle the
+details of a scheme by which a navy could be kept up for the defence of
+the Colonies, and an Imperial Zollverein formed between England and her
+foreign possessions. But the 'advanced men,' according to Baron H&uuml;bner,
+feel convinced that the idea can be carried out, and they are desirous
+of finding, as a preliminary, direct representation in some form at
+Westminster. The growth of this idea, says Baron H&uuml;bner, 'of a grand
+confederation, which would completely revolutionize Old England, or
+rather, which would create a new England by the handiwork and after the
+pattern of her children in Australia&mdash;the growth of this idea among the
+masses is, to my mind, an indubitable fact.' More improbable things have
+happened than that England, weakened at home by the selfish ambition of
+her statesmen, and by the frenzy of party warfare, may be saved by the
+patriotism of her descendants in other lands. The first opportunity
+which the colonists have had of evincing their determination to stand by
+the old country was promptly taken advantage of, and with a heartiness
+of spirit that we hope is not yet forgotten, quickly as all events,
+great or small, are nowadays crammed into 'the wallet of oblivion.' The
+offers of colonial aid during the Egyptian war roused a feeling
+throughout the Colonies which astonished all Europe, and probably took
+many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span> of the colonists themselves by surprise. 'When English interests
+were in peril,' Mr. Froude tells us, 'I found the Australians, not cool
+and indifferent, but <i>ipsis Anglicis Angliciores</i>, as if at the
+circumference the patriotic spirit was more alive than at the centre.
+There was a general sense that our affairs were being strangely
+mismanaged.' The men who think and talk like this are not struggling for
+place and power amid the demoralizing surroundings of modern
+Parliamentary life. They are able to take a cool and dispassionate view
+of us and our affairs, and they begin to think that public life has
+degenerated into a mere scramble for the spoils of office. Their
+indignation, when Gordon was deserted by the Government which he had
+tried to serve, was far greater than we seem to have had any experience
+of amongst ourselves. They looked upon him as 'the last of the race of
+heroes who had won for England her proud position among the nations; he
+had been left to neglect and death, and the national glory was sullied.'
+They volunteered to come over and help us fight our battles. The
+Colonial Office, then under Lord Derby, was for a few days disposed to
+turn the cold shoulder to these efforts of assistance. But the feeling,
+which had been aroused in the country by the first announcements in the
+newspapers, was too deep to be mistaken. It broke through the ice in
+which the Colonial Office is usually imbedded, and compelled Lord Derby
+to make a warm and grateful response to the Colonies. In reality, the
+people there are, as many travellers besides Mr. Froude have remarked,
+more English than the English themselves in their sensitiveness as
+regards the national honour. We talk very coolly here of 'standing
+aside,' of 'having seen our best days,' and of giving up one part of our
+inheritance after another; but the Englishmen abroad are animated by
+very different sentiments. The love of the 'old home' is strong in them,
+even though they may have been born in the Colonies. It shows itself in
+a thousand different ways. At Ballarat, Mr. Froude seems to have been
+struck with a garden which might have been attached to an old cottage in
+Surrey or Devonshire. There were cabbage-roses, pinks, columbines,
+sweet-williams, laburnums, and honey-suckle&mdash;all prized because they
+were the flowers of Old England. The people everywhere speak the
+language with remarkable purity. The aspirate is rarely misplaced,
+unless by a recent immigrant. The misuse of the aspirate is, indeed, a
+peculiar part of the birthright of an Englishman. No one ever yet heard
+it from the poorest or most illiterate class in the United States. In
+Australia, says Mr. Froude, 'no provincialism has yet developed itself.
+The tone is soft, the language good.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> The young people looked fresh and
+healthy, 'not lean and sun-dried, but fair, fleshy, lymphatic.' Mr.
+Froude could not see any difference between his countrymen at home and
+those who had settled down in this new and wider field of industry. 'The
+leaves that grow on one branch of an oak are not more like the leaves
+that grow upon another, than the Australian swarm is like the hive it
+sprung from.' Mr. Service, the Prime Minister of Victoria, fully shares
+the English predilections of his fellow colonists, but he appears to
+feel some irritation at the tone so frequently adopted by the Liberal
+press and party in this country, and emphatically urged in their day by
+Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright. This tone is founded upon the argument, 'The
+Colonies are of no use to us; therefore the sooner they take themselves
+off the better.' If some leaders and members of the Liberal party had
+their way, we should be without a colony in the world, without India,
+and with Ireland close to our own doors a hostile and an independent
+Foreign Power.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to India it is to Baron H&uuml;bner's records of a very
+remarkable journey, that we must turn for the notes of the most recent
+traveller. The work is not so exhaustive, especially as regards the
+Native States, as M. Rousselet's 'L'Inde des Rajahs,' but it is
+eminently readable and lively, and the author gives abundant evidence,
+that he took with him everywhere an earnest desire to arrive at the
+truth, and a determination to form his conclusions with strict
+impartiality. It is evident that in India he soon began to feel the
+influence of that peculiar spell which the country exercises over most
+persons of a susceptible or imaginative temperament. 'India,' he says,
+'has always fascinated me, 'and few who have travelled there will not be
+ready to make the same confession. It is much to be hoped that the
+Radicals will be induced to listen to Baron H&uuml;bner's testimony
+concerning the way in which we carry on government in our great Eastern
+dependency. Nowhere, strange as it may appear, but in our own country is
+English rule misunderstood or misrepresented. Injustice is
+systematically done to the purest, most conscientious, and most
+industrious Civil Service in the whole world; and our countrymen who are
+spending the best part of their lives in the effort to promote the
+welfare and prosperity of India, are too often held up to opprobrium as
+examples of merciless tyrants, whose only object is to grind down the
+natives into the dust. We seem to be losing many of the characteristics
+which formerly distinguished us in the world, but there is one which
+marks us out very plainly from all other nations&mdash;the habit of
+disparaging our own achievements and vilifying our own reputation. We do
+not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> find the Germans pertinaciously seeking to bring into disrepute the
+efforts now being made to extend their colonial possessions; the
+Americans have a motto, upon which they invariably act: 'our
+country&mdash;right or wrong.' This may be carrying a good principle a little
+too far; but it is better than the course we pursue, of striving with
+might and main to dishonour our past, and to place our country in the
+most contemptible light before the rest of mankind. Instead of our
+having any reason to be ashamed of what we have done in and for India,
+we have every cause to be proud of it; and, if English people had an
+adequate knowledge of that work, and were in a position to exercise
+their common-sense on the question, untrammelled by agitators and
+demagogues, they would acknowledge gladly that they were heartily proud
+of it. We believe that the great body of Englishmen in India are
+honestly endeavouring to do their duty, according to the measure of
+their abilities, and that, if any event occurred to cause our removal
+from the country, it would inflict the direst forms of suffering and
+calamity upon the people. It is important to hear what a foreigner, not
+unduly prejudiced in our favour, has to say upon these points. First,
+then, in reference to the men who are engaged in the practical work of
+government&mdash;the Civil Service&mdash;Baron H&uuml;bner says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'I have met everywhere men devoted to their service, working
+from morning till evening, and finding time, notwithstanding
+the mutiplicity of their daily labours, to occupy themselves
+with literature and serious studies. India is governed
+bureaucratically, but this bureaucracy differs in more than
+one respect from ours in Europe. To the public servant in
+Europe one day is like another; some great revolution, some
+European war, is needed to disturb the placid monotony of
+his existence. In India it is not so. The variety of his
+duties enlarges and fashions the mind of the Anglo-Indian
+official; and the dangers to which he is occasionally
+exposed serve to strengthen and give energy to his
+character. He learns to take large views and to work at his
+desk while the ground is trembling beneath his feet. I do
+not think I am guilty of exaggeration in declaring that
+there is not a bureaucracy in the world better educated,
+better trained to business, more thoroughly stamped with the
+qualities which make a statesman; and, what none will
+dispute, more pure and upright than that which administers
+the government of India.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Of late years, as everybody is aware, a demand has sprung up for 'local
+self-government' in India&mdash;a demand not originating with natives
+themselves, but with the sentimentalists and philosophers who are doing
+their best and their worst to take all the manliness out of the English
+character. Lord Ripon was the mechanical mouthpiece of this sect, and
+there can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span> no doubt whatever that no Governor-General or Viceroy of
+India ever did so much harm in so short space of time. He and his school
+tried their utmost to persuade the natives that what they want is 'Home
+Rule'&mdash;that panacea for all the evils of modern life which is likely to
+entail so many new burdens and trials upon us. The natives of India
+never suspected, until Lord Ripon strove to impress it upon them, that
+Home Rule is indispensable to their happiness. They are perfectly well
+aware that if our hold upon the country is ever relaxed, there will be
+nothing but chaos all through the land,&mdash;internecine wars, rebellions,
+and massacres, such as marked the history of India until our rule became
+well established there. Lord Ripon closed his eyes to all
+this&mdash;<i>doctrinaire</i> at heart, he could see nothing but his own
+crotchets. The native, he declared, must have local self-government. But
+Baron H&uuml;bner found that the people did not understand or desire this
+much vaunted contrivance. The native, he says, 'refuses to be elected by
+his equals. He wishes to be chosen by his superiors, and his superiors
+are the English officials, represented in this case by the district
+officer or magistrate. In the North-Western Provinces, this opposition
+was so strong that the Supreme Government have been obliged, much
+against their own views, to give to the Governor of those Provinces the
+power of constituting the municipalities.' The sentimentalists may try
+to develop the 'native mind' as they please, but they will never
+persuade Hindoos or Mussulmans to trust their own countrymen as they
+trust us. We have a reputation among them for fairness and for justice
+which no native would ever aim to deserve, although he is not incapable
+of understanding and admiring it. An East Indian of any race or religion
+will never speak the truth if he can possibly help himself, but he has a
+certain respect for the man who can and does. No doubt, the very
+earnestness, with which we seek to dispense equal justice among all
+classes, is a stumbling-block in our path, and always has been so. The
+native likes to deal with a judge who will wink at perjury, and who is
+not above taking a bribe. Yet the Englishman is everywhere trusted. 'If
+proof were needed,' says Baron H&uuml;bner, 'to show how deeply rooted among
+the populations is English prestige, I would quote the fact that
+throughout the peninsula the native prefers, in civil and still more in
+criminal cases, to be tried by an English judge. It would be
+impossible, I think, to render a more flattering testimony to British
+rule.' But these are facts which had no signification for Lord Ripon. He
+pursued a policy which, designedly or undesignedly, was calculated to
+bring our rule to an end. 'Lord Ripon's resolution,'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span> some one told
+Baron H&uuml;bner, 'means nothing or means this: The Government foresees that
+the time will come when we must leave India to herself.' Then there was
+the Ilbert Bill, placing Europeans in the country districts under the
+jurisdiction of native judges. How could the natives of all classes fail
+to look upon this as another evidence that the reins of power were
+dropping from our nerveless hands? The point of the whole matter was
+thus put by one of the civilians to Baron H&uuml;bner:&mdash;'The principle, that
+the jurisdiction over European subjects of the Crown must be reserved
+for judges and magistrates who are also European subjects, has always
+been maintained. And it has always been recognized that in this
+principle lies the only possible effectual guarantee to Europeans living
+in country districts against the perjury and false witness so common
+among the rural populations.' The Ilbert Bill proposed to take away
+these safeguards from the European, and would have left him at the mercy
+of native judges and native witnesses, whose only idea of justice is to
+make a few rupees out of its administration.</p>
+
+<p>The school of Radicals represented only too numerously in the present
+Parliament&mdash;unreasoning, ignorant of India, impulsive, narrow and
+insular&mdash;is also represented among the more recent importations of
+'competition wallahs.' Baron H&uuml;bner met with many of them. 'In their
+opinion,' he says, 'the ideal of a sound English policy is the
+dismemberment of the British Empire, and above all the abandonment of
+India. To save England, it is necessary first to destroy her.' To the
+shrewd and experienced Austrian diplomatist, these ideas seem to be
+absolutely ruinous, but the oddity of it is that thousands of persons in
+England cling to them with a sort of idolatry, as if within them was
+compressed the sum and substance of human wisdom. The Radical party
+to-day lives upon these theories of dismemberment, although it is
+careful to keep its ultimate aim as much as possible in the background.
+In India, its adherents are doing an immense amount of harm. Baron
+H&uuml;bner seems to have been struck with amazement at the phenomenon. 'This
+is, indeed,' he exclaims, 'a curious and perhaps a unique spectacle&mdash;an
+immense administration, managed according to doctrines which are
+repudiated by the large majority of those who compose it.' The natives
+who are educated in our schools and colleges emerge from them filled
+with ideas of Socialism and Atheism. We break down their faith in their
+own creeds, without succeeding in inducing them to adopt Christianity.
+They find themselves free to construct a religion of their own, or to do
+without any religion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span>. As regards the Government, they are led to
+believe that it ought not to be where it is, and that India should be
+ruled by its own people. The native press is full of sedition. Let us
+hear what Baron H&uuml;bner has to say upon this subject, for it is worth
+attention:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Is there any public opinion in India? It is declared that
+there is none. And yet people agree in saying that the
+natives who have been educated in the State colleges have
+become singularly importunate of late years, that they are
+beginning to adopt a high tone, and that they take especial
+delight in criticising the acts of the Government, who,
+unwisely, as it seems to me, encourage if not provoke such
+criticism. These baboos and their newspapers, I am told,
+would only become dangerous at a crisis; and by a crisis is
+understood a disastrous European war. But the life of
+nations, like that of individuals, is nothing but a series
+of successes and reverses. Looked at from this point of
+view, the baboo is not such an insignificant being as he
+appears to be considered.'</p></div>
+
+<p>No doubt our Radicals would contend that the Austrian's notion, that it
+is unwise on the part of the Government to encourage criticism directed
+against itself, is worthy of a man who has seen the Napoleonic <i>r&eacute;gime</i>,
+and who perhaps admires the 'one man' form of government. But what is
+the English Radical party itself living under now? Was ever the 'one man
+form of government' carried out in so relentless a fashion as we see it
+now in Parliament? Is there not one man in the Government, surrounded by
+a crowd of nonentities&mdash;the one man filling the exact position for which
+the Americans have invented the significant word 'Boss'? All liberty of
+thought or freedom of action is gone. The principle insisted upon is 'do
+whatever our leader tells us; go where he leads; give what he asks&mdash;all
+without murmuring or discontent. The man who murmurs must be drummed out
+of the ranks.' If we saw the French submitting to this system, no words
+that we could use would be strong enough to express our contempt for
+them. As we happen to be doing it ourselves, it must, of course, be good
+and wise. Granted that it is so, we may fairly ask even the Radicals
+whether they are quite sure that it is wise to think of giving up India?
+With what do they propose to replace our government? The testimony of
+every fair-minded man is that we have accomplished an incalculable
+amount of excellent work there. Our magnificent highways and railroads,
+our appliances for irrigation, would alone make our name immortal in the
+country. The people thrive under our rule; every man is secure in the
+possession of his property; war no longer devastates the country. We
+recommend everybody who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> is unaware of these and similar facts to
+consider well the evidence adduced by Baron H&uuml;bner:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Materially speaking, India has never been as prosperous as
+she is now. The appearance of the natives, for the most part
+well clothed, and of their villages and well-furnished
+cottages, and of their well-cultivated fields, seems to
+prove this. In their bearing there is nothing servile; in
+their behaviour towards their English masters there is a
+certain freedom of manner, and a general air of
+self-respect; nothing of that abject deference which strikes
+and shocks new comers in other Eastern countries. I have no
+means of comparing the natives of to-day with the natives of
+former generations, but I have been able to compare the
+populations who owe direct allegiance to the Empress with
+the subjects of the feudatory princes. For example, when you
+cross the frontier of Hyderabad, the climate, the soil, the
+race, are the same as those you have just quitted, but the
+difference between the two States is remarkable, and
+altogether to the advantage of the Presidency of Madras or
+of Bombay.'</p></div>
+
+<p>He goes on to say, that no one can deny that the British India of to-day
+presents a spectacle that has no parallel in the history of the world:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'What do we see? Instead of periodical, if not permanent,
+wars, profound peace firmly established throughout the whole
+Empire; instead of the exactions of chiefs always greedy for
+gold, and not shrinking from any act of cruelty to extort
+it, moderate taxes, much lower than those imposed by the
+feudatory princes; arbitrary rule replaced by even-handed
+justice; the tribunals, once proverbially corrupt, by
+upright judges whose example is already beginning to make
+its influence felt on native morality and notions of right;
+no more Pindarris, no more armed bands of thieves; perfect
+security in the cities as well as in the country districts,
+and on all the roads; the former bloodthirsty manners and
+customs now softened, and, save for certain restrictions
+imposed in the interests of public morality, a scrupulous
+regard for religious worship, and traditional usages and
+customs; materially, an unexampled bound of prosperity, and
+even the disastrous effects of the periodical famines, which
+afflict certain parts of the peninsula, more and more
+diminished by the extension of railways which facilitate the
+work of relief. And what has wrought all these miracles? The
+wisdom and the courage of a few directing statesmen, the
+bravery and the discipline of an army composed of a small
+number of Englishmen and a large number of natives, led by
+heroes; and lastly, and I will venture to say principally,
+the devotion, the intelligence, the courage, the
+perseverance, and the skill, combined with an integrity
+proof against all temptation, of a handful of officials and
+magistrates who govern and administer the Indian Empire.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Such is the testimony of an Austrian. It ought to bring a flush of shame
+to the faces of not a few Englishmen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We have scarcely alluded to the lighter parts of Baron H&uuml;bner's
+volumes&mdash;to the excellent touches of description or sketches of
+character which enliven his pages, or to the numerous pleasantly-told
+anecdotes of personal adventure. One of these anecdotes is worth
+repeating, though the author must pardon us if we tell it in our own
+way. It is too characteristic of life in New York&mdash;too full of valuable
+hints for future travellers&mdash;to be lost sight of.</p>
+
+<p>It appears that on his last morning in New York, the Baron found that
+his note-book had been taken from his room in the hotel. His servant and
+his baggage had already gone on to the steamer, and the Baron prepared
+to follow. First, however, as he still had two hours to spare, he
+thought he would take a final glimpse of Fifth Avenue. These are the
+little accidents which generally decide our fate in life&mdash;the visit to
+some friend, the call on a stranger, the unpremeditated walk. As the
+Baron was passing along, a carriage suddenly stopped, a
+'fashionably-dressed gentleman' jumped out, and ran up to the traveller
+with a cordial salutation. He introduced himself as a guest who had
+dined, with the Baron, at a dinner given by Lord Augustus Loftus in
+Sydney. 'I am one of the admirers,' he said, 'of your "Promenade autour
+du Monde," and I venture to ask you to do me the favour of writing your
+name in my copy of that book. In return, pray accept a volume of
+Longfellow's poems, with the author's autograph.' The fashionable
+stranger had skilfully touched the weak place in an author's heart.
+Baron H&uuml;bner consented to be driven back to his hotel, where his new
+friend was also residing. On the way, the stranger suddenly bethought
+himself that the two books were at the house of an acquaintance, 'two
+steps from the hotel.' He put his head out of the window, gave some
+fresh directions to the coachman, and the Baron soon found himself being
+whirled along at a furious rate along streets which he did not
+recognize. Still, the old traveller had no suspicion of anything wrong.
+His voyages and adventures certainly seem to have left him in a more
+than ordinarily unsophisticated condition. At last the carriage stopped,
+our author was conducted into the dark passage of a small house, and
+then into a little dirty room, where he found a tall man seated before a
+table, with his back to a mirror. In that mirror, the Baron saw his dear
+friend from Sydney gently lock the door, and put the key in his pocket.
+Then he understood all about it.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the tall man was polite, and after promising to go and fetch
+the volume of Longfellow, he proposed to the gentleman from Sydney a
+game at cards. While the two men played<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> their sham game, the Baron had
+time to reflect; he saw that he had been pounced upon very skilfully&mdash;in
+less than two hours the 'Bothnia' would sail, all the people at the
+hotel would think he had gone by her, no one would miss him, no one
+would search for him. He might be murdered with impunity&mdash;with what
+impunity the Baron would have fully realized if he had known a little
+more of New York. No city in the world presents greater facilities for
+getting rid of the evidences of foul play. We have not seen the recent
+statistics of murders in New York, and doubt whether they have been
+published; but in the five years between 1870 and 1875, we happen to
+know that 281 'homicides' were committed there, and that only seven of
+the murderers were hanged. Twenty-four were sent to prison&mdash;nominally
+for life, although that is a mere form&mdash;and more than one-fourth of the
+criminals were never brought to trial at all. If Baron H&uuml;bner had known
+all this, he would have regarded his two new acquaintances with even
+greater interest than he did.</p>
+
+<p>How and why they let him go scot-free is to us a mystery. They invited
+him to take a hand in the game, and he declined. They pretended to play
+for him; won, and offered him the stakes. He told them he had no money
+with him, that they would get nothing for their trouble, that the French
+Consul was to meet him on board the 'Bothnia' to bid him adieu; if he
+were not there a hue and cry at once would be raised. 'Then,' adds the
+Baron, 'turning to my friend from Sydney, I said to him, "Open the
+door." The ruffians gave in without further trouble. There was an
+exchange of looks between them, and the tall man said to the other,
+'show him out.' We have heard of many strange things happening in New
+York, but never of one so strange as that.' When I stepped upon the deck
+of the "Bothnia," says the Baron, 'a few minutes before departure, I
+felt that I had had a narrow escape.' Very narrow; we should advise
+Baron H&uuml;bner, if ever again he finds himself in New York, not to tempt
+his good fortune by taking a drive with strangers who admire his
+writings.</p>
+
+<p>For the novel and stirring incidents of travel, we must turn to Mr.
+Romilly's narrative of his experiences in the Western Pacific. He
+transports us to a comparatively little known region, and it was his
+good or ill fortune to come into contact with phases of life which must,
+it is to be hoped, for ever remain unknown to most of us. Few living
+men, for instance, have been present at a great feast on human flesh,
+cannibalism being one of the habits of savage life which is found to
+yield at the first touch of civilization. In New Ireland, however, Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span>
+Romilly happened to be present at a sort of state banquet, given in
+honour of a victory over the enemy. The enemy himself supplied the
+materials of the repast. The details of the preparation of the horrible
+food may be read in Mr. Romilly's pages by all who have a curiosity on
+the subject. Some few particulars concerning a compound called 'Sak-sak'
+may here be given:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'They, [the heads of the victims] were then disposed of in
+various ways, and when I asked what would be done with them,
+I was told, "They will go to improve the sak-sak." The
+natives on the East coast of New Ireland prepare a very
+excellent composition of sago and cocoa-nut, called sak-sak.
+I used to buy a supply of this every morning, as it would
+not keep, for my men. Now it appeared that for the next week
+or so, a third ingredient would be added to the sak-sak,
+namely, brains. I need hardly say that for the next two days
+of my stay I did not taste sak-sak, though my men made no
+secret of doing so. The flesh in the ovens had to be cooked
+for three days, or until the tough leaves in which it was
+wrapped were nearly consumed. When taken out of the ovens
+the method of eating it is as follows. The head of the eater
+is thrown back, somewhat after the fashion of an Italian
+eating macaroni. The leaf is opened at one end, and the
+contents are pressed into the mouth until they are finished.
+As Bill, my interpreter put it, "they cookum that fellow
+three day; by-and-by cookum finish, that fellow all same
+grease." For days afterwards, when everything is finished,
+they abstain from washing, lest the memory of the feast
+should be too fleeting.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Romilly was informed by the natives that human flesh tastes even
+better than pork. One is satisfied to take their word for it. In the New
+Hebrides it appears that the people prefer to eat it dried, or 'jerked.'
+At present, we are told,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'the cannibals in the world may be numbered by millions.
+Probably a third of the natives of the country where I am
+now writing (New Guinea) are cannibals; so are about
+two-thirds of the occupants of the New Hebrides, and the
+same proportion of the Solomon Islanders. All the natives of
+the Santa Cruz group, Admiralties, Hermits, Louisiade,
+Engineer, D'Entrecasteaux groups are cannibals, and even
+some well-authenticated cases have occurred among the "black
+fellows" of Northern Australia. I do not know that the fact
+of a native being a cannibal makes him a greater savage.
+Some of the most treacherous savages on this coast are
+undoubtedly not cannibals, while most of the Louisiade
+cannibals are a mild-tempered, pleasant set of men.'</p></div>
+
+<p>This testimony can do no harm in England, but it is to be hoped that Mr.
+Romilly will not repeat it too often among his black friends, or the
+moral of it might be misunderstood.</p>
+
+<p>The Solomon Islands still form a part of the world of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> very little
+is known. They are rarely visited, and travellers who have gone for the
+purpose of 'taking notes,' have either altered their minds in good
+season, or never returned. Some years ago, Mr. Benjamin Boyd, a member
+of the Royal Yacht Squadron went out in his yacht, the 'Wanderer,' and
+was captured by the natives. Search was made for him from time to time,
+and his initials were found carved on trees. A notice was placed on all
+the goods sent to the natives to this effect: 'B. B., we are looking for
+you'&mdash;but no tidings were ever heard of the missing man. Mr. Romilly was
+told by the captain of a labour schooner that somewhere on the south
+coast he had noticed a European skull in a sort of temple; he recognized
+it as European from its size, and he also observed that one of the teeth
+was stopped with gold. We take it for granted that the dentists among
+the Solomon Islanders do not use gold for filling teeth. This, then, was
+probably the skull of the hapless owner of the 'Wanderer.' The Solomon
+Islanders now make a practice of killing white men, if it can be done
+safely, in revenge for the way in which they have been 'kidnapped' for
+the labour traffic. The diseases introduced by their treacherous white
+friends have made terrible ravages among them, and their own habits tend
+still further to reduce their numbers. There are several places,' says
+Mr. Romilly, 'where it is the custom to kill all, or nearly all, of the
+children soon after they are born.' This is the only region we ever
+heard of where so frightful and unnatural a custom exists. Female
+children are, or used to be, destroyed in many countries; but the
+indiscriminate slaughter of all children is decidedly uncommon. These
+islanders have another device which is supported by an argument not
+entirely devoid of strength. 'In a battle the victorious party, if they
+can surprise their enemies sufficiently to admit of a wholesale
+massacre, kill not only the men, but also the women and children. "We
+should be fools," say they, "if we did not. This must be revenged some
+day, if there are any men to do it; but how can they get men if we kill
+the women and children?"' The same thought has doubtless occurred to
+modern conquerors elsewhere, though, happily, circumstances have not
+enabled them to carry it into practical effect. Some other curious
+details respecting this group of islands, are given by Mr. Romilly. The
+old women it appears, become adepts in the occult sciences, and the men
+occasionally find the trade of wizard lucrative. They are chiefly called
+upon to bring about a change in the weather, and their plan of
+operations is to gain time. It resembles, in some striking features, the
+method adopted by the 'inspired statesman' of our own latitudes when he
+is trying to feel his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> way towards the development of some scheme which
+he is half afraid of himself, and which the public view with profound
+suspicion. Surely the most of us could find a counterpart to the
+individual described in the following passage:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'One old sorcerer of my acquaintance was a most interesting
+study. If he was asked for fine weather (which, by the way,
+in the Solomons is the usual request, the rainfall being
+enormous), he used to temporize in a truly masterly manner.
+First he would hold out for more payment. This policy he
+could continue for an indefinite length of time, as he would
+of course require payment in a form which he knew was
+difficult or impossible for the natives to comply with.
+Then, if he thought there was any likelihood of fine weather
+for a day or two, he would become possessed of a devil which
+would leave him at once if the sun made its appearance, but
+if the bad weather lasted the devil would last too; and
+finally, if the bad weather was very obstinate and would not
+come, he would hold out again for more payment. In this
+manner my old sorcerer was very seldom mistaken in his
+forecasts, and the influence he exerted over the clerk of
+the weather must have been very irksome to that functionary.</p></div>
+
+<p>This leader of his tribe, we are further informed, had a 'great hold
+over the imagination of his dupes.' We are more civilized&mdash;or <i>we</i> think
+so&mdash;than the islanders of the Western Pacific; but human nature is
+pretty much the same there as here. As for the philosophy of such
+matters, it is thus summed up by Mr. Romilly: 'I have often wondered
+what the sorcerer thinks of himself; whether he really believes himself
+to be a magician, or whether he realizes the fact that he is an arrant
+old humbug. I think there is a mixture of both feelings.' It would be
+useless to pursue this enquiry any further.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the unexplored islands of these seas forms a part of the
+Admiralty group, and is called Jesus Maria. It was visited by the
+'Challenger' in 1875, and again by Mr. Romilly on two occasions, the
+last in 1881, in H.M.S. 'Beagle.' The natives, a fierce and warlike
+race, crowded round the vessel, eager to sell everything they had
+including their babies. Bottles and hoop-iron were eagerly sought for.
+While engaged in carrying on this simple traffic, the party on board
+noticed, to their amazement a white man on shore who fired off a gun to
+attract their attention. The next day a boat rowed to the beach, and
+there stood the white man. He proved to be a Scotchman named David Dow,
+who was collecting <i>b&eacute;che de mer</i>, and found his trade prospects so good
+that he desired to remain where he was. The Admiralty Islanders have
+some 'very singular customs,' not to be met with anywhere else; but
+after thus piquing our curiosity, Mr. Romilly ruthlessly balks it by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span>
+remarking 'that they are, unfortunately, of a nature which cannot be
+described here.' We share his regret upon his being obliged to keep the
+secret; for when a traveller has found out anything absolutely fresh and
+startling, common humanity should, in these dull and overcast times,
+induce him to disclose it. But no doubt Mr. Romilly has his reasons for
+silence, and we must submit to them. The Germans have recently hoisted
+their flag upon several of these islands, and we may trust them to tell
+all that they can find out, and more.</p>
+
+<p>In the Laughlan islands&mdash;a small group&mdash;the Germans are also to be
+found. Indeed, they are spreading rapidly, over the Pacific Isles. As
+the spirit of adventure is dying out among Englishmen, it appears to be
+increasing in other nations. The genius for colonization appears to have
+fled from us to Germany. Certain it is that Germans are everywhere
+displaying that daring and enterprise in which we once shone above all
+other people in the world. They will probably end by becoming masters of
+the larger part of the Western Pacific. As for the Laughlan Islands, it
+cannot be said that any one whose lot takes him there need be regarded
+as an object of pity. The climate is good; food is abundant; life is
+tolerably easy. True, there are no newspapers and no Parliament; but
+existence has often been found supportable in the absence of these
+things. The natives are friendly; and there are no animals anywhere, not
+even rats. The men are decently clad, and the women wear a very
+voluminous kilt, sometimes two or three of them, over each other. These
+garments are made of grass, leaves, or fibre, stained various colours.
+'In wearing two or three, care is taken to produce an &aelig;sthetic mixture
+of colours&mdash;a little vanity which is met with sometimes at home amongst
+ladies who like to display petticoats of many colours. It is considered
+just as essential here to walk well as it is at home, but the two styles
+are not quite the same. The Laughlan lady, in walking, at each step
+gives a little twist to the hips, which has the effect of making the
+kilts fly out right and left, in what is considered a highly fashionable
+and beautiful manner. Though a somewhat similar effect to this may, I am
+informed, occasionally be seen in petticoats at home, still I fear that
+the firm stride of the Laughlan lady could hardly be reproduced in
+English boots. To see ten or twelve of these ladies walking in the
+unsociable formation of single file, which they adopt, with their
+many-coloured kilts flying out on either side, is a very pretty sight.'
+Evidently, a judicious traveller and observer might do worse than take a
+tour to the Laughlans.</p>
+
+<p>Two other interesting spots to visit are Thursday Island and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> Norfolk
+Island, both British possessions, and the first a place of some
+importance, as the centre of the Torres Straits pearl-shell fishery.
+This trade has demoralized the natives, who now seem to spend a great
+part of their time in getting drunk, the Europeans too often setting the
+example, 'It is a common thing,' says Mr. Romilly, 'for a diver to go
+down three-parts drunk. The dress is supposed to have a very sobering
+effect.' Here is a little story which will produce a pang of regret in
+the minds of the jewellers of Bond Street:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The best pearl I ever saw was in the possession of a
+celebrated diver who was a shipmate of mine from Thursday
+Island to Brisbane. He was offered on board the ship two
+hundred pounds for it, which could not have been a third of
+its value. But he refused every offer, as he had just been
+paid off, and had plenty of money. I felt sure it would go
+the way of all pearls when his money was finished, and
+accordingly I informed a Sydney jeweller of it, and where he
+could see it. When I was in Sydney a few weeks later I made
+inquiries about it, and the jeweller told me that it was the
+finest pear-shaped pearl he had ever seen, but that it was
+unsaleable at its proper value in Australia, and he had
+therefore made no attempt to buy it.'</p></div>
+
+<p>But the pearl fishery on these coasts is becoming less lucrative every
+year, and it is now falling almost entirely into the hands of natives,
+who can stay under water longer than men of our own race, and seem to be
+endowed with greater powers of endurance. As for the 'labour trade' of
+which we all have heard so much, Mr. Romilly gives us to understand that
+it is dying out. It arose under the stimulus which the American war gave
+to cotton growing, and to the sudden necessity for procuring assistance
+for the planters. At first, the natives were found ready enough to
+volunteer for the service, but the treatment they received was not
+calculated to encourage the spirit of volunteering. Then all sorts of
+artifices were tried to deceive them. Sometimes the labour-hunters
+pretended to be missionaries. 'On the usual question being asked, "Where
+shippy come?" they would reply, "Missionary." Perhaps they would all
+pretend to sing a hymn very slowly, while the hatches would be left
+open, and several tins of biscuits would be put into the hold.'
+Curiosity would gradually draw the natives aboard, and then the hatches
+would be clapped on, and the man-stealers made off for Queensland or
+Fiji. It is to be hoped that Mr. Romilly is right in stating that these
+practices have ceased, but unless we are mistaken, accounts have
+appeared in colonial journals, within a very recent period, of organized
+raids upon these coasts for the purpose of carrying off the natives. It
+is needless to say, that a sentiment of hostility to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span> all white men is
+likely to remain as the permanent result of this abominable system.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is, that the white men who had the run of these islands down to
+a few years ago were chiefly the off-scourings of other countries. They
+found among the savages far fewer vices than they brought with them from
+the civilized world. Some of them had run away to escape from the
+vengeance of the laws which they had outraged; others were attracted by
+the freedom which an entirely new life opened up to them. From them have
+sprung a brood of half-castes who are the curse of the islands&mdash;like
+many other half-castes, they manage to combine the evil qualities of
+both races. The chief traders along the Pacific are now becoming much
+more respectable. Some of them, indeed, appear to emulate the style and
+condition of the prosperous English merchant. Mr. Romilly knows such a
+man, living 'within a day's march' of the wildest cannibals in the
+Pacific, who keeps up an establishment of forty or fifty men, with a
+French <i>chef</i>. 'In a hitherto almost unknown island, he will give you a
+dinner, every night, which could not be equalled at any private house or
+club in Australia.' He keeps a yacht for private exploring expeditions,
+and is to-day the principal 'trader and pioneer in the Pacific.' A
+narrative of his observations and experiences would be of very unusual
+interest, but like the Russian settler before referred to, he reserves
+for his own benefit the knowledge he has acquired. The Germans are
+pushing us hard, and in many respects they are better fitted for their
+work than English traders. There seems a fair prospect of a gradual
+elevation of social as well as of commercial life throughout the
+Pacific. Already, lawlessness is discouraged. Not so very many years
+ago, piracy was carried on openly in these seas. Mr. Romilly gives a
+very interesting and curious account of one of the last pirates, a
+desperado known as 'Bully Hayes,' once a boatman on the Mississippi.
+This man began life by robbing his father, and soon afterwards made his
+appearance on the Pacific coast the proud proprietor of a fifty-ton
+schooner. 'How he had obtained possession of this schooner,' says Mr.
+Romilly, 'was a matter of surmise, but he had been seen at Singapore not
+long before this time, and a fifty-ton schooner had mysteriously
+disappeared from that port without the knowledge of her captain and
+owner.' He carried on a bold career of plunder for many years, and only
+came to grief at last by an accident which he could not have foreseen.
+He had stolen another vessel, and was making for some of his favourite
+haunts along the coast, when the cook, who was steering, happened to
+give him some offence. At that time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span> Hayes was accustomed to settle all
+disputes off-handed with his revolver, and in accordance with this plan
+he ran below to get his 'shooting irons.' Mr. Romilly thus relates the
+sequel:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The cook objected, and, catching up the first piece of wood
+he saw, got on to the top of the little deck-house over the
+ladder, and, the moment Hayes showed his head above deck,
+gave him a blow which killed him on the spot. This cook
+seems to have been some what doubtful as to whether Hayes
+was even now dead, so he fetched the largest anchor the
+cutter possessed, and bound the body to it, after which he
+hove anchor and body overboard, remarking, "For sure Massa
+Hayes dead this time."'</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Romilly, in the course of his wanderings, made a journey to New
+Guinea, a portion of which has now been placed under British protection.
+Little is known of the resources of this country, trading operations
+having hitherto been almost entirely confined to the south coast. Mr.
+Romilly's visit was brief, and he was not enabled to add much to our
+previous stock of information. He does not seem to be aware of the
+progress which the Germans are making in this island, or of the results
+of the energetic support which Prince Bismarck invariably extends to his
+adventurous countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Here, then, are three works which ought to have the effect of reviving
+the interest of the English people in their possessions abroad, if they
+have not sunk into a hopeless state of indifference and apathy on the
+subject. We do not for a moment believe that the working men are
+indifferent to the present and future welfare of our Colonies, but they
+need to be instructed as to the true value of their great inheritance,
+and therefore it is that we earnestly wish such books as these could be
+made readily accessible to them. It would be difficult to exaggerate the
+importance of convincing them that it is our duty as a nation to hold
+fast to all that we have added, from time to time, to the dominions of
+the Crown. The foreign policy of the country, no less than the domestic
+policy, must henceforth be directed mainly in accordance with their
+opinions; and if those opinions are left to be influenced and guided by
+the hereditary dislike of the Colonies which infects all Radicalism, our
+position in the world will soon be reduced to one of comparative
+insignificance. Baron H&uuml;bner concludes his volumes with these words:
+'Had I to sum up the impressions derived from my travels, I should say,
+"British rule is firmly seated in India; England has only one enemy to
+fear&mdash;herself."' That is the whole truth of the matter. We have to fear
+our own party divisions, the want of true public spirit among too many
+of our 'politicians,' the tendency of Radical leaders to teach the
+doctrine that England ought to shut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span> herself within her own island
+boundaries, and cast off all outside responsibilities. Sentiments of
+this kind may be, and are, loudly cheered in the House of Commons, but
+very few Liberals are daring enough to advocate them in the country.
+Lancashire knows how valuable India is to her, and the manufacturing
+districts generally see the growing importance to them, merely from a
+commercial point of view, of the Australian Colonies. The anti-Colonial
+policy is growing less and less popular among the people. To discredit
+it altogether, it is only necessary to distribute, far and wide among
+the working men, facts and considerations of the kind furnished in the
+works to which we have endeavoured to call attention.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See Mr. Lecky's 'History of England in the Eighteenth
+Century,' vol. ii, p. 443, &amp;c.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ART_VII_The_Apostolic_Fathers_S_Ignatius_S_Polycarp_Revised" id="ART_VII_The_Apostolic_Fathers_S_Ignatius_S_Polycarp_Revised"></a>ART. VII.&mdash;<i>The Apostolic Fathers: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp.</i> Revised
+Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. By J.
+B. Lightfoot, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Bishop of Durham. London, 1885. 2
+vols.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This a great book, dealing principally with a great subject&mdash;the
+'Ignatian Epistles.' The two volumes contain altogether 1849 Pages, 1311
+being devoted to St. Ignatius, the remainder to St. Polycarp. It is no
+exaggeration to say that they are full of the most valuable information,
+dealing with matters of vital ecclesiastical importance, the whole
+presented in the most lucid style, and marked by broad, strong,
+scholarship. They are the result of 'a keen interest in the Ignatian
+controversy conceived long ago' by the Bishop of Durham. 'The subject
+has been before me,' he writes in his Preface, 'for nearly thirty years,
+and during this period it has engaged my attention off and on in the
+intervals of other literary pursuits and official duties.' The
+conception, execution, and production of the work had therefore been
+protracted. The volumes as they are issued to-day are not in the form
+they were originally written. Thus, the 'Appendix Ignatiana' was in type
+several years before the commentary on the genuine Epistles of Ignatius,
+and the Introduction and texts of the 'Ignatian Acts of Martyrdom'
+passed through the press in 1878. In 1879 Cambridge and London
+surrendered their great teacher to Durham; and there in the intervals,
+few enough, snatched from official duties, the first volume has been
+written, and from thence sent forth. It is necessary to bear this in
+mind; because it will, on the one hand, explain absence of reference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span> to
+some works published since 1878; and on the other hand it increases the
+value of the Bishop's results, when reached in entire independence of,
+and yet in entire accordance with, those of other scholars in the same
+field.</p>
+
+<p>This work testifies to the truth, that it is a mark of true greatness to
+be modest. The most superficial examination of these volumes exhibits a
+<i>Corpus Ignatianum</i> superior to anything yet published. It is, says Dr.
+Harnack,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> 'without exaggeration the most learned and careful
+Patristic monograph which has appeared in the nineteenth century.' It
+exhibits 'a diligence and knowledge of the subject which show that Dr.
+Lightfoot has made himself master of this department, and placed himself
+beyond the reach of any rival.... There is nothing in it that is not up
+to date, and the whole treatise forms a well-knit unity.' This is the
+willing testimony of one of the ablest of the scholars of Germany who
+have handled the great questions connected with Ignatius; the testimony,
+moreover, of one who, as we shall see presently, finds himself at
+variance with the Bishop upon two points, especially which, more than
+any other, materially affect the genuineness of the Epistles and their
+date. Such, however, is not the Bishop of Durham's thought. As he looks
+back upon the work to which he has consecrated the prime of his life, he
+speaks of it in language touching in its modesty&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'I have striven to make the materials for the text as
+complete as I could.... Of the use which I have made of the
+critical materials I must leave others to judge. Of the
+introductions, exegetical notes, and dissertations, I need
+say nothing, except that I have spared no pains to make them
+adequate, so far as my knowledge and ability permitted. The
+translations are intended not only to convey to English
+readers the sense of the original, but also (where there was
+any difficulty of construction) to serve as commentaries on
+the Greek. My anxiety not to evade these difficulties forbad
+me in many cases to indulge in a freedom which I should have
+claimed, if a literary standard alone had been kept in
+view.'</p></div>
+
+<p>He follows up such words by others, conveying his thanks to those who
+have helped him in his work, and the generosity of his recognition of
+their services does but enhance the reserveful simplicity with which he
+comments upon his own. The 'English reader' and the 'others' whose
+judgment he desires, will, at least in England, unite in rendering to
+him a respectful and grateful homage. The subject treated by the Bishop
+is in a very real sense an Englishman's subject. For three centuries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>
+English critics have not only entered the literary arena, in which the
+great historic and ecclesiastical questions connected with his subject
+have been discussed, but they have contributed largely to the materials,
+offensive and defensive, which the combatants have employed. Ussher,
+Pearson, Churton, and Cureton, have been English champions whose merits
+all have acknowledged. The Bishop of Durham has now entered the lists to
+support what has been proved sound in their conclusions, to remove what
+was weak, and do battle for the truth. An impartial English public will
+appreciate the gravity of this challenge, and may be trusted to grant or
+withhold the victory he puts forth his best powers to win.</p>
+
+<p>The volumes lend themselves by their construction to an easy statement
+of their contents, if those contents by their fulness must be of
+necessity the despair of critic and reviewer. First there is the life of
+the Saint, then the discussion of the manuscripts and versions which
+delineate the Saint and his literary remains. These are followed by
+exhaustive discussions upon all that tells for or against their
+genuineness, the whole being treated both historically and critically.
+Such will be found, briefly stated, the mode of discussing the life and
+works both of St. Ignatius of Antioch and of St. Polycarp of Smyrna; and
+two results will reward a patient persual of these volumes. The Bishop
+has indeed limited these results to the study of the Ignatian Epistles,
+but&mdash;under his guidance&mdash;the reader will find what is affirmed of one to
+be true of both:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Ignatian Epistles are an exceptionally good
+training-ground for the student of early Christian
+literature and history. They present in typical and
+instructive forms the most varied problems, textual,
+exegetical, doctrinal, and historical. One who has
+thoroughly grasped these problems will be placed in
+possession of a master key which will open to him vast
+storehouses of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>'But' (continues the Bishop) 'I need not say that their
+educational value was not the motive which led me to spend
+so much time over them. The destructive criticism of the
+last half century is, I think, fast spending its force. In
+its excessive ambition it has "o'erleapt itself." It has not
+indeed been without its use. It has led to a thorough
+examination and sifting of ancient documents. It has
+exploded not a few errors, and discovered or established not
+a few truths. For the rest, it has by its directness and
+persistency stimulated investigation and thought on these
+subjects to an extent which a less aggressive criticism
+would have failed to secure. The immediate effect of the
+attack has been to strew the vicinity of the fortress with
+heaps of ruins. Some of these were best cleared away without
+hesitation or regret; but in other cases the rebuilding is a
+measure demanded by truth and prudence alike. I have been
+reproached by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span> my friends for allowing myself to be diverted
+from the more congenial task of commenting on St. Paul's
+Epistles; but the importance of the position seemed to me to
+justify the expenditure of much time and labour in
+"repairing a breach" not indeed in the "House of the Lord"
+itself, but in the immediately outlying buildings.'</p></div>
+
+<p>St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp (together with St. Clement of Rome) are
+the links which connect the Apostolic age proper with the Fathers of the
+second and third centuries; and this fact has made them and their scanty
+literature the hope and despair, the pride and the scorn, of opposing
+factions. In the whirl and confusion of discordant criticisms it is
+everything to study and to build up by the help of one who has caught
+the spirit of the master-lives he expounds. There breathes throughout
+the volumes of the Bishop of Durham the spirit of St. Ignatius's
+counsel&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Speak to each man severally after the manner of God. Bear
+the maladies of all, as a perfect athlete. Where there is
+much toil, there is much gain. If thou lovest good scholars,
+this is not thankworthy in thee. Rather bring the more
+pestilent to submission by gentleness.... The season
+requireth thee, as pilots require winds, or as a
+storm-tossed mariner a haven, that it may attain unto God.
+Be sober, as God's athlete. The prize is incorruption and
+life eternal, concerning which thou also art
+persuaded.'&mdash;(Ep. of St. Ignatius to St. Polycarp, I, 2.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Ignatius of Antioch: Men of old loved to find in his name (or its
+Syriace quivalent, Nurono, &#965;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#945; = &#960;&#965;&#961;, <i>fire</i>) a prescience
+of the torch of divine love which blazed in him. The fancy may pass, if
+etymologically unsound; for Ignatius, 'the Inflamed,' was a true child
+of the fiery East. Contrast him and his letters with St. Clement of Rome
+and his Epistle to the Corinthians. Nothing is more notable in the Roman
+'than the calm equable temper,' the 'sweet reasonableness.' He is
+essentially a <i>moderator</i>. On the other hand, impetuosity, fire,
+strong-headedness, are impressed on every sentence in the Epistles of
+Ignatius. He is by his very nature an <i>impeller</i> of men. Both are
+intense, though in different ways. In Clement, the intensity of
+moderation dominates and guides his conduct. In Ignatius it is the
+intensity of passion&mdash;passion for doing and suffering&mdash;which drives him
+onward. In Clement we listen to the voice of a judge delivering calmly
+his sentence from his throne; in Ignatius we</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'are startled by the ringing cry of the trumpet-call&mdash;sharp,
+stirring, penetrating&mdash;sounding for the battle. The fire of
+the hot East bursts in, like a sun, strong and impassioned;
+a vivid personality, in flame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> with love, flashes in upon
+the world, quivering as a sword of the cherubim; a rhetoric
+in which the rapid, electric thought breaks out of the
+strained and formless chaos of the <i>imagination</i>, as
+lightning out of the rolling and dark thunder-cloud; a
+theology, which, by the intense passion of metaphor, forces
+an almost violent entrance into the secrets of the Most
+High; a morality which can carry forward into the heights of
+holiness the madness of faith, the extravagance of zeal, the
+recklessness of enthusiasm, the audacity of love, dragging
+them into the service of Christ at the chariot-wheels of
+God's triumph&mdash;such are the characteristics of Ignatius of
+Antioch.'<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The Roman name of Ignatius (or Egnatius) tells nothing as to his birth
+or origin. It was not unknown in Syria and Palestine, and was sometimes
+borne by Jews. But another and a second name&mdash;Theophorus&mdash;of regular
+recurrence in the seven genuine Epistles records at least his spiritual
+birth. Ignatius probably assumed the name of 'the God-bearer' at the
+time of his conversion or his baptism; the precedent lay before him of a
+Saul commemorating a critical incident in his career (Acts xiii. 9) by a
+similar adoption of a name; and that assumed by Ignatius became in its
+turn an epithet freely applied to the Fathers at the &#338;cumenical
+councils. The name gave birth to more than one beautiful legend. Was not
+Ignatius, according to the Eastern belief, the 'God-borne' &#920;&#917;&#8001;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;, the very child whom the Lord took into His arms (St. Mark
+ix. 36, 37)? Was he not the 'God-bearer' &#920;&#949;&#959;&#966;&#8001;&#961;&#959;&#962; on the
+fragments of whose heart according to Western tradition, was found
+stamped in golden letters the name of Jesus Christ? Whether he were a
+slave or not must remain uncertain. It is a more probable deduction from
+his own language that he&mdash;the 'untimely birth,'<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>&mdash;the 'one born out
+of due time' and 'the last' of the faithful, had been rescued from a
+pagan life, such as Antioch on the Orontes, the home of panders and
+dancing girls, and 'Daphnici mores' would have applauded.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'His,' says Bishop Lightfoot, 'was one of those "broken"
+natures out of which God's heroes are made. If not a
+persecutor of Christ, if not a foe to Christ, as seems
+probable, he had at least been for a considerable portion of
+his life an alien from Christ. Like St. Paul, like
+Augustine, like Francis Xavier, like Luther, like John
+Bunyan, he could not forget that his had been a dislocated
+life; and the memory of the catastrophe, which had shattered
+his former self, filled him with awe and thanksgiving, and
+fanned the fervour of his devotion to a white heat.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span></p><p>There is no chronological inconsistency in supposing that Ignatius was a
+disciple of some Apostle, if nothing can be affirmed as to the date of
+his accession to the ministry or episcopate. On the supposition that he
+was martyred, as an old man, about <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 110, his birth may be placed
+about <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 40. When 25 years of age, or in <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 65, companionship
+would still have been opened to him with St. Peter and St. Paul; or, if
+his teacher were St. John, his conversion may be brought to <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 90,
+when he would be about 50 years of age. Confessedly all this is
+conjectural or traditional, as are also any details of episcopal
+administration.' A 'pitchy darkness' envelopes the life and work of
+Ignatius, till it is 'at length illumined by a vivid but transient flash
+of light.' The story of Ignatius begins and ends with the story of his
+death. 'If his martyrdom had not rescued him from obscurity, he would
+have remained like his predecessor Euodius, a mere name.' His martyrdom
+has made him a distinct and living personality, a true father of the
+Church, a teacher and example to all time.'</p>
+
+<p>Thrilling though the narrative of this martyrdom must ever be, the
+barest outline only can be given here. The Martyrologies, if they are to
+be set aside as not containing authentic history, will fascinate afresh
+the student who turns to them to find in the notes and discussions light
+cast upon many a critical and ecclesiastical problem. The genuine
+Epistles have furnished the Bishop with the materials of a sketch of
+terror which every one will read with the deepest interest.</p>
+
+<p>For some unknown reason the Church of Antioch was by God's will deprived
+of its venerable head; and with other 'convicts,' collected from the
+provinces to be</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Butcher'd to make a Roman holiday.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Ignatius was led Romeward. His journey lay along a route which in part
+had been traversed by Xerxes. The procession of the Persian, foremost
+among his myriads of men for beauty and stature, halting near Sardis to
+decorate a beautiful plane-tree with golden ornaments, and commit it to
+the custody of an 'immortal'<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> is in vivid contrast to the procession
+of 'criminals,' the Christian leader 'bound amidst ten leopards (or
+soldiers) who wax worse when kindly treated,' halting also at Sardis,
+his own decoration the 'bonds' which are to him 'spiritual pearls,' and
+at Smyrna, writing letters which shall make him immortal.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> At Troas,
+like another St. Paul, he looked upon the shores of the Europe which was
+in later ages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span> to rise up and call them blessed; and from thence he
+wrote how prepared, how eager he was to meet the 'fire, the sword, the
+wild beasts,' how to be 'near to the sword was to be near to God; to be
+encircled by wild beasts was to be encircled by God.' And then Rome at
+last!&mdash;among those who thirsted for his blood, among those whose very
+love he dreaded lest it should do him the injury of keeping him from
+martyrdom. Touching is the appeal he had sent before him to the Church
+'filled with the grace of God without wavering and filtered clear from
+every foreign stain':&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through them I can
+attain unto God. I am God's wheat, and I am ground by the
+teeth of wild beasts that I may be found pure bread of
+Christ. Entice the wild beasts that they may become my
+sepulchre and may leave no part of my body behind, so that I
+may not, when I am fallen asleep, be burdensome to any one.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Into the colossal pile, erected for the display of the bloodiest of
+inhuman crimes, he was led; and his own impassioned appeal was answered:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Come fire and cross, and grapplings with wild beasts! Come
+cuttings and manglings, wrenching of bones, hacking of
+limbs, crushings of my whole body! Come cruel tortures of
+the devil to assail me! Only be it mine to attain unto Jesus
+Christ!'</p></div>
+
+<p>Men, with tear-stained faces, looked away from his death to 'form
+themselves'&mdash;as he had bidden them&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'into a chorus in love and sing to the Father in Jesus
+Christ. God had vouchsafed that the Bishop from Syria should
+be found in the West, having summoned him from the East.
+Good was it to set from this world unto God, that he might
+rise unto Him.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Love is perhaps wrong in asserting that his remains were brought back to
+Antioch: it is unerringly right in having raised the Epistle to the
+Romans&mdash;'his p&aelig;an prophetic of his coming victory'&mdash;to be the martyr's
+manual of a grateful posterity.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The glory of Ignatius as a martyr,' writes the Bishop of
+Durham, 'has commended his lessons as a doctor. His teaching
+on matters of theological truth and ecclesiastical order was
+barbed and fledged by the fame of his constancy in that
+supreme trial of his faith.'</p></div>
+
+<p>If interest in the heresies he combated may be said to be confined
+to-day to scholars who study them as a chapter in heresiology, or seek
+in them a bone of contention, the interest in the points of
+ecclesiastical order delineated by him was never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span> more intense than now.
+Only last year the testimony of the Ignatian Epistles to the burning
+question of Apostolical succession was one point in the discussion
+between Canon Liddon of St. Paul's and Dr. Hatch; this year, the view
+presented by the Bishop of Durham meets with its ablest antagonist in
+Dr. Harnack. In very truth the letters of the martyr have been the
+battlefield of the controversy, which affirms or disallows the threefold
+ministry of the Church of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>It will be perceived at once how much turns, not first upon the
+interpretation of the Epistles, but upon the genuineness of the text
+presenting itself for interpretation. What is the text? Never before
+have the lovers of textual criticism had the opportunity of examining
+and answering this question as they have now in the Bishop of Durham's
+volumes. He first describes at length the Manuscripts and Versions, on
+which a true text may be reasonably founded, and then gives the text,
+together with the Versions, accompanied by Introductions and Notes which
+leave nothing to desire. The labour necessary for massing and bringing
+together all this information is only equalled by the exactness and
+orderliness with which it is presented. But the Bishop writes not only
+for the scholar, but for the man of general culture and intelligence,
+who can enter with interest into a problem historical and antiquarian,
+as well as textual and critical. To many the battle of the giants, over
+the 'long,' the 'middle,' and the 'short,' form or recension of the
+Ignatian Epistles, will be an intellectual treat, as he watches the
+fence and scholarship of the various disputants. He will see that in
+literary as in political controversy the spirit of compromise is to-day
+in the ascendant, and that 'middle'-men have for once their value.</p>
+
+<p>To explain these terms. By the 'short' form is meant that which consists
+of <i>three</i> Epistles only&mdash;to St. Polycarp, to the Ephesians, and to the
+Romans. This exists only in a Syraic version. By the second, 'the middle
+form,' are understood these three Epistles, and four more, namely,
+Epistles to the Smyrn&aelig;ans, Magnesians, Philadelphians, and Trallians.
+This form is originally Greek, and is found also in Latin, Armenian,
+and&mdash;in a fragmentary state&mdash;in Syriac and Coptic. The third or 'long'
+form, contains the seven already enumerated in a more expanded state,
+together with six others, the recension being in a Greek and in a Latin
+translation.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>Practically the contest as to the truest form has been reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span> to a
+duel between the 'short' and the 'middle.' The 'long' form can be shown
+to be the work of an unknown author, probably of the latter half of the
+fourth century, and constructed from the genuine Ignatian Epistles by
+interpolation, alteration and omission. But the 'long' form died hard,
+and mainly through the thrusts of our own Ussher.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The history of the Ignatian Epistles,' says the Bishop, 'in
+Western Europe before and after the revival of letters, is
+full of interest. In the Middle Ages the spurious and
+interpolated letters alone have any wide circulation.
+Gradually, as the light advances, the forgeries recede into
+the background. Each successive stage diminishes the bulk of
+the Ignatian literature, which the educated mind accepts as
+genuine; till at length the true Ignatius alone remains,
+divested of the accretions which perverted ingenuity has
+gathered about him.'</p></div>
+
+<p>In the 'long' recension there is a letter to one Mary of Cassobola. This
+was made the parent of a 'correspondence between St. John and the
+Virgin,' bearing the name of Ignatius: and it is not improbably
+connected with the outburst of Mariolatry in the eleventh and following
+centuries. But with 'the first streak of intellectual dawn this Ignatian
+spectre vanished into its kindred darkness.' The forgery was 'consigned
+to the limbo of foolish and forgotten things.' This pretender set aside,
+St. Ignatius was represented in Western Europe by the epistles of the
+'Long' recension. The Latin text was printed in 1498, and the Greek in
+1557. At first no doubt was felt about their genuineness. Gradually,
+however, unwelcome critics pointed out gross anachronisms and blunders.
+Men, with unpleasant habits of comparison, noted that Eusebius, the
+Church historian (C. <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 310-25), quoted from only seven epistles, and
+that the divergence of the 'long' text from that given by early
+Christian writers<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> fully warranted the comment of Ussher, that it was
+difficult to imagine 'eundem legere se Ignatium qui veterum &aelig;tate
+legebatur.' Theological and ecclesiastical prejudice lent bitterness to
+the rising strife. On the Continent, Reformer and Romanist ranged
+themselves in opposite camps: the one quoting with delight passages
+which favoured Roman supremacy, or advocated Episcopacy; the other
+throwing them over as 'nursery stories' (or 'silly tales,' <i>n&aelig;nia</i>), and
+denouncing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span> 'the insufferable impudence of those who equipped themselves
+with ghosts like these for the purpose of deceiving' (Calvin). After the
+publication of the edition of Vedelius, a Genevan Professor, in 1623,
+Anglican writers, such as Whitgift, Hooker, and Andrewes, seem to have
+accepted without hesitation the twelve (the seven named by Eusebius and
+five others) contained in that edition; but in England as on the
+Continent, the absence of so much, which could alone lead men to a right
+conclusion, prevented the consideration of the question on its true
+merits:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Episcopacy was the burning question of the day; and the
+sides of the combatants in the Ignatian controversy were
+already predetermined for them by their attitude towards
+this question. Every allowance should be made for their
+following their prepossessions, where the evidence seemed so
+evenly balanced. On the one hand, external testimony was so
+strongly in favour of the genuineness of certain Ignatian
+letters; on the other hand, the only Ignatian letters known
+were burdened with difficulties. At the very eve of Ussher's
+revelation, a fierce literary war broke out on this very
+subject of Episcopacy&mdash;evoked by the religious and political
+troubles of the times.'</p></div>
+
+<p>On the one side were Hall's (Bishop of Exeter) 'Episcopacy by Divine
+Right asserted' (1639), and 'An Humble Remonstrance' on behalf of
+Liturgy and Episcopacy (1641); Ussher's 'The original of Bishops and
+Metropolitans,' and Jeremy Taylor's 'Of the Sacred Order and Offices of
+Episcopacy' (1642); on the other, the five Presbyterian ministers whose
+initials composed the monstrous name Smectymnuus,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> issued their
+'Answer to the Book entituled an Humble Remonstrance' (1641), and
+Milton, in his short treatise 'Of Prelatical Episcopacy' (1641),
+fulminated with 'fiery eloquence and reckless invective' against Ussher.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Had God,' wrote Milton, 'intended that we should have
+sought any part of useful instruction from Ignatius,
+doubtless He would not have so ill-provided for our
+knowledge as to send him to our hands in this broken and
+disjointed plight; and if He intended no such thing, we do
+injuriously in thinking to taste better the pure evangelic
+manna by seasoning our mouths with the tainted scraps and
+fragments from an unknown table, and searching among the
+verminous and polluted rags dropped overworn from the
+toiling shoulders of Time, with these deformedly to quilt
+and interlace the entire, the spotless, and undecaying robe
+of Truth. What impiety,' he added,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span> 'the confronting and
+paralleling the sacred verity of St. Paul with the offals
+and sweepings of antiquity, that met as accidently and
+absurdly as Epicurus his atoms to patch up a Leucippean
+Ignatius.'</p></div>
+
+<p>'Out of his own mouth,' says Bishop Lightfoot, 'he was soon convicted.'
+The "better provision for knowledge" came full soon. To the critical
+genius of Ussher belongs the honour of restoring the true Ignatius.
+Ussher observed that the quotations from this Father in three English
+writers, Robert (Grosseteste) of Lincoln (c. 1250), John Tyssington (c.
+1381), and William Wodeford (c. 1396), agreed&mdash;not with texts hitherto
+known (the Greek and Latin of the 'long' Recension), but&mdash;with the
+quotations in Eusebius and Theodoret. He concluded that somewhere in the
+libraries of England he ought to find MSS. of a version corresponding to
+this earlier text of Ignatius: and he discovered two&mdash;(1.) <i>Caiensis</i>
+395 [L<sub>1</sub>], a MS. given to Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge, in
+1444 by Walter Crome; and (2.) <i>Montacutianus</i> [L<sub>2</sub>], a parchment from
+the library of Bishop Montague or Montacute, of Norwich. Of the first a
+transcript was made for Archbishop Ussher, and is still in the library
+of Dublin University (D.3.II), and is dated 20 June, 1631. It is full of
+inaccuracies, arising sometimes from indifference to spelling on the
+part of the transcriber, or to carelessness and inattention, but most
+frequently from ignorance of the numerous and perplexing contractions.
+The second has disappeared, probably on the day when Parliament ordered
+the Archbishop's books to be seized and confiscated (1643). Bishop
+Lightfoot has in part restored it by drawing attention to the collation
+of this Montacute MS., which occurs between the lines or in the margin
+of the Dublin transcript of the Caius MS. Archbishop Ussher's
+examination of the Latin version, thus discovered, induced in his mind a
+suspicion that Bishop Grosseteste was himself the translator. A marginal
+note, for example, betrayed the nationality of its author; 'Incus est
+instrumentum fabri; dicitur Anglice <i>anfeld</i> [anvil].' Who so likely to
+have had the ability to translate from a Greek version as Robert
+Grosseteste, one of the very few Greek scholars of his age? Evidence is
+not wanting that the Ignatian Epistles were imported from Greece, and
+translated under the Bishop's direction by one or other of the Greek
+scholars who were with him: and it is significant, in connection with
+this point, that Tyssington and Wodeford belonged to the Franciscan
+Convent at Oxford to which Grosseteste left his books.</p>
+
+<p>The result of Ussher's discovery was to determine, that this Latin
+translation&mdash;valuable for critical purposes on account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> its extreme
+literalness<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>&mdash;represented the Ignatius known to the Fathers of the
+fourth and fifth centuries. The Greek text still remained unknown, and
+Ussher attempted to restore it from the 'long' recension by the aid of
+his newly discovered Latin version. This he did by bringing the former
+as nearly as possible into conformity with the latter. Ussher's book
+appeared in 1644. It was marred by one blot. Eusebius had mentioned
+seven Epistles, but Ussher&mdash;deceived by a mistake on the part of St.
+Jerome&mdash;exscinded the Epistle to Polycarp, and condemned it as spurious.
+Two years later, Isaac Voss published the Greek of six Epistles from a
+Florentine MS., the Epistle to the Romans having disappeared from the
+copy; and this omission was finally rectified in 1689 by Ruinart. From
+the middle of the seventeenth century disputants ceased to trouble
+themselves about the 'long' form. Controversy, presently to be noted,
+raged about the Vossian letters, Daill&eacute; (1666) attacking them, Pearson
+defending them.</p>
+
+<p>It is a great leap to the year 1845, but not till then did a new era
+dawn upon the questions at issue. It was in that year that Cureton
+published the 'Antient Syriac Version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius to
+St. Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the Romans.' This version was
+discovered in two MSS. at the British Museum, and contained the Epistles
+named in a shorter form than either of the Greek or Latin texts.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
+Cureton's contention was that he had discovered the genuine Ignatius,
+and that the remaining four Epistles of the Vossian collection, as well
+as the additional portions of these three, were forgeries. Cureton was
+opposed by Dr. Wordsworth, the late Bishop of Lincoln, then Canon of
+Westminster, and defended by Bunsen. There followed quickly the
+<i>Vindici&aelig; Ignatian&aelig;</i> (1846) and <i>Corpus Ignatianum</i> (1849), in which
+Cureton was considered to have not only refuted his adversary, but also
+to have presented arguments which rallied to his standard Ritschl,
+Lipsius, Pressens&eacute;, Ewald, Milman, and B&ouml;hringer. Opposition to
+Cureton's view was not, however, wanting. The Orientalists, Petermann
+and Merx, united with the Conservative critical school, represented by
+Denzinger and Uhlhorn, in preferring the Vossian collection; while the
+T&uuml;bingen school (Baur and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> Hilgenfeld) opposed itself to Ignatian
+letters, short, middle, or long, as utterly subversive of their theories
+of the growth of the Canon, and of the history of the Early Church. The
+Bishop of Durham was himself, at that time on Cureton's side, 'led
+captive' (as he says) 'for a time by the tyranny of this dominant
+force.' We can but record the change in his opinions, and leave to the
+reader to follow, in the Bishop's own pages, the reasons which induced
+him to abandon a method and decline results that would not stand the
+test of a searching criticism. Independent investigation of the
+phenomena of the Armenian version and of the Syriac fragments led him to
+regard the 'short' or Curetonian recension as an abridgment or
+mutilation, rather than the nucleus, of the 'middle' or Vossian form;
+and Zahn's monograph, <i>Ignatius von Antiochien</i>(1873), never yet
+answered, dealt a fatal blow at the claims of the Curetonian letters.
+Since then Lipsius has been convinced by Merx; Renan and Harnack are
+agreed; and most scholars will come to the conclusion, that through the
+Bishop of Durham's own serious investigation of the diction and style of
+the 'short' form, 'the last sparks of its waning life have been
+extinguished.' The collection was directed by no doctrinal, Eutychian or
+Monophysite, motive, nor composed (as Hefele suggested) in support of
+moral aim or monastic piety. It is simply a 'loose and perfunctory
+curtailment of the middle form, neither epitome nor extract, but
+something between the two,' and to be dated about the year <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 400 or
+somewhat earlier.</p>
+
+<p>The ground having been thus cleared from the accretions of the 'long'
+form and the mutilations of the 'short,' the Bishop of Durham considers
+in the next place the genuineness of the seven Epistles known to
+Eusebius, and preserved to us not only in the original Greek, but also
+in Latin and other translations. It is a bitter reflection, that
+discussion on this subject was (and&mdash;in a less degree&mdash;is still) evoked,
+not so much by critical and textual variations and difficulties, as by
+the exigencies of party spirit and theological animosity. A dreary, if
+necessary, page of ecclesiastical history has to be studied, when French
+Protestant and English Puritan turned passionately against the discovery
+of Ussher and Voss. It is small comfort to the charitably minded to be
+told that, had no Daill&eacute; attacked<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> the Ignatian letters, Pearson
+would not have stepped forward as their champion.</p>
+
+<p>The consideration of the genuineness of the Seven Epistles falls
+naturally under the head of external and internal evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The Bishop gives his conclusion on the external evidence in the
+following words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'(1.) No Christian writings of the second century, very few
+writings of antiquity, whether Christian or pagan, are so
+well authenticated as the Epistles of Ignatius. If the
+Epistle of Polycarp be accepted as genuine, the
+authentication is perfect. (2.) The main ground of objection
+against the genuineness of the Epistle of Polycarp is its
+authentication of the Ignatian Epistles. Otherwise there is
+every reason to believe that it would have passed
+unquestioned. (3.) The Epistle of Polycarp itself is
+exceptionally well authenticated by the testimony of his
+disciple Iren&aelig;us. (4.) All attempts to explain the phenomena
+of the Epistle of Polycarp, as forged or interpolated to
+give colour to the Ignatian Epistles, have signally failed.'</p></div>
+
+<p>These four propositions sum up an examination minute and masterful. Not
+only is the testimony of the Epistle of Polycarp adduced, but also that
+of Iren&aelig;us; that of the letter of the Smyrn&aelig;ans, giving the account of
+the martyrdom of Polycarp; that of Lucian, and that of Origen (middle of
+third century). After the age of Eusebius (half a century later than
+Origen) 'no early Christian writing outside the Canon is attested by
+witnesses so many and so various in the ages of the Councils and
+subsequently.' Dr. Harnack, however, is opposed to the Bishop's
+conclusions, and considers that, 'if we do not retain the Epistle of
+Polycarp, the external evidence on behalf of the Ignatian Epistles is
+exceedingly weak, and hence is highly favourable to the suspicion that
+they are spurious.' This is not the place to enter into the dispute. We
+can but record our opinion, that in the Bishop's pages Dr. Harnack's
+objections are met by anticipation.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The internal evidence is treated by the Bishop under six heads.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Historical and Geographical Circumstances dealing specially with
+the condemnation and the journey to Rome. Under this section are
+collected also the personal notices yielding their testimony to the
+genuineness of the letters in a manner not less striking, because
+incidental and allusive, than the testimony of the geographical section.
+The reader will linger here over the thought of the consolation and
+refreshment brought to the good Ignatius on his way to martydom. We
+learn to love Crocus and Alce, 'names,' says Ignatius, 'beloved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span> by me,'
+Burrhus and the widow of Epitropus, for the love they bore the Saint; we
+learn to see in the Bishop of Durham's pages how such names bear
+undesigned testimony to the Epistles which record them.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Theological Polemics.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Ecclesiastical Conditions. To these we shall return immediately,
+after a few words on&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>4. The Literary Obligations, 5, The Personality of the Writer, and 6,
+The Style and Diction of the Letters. As regards the Literary
+Obligations, the Bishop lays down the following maxim: 'A primary test
+of age in any early Christian writing is the relation which the notices
+of the words and deeds of Christ and His Apostles bear to the Canonical
+writings;' and he adds, 'Tried by this test, the Ignatian Epistles
+proclaim their early date. There is no sign whatever in them of a Canon
+or authoritative collection of Books of the New Testament.' There are
+frequent references to the facts of Christ's life, death, and
+resurrection, and Gospel sayings are given; but there is 'not a single
+reference to written evangelical records, such as the "Memoirs of the
+Apostles," which occupy so large a place in Justin Martyr.' The same
+holds good of the Apostolic Epistles.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'I would ask,' the Bishop concludes, 'any reader who desires
+to apprehend the full force of these (facts with reference
+to Ignatius) to read a book or two of Iren&aelig;us continually,
+and mark the contrast in the manner of dealing with the
+Evangelical narratives and the Apostolic letters. He will
+probably allow that an interval of two generations or more
+is not too long a period to account for the difference of
+treatment.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The personality of the writer is no doubt unusual. A power of
+communication with angels,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> 'extravagant' humility and
+self-depreciation;<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> and a not less 'extravagant' desire for martyrdom
+(confined, however, to the Epistle to the Romans), are not certainly
+what a later age commended or found in the Martyrs; but due allowance
+being made for the temperament of the Saint and the circumstances of the
+case, 'it is a picture much more explicable as the autotype of a real
+person than as the invention of a forger.'</p>
+
+<p>Once more, the Style and Diction of the Letters may be, as Daill&eacute; and
+his followers have thought, 'forced and unnatural' in the use of images,
+'confused' as to language, and 'bombastic' as to diction. But what then?
+asks the Bishop:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'What security did his position as an Apostolic Father give
+that he should write simply and plainly, that he should
+avoid solecisms, that his language should never he
+disfigured by bad taste or faulty rhetoric?'</p>
+
+<p>'It may not,' he continues, 'be considered very good taste
+to draw out the metaphor of a hauling engine (Ephes. 9)&mdash;to
+compare the Holy Spirit to the rope, the faith of the
+believers to the windlass, &amp;c. But on what grounds, prior to
+experience, have we any more right to expect either a
+faultless taste or a pure diction in a genuine writer at the
+beginning of the second century, than in a spurious writer
+at the end of the same?'</p></div>
+
+<p>Elaborate compounds, Latinisms, reiterations, are no proof of
+spuriousness.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, so much on these as on so-called anachronisms that
+assailants have attacked the letters. In every instance a supposed
+success has ended in a reverse. Thus the term 'leopard,' applied to the
+soldiers who conveyed Ignatius,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> was said to have been unknown before
+the age of Constantine; and it was argued that the forger of these
+letters had antedated the word by two centuries. Pearson pointed out an
+example of the word about <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 202; but the Bishop of Durham has found
+it in a rescript of the Emperors Marcus and Commodus (<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 177-80), and
+in an early treatise written by Galen, which carries it back within
+about half a century of Ignatius. Evidently it was then a familiar term.
+Another alleged anachronism is the use of the term 'Catholic
+Church.'<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Cureton and others have urged, that a period of full fifty
+years must have intervened between the time when Ignatius wrote and the
+first trace we find of the term 'Catholic Church.' This, says Bishop
+Lightfoot, 'is founded on the confusion of two wholly different
+things'&mdash;Catholic as a technical, and Catholic as a general term.
+Centuries before the Christian era, the word Catholic &#954;&#945;&#952;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#962; is found in the sense of 'universal'; both before and
+after the age of Ignatius it is common in writers, classical and
+ecclesiastical. 'In this sense the word might have been used at any
+time, and by any writer, from the first moment that the Church began to
+spread, while yet the conception of its unity was present to the mind.'
+It was only later that the term 'Catholic' acquired a technical
+meaning&mdash;orthodoxy as opposed to heresy, conformity as opposed to
+dissent. In Smyrn. 8, 'where Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic
+Church,' the word is used in its sense of 'universal,' as contrasted
+with the Smyrn&aelig;an or local Church over which Polycarp presided. Not only
+is its use here not indicative of a later<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span> date, but this archaic sense
+emphasizes an early one. After the word 'Catholic' had acquired its
+later and technical use, it could not have been employed in its earliest
+meaning without the risk of considerable confusion.</p>
+
+<p>We must refer our readers to a similarly thorough refutation of the
+charge of anachronism brought against these letters on account of their
+use of the term 'Christian,' and suggest to them an examination of the
+interesting proofs of the position next secured,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> that certain
+characteristics of style and diction tell largely in favour of their
+genuineness.</p>
+
+<p>We turn, after noting the summary of the internal evidences attesting
+the genuineness of these letters, to the headings omitted (2, 3) on the
+Theological Polemics and the Ecclesiastical Conditions. That summary is
+as follows (i. 407):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The external testimony to the Ignatian Epistles being so
+strong, only the most decisive marks of spuriousness in the
+Epistles themselves, as, for instance, proved anachronism,
+would justify us in suspecting them as interpolated, or
+rejecting them as spurious.&mdash;But so far is this from being
+the case, that one after another the anachronisms urged
+against these letters have vanished in the light of further
+knowledge.&mdash;As regards the argument which Daill&eacute; calls
+"palmary"&mdash;the prevalence of episcopacy as a recognized
+institution&mdash;we may say boldly that all the facts point the
+other way. If the writer of these letters had represented
+the churches of Asia Minor as under presbyterial government,
+he would have contradicted all the evidence which, without
+one dissentient voice, points to episcopacy as the
+established form of Church government in these districts
+from the close of the first century.&mdash;The circumstances of
+the condemnation, captivity, and journey of Ignatius, which
+have been a stumbling-block to some modern critics, did not
+present any difficulty to those who lived near the time, and
+therefore knew best what might be expected under the
+circumstances; and they are sufficiently borne out by
+example, more or less analogous, to establish their
+credibility.&mdash;The objections to the style and language are
+beside the purpose.&mdash;A like answer holds with regard to any
+extravagances in sentiment, or opinion, or character.&mdash;While
+the investigation of the contents of these Epistles has
+yielded this negative result in dissipating the objections,
+it has at the same time had a high positive value, as
+revealing indications of a very early date, and therefore
+presumably of genuineness, in the surrounding circumstances,
+more especially in the types of false doctrine which it
+combats, in the ecclesiastical status which it presents, and
+in the manner in which it deals with the evangelical and
+apostolic documents.&mdash;Moreover, we discover in the personal
+environments of the assumed writer, and more especially in
+the notices of his route, many subtle coincidences which we
+are constrained to regard as undesigned, and which seem
+altogether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span> beyond the reach of a forger.&mdash;So likewise the
+peculiarities in style and diction of the Epistles, as also
+in the representation of the writer's character, are much
+more capable of explanation in a genuine writing than in a
+forgery.&mdash;While external and internal evidence thus combine
+to assert the genuineness of these writings, no satisfactory
+account has been or apparently can be given of them as a
+forgery of a later date than Ignatius. They would be quite
+purposeless as such; for they entirely omit all topics which
+would especially interest any subsequent age.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The Section upon 'Ecclesiastical Conditions' deals with the ministry of
+men, the ministry of women, and the liturgy of the Church. Interesting
+though the two last points are of necessity to any student of Church
+organization and ritual, we pass them by to consider the 'Ecclesiastical
+Polemics.' The Bishop of Durham's view of the ministry of
+men&mdash;especially of episcopacy&mdash;as furnished by the Seven Epistles is
+briefly as follows. The name of Ignatius is inseparably connected with
+the championship of episcopacy. Such extracts as the following
+sufficiently attest the prominence and authority he assigns to the
+office: 'We ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself; 'Vindicate'
+(O Polycarp) 'thine office in things, temporal as well as spiritual. Let
+nothing be done without thy consent, and do thou nothing without the
+consent of God;' 'Give heed (ye Smyrn&aelig;ans) to your bishop, that God also
+may give heed to you;' 'Let no man do anything pertaining to the Church
+without the bishop.' Further, the extension of the episcopate in the
+time of Ignatius is quite clear. He is himself the bishop 'belonging to
+Syria.' He salutes and names the Bishops of Ephesus, of Magnesia, and
+Tralles. In those parts of Asia Minor and Syria, with which he is
+brought into contact, the episcopate properly so called is an
+established and recognized institution. This is in accordance with what
+the Bishop of Durham traces elsewhere in the history of the origin and
+development of episcopacy;<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> but it is not in accordance with Dr.
+Harnack's view. 'The evidence,' says the Bishop, 'points to episcopacy
+as the established form of Church government in these districts from the
+close of the first century.' Not so, says Dr. Harnack:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Ignatius' conception of the position and significance of
+the bishop has its earliest parallel in the original
+conception of the author of the Apostolic Constitutions (<i>i.
+e.</i> the end of the 3d cent.); and the Epistles show that the
+Monarchical Episcopate in Asia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span> Minor was so firmly rooted,
+so highly elevated above all other offices, so completely
+beyond dispute, that on the ground of what we know from
+other sources of early Church history, no single
+investigator would assign the statements under consideration
+to the second, but at the earliest to the third century.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Let the reader, however, look up the references under the head of
+"Apostolical Constitutions" in the Index to vol. i. of the Bishop's
+work, and we shall be very much surprised if he agree with Dr. Harnack's
+first conclusion. Will there not be even a lurking apprehension that Dr.
+Harnack, in arguing from the 'original conception of the author of the
+Apostolic Constitutions,' is confounding the 'long' and the 'middle'
+Recensions of the letters? Possibly the anxiety of determination to fix
+upon the third century rather than the close of the first as the date of
+the establishment of Episcopacy may have been tolerable in the time of
+Daill&eacute;, but is it tolerable or should it be repeated now when the means
+of a far more critical study of the question is open to all? In fact,
+Dr. Harnack is evidently disturbed by the <i>parti pris</i> of his position;
+and he may be said to abandon it immediately for a more negative one:
+but even so, how can a critic with the authorities placed before him
+come even to his second and modified conclusion:&mdash;'The statements of
+Ignatius regarding the rank to which the Episcopate has attained,
+occupy, so far as our knowledge goes, an altogether isolated position in
+the second century.' Isolated! This can be examined upon evidence. The
+point is this: Are there, or are there not, witnesses to show that
+monarchical Episcopacy had been developed in the later years of the
+Apostolic Age? Iren&aelig;us (born c. 130, according to Lipsius) was a scholar
+of Polycarp, and Polycarp was a scholar of St. John. He delighted to
+recal the reminiscences of his teacher, as did Polycarp those of St.
+John. He was a travelled scholar; if born in Asia Minor, he lived at
+Rome during middle life, and was Bishop of Lyons in Gaul in his later
+years. He was probably the most learned Christian of his time. 'The
+appreciation of the position of the man,' urges Bishop Lightfoot, 'is a
+first requisite to an estimate of his evidence.' And what is his
+evidence? Just that which is marked by such development as the man, his
+time, and circumstances, would lead us to expect, when compared with the
+Ignatius, from whom he is separated by about two generations. To
+Ignatius, the bishop is the centre of ecclesiastical unity; so Iren&aelig;us,
+the depositary of Apostolic tradition. Iren&aelig;us overlooks the identity of
+'bishop' and 'presbyter' in the New Testament, and speaks of 'bishops
+<i>and</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> presbyters from Ephesus and the other cities adjoining' coming to
+St. Paul at Miletus. It is to him an undisputed fact, that the bishops
+of his own age traced their succession back in an unbroken line to men
+appointed to the episcopate by the Apostles themselves. Thus he points
+out the sequence of the bishops of the Church of Rome 'founded by the
+blessed Apostles,' St. Peter and St. Paul, up to his own day; and in the
+case of the Church in Smyrna, he finds in Polycarp not only one
+'instructed by Apostles and who had conversed with many who had seen
+Christ,' but also 'one who was appointed bishop in the Church of Smyrna
+by Apostles in Asia.'<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Similar opinions are reflected in many
+passages, and they lead up to this conclusion:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'After every reasonable allowance made for the possibility
+of mistakes in details, the language (of Iren&aelig;us) from a man
+standing in his position with respect to the previous and
+contemporary history of the Church leaves no room for doubt
+as to the early and general diffusion of episcopacy in the
+regions with which he was acquainted.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Yet it is by fastening upon alleged 'mistakes in details,' and through
+counter-conclusions with respect to some of the passages quoted, that
+Dr. Harnack affirms that 'from the words of Iren&aelig;us there is absolutely
+nothing gained in regard to the origin of the episcopate and its spread
+during the period between <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 90 and 140.' His method is somewhat
+vexatious. He takes, for example, the list of the Bishops of Rome, and
+he says, 'Iren&aelig;us communicates this list, and declares that the Apostles
+had <i>ordained</i> Linus as Bishop of Rome;' and he adds, 'that this is
+false can be proved, and is not denied even by Lightfoot.' The
+marvellous part of this statement is, that Iren&aelig;us says nothing of the
+kind. The word 'ordination' does not occur in the passage in question.
+The sentence is far from faithfully translated by the Bishop of
+Durham:<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Linus 'was entrusted with the office of the bishopric' by
+the Apostles. Again, what is 'false'? the whole list, or the statement
+as regards Linus individually? Neither is false when rightly understood,
+and no denial is therefore forthcoming from the Bishop of Durham, or
+required for what is not questioned. But Dr. Harnack&mdash;not satisfied with
+having refuted an imaginary foe&mdash;next proceeds to ask, 'What reliance
+then can we have in the statement of Iren&aelig;us, that Polycarp was ordained
+a bishop by the Apostles'? It might be answered, 'Your first premiss was
+wrong, and until that be mended, further argument is unnecessary.' But
+examine the question on its own merits&mdash;viz.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span> that due to 'an
+appreciation of the position' of Iren&aelig;us&mdash;and its veracity is beyond
+question.</p>
+
+<p>The Bishop of Durham supports the language of Iren&aelig;us by the testimony
+of Polycrates, of Ephesus, his contemporary, if junior; but without
+dwelling upon that and other passages of more general reference, we can
+come nearer to the time of Ignatius by reference to his contemporary,
+Polycarp. We assume, with Bishop Lightfoot, that the testimony of
+Iren&aelig;us to Polycarp is of the highest value; but that assumption is no
+rash one. Every one can verify the value of the testimony by perusing
+the Bishop's interesting pages on the subject. The relation of Polycarp
+to the Apostles has been given above. It is to his language about
+episcopacy that we wish to refer. In Polycarp's letter to the
+Philippians, the Bishop of Smyrna speaks at length about the duties of
+presbyters, deacons, widows, &amp;c., but he makes no mention either of the
+bishop, or&mdash;in other parts where it might have been expected&mdash;of
+obedience due to him. This is naturally explained on the supposition
+that the see was then vacant, or that ecclesiastical organization was
+not fully developed at Philippi. How rash, however, it would be to
+affirm the non-existence of episcopacy, or to raise objections to it
+such as would render incredible the statements of Ignatius, may be
+inferred from the 'Letter of the Smyrn&aelig;ans,' which, speaking of 'the
+glorious martyr Polycarp, who was found an Apostolic and prophetic
+teacher in our own time, a bishop of the Holy Church which is in
+Smyrna,' attests at once the respect paid to the office by the writer of
+the Letter and to the title by which Polycarp himself was usually
+called.</p>
+
+<p>Other contemporaries of Polycarp's were Clement of Rome and Papias. Do
+they give no testimony to the development of monarchical episcopacy in
+the later years of the Apostolic Age? Polycarp, if not acquainted with
+Clement personally, was yet intimately acquainted with his genuine
+letter, the first Epistle to the Corinthians. In this letter there is no
+mention of episcopacy properly so-called. With St. Clement, as in the
+New Testament, bishop and presbyter are convertible terms. He even drops
+all mention of his own name though bishop of the Church in Rome. There
+is not even the 'I' of Polycarp, but a 'we,' which defines that the
+letter is written in the name of the Church and speaks with the
+authority of the Church. The name and personality of the individual are
+absorbed in the Church of which he is the spokesman.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> The same
+phenomena<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> are observed in the letter written by Ignatius to the very
+Church&mdash;Rome&mdash;in which alone they are noticed as occurring. The Epistle
+of Ignatius to the Romans&mdash;save for the mention of his own
+rank&mdash;contains no indication of the existence of the episcopal office,
+inculcates no obedience to bishops, and says not a word about a bishop
+of Rome. A like phenomenon is to be noticed in the next (chronologically
+speaking) document, emanating from the Church of Rome&mdash;viz. the Shepherd
+of Hermas. What does this contrast throughout mean, but that where&mdash;as
+in Asia Minor&mdash;false doctrine and schismatical teachers prevailed, there
+episcopacy was a safeguard; where these were absent&mdash;as in Rome&mdash;there
+the episcopate had not yet assumed the same sharp and well-defined
+monarchical character as in the Eastern churches: and what does this
+contrast tend to disprove but the opinion of Dr. Harnack?&mdash;'Apart from
+the Epistles of Ignatius we do not possess a single witness to the
+existence of the monarchical episcopate in the churches of Asia Minor so
+early as the times of Trajan or Hadrian' (<i>i. e.</i> <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 98-138).</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the other point&mdash;the Theological Polemics&mdash;disputed by
+Harnack, Bishop Lightfoot has dealt with the subject on its positive and
+negative sides respectively. The positive side yields results of real
+importance in attestation of the date of the letters. The heresy
+combated by Ignatius is a type of Gnostic Judaism, the Gnostic element
+manifesting itself in a sharp form of Docetism. This marked type of
+Docetism, far from being a difficulty, is an indication of early date,
+since the tendency of Docetism was to mitigation, as time went on. The
+negative side is educed by cross-questioning the writer's silence. There
+were certain controversies which rent the Church in the middle and
+latter half of the second century. These were such as, first, the
+Paschal controversy (the proper day and mode of celebrating the Paschal
+festival); secondly, the controversy about Montanism, the theatre of
+which was the very region with which these Epistles are concerned. Yet,
+not a word, not a hint is there, that the writer felt any interest in,
+or was disturbed by, anxieties about either. A similar silence points to
+the same conclusion, when we consider the absence of allusion to the
+three great heresiarchs, Basilides, Marcion, and Valentinus. Give to the
+first a period of notoriety conterminous with the reign of Hadrian (<span class="smcap">a.
+d.</span> 117-38), yet there is not the slightest allusion in Ignatius to the
+tenets of the leader or his followers. Place Marcion some years before
+the middle of the second century. Remember that he was a native of Asia
+Minor and taught at Rome that there he was denounced by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span> Polycarp as the
+'first born of Satan;'<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> and that he enjoyed a world-wide reputation
+for evil (according to some), for good (according to others). Yet in the
+Ignatian letters there is not the faintest aquaintance with the man or
+his teaching. Valentinus also taught at Rome (c. <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 140-60), and his
+strange theories about <i>&AElig;ons</i> and Ogdoads, about spiritual, psychical,
+and material men, or any other fantasy of his speculative mythology,
+were not thought beneath the criticism of an Iren&aelig;us, a Clement of
+Alexandria and a Tertullian. Yet no hint is there in the Seven Epistles
+that these thoughts were familiar to the writer. At one time an exultant
+Daill&eacute; found in his reading of 'Magn.' 8 an attack on Valentinianism,
+and consequently a welcome anachronism which proved the writer of the
+letters a forger. The discovery of the true reading has been followed
+not only by the collapse of the objection, but also by the adhesion to
+the belief, that the writer's use of certain expressions is a testimony
+to his existence in a pre-Valentinian epoch, when language had not been
+abused to heretical ends.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Harnack has little to say against the Bishop of Durham's conclusions
+from the negative side of the investigation of these theological
+polemics; but he has much to say against the Bishop's deductions from
+the positive aspect of them. Though, says Bishop Lightfoot,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'in the Trallian and Smyrn&aelig;an letters the writer deals
+chiefly with Docetism, while in the Magnesian and
+Philadelphian letters he seems to be attacking Judaism, yet
+a nearer examination shows the two to be so closely
+interwoven that they can only be regarded as different sides
+of one and the same heresy.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Not so Dr. Harnack. To him</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'the identification of the Judaists and Gnostics in the
+Ingnatian Epistles is quite inadmissible. Ignatius combats
+the Doketists in the Epistle to the Ephesians, the
+Trallians, and the Smyrn&aelig;ans, while in the Epistles to the
+Magnesians and Philadelphians he warns against the
+Ebionistic danger. In the last-named Epistle he warns
+against other tendencies which threatened the unity of the
+Church.'</p></div>
+
+<p>In fact, it is this Epistle to the Philadelphians which, in his opinion,
+has led scholars astray. No one he thinks would have misunderstood 'the
+fact&mdash;that the Judaists in the Epistle to the Magnesians were certainly
+not Doketists, and the Doketists described in the Epistles to the
+Ephesians, Trallians, and Smyrn&aelig;ans were not Judaists&mdash;had the Epistles
+of Ignatius come to us without the Epistle to the Philadelphians.' It
+would be beyond the province of this Review to enter into an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span>
+examination of the arguments adduced on each side; it would also be an
+injustice to the disputants to infer that each selects or presses what
+tells most of his view, but certainly a calm and dispassionate
+inspection of these arguments will lead most men to think Uhlhorn,
+Lipsius, and Lightfoot more correct in their unanimous verdict, that but
+one heresy is attacked in the Ignatian letters, than Hilgenfeld and
+Harnack in their preference of two distinct heresies&mdash;Ebionism and
+Docetism. This latter conclusion can only be reached by treating the
+Letters of Ignatius as Hilgenfeld has treated St. Paul's Epistles to the
+Colossians; the former is attained by critical methods defining the
+Judaism and Gnosticism observable to be but web and woof of one and the
+same fabric.</p>
+
+<p>The very early date, and the consequent genuineness of these Epistles
+are thus the legitimate conclusion from the study of the internal as
+well as external evidences. That date is placed by the Bishop of Durham
+between <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 100-118 in the time of Trajan. Wieseler had placed the
+date of the martyrdom (upon which depends the date of the letters) as
+early as <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 107, Harnack as late as <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 138; and the latter still
+prefers to place them and the Epistle of Polycarp after the year <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>
+130. The earlier date reached by the Bishop of Durham is to him 'a mere
+possibility which is highly improbable, because it is not supported by
+any word in the Epistle, and because it rests only upon a late and very
+problematic witness (Eusebius).' Dr. Harnack's present view is, in all
+essentials, the same as that which he previously held. He has had the
+advantage&mdash;which he courteously acknowledges&mdash;of examining Bishop
+Lightfoot's 'painstaking consideration' of his views held in 1878; but
+nevertheless he considers that the Bishop's method of considering the
+whole question is 'not the proper' one&mdash;that his 'admittedly profound
+learning has contributed little or nothing to the main question,' and
+that 'he has not rightly comprehended the problem.'<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Yet the ordinary
+reader, who examines Dr. Harnack's re-statement of some of his views,
+will feel that to ask the Bishop of Durham to re-examine them will be
+but to ask him to slay afresh the slain. Dr. Harnack still clings, for
+example, to his view, that Polycarp is attacking the Docetism of
+Marcion; a view which, if sound, would convince the writer of an
+anachronism; because in pretending to write between <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 100 and 118 he
+has introduced a heresiarch not then notorious. But his view has been
+shown by Bishop Lightfoot to be fallacious; and all that Dr. Harnack can
+now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span> answer is to repeat his preference for his own interpretation of
+two passages adduced in the argument.</p>
+
+<p>From the amenities of this battlefield of friendly criticism we turn for
+a few concluding remarks to the second and shorter life&mdash;that of
+Polycarp&mdash;which these monumental volumes discuss.</p>
+
+<p>In point of method and treatment, the consideration of the history and
+writings of this saint of the early Church follows the same lines, as
+those followed in the case of St. Ignatius. First, the biography proper.
+Next, one of those collections of passages and documents which render
+these volumes so remarkable. In seventy pages the student will find a
+<i>corpus</i> of original extracts embellished with notes explanatory and
+critical&mdash;Such as Imperial acts and ordinances relating to or affecting
+Christianity; Acts and notices of martyrdoms. Passages from heathen
+writers, containing notices of the Christians; Passages from Christian
+writers illustrating the points at issue&mdash;most helpful to him in
+apprehending not only the history of the persecutions, but also the
+relations between the Church and the Empire, in the reigns of Hadrian
+(<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 117-38), Antoninus Pius (<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 138-61), and Marcus Aurelius (<span class="smcap">a.
+d.</span> 161-80). Then come in successive order the examination of the MSS and
+Versions, a collection of quotations and references, the consideration
+of the genuineness of the 'Epistle of Polycarp' and of the 'Letter to
+the Smyrn&aelig;ans,' closed by a discussion upon the date of the Martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of Christ owes a great debt to Polycarp:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'In him one single link connected the earthly life of Christ
+with the close of the second century, though five or six
+generations had intervened. St. John, Polycarp,
+Iren&aelig;us&mdash;this was the succession which guaranteed the
+continuity of the evangelical record and of the Apostolic
+teaching. The long life of St. John, followed by the long
+life of Polycarp, had secured this result. What the Church
+towards the close of the second century was&mdash;how full was
+its teaching&mdash;how complete its canon&mdash;how adequate its
+organization&mdash;how wise its extension&mdash;we know well enough
+from Iren&aelig;us' extant work. But the intervening period had
+been disturbed by feverish speculation and grave anxieties
+on all sides. Polycarp saw teacher after teacher spring up,
+each introducing some fresh system, and each professing to
+teach the true Gospel. Menander, Cerinthus, Carpocrates,
+Saturninus, Basilides, Cerdon, Valentinus, Marcion&mdash;all
+these flourished during his lifetime, and all taught after
+he had grown up to manhood. Against all such innovations of
+doctrine and practice there lay the appeal to Polycarp's
+personal knowledge. With what feelings he regarded such
+teachers we may learn not only from his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span> own epistle (&sect; 7),
+but from the sayings recorded by Iren&aelig;us, "O good God, for
+what times hast Thou kept me, I recognize the firstborn of
+Satan." He was eminently fitted, too, by his personal
+qualities to fulfil this function as a depositary of
+tradition.... Polycarp's mind was essentially unoriginative.
+It had no creative power. His Epistle is largely made up of
+quotations from the Evangelical and Apostolic writings, from
+Clement of Rome, from the Epistles of Ignatius.... A
+stedfast, stubborn adherence to the lessons of his youth and
+early manhood, an unrelaxing, unwavering hold of "the word
+that was delivered to him from the beginning"&mdash;this, so far
+as we can read the man from his own utterances or from the
+notices of others, was the characteristic of Polycarp. His
+religious convictions were seen to be "founded," as Ignatius
+had said long before (Polyc. 1) "on an immovable rock." He
+was not dismayed by the plausibilities of false teachers,
+but "stood firm as an anvil under the hammer's stroke."
+(<i>ib.</i> 3).'</p></div>
+
+<p>The Church has ever claimed for her Saint not so much the reverence paid
+to the martyr, or the deference due to the ruler, or the teachableness
+powerful in the writer, as the attention obligatory to an 'elder.' Why?
+We may give the reason in the Bishop's words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'While the oral tradition of the Lord's life and of the
+Apostolic teaching was still fresh, the believers of
+succeeding generations not unnaturally appealed to it for
+confirmation against the many counterfeits of the Gospel
+which offered themselves for acceptance. The authorities for
+this tradition were "the Elders." To the testimony of these
+Elders appeal was made by Papias in the first, and by
+Iren&aelig;us in the second generation after the Apostles. With
+Papias the Elders were those who themselves had seen the
+Lord, or had been eye-witnesses of the Apostolic history:
+with Iren&aelig;us the term included likewise persons who, like
+Papias himself, had been acquainted with these
+eye-witnesses. And among these Polycarp held the foremost
+place.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The existing letter to the Philippians is now recognized as a genuine
+work of the Saint; and this on the testimony of internal evidence, quite
+as much as on the direct testimony of Iren&aelig;us, his own disciple. The
+arbitrary method of a Daill&eacute;, the interpolation-theory of Ritschl, and
+the wholesale rejection of the Epistle by Schwegler, Zeller, and
+Hilgenfeld, have ceased to command attention or demand refutation. The
+Epistle is too closely confined to the letters and martyrdom of Ignatius
+to warrant our looking for much refutation in it of existing error; but
+the spirit and counsel of the 'elder' is truly there warning against
+false and hypocritical brethren, and impelling his readers to turn unto
+the word delivered unto them from the beginning.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Never was Christian counsel and sturdy faith more needed than in the
+period covered by the lifetime of Polycarp. The Bishop of Durham
+describes it as 'the most tumultuous period in the religious history of
+the world'; and in connection with the Bishop of Smyrna he notes that 'a
+chief arena of the struggle between creeds and cults was Asia Minor.' If
+in the earlier part of the second century (<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 112) Pliny, in his
+celebrated letter to Trajan,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> deplored what Polycarp may have
+witnessed&mdash;on the one hand, heathen temples deserted and heathen
+sacrifices starved as to their victims; on the other, young and old, man
+and woman, patrician and peasant, bond and free, attracted to and
+mastered by a 'superstition' which affected alike the city and the
+village, the nobleman's mansion and the herdsman's hut, yet the splendid
+successes of Christianity did not blind either saint or philosopher. 'A
+veritable Pagan propaganda,' as Renan calls it, also set in in the
+second century; and when Polycarp died, it was at its height. Everywhere
+was it supported by the reigning emperors. 'The political and truly
+Roman instincts of Trajan were not more friendly to it than the
+arch&aelig;ological tastes, the cosmopolitan interests, and the theological
+levity of Hadrian. From their immediate successors, Antoninus Pius and
+Marcus Aurelius, it received even more solid and efficient support.'</p>
+
+<p>Smyrna, the see of Bishop Polycarp, was fully exposed to the influences
+of this reviving Paganism. The rhetorician, Aristides&mdash;true type of the
+Pagan charlatan who summoned to his aid in subjugating a superstitious
+people the mysterious and occult powers with which astrology and dreams,
+auguries and witchcrafts, invested their possessors&mdash;was himself a
+frequent dweller in Smyrna. Often must he have heard of and despised the
+man branded by the titles, 'the teacher of Asia, the father of the
+Christians, the puller-down of our gods, who teacheth numbers not to
+sacrifice nor worship'<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> which&mdash;like the inscription over his
+crucified Lord&mdash;did unconsciously proclaim the very and only truth.
+Twice did the city of Smyrna, during Polycarp's prime, receive fresh
+honours and privileges for her devotion to the worship of Imperial
+deities. The religious guild of the temples of the Augusti celebrated
+here their festivals with exceptional splendour; the 'theologians' and
+'choristers,' who owed their existence and affluence to the magnificence
+of a Hadrian, not only saluted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span> him as their 'god,' their 'saviour and
+founder,' but by senatorial decree established games&mdash;the Olympia
+Hadrianea&mdash;grotesquely pompous in titular magnificence. Naturally this
+affected the well-being of the infant Church of Christ in Smyrna; but
+that Church was assailed from another quarter, and by the sharpened
+weapons, not of a scornful superiority, but of fanatical hatred. The
+Jews were both numerous and powerful in Smyrna, and two cruel episodes
+in their late national history accentuated their fury against the
+Christians wherever they met with them. The first was the destruction of
+Jerusalem (<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 70). The fugitives from Palestine, who found refuge in
+Smyrna with their fellow-countrymen already settled there, found
+sympathy also&mdash;save from one class, the Christians. Compassion these
+last could feel for men whose best blood had welled over the courts of
+the Temple, whose dearest and nearest had perhaps perished in Jerusalem,
+that 'cage of furious madmen, a city of howling wild beasts and of
+cannibals&mdash;a hell' (Renan); but they knew to be true what a Titus had
+acknowledged, that 'the hand of God' was in the victory of Rome. They
+saw in the downfall of the Holy City the retribution of the Heavenly
+Father for the crucifixion of the Messiah; and sorrow with the sorrow of
+the weeping patriots of Israel they could not and would not. Their
+refusal was the signal for a determination to seize every opportunity of
+revenge; and the second episode, to which we have alluded, is connected
+with a specially furious outburst of maddened passion against Christians
+on the part of the Jews. Hadrian, fifty years after the fall of
+Jerusalem, had resolved upon rearing on its ruins the city of &AElig;lia
+Capitolina. Then flashed forth the rebellion of the Jew Bar-cochba (<span class="smcap">a.
+d.</span> 132-4). The 'Son of the Star,' supported by his standard-bearer,
+Akiba, the greatest of the Rabbins, measured his strength with Rome.
+With mouth breathing forth flames,<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> he inspired his partisans with
+confidence, and his enemies with terror. Flung back, disappointed, and
+slain at Bither, the 'Son of a Lie,' as his disappointed countrymen had
+found him to their cost and re-named him, had yet found opportunities of
+inflicting terrible tortures and agonizing deaths upon those Christians
+in Palestine, who had dared to reject his Messianic claims, and refused
+to blaspheme Christ. And the spirit of vengeance spread from the Holy
+Land to the provinces. Twenty years after the death of the rebel leader,
+the Jews of Smyrna&mdash;probably to Polycarp 'a synagogue of Satan,' as in
+earlier times St. John his master had described<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>them (Rev. ii. 9)&mdash;found their opportunity. Their vengeance then was
+only slaked by the blood of the Christian Bishop.</p>
+
+<p>The Saint's martyrdom was the crowning consummation of the Saint's life.
+With the Bishop of Durham's help we can now collect all that we shall
+probably ever know of both; and to this we turn in conclusion.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>The date of his martyrdom may be accepted as about 155 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span><a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> If
+Polycarp was then 86 years of age, his birth may be placed in <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 60
+or 70, at a time nearly coincident with the date of the destruction of
+Jerusalem. That event was the cause which drove St. John to fix his
+abode ultimately at Ephesus, the traditional home of St. Andrew, and
+near to the Phrygian Hierapolis, where St. Philip the Apostle died and
+was buried. The proximity of Smyrna to Ephesus, and the reputation
+accorded to both in the flattering designation of 'the two eyes' of
+proconsular Asia, would make intercourse between the cities familiar and
+frequent. In the Christian advantages consequent upon such intercourse
+Polycarp had his full share, if it be impossible to assert positively
+that he was a Smyrn&aelig;an by birth, and of Christian parentage. But the
+legends at the close of the fourth century, as embodied in the story of
+Pionius, sought and found for his origin a more romantic, if sad,
+beginning. One night, God's Angel appeared to a widow of Smyrna named
+Callisto, rich in worldly wealth, but still more rich in good work.
+'Go,' he bade her, 'to the Ephesian gate. There you will find two men.
+They have with them a young lad for sale. Give them their price, and
+take and keep the child. He is by birth an Eastern.' The child was
+Polycarp. She did as she was bid. She bought and reared him, and
+eventually left to him all her substance. The fact implied in the last
+words, that Polycarp was a comparatively well-to-do man, is the one fact
+out of the above story supported by more authentic documents. Perhaps
+also the picture of the man, so pleasing and natural, drawn by Pionius,
+may present traits faithful to the original:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The love of knowledge and the fondness of the Scriptures,
+which distinguishes the people of the East, bore rich fruit
+in him. He offered himself a whole offering to God, by
+prayer and study of the Scriptures, by spareness of diet and
+simplicity of clothing, by liberal almsgiving. He was
+bashful and retiring, shunning the busy throngs of men, and
+consorting only with those who needed his assistance. When
+he met an aged wood-carrier outside the walls, he would
+purchase his burden, would carry it himself to the city, and
+would give it to the widows living near the gate. The
+Bishop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span> Bucolus cherished him as a son, and he in turn
+requited his love with filial care and devotion.'</p></div>
+
+<p>But we may catch from real and genuine sources three glimpses of the
+man: in youth as the disciple of St. John, in middle age as the champion
+of Ignatius, in closing life as the teacher of Iren&aelig;us. Of the circle of
+disciples who gathered round St. John, Polycarp is indubitably the most
+famous. He delighted, in his declining years, to tell his younger
+friends what he had himself heard from eye-witnesses of the Lord's life
+on earth; and he would dwell especially on his intercourse with the
+Apostle of Love. There is nothing improbable in the belief, that he was
+ordained to the episcopate by the venerable Apostle. Among his
+contemporaries were Clement, Papias, and Ignatius. Polycarp knew, as has
+been stated, the letter of the great Bishop of Rome, and Papias&mdash;his
+'companion,' as Iren&aelig;us<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> calls him&mdash;became his neighbour at
+Hierapolis. But it is with Ignatius that the younger man is inseparably
+linked. They met, probably for the first (and only) time, at Smyrna when
+the great Bishop of Antioch was on his way to martyrdom at Rome.
+Touching in their affectionateness are the remarks which each passes
+upon each. Polycarp inspires Ignatius with 'love.' The younger man is to
+the older 'most blessed,' 'clothed with grace,' marked by 'fervid
+sincerity,' a man 'whose godly mind is grounded on an immovable rock'
+(Letter to Polycarp). To Polycarp, Ignatius 'the blessed' is the pattern
+of men, 'obedient unto the word of righteousness and practising all
+endurance,' 'encircled in saintly bonds which are the diadems of them
+that be truly chosen of God and our Lord.' The two men parted, never
+again to meet on earth, yet to be linked together by 'martyrdom
+comformable to the Gospel' But ere that 'birthday' arrived, Polycarp had
+to live for nearly half a century; and potent was his influence upon the
+men of a younger generation. Melito, Claudius Apollinaris, and
+Polycrates, famous among the Fathers of Asia, must have known him well;
+Justin Martyr visited him from Ephesus; but mightiest and dearest of all
+was his pupil Iren&aelig;us, the champion of orthodoxy against Gnosticism.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'When I was still a boy,' wrote Iren&aelig;us, '(I was) in company
+with Polycarp in Asia Minor.... I can tell the very place in
+which the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed,
+his goings out and comings in, his manner of life and his
+personal appearance, his discourses which he gave to the
+people, and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span> description of his intercourse with John,
+and the rest of those who had seen the Lord.'<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Those were reminiscences and lessons never forgotten by the future
+Bishop of Lyons. To him, as to 'all the churches of Asia and to the
+successors of Polycarp' himself, the pupil of St. John was 'a much more
+trustworthy and safe witness of the truth than Valentinus and Marcion,
+and all such wrong-minded men.'<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<p>The end came at last. A persecution was raging; how or why we know not.
+All that can be known is told in the 'Letter of the Smyrn&aelig;ans.'<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> The
+simplicity and pathos of the story, as told by this ancient document, so
+moved the great Scaliger, that he felt hardly master of himself. We
+cannot tell the tale of triumph in better words than in those of that
+exquisite piece of ecclesiastical antiquity. The great annual festival
+was being held at Smyrna, presided over by the Asiarch and 'high
+priest'<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Philip, a wealthy citizen of the wealthy Tralles, and graced
+by the presence of the Proconsul Statius Quadratus. The persecutor had
+asked for blood, and blood had been granted him. Already several
+victims, Philadelphians, 'so torn by lashes that the mechanism of their
+flesh was visible even as far as the inward veins and arteries,' had
+'endured patiently;' showing to the weeping bystanders such bravery that
+the explanation became current&mdash;'(these) martyrs of Christ being
+tortured, were absent from the flesh, or rather the Lord was standing by
+and conversing with them.' Others 'condemned to the wild beasts, endured
+fearful punishments, being made to lie on sharp shells and buffeted with
+other forms of manifold tortures, that the devil might, if possible, by
+the persistence of the punishment bring them to a denial; for he tried
+many wiles against them.' Men remembered afterwards how 'the right noble
+Germanicus,' scorning the pity the Proconsul would have extended to his
+youth, 'used violence, and dragged the wild beast towards him.' Such
+bravery, 'the bravery of the God-fearing and God-beloved people of the
+Christians,' only whetted the pagan thirst for blood. There rang out the
+shout, 'Away<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span> with the atheists!<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Let search be made for Polycarp!'
+He had gone against his will into the country, probably to one of his
+own farms; and he was found without much difficulty. He placed before
+his captors food and drink, and asked but a single boon of them&mdash;'one
+hour that he might pray unmolested.' Those mounted soldiers, 'wondering
+why there should be such eagerness for the apprehension of an old man
+like him,' gave their consent. 'He stood up and prayed; and being full
+of the grace of God, for two hours he could not hold his peace, so that
+they who heard him were amazed, and many repented that they had come
+against such a venerable old man.' They brought him to the city, seated
+on an ass. Steadily did he refuse the real and sincere endeavours of
+compassionate heathen to 'save himself.' 'What harm,' they asked, 'is
+there in saying, C&aelig;sar is Lord, and offering incense?' He would only
+answer, 'I am not going to do what you counsel me.' As he entered the
+stadium, the human roar, fiercer and more cruel than that of wild
+beasts, rose above every other sound. Polycarp did not heed it; a voice
+came to him from heaven, 'Be strong, Polycarp, and play the man;' and,
+nerved by what other Christians had also heard, he stood at last before
+Statius. Words, at first pitiful, greeted him: 'Have respect to thine
+age!&mdash;Swear by the genius of C&aelig;sar! Say, "Away with the atheists."' The
+Saint caught up the last word. He 'looked with solemn countenance upon
+that vast multitude of lawless heathen; and groaning and looking up to
+heaven, he said, 'Away with the atheists.' Was he then yielding? The
+Proconsul had misunderstood him, but he pressed him hard and said 'Swear
+the oath, and I will release thee. Revile the Christ!' Polycarp looked
+him in the face, and gave him the answer which can never die. 'Fourscore
+and six years have I been His servant, and He hath done me no wrong. How
+then can I blaspheme my King Who saved me?' The words of pity changed
+into threats. 'I have wild beasts here,' said Statius, 'and I will throw
+thee to them except thou change thy mind.' 'Call them,' was the
+unflinching answer. 'If thou despisest the wild beasts, I will cause
+thee to be consumed by fire.' Polycarp remembered a dream of three days
+before in which he had seen his pillow burning with fire, and which he
+had interpreted to those with him as signifying that he would be burnt
+alive. He answered now, 'Thou threatenest that fire which burneth for a
+season and after a little while is quenched. For thou art ignorant of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span> fire of the future judgment and eternal punishment, which is
+reserved for the ungodly:' and then he added&mdash;in his impatience to be
+'made a partaker with Christ'&mdash;'But why delayest thou? Come, do what
+thou wilt.' Saying this, 'he was inspired with courage and joy, and his
+countenance was filled with grace.'</p>
+
+<p>The herald's proclamation was soon heard announcing three times,
+'Polycarp hath confessed himself to be a Christian;' and again the human
+yell broke forth from Gentile and Jew, this time fashioning itself into
+distinct speech: 'This is the teacher of Asia, the father of the
+Christians, the puller down of our gods, who teacheth numbers not to
+sacrifice nor worship.... Let the lion loose upon him!' 'That is
+impossible' was the answer of the Asiarch, 'for the sports have closed.'
+They shouted out 'with one accord, "Burn him alive!" Quicker than words
+could tell, the crowds collected timber and faggots from workshops and
+baths, and the Jews especially assisted in this with zeal, as was their
+wont.' They placed around him the 'instruments prepared for the pile,'
+and were going to nail him to the stake. He interposed with his last
+request of men, 'Leave me as I am. He that hath granted me to endure the
+fire, will grant me also to remain at the pile unmoved, without the
+security you seek from nails.' They 'tied him to the stake.' He stood up
+'like a noble ram out of a great flock for an offering, a
+burnt-sacrifice made ready and acceptable to God;' and looking up to
+heaven, made his last request of God in one of the noblest prayers
+preserved in ancient or modern literature. His Amen said, 'the firemen
+lighted the fire. The mighty flame flashed forth,' and men saw then,
+what in later days they saw repeated at the martyrdom of a Savonarola
+and of a Hooper,<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> the fire, 'like the sail of a vessel filled with
+wind, surrounding as with a wall the body of the martyr. It was there in
+the midst, not like flesh burning, but like gold and silver refined in a
+furnace.' Could he not die?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Lawless men, seeing that his body could not be consumed by
+the fire, ordered an executioner to go up to him and stab
+him with a dagger. And when he had done this, there came
+forth a quantity of blood,<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> so that it extinguished the
+fire; and all the multitude marvelled that there should be
+so great a difference between the unbelievers and the
+elect.'</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span></p><p>The Christians hoped to have taken away the 'poor body,' but 'the
+jealous and envious Evil One, the adversary of the family of the
+righteous,' instigated the Jews to urge upon the magistrate not to give
+up his body, lest they (the Christians) should abandon the crucified One
+and begin to worship this man,... 'not knowing' (add the narrators) 'how
+impossible it would be for them to forsake at any time the Christ Who
+suffered for the salvation of the whole world of those who are
+saved&mdash;suffered, though sinless, for sinners&mdash;not to worship any other.'
+The body was placed again on the pile and consumed. Then 'the bones,
+more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold,' were
+taken up and laid in a suitable place.</p>
+
+<p>So died a Polycarp as had died an Ignatius, both martyred, and both
+memorable for 'nobleness, patient endurance, and loyalty to their
+Master.' The motto of their deaths was the motto of their lives,
+condensed into the saying of the martyr of Antioch to the martyr of
+Smyrna:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'&#8001;&#960;&#959;&#965; &#960;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#969;&#957; &#954;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#962;, &#960;&#959;&#955;&#965; &#954;&#949;&#961;&#948;&#959;&#962;.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'The greater the pain, the greater the gain.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>We know nothing certain of the tombs which tradition or affection have
+pointed out as the last resting-place of the calcined remains of either
+Saint, but we need no longer such perishable monuments. The
+English-speaking and English-reading race have in the volumes of the
+Bishop of Durham a fitting shrine for those literary remains which
+survive destruction. Scholarship and piety, study and prayer, have here
+combined to shed light upon the writings, and to raise a monument to the
+lives, of those champions of early Christianity, who in their day
+wrought a good work, and still speak, though dead.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Bishop Lightfoot's 'Ignatius and Polycarp,' by Prof. A.
+Harnack, Ph.D, in 'Expositor' for December, 1885, p. 401.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> 'The Apostolic Fathers,' p. 116. By Canon Scott Holland.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> &#7953;&#967;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#945;, 'Ep. to the Romans,' 9, with Bp.
+Lightfoot's note. Compare 1 Corinth. xv. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Herod, vii. 31, 187.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> 'Ep. to the Rom.' 5, 'to the Ephes.' II, with note</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> See the useful Table in i. 222, and the excursus on
+'Spurious and Interpolated Epistles' in i. 223-266. Cf. also the
+'Appendix Ignatiana,' ii. 587, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Such as Eusebius and Theodoret. Cf. i., pp. 137-40, 161-4.
+The catena of quotations and references from the second to the ninth
+century, given in i. 127-221 (cf. the hint on p. 220) is most important
+for the construction of the text, and as a preliminary to the
+determination of the priority and authenticity of the Epistles.
+Harnack's objections to the quotation from Lucian (i. 129) are not
+shared by Baur or Renan, and are indirectly met by Bishop Lightfoot, i.
+331-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Stephen Marshall, Edward Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew
+Newcomen, William Spurstow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> i, 79 For example, as regards the order of the words in
+the Greek text this latin translation may be treated as an authority.
+The Greek is rigidly followed without any regard for Latin usage. So
+also Greek articles are scrupulously reproduced, in violation of Latin
+idiom. New or unusual Latin words are introduced to correspond as
+exactly as possible to the original; <i>e.g.</i> ingloriatio = &#945;&#954;&#945;&#957;&#967;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#945;; multibona ordinatio = &#964;&#959; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#949;&#965;&#964;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#945;&#957;, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> See i. 72. For the text edited by Dr. W. Wright, see ii.
+657., &amp;c.; and for a translation, ii. 670, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> 'De scriptis qu&aelig; sub Dionysii Areopagit&aelig; et Ignati
+Antiocheni nominibus circumferuntur,' &amp;c. (1666). The Bishop of Durham
+characterizes Daille's treatment of the Ignatian writings as marked 'by
+deliberate confusion.' He knows the facts, but makes the Vossian letters
+bear all the odium attached to the 'long' recension. Pearson's work,
+'Vindici&aelig; Epistolarum S. Ignatii,' appeared six years later in 1672.
+This reply as compared with the attack was 'as light to darkness.' In
+England it closed the controversy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Trall. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> See, for example, Rom. 4, 9: Trall. 3, 13; Ephes. 1, 3,
+21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Rom. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Smyrn. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> See i. 400, 405.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Consult Bishop Lightfoot's Essay on this subject in his
+Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians (p. 181, &amp;c.). The
+'Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,' published in 1884, is rightly
+referred to now by the Bishop of Durham as confirming his positions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Comp. Iren&aelig;us, 'H&aelig;r.' iii. 3, &sect; &sect; 3,4; iii. 14, &sect; 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Essay in 'Philippians,' p. 218.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Cf. Bishop Lightfoot's edition of 'St. Clement of Rome,'
+App. p. 252, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Iren. 'H&aelig;r.' iii. 3, 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Cf. i. 568, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See i. 50, &amp;c.; ii. 532. The Bishop of Durham's collection
+of facts and references dealing with this subject is an admirable
+specimen&mdash;everywhere repeated&mdash;of the exhaustive treatment he applies to
+single points.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Letter of the Smyrn&aelig;ans, &sect; 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> He had learnt the trick of keeping lighted tow or straw in
+his mouth. See other instances in Milman's 'History of the Jeos,' ii.
+429, n. <i>x</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Cf. Justin Martyr in Eusebius, 'Hist.' iv, 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> i. 422, 629, &amp;c. Mr. Rendell, in the 'Studia Biblica'
+(oxf. 1885), has come to the same conclusion by an independent
+treatment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> H&aelig;r. v. 33, 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Euseb. 'Hist. Eccl.' v. 20</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Iren. 'H&aelig;r.' iii. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> The genuineness of the main document (at least) is
+unaffected by recent attacks. The impugning process of Sch&uuml;rer, Lipsius,
+and Kelm has been successfully resisted by Renan, Hilgenfeld (in part),
+and the Bishop of Durham (i 588, &amp;c.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> The subjects of the Asiarchate, of the identity of Asiarch
+and high-priest, have suggested to the Bishop of Durham another of those
+exhaustive discussions which will win for him the gratitude of the
+students (see ii. 987, &amp;c.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The name given by the heathen to the Christians, whom they
+counted godless because they had neither image nor visible
+representation of the Deity. See ii. 160, note to line 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> See i. 599 nn. 1, 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> On the celebrated reading, 'there came forth a dove and a
+quantity of blood, see ii. 974, note to i. 3. It is to be explained by
+the belief, that the soul departed from the body at death in the form of
+a bird; the dove most readily suggesting itself as the emblem of a
+Christian soul.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Art_VIII_1_An_Address_delivered_to_the_Students_of_Edinburgh" id="Art_VIII_1_An_Address_delivered_to_the_Students_of_Edinburgh"></a>Art. VIII.&mdash;1. <i>An Address delivered to the Students of Edinburgh
+University on Nov. 3, 1885.</i> By the Earl of Iddesleigh, Lord Rector of
+the University of Edinburgh.</h2>
+
+<h2>2. <i>Hearing, Reading and Thinking: an address to the Students attending
+the Lectures of the London Society for the Extension of University
+Teaching.</i> By the Rt. Hon. G.J. Goschen, M.P.</h2>
+
+<h2>3. <i>The Choice of Books and other Literary Pieces.</i> By Frederic
+Harrison. London, 1886.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The subject of Books and Reading is <i>in the air</i> at the present time;
+Lord Iddlesleigh raised the question last November, by his admirable
+discourse on Desultory Reading, delivered at Edinburgh. Sir John Lubbock
+was not slow to follow the lead, in his lecture at the Working Men's
+College; and lastly, we have Mr. Goschen's more abstract and despondent
+remarks on Hearing, Reading, and Thinking. The discussion has been
+carried forward from Newspaper to Journal, and from Journal to Magazine,
+and has attracted representatives of the most heterogeneous elements
+into the ever widening circle. Sir John Lubbock wound up by enumerating
+a <i>hundred</i> of the books&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'most frequently mentioned with approval by those who have
+referred directly or indirectly to the pleasure of reading,
+and I have ventured to include some, which though less
+frequently mentioned, are especial favourites of my own. I
+have abstained for obvious reasons from mentioning works by
+living authors.' ('Self Help,' however, is admitted into Sir
+John's revised list), 'though from many of them, Tennyson,
+Ruskin, and others, I have myself derived the keenest
+enjoyment; and have omitted works of Science, with one or
+two exceptions, because the subject is so progressive. I
+feel that the attempt is over bold, and must beg for
+indulgence; but indeed one object I have had in view is to
+stimulate others, more competent far than I am, to give us
+the advantage of their opinions. If we had such lists drawn
+up by a few good guides, they would be most useful.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The challenge thus thrown down was quickly taken up by the Editor of the
+'Pall Mall Gazette,' who forthwith sent out a Circular to certain
+eminent men of the day, inviting them 'to jot down such a list&mdash;not
+necessarily containing a hundred volumes&mdash;as would help the present
+generation to choose their reading more wisely.' Whether the majority of
+the 'guides' thus appealed to have responded to the call, we are not
+informed; the replies of several have been published; and our thanks are
+due to those who have been instrumental in opening up a discussion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span> of
+great variety and universal interest; though we must confess to some
+regret that the initiative was not given in a different form. Why the
+number should be fixed at one hundred; why works of Science should be
+excluded; why Biography and Travels should enjoy so meagre a
+representation on Sir John Lubbock's list, are questions to which no
+satisfactory answer has been given.</p>
+
+<p>Who is it, we would ask in the first place, for whom this list is
+primarily intended? Not the man whose love of books is firmly
+established, for he will have chosen for himself his own walk among the
+innumerable highways and byepaths of literature; nor he whose tastes are
+just forming, for the field is too wide, and he would hardly prefer the
+Analects of Confucius, the Shahnameh, and the Sheking, to 'Marco's
+Polo's Travels,' Lockhart's 'Life of Scott,' and '&AElig;sop's Fables.' No
+list, however, that could be drawn up would escape criticism, and our
+desire is not so much to suggest in what manner the present list might
+be amended, as to indicate how, in our opinion, it might have been made
+to serve some practical purpose.</p>
+
+<p>'Books have brought some men to knowledge and some to madness. As
+fulness sometimes hurteth the stomach more than hunger, so fareth it
+with arts; and as of meats, so likewise of books, the use ought to be
+limited according to the quality of him that useth them.' Thus wrote
+Petrarch, and the comparison between the bodily and mental digestion, if
+trite, is very far from being a mere superficial analogy.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are blessed with a judicial friend, quite competent to make a
+diagnosis of their literary capacity and prescribe a diet, are indeed
+fortunate&mdash;'sua si bona norint.' Such prescriptions have been long since
+made, and handed down to us. That written out by Doctor Johnson, for his
+friend the Rev. Mr. Astle of Ashbourne, is brief enough, and savours of
+the drastic remedies fashionable in the last century.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> If on glancing
+over the Doctor's list our readers are inclined to assume that the Rev.
+Mr. Astle was possessed of a very healthy digestion, we would remind
+them that solid joints and heavy folios were more in vogue at that time
+than in these days of French cookery and periodical literature.</p>
+
+<p>In later times Comte also, among others, has furnished a catalogue, or
+syllabus of books for general reading; but even his faithful follower
+Mr. Harrison admits, half apologetically, that it 'has no special
+relation to current views of education, to English literature, much less
+to the literature of the day. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span> was drawn up thirty years ago by a
+French philosopher, who passed his life in Paris, and who had read no
+new book for twenty years.'</p>
+
+<p>'What shall I read?' There are few questions more frequently asked than
+this; few, perhaps, to which a thoughtless answer is more frequently
+given. Coming from one of that large class to which Lord Iddesleigh has
+given the name of 'indolent readers,' it might be assumed to be lightly
+asked, and might be as lightly answered by the recommendation of some
+three-volume novel, or the more fashionable shilling's-worth of gruesome
+mystery; but if the enquirer be a young book-lover, a worthy answer is
+far to seek. The diagnosis and opinion of the physician do not present
+greater difficulties, and in many cases are not attended by more
+momentous results. To turn a juvenile adrift in Sir John Lubbock's list
+would be to prescribe an exclusive diet of richly seasoned dishes and
+rare wines to a convalescent patient&mdash;to feed him on strong meats, on
+cavaire and truffles, and to omit the simple, wholesome, homely fare on
+which, in his condition, health and efficient progress must in the main
+depend.</p>
+
+<p>How often has the young enquirer been imbued with a distaste for solid
+literature by being compelled to read 'masterpieces' long before he was
+able to appreciate their value, or even to comprehend their history! The
+system at many of our schools is much to blame in this respect. There
+are, we believe, comparatively few boys who acquire, until they seek it
+for themselves, even the roughest general outline of the world's
+history, to which their various episodic studies may be applied, so that
+each may fall into its proper place and order. 'Periods' and 'Epochs'
+are studied minutely and painfully, without any knowledge of the grand
+structure of which they form but a single fragment; and history is too
+often divorced from geography. A schoolboy is set to work on a play of
+Aristophanes before he has made acquaintance with the social and
+political movements of which Pericles and Cleon were the
+representatives. He reads his Bible and his Homer, his Virgil and
+Horace, his C&aelig;sar and Livy, but probably with the vaguest ideas of their
+relations to one another, or their respective positions in the world's
+chronology. Or it may be that the whole of one term is devoted to one or
+two books of 'the Iliad' and 'the Odyssey,' 'the &AElig;neid' or the 'Odes,'
+which are ground out line by line and word by word, all the interest and
+flavour of the complete work being inevitably and hopelessly dissipated
+in the process. Even 'the college prizeman, and the college tutor cannot
+read a chorus in the Trilogy but what his mind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span> instinctively wanders on
+optatives, choriambi, and that happy conjecture of Smelfungus in the
+antistrophe.'<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> But certain books having to be got up for an
+examination by the cramming process, the receptacle for all this
+erudition only looks forward to the time when he may throw his Classics
+behind the fire for ever. No book with the least pretention to permanent
+value can be read purely by and for itself; inevitably it must draw on
+the reader&mdash;if he be in any sense worthy of the name&mdash;from point to
+point beyond its own immediate sphere, until he finds his interest
+expanding and his tastes forming under a natural and rapid process of
+evolution. Can any intelligent person read his Homer or his '&AElig;neid,' his
+Boswell, his 'Old Mortality,' or 'The Voyage of the Beagle' without
+asking himself who are these strange characters, and where are these
+strange lands that seem so familiar to us?</p>
+
+<p>He who stands on a hill and surveys a wide landscape, easily recognizes
+the leading features of the country&mdash;the river and the homestead, the
+church and the corn-field&mdash;they need no guide, they tell their own tale.
+In like manner the great landmarks of the literature of the past are
+well defined and unmistakable to him who has eyes to see and a mind to
+comprehend. The traveller may choose his line, and as he goes his way he
+will not fail to find guides who will give him the directions which
+passing doubts and difficulties may render necessary. The world's great
+books stand out as the old stone walls of some great feudal
+fortress&mdash;prominent and indestructible. Their original uses have been
+superseded by the world's advance; but time and change add greatly to
+their interest. He, however, who finds himself entangled in the dense
+jungle of books that are not 'masterpieces,' and are so plentiful in
+modern literature, is in a sorry plight; his way lies through this
+jungle, be it long or short, and he cannot escape it altogether. He has
+heard of the quiet groves of the Academy, and of the heights of
+Parnassus, but he is rarely able to catch a glimpse of them. He is
+whirled along and loses his foothold in the eddying torrent of
+periodical literature; or he is entangled in the briars of controversy,
+and, torn and vexed, is apt to lose his way. Here then it is that he
+particularly needs a guide, and here it is that Sir John Lubbock bids
+good-bye to him, and leaves him to his own resources.</p>
+
+<p>The student, thus perplexed, may be surprised to learn from Mr. Ruskin
+that 'any bank clerk could write a history as good as Grote's,' and that
+Gibbon only chronicled 'putrescence and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span> corruption; 'he may be deeply
+interested in the information that Professor Bryce prefers Pindar to
+Hesiod, that the Lord Chief Justice knows nothing of Chinese or
+Sanskrit, and that Miss Braddon has spent 'great part of a busy life
+reading the "Quarterly and Edinburgh Reviews."' But all this does not
+help him in his bewildering journey among the 10,000 books which are
+annually flooding the world of English speaking readers&mdash;a mass of which
+we fear that the quality advances in inverse ratio to the quantity.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Lubbock's list, as it stands, suggests a gathering of
+illustrious Generals and officers, without any men. They are very
+distinguished and admirable in appearance and qualifications, but would
+be doubly so if seen at the head of the army which they lead and
+represent. Had Sir John commenced by marshalling his hundred books in
+groups, either of subjects to be studied or of readers to be provided
+for, and then called upon the 'guides' to fill up the gaps, and supply
+the rank and file of his army, he would have earned the thanks of all
+book-lovers.</p>
+
+<p>In the selection of books two considerations must alternately be
+paramount. One of these would have reference to the subjects to be
+studied, the other would have reference to the readers to be provided
+for. We are aware of the long controversies and technical difficulties
+involved in this question of Classification, which has stirred the
+hearts of Librarians from time immemorial, but for our present purpose
+the elaboration of an exhaustive scientific system is unnecessary; a
+statement of the rough headings and divisions, under which the books for
+general readers should be grouped, presents no insurmountable obstacles.
+Various minor considerations may subsequently assert themselves; as, for
+example, whether the books are required with the ultimate object of the
+formation of a library, and 'the cultivation of literature is an object
+which cannot be accomplished without the acquisition of a library of a
+greater or less extent,' or for the mere purpose of amusement. To draw
+up such a catalogue as we propose would exceed the capacity of any
+single individual; each section should be the work of one or more
+persons specially versed in the subject.</p>
+
+<p>We are, of course, dealing rather with those who are aspiring to be book
+lovers than with those who, having already attained to that distinction,
+can trust to the guidance of their own inclinations. These aspirants
+must seek first an able and judicious guide for each department of
+study. One guide may be fully competent to make a list of works in
+history or biography, but may lack experience in philosophy or in art;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span>
+while, on the other hand, the regimen prescribed for the country curate
+would hardly be appropriate for the mechanic or the soldier.</p>
+
+<p>But, first, we must endeavour to define, by a rough process of
+elimination, the book lover, whether mature or in embryo. He is not the
+mere 'glutton of the lending library,' who bolts the contents of the
+monthly box without discrimination and without reflection, his main
+object being to while away an idle day or to gain a superficial
+reputation at the next dinner party at which he may be present; nor is
+he the collector of gaudy bindings; nor one who has never possessed nor
+desired to possess a library of his own, who has never read a book more
+than once, and has never committed to memory a single passage. He is not
+the man, in short, who fails to realize that 'the utility of reading
+depends not on the swallow but on the digestion.'</p>
+
+<p>From the American Westerner who buys an Encyclop&aelig;dia in parts, and finds
+in it all that he requires of instruction and amusement, to the princely
+founders of libraries&mdash;the Spencers and Parkers, the De Thous, the
+Sunderlands, and the Beckfords&mdash;is a wide interval, and includes all
+sorts and conditions of men, diverse from one another in everything but
+their love of books.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Lubbock, by his eminence in the world of science and the world
+of commerce, is admirably qualified to draw up a list of works on
+science and trade. But these he has unfortunately excluded from his
+consideration. Such lists would be invaluable to the thousands who from
+intellectual, or more purely mercenary motives, are now seeking for
+light. Had Sir John classified his list on some simple and
+discriminating plan, such as we have suggested, we might, as a result of
+the discussion, have obtained a summary of works on art by Mr. Ruskin,
+or a soldier's library by Lord Wolseley. Others, whose replies have been
+published, would have furnished special lists; and a still wider circle
+would, no doubt, have seen their way to rendering much help and service.
+We should, moreover, have been spared some rather irrelevant and wayward
+criticisms to which the discussion has given rise.</p>
+
+<p>Two or three of the 'guides' have, with more or less success, adopted
+for themselves a definite system. Mr. William Morris has given us a
+list, the perusal of which may perchance arouse serious misgivings in
+the heart of the general reader, who cannot 'even <i>with</i> great
+difficulty read Old German,' and who has not yet been educated up to the
+point of regarding Virgil and Juvenal as 'sham classics.' The
+'Admiral's' list is good, if somewhat too technical; and we would plead
+for the admission<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span> of Southey's 'Life of Nelson,' even, if need be, to
+the exclusion of the 'Annual Register' in 110 volumes. The Head Master
+of Harrow 'tried to think how he should answer a boy's question if he
+were to ask, at any point of his school life, what books it were best
+worth while to read before the end (let me say) of his thirtieth year;'
+and we venture to regard Mr. Welldon's list as the best of all in point
+of conciseness and practical value.</p>
+
+<p>The last to enter the lists, though not under the auspices of the 'Pall
+Mall Gazette,' is Mr. Frederic Harrison, who comes armed with a volume
+entitled 'The Choice of Books,' though four-fifths of the contents have
+strayed far away into such remote pastures as 'The Opening of the Courts
+of Justice,' 'A Plea for the Tower of London,' and 'The &AElig;sthete.' With
+the small residue of the book, which has remained faithful to the
+titlepage, we have little fault to find. Mr. Harrison, as might be
+expected, regards everything through the spectacles of Auguste
+Comte&mdash;'hinc omne principium, huc refer exitum.' Comte's 'Syllabus,' to
+which we have already referred, was the basis of at least one of his
+essays, and is the subject of his closing remarks.</p>
+
+<p>For our present purpose, the first article, 'How to Read,' is
+undoubtedly the most valuable and practicable. It deals in a
+straightforward and vigorous manner with many of the snares and
+difficulties by which the reader is beset, and sweeps away much of the
+sentimental, sickly, criticism which is unfortunately prevalent at the
+present time. We think, however, that Mr. Harrison is inclined to raise
+the standard of taste too high for the mass of general readers.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Putting aside the iced air of the difficult mountain tops
+of epic, tragedy, or psalm, there are some simple pieces
+which may serve as an unerring test of a healthy or vicious
+taste for imaginative work. If the "Cid," the "Vita Nuova,"
+the "Canterbury Tales," Shakspeare's "Sonnets," and
+"Lycidas" pall on a man; if he care not for Malory's "Morte
+d'Arthur" and the "Red Cross Knight"; if he thinks "Crusoe"
+and the "Vicar" books for the young; if he thrill not with
+the "Ode to the West Wind" and the "Ode to a Grecian Urn";
+if he have no stomach for "Christabelle," or the lines
+written on "The Wye above Tintern," he should fall on his
+knees and pray for a cleanlier and quieter spirit.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Now we believe that there is many a humble aspirant to literary taste on
+whom the above paragraph will produce an effect similar to that of 'iced
+air and mountain tops' by taking his breath away. Literary palates are
+mercifully endowed with tastes and appreciations as varied as mere
+bodily palates, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span> we must protest against any such Procrustean method
+of ascertaining whether a man's 'spirit be cleanly and quiet,' or, which
+is terrible to contemplate, the reverse. On another page Mr. Harrison
+himself loudly deprecates and disclaims any narrow or sectarian view; he
+is nothing if not Catholic in his tastes. 'I protest that I am devoted
+to no school in particular; I condemn no school; I reject none. I am for
+the school of all the great men; and I am against the school of the
+smaller men.'</p>
+
+<p>All taste must be founded on knowledge, and between the hard, dry
+teaching of the Board School or the Examination Room on the one hand,
+and the &aelig;therial atmosphere of Desultory Reading and the purest literary
+discernment on the other, there lies an intermediate region, a
+'penumbral zone,' which differs from the first in that it is entered
+voluntarily, and from the second in that it is attainable by all who
+care to enter it. The way through this region, though pleasant is
+laborious; system, accuracy, and discipline are essential to him who
+would traverse it. To be a desultory reader, in the sense defined by
+Lord Iddesleigh, a man must first have been a student; and not to every
+student is given the temperament, capacity, and opportunity, to become a
+desultory reader&mdash;still less can every student aspire to that refined
+literary taste, which Mr. Harrison possesses in so large a measure, and
+which, in its characteristics, he describes so well.</p>
+
+<p>So far as modern literature is concerned, it may be said, that the
+Reviewers are, by their skill and experience, qualified to direct, and
+ever ready to aid the wayfarer; and in theory this is true. But, putting
+aside the few leading journals and periodicals, daily and weekly&mdash;of
+which we would only speak with the greatest respect&mdash;we fear that the
+reviewer's art is at a low ebb in these days. Often the side breezes of
+controversy, of private jealousy, or of personal interest, intervene to
+divert straightforward criticism; still more often does absolute
+incompetence render these guides worthless. A score of books may be
+seen, huddled together in an unbroken column of so-called criticism,
+with no other bond of union than their publication in course of the same
+week. The interested author, wading through this disconnected mass,
+suddenly stumbles on a few words extracted&mdash;possibly perverted&mdash;from his
+own preface, to which a line of commonplace commendation is affixed; and
+he then suddenly encounters a subject as far removed from his own as the
+'Republic' of Plato is distant from 'Called Back.'</p>
+
+<p>Among all these discordant voices, who shall help us to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span> detect the true
+ring? Thrice happy are those privileged few who enjoy the loving care
+and supervision of some wise mentor to guide their choice and to watch
+their progress; but for the multitude, to whom such a privilege is
+denied, a good classified list, not excluding recent works, carefully
+sifted and added to by the most prominent men of the day, would be of
+inestimable value.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, a connected chain of histories, from the earliest
+times to the present day, with a selected list of contemporary memoirs
+and biographies, would throw a guiding gleam of light on thousands who
+are wandering, dark and aimless, in a labyrinth of 'masterpieces.' In
+this enquiry system is essential. Of desultory comments, charming and
+instructive in themselves and valuable in the formation of taste, we
+have abundant store. Who that has read Emerson's 'Essay on Books,' or
+Charles Lamb's 'Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading,' or Isaac
+Disraeli's 'Curiosities of Literature' and 'Literary Character,' or
+Byron's brilliant and impulsive criticisms on books and authors, can be
+without some kindling of enthusiasm and of desire to know more fully the
+great works thus passed in critical review? But the essential
+characteristics of such commentaries as these are snares to the student.
+The temptation to pass from one subject to another is inseparable from
+treatment of this kind, and so becomes a hindrance to more earnest
+application.</p>
+
+<p>Dibdin's 'Library Companion' in some respects fulfils the requirements
+we have mentioned; but apart from the fact, that the information it
+contains is now in a great measure obsolete, too much space is devoted
+to the description and value of choice and rare editions. It is a
+book-buyer's rather than a reader's guide. Perkins's 'The Best Reading'
+is too bald a catalogue, and requires a vast amount of sifting, and the
+addition of a few words of running comment to render it serviceable. It
+lacks, in short, the characteristics of a <i>catalogue raisonn&eacute;e</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Historical List which we have proposed should be prefaced by a
+chronological table, indicating the epochs into which the World's
+History divides itself, and the periods covered by each of the works
+recommended. This would give the student a bird's-eye view of the field
+which he is about to explore, and enable him, at any moment in his
+exploration, to take his reckonings and verify his position.</p>
+
+<p>Careful distinction should be made between Chroniclers and Historians,
+between those who have provided the materials and those who have
+designed and reared the complete structure. Sometimes these chroniclers
+have furnished merely rough and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span> unhewn stones, useful in themselves,
+but with no pretence to artistic finish or individuality of character;
+and these have been absorbed into the building. Other chronicles, again,
+are perfected in form, and are not merely integral, essential portions
+of the complicated structure, but become a source of endless pleasure
+from the merit of their workmanship. Thucydides and Clarendon are
+universally read, while Hecat&aelig;us has all but vanished; and Thomas May's
+'History of the Long Parliament,' though pronounced by Lord Chatham to
+be a 'much honester and more instructive book of the same period than
+Lord Clarendon's,' is relegated to the shelves of the specialist or the
+bookworm.</p>
+
+<p>Histories are scarcely less ephemeral than books of science; and the
+object of the list we are advocating is not to provide an exhaustive
+catalogue, a task which in these days would overtax the capacity of
+half-a-dozen Dr. Johnsons, but to select those works which will give the
+best continuous narrative of the period under discussion, and represent
+the most recent scholarship; omitting those which have been absorbed or
+superseded.</p>
+
+<p>Mitford and Gillies have given place to Thirwall and Grote; and even the
+star of Hallam, outshining De Lolme, is beginning to wane before the
+searching light which, by the publication of State Papers and other
+archives, is being brought to bear on the History of England and of
+Modern Europe. But such materials, though ruthlessly relegating much of
+what we have hitherto regarded as the 'Pearls of History' to the
+category of 'Mock Pearls,' cannot immediately be made available for the
+ordinary student, or become absorbed into the popular histories of the
+day. We can ill spare from our list the names of those writers, who,
+from Livy to Lord Macaulay, have added a fascination to the study of
+history; though in their works most beautiful Mock Pearls abound. But
+the student should be warned against implicit reliance on their records.</p>
+
+<p>To Clarendon has been ascribed the honor of being the first Englishman
+who wrote History, as we regard it; his predecessors having been in the
+main mere chroniclers or annalists. Clarendon elaborated the picture of
+which these annalists had merely supplied the materials; and the
+eighteenth century saw the development of this new method in the
+brilliant triad of contemporaries, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Our own
+age has witnessed a further advance in the school of philosophical
+historians, who, without aiming at any connected narrative of events,
+present to us the profound lessons which history teaches; pointing out
+the far-reaching causes which have influenced and are influencing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span>
+events occurring in widely distant countries; causes and events which to
+the superficial observer seem totally disconnected. This philosophical
+category would form one of the most interesting, and in these days, when
+political empiricism shows a growing tendency to supplant statesmanlike
+research, not the least important portion of our historical list. If to
+this main stem of History there be added the due complement of branches
+and leaves&mdash;memoirs and biographies&mdash;the Plutarchs and Pepyses, the
+Walpoles and St. Simons, the Crokers and Grevilles of each
+generation&mdash;we shall have a tree of knowledge which would yield to none
+in point of interest and utility.</p>
+
+<p>We have dwelt at some length on this part of the subject, first, because
+of its almost unlimited extent; and secondly, because, owing to this
+extent, there is such difficulty in making a genuine and trustworthy
+selection. There is, besides, an apparently constant antagonism in
+history between the qualities of strict accuracy and literary
+brilliancy. The two are not incompatible, but the striving after
+literary merit is as great a snare to the writer as its attainment by
+the writer is, in too many cases, to the student.</p>
+
+<p>Of voyages and travels, 'I would also have good store, especially the
+earlier, when the world was fresh and unhackneyed, and men saw things
+invisible to the modern eye: They are fast-sailing ships to waft away
+from present troubles to the Fortunate Islands.'<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> Grouped under each
+quarter of the globe, we should have selections of the works of those
+travellers, who, from Herodotus to Mr. Stanley, and from Marco Polo or
+Captain Cook down to Miss Bird, have made us who stay at home familiar
+with the remotest corners of the earth. Much of the romance of travel
+has of necessity perished in these matter-of-fact days; but as the
+writing of history has developed from a mere chronicle of events into a
+scientific and philosophical method, so the art of travelling is now
+assuming a political form under pressure of the gigantic problems which
+are exercising the mind of the civilized world; and a section of
+political travels, of which Mr. Froude and Baron von H&uuml;bner have
+recently given us examples, should not be omitted.</p>
+
+<p>Without pretending to enumerate all the departments which our catalogue
+should comprise&mdash;and most of them are too obvious to require
+enumeration&mdash;we would suggest a good selection of the best translations
+and editions of the Greek and Roman Classics. In mentioning translations
+we, of course, disclaim any recommendation of the common 'crib,' but
+refer to those scholarly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span> works which have brought the classical
+masterpieces to the very doors of the general public; such, for example,
+as Rawlinson's 'Herodotus,' or Prof. Jowett's 'Plato and Thucydides;' as
+Lord Derby's 'Iliad,' Gifford's 'Juvenal,' or Conington's 'Virgil:' nor
+is the crib more widely removed from such works as these, than, in the
+matter of editions, is Anthon's 'Virgil,' for example, from Munro's
+'Lucretius.' In the opinion of Mr. Harrison, this 'is the age of
+accurate translation. The present generation has produced a complete
+library of versions of the great Classics, chiefly in prose, partly in
+verse, more faithful, true, and scholarly than anything ever produced
+before.' Mr. Harrison's own essay on the 'Poets of the Old World,' goes
+far to supply one at least of the branches of this section. Last, but by
+no means least, do we plead for a guide to 'Children's Books.' We run
+some risk in these days of competitive examinations and 'higher
+education,' of placing instruction too prominently in the front, to the
+exclusion of pure amusement; forgetting that it is through the
+imagination that the interest of a child is most readily aroused, and
+that, unless the interest be aroused, our educational labours will be
+worthless. A child can live in an atmosphere of genial fiction, and
+appreciate it, without the danger which lurks in a misrepresentation of
+what passes around him in his daily experience. It is exaggeration, not
+fiction, that is liable to injure the mind of a child.</p>
+
+<p>On the vital question, 'how to read,' the student has received matter
+for careful and deliberate consideration, alike from Lord Iddesleigh and
+Mr. Goschen, from Mr. Harrison and Mr. Lowell. The burden of their
+advice is the same, though the forms differ; they all unite in
+deprecating and deploring the hurry, the want of application, the want
+of restraint which prevail in the present day. The hurrying reader, on
+the one hand, and the indolent reader, on the other, are the types to be
+avoided with the most scrupulous care. We suffer from an excess of
+opportunities, and require to be constantly reminded that 'it is
+impossible to give any method to our reading till we get nerve enough to
+reject.'</p>
+
+<p>If we look through the long list of English literary celebrities, we
+cannot but be struck with the large proportion of those who have
+received little or no regular education in their early days, and whose
+opportunities of study have been of the scantiest. Ben Jonson working as
+a bricklayer with his book in his pocket: Wm. Cobbett reading his
+hard-earned 'Tale of a Tub' under the haystack, or mastering his grammar
+when he was a private soldier on the pay of 6d. a day; when 'the edge of
+my berth or that of my guard-bed was my seat to study in; my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span> knapsack
+was my bookcase; a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing table,
+and the task did not demand anything like a year of my life:' Gifford,
+as a cobbler's apprentice, working out his problems on scraps of waste
+leather; or Bunyan, confined for twelve years in Bedford jail with only
+his Bible and 'Foxe's Book of Martyrs,' are but a few among scores of
+instances which will immediately suggest themselves.</p>
+
+<p>There are many persons who are possessed with a strange and
+unaccountable conviction, that to read a book and to write a book are
+processes which require little, if any, previous training or
+preparation. The one error is sufficiently obvious to all who pay any
+attention to the great mass of cheap literature which is pouring from
+our printing-presses; the other is less easy of detection. 'The first
+lesson in reading is that which teaches us to distinguish between
+literature and merely printed matter,' is the admirable maxim laid down
+by Mr. Lowell, and this is one of the essential points in which the
+personal influence of an experienced friend is of inestimable value. As
+the latent beauties of some great masterpiece of art unfold themselves
+to our eye under the guidance of a Kugler or a Ruskin, and we are thus
+enabled to detect their presence or their absence in the works of other
+hands and other schools, so in the masterpieces of literature the
+realization of the points, wherein the chief merits of each lie, places
+us in a position to form a standard&mdash;to possess a talisman, which shall
+enable us unerringly to detect the true from the false. Mrs. Knowles
+said of Dr. Johnson, 'He knows how to read better than any one; he gets
+at the substance of a book directly; he tears the heart out of it.' This
+faculty, which was exhibited in a marvellous degree also in Southey and
+Macaulay, is as rare as it is enviable; but there are not a few who
+erroneously suppose themselves to be possessed of it. The hurried,
+careless, method of reading is one of the chief dangers a student should
+guard against. In studying a work of biography, for example&mdash;but above
+all in studying the classics&mdash;the first requisite, and one which is, as
+we have said, sadly overlooked in public school teaching, is the
+acquisition of a simple, general outline of the period to which the work
+relates. In the fashionable phrase of the day, the books so read are
+frequently not in correspondence with their environment. To him whose
+views of Roman history are but a shapeless mist, if not an absolute
+void, Virgil and Horace are sealed books; nor can any one who is
+ignorant of Scotland and her traditions penetrate beyond the husk of
+'Waverley' or 'Old Mortality.' To the young beginner a few judicious
+words of explanation at the commencement of a book may serve to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span> awaken
+that interest without which reading is useless, and to make darkness
+light; and, similarly, a few words of discussion, when the book is
+completed, will have the effect of consolidating the floating ideas to
+which the perusal has given rise. The habit of casting aside a book as
+soon as the last page is read, without pondering over its contents and
+recalling the argument and refreshing the memory where it has failed, or
+allowing the 'frenzied current of the eye to be stopped for many moments
+of calm reflection or thought,' is apt to render worthless all the
+previous effort. Lord Erskine, we are told, was in the habit of making
+long extracts from Burke, and Lord Eldon is said to have copied out
+'Coke upon Littleton' twice with his own hand. 'Writing an analysis,'
+says Archibishop Whately,<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> 'or table of contents, or index, or
+notes, is very important for the study, properly so called, of any
+subject. And so also is the practice of previously conversing or writing
+on the subject you are about to study.' Reading can produce a beneficial
+result only in proportion to the extent and accuracy of information
+previously stored in the mind of the reader. Such information is like
+the roots of some flourishing oak; every fresh fact is, as it were, a
+new fibre confirming and strengthening the growth of the tree, and
+attracting nourishment from new soil.</p>
+
+<p>'The moment you have a definite aim, attention is quickened, the mother
+of memory; and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself in an
+order that is lucid, because everywhere and always it is in intelligent
+relation to a central object of constant and growing interest.'<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a>
+Bearing this in mind, we would urge the student to investigate every
+unfamiliar allusion which may occur in the course of his reading or
+conversation. A fact or subject thus sought out fixes itself more firmly
+in the memory than most of those which are merely passed in the ordinary
+course of reading.</p>
+
+<p>The use of odd moments should not be overlooked. 'Blockheads,' wrote Sir
+Walter Scott, 'can never find out how folks cleverer than themselves
+came by their information. They never know what is done at
+dressing-time, meal-time even, or in how few minutes they can get at the
+sense of many pages.' It is not possible always to have a book at hand,
+but any one who will take the trouble to copy out, from time to time,
+passages which have attracted his attention, and carry them about with
+him to learn by heart at odd moments, may perhaps be astonished to find
+how much may be acquired in this manner.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[Pg 515]</a></span></p><p>There are some books which by their nature lend themselves to a snatchy
+method of perusal, and a few minutes may often be well employed in
+reading an ode of Horace, or the disjointed conversations of Dr.
+Johnson, but such moments should as a rule be devoted to books which are
+already more or less familiar. The habit of frivolously taking up, and
+as frivolously casting aside, a book is, however, one which should be
+guarded against with the utmost care. It was a strict rule in the family
+of Goethe the elder, that any book once commenced should be read through
+to the end. Dr. Johnson, on the other hand, considered a rule of this
+kind 'strange advice; you may as well resolve that whatever men you
+happen to get acquainted with, you are to keep them for life.'</p>
+
+<p>A snare, which did not exist in the time of Goethe or of Dr. Johnson,
+presents itself in these days to the reader, in the ever-increasing mass
+of periodical literature. But the busy man, who has not time to turn
+aside from his own work to the thorough investigation of the topic of
+the hour, may sometimes, in the pages of a magazine, find the case
+stated tersely by distinguished advocates on both sides; and he may thus
+at least discern the main positions of assailant and assailed. An
+exhaustive and genuine review of a book is occasionally afforded by
+periodical literature, more rarely perhaps than is generally believed;
+but such essays to have any value, should be read only after the work to
+which they relate, a condition that is, we fear, seldom fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>The 'desultory reader' has now been defined and elevated. We can hardly
+be mistaken in considering that by reason of Lord Iddesleigh's admirable
+remarks the expression has acquired a new signification; at least a
+large number of those who may have fondly imagined themselves to be
+desultory readers have now been effectually eliminated from the
+category.</p>
+
+<p>We live in days of 'specialism,' and the book-making specialist of our
+generation probably yields to none of his predecessors in the literary
+roll in respect of industry, skill, and accuracy; but his subject, as a
+rule, is his business, his breadwinner. The desultory reader regards
+literature as his pastime and recreation. Happy is he who has the time,
+the opportunity, and the education, to become a desultory reader, in
+Lord Iddlesleigh's sense of the word.</p>
+
+<p>But admitting that Desultory Dilettanteism may under certain favourable
+conditions be both profitable and a fascinating attainment, and claiming
+as we do a very high value for good guidance in the choice of books, we
+must not lose sight of the fact, that the basis on which the main
+practical question of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span> the selection and proper use of books rests, is
+not what is good in general, or in special literature, but what is
+fitted for each individual man. And to discover this the man himself, or
+his immediate ancestor, the youth or boy, must be examined. The
+foundation of success in any sphere of life is physical and mental,
+nervous and moral aptitude; and those who have to direct, or to decide
+for, or to advise the young respecting their career in life, should make
+the personal condition of their prot&eacute;g&eacute;s their careful study. From the
+ascertained condition the capacity of each may be discerned, and his
+future capabilities may be, to some extent, foreseen. These capabilities
+are the indicators of the course of reading first required; by them the
+youth's career should chiefly be selected and decided on. Unfortunately
+in most cases careful forethought is neglected. Qualities that actually
+make the man are, in a decision that affects his hopes and happiness for
+life, too often overlooked; and some mere transient incident, esteemed
+perhaps a stroke of fortune, is accepted, without any hesitating thought
+about the suitability of its results, as a sufficient introduction to
+the business of the world. The consequence of this neglect is obvious
+enough. In every social and commercial sphere we find men drudging on in
+hopeless slavery, or ruined by the natural revolt of sensibilities that
+could not be controlled, against the influence of circumstances wholly
+inappropriate, and for which these sensibilities, most useful in their
+proper sphere, were not of course designed.</p>
+
+<p>A young man's very desultory reading will perhaps be one of the most
+useful means for finding what his life's career should be. Knowing
+himself, or being known, as has been said, by those directing him, and
+by his own discursive reading having learnt what work for his peculiar
+abilities is open for him in the world, he probably will judge quite
+readily what line of study he should at first pursue, and following out
+this clue, at first by the aid of judicious external guidance, he will,
+with ever-increasing self-reliance and discrimination, proceed to fulfil
+the requirements of education and the inclination of his own mental
+disposition. This method of development is the natural order by which
+intellectual growth, by means of books, or any other means, proceeds. To
+make a choice of certain hundred books for any man's perusal, in his
+youth or afterwards, is but a feat of cleverness, arousing curiosity or
+wonder, but evolving nothing&mdash;ending in the choice. A man may be
+possessed of any number of good books; and possibly a thousand books
+might be selected, all of which would be by general consent called
+excellent, and worth possessing; and perhaps he would be none<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span> the
+better for them all. Young men do not require a hundred books at once.
+Indeed the fewer well-selected books a youth has to begin with, the more
+safe he is against excessive loss of time. His most important question
+is not, what shall I read? but, what need I read? The student's care
+should be to read as little, and to think as much as possible. Thus, he
+will find what thing it is that he at any time immediately requires to
+know, and he will make this pressing need the object of his next
+acquirement in books. This method tends to education; it develops mental
+power, and makes a cultivated man. A hundred books procured and read
+without appropriate sympathy, and interest, and thought, will merely
+make an animated bookcase of the man.</p>
+
+<p>Not only should the student's books be few, but as he reads he should be
+constantly upon his guard. Most readers read to be informed or to be
+entertained; and books of information are absorbed as if all printed
+statements must of course be true, or even if not true must, as a
+record, be worth knowing. This omnivorous, careless style of reading is
+a grievous waste of life and energy. Were books read with critical,
+enquiring thought, the time misspent in reading would be wholesomely
+reduced, and readers would increase in mental power in due proportion to
+their increased information.</p>
+
+<p>In books of entertainment, and especially of fiction, corresponding
+carefulness is necessary. There are books among the best which are, in
+various degrees and ways, of evil influence, and should be read with
+caution and reserve. To yield one's self to the enjoyment of an
+entertaining book may be as foolish as to give one's self into the hands
+of an untried agreeable companion. Ability to please is to these
+incautious subjects of it a most dangerous influence; and books as well
+as men when most attractive should be treated warily. In Rabelais and
+Swift, in Fielding and Smollett, coarse manners must be reprobated. In
+George Eliot's novels, with exceptions, and in 'Jane Eyre,' there is a
+subtle taint that is unwholesome to the unguarded reader. Thackeray too
+frequently compels us to associate with evil company; and, while
+admiring the writer's skill, the reader should keep well outside of
+almost every group in Thackeray's novels.</p>
+
+<p>Distinct alike from the progressive student and the discriminating
+reader, is an abundant class who, without individuality, and mere
+omnivorous devotees of books, chiefly reading the lighter literature of
+the day. These people, through excess and self-indulgence, become
+feeble-minded, intellectually dissipated, and incapable of serious
+study. In every rank of life the book-devouring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[Pg 518]</a></span> vice abounds; but
+chiefly among women, girls, and boys; men finding in the newspapers
+their daily pabulum. This thoughtless, fragmentary, reading has
+debilitated the contemporary mental fibre of the nation; and has so
+absorbed the time, we cannot say the attention, of the immense majority
+of the reading public, that many of them are ignorant even of the
+existence of the standard works of literature. The late discussion,
+therefore, about books has been of use; it has made known to the great
+community of people, who now can read, the fact, that there are certain
+books, a hundred more or less, far more worth reading than the popular
+and periodical literature of the day. If this discovery could be
+impressed upon the public mind with practical effect, the result would
+be a beneficial change in their condition. The abundant tattle and
+affected interest about names and things of mean and transient
+notoriety, and the discursive dinner-table gossip of the world would
+then perhaps subside; and English conversation would become a constant
+and a beneficial intellectual enjoyment.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Croker's 'Boswell,' pp. 767, 8vo. ed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> 'The Choice of Books,' p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Mr Lowell's Address at the dedication of the Free Public
+Library, Chelsea, Massachusetts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Notes to Bacon's 'Essays.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Mr. Lowel.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Art_IX_1_Popular_Government_Four_Essays_By_Sir_Henry_Sumner" id="Art_IX_1_Popular_Government_Four_Essays_By_Sir_Henry_Sumner"></a>Art. IX.&mdash;1. <i>Popular Government. Four Essays.</i> By Sir Henry Sumner
+Maine. Second Edition. London, 1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>2. <i>Democracy in America.</i> By Alexis de Tocqueville. Translated by Henry
+Reeve. New Edition. London, 1862.</h2>
+
+<h2>3. <i>On the State of Society in France before the Revolution of 1789.</i>
+Translated by Henry Reeve. Second Edition. London, 1873.</h2>
+
+<h2>4. <i>Correspondence and Conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with
+Nassau W. Senior, 1834-59.</i> London, 1872.</h2>
+
+<h2>5. <i>On the Government of Dependencies.</i> By Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
+London, 1841.</h2>
+
+<h2>6. <i>On the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion.</i> By the Same.
+London, 1849.</h2>
+
+<h2>7. <i>A Dialogue on the best Form of Government.</i> By the Same. London,
+1863.</h2>
+
+<h2>8. <i>The English Constitution.</i> By Walter Bagehot. Revised Edition.
+London, 1883.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Of the latest Work on the Characteristics of Democracy we are precluded
+from speaking, as Sir Henry Maine's valuable Essays first appeared in
+the pages of this Review. But we desire on the present occasion to call
+attention to some writers on the subject, who are almost unknown to a
+younger generation, or known only by occasional references made to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span> them
+by those who were well acquainted with the writers and their works. And
+among these half-forgotten names few perhaps will recur more frequently
+in the recollections of the best-informed men of from forty-five to
+sixty, or more surprise those who have entered on life since their
+owners left it, than those of Alexis de Tocqueville, Nassau William
+Senior, and Walter Bagehot. Among the statesmen of the last generation,
+few who will fill so small a space in history are so often or so
+reverently quoted by those who remember Lord Palmerston's Government,
+the Crimean War, and the Indian Mutiny, as Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
+Most men under forty will hear with surprise that in the City, at least,
+he was deemed a sounder and safer financier than Mr. Gladstone; honoured
+as the Chancellor of the Exchequer who first redeemed the financial
+reputation of the Whigs from the discredit that had clung to the party
+of retrenchment and reform for a whole generation. Of the small minority
+who know him as the founder of the English school of historical
+sceptics, how many have heard of his multifarious literary and political
+works, or his shrewd, genial, two-edged, criticisms on public and social
+life? It seems too probable that our grandchildren will retain nothing
+of his save the characteristic saying, that 'life would be very
+tolerable but for its pleasures;' and <i>that</i>, probably, will be assigned
+to some more famous and far less wise <i>causeur</i> or phrasemaker, losing
+half its force in the transfer. Even Mill is known to the passing and
+the rising generation by different works and diverse characteristics. To
+the one he is little more than the greatest, most original, and most
+heretical of English economists; a standard author on logic and
+metaphysics. The other prefers to remember him by his later and lesser
+writings; those sexagenarian and posthumous Essays, in which the riper
+wisdom of a mind, very slow to learn the lessons of practical life, was
+gathered, and the wilder errors of his earlier theories modified or
+corrected. Much of that which is really best in his thought and
+teaching, set forth in these last writings, bears a close analogy to the
+views of Tocqueville Senior, and Bagehot, and shows that a tardy,
+hardly-acquired, unwillingly accepted, knowledge of men and women, of
+the real and ineradicable tendencies of human nature, brought the giant
+of the closet into nearer accord with the practical philosophy of a man
+like Sir George Cornewall Lewis, wise, calm, and judicial, by natural
+temper, wiser yet by the closet-study which had analysed the experiences
+of the literary, business, and political, world, of administration,
+Parliament, and the Cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>One common and very striking feature characterizes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span> political
+thought of all these men&mdash;all of them Liberals in more than mere nominal
+profession or party connection. All regarded the triumph of Democracy as
+near and inevitable, and all, from different points of view, regarded it
+with a mixture of resignation and distrust, strangely significant in men
+of such different views, of such diverse character, mental training, and
+personal experience. None of them were fatalists, much less pessimists;
+none inclined <i>&agrave; priori</i> to that political superstition which
+recognizes, in the tendencies of a thing so uncertain and changeful as
+the spirit of the age, the hand of Providence, or the indication of
+'manifest destiny.' All were men of more than average independence of
+temper, an independence which, in one or two, approached nearly to that
+which practical politicians call impracticability. None of them were
+disposed to be silent when the many-headed C&aelig;sar had spoken. Mill's most
+striking, and&mdash;to the credit of Democracy be it spoken&mdash;most popular
+characteristic, was a stern and almost pardoxical defiance alike of
+personal consequences and of public opinion. On the verge of his
+entrance into public life he affronted the working-classes by telling
+them, with more than Carlylese directness and exaggeration, that they
+were 'mostly liars.' If ever there were a man sure to protest to the
+last against false doctrines and mischievous tendencies, to protest the
+more fiercely the more certain their victory seemed, it was John Stuart
+Mill.</p>
+
+<p>Tocqueville, conscious of no common political and administrative
+capacity&mdash;a statesman whose strong popular sympathies, practical wisdom,
+contempt of popular catchwords, knowledge of and respect for concrete
+facts; above all, whose signal freedom from the characteristic
+weaknesses and vices of French statesmanship, rendered him the fittest
+of all men to direct the destiny of France, whose counsels and guidance
+would have saved her from all the worst mistakes and most signal
+disasters&mdash;was content to spend a lifetime first in opposition,
+afterwards in absolute exile from public life, rather than go 'the way
+that was not his way for an inch.' An Orleanist, an enthusiastic lover
+of Parliamentary institutions, he would not stoop with Guizot and Thiers
+to serve a King whose power was founded on corruption. A minister of the
+President, he held aloof as sternly from the despotism of the Empire as
+from the factions of the Republican Assembly. He never designed to
+conceal or soften the expressions of the most unpopular sentiments or
+convictions.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Cornewall Lewis was an eminently English statesman, fully
+aware of the necessity of mutual concession&mdash;more willing than most to
+be guided as a Minister by the tradition of his office, to leave the
+administration for which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span> must answer in Parliament to the practical
+experience of his permanent subordinates&mdash;but one whom, assuredly, no
+one ever accused of undue pliancy, or excessive deference to party or
+popular feeling.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bagehot alone of the three was a man likely, <i>c&oelig;teris paribus,</i>
+to prefer the winning side; to believe that the belief of the many was
+likely to be right; looking, however, to the opinion of the many
+educated and thoughtful rather than of the many ignorant and
+over-occupied. Yet all agree at once in treating the coming rule of
+numbers almost as a law of nature, which it were folly to criticize and
+madness to resist; and in anticipating its advent with doubt and
+distrust, with deep and sometimes gloomy apprehension. Their constant,
+thoughtful concurrence in both convictions, their equal assurance that
+pure Democracy was dangerous and that it was inevitable, deserves a
+profound significance from their utterly distinct points of view; from
+the utter unlikeness of their tempers, their experience, and their
+natural bias.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Cornewall Lewis, as a Liberal politician, was decidedly
+distrustful of electoral reform, and accepted it only as a party
+necessity. His personal delight in the exposure of popular errors, his
+insistence on the value of authority, and the immense extent of the
+sphere in which the thought and conduct of the many are necessarily
+controlled by the authority of the few, the spirit of such books as his
+'Essay on the Government of Dependencies' are those of a mind wholly
+adverse to democratic theories, and intensely mistrustful of popular
+judgments. He was not fascinated by what he describes as 'the splendid
+<i>vision</i> of a community bound together by the ties of fraternity,
+liberty, and equality, exempt from hereditary privilege, giving all
+things to merit, and presided over by a government in which all the
+national interests are faithfully represented.' He put these words into
+the mouth of the advocate of Democracy in his 'Dialogue on the best form
+of Government,' which he published shortly before his death. In this
+work his own views are expressed in the person of Crito.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Even if I were to decide in favour of one of these forms,
+and against the two others, I should not find myself nearer
+the solution of the practical problem. A nation does not
+change the form of its government with the same facility
+that a man changes his coat. A nation in general only
+changes the form of its government by means of a violent
+revolution.... The history of forcible attempts to improve
+governments is not cheering. Looking back upon the course of
+revolutionary movements, and upon the character of their
+consequences, the practical conclusion which I draw is, that
+it is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span> part of wisdom and prudence to acquiesce in any
+form of government, which is tolerably well administered,
+and affords tolerable security to person and property. I
+would not, indeed, yield to apathetic despair or acquiesce
+in the persuasion that a merely tolerable government is
+incapable of improvement. I would form an individual model,
+suitable to the character, disposition, wants, and
+circumstances of the country, and I would make all
+exertions, whether by action or by writing, within the
+limits of the existing law, for ameliorating its existing
+condition, and bringing it nearer to the model selected for
+imitation; but I should consider the problem of the best
+form of government as purely ideal, and as unconnected with
+practice; and should abstain from taking a ticket in the
+lottery of revolution, unless there was a well-founded
+expectation that it would come out a prize.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The conservatism of Lewis was that of a profoundly sceptical instinct,
+of practical cautious incredulity. Bagehot's was the conservatism of
+middle-class English thought and experience. Tocqueville's was that of
+wide observation and bitter disappointment. Mill was a Conservative only
+so far as conservatism was forced upon a mind essentially radical and
+even revolutionary, imbued with a profound faith in abstract principles
+leading far beyond universal suffrage to, if not across the verge of
+communism, by the danger which he foresaw to individual liberty and
+unfettered intellectual freedom from the ascendency of mere numbers.
+Upon this point he agreed closely with Tocqueville, though upon nearly
+every other their views were as opposite as their character and
+experience; and their teaching has been fully confirmed by the actual
+working of the most successful, the most tolerant, and the most
+fortunately situated democracy that the world has ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of Democracy to naked despotism is obvious enough in the
+recent history of France; but sanguine democrats ascribe the special
+experience of France to the intense centralization inherited, as
+Tocqueville shows, by the Republic, the Constitutional Monarchy and the
+Empire from the <i>Ancien R&eacute;gime</i>; the absence of any local school of
+practical discussion, mutual tolerance, and co-operation; the bitterness
+of factions fighting not for administrative or legislative control, but
+for fundamentally incompatible forms of Government,&mdash;to anything rather
+than the unfitness of the French nation for Teutonic liberties.
+Conservative pessimists and democratic optimists can only find a common
+ground, a test which both will accept, in the experience of the United
+States. Whatever vices are found in American democracy must be inherent
+in democracy itself; and it must be granted that, looking on the surface
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span> public life, the larger facts of national history, and the material
+condition of the people, there is no evidence, obvious to the hasty
+observer, of interference with personal freedom, of any demoralizing or
+weakening influence on individual character exercised by political or
+social equality. It is outside of the proper field of politics, in facts
+invisible to distant observers, and not visible at a glance to
+thoughtful travellers, that we must seek for proof of the bearing of
+democratic institutions and ideas upon personal and social liberty, upon
+the maintenance of individual and collective rights.</p>
+
+<p>Upon such a point the remarks of a leisurely, thoughtful, cultivated
+writer, like Richard Grant White, a man who had enjoyed exceptional
+opportunities of comparing the effect upon daily life of English
+aristocracy and American democracy, are more instructive than the
+elaborate treatises of political theorists or the generalizations of
+historians. The testimony of such writers bears out the inference which
+careful students might draw from English history, that the influence of
+a local and landed aristocracy is far more favourable, than that even of
+a landed democracy, to the jealous and resolute assertion of legal
+rights, to a strenuous and successful resistance to the encroachments of
+power, social or political, upon the property, the comfort, the liberty,
+and the privileges, of individuals or communities. The moral of Mr.
+Grant White's sketches of English and American life is, that the English
+peasant or tradesman is far safer from practical oppression or injustice
+than the American farmer or citizen; that an Englishman, whatever his
+rank, is far more free to speak his mind, and far more likely to have a
+mind worth speaking, than one of the same position in France, or even in
+Massachusetts. The lively interest in, the diffused knowledge of,
+politics and public matters, found among educated, and even
+half-educated men and women throughout the upper and middle classes of
+England, evidently impressed Mr. White by the contrast it presented to
+the indifference of American 'Society' to State and Federal politics. He
+notes particularly the higher tone, the wider knowledge, the freedom
+from petty class and personal concerns, the broader range of thought,
+the familiarity with subjects of general human interest, which
+characterize the conversation of an English dinner-table or
+drawing-room, as compared with that of American clubs and parlours. He
+speaks, with the bitterness of a man often and deeply bored, of the
+limited range of American table-talk, the prominence of the 'shop,' the
+professional interests of each chance assemblage; the price of stocks
+and railway shares, and the chances and changes of Wall Street; the
+inferior tone of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span> thought among men and women alike, in the best or at
+least the wealthiest society of New York and Philadelphia. In this he is
+incidentally confirmed by so observant and candid a social critic as
+Laurence Oliphant. There is an American society of higher cultivation
+and loftier interests; but that society, except in Boston, is
+necessarily scattered and somewhat exclusive; and, standing wholly aloof
+from politics, lacks the knowledge of history, of legislation, of social
+and economic interests, of current opinion, of foreign affairs&mdash;which is
+in itself a sort of liberal, if necessarily superficial, education.
+American ladies, and even gentlemen, hardly know who are the Senators
+for their State, much less who is the representative of their district;
+care nothing for, and know little of, the debates in Congress, still
+less in the State Legislature, deeply as these may affect the well-being
+of the community, the laws under which they and their children are to
+live.</p>
+
+<p>But this lack of interest in public affairs has a deeper and far more
+reaching consequence. Everybody's business is nobody's business. In a
+community really democratic there are no natural leaders; none bound by
+rank, station, and recognized primacy, to originate resistance; none too
+strong to be crushed by the animosity of a Fiske or a Gould, or
+grievously wronged by a corrupt corporation like that of New York, a
+dishonest political organization like Tammany Hall, or a powerful
+Tramway or Railway Company. The consequence is, that not only the
+individual citizen, but a whole community submits to high-handed
+oppression, to administrative and judicial corruption, to impudent
+usurpation and flagrant illegalities, such as the greatest of English
+corporations would never dream of attempting. Perhaps the most
+oppressive and insolent exactions, to which living Englishmen have as
+yet submitted, are those of the Water Companies of London; but the
+offenders have repeatedly been resisted and brought to justice; and it
+is in London alone, the one English city which lacks natural leaders and
+protectors, which is too large for any citizen or body of citizens&mdash;save
+that great City Corporation which English Radicalism has marked for
+destruction&mdash;to speak and act in its name, that the Water Companies
+would have been endured for five years. Even in London, no such
+high-handed interference with the rights of property and the comfort of
+families, as the Elevated Railways of New York, with their uncompensated
+destruction of individual privacy and comfort throughout many of the
+wealthiest streets of the first city in the Union, would have been
+obviously and utterly impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The tolerance of Democracy for what seem to English ideas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span> the grossest
+form of oppression&mdash;oppression systematic and legal, arbitrary power and
+class privilege, formally embodied in the law and made a fundamental
+principle of government&mdash;is illustrated by that clause of the Code
+Napoleon, which exempts the whole bureaucracy of France from civil or
+criminal liability. No official can be prosecuted, no redress sought at
+law for the abuse of powers the most extensive, affecting every man's
+daily life&mdash;powers which enable their holder to harass and almost ruin
+individuals and communities at his pleasure&mdash;save by permission of the
+Council of State, a body of officials inclined of course to believe and
+to shield its subordinates. This law has been sustained by each
+successive Government that has seized the reins of centralized power;
+nor are we aware that any serious effort has been made to repeal it.</p>
+
+<p>The tyranny of democracy is, as Mill insists, the most formidable,
+searching, and irresistible of all. Under an autocracy or oligarchy,
+public opinion is the protector of the injured, and imposes limits on
+arbitrary power. Assassination is the resort of the victim driven to
+frenzy by individual oppression, and tempers the sternest despotism; but
+Demos wields opinion and defies the dagger. By general confession life
+is far less free, individual taste, caprice or eccentricity is kept
+under far sharper restraint by fashion and feeling, in America than in
+aristocratic England. At every epoch of American history, the freedom of
+opinion has been curtailed at certain points within strict if
+ill-defined limits. The patriots of Virginia proclaimed in 1775 that any
+who dared 'by speech or writing to maintain' Royalist or Constitutional
+views should be treated as an enemy of his country. A similar ban was
+put some fifty years ago upon the Abolitionists of Illinois and
+Connecticut. A time came when it was almost equally dangerous to
+maintain the constitutional doctrines which the Abolitionists had
+assailed. Nowadays, of actual persecution there is little, because there
+is little need; because the repression acts, save with the most
+independent, original and contradictious tempers, upon thought rather
+than expression. No human intellect or character can resist the
+universal, insensible, unconscious, pressure of the atmosphere which
+surrounds it from the cradle. Upon certain political, social, and
+ethical dogmas, wherever national pride and democratic prejudice are
+touched, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say, that the 'unanimous
+opinion' of the North and West has demoralized or extinguished thought
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>Demos is not only tyrant but Pope. He feels, and his courtiers venture
+openly to claim for him, not only the royalty which can do no wrong, but
+the infallibility which can define<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[Pg 526]</a></span> right and wrong themselves. He
+resents, we are told upon democratic authority, all pretension to
+special knowledge.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'No observer of American polities' (Mr. Godkin admits in his
+reply to Sir Henry Maine) 'can deny that, with regard to
+matters which can become the subject of legislation, the
+American voter listens with extreme impatience to anything
+which has the air of instruction; but the reason is to be
+found not in his dislike of instruction so much as his
+dislike in the political field of anything which savours of
+superiority. The passion for equality is one of the very
+strongest influences in American politics. This is so fully
+recognized now by politicians, that self-depreciation, even
+in the matter of knowledge, has become one of the ways of
+commending one's self to the multitude, which even the
+foremost men of both parties do not disdain. In talking on
+such subjects as the currency, with a view of enlightening
+the people, skilful orators are very careful to repudiate
+all pretence of knowing anything more about the matter than
+their hearers. The speech is made to wear as far as possible
+the appearance of being simply a reproduction of things with
+which the audience is just as familiar as the speaker.
+Nothing is more fatal to a stump orator than an air of
+superior wisdom on any subject. He has, if he means to
+persuade, to keep carefully, in outward seeming at all
+events, on the same intellectual level as those whom he is
+addressing. Orators of a demagogic turn, of course, push
+this caution to its extreme, and often affect ignorance, and
+boast of the smallness of the educationale opportunities
+enjoyed by them in their youth, and of the extreme
+difficulty they had in acquiring even the little they know.
+There is nothing, in fact, people are less willing to
+tolerate in a man, who seek office at their hands, than any
+sign that he does not consider himself as belonging to the
+same class as the bulk of the voters&mdash;that either birth, or
+fortune, or education has taken him out of sympathy with
+them, or caused him, in any sense, to look down on them.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Historians treat the vote of the present generation as decisive, morally
+as well as practically, on the issues of the past. The people has, by
+chance or caprice, passed judgment upon questions, in discussing which
+consummate statesmen with intimate practical knowledge of their bearings
+profoundly differed; and that judgment concludes the controversy,
+determines the right or wrong, the wisdom or folly, of men like J.Q.
+Adams, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. We have seen too
+much of this abject superstition in recent English historical essays, as
+well as in political polemics. It is needless to point out the debasing
+effect upon all discussion of such anticipatory appeal to the arbitrary
+decision of Pope or posterity. No man can reason vigorously, frankly,
+forcibly, and fully, who feels that he, or the heirs of his thought, may
+be forced not merely to accept defeat, but to cry '<i>peccavi</i>.' The maxim
+'<i>securus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[Pg 527]</a></span> judicat orbis terrarum</i>' has no place in historical
+criticism; and if it had, one nation is not the world, nor the next
+generation a posterity on whose experience and impartiality reliance
+might be placed.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Tocqueville is known to the world chiefly by two great works. His
+'Democracy in America' was the production of his early manhood. In New
+England he saw democracy at its best and brightest; saw nothing of that
+deterioration which the decay of the old Puritan severity, the infusion
+of a strong foreign element, the corruption and the passions of the
+Civil War, have confessedly caused. The colonial traditions and
+principles were still in modified force; simple habits of life, a
+general prevalence of competence, the absence of ostentatious wealth and
+luxury, left women content to be mothers and housekeepers; a position of
+which, as trustworthy witnesses allege, modern luxury, culture, and love
+of leisure, have rendered them impatient; while the impossibility of
+devolving their domestic duties upon servants makes the family a burden,
+and maternity no longer the deepest instinct and strongest hope of
+womanhood. He saw no beginning of that manifold change of morals and
+manners which the survivors of an elder generation now regard with deep
+dismay. His portrait of Democracy, as seen in New England, is decidedly
+rose-coloured. He saw enough in the Middle and Southern States of the
+working of democracy under different social conditions, to tinge that
+picture with the hues of doubt, if not yet with the sombre colours of
+deep apprehension.</p>
+
+<p>How apt to be partial is the widest and closest political observation is
+shown by the very partial lessons derived from the experience of the New
+World. Few observe how signally the history of Central and South America
+contradicts the inferences so confidently drawn from the United
+States&mdash;or rather from the New England of yesterday, and the present
+condition of California and the States bounded by the Lakes and the
+Ohio, the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. Among the States of Spanish
+and Portuguese speech and civilization&mdash;it would be too much to say
+blood&mdash;the failure of democracy has been complete, glaring, and ruinous.
+Social and political anarchy, utter insecurity of life and property,
+incessant revolution and murderous war, have been its only fruits. The
+happy accident of hereditary princes, exceptionally wise, able, and
+forbearing, has barely saved Brazil. The one prosperous, solvent,
+orderly State between the Rio Grande and Cape Horn is the aristocratic
+republic of Chili. So large, striking, and impressive a fact can hardly
+have escaped a thinker like Tocqueville, whose French birth and
+experience protected him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[Pg 528]</a></span> in great measure from the insular ignorance,
+rather than arrogance, which leads the ablest English writers to base
+their political philosophy exclusively upon Anglo-Saxon experience and
+examples: yet it is strange to find so striking a lesson so lightly
+touched by the wisest, widest, most reflective, and best-informed, among
+the political teachers of his age.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Ancien R&eacute;gime</i> we see the seeds of all that is worst and most
+dangerous in the modern French polity: the hothouse which fostered into
+a growth, unknown elsewhere, that passion of envy, which Tocqueville
+regards as the radical vice, the paramount impulse, the fundamental
+principle, of Democracy. The peculiar reasons for this dominant
+sentiment of hatred and jealousy in the democracy of France will be
+found in his own writings. Much as there was to admire in the old
+nobility of France, the people saw it only in an aspect calculated to
+excite unmingled hatred and contempt. It had ceased to govern, to render
+any service in return for privileges, exemptions, and exactions so
+odious, vexatious, and oppressive that no service could atone for them.
+Even these were forgiven to the resident aristocracy of La Vend&eacute;e. But
+absentees supported by such exactions, an Order known to the people not
+even by neglected duties and ill-directed interference, but solely by
+demands and extortions unconnected with any remaining or remembered
+functions, a class whose wealth and luxury were supported not by rents
+or other returns paid by the tillers of the soil to its original owners,
+holders, or 'lords,' but by rates, tithes, fines, heriots, monopolies
+(to use the nearest English equivalents) levied for their benefit, and
+levied in the worst possible way&mdash;what feelings could these excite among
+a people consciously fainting beneath the load of taxes, <i>corv&eacute;es</i>,
+restrictions and imposts, fees and stamps, of which only a part ever
+reached the empty Treasury of the State? Is it strange that so monstrous
+a fabric, when those on whose living bodies it was built rose in revolt,
+should have fallen with a great ruin, and have crushed all whom it had
+sheltered? 'The guilt of an Order cannot palliate the massacre of its
+Innocents.' True; but human nature being what it is, the unreasoning
+burst of fury which strove to stamp out every trace of old institutions,
+to exterminate the race of the unconscious oppressors, was less strange
+than the fidelity of the Vend&eacute;ans.</p>
+
+<p>And yet that massacre is in itself suggestive. The wholesale butcheries
+of the Terror are accountable; even the attempt of Robespierre, St.
+Just, and Bar&egrave;re to suppress revolt and discontent by <i>noyades</i> and
+<i>mitraitlades</i>, if fiendish, is intelligible. It had a political aim. It
+satisfied a definite if diabolical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[Pg 529]</a></span> desire. But the executions of
+veteran philosophers, of grey-haired parish-priests, of harmless
+nuns&mdash;the deliberate cold-blooded cruelty which punished with death the
+resentment, the imprudence, often the mere birth, of orphaned lads; the
+prayers or the tears of schoolgirls who might well hav urged the piteous
+plea of Sejanus' infant daughter&mdash;these recal the indiscriminate
+ferocity of wild beasts, the atrocities occasionally committed by
+destructive maniacs in an excess of fury, or the infectious frenzies of
+lycanthropy and similar forms of epidemic madness, rather than such
+human cruelty as prompted the massacre of Drogheda, the butchery of
+Melos, or the destruction of Carthage. What could schoolboys have done
+worthy of the guillotine, even in the eyes of the Jacobin Club? Girls,
+like children, can try the temper and patience of manhood, and among
+rough men or in rough times get roughly punished; but when, save in
+1793, did men ever think of killing them? There was but one fault
+besides their birth&mdash;a fault almost inseparable from their birth&mdash;which
+the boy-ensigns and pages, the convent-bred demoiselles, shared with
+their parents; that inalienable, instinctive, inborn grace, that sense,
+air, and bearing of superiority, which we find acknowledged alike by the
+noble and the <i>bourgeois</i>, the <i>von Adel</i> and the <i>b&uuml;rger</i>, acknowledged
+by those who regret or resent as distinctly as by those who would uphold
+it. The unpardonable sin of the <i>noblesse</i>, the inheritance of which
+they could not be deprived but with their lives, the secret sting that
+maddened the Jacobin to slay not merely the beardless heirs but the
+innocent and helpless daughters of the captured chateau, may perhaps be
+hinted in a question and answer like the following, between Senior and
+De Tocqueville, after the third Revolution had proved its impotence to
+efface the footmarks of nature:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'I said that I was told that the distinction between noble
+and <i>roturier</i> existed in its full force in real life.</p>
+
+<p>'"Yes," said Tocqueville, "it does, meaning by noble,
+<i>gentilhomme</i>; and it is a great misfortune, since it keeps
+up distinctions and animosities of caste; but it is
+incurable&mdash;at least, it has not been cured, or perhaps much
+palliated, by our sixty years of revolution. It is a sort of
+Freemasonry. When I talk to a <i>gentilhomme</i>, though we have
+not two ideas in common, though all his opinions, wishes,
+and thoughts are opposed to mine, yet I feel at once that we
+belong to the same family, that we speak the same language,
+that we understand one another. I may like a bourgeois
+better, but he is a stranger." I mentioned the remark to me
+of a very sensible Prussian, <i>b&uuml;rger</i> himself, that it was
+unwise to send out as ambassador any not noble. I said it
+did not matter in England, where the distinction is unknown.
+"Yes," he replied, "unknown with you; but you may be sure
+that when any of our <i>b&uuml;rger</i> ministers meets one who is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span>
+<i>von Adel</i>, he does not negociate with him on equal terms;
+he is always wishing to sneak under the table."'</p></div>
+
+<p>In these conversations, preserved in a separate series of Senior's
+Journals, we have the best, latest, and wisest, of De Tocqueville's
+thoughts; none the less valuable, and to English readers all the more
+intelligible and impressive, that we have them in undress; put into the
+terse, pithy, concentrated style of summarized oral conversation by the
+recorder, instead of being elaborately tricked out in all the formal
+grace of French literary diction by one of the most fastidious of French
+writers. Senior, who habitually wrote down in his Journals the
+conversation of the great, wise, and thoughtful&mdash;the leaders of
+political action or literary criticism, the statesmen and thinkers&mdash;with
+whom in the course of a leisurely life of social observation he was
+brought into intimate intercourse, had a gift of getting from each man
+the best he had to give. His friends knew that their table-talk was
+recorded, often themselves read and corrected the record, and therefore
+gave him what they were willing to give not to the contemporary world,
+but to posterity; those opinions upon the current facts of the day by
+which they were willing to be judged hereafter. No opinions upon the
+tendencies and consequences, the prospects and passions, the strength
+and weakness of democracy, could well be more valuable than those which
+the painter of Democracy in America&mdash;after the experience of many years
+in the public life of France, in the Representative Chamber of the
+Orleans Monarchy, and in the Legislature of the Republic,&mdash;delivered for
+the benefit of readers far removed by time and distance, during the
+latter months of the rickety infancy of that ill-starred Government and
+the first period of the Second Empire. Tocqueville spoke from a point of
+vantage, such as few other men have attained, upon a theme which he had
+studied profoundly in youth, and upon which Fate had ever since been
+writing elaborate commentaries. He spoke with a mind naturally calm,
+candid, and judicial, enriched by a deeper knowledge than any other
+Continental writer enjoyed of the working of popular institutions in
+England and America, matured by the experience of a lifetime; spoke
+while the most critical experiments in democratic Constitutionalism and
+democratic C&aelig;sarism were being worked out before his eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Founding a so-called Constitutional Monarchy upon a corruption as gross
+as that of Walpole, Louis Phillippe had rendered his power absolute at
+the price of sapping its foundation; and Tocqueville had predicted the
+Revolution long before accident precipitated it&mdash;predicted it as an
+inevitable result of the corruption he denounced, and indicated the
+forces of silent discontent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[Pg 531]</a></span> which were sure to overthrow it. In 1848,
+and still more in 1871, the people of France at large turned
+instinctively to those natural leaders whom at all other times they had
+so persistently ostracized. Alarmed in the first case by an unexpected
+and undesired triumph of the Parisian populace&mdash;in the second, chastened
+by a great national disaster, without definite views or objects of their
+own&mdash;they deliberately trusted their interests to the larger landowners,
+whose interests must coincide with theirs; to the men of hereditary
+culture, of thoughtful habits, and wider experience, in whom they
+recognized a natural capacity to deal with problems that bewildered
+themselves, with events that had taken them utterly unawares. But, save
+at such times, and under the sobering influence of such lessons,
+equality, and not liberty, is the root of French Democracy. To equality,
+liberty is readily and unhesitatingly sacrificed.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>'"&Eacute;galit&eacute;,"</i> said Tocqueville, "is an expression of envy.
+It means in the real heart of every Republican, 'No one
+shall be better off than I am;' and while this is preferred
+to good government, good government is impossible. In fact,
+no party desires good government. The first object of the
+reactionary party is to keep down the Republicans; the
+second, if it be the second, object of each branch of that
+party, is to keep down the two others. The object of the
+Republicans is, as they admit, <i>&eacute;galit&eacute;</i>&mdash;but as for
+liberty, or security, or education, or the other ends of
+government, no one cares for them."'</p></div>
+
+<p>It was the passion for Equality that made the Second Empire possible.
+The city <i>prol&egrave;tariat</i> would endure anything but a privilege of class, a
+constitutional monarchy associated in their experience with an
+artificial peerage and a narrow uniform franchise; the <i>bourgeoisie</i>,
+terrified by socialism&mdash;that is, confiscation&mdash;would accept any
+Government strong enough to put and keep down the Reds, the Anarchists,
+who under the Republic had kept Paris always within a week&mdash;had brought
+her more than once within twenty-four hours&mdash;of sack and pillage. The
+peasantry hated privilege and Socialism with an equal and impartial
+hatred. The First Empire had given them much of what they most prized in
+their actual condition, and was credited with all. Its one hateful
+association was incessant and at last disastrous war, anticipated
+conscriptions, and foreign invasion. The Second Empire, with its promise
+of peace, was the embodiment of their ideal. It promised work to the
+operative, opportunities of fortune to the restless, and safe investment
+to the prudent among the middle-class. Its protectorate of the Pope
+secured the clergy and the women; and it mattered nothing that, crushing
+under foot the freedom at once of the press and the tribune, it incurred
+the bitter hatred of the intellectual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span> classes in a country where pure
+intellect is more ambitious and more immediately powerful than in any
+other. It stood firm and unshaken while it kept its promise of peace and
+prosperity&mdash;the firmer that it embodied so distinctly the errors and
+illusions of the many, and not the less popular that it showed so
+profound and cynical a contempt for the intelligence of the few. Its
+Budgets alone would have been fatal to a Government resting on and
+responsible to Opinion, for the rapid growth of the Debt in a time of
+peace and plenty would have terrified men accustomed to sift the
+'capital' and 'revenue' accounts of great Companies, and to calculate
+the resources of Empires as a peasant the yield of his farm. But the
+millions were content; the worse the credit of the State, the higher the
+interest on their savings; the embellishment of Paris and other great
+public works were a practical acknowledgement of the <i>droit au travail</i>;
+and the calculations of those, who criticised the fearful waste
+(<i>coulage</i>) of such a system, proved to demonstration that a spendthrift
+State must come to the end of a spendthrift <i>rentier</i>&mdash;with what
+consequences the Commune of 1871 bare witness&mdash;found no attention; spoke
+in a tongue not understood by the people. The masses were not even
+alarmed by the warnings of veteran statesmen, consummate financiers, and
+<i>doctrinaires</i> of every school. Only in those great crises when all that
+is left to wisdom is a choice of calamities, as in 1848 and 1871, does
+Demos abdicate; recognize for a moment that all men are not born, much
+less trained to remain, free <i>and equal</i>, and entreat the pilots by
+hereditary profession to see the ship of State through the breakers.</p>
+
+<p>In the criticism, and especially in the best, most thoughtful, and least
+obvious criticism, provoked by the long foreseen electoral settlement of
+last year, the direct and indirect influence of Mr. Bagehot's writings
+was constantly to be traced. On this subject he had looked back and
+looked forward farther than most political reasoners. Household suffrage
+seemed to him the inevitable consequence, the logical development, of
+the reform of 1832. It was at that point, as he considered, that the
+right and wrong path had diverged; that chance and destiny, rather than
+choice, determined at the moment the adoption of that which led
+necessarily and logically to sheer Democracy. The practice of the old
+system had become throughly vicious, but the underlying principle was
+sound and safe. All classes, all interests, were represented; but
+accident had given, not to wealth or birth, but to a particular kind of
+wealth, a certain set of families, an enormously disproportionate
+representation. The landed interest was wronged in the utterly
+inadequate representation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span> of the counties. Ireland was misrepresented;
+and the Scotch people could not be said to be represented at all. But
+every class, every great interest, had its spokesmen; exercised a direct
+and independent influence in the national councils. Rotten or pocket
+boroughs were not only nurseries of professional statesmanship, but a
+back door through which interests, whose direct representation was
+impossible, found access to Parliament. The West Indian interest, the
+East India Company, and the statesmen trained in its service, with their
+special knowledge and zealous care for the welfare of our Oriental
+empire, could secure a hearing for views to which no English
+constituency would listen. Under such a system our Australian Colonies,
+the great Dominion of Canada, the English minority which sustains the
+Imperial cause in South Africa, would never have complained, as now,
+that their voice was unheard, their feelings unreflected, in an assembly
+which is no longer merely the Parliament of Great Britain, but the
+Senate of an Empire greater than that of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The working classes were represented through those numerous
+constituencies in which the scot and lot franchise prevailed. It was
+imperative that the abuses of the system should be redressed; that the
+new communities which had grown up since the Restoration should be
+directly represented; that the borough proprietors and the great
+families should be deprived of their excessive weight in Parliament;
+that the middle class should acquire a power more adequate to its new
+social and political importance; that Scotland, again, should be really
+and directly represented. But in Mr. Bagehot's view universal and varied
+representation was of more consequence than arithmetical proportion. No
+class, no interest, represented in the House of Commons, was likely to
+be grossly wronged, none could be neglected or unheard. No class
+intelligent enough to understand its own grievances, to have distinct
+ideas and desires of its own, would have failed, under a reform
+retaining the principle of the old system, to command attention and
+secure redress. Had Pitt been able to carry out his well-known and
+thoroughly sincere scheme of practical reform, or had Canning and his
+followers sided with the Whigs upon this as upon almost every other
+question, reform might have anticipated revolution. It was the weakness,
+rather than the will, of the Whigs that compelled them to go not only
+farther and faster, but in another direction, than their actual opinions
+and traditional inclinations would have carried them. They were
+compelled to present a scheme broad, simple, and extreme enough, to
+attract irresistible support.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When once uniformity of franchise and proportionate representation were
+made the basis of the electoral system, the extension of the former, the
+more and more accurate adjustment of the latter, became a mere question
+of time. The poorest class of householders in towns in 1886 are probably
+as intelligent and competent as were the ten-pounders of 1832. The
+masses might have been satisfied with the gradual enlargement of their
+old representation; having been once disfranchised by wholesale, it was
+certain that they would ere long demand and ultimately secure that
+wholesale enfranchisement, by which every other class must necessarily
+be swamped. Minority representation, electoral districts, and single
+seats, are at best lame and unsatisfactory methods of engrafting on pure
+democracy securities and checks, which were essential and natural parts
+of the old representation of classes and interests. When once every
+borough below a certain numerical standard had been extinguished, and
+all below another deprived of their second member, the upward extension
+of the principle became a logical and historical necessity. So again
+much, perhaps most, of what has been written upon the contrast between
+the American and English constitutions&mdash;the two great types of popular
+government, Parliamentary and Presidential, the direct and indirect
+election of the actual Executive, terms fixed by law or dependent upon
+Parliamentary favour&mdash;was anticipated in the best chapters of Mr.
+Bagehot's 'English Constitution.'</p>
+
+<p>Few writers so terse, compact, and clear, have been so completely free
+from the temptation of deliberate phrase making as Mr. Bagehot; yet few
+professional phrase-makers have left in the minds of their readers so
+many telling, forcible, and suggestive phrases; sentences in which a
+novel or striking thought, an impressive view of new or old truth, a
+principle apt to be forgotten or imperfectly appreciated, is vivified
+and incarnated in a few emphatic words. It would be difficult to quote
+any passage of ten times the length half so suggestive of the
+exceptional conditions that have secured to England peace and stability
+during the last two centuries of storm and shipwreck, revolution, and
+reaction abroad, any phrase so expressive of the distinctive character
+of the nation and its Government, as the two aptly chosen epithets
+employed by Mr. Bagehot&mdash;the 'dignified parts' of the English
+Constitution and the 'deferential tendency' of the English people. In
+both instances he has, as we think, overstated his point. The dignified
+parts of the Constitution are more real and living, are more intimately
+associated with the practical work of Government, than he was disposed
+to allow. Popular deference is paid more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[Pg 535]</a></span> to truth and less to fiction
+than he supposed. It is eminently characteristic of the cautious English
+temper, the distrust of sharp contrasts and clever paradoxes engrained
+in his nature, that (so far as we remember) he never adopts the familiar
+saying of Thiers, that a constitutional Prince <i>r&egrave;gne et ne gouverne
+pas</i>. But his actual conception of the English monarchy approaches far
+too near that misleading and mischievous fallacy.</p>
+
+<p>It is a little strange that so devoted a disciple of Darwin, a writer
+who applied the principle of Evolution with so much skill, insight, and
+success, to the life of nations and the course of politics, should have
+allowed so little weight to the natural selection which operates so
+powerfully upon the character of hereditary Princes and aristocracies.
+It is far from obvious why so close and careful an observer should have
+drawn his illustrations of the working of constitutional monarchy so
+exclusively from the past, and especially from the examples of George
+III. and William IV., ignoring so completely the experience of the
+present reign; the deep, lasting, and for the most part wholesome,
+influence exercised in European politics by men like Leopold I., Prince
+Albert, and the present Emperor of Germany. Prince Bismarck owes to
+Royal favour and trust the foundation of his power, the strength which
+enabled him in the teeth of a short-sighted Liberal opposition to create
+that Prussian army, to carry out that ruthless but eminently successful
+policy of blood and steel, which excluded Austria from her place in the
+Confederation, put an end to the old dualism, and achieved the union of
+Germany. Italy owes everything to Cavour; but she owed Cavour to Victor
+Emmanuel. The selection of Russian, Austrian, and German ministers, the
+consistency of their policy, the power or rather authority, most
+judiciously used by the Crown at more than one critical period of recent
+English history, completely refute Mr. Bagehot's theoretical and
+historical doctrine that a Parliament must be wiser than an average
+sovereign. He forgets that a Prince is exempt from the influence of
+party, whose disastrous action in the great crisis of the national
+fortunes has been brought home of late with painful force to all
+thoughtful Englishmen.</p>
+
+<p>Nor has he escaped that influence in his criticism of George III. It
+would be easy to show that the modern theory of Parliamentary
+Government, the theory accepted by his immediate predecessors and now
+firmly established, was one on which no scrupulous and conscientious
+Prince in the position of George III. could possibly have acted. The
+King found throughout the earlier years of his reign, until the younger
+Pitt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[Pg 536]</a></span> obtained an actual potent and controlling influence in the Houses
+and in the closet, that the influence which secured a Parliamentary
+majority was not his ministers' but his own. The dismissal of the elder
+Pitt and Newcastle broke at once the strongest coalition of aristocratic
+and popular influence, the mightiest league between intellect sustained
+by national confidence, borough-mongering wealth, and family interest,
+that ever dominated the unreformed Parliament. It was in the King's
+power to give the control of the House to whom he would&mdash;to Chatham,
+Grafton, Rockingham, or North. The one thoroughly unconstitutional use
+of the Royal influence, with which the King can fairly be charged, was
+employed to defeat the most unconstitutional and indefensible measure
+ever brought forward by a corrupt and unprincipled coalition&mdash;the India
+Bill, which endeavoured to secure for Fox and North personally the power
+and patronage of our Oriental Empire. The King could not shift the
+responsibility of administration upon ministers who owed office and
+Parliamentary support to himself. The American war was not his work. The
+Stamp Act was brought in during his first illness by the minister he
+most hated. The Tea Duty was the madness of Townshend; and the step,
+which gave the signal for revolt, was really a remission of two-thirds
+of that duty. True that the King was the last man to agree to the
+disruption of the empire, the abandonment of thousands of American loyal
+subjects, to lower the flag of England before her coalesced European
+enemies; but in that perseverance, surely not unkingly, he had one
+enthusiastic supporter; and those who censure the King pass the same
+censure on the dying speech of Lord Chatham. The one fatal error of a
+long and conscientious reign should be laid to the account less of
+George III. than of those who betrayed Pitt's counsels and played upon
+the conscientious vagaries of a half-crazed brain.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bagehot dwells exclusively upon the unfavourable incidents of a
+royal education. He overlooks the direct and indirect influences which
+are brought to bear from the very cradle upon an hereditary Prince&mdash;the
+sense of responsibility, the consciousness of a great position, the
+familiarity with the gravest interests, a youth passed under the tuition
+of the ablest masters, and above all that constant intercourse with the
+finest intellects of the age, which secure for a future King a moral and
+intellectual training unequalled in its excellence. The effect of that
+training we see in our own Royal family, unfortunate as they have been
+in the withdrawal at the most critical period of a father's control and
+guidance. Of the Queen's daughters it is needless to speak. Her sons
+are, by general admission, soldiers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span> and sailors of more than average
+professional ability. The Crown Prince of Germany, the late King of
+Spain, the present heir of the House of France, Leopold II. of Belgium,
+and King Humbert of Italy, are generally credited with high ability; and
+more than one of them would take rank among the first statesmen of his
+Kingdom. A Prince of fair abilities, with such a training and such
+knowledge of the men with whom he is necessarily brought into contact,
+has every means of knowing, at least as well as Parliament, who are the
+most competent and most trustworthy statesmen to whom he can commit the
+fortunes of his Kingdom. His continuous, experience of politics,
+legislation, and government, his access, especially with regard to
+foreign affairs, to wider and more impartial sources of information,
+lend to his counsels an authority which no prudent or thoughtful
+statesman will disregard. He looks at affairs from a higher point of
+view, with a wider survey as a rule, and also with a calmer and more
+unbiassed judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bagehot dwells at length on what may be called the fictitious value
+of Constitutional Monarchy; and this he was evidently inclined to
+exaggerate. The English people, he thought, are, as a rule, too ignorant
+to understand what the Queen's Government really is&mdash;how completely it
+is carried on in the Royal name by Parliamentary Ministers. For them the
+law is really incarnate in the Sovereign; in yielding obedience to
+magistrates and policemen, to common law and Parliamentary statutes, in
+forbearing or resisting riot, they obey or uphold the Royal authority.
+Were they aware that at each general election they choose their real and
+effective rulers for an indefinite period, they would be confused,
+alarmed, and bewildered, to a degree which would render them incapable
+of a real and intelligent choice. The people&mdash;the lower orders&mdash;may have
+been, when Mr. Bagehot wrote, and probably are now, somewhat wiser and
+better informed as to the real character of the Government&mdash;the actual
+responsibility for particular measures&mdash;than their critic supposed. But
+it is beyond doubt that the Queen's name is a great power. The law is
+too mere an abstraction, the names of Ministers represent too much party
+feeling, excite too much antagonism, to command the prompt obedience,
+the loyal reverence, the enthusiastic support which is rendered to the
+name of the Sovereign. In France and America a very different feeling
+prevails.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Senior, than whom no Englishman of his day was more intimate with a
+number of French statesmen of different parties, views and
+character&mdash;than whom there was, perhaps, no cooler, closer, or more
+constant observer of French politics&mdash;remarks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[Pg 538]</a></span> that Frenchmen are always
+weak and timid in upholding, daring, resolute, and even fierce in
+resisting the powers that be. Confidence, enthusiasm, conviction, seem
+in every case of insurrection and dangerous riot to be on the side of
+the mob. The revolution of 1848 afforded very striking examples of this
+contrast. The overthrow of Louis Philippe, deeply as the King himself
+was disliked and despised, narrow as was the electorate, unpopular as
+was the Ministry, was the act of a small minority. The Republic was
+imposed upon France by a knot of reckless journalists and
+semi-communistic dreamers, backed by the dreaded populace of Paris,
+against the will of the peasantry who formed four-fifths of the voters,
+and of the educated or semi-educated classes, amounting to one half of
+the remaining fifth. Again and again was the Provisional
+Government&mdash;though backed by all who had anything to lose, by all who
+dreaded anarchy&mdash;on the point of overthrow, and saved only by
+Lamartine's eloquence from the conspiracy of a few thousand desperadoes,
+and the stormy passions of a mob that hardly knew what it wanted. The
+Assembly itself was invaded and terrorized for several hours: the lives
+of the leaders, to whom all France looked up with reverence, were in
+imminent peril at the hands of a faction numerically insignificant. Only
+in the terrible days of June did the National Guard, after four months
+of distress and incessant panic, of daily and hourly fear of sack and
+pillage, act with energy and decision; and even then the struggle
+between the army, supported by the National Guard and the Anarchist
+faction of the barricades, was long balanced and doubtful: yet the party
+of order in Paris itself constituted an overwhelming majority.</p>
+
+<p>In America, New England perhaps excepted, the mob and the people, the
+party of lawless force and law-abiding principle, meet on more equal
+terms. No one dreams of disputing, in the last resort, the authority of
+the Sovereign, but that Sovereign is invisible and inaccessible. It must
+be remembered, moreover, that more than one of the hundred popular
+risings, that the Union has seen during its hundred years' existence,
+were risings, not against the law, but for the law against the laxity of
+its administrators. This very fact makes it the more clear how uncertain
+and ineffective is the authority of abstract law and an impersonal
+Sovereign. The legal authorities, State or Federal, are not necessarily
+representative of the power by which they are elected. In California,
+after a period of anarchy, the respectable classes rose with the tacit
+support of the people against the State Government which the people had
+elected; deposed it almost without an effort, and established in its
+place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[Pg 539]</a></span> the arbitrary rule of a self-appointed Vigilance Committee, whose
+members no one knew. That lawless Government hanged as many rowdies,
+pilferers, highway robbers and card sharpers as it thought fit; banished
+hundreds under penalty of death&mdash;a penalty sure to be
+enforced&mdash;re-established order, and laid down its power without having
+encountered the shadow of legal or popular resistance. We have seen an
+actual insurrection of the better elements of society provoked by the
+escape of murderers and other criminals through the hands of lax or
+corrupt juries, and of an administration whose use of the prerogative of
+mercy was imputed to partisanship or to bribery. But in a great majority
+of instances, riots that have reached the proportions of insurrection
+have been simply anarchical or rebellious. It is not so long since the
+railway employes of Pennsylvania, striking work upon an every-day
+quarrel between employer and employed, took possession of the iron
+highways of the State, intercepted communication, seized the great
+railway arsenal of Pittsburg, and fought a pitched battle against the
+militia, as obstinate and almost as sanguinary as the minor combats of
+the Civil War. While we write, another strike of the same class has
+suspended the traffic of the great Western railway line. In three States
+the militia have been called out to protect property and liberty, the
+rights of capital, the freedom of labour, the interest of the public,
+against a class insurrection; the public authorities have been forcibly
+resisted, and lives have been lost in a skirmish with fire-arms between
+the <i>posse</i> of the Sheriff and the insurgent Knights of Labour. Every
+American mob feels itself invested with something of the majesty of the
+sovereign people. Every body of English rioters&mdash;political, social, or
+simply lawless&mdash;knows and feels itself guilty of resistance to the
+Sovereign. The truncheon of the police, the uniform of the soldier,
+unquestionably represents the legal will of the Sovereign; and before
+that will the largest and most excited multitude gives way at once.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bagehot overlooks the <i>certainty</i> which personal sovereignty gives:
+the absence of a moment's possible doubt on which side is that supreme
+arbiter, sure to be backed by nine-tenths of the physical forces of
+society. He underrates, if he does not altogether ignore, the much wider
+and deeper influence of the Royal name; its power over passion as well
+as over ignorance. The omnipotence of Parliament, even when, in the
+belief of half the nation, a Parliamentary majority represents a
+minority of the people, is due less to traditional respect for the House
+of Commons, or superstitious reverence for a majority vote, such as
+prevails in America, than to the fact,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span> that resistance means rebellion,
+visible, unmistakable disobedience to the Queen. It is therefore deeply
+to be regretted, not for any sentimental reason, but for the sake of
+order and the protection of life and property, that the democratic
+changes in our Constitution are gradually undermining the habit of
+submission to the Queen's Majesty which still characterizes, to a great
+extent, the English people. The Services still feel proud to consider
+that they serve, in their own phrase&mdash;not the State but&mdash;'the Queen.'
+That sentiment of loyalty, which Mr. Bagehot ascribes to the ignorant
+alone, is as strong in the upper or middle as in the lower orders; has a
+far wider, deeper influence than he allows, than it was consistent with
+the whole scope of his work on the English constitution to recognize.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable and interesting points in Tocqueville's
+conversations, as recorded by Mr. Senior, is the value which he and
+other interlocutors ascribe to the English Poor Law. Mr Senior had seen
+its essential principle, the right of subsistence, worked out
+farther&mdash;to extremer and more dangerous consequences&mdash;than perhaps any
+other political or social experiment, before the practical common sense
+of England interfered. Under the old Poor Law, at least in the rural
+districts, the income of a household was regulated by its number. Every
+head of a family was entitled to an allowance, increasing with its
+increase, and wholly independent of his earnings. Nominal wages had been
+actually forced down <i>below</i> the starvation point. The law had
+demoralized industry by placing the idlest ditcher on a level of comfort
+with the best ploughman, and threatened to swallow up property in the
+support of poverty. Tocqueville and his friends had seen the danger from
+another point of view. The most popular and most formidable of the
+dogmas of that Socialism, which had infected so deeply the <i>prol&eacute;tariat</i>
+of Paris and other French cities, was in another and yet more insidious
+and destructive form the doctrine of the Poor Law. The right of
+subsistence was admitted by the establishment of the <i>ateliers
+nationaux</i>, and asserted by the insurgents of June, 1848, under the
+nobler and more dignified guise of the <i>droit au travail</i>. The State was
+bound, according to that doctrine, not to keep the idle alive, but to
+furnish the industrious with work suited to their skill at market rate
+of wages; a rate which had no right to fall below the average standard
+of an artizan's needs, or rather of his habits.</p>
+
+<p>A principle which contradicts the laws of nature is obviously false; and
+the right to subsistence&mdash;if claimed not for all who do, but for all who
+may, exist in a given country&mdash;yet more clearly the <i>droit au travail</i>
+of which this is the practical meaning&mdash;involves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[Pg 541]</a></span> the demand, that
+agricultural production shall keep pace with population. But, save for
+checks all ultimately reducible to the fear of want, checks which it is
+the essential object of a Poor Law to relax, population would rapidly,
+in any old country, overtake subsistence. That, were the population of
+England or France to multiply at an American rate, it would soon lack
+standing room, is mathematically demonstrable. A poor law then must be
+attended by checks on population as effective as those of Nature
+herself; and from their artificial character necessarily more offensive,
+revolting, and difficult to enforce. None the less, Englishmen familiar
+as Senior with the ruinous operation of the old Poor Law, Frenchmen
+confronted like Tocqueville by the terrible theory of the <i>droit au
+travail</i>, the alarming experience of the <i>ateliers nationaux</i>, were
+inclined to regard that admission of the right to subsistence&mdash;limited
+to those actually born&mdash;which is the fundamental principle of the
+present Poor Law, as a most valuable, if not an indispensable, guarantee
+of social security; a signal instance of that practical English wisdom,
+which refuses to push admitted principles, sound or false, to
+consequences undeniably logical, but practically dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>It might be thought that in a Christian, and especially a Roman Catholic
+country, the danger of starvation could never be very practical&mdash;that
+men, and still more women and children, bearing in their forms and faces
+the stamp of actual want, of pinching hunger, would never be denied. But
+Senior's experiences of the Irish famine pointed to a different
+conclusion. Death by famine is at last rapid, sudden, and unexpected. On
+the road to Kenmare, from which many Irish emigrants were despatched to
+America, corpses were daily found with collapsed stomachs <i>and money in
+their pockets</i>. Hoping to reach the port, keeping their money to pay
+their passage, death had overtaken them unawares; and this in the face
+of organized measures of relief, the largest and most liberal that
+public or private charity has ever provided. In cases of prolonged and
+extreme distress, but for the Poor Law, hundreds would die of want
+almost unawares, before want had overcome their reluctance to beg. And
+if actual starvation were rare, yet in the absence of a recognized right
+to food and shelter, the fear of starvation must be ever present. This
+spectral horror, Tocqueville evidently thought, haunted the imagination
+of the French operative; and had much to do with the popularity of
+Socialism in a country of diffused property and general thrift, and with
+the ferocity of Socialistic or Red Republican insurrections. Charity,
+however liberal, is an uncertain and&mdash;to their credit be it spoken&mdash;to
+the majority of French operatives, a repulsive and degrading resource.
+It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[Pg 542]</a></span> cannot exorcise the hideous spectre of actual famine, which, though
+remote, seems ever to threaten them, their wives and their children; and
+which in times of distress and depression looms terribly near, distinct,
+and horrible. No wonder that men haunted by such a spectre should be
+driven to gloomy envy, sullen hate, and outbreaks of ferocity worse than
+those provoked by actual suffering. No wonder that any schemes, however
+frantic and however unrighteous, should have charms for a class whose
+reason is disturbed by the perpetual vision of that ultimate but
+undeniably possible horror. We have seen in France within the last few
+weeks moral portents which can hardly be ascribed to any other final
+cause an atrocious murder committed by workmen, and, what is infinitely
+worse, extenuated and almost approved by responsible legislators. It is
+probable that the Belgian riots approach as near as any witnessed in
+Europe during the last two centuries to a revolt of actual want. Belgium
+has secured an artificial manufacturing prominence&mdash;a disproportionate
+trade to hard toil and low wages. The latter had lately been forced down
+to the <i>minimum</i>, as profits had been well-nigh extinguished, by the
+general depression of business. In fear of actual want, the populace
+rose, wasted farms, destroyed factories, plundered and levied
+blackmail&mdash;in a word, tried to inflict on others the misery that had
+maddened themselves. The word has been given to the most quiet and
+law-abiding people in Europe <i>to defend themselves</i>: a step far more
+significant of stern intentions than the sharpest military repression.
+Yet the Government is forced to accompany its preventive measures with
+an expenditure of 20<i>s</i> per head of the population on public
+works&mdash;equivalent to an English rate in aid of twenty millions! Could
+there be a more conclusive proof that the dread of hunger is a real and
+a terrible power for evil among Continental nations; that their choice
+lies, in a word, between a recognition of the right to subsistence&mdash;a
+Poor Law with severe labour tests and restrictions&mdash;and periodical,
+spasmodic measures of relief enforced by insurrection? Or can there be a
+doubt, that the latter is infinitely the more dangerous and demoralizing
+alternative: that only the adoption of a Poor law can prevent the
+lessons of 1886 from shaking the very foundations of order, property and
+civil government in countries situate as are France and Belgium?</p>
+
+<p>It seems strange that French Democracy should not have long since
+insisted on laying for ever the spectre of starvation by a Poor Law more
+liberal than that of England. It must be remembered, however, that the
+democracy of France is a propertied and landed democracy, heavily
+burdened with taxes and interest on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[Pg 543]</a></span> mortgages, pinched by necessity,
+and pinching itself by thrift. No class is so hard to want, so ruthless
+to idleness, as a peasantry which wins for itself a bare subsistence by
+constant toil, and provides for the future by constant self-denial.</p>
+
+<p>The temper of a progressive and prosperous democracy is very different.
+Many, perhaps most of the American States, are without a Poor Law.
+Slavery dispensed with it, and the race antagonism consequent on the
+manner and circumstances of emancipation has rendered a thorough
+revision of social relations&mdash;a systematic attempt to meet the new and
+very exceptional conditions of Southern society in its present
+form&mdash;hitherto impossible. Yet, by the confession of one of their
+bitterest enemies, no people are so tender, so generous, so lavish of
+active sympathy towards the sick, the bereaved, and the unfortunate. In
+States which, probably from an instinct under their circumstances just
+and wise, refuse to recognize the right to subsistence by a legal
+provision for the poor, whereby the idle and vicious would chiefly
+benefit, nevertheless paupers by the visitation of God&mdash;the aged and
+infirm, the blind, the deaf, and dumb, lunatics and idiots&mdash;are amply
+provided by public and private charity with all that can alleviate their
+lot: or teach them, as far as possible, the means of self-dependence.
+American charity towards the victims of great natural catastrophes, far
+more common there than here&mdash;communities burned out by a forest fire, or
+ruined by a flood&mdash;and yet more the personal sacrifices made, the
+readiness with which men and women devote their leisure thought, and
+energy to the supervision of public institutions, the efficient
+distribution of public subscriptions, the succour and nursing of a
+community stricken by pestilence, are above praise. A careful study of
+Transatlantic examples might put our own boasted lavishness of charity
+to shame.</p>
+
+<p>Even in England, organized private charity, wisely directed, might
+surely contrive to effect a discrimination between those who are paupers
+by vice, unthrift, and idleness, and those whom God has striken for no
+fault that humanity is entitled to pass judgment upon; between the
+fitting inmates of the workhouse, and those&mdash;helpless from age,
+infirmity, accident, and disease&mdash;to whom the associations of the
+workhouse are humiliating, painful and demoralizing. Nothing is more
+essential, under democratic rule, than the maintenance of due severity
+towards those who will not work; nothing more likely to relax that
+needful severity than its indiscriminate application to those who
+cannot.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[Pg 544]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ART_X_1_Fourth_Midlothian_Campaign_Political_speeches_delivered" id="ART_X_1_Fourth_Midlothian_Campaign_Political_speeches_delivered"></a>ART. X.&mdash;1. <i>Fourth Midlothian Campaign.</i> Political speeches delivered,
+November, 1885, by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P. Edinburgh, 1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>2. John Morley: <i>The Irish Record of the New Chief Secretary, 1886.</i></h2>
+
+<h2>3. <i>Ireland; A Book of Light on the Irish Problem.</i> Edited by Andrew
+Reid. London, 1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>4. <i>Home Rule.</i> Reprint from the 'Times' correspondence, &amp;c. 1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>5. <i>Social Order in Ireland. Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union.</i> Dublin,
+1886.</h2>
+
+<h2>6. <i>Speech of Mr. Gladstone in the House of Commons, April 8, 1886, on
+moving for leave to bring in a Bill to make provision for the future
+Government of Ireland.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The fate of the scheme for the Government of Ireland, which Mr.
+Gladstone disclosed in the House of Commons last week, has been
+practically determined. Whether the Bill be rejected on the second
+reading, whether amidst the currents of adverse opinion which have
+already set in, it slowly goes to wreck upon the shoals of Parliamentary
+procedure, its ultimate doom is already settled, but the mischief which
+has been done will not be removed so promptly. A great blow has been
+struck at the United Kingdom. The proposal to recognize Irish
+nationality as a political force apart from Great Britain&mdash;a proposal
+made by a Prime Minister, a leader of a great Parliamentary party&mdash;will
+for many a day to come stimulate in Ireland all the elements of
+disorder, which a noble series of statesmen, from Burke to Peel, have
+resolutely laboured to eradicate.</p>
+
+<p>It was no surprise to the House that had listened to the marvellous
+dream of Mr. Gladstone, when Mr. Parnell rose to express his gratitude
+in terms almost of emotion:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'It will prove a happy and fortunate thing, both for Ireland
+and England, that there was one man living, one English
+statesman living, with the great power and the extraordinary
+ability of the right hon. gentleman to lend his voice on
+behalf of poor helpless Ireland. He had devoted his great
+mind, his extraordinary energy to the unravelling of this
+question and to the construction of this Bill.... To none of
+the sons of Ireland&mdash;at any time has there ever been given
+the genius and talent of the right hon. gentleman&mdash;certainly
+nothing approaching to it in these days.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The people, whom a few months ago Mr. Parnell denounced as representing
+to him and his friends 'imprisonment, chains and death,' now came to
+offer him a scheme of Irish nationality, and Shylock, recognizing the
+wisdom of the sham<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[Pg 545]</a></span> Balthazar, was not more appreciative: 'A Daniel come
+to judgment, yea a Daniel,' but, like Shylock, Mr. Parnell relied upon
+his bond. Whilst he accepted the offering with the effusion of a
+successful speculator, he took care to remind his hearers that he was
+not bound to take it in discharge of his claim. He reserved any
+'definite or positive expression of opinion;' 'there were undoubtedly
+great faults and blots in the measure,' but he could safely say,
+'whavever might be the fate of the Bill, the cause of Ireland, the cause
+of Irish autonomy, will enormously gain by the genius of the right hon.
+gentleman.' This is the solid result of the strange events which have
+been passing for the last three months. A distinguished public man has
+been called to office by the Parnellite vote. He has demanded and
+obtained ample time to consider the difficulties of his position and
+offer his solution.</p>
+
+<p>A glance at the new scheme shows that the proposal is at once
+disingenuous and fantastic. The Prime Minister shrinks from admitting
+the nature of the work he is engaged in. He breaks up the unity of the
+Kingdom, but he will not allow that his Bill involves the repeal of the
+Union. But whatever quibbles may be indulged in, the main principle of
+the Act of Union, that Ireland should be represented at Westminster is
+swept away. As Irish nationality is not to be ignored, it finds
+expression in a Parliament in Dublin; but Ireland is to pay a
+contribution towards the debt and towards public defence, and in the
+application of this money is to have no voice. Thus we have Irish
+nationality started with machinery which sets aside the first principle
+of free governments, that there should be no taxation without
+representation; and the internal arrangements of the Dublin Parliament
+are equally suggestive of confusion in the future.</p>
+
+<p>The Prime Minister does not ask Parliament to disregard the risks to
+which property and loyalty will be exposed in the Dublin Assembly, and
+he proposes to satisfy our conscience by giving them the security of
+representation in Dublin by a special Order. The Dublin Parliament is
+divided into two Orders, each of which shall have a veto on the
+legislation of the majority. The First Order consists of persons who
+must be possessors of 4000<i>l.</i> or an equivalent income. That is their
+personal qualification, and they are to be elected by occupiers rated at
+25<i>l.</i> Property qualification for Members of Parliament was abolished in
+England some thirty years ago. Rating, as a qualification for electors,
+has been abandoned in a series of deliberate public measures from 1866
+to 1885; but it is these old clothes of English Parliaments which Mr.
+Gladstone offers to his new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[Pg 546]</a></span> nationality. Why should these expedients be
+adopted in Ireland? Checks upon legislative action, a second Chamber, a
+Second or a First Order, are questions upon which theorists are divided.
+They are certainly not questions which have occupied the National
+League. These 'Orders' in Parliamentary life are not native Irish ideas.
+These reproductions of quaint customs, such as we might find in some
+ecclesiastical synod, or in the village organization of some old
+Scandinavian community, are England's guarantees for the security of
+property in the Sister Island. That Island, we know, has been abandoned
+for some years to the National League, whose power was founded on their
+opportunities of excommunicating any one who did not subscribe to their
+funds and obey their decrees. The principle of the National League was
+that property in land was an outrage on Irish opinion; and we are asked
+to believe that this American-Irish organization, clothed with
+Parliamentary power in Dublin, will be kept in check by a device, which
+has no sanction in ancient tradition, in local sympathy, in recognized
+opinion. The First Order in the new Chamber will be so many people
+marked out for plunder. If any one possessing 4000<i>l.</i> worth of property,
+which he can convert into cash, is venturesome enough to accept a seat
+in the Chamber, what will become of him and his electors, people who are
+scheduled in each locality as the owners of property rated at 25<i>l.</i> a
+year? The majority of them in the South and West will be tenants who
+have not dared to pay their rents, because the National League
+prohibited the payment. Let us suppose people are found to constitute
+the First Order, and they veto some scheme of the majority, and a
+general election occurs, will the expedients which have made the League
+what it is be suddenly forgotten? Can we doubt that the First Order and
+its electors would be straightway boycotted out of existence? The
+Ministerial proposal is an attempt to meet the views of Mr. Parnell;
+and, without admitting that it is all he requires, the Irish leader
+cordially accepts it, but he wants, he has told us, 'the full and
+complete right to arrange our own affairs and make ours a nation&mdash;to
+secure for her, free from outside control, the right to direct her own
+course among the peoples of the world.' We are asked to suppose that he
+and his friends, started in their new career, will be stopped by such a
+ridiculous invention as this First Order. And it is a project like this,
+inconsistent with itself, implying constitutional degradation of the
+very people whom it is supposed to conciliate, patched up with strange
+curiosities as unknown in England as in Ireland, which Parliament is
+asked to accept as a 'final settlement' of our Irish difficulties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[Pg 547]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Bill proposed settles nothing. Its only result is a renewed
+manifestation of the power and influence of the Irish agitator. In this
+extraordinary state of affairs men are apt to forget the series of
+events which have brought about our present condition. Ministries come
+and go at the bidding of Mr. Parnell. English policy in the future,
+important schemes affecting the gravest concerns of England, of
+Scotland, of Ireland, depend not on any principle accepted by the
+British public, but on the humour of the Irish leader. The existence of
+the House of Lords, the legal position of the Church of Scotland, the
+maintenance of our most important military reserve, the right of the
+Sovereign in relation to peace and war, are exposed to critical
+divisions, not because British opinion is eager for revolution, or has
+become indifferent to the vast interests involved, but because the
+Nationalist party wish to remind us of their voting power.</p>
+
+<p>Our alarm at all this should not make us lose sight of the antecedent
+facts which have built up this force of mischief. Mr. Gladstone is Prime
+Minister by the favour of the Irish party, and this party is the outcome
+of Mr. Gladstone's own policy. Whether the fluent rhetorician foresaw
+his present position, whether perched on his slender ledge of power he
+now enjoys it, we need not stop to consider. What we would remind our
+readers is that for nearly twenty years past he has, in the main line of
+his public life, notwithstanding some convulsive oscillations, pursued
+with the pertinacity of one possessed the policy of which the present
+Irish organization is the natural and the logical development. The
+National League represents the spirit to which Mr. Gladstone appealed at
+Southport in 1867. In the December of that year he charged the new
+voters, in words of solemn adjuration, to look at Ireland from the Irish
+point of view. This appeal had an electric effect upon the population of
+that island. In the years which have passed since, his own injunction
+has been sometimes rudely disregarded by Mr. Gladstone himself, but he
+never long delayed to turn again to his favourite theory, to make
+another effort to justify the principle with which he had started, and
+at each renewal of his enterprise he plunged himself and his party
+deeper into the morass of Hibernian disorder. Mr. Gladstone's admirers
+are very proud of his numerous successes in carrying important Bills
+through Parliament, but it is forgotten that his Irish Bills, though
+carried, have never attained the ends for which they were passed. Twice
+have all the resources of his genius, all the machinery of his party,
+been called into requisition to bring about a final settlement of the
+Irish Land question, and yet the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span> work is still to be done. The
+explanation is not far to seek. Mr. Gladstone's passionate recklessness
+committed him in 1867 to an enterprise, the magnitude of which excited
+his vanity, the actual nature of which he only dimly perceived.</p>
+
+<p>In the year we have named he was trying to recover his footing after a
+heavy fall in his first start as leader of the Liberal Party. A scheme
+of Parliamentary reform, carried by his political opponent, had marked
+the commencement of another epoch. In the new arena of public life two
+centres of political energy were certain to be strongly represented in
+the organization which Mr. Gladstone hoped to lead back to office. The
+Spirit of Dissent was all powerful among the English householders. The
+Irish tenant, whose electoral strength, directed by the Roman
+priesthood, had been exhibited with much effect in 1852, was sure to
+receive a great increase of power under the new Reform Bill. To combine
+these influences was one of the conditions of any prolonged tenure of
+office by the Liberal party. The Irish Establishment had been forsaken
+by English opinion in previous years. Its overthrow would be hailed with
+enthusiasm by the Dissenting communities, whilst the Irish priesthood
+would regard disestablishment with undoubted satisfaction. The condition
+of Irish Land Tenure was admitted by all parties to require amendment,
+and its settlement would be a substantial benefit to the Irish farmer.</p>
+
+<p>These were subjects which naturally tempted the daring energies of a man
+occupying Mr. Gladstone's position in the winter of 1867. Turned out of
+office after the death of Lord Palmerston, his subsequent management of
+the reform question, as leader of the Opposition, had only increased the
+distrust of his party. He was without a constituency at the coming
+election, and he went down to Lancashire to seek in that great centre of
+hard-headed Englishmen the confiding constituency which he subsequently
+found in Midlothian. New legislation on the Irish Church, a reform in
+Irish Land Tenure, were subjects for which his party, for which the
+majority of Englishmen were pretty well prepared. The Liberal Churchmen,
+like Sir Roundell Palmer, who held back on the subject of
+Disestablishment, were more than counterbalanced by the Dissenters, who
+were attracted by the scheme. Popular Legislation on these subjects
+might have been granted to Ireland as the matured outcome of British
+opinion. Such a mode of approaching the work in hand did not suit the
+exuberant temperament of Mr. Gladstone. Whilst the report of the
+Clerkenwell explosion was still echoing through the land, he announced
+his policy as one to be recommended, not because the great British
+community had examined and adopted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[Pg 549]</a></span> proposed measures, but because
+Irish opinion was to be henceforth accepted as our guide in Irish
+Legislation. With characteristic recklessness he hurried to turn to the
+account of his own ambition the throb of excitement which he saw
+traversing the nation. He appealed to his audience to regard the Fenian
+outrages as a sort of revelation from heaven, to commune with their own
+hearts, not on the state of Ireland, and the remedies sensible men could
+offer, but on the sentiments of Irishmen. His final test of legislation
+was to be, not its consonance with the judgment of the British people,
+but with the demand of the Irish crowd.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Ireland is at your doors. Providence has placed her there.
+Law and legislation have been a compact between you. You
+must face these obligations. You must deal with them and
+discharge them. As to the modes of giving effect to this
+principle I do not now enter upon them. I am of opinion they
+should be dictated, as a general rule, by that which may
+appear to be the mature, well-considered, and general sense
+of the Irish people.'&mdash;20th Dec. 1867.</p></div>
+
+<p>At this date 'the general sense of the Irish people' was, to Mr.
+Gladstone's mind, the policy formulated by the Irish Episcopacy, the
+scheme which at a later stage of the campaign in the following year he
+described as the lopping off the three branches of the Upas tree of
+Protestant ascendancy. He failed in Lancashire, but his success in other
+parts of the kingdom was complete; and then ensued the abolition of the
+Irish Establishment and an adjustment of the land question which carried
+the recognition of local customs farther than Englishmen had
+anticipated.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberal party had been charged to consult Irish opinion. As long as
+Cardinal Cullen and Mr. Gladstone were agreed all went merrily, even if
+some rude coercion like the Westmeath Act was required to deal with
+Irish ideas which did not find expression in the Cardinal. But whilst
+the English Minister and the Irish Primate declared, that Ribbonism was
+an impudent pretender to any representative character and must be rooted
+out, a third organ of opinion claimed the benefit of the Southport
+principle in the form of the Home Rule Association, and Mr. Gladstone at
+Aberdeen replied with angry scorn:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Can any sensible man, can any rational man, suppose that,
+at this time of day, in this condition of the world, we are
+going to disintegrate the capital institutions of this
+country for the purpose of making ourselves ridiculous in
+the sight of all mankind, and crippling any power we possess
+for bestowing benefits, through legislation, on the country
+to which we belong?'&mdash;26th Sept. 1871.</p></div>
+
+<p>The ideas expressed by the Roman hierarchy, attracted by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[Pg 550]</a></span> the
+Disestablishment, substantially interested in the better position of the
+farmer, and confidently anticipating for themselves the acquisition of a
+power over public education such as their order enjoyed nowhere else in
+the world, these were ideas which Mr. Gladstone recognized as national.
+On the subject of education, however, he was not able to go as far as
+the Ultramontane party required. They directed the Irish members to vote
+against him. The coalition between Dissent and the Roman Hierarchy was
+dissolved. The Minister, who had brought it about, suddenly awoke to a
+sense of the evil teaching of his late allies in the government of
+Ireland, and '<i>Vaticanism</i>' held them up to the reprobation of
+Protestant England.</p>
+
+<p>The new Liberal discovery, the principle of Irish ideas, had broken down
+as a party engine. It had made the Ministry of 1868, but it had failed
+to preserve it. Mr. Gladstone retired from the leadership of the party
+to the greater freedom of an independent member of Parliament, and in
+this capacity led the stormy agitation against Lord Beaconsfield, making
+the foreign policy of England a party question.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the theory of the Southport speech, and the results which had
+attended it, were not forgotten in Ireland. The Home Rule movement,
+which was denounced so angrily at Aberdeen, enlisted all the resources
+of local sentiment, feelings similar to those which make a Lancashireman
+proud of Lancashire, a Scotchman delight in Scotch associations. Among
+its promoters were professors, poets, Irish Catholics, who were glad to
+show themselves on a public platform without being the puppets or the
+opponents of their bishops, Irish Protestants, who were irritated at the
+desertion of the Irish Church, a number of well-meaning people who were
+attracted by the opportunity of talking eloquently and vaguely about
+nothing in particular. This Academic scheme of Home Rule found an
+admirable exponent in Mr. Butt, an able lawyer of ambitious politics.</p>
+
+<p>What answer were Liberals to give to this new embodiment of their great
+statesman's theory? They denounced Mr. Butt, pondering feebly meanwhile
+what it all meant; but the Home Rule organization, once set a-going, was
+soon permeated by the Fenian spirit. Platitudes about 'patriotism' and
+'green Erin' meant to an Irish crowd, 'Down with England and with
+landlords.' That great hotbed of disatisfaction, Irish popular feeling,
+supplied stimulating nutriment to the new party. In proportion as
+hostility to England was more openly declared, funds came in rapidly
+from the Irish in America. Year by year the Home Rule members gained in
+parliamentary power, one section<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[Pg 551]</a></span> of the Liberal party after another
+giving them encouragement&mdash;in the first place because they were
+troublesome to a Tory Ministry, in the second because the flaccid
+thought of modern Liberalism made them welcome any organization, which
+would save them the trouble of facing the difficulties of Irish
+administration.</p>
+
+<p>In 1880 the public took no heed to Lord Beaconsfield's historic warning,
+that danger was brewing in Ireland. The Liberal legislation of ten years
+before had, they tried to believe, disposed of Irish difficulties in
+their most serious aspect. Both before and after the General Election
+they were assured by Mr. Bright and Mr. Gladstone, that Irish affairs
+were proceeding satisfactorily. The new Ministry had, however, to face a
+formidable parliamentary party, who refused to recognize the legislation
+of 1869 and 1870 as any settlement of the Irish question. Their first
+device was to abandon the Act of their predecessors, passed in 1875,
+which applied some of the milder provisions of the Westmeath Act to the
+whole of Ireland. A reconstruction of the Local Government of the United
+Kingdom, and a new Reform Bill, were the tasks assigned by public
+opinion to the second Gladstone Ministry; but finding the abandonment of
+coercion did not conciliate the Irish party, the Premier returned with a
+rush to the policy of 1867. He determined to justify his claim to be the
+statesman who had found out the secret of Irish administration. Within
+two months after the Ministry was formed the public were warned that
+they were within measurable distance of civil war. This danger was not
+urged as a reason for recurring to accepted principles of government; on
+the contrary, it was a plea for new expeditions in pursuit of the <i>ignis
+fatuus</i> of Irish opinion. We know the events which followed.</p>
+
+<p>The Compensation for Disturbance Bill seemed a small matter in itself,
+but involved principles fatal to all security for property. During the
+next autumn and winter, Ireland was abandoned to the savage dominion of
+the Land League. The quiescence of the Government excited remonstrance
+even from advanced Radicals like Mr. Leonard Courtney. That stalwart
+Liberal had not been then in office, had not had the experience he has
+since acquired. He had not yet learned the dutiful lesson that, whatever
+his own convictions, the probabilities were in favour of the view that
+his great leader was in the right, or at least, might be successful. As
+a concession to public opinion, a Coercion Act was passed, new fangled
+and hesitating. But it was not so much on effective legislation and a
+resolute determination to curb disorder that the Ministry relied, as on
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[Pg 552]</a></span> recognition of Irish opinion which the Land Act of 1881 embodied.
+It was truly said of that measure by an exulting Radical, that it struck
+a blow at property which was felt in every country in Europe. In his
+main calculation, his purpose to win popularity in Ireland, Mr.
+Gladstone failed, as he has so often failed; and as usual the failure
+was due to the wickedness or perversity of some one else. In 1874 it was
+Pius IX. and the Jesuits who had misled his Irish friends. In 1881 the
+evil influence was Mr. Parnell.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn the Prime Minister startled his hearers at Leeds by a
+passionate complaint, that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'a small band of men had arisen who were not ashamed to
+preach in Ireland the doctrine of public plunder ... now
+that Mr. Parnell is afraid, lest the people of England by
+their long continued efforts should win the hearts of the
+whole Irish nation, he has a new and enlarged gospel of
+plunder to proclaim.'</p></div>
+
+<p>He went back with a swing to the high-handed policy he had so often
+denounced. Irishmen must be made to recognize Gladstone, and not
+Parnell, as their true friend. The Land League was dissolved by
+proclamation, its principal leaders, including Mr. Parnell, were clapped
+into jail, and it was proclaimed at Knowsley that the Cabinet were going
+'to relieve the people of Ireland from the weight of a tyrannical yoke.'</p>
+
+<p>These speeches, full as they were of denunciation of Mr. Parnell, were
+still on the lines of the Southport speech. They were not declarations
+of the opinion of the British community, warnings to Ireland to take
+account of the settled judgment of the nation, of which the sister
+island must always form part. They contrasted with the manly utterance
+of Mr. Chamberlain on this subject, the same month, at Birmingham. They
+were angry appeals to Ireland to quarrel with her chosen leaders. Mr.
+James Lowther was denounced for stating, that 'the party headed by Mr.
+Parnell commanded the support of the large majority of the people of
+Ireland.' Mr. Gladstone added, 'The proposition here made is one on
+which we are entirely at issue. I profoundly disbelieve it; I utterly
+protest against it. I believe a greater calumny on the Irish nation,...
+a more gross and injurious statement could not possibly be made against
+the Irish nation.'</p>
+
+<p>In the following year it was found that the recognition of Mr.
+Gladstone, as the father of the Irish people was still remote; whilst
+Mr. Forster declared, that a stronger Coercion Bill was necessary, if
+life was to be protected in Ireland. Then came another plunge after the
+coveted ideal. Mr. Forster, who had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span> so generously devoted himself to
+his party and his leader in the pursuit of a new Irish policy, was
+abandoned to the Irish members, and to Mr. John Morley's crusade against
+him in the columns of the 'Pall Mall Gazette.' Mr. Parnell was called
+out of jail to secure votes to the Government, and order in Ireland, by
+the help of Mr. Sheridan and other ex-convicts. The Ph&oelig;nix Park
+murder, following on the Kilmainham Treaty, postponed the full carrying
+out of this arrangement. The sort of measure, which Mr. Forster had been
+refused a month before, was now passed with provisions of excessive
+stringency; and Lord Spencer, who had been sent to Ireland to win that
+popularity, which the late Chief Secretary had been unable to obtain,
+was chiefly occupied in curbing the violence which that Minister had
+denounced, in bringing to justice the criminals whom he had not been
+allowed to reach. We recollect that the new Viceroy was exposed to a
+storm of unpopularity so violent and outrageous, that the public readily
+forgot the discreditable folly of his original enterprise, and honoured
+the resolution and dignity with which he discharged the laborious duties
+of a thankless office.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of the Irish Government at this time was such as to
+make the Lord Lieutenant personally responsible for the administration
+of justice, and the carrying out of the main provisions of the Crimes
+Act. He was in the Cabinet, whilst his chief Secretaries, Mr. Trevelyan
+and Mr. Campbell-Bannerman, were only subordinate members of the
+Ministry. They conducted Irish business in the House of Commons,
+representing in their relations with the Irish members, as far as
+circumstances allowed, their leader's yearning after Irish popularity,
+whilst Lord Spencer, the Whig Earl, who belonged to things that had been
+rather than to the rising power of the Radical party, bore all the odium
+of unpopular imprisonments or executions.</p>
+
+<p>The significance of such an arrangement was not lost on the Irish crowd.
+By the end of 1882 the Land League was reconstructed under the name of
+the National League. The new organization, of which 'United Ireland' was
+the especial organ, gradually established branches from one end of
+Ireland to the other. Strong as the provisions of the Crimes Prevention
+Act were, no attempt was made to bring the new society under its
+operation. The columns of 'United Ireland,' on the other hand, bore
+plenty of evidence of a disposition to move on. The Irish farmers were
+reproachfully asked if they were content with a paltry reduction of
+rent. 'Had they no other account to settle with England?' The leaders
+reminded their followers that the Crimes Act would expire before long.
+They renewed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[Pg 554]</a></span> with savage energy that campaign against the <i>personnel</i>
+of the Irish administration, which Mr. John Morley had so warmly
+espoused up to the murder of Mr. Burke. A continual storm of abuse and
+calumny was directed against Lord Spencer and every one else concerned
+with Irish government. Mr. Clifford Lloyd and Mr. Trevelyan were removed
+by way of warning, that there was no room in Ireland for public servants
+who did their duty. The National League, in fact, became in each
+district a conspicuous and formidable power. Their representatives in
+Parliament received much attention from the Prime Minister and his
+colleagues. They exercised great influence and had many chances before
+them in the new organization of the electorate. With all these
+advantages on the side of the Irish Revolution, the Queen's Government
+had nobody to champion it but the not imposing personality of Lord
+Spencer.</p>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that in such a state of things Ireland was already,
+at the commencement of 1885, like a country occupied by two hostile
+armies. There was the National League camp with its scouts and
+emissaries all over the country, with a vigorous Press proclaiming its
+policy and success. The Government forces remained within their lines,
+attempting nothing, doing nothing, unless some outrage by a moonlight
+gang compelled them to make some show of interference to check violation
+of the truce between treason and loyalty. The greatest care was taken
+not to identify the Government with the scattered Loyalists. They might
+be very worthy persons, but they were the special aversion of the
+Nationalist party, and the business of the Government was not to protect
+or encourage loyalty, but to prevent Nationalism from going too fast.
+The Nationalist aspirations of Mr. Gladstone's friends were not to be
+irritated by attentions shown to their adversaries.</p>
+
+<p>When Parliament reassembled in the spring of 1885, men asked what
+provision was made for renewing the Crimes Act, which would expire in
+the autumn. Week after week passed, month after month; and it was
+impossible to extract from the Ministry what their policy was as regards
+the government of Ireland. At length, in the summer, it was announced
+that on a day, which was never fixed, a Bill would be introduced
+renewing certain provisions of the expiring Act. This announcement from
+the Treasury Bench was followed at once by a notice from Mr. John Morley
+to oppose the Bill. So much time had already been lost, that it was
+practically impossible for any Ministry to carry a Coercion Bill against
+the determined opposition of the Irish members, without the most
+resolute effort on the part of Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues. Were
+they prepared to make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[Pg 555]</a></span> these exertions? One of the conditions, on which
+the Reform question had been settled, was the definite postponement of a
+dissolution until after the 1st November. Each day men became more and
+more engrossed with the great question of the winter&mdash;the new
+election&mdash;more indifferent to the business of the Session; the
+Parnellite party more exultant and defiant. Rumours of dissensions in
+the Cabinet, had been already rife, and grew more frequent every day.
+The country awoke one morning to find that the second Gladstone
+Ministry, with its clear majority of over eighty, was at an end. Rather
+than confess their disunion, the ministry had allowed themselves to be
+defeated on another question, and Mr. Parnell came before his countrymen
+as the avenger who had chastised the suggestion of renewed coercion by
+destroying the Government which made it.</p>
+
+<p>In this collapse of administration the only course open to the Tory
+party was to prepare as rapidly as possible for an appeal to the
+country, doing what they could meanwhile in foreign and in home affairs
+to mitigate the mischief which they were powerless to remedy. When the
+dissolution came, Mr. Gladstone opened his canvass in Midlothian by many
+sneers at the election policy of the Irish Nationalists. He reminded his
+hearers, that the subject of extending local government in Ireland must
+come forward in the new Parliament, and urged that, 'in dealing with
+this question the unity of the empire was not to be compromised or be
+put in jeopardy.' 'Nothing was to be done which should tend to
+impair,&mdash;visibly or sensibly to impair,&mdash;the unity of the Empire.'
+Auditors who had made no special study of Mr. Gladstone's phraseology
+interpreted these words as a declaration against a separate Parliament
+in Dublin. He apparently was prepared for large schemes of
+decentralization, either specially for Ireland or in connection with the
+projected reform of local government in England; but there was to be
+nothing which should 'visibly impair' the Imperial unity. He went on to
+dwell on the danger of 'condescending either to clamour or to fear,' and
+added:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'But quite apart from the names of Whig and Tory, one thing
+I will say, and will endeavour to impress, and it is this,
+that it will be 'a <i>vital danger</i> to the country if at the
+time that the demand of Ireland for large powers of
+self-government is to be dealt with&mdash;it will be a <i>vital
+danger</i> to the Empire if there is not in Parliament ready to
+deal with that subject, ready to influence the proceedings
+upon that subject, <i>a party totally independent of the Irish
+vote</i>.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Even the most enthusiastic followers of the Liberal chief have learnt to
+be very cautious in saying what meaning is to be attributed to his
+utterances, but there can be no doubt that this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[Pg 556]</a></span> language was read by
+the public as saying, 'whatever lengths I may go in working out the
+principle of local government, whatever may be the understanding between
+the Home Rulers and the Tories, I at least will not accept the principle
+of an Irish Parliament.' Not only was this the natural reading of Mr.
+Gladstone's declarations at the election, but nearly every member of his
+party, who referred to this question at all, spoke in the same sense.
+Mr. Campbell Bannerman denounced the Parnellite demands as 'separation
+under one name or another,' and many other Liberals were equally
+emphatic, whilst a still larger number never alluded to the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Well may Lord Hartington protest against the competence of the present
+Parliament to deal with the legislation now proposed.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'There was no thought, no warning held out to the country,
+that a radical reform in the relations between Great Britain
+and Ireland would be the main work of the present
+Parliament.... The country had no sufficient warning&mdash;I
+think I may say the country had no warning at all&mdash;that any
+proposals of the magnitude and vastness of those which were
+unfolded to us last night were to be considered in the
+present Parliament, much less were to form the first subject
+of consideration upon the meeting of this Parliament. I am
+perfectly aware that there exists in our Constitution no
+principle of the mandate. I know that the mandate of the
+constituencies is as unknown to our Constitution, as the
+distinction between fundamental laws and laws which are of
+an inferior sanction. But, although no principle of a
+mandate may exist, I maintain that there are certain limits
+which Parliament is bound to observe, and beyond which
+Parliament has morally not the right to go in its relations
+with the constituencies. The constituencies of Great Britain
+are the source of the power, at all events, of this branch
+of Parliament, and I maintain that in the presence of an
+emergency which could not have been foreseen, the House of
+Commons has no moral right to initiate legislation,
+especially upon its first meeting, of which the
+constituencies were not informed, and of which the
+constituencies might have been informed, and as to which, if
+they had been so informed, there is, at all events, the very
+greatest doubt what their decision might be.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Over and over again in the Parliament of 1874 and of 1880 have we heard
+Mr. Gladstone appealing to this principle, that schemes of crucial
+importance ought to be discussed before the constituencies; yet the most
+important proposal made in Parliament for some generations is presented
+after a general election, in which the constituencies were invited by
+the Prime Minister and his colleagues to believe, that this particular
+question was outside the region of practical politics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[Pg 557]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No sooner had it become apparent that the country had refused that
+renewal of power which Mr. Gladstone had asked for, than his resolution
+not to accept defeat was promptly manifested. Public men remembered his
+use of the Royal prerogative in 1872, to carry into execution a scheme
+for which he had sought and failed to obtain the consent of Parliament.
+He had not been a week at Hawarden after his journey from Scotland, when
+people became conscious that the return to office, which he had told the
+country would be their security against Mr. Parnell, he was now ready to
+seek with the aid of that leader.</p>
+
+<p>It was on the 8th of December, just after the main results of the
+elections were settled, that Mr. Herbert Gladstone wrote from Hawarden
+to a casual correspondent, 'If five-sixths of the Irish people wish to
+have a Parliament in Dublin, for the management of their own local
+affairs, I say in the name of justice and wisdom, let them have it.' A
+few days afterwards the Press announced that the Liberal chief had, in
+consultation with some former colleagues, matured a scheme which
+embodied the points desired by Mr. Parnell. The announcement was
+immediately followed by a telegram from Hawarden, denying the accuracy
+of the scheme as sketched in the Press. On the main point, whether he
+was prepared to co-operate with the Home Rule Party, whether he had
+recovered from the fear he expressed at Edinburgh, that it would be a
+'vital danger' to the Empire, if Home Rule came on for discussion
+'without the presence in Parliament of a party totally independent of
+the Irish vote,' on these questions, with which all England was busy,
+Mr. Gladstone said never a word. He relied on the virtue he assumed to
+protect him from inconvenient questionings, and meanwhile the
+Nationalists were invited to reflect during the Christmas holidays, that
+perhaps after all their best friend was at Hawarden.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Chamberlain followed up the rumour of a settled scheme by a prompt
+denial that he was a party to it, and added an emphatic statement of the
+way in which he and his friends read the Midlothian speeches&mdash;'all
+sections of the party were determined that the integrity of the Empire
+should be a reality, and not an empty phrase.' Mr. Chamberlain had
+listened to his great leader too long not to be aware of the importance
+of marking the distinction between a 'reality' and a 'phrase.' In a few
+days Lord Hartington too wrote to say, that he was no party to the
+suggested policy.</p>
+
+<p>The ultimate result of the elections left the government at Christmas
+only 251 votes, and the Liberals 333. Had it been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[Pg 558]</a></span> clear that the
+Liberal party were united in a scheme, which was consistent with the
+current of British opinion, the solution would have been simple enough.
+Had the appeals for straightforward dealing, made more than once during
+the election by Lord Salisbury and Lord Randolph Churchill, been
+responded to, the Government might have made way for a Liberal Ministry,
+the best men on both sides recognizing, what the soundest public opinion
+required, that the Irish vote of 86 should be disregarded on questions
+affecting the existence of a Cabinet; but before the elections were all
+over, the divisions in the Liberal party were obvious. Mr. Gladstone had
+returned with more eagerness than ever to the policy of Irish ideas,
+whilst experience had at length opened the eyes of his ablest
+lieutenants.</p>
+
+<p>In such a condition of affairs, the only course for Lord Salisbury's
+Government was to await the onset of their opponents, meanwhile applying
+themselves to settle that scheme of Irish policy which they as a party
+were prepared to champion in office or out of office. They met
+Parliament with an emphatic declaration to maintain the Union, and a few
+days afterwards announced that further legislation in defence of public
+order was necessary. This announcement was made on the 26th of January,
+when several of the Amendments in the Address were still on the paper.
+Before the House rose, the Government had ceased to exist. By a majority
+of 79, in a House of 583; a Resolution in support of a policy advocated
+by the Radical section of the Liberal party was carried against the
+Government. The motion of Mr. Jesse Collings was, it must be remembered,
+not a necessary assertion of a particular principle. The importance of
+the questions of allotments was acknowledged by the Ministry
+collectively and individually. It was not supposed, even by Mr. Collings
+himself, that the carrying of this particular Motion on the Address
+would advance legislation on the subject by a single day. The motion was
+one of those demonstrations of opinions, ordinary enough in Parliament,
+and generally resulting in a debate without a division or if pushed to a
+division, in the withdrawal from the House of all but declared
+partizans. On this particular occasion the motion was taken up and
+pressed to a division, in order that the National League was to be put
+down, was followed in a few hours by a vote which, in the existing
+constitution of parties, necessarily involved the restoration of Mr.
+Gladstone to power. So transparent was the object of the division that
+13 Liberals voted with the Ministers, among others such staunch
+adherents of Liberalism as Lord Hartington and Sir Henry James.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When the new Ministry was formed, two extraordinary circumstances came
+to light. Lord Hartington, the heir-apparent to the Liberal Leadership,
+Lord Derby, Mr. Gladstone's most distinguished proselyte, Lord Selborne,
+and other eminent colleagues in the conduct of the Liberal party, would
+have nothing to do with the new scheme for the final settlement of
+Ireland for the third time. Another still more singular fact was soon
+disclosed. All the members of the new Cabinet, who had any future before
+them, had come in with reservations of a right of further consideration,
+when the subject of Irish policy should be brought up for discussion.</p>
+
+<p>One remarkable ally, however, Mr. Gladstone had found in his momentous
+enterprise. The appointment of Mr. John Morley to the principal post in
+the Government of the part of the kingdom, which had fallen under the
+sway of such an organization as the National League, was in itself a
+revolution. The new Chief Secretary had no official experience, and no
+parliamentary position. A favoured person, who had audience of great
+Trades' Union gatherings, he was observed with some interest by the late
+Parliament, busy with speculations on the character of the new
+Electorate. But, if his parliamentary work had been slight, he had
+considerable literary reputation, and had taken an active part, in the
+press, in discussions on the Irish question. The apologist of Danton,
+the champion of the Jacobin Club, he was the one English political
+writer who believed himself able to find in the throes of the French
+Revolution valuable examples of public policy. The figures of that
+terrible convulsion did not attract him so much by their range of human
+passion, by the largeness of the space they filled in a great drama of
+humanity. It was their fanaticism which inspired him. Their capacity to
+combine, with the perpetration of atrocious crimes, an ardent apostolate
+of abstract ideals, had for him a vivid fascination. A gentle critic of
+Robespierre, he could see in the execution of Marie Antoinette traces of
+discriminating statesmanship. Entering on political work with such
+dispositions, he was early attracted to the seething cauldron of Mr.
+Gladstone's Irish policy. Having satisfied himself that Ireland was in a
+state of revolution, he regarded murder and robbery as necessary
+incidents. When an unfortunate lady driving in the evening along a
+country road was shot dead beside her husband, whose only offence was
+that of being a landlord, the public were lectured for the inconsequence
+of their indignation. On the Dublin conspirators, who were watching to
+murder Mr. Forster, were not lost the lessons which Mr. Morley had been
+preaching on the vileness of the permanent officials at the Castle. They
+determined to murder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span> Mr. Burke, and in killing him slew his companion
+also; and Mr. Morley deprecatingly reminded his readers, that the death
+of Lord Frederick Cavendish was 'almost an accident.' With these
+professed opinions, it was easy for him to acknowledge what Mr.
+Gladstone might have hesitated to confess, that Mr. Parnell and the
+National League were the true expression of 'the general sense of the
+Irish people.'</p>
+
+<p>The Nationalist party had long recognised the value of his aid in
+Parliament. They felt the truth of the saying, that he was 'Mr. Parnell
+in an Englishman's skin,' and consequently enjoying more freedom of
+action, able, on occasion, to do more service for the National League in
+a Parnellite Cabinet than Mr. Parnell himself. Although the principles
+he had laid down, strictly applied, would oblige him to say, let Ireland
+take care of herself and work out her own destiny, he has qualified his
+faith&mdash;he has never very clearly explained why&mdash;by a declaration in
+favour of the integrity of the Kingdom. A believer in revolution, Mr.
+Morley is astute enough to be ready to take what he can get. 'We do
+wrong,' he said, writing after the breakdown of the Kilmainham Treaty,
+'in being content with nothing short of perfection and finality. If we
+see our way to the next step, that is enough.' 'Perfection' in Irish
+affairs would perhaps be that Irish opinion should be organized in a
+convention at Dublin, and then, tempered by a full course of revolution,
+should come to the conclusion, that the Union after all was the best
+thing for both islands. As the public are not yet prepared for trying
+this experiment, we are to have a succession of 'next steps.'</p>
+
+<p>As a set off to Mr. Morley's want of official experience and of weight
+in the House of Commons, Mr. Gladstone placed the consideration he
+enjoyed with the Parnellite party and a disposition, composed of
+fanaticism and adroitness, fitting him well to co-operate in the schemes
+which were to follow from the wild passion of the National League in
+combination with the skill of the 'old Parliamentary hand.'</p>
+
+<p>No sooner was the new Ministry formed than the Nationalist party
+recognized the greatness of their opportunity. An attitude of reserve
+was taken up by the Nationalist members and their Press. The Ministry
+had not been a week in office, when the most advanced and outspoken of
+the Irish leaders, Mr. John Dillon, presiding at a meeting of the
+National League, frankly declared 'he never felt more inclined to say
+nothing than to-day, the present Ministry had been formed on one
+question and on one question alone, and that was the rights of the Irish
+nation.' With Mr. Gladstone in office, the policy of the League was to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span>
+apply the policy of silence so often inculcated by Mr. Parnell. Speaking
+out might only embarrass their new allies.</p>
+
+<p>The country, up to a week ago, knew nothing of the momentous scheme on
+which the Ministry were engaged. One Cabinet council considered it with
+the result, that the collective action of the Cabinet ceased for the
+next fortnight; and then the only two public men of weight, whom Mr.
+Gladstone had induced to give his scheme the compliment of a hearing,
+retired from the Ministry. Our readers are now in possession of so much
+of the new scheme as they may be able to discern through the glamour of
+Mr. Gladstone's rhetoric; but the condition of affairs during the last
+three months is a picture to remember for all time.</p>
+
+<p>When the Hawarden scheme was disclosed before Christmas, Mr. Gladstone's
+principal organ in the London Press declared within a week that the game
+was up. The public would have none of it. The return of Mr. Gladstone to
+office, with Mr. John Morley as Irish Secretary, suddenly revived the
+hopes of the 'Pall Mall Gazette.' His new start in pursuit of the Irish
+ideal banished the despair which had settled upon even the most reckless
+of his adherents. The age, the physical power of the Premier, his long
+public career, called up reflections which could not be disposed of in a
+moment by foes, still less by former allies. He claimed time, and he has
+taken the most important part of the Session, to mature his plans,
+amidst the silence of the Opposition and of his Home Rule allies.</p>
+
+<p>But, if his opponents were silent, his nomination of Mr. Morley to the
+most important place in his Cabinet was not lost upon the motly crowd
+outside. All the dancing dervishes of politics rushed upon the scene to
+amaze a bewildered public with fantastical gyrations. 'The Empire of
+Liberty,' cried one, 'can never employ coercion.' Another enthusiast
+exclaimed, after reviewing the course of events since the Hawarden
+revelations, 'To call these things to mind does one's heart good. It
+seems as if nothing need be despaired of, as if words of hope need never
+be empty words.' A well-known economist tried to ease the public
+conscience, and to neutralize the resistance of the unfortunate Irish
+landlord, by a nebulous scheme for buying up the landlords' rights, but
+what the supply of money is to be, and who is to supply it, are
+questions to which the answers vary every hour. A separate Parliament is
+to be accompanied by a system of guarantees, and Professor Rogers
+declares that the surest guarantee was the hostages we have in the two
+millions of Irish inhabiting Great Britain; as if these unfortunate
+persons could be made liable to imprisonment or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[Pg 562]</a></span> torture in order to
+secure the good conduct of Mr. Parnell's Dublin Cabinet, as if such an
+arrangement, if made, would have the slightest effect upon the Irish
+revolutionists.</p>
+
+<p>But whilst Mr. Gladstone lingered, waiting to see how far the outer
+public could be brought into sympathy with his schemes, he did not
+hesitate a moment to consolidate the power of the National League. The
+subject of evictions for non-payment of rent was brought before the new
+Government in the form of a question, alleging that a particular
+eviction was not in strict conformity with the landlord's right. Mr.
+Morley offered to consider the question of right, and added that what
+was much wanted in Ireland was 'a strict and scrupulous and literal
+spirit of legality.' Later on the same evening, Mr. Dillon made a
+vigorous appeal to the Chief Secretary not to give the aid of armed
+force to carry out evictions. Mr. Morley responded with alacrity. 'I for
+one am not prepared to admit that we are justified in every case, in
+which a shadow of legal title is made out, to bring out the military
+force to execute decrees which, on the ground of public policy as well
+as that of equity, may seem inadvisable and unnecessary.' Legal right,
+if it is relied on in favour of the subjects of the Land League, must be
+interpreted in a 'scrupulous and literal spirit.' If it is acted on by
+the landlord, there come in considerations of public policy and of
+equity.</p>
+
+<p>The result of a long debate was that organized resistance to the
+execution of the law would not be interfered with, unless the Government
+were satisfied that in particular circumstances equity required such
+interference. We have thus arrived at once at a system of official
+despotism. The law is not to be a guarantee of the rights of the
+subject, unless so far as the Minister may think fit to permit it. And
+this dispensing power is to be exercised in favour of the subjects of
+the National League.</p>
+
+<p>The self-sufficiency of the Liberal party had been vigorously appealed
+to during the years 1883-5. Liberals tried to persuade themselves, that
+the comparative repose of Ireland was due to, or was likely to generate,
+a Conservative feeling amongst the farmer class. Their harvests were
+good, and they had got so much from the Land Bill, they had so much, in
+fact, to lose now, in comparison with their condition in former years,
+men argued, that they would not care to risk their well-being in pursuit
+of Nationalist projects, with the certainty of being subject to the
+village ruffians Mr. Forster had described whilst the struggle was going
+on, with the probability of having to share what they had with these
+same ruffians as soon as an Irish Parliament obtained power.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[Pg 563]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This reasoning took little account of historical experience in cases
+where property is suddenly given to one class by an arbitrary act. Care
+for what one possesses, forethought to avoid its loss, come only with
+habits of acquisition. The Irish farmer was confessedly careless in the
+past, because, it was said, providence could be of so little use to him
+in the then state of the law, but his prosperity under the legislation
+of 1881 was not the result of his own industry. It was due to a long
+course of agrarian outrage in Ireland and of Parliamentary outrage at
+Westminster. A favourite commonplace of Land Reformers is the
+conservatism of the French peasant, turned into a proprietor by the
+decrees of the Legislative Assembly of 1791. We are reminded of his
+industry, his self-denial, his distrust of the revolutionary spirit
+which rages in the towns, but we forget the date at which this sober,
+assiduous, conservatism made its appearance in history. The immediate
+result of the change made in 1791 was a savage orgie of bloodshed and
+outrage, nor was the wild fury, once let loose, sated by the blood of
+Frenchmen. It was nearly a generation before the fire of Revolution
+burnt itself out. The French peasantry of 1815 only came to value the
+land they acquired, to devote their lives to its cultivation, after
+twenty-three years of savage warfare had strewed the bones of their
+fathers and their brothers over every battlefield from Salamanca to
+Borodino, after Teuton and Cossack and Saxon had traversed French
+territory from end to end.</p>
+
+<p>Nor does the work of revolution produce other effects among the backward
+turbulent British population, whom Irish rhetoric describes as the Irish
+nation. Whatever we might hope from the children or grandchildren of
+those farmers who profited by the change which Mr. Parnell had already
+brought about, to suppose that prudence and a judicious spirit of
+self-interest would come to them as rapidly as the reduction of their
+rents, was to ignore all the facts of human nature. The desire for
+further winnings possessed them, as the passion of a gambler. Mr.
+Parnell's triumphant personality was the first thought in their minds.
+He had already taken 20 per cent. off their rents. Next time they were
+confident he would take off 50 per cent. or abolish rent altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberals who had been dreaming complacently about the happy results
+of Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy awoke to find Ireland in possession of
+the powerful, well-organized, hostile, combination known as the National
+League.</p>
+
+<p>To make our readers understand what this power means, we should like to
+be able to bring them within the closed doors of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[Pg 564]</a></span> the room where the
+League Committee sits in the remote country village. We should then hear
+the report of the member, respecting the funds obtained, their review of
+the wealth and independence around them, within their reach, but not yet
+brought under tribute, the gleeful narrative of resistance subdued, the
+dark hints of resources for future conquest. The details of the action
+of the League, as avowed by their press, have been published by the
+Loyal and Patriotic Union, and would fill many pages of this Review.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid growth of the new organization is easily understood. They had
+the past success of Mr. Parnell to work on, and this success was both
+appreciable in their balance of unpaid rent at the Bank, and stimulating
+to the imagination. The whole island was busy observing the execution of
+Mr. Parnell's behests in the re-adjustment of contracts for land. The
+Ministry, which had rebelled against his criticism and sprung at his
+throat, had been compelled to bring him out of jail supplicating for his
+alliance. The object of creating the new body was not so much to move
+forward as to keep Mr. Parnell's friends well together, to take
+advantage of the effect on the popular mind, which Mr. Parnell's
+achievements were producing in every hamlet. The practical advantages
+already won were an earnest of the future, secured new support, and
+would give greater momentum and unity to the Parnellite movement; when
+the time came for another attack upon property. The suspects who had
+been imprisoned by Mr. Forster, constituted local centres for the
+establishment of branches of the League. Every country public-house was
+a place of meeting for the branches or their agents. Once the League was
+organized in a particular district, the next point was to secure
+subscriptions. Land-grabbing, that is, becoming tenant of land from
+which some one else had been evicted, was the offence against which the
+League in the first place directed its energies, and this disregard of
+popular opinion was punished by social excommunication; but the system
+of boycotting once called into requisition involved new duties and
+responsibilities. If a man had not taken land himself, he might have
+worked for some one who had, or bought cattle from a land-grabber. The
+League in Kerry enjoined the following procedure on their subscribers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'That any person found communicating with a few obnoxious
+individuals in this locality will be expelled from the
+league. That every person presenting cattle for sale at a
+fair shall produce his card, and that no buyers shall
+purchase from any person without producing the same.</p>
+
+<p>'That no individual shall sell to any dealer without
+presenting his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[Pg 565]</a></span> card, as it is the only way to detect those
+employed by the Defence Unionists, and that we call on the
+other branches to follow this example.'&mdash;'United Ireland,'
+Dec. 12th, 1885.</p></div>
+
+<p>As the power of the League became better established, the subscribers
+were guaranteed against the caprice of their customers by such
+resolutions as the following, adopted at New Ross:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'That we hereby give final notice to Mr. Murtagh Stafford,
+that if he does not give back his work to the Nationalist
+blacksmiths, Messrs. Bowe and Busher, we cannot retain him
+on our league. That we inform all members of our branch that
+we expect them to patronize National blacksmiths, artisans,
+etc., if they wish to remain members.'&mdash;'New Ross Standard,'
+Jan. 9th, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<p>The complicated equities, which arose under the operation of these local
+tribunals, are illustrated by another case reported from Wexford.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Farrell and a man named Shee had been partners in a
+thrashing machine. Shee was boycotted in 1883 for having
+taken an evicted farm, and accordingly the machine was
+allowed to remain idle. Under these circumstances both
+agreed to dissolve partnership, and Farrell purchased Shee's
+share in the machine for 370<i>l.</i>, a sum of 60<i>l.</i> being paid in
+ready cash and the remainder being secured by a bill of
+sale. Farrell then went to the Tullogher branch to get
+"absolution for the machine," but his application was
+refused, it being decided that Shee still had a certain
+interest in it. In the "New Ross Standard," on Sept. 30th,
+1885, Farrell, it is reported, being desirous of appealing
+to the Central League in Dublin, had forwarded his statement
+to the Tullogher branch and declared he was now ready to
+verify it on oath. His request to have it sent on to the
+Central League was, however, refused by the local
+branch.'&mdash;'New Ross Standard.'</p></div>
+
+<p>The election to local public offices soon engaged the attention of the
+League. The branches were not content with nominating candidates and
+interfering with the elections; they next assumed the direction of the
+proceedings of Boards of Guardians and Town Councils. At Ennis this
+intervention was publicly announced by resolution.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'That in every future election to any office under the
+board, no candidate shall be supported by the National
+Guardians <i>unless he be a member of the National League</i> for
+at least six months previous to the date of the election,
+and produces his certificate, signed by the chairman and
+secretary of the branch, and further, that when selecting a
+candidate to be put forward for election, the minority of
+the National guardians should be bound to act on vote with
+the majority present and voting.'&mdash;'Clare Journal,' Nov.
+11th, 1885.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[Pg 566]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Contracts were only to be given to Members of the League. No one could
+be elected to a country dispensary or engaged as solicitor by any
+electoral body without the sanction of the League. A large portion of
+the struggling professional classes in the South and West were forced by
+a sense of self preservation to join the local associations. To remain
+outside the ranks of the League was to forfeit a man's best chances of
+getting on in life, and might any day become a personal danger. Mr.
+Harrington M.P., who has been for some years in charge of the Central
+Office of the League, tells us that 'at Meetings of the branches of the
+Organization discussions frequently occur upon incidents in the
+locality.' We can quite believe it, and are not surprised to find from
+the columns of 'United Ireland' what is the result of these discussions.</p>
+
+<p>In a system of pillage and tyranny so elaborated, there was no necessity
+to perpetrate acts of violence, frequently or continually. The daily
+operation of the League was a standing outrage, bringing a proof of its
+power to every man's door. A limited number of conspicuous crimes was
+sufficient for the purposes of the League. Curtin was murdered in
+November; Finlay, in the West of Ireland, in February; and the local
+persecution of the families of the victims was even a more awful tribute
+to the sway of the popular organization.</p>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that Mr. Lecky, in former years the most
+distinguished advocate of Irish Nationalism, in what may be called its
+social aspects, should say of the organ of the National League, 'United
+Ireland,' 'any English statesman who reads that paper, and then proposes
+to hand over the property and the virtual government of Ireland to the
+men whose ideas it represents, must be either a traitor or a fool.'</p>
+
+<p>There is no occasion to dwell on the existence of this body or the
+character of its operations. They are part of the case of the
+Government. Mr. Morley has frankly told us, that we ought to pass the
+new Bill, because the League is so strong. If we did not, we should have
+to quarrel with the League, and to meet not only this great association
+as we knew it in its times of prosperity, but the League as supported by
+all the reserve forces of Mr. Egan and Mr. Ford. At present these
+leaders of public opinion send money; but if the National League, its
+staff, its secretaries, its branches, its newspapers and Members of
+Parliament, are not enough, they are ready to send dynamite.</p>
+
+<p>One remarkable fact, however, in connection with the National League
+deserves special consideration, for it illustrates the singularly
+disastrous character of Mr. Gladstone's interposition in Irish affairs.
+The society, which we have endeavoured to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[Pg 567]</a></span> describe, and which Mr.
+Morley recommends to our attention as the <i>locum tenens</i> of dynamite and
+the dagger, is now officered in nearly every village by the priests of
+the Roman Church. At the beginning of his career, Mr. Parnell personally
+was regarded by the Roman Catholic hierarchy with suspicion, if not with
+hostility. Mr. Butt had never succeeded in securing their hearty
+co-operation in his Home Rule scheme. Mr. Parnell was not only a
+Protestant, but expressed his contempt very freely for the adherents of
+the Roman Church, whilst he avowed his sympathy with Revolutionists,
+whom the Irish Catholic had been taught to regard as enemies of the Holy
+Father. We can always trace in the history of this Church two forces at
+work; the principle of order and authority, worldly and calculating, in
+sympathy with the powers that be, trusting by skill and caution to
+manipulate them for its own ends; and on the other hand, the wilder
+spirit of sacerdotal ambition ready to ride the storm and dare
+catastrophe. Before Mr. Gladstone's second Administration, the former
+influence was gaining much strength in Ireland. Even if we make
+allowance for the social origin of the Irish priests, filled from their
+infancy with the rebel sentiment of the peasantry, there are many sins
+that the disposition of their Church was until very recently to rely
+upon intrigue and organization for gaining its ends, rather than to ally
+itself openly with the Irish Revolution. Even after Mr. Parnell had
+secured the allegiance of the farmer class by his great largess in the
+shape of 20 per cent. reduction of rent, not only did Cardinal McCabe
+continue to oppose him, but Archbishop Croke evinced a desire to act on
+the side of Government.</p>
+
+<p>Such a line of action, however, was only possible on the supposition,
+that government was to be maintained in Ireland; and the tenure of
+Ireland by Lord Spencer gave no such assurance. We know the passionate
+efforts which Mr. Gladstone made to exclude Archbishop Walsh from the
+See of Dublin. Sir George Errington was sent to Rome to get the Pope to
+do what Mr. Gladstone dare not do himself&mdash;bid defiance to the Irish
+leader. That resolute politician had a policy; the English Minister had
+none. A quarrel with the Nationalist party meant to the Roman Church
+loss of income, loss of influence&mdash;influence which, in these
+iconoclastic days, it might take them generations to recover; and, after
+all their sacrifices, they might find that Mr. Gladstone had
+capitulated, and had handed them and the rest of Ireland over to the
+National League. Their only practical course, as discreet politicians,
+was to throw in their lot with the great Nationalist leader, relying on
+the old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[Pg 568]</a></span> traditions of the Irish peasant to protect clerical interests
+against the host of Revolutionists, who would, on Mr. Parnell's triumph,
+flock into Ireland from all the ends of the earth. The priests do not
+forget that the member for Cork denounced their co-religionists. They
+have no enthusiasm for a revolutionary dictator, who, whatever his
+opinions on religious matters, cannot be claimed as a son of the Church.
+Mr. Gladstone, however, left the sacerdotal power no choice but to make
+the best terms they could with the Irish leader, who was only too glad
+to secure their co-operation. Archbishop Walsh has been accepted as a
+sort of ecclesiastical assessor to Mr. Parnell's government, and at the
+last election the priests went as one man for the National League.</p>
+
+<p>It is an Ireland, thus abandoned for years to the evil spirits evoked by
+the rhetorician of Southport&mdash;an Ireland, in which the natural springs
+of Conservatism have been dried up by the fever of slumbering
+revolution&mdash;that England is now called upon to deal with, and the remedy
+of the Ministry is to call into power a public opinion schooled in
+conspiracy and violence; for now at length Mr. Gladstone has given up
+the notion of intervening between Mr. Parnell and the Irish crowd. The
+preachers of the gospel of plunder are invited to share in the
+government of a part of the Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not attempt to examine further the scheme which Mr. Gladstone
+has foreshadowed, but which, as we write, is not yet published in
+detail. One characteristic, we may note, in the Prime Minister's speech
+was very unusual with him. It is full of admissions which seem to be due
+not so much to his habitual daring as to unconsciousness of their
+import. He is ready to buy out the landlords at a great cost to the
+English taxpayer, because the idea of landed property came to the
+Irishman in English garb, and is therefore not likely to be respected in
+the new system; but why should he be obliged to make special provision
+for the Irish judges? They are men of ability, of stainless character.
+They do not belong to any particular party, or race, or creed; they are
+members of a great profession which all civilized societies require.
+They have that experience of their profession which would make their
+services particularly useful to a community entering on a new social
+stage; but the mere fact, that they have been engaged in applying the
+law, makes their position dangerous, and Mr. Gladstone is obliged to ask
+England to provide that they shall not suffer in purse from the opening
+of the new era which he proposes in that part of the United Kingdom
+where he has undertaken to reconstruct society.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[Pg 569]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For the moment Mr. Morley prefers the <i>r&ocirc;le</i> of Si&eacute;yes rather than of
+Danton, but the outcome of the legislation, proposed by the Ministry
+with the assent of Mr. Parnell, must be to advance, if not to
+consummate, the theory of Irish Independence. We thus arrive at that
+result which Mr. Morley, on his own principles, would find it difficult
+to refuse assent to. He has told us that his policy is to be 'thorough.'
+A separate Irish nationality or reconquest must be the ultimate
+consequence of any substitution of local institutions in Ireland for the
+Parliament at Westminster, unless so far as the proposed substitution
+were part of a scheme common to all four components of the kingdom. Most
+people will agree with the old Duke of Wellington, that 'the repeal of
+the Union must be the dissolution of the connection between the two
+countries.'</p>
+
+<p>To withdraw the English flag from Ireland as we did from the Ionian
+Isles, to have a Convention called at Dublin to determine the future
+government of the Island, such a plan would have the advantage that it
+recognizes the one political opinion, which we can trace in Irish
+popular expression&mdash;the desire to be done with England. It is true, that
+the policy of Irish ideas declared at Southport was a means to an
+end&mdash;the better union of the two countries&mdash;but pledged to two
+antagonistic principles, Mr. Gladstone must some time choose which he
+will abandon.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, in accepting Irish independence we shrink from
+responsibility for the acts of England. We know that the disorder now
+ruling in Ireland is, to some extent, the result of English
+misgovernment in past generations, and instead of attempting by firmness
+and patience to remedy the mischief our fathers have done, we leave the
+future to Providence. In this aspect of the question, we would remind
+our readers of the words used in our article on 'Disintegration' not
+three years ago:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The highest interests of the Empire, as well as the most
+sacred obligations of honour, forbid us to solve this
+question by conceding any species of independence to
+Ireland; or, in other words, any licence to the majority in
+that country to govern the rest of Irishmen as they please.
+To the minority, to those who have trusted us, and on the
+faith of our protection have done our work, it would be a
+sentence of exile or of ruin. All that is Protestant&mdash;nay,
+all that is loyal&mdash;all who have land or money to lose, all
+by whose enterprize and capital industry and commerce are
+still sustained, would be at the mercy of the adventurers
+who have led the Land League, if not of the darker
+counsellors by whom the Invincibles have been inspired. If
+we have failed after centuries of effort to make Ireland
+peaceable and civilized, we have no moral right to abandon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[Pg 570]</a></span>
+our post and leave all the penalty of our failure to those
+whom we have persuaded to trust in our power. It would be an
+act of political bankruptcy, an avowal that we were unable
+to satisfy even the most sacred obligations, and that all
+claims to protect or govern any one beyond our own narrow
+island were at an end.'&mdash;'Quarterly Review,' October, 1883,
+pp. 593, 594.</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Gladstone assured his hearers last week, that he was bent on
+consolidating the unity of the kingdom; he would not tolerate that his
+new constitution should be called a repeal of the Union; but his final
+argument was this, 'Do not let us disguise this from ourselves. We stand
+face to face with what is termed "Irish nationality."' Now, what is this
+'Irish nationality'? Let us examine it from the point of view of the
+welfare of the Irish population. It may be conceded at once that there
+is a strong current of local sentiment running through the Irish
+population of the south and west. This is a tender, home feeling&mdash;a very
+different thing from the stronger, more complex, and more highly
+developed, conception round which a political nationality gathers. It is
+such a sentiment as exists in one form or another in every group of
+counties, in every county, in every country-side, in almost every
+village. It is a kindly recollection of old memories, associated with a
+disposition to stand up for our own. It is the result of intimate
+knowledge of certain habits and ideas, and a tender reminiscence of the
+best types of character associated with those habits. This sentiment of
+local feeling is the germ of nationality, but it exists in many regions
+where the wider ideas of nationality have never supervened. There are
+many other places again, where this same feeling remains fresh and
+vigorous after the political nationality connected with it has passed
+away, merged in larger conceptions, in a sense of more extended
+interests.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the feeling of Cicero when he said that he had two countries.
+His Volscian home was the country of his affection, but Rome that of
+duty and right. Arpinum will always be my country, said he, but Rome
+still more my country, for Arpinum has its share in the honours and
+dominion of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the feeling of the proud and vigorous nationality occupying
+North Britain, various in race, in creed, and in social condition, but
+united in mutual knowledge, in local sympathies, and in self-respect.
+The Scotch, as an aggregate, are intellectually, physically, and in
+their local institutions and habits one of the most distinct national
+types existing. They are drawn together by a strong sentiment of
+patriotism, but they are as little likely to demand a separate political
+system, a parliament sitting at Edinburgh, as the members from
+Hampshire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[Pg 571]</a></span> and Wiltshire are likely to combine for the establishment of
+parliamentary government on the banks of the Itchin.</p>
+
+<p>Now what is Ireland, and what indications has that portion of the
+population known as Nationalist given of a capacity to form itself into
+a nation? Ireland has a geographical boundary in a sea channel crossed
+from Great Britain in three hours or in an hour and a-half, according to
+the line of passage selected. It is inhabited by some five millions,
+whose native language is English, with the exception of a decimal
+percentage of mountaineers, who nearly all speak English as well as
+Irish. The race is more mixed than in any other district of the kingdom
+containing the same amount of population. The northern coasts are
+thickly peopled by Scotch settlers. In the south and west are many
+varieties of race not of English introduction, but strongly different
+from each other. In many of the most Catholic districts of Munster and
+Leinster we find, in the names, physique, and temper, of the people,
+evident results of the Cromwellian settlements, although the faith and
+political principles of their forefathers have passed away. With this
+mixed population we have a social cleavage probably the most remarkable
+in Europe. The mass of the people, except in about one-fifth of the
+island on the north-east coast, are Roman Catholic, Celtic in their
+traditions and habits, and extremely poor. The Northern fifth is
+industrious, order-loving, prosperous, Protestant, and British in
+sentiment. Next to the masses of the population in importance are the
+great landowners, of whom six-sevenths are Protestants, and nearly the
+whole of Norman, Scotch, or English origin. There is no important
+mercantile class, except in the towns of Belfast, Dublin, and Cork; and
+the professional classes, with the exception of the Catholic priesthood,
+are chiefly Protestant and British.</p>
+
+<p>This population, so strangely wanting in homogeneity, have no history
+which might attract them into unconsciousness of their differences. It
+has been well said, that 'anybody who knew nothing of the Irish past,
+except what he got from the speeches of Irish Nationalists, would
+suppose that at some comparatively recent period the green flag had
+floated over fleets and armies, and that Irish kings had played a part
+of some kind in the field of modern European politics.' But as a matter
+of fact Ireland has no part in European history before its conquest by
+England. Not only was the kingdom of Ireland, as the style of the island
+went before 1800, an English creation; but the name of Ireland has never
+had any political significance except in connection with the English
+crown.</p>
+
+<p>External signs of difference between English and Irish there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[Pg 572]</a></span> are many;
+nimble apprehension, fluent utterance, genial demeanour, the attraction
+of the flashing Celtic face, distinguish an Irish from an English group,
+but characteristics like this do not prove any original or consistent
+power of thought. They rather perhaps indicate the absence of it. It is
+not on qualities like these, cemented even by strong feelings of home
+sentiment, that we can expect to see the foundation of a new Nationality
+happily laid. With one exception there is not a single idea, which an
+orator could present to an Irish crowd, that could not be urged with
+equal chance of sympathy upon an English crowd. Personal liberty, the
+principles of no taxation without representation, of trial by jury,
+freedom of conscience, sympathy with the prosperity of the greatest
+number, all these are English ideas and must be illustrated, where they
+need illustration, by the events of history peculiar to England or
+common to the British dominion. The one topic, which is specially
+attractive to an Irish meeting, is abuse of England as the source of
+Irish misery. Community of hatred the mixed Nationalist population has,
+but whether such a passion is sufficiently creative to build up a new
+national type the reader can judge for himself. With this exception,
+laws, political teachings, commercial habits, are all of English origin.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gladstone, in recommending to the House of Commons his scheme for
+the establishment of an independent Parliament in Ireland, cited as
+precedents the independent Legislatures of Sweden and Norway, and of
+Austria and Hungary. He dwelt particularly upon the precedent of
+Norway:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Legislature of Norway has had serious controversies,
+not with Sweden, but with the King of Sweden, and it has
+fought out those controversies successfully upon the
+strictest constitutional and Parliamentary grounds. And yet
+with two countries so united, what has been the effect? Not
+discord, not convulsion, not danger to peace, not hatred,
+not aversion, but a constantly-growing sympathy; and every
+man who knows their condition knows that I speak the truth
+when I say, that in every year that passes the Norwegians
+and the Swedes are more and more feeling themselves to be
+the children of a common country, united by a tie which
+never is to be broken.'</p></div>
+
+<p>If Mr. Gladstone had been better acquainted with the recent historic and
+economic condition of Norway, of which we have given some account in our
+present number,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> he might have quoted that country as a warning
+rather than an example. The 'Storthing,' or Parliament of Norway, is
+omnipotent, and two-thirds of its representatives are permanently in the
+hands of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[Pg 573]</a></span> peasant proprietor. The King has only a suspensive veto on
+Bills enacted by the Storthing, which therefore become law, if passed in
+their original form by three successive triennial Parliaments. The
+recent dispute between the King and the Parliament, to which Mr.
+Gladstone alluded, related to the right of the King to exercise an
+absolute veto in the case of Bills affecting the principles of the
+Constitution. The existence of such a right was denied by the Radical
+majority in the Storthing, which established in 1884 a Supreme Court of
+Justice composed exclusively of Radical members, and the Judges of the
+ordinary High Court of Justice. It was a packed Court, bound to secrecy;
+and the tribunal thus constituted condemned, in violation of the first
+principles of justice, all the King's Ministers in Norway to deprivation
+of office and to pecuniary fines, for having advised their master, that
+the Constitution could not be altered without his sanction. The King was
+compelled to yield, though he was supported in his opposition to the
+Storthing by his Swedish Cabinet; and his ultimate submission to the
+Radical majority in Norway was followed by a Ministerial crisis in
+Sweden. The Swedes rightly argue that, if the King has no absolute veto
+on matters affecting the principles of the Constitution in Norway, there
+is no obstacle to an abolition of the Monarchical form of government in
+that kingdom, or to a repeal of the union between the two countries.
+There is in consequence much discontent in Sweden at the conduct of
+Norway; and the Norwegians, on their side, have an intense and
+ever-growing 'hatred and aversion' to the Swedes. Hence has arisen a
+considerable tension in the official relations between the two countries
+instead of the 'constantly growing sympathy' of which Mr. Gladstone
+spoke. It is characteristic of the Prime Minister's mode of stating a
+case, that he tells us the Norwegian controversies are 'not with Sweden
+but with the King of Sweden.' Sweden has nothing to say in Norwegian
+affairs, except in the person of the King. The King is the only
+connecting link between the two countries. If the Dublin Parliament
+should impeach the Irish Viceroy, we suppose Mr. Gladstone would tell us
+that the difficulty was not with England but with Queen Victoria.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was Mr. Gladstone much happier in his allusion to Hungarian
+Nationality in recent times. For more than 150 years Austria endeavoured
+to extinguish the national life of Hungary. In 1867 this policy was
+definitely abandoned, and Hungary was called to a share in the Empire of
+the Hapsburgs. As recently as last October Mr. Parnell, when insisting
+that Ireland must have an independent Parliament, said: 'We<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">[Pg 574]</a></span> can point
+to the example of other countries&mdash;to Austria and to Hungary&mdash;to the
+fact that Hungary, having been conceded self-government, became one of
+the strongest factors in the Austrian Empire.' The favour, with which
+these references have been received by the Liberal party, is a singular
+example how far afield they are ready to go in search of an argument.
+Austria, in 1867, was a great military despotism, tottering to its fall
+amidst a group of eager rivals. A general appeal to the nation, such as
+France made at the commencement of the Revolutionary war, was out of the
+question. Differences of race, differences of language, differences of
+social condition, made national unity impossible within the wide
+dominions of the House of Austria. The government at Vienna consented to
+the division of its territories into groups of nearly equal strength. In
+each of these groups various alien nationalities were clustered round a
+central power more advanced in politics, in civilization, and in wealth,
+than the adjacent territories. Instead of trying to weld their multiple
+varieties of race into one great popular community, Austria, smitten at
+Sadowa, shared her dominion with Hungary, and asked her to take charge
+of the Government of the East Leithan Slavs, whilst the German
+population of Austria dealt with the Czechs and Moravians and
+Carinthians on the western side of the river.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Henry Elliott has well pointed out, that what success the experiment
+has had is in no small degree due to the large powers still enjoyed by
+the Crown, and to the personal character and influence of the Emperor
+Francis, the connecting link between the two dominions; but apart from
+this actual result, the feasibility of the dual scheme depended on the
+following considerations. In the first place, there was no alternative
+in the condition in which the House of Austria found itself in 1867,
+defeated in battle and bankrupt in finance. Without some such
+arrangement civil war was inevitable, with the ultimate prospect of the
+absorption of the various races by the hostile neighbouring Powers. In
+the second place, the allies were pretty nearly equal in strength as
+regards each other, whilst they were each similarly weighted by the
+difficulty of holding their own within the respective territories
+assigned them. They were each so busy with their subordinate territories
+and the less advanced populations inhabiting them, that it was not their
+interest or their inclination to bring about conflicts with each other.
+Hungary boasts a larger area than Austria, and a population equal to
+three-fourths that of the Western Monarchy. On the western side of the
+Leitha the dominant race, dominant by force of nature, by brain power,
+and the traditions and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[Pg 575]</a></span> acquirements this power has given them, are 36
+per cent. of the whole population. In the Transleithan provinces the
+race similarly situated, the Magyar, constitutes about 40 per cent. of
+the whole population.</p>
+
+<p>There is not a single circumstance in the relations between England and
+Ireland to make reference to the creation of the Empire-Kingdom anything
+but an absurdity. Ireland never can compare with Great Britain in
+material resources. Her population is hardly one-sixth that of the
+larger island, whilst her area is little more than a third. She is
+deficient in climate, in soil, in mineral resources, and in population.
+Not only is she without a well-organized aristocracy skilled in
+political science, such as Hungary boasted; Ireland, as the term is
+understood by the National League, is without an educated class. Her
+intellect is represented by the moonlight maurauder and the fanatic
+priest. As regards England, the parallel is still more preposterous: She
+is not a military despotism, but a well-organized community, boasting
+parliamentary traditions of a thousand years. Her shores are guarded by
+sea from foreign interference. Notwithstanding many scandalous
+shortcomings in her rulers, her influence and her power are still
+unrivalled in the world. However long Mr. Gladstone may rule, her Sadowa
+is yet to come; and, if it did come, the example of the Dual State would
+offer no solution of our Irish difficulties, for none of the conditions
+which made the Dual State possible exist in the case of the two chief
+British Islands.</p>
+
+<p>The delusive character of Mr. Gladstone's reference to the Dual State is
+best illustrated by the facts, that the council for common affairs
+consist of an equal number of representatives from each side of the
+dominion, that this council is concerned with military and foreign
+affairs, two subjects on which, according to the new scheme, Ireland is
+to have no vote.</p>
+
+<p>It will be found, on a little examination, that appeals to the example
+of the foreigner are as misleading as the theory of nationality. All
+such arguments are only endeavours to divert the public from the
+exercise of their own judgment and common-sense in dealing with the
+mischiefs which the perverse genius of Mr. Gladstone has created.
+Recognized principles of government, the ordinary traditions of England
+applied with the happy immunity from friction, which the commercial
+policy of modern times makes possible, would have long since settled the
+difficulty, but it would have been settled in disregard of that popular
+Irish feeling which, in 1867, Mr. Gladstone pledged himself to follow.
+He would have had to admit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[Pg 576]</a></span> that his new Irish policy was a mistake; and
+he never admits that he has made any mistake&mdash;unless it be in Egypt&mdash;or
+in acting on the opinion of other people. When he has discovered a new
+line of policy, he believes himself infallible. Let us assume for a
+moment, that the combination of the personal adherents of Mr. Gladstone
+and of Mr. Parnell enables the Prime Minister to pass some measure on
+the lines he has selected, or on those laid down by Mr. Davitt, and that
+the rowdy treason of a Dublin Cabinet proceeds to bring within the
+sphere of its operations what wealth and civilization has hitherto
+escaped the National League.</p>
+
+<p>In the struggle which must ensue, we shall have within three hours of
+our shores a raging volcano of revolution, threatening the peace of
+Europe and our own. Fenians, Nihilists, and Irish Yankees, will flock to
+the new vantage ground. The conflict between Socialism and property,
+between infidelity and superstition, will be fought out amidst the
+strangest complications of local hatred and of fiscal disorder. If
+foreign governments abstain from interfering, and we escape consequent
+difficulties with them, are we sure that we ourselves will be able to
+remain passive spectators? Many of us are old enough to recollect the
+agitation which shook this kingdom during the struggle between North and
+South on the other side of the Atlantic. No question of Home politics
+for generations past had so deeply moved our people. It required all the
+exertions of the most sober part of the nation to prevent our becoming
+involved in the conflict, and we recollect the help this party of wisdom
+got from the impulsive statesman who has undertaken for the third time
+the final settlement of the Irish question. If the great American Civil
+War, desolating a country three thousand miles away, thus stirred
+popular feeling, what will be the result of a Civil War between, on the
+one side, the Irish Celt animated by religious hatred and love of
+plunder, and supported by the Irish American, and on the other the
+loyalty, endurance and Protestantism of Ulster&mdash;a Civil War almost
+within sight of our shores?</p>
+
+<p>But, if we turn from the suggestions of empiricism and vanity and come
+to those practical considerations which affect men's minds in matters so
+important as political organization, the main argument pressed on
+English people is that we cannot go on as we are. 'Irish Government is a
+failure.' 'We must close this terrible crisis as rapidly as possible.'
+'Separation itself, could not be worse than the present state of
+things.' 'The Act of Union has completely failed. After eighty-four
+years it has given an Ireland more hostile to England than at any period
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span> its history.' Mr. Gladstone recites the number of Coercion Acts,
+which have been passed since 1832, and declares 'we are like the man
+who, knowing that medicine may be the means of his restoration to
+health, endeavours to live upon medicine.'</p>
+
+<p>Before considering whether this confession of failure is true, we would
+remind our readers what it implies, what it leads up to. It is now
+proposed as an argument for establishing a separate Parliament in
+Dublin. The establishment of this separate Parliament is necessary,
+because we must give Ireland the opportunity of doing what we ourselves
+are unable to do, to find the best machinery they can to carry on the
+business of government. But, when this machinery is once found and
+invested with the resources and influence of a Government, we cannot
+suppose that our troubles will be at an end. If disputes arise in the
+working out of the new Irish Constitution, the popular majority will not
+be slow to call in the aid of the American Irish who have founded the
+National League. Mr. Jennings, whose opinion on this matter is entitled
+to great weight, from his long residence in the United States, reminded
+the House that</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'one consideration which they must bear in mind was that of
+the formidable difficulties which would inevitably arise
+from the action of the great body of Irish Americans. If
+this Bill granted to Ireland a free and independent
+Parliamentary Assembly with full powers over the Executive,
+as proposed by the Prime Minister, there would inevitably
+come a time when either the payment of the interest due, or
+some other cause, would bring the Irish Parliament into
+antagonism with the English. If they were to endeavour to
+demand what was necessary, whether payment of interest or
+what not, and to threaten to use force, could any one
+suppose that the great body of Irish Americans would stand
+by silently and see that done? He believed that the United
+States would say to them: "You have acknowledged your
+incompetence to govern Ireland; you have given her practical
+independence, now you must take your hands off her; we will
+not stand by and see her crushed." He believed that there
+was no government in the United States which could withstand
+such pressure as that which would be brought to bear on it
+by the Irish Americans, especially if a Presidential
+election were near.'</p></div>
+
+<p>But is this allegation of failure actually true? For our part we are
+inclined to agree with Lord Hartington, that the argument founded on the
+paralysis of government in Ireland in recent years is allowed more
+weight in this question than it should have. In the first place, it is
+difficult to see how any government conducted as ours has been during
+the last few years, could be other than disastrous, Mr. Gladstone, at
+the commencement of his career<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[Pg 578]</a></span> as leader of the Liberal party, pledged
+himself to the policy of Irish ideas, ignorant, if not reckless, of what
+the term meant. Year by year he has been getting a closer view of the
+creed he had unconsciously adopted, and, after a struggle, he accepts
+one dogma, then another. The great dogma of all in the Home Ruler's
+creed, that Englishmen should be sent bag and baggage out of Ireland,
+has not yet been adopted; and naturally the Home Ruler keeps his
+resources ready for that ringing of the chapel bell to which Mr.
+Gladstone alluded in speaking of the Clerkenwell explosion and its
+effect on the question of the Irish Establishment. The 'dynamite and the
+dagger,' to which Mr. Morley recently appealed as conclusive reasons for
+passing the Cabinet scheme, retain their fascination for the Irish mind.</p>
+
+<p>As long as Mr. Gladstone is a power in English public life, and his
+pledges given in Lancashire are unredeemed or unrepudiated, the Home
+Rule party will press him without mercy; but it is not reasonable to
+argue from their success, a success which Mr. Gladstone has given them,
+that they exercise a permanent influence on Irish affairs. When the
+Southport pledges were given, the Irish land laws were yet without that
+reform which a series of Governments, Tory as well as Whig, had admitted
+to be necessary. It could not be said until after 1870 that the book of
+English neglect of Irish interests was finally closed, and that is only
+sixteen years ago. During this period we have seen the great English
+Parliamentary Ruler continually plunging after coercion, and returning
+to make some other big concession to agitation. Thus Ireland has had no
+chance of trying what a good system of laws consistently administered
+could supply. The principle of the Land Act of 1870 was a provision for
+the protection of property&mdash;the tenants' property recognized by custom
+during a long course of years, although ignored by the law and exposed
+to confiscation by the reckless Whig legislation of 1850-2. The Land Act
+of 1881 was an arbitrary attempt to remedy the misfortunes of an
+improvident agricultural interest by legislative interference with
+contract. Contracts were readjusted and finally settled for fifteen
+years to come. Political economy was bidden to take itself off, but
+prices varied quite regardless of Mr. Gladstone's arrangements, and the
+weather did not pay them the least consideration. The passion for
+revolution was stimulated, and a large number of Mr. Gladstone's clients
+are as badly off as before. Might it not be worth while to try for a
+time how far good government, after the removal of all substantial
+grievances, might supply that 'real settlement,' 'that finality,' which
+the country is now asked to find in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span> Dublin Parliaments, First Orders,
+and bribes at the cost of the English taxpayer?</p>
+
+<p>This counter-policy of maintaining order and good government in Ireland
+should be emphasized by measures to make that island, even more
+completely than she now is, a part of the United Kingdom. The Queen's
+laws in Ireland are the same, except in some slight details, as in
+England. The Irish judicature might be made part of the High Court at
+Westminster. The Queen's writs from Westminster should run throughout
+Ireland as they have done for hundreds of years throughout Wales.
+Limerick or Sligo are not so remote from London now as Harlech or Durham
+were in the reign of George I. The Irish judges would form no
+undistinguished addition to the English Bench, while the presence of
+English judges on circuit in Ireland would have the best effect in
+disarming the animosity of the people against the law. It is too often
+forgotten in these days that, however rapidly we move from place to
+place, however swift the transmission of intelligence, the human mind
+has not yet acquired the nimbleness of the telegraph needle. Habits of
+thought are not changed as rapidly as the fashions of our dress. It is
+only sixteen years since our Irish legislation has assumed its present
+form, and we are ready to throw to the winds all maxims of statecraft,
+all principles hitherto recognized in the delicate work of government.
+We are in despair, and call in the company of <i>&agrave; priori</i> statesmen&mdash;men
+whose sole qualification to deal with complex questions is the fact that
+they have studied the science of revolution. Why should we not try, now
+that we have provided for manifest Irish grievances, what time, and
+resolution, and common-sense, might do for us and our Irish
+fellow-subjects?</p>
+
+<p>The first part of the Government policy is disclosed. We have still to
+learn what its complement, the Land Purchase Bill, is to be, what
+proposal is to be made about loyal Ulster, the subject on which Mr.
+Gladstone was so strangely vague, on which Mr. Parnell was discreetly
+silent. These further manifestations of Cabinet wisdom can hardly save
+the scheme now lingering on to death. We wish we could be certain, that
+this collapse would rid Parliament and Ireland of all such projects for
+the future. But, whatever be the fate of the present Ministry, we may be
+sure that the end is not yet, unless Mr. Parnell's faction is completely
+broken, unless the policy urged by Lord Hartington is firmly adopted,
+and party life reorganized in England, on the principle of excluding the
+Irish vote from consideration in our party conflicts. If no such
+resolution is enforced by English patriotism, Irish Nationalists will
+return to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[Pg 580]</a></span> their demands, enhanced in power and renown by the tribute
+they have extorted from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>On these events of the future we shall not now speculate; but if past
+history throws any light on the character of our population, one thing
+may be confidently predicted. If Home Rule should be ultimately conceded
+to Ireland, the political party which may be responsible for the
+carrying of the scheme, will have to look forward to a long period of
+exclusion from public confidence. However the British people may be
+worried or deluded into forgetfulness of their duty to themselves and to
+Ireland, the working of a Dublin Parliament will soon rouse them, the
+reaction will set in; and the authors of the scheme will have before
+them as lengthened a banishment from power, as the country gentlemen
+suffered when their chivalrous devotion to the House of Stuart blinded
+them for a time to the practical interests of England; as was the fate
+of the Whigs at the beginning of this century, when they identified
+their party with implacable opposition to Pitt's struggle to deliver
+Europe from the tyranny of Bonaparte.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> See Art. IV. 'Yeomen Farmers in Norway.'</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[Pg 581]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX_TO_THE_HUNDRED_AND_SIXTY-SECOND_VOLUME_OF_THE_QUARTERLY_REVIEW" id="INDEX_TO_THE_HUNDRED_AND_SIXTY-SECOND_VOLUME_OF_THE_QUARTERLY_REVIEW"></a>INDEX TO THE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME OF THE QUARTERLY REVIEW.</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+A.<br />
+<br />
+St. Alban's Abbey,  <a href='#Page_305'>305</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its revenue,  <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture of the vine,  <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its Grammar School,  <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Scriptorium,  <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>,  <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Historiographers,  <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abbot's,  <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>,  <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Alford, Dean, on the severance of the Church from the State, 7.<br />
+<br />
+Apostolic Fathers, the, by the Bishop of Durham,  <a href='#Page_467'>467</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ignatius contrasted with St. Clement,  <a href='#Page_470'>470</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his uncertain birth and origin,  <a href='#Page_471'>471</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">martyrdom,  <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>,  <a href='#Page_473'>473</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">testimony to the Apostolical succession,  <a href='#Page_474'>474</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 'short,' 'middle' and 'long' form, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forgery in the 'long' recension,  <a href='#Page_475'>475</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">literary war on episcopacy,  <a href='#Page_476'>476</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milton's invective, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archbp. Ussher's discovery,  <a href='#Page_477'>477</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condemns the Epistle to Polycarp,  <a href='#Page_478'>478</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cureton's version, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">genuineness of the seven Epistles known to Eusebius  <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>,  <a href='#Page_480'>480</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">style and diction,  <a href='#Page_481'>481</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">external testimony,  <a href='#Page_483'>483</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Apostolical Constitutions,'  <a href='#Page_485'>485</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Iren&aelig;us on Apostolic succession,  <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>,  <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Linus at Rome,  <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Polycarp on episcopacy,  <a href='#Page_487'>487</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement of Rome and Papias, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Theological Polemics,  <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Judaists and Gnostics,  <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>S. Polycarp</i>, his history and writings,  <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reverence paid to him,  <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reviving Paganism,  <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legend of his youth,  <a href='#Page_495'>495</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets Ignatius,  <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reminiscences by Iren&aelig;us, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his martyrdom,  <a href='#Page_498'>498</a>,  <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Aracan. <i>See</i> Burma.<br />
+<br />
+Archives of the Venetian Republic,  <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>. <i>See</i> Venetian.<br />
+<br />
+d'Aumale, Duc his 'Histoire des Princes de Cond&eacute;,' 80<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his tribute to Gen. France d'Houdetot, 107.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+B.<br />
+<br />
+Bagehot, Mr. Walter, his 'English Constitution,'  <a href='#Page_518'>518</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character,  <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of his writings,  <a href='#Page_532'>532</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universal and varied representation,  <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clear style,  <a href='#Page_534'>534</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the principle of evolution,  <a href='#Page_535'>535</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on royal education,  <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitutional monarchy,  <a href='#Page_537'>537</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Banker, the Country, by Mr. George Rae, 133<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joint Stock Banking, 134</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loanable capital, 135</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade interests, 136</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">individual responsibility, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">limited liability, 137</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uncovered advances, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of Scotland, 138</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difference between a mortgage and a bill of exchange, 139</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fixed capital, 140</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">floating capital, 141</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">telegraphic transfer, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal security, 142</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'runs' on a bank, 143-145</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banking reserve, 145</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">panics, 146, 147</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Act of 1844, 147</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Golden Age, 149</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bank Law of Germany, 149, 150</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Banks of the U.S., 150</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Swedish Banks, 151</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banking system of Australasia, 152</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Popular Banks in Italy, 153</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with the Post Office Savings-banks in England, 154.</span><br />
+<br />
+Batchelor, Rev. H., sermon upon 'The Bishops on Disestablishment,' 38.<br />
+<br />
+Beaconsfield, Lord, his historic warning in 1880 of danger in Ireland,  <a href='#Page_551'>551</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bismarck, Prince, his opinion of Mr. Gladstone, 281, 282.<br />
+<br />
+Books and Reading,  <a href='#Page_501'>501</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sir John Lubbock's list, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comte's catalogue or syllabus,  <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indolent readers,  <a href='#Page_503'>503</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perplexity of the student,  <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difficulties in classification,  <a href='#Page_505'>505</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Weldon's practical list,  <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. F. Harrison's 'Choice of Books, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the desultory reader,  <a href='#Page_508'>508</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dibdin's 'Library Companion,'  <a href='#Page_509'>509</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chroniclers and Historians, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">philosophical histories,  <a href='#Page_510'>510</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Voyages and Travels,  <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Children's Books,  <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Lowell's maxim for reading,  <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of odd moments,  <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">periodical literature,  <a href='#Page_515'>515</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[Pg 582]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">selection of books,  <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">students' books,  <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragmentary reading,  <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brewer, Prof., his 'Introductions,'  <a href='#Page_293'>293</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Essay on 'New Sources of English History,'  <a href='#Page_294'>294</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">draws attention to the value of the 'Calendars,' <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+British Empire. <i>See</i> Travels.<br />
+<br />
+Broch, Dr., '<i>Le Royaume de Norv&egrave;ge et le Peuple Norv&eacute;gien</i>,'  <a href='#Page_384'>384</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Report for the Exhibition at Paris,  <a href='#Page_397'>397</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">production of cereals and potatoes in Norway, in 1875,  <a href='#Page_405'>405</a> <i>note</i>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Yeomen.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brown, Rev., on the control exercised in the Dissenting Churches, 37.<br />
+<br />
+----, Mr. Rawdon, the late, his facsimiles of the Autographs in the <i>Lettere Principi</i>,  <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Venetian.</span><br />
+<br />
+Burma, Past and Present, 210<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of rivers, 211</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of India and China, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chief nationalities, 213</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Karens, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of Buddhism, 214</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">affinity with Ceylon, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindoo nomenclature, 215</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">architectural remains, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the city of Pag&acirc;n, 216</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Niccolo de' Conti's geographical accuracy, 217</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pegu captured, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the <i>Yuva Raja's</i> gorgeous court, 218</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extravaganzas of F. M. Pinto, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">splendour of the monarchy, 219</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">internal and external wars, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reign of Nicote, 220</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his execution, 221</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decay of the power of Ava, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance of Alompra, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his successes and death, 222, 223</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ran-g&ucirc;n founded, 222</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of Aracan, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peace concluded between China and Ava, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capt. Symes, Envoy to the Burmese Court, 224</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Wellesley's endeavours for a treaty of alliance, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">geographical extent of the Empire, 225</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sir A. Campbell's conquests, 226</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Col. H. Burney's residence, 227</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Dalhousie annexes Pegu, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capt. A. Phayre's successful administration of Pegu, 228</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of Mengd&ucirc;n-Meng, and succession of Theebau, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">massacre of the prisoners, 229</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt at Hlain, 230</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English Residency withdrawn, 231</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with France cultivated, 232</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gen. D'Orgoni's mission, 233</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the French Envoy's secret articles disavowed, 234</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French occupation of the Anamite provinces, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Franco-Burmese Treaty, 235</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Bank at Mandalay, 236</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation, 237</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ultimatum of the Indian Government, 238</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resources of, 287.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+C.<br />
+<br />
+'Calendars,' the, of Letters and Papers, Prof. Brewer's 'Introductions' to,  <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>,  <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cape Colony, the, treatment of,  <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carlyle's account of the Royalist attack on Salisbury,  <a href='#Page_416'>416</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his false image of Cromwell,  <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Cromwell.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cervantes, Life of, 58.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> 'Don Quixote.'</span><br />
+<br />
+Chamberlain, Mr., his bribe to the rural voters, 258<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Mr. Gladstone's manifesto, 290.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Parliament.</span><br />
+<br />
+Christian Brothers, the, Religious Schools in France and England,  <a href='#Page_325'>325</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the <i>Fr&egrave;res Chr&eacute;tiens</i> founded by De la Salle,  <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">work at Paris,  <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vow of dedication, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Articles of rules for the Society,  <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laymen appointed in preference to priests,  <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the five vows and rule of daily life, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manuals for their guidance,  <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions of punishment,  <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">success of the work, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished during the Reign of Terror,  <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revived under Napoleon, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discouragements,  <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Our Duties towards Ourselves,  <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morals,  <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Freedom of Labour, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gregory on Competition,  <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Political Duties,  <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cross of honour awarded after the Prussian invasion,  <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scholarships gained,  <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Church and State, 2<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Hartington's loyalty, 3</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imputation on the Tories, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberationist tactics, 4, 7</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Gladstone's manifesto, 5, 6</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances of the Liberation Society, 8, 9</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scottish subscriptions, 10</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Welsh Nonconformists, 11</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of Democracy, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberation leaflets, 13-16</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cost of 'voluntary schools,' 16</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pope Gelasius on tithes, 17</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Church in Wales and London, 18-21</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of adult baptisms, 21</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. G. Rogers on Disendowment, 22</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 'Radical programme,' 23, 24</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bp. Magee on Disestablishment, 25</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">M. Scherer on Democracy, 27</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the question of inequality, 28</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history and effects of Establishment, 29</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misstatements, 30</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spiritual influence, 31</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">example of the United States, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of the voluntary system, 32, 33</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denominational rivalry, 34</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Bancroft on the Church in Virginia, 35</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">danger of rashness in any change, 36</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">control in the Dissenting Church, 37</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">case of Jones <i>v.</i> Stannard, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[Pg 583]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rev. H. Batchelor's sermon, 38</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease of Baptist and Congregational pastors, 39</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Bp. of Rochester's estimate of the parishes that would suffer, 40</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bp. of Derry's experience, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Cid, the, Poem of, 46.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> 'Don&nbsp; Quixote.'</span><br />
+<br />
+Clement, St., compared to Ignatius,  <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Colonies, the British. <i>See</i> Travels in British Empire.<br />
+<br />
+Cond&eacute;, the House of, 80<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of Henri, the third Prince, 81</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">married to Charlotte de Montmorency, 82</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">avidity for wealth, 83</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">applies for a bishopric for his infant son, 84</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Richelieu's reply, 85</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment, 85-89</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joined by his wife, 89</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">birth of his son Duc d'Anguien, 90</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his education, 91-93</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at the Military Coll., Paris, 94</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of Burgundy, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his child-bride, 95</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment at Vincennes, 96</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first campaign, 97</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Richelieu's domination, 98</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts for his safety, 99</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of the Cardinal-Archb., <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">changes on Richelieu's death, 100</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his appearance described, 101</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military talents, 102</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">generals, 103</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal courage, 104.</span><br />
+<br />
+Constitution, English,  <a href='#Page_518'>518</a> <i>sqq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Cowper, Lord, his letter on supporting the Land-Act of 1881, 277.<br />
+<br />
+Cromwell, Oliver:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character illustrated by himself,  <a href='#Page_414'>414</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">received version of the Insurrection of March, 1655,  <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting at Marston Moor, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack on Salisbury,  <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">endeavours to stimulate an insurrection,  <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">counsels of false friends,  <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">secret agents,  <a href='#Page_420'>420</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intercepted letter to Mr. Roles,  <a href='#Page_420'>420</a> <i>note</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earl of Rochester and his comrades land at Dover,  <a href='#Page_421'>421</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrested and released,  <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>,  <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morton, the sham-Royalist,  <a href='#Page_424'>424</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Douthwaite's movements, suspected,  <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>,  <a href='#Page_425'>425</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Judges refuse to try the Marston Moor prisoners,  <a href='#Page_428'>428</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trial of Salisbury insurgents,  <a href='#Page_427'>427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">twelve Major-Generals, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Declaration' to secure the Peace of the Commonwealth,  <a href='#Page_428'>428</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">projects of the Royalists in March, 1655,  <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">officers and soldiers kept from Salisbury,  <a href='#Page_430'>430</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Major Butler forbidden to take active operations, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his account of the dispersal of the Royalists at Marston Moor,  <a href='#Page_432'>432</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alleged 'rendezvous' of Royalists to surprise Newcastle,  <a href='#Page_433'>433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Rufford Abbey incident, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shropshire insurrection,  <a href='#Page_434'>434</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pickering's story about Chester Castle, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earl of Rochester and Armourer arrested at Aylesbury,  <a href='#Page_435'>435</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their escape,  <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">power of deception,  <a href='#Page_437'>437</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 'Thurloe Papers,' <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incredulity of the members of his Parliament,  <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motive for the fabrication of the Insurrection,  <a href='#Page_439'>439</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech on the dissolution of Parliament in Jan. 1655,  <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carlyle's false image of the Hero,  <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">claims the Divine sanction,  <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+D.<br />
+<br />
+Dalley, Mr., of Sidney, on a better organization of the Navy for the Colonies.<br />
+<i>See</i> Travels.<br />
+<br />
+Darwin's view of primitive human society, 182.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Patriarchal Theory.</span><br />
+<br />
+Davitt, Mr., on Irish landlords, 292.<br />
+<br />
+Democracy, M. Scherer on, 2<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of,  <a href='#Page_518'>518</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its tendency to despotism,  <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. G. White on English aristocracy and American democracy,  <a href='#Page_523'>523</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its tolerance of oppression,  <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Godkin on American politics,  <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of, in the Spanish and Portuguese States,  <a href='#Page_527'>527</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political aim of the Reign of Terror,  <a href='#Page_528'>528</a>,  <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">real meaning of equality,  <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Bagehot's views,  <a href='#Page_532'>532</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universal and varied representation,  <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence exercised by hereditary Princes and aristocracies,  <a href='#Page_535'>535</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">errors of George III.'s reign,  <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal education, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Constitutional Monarchy,  <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Vigilance Committee' in California,  <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strikes in Pennsylvania,  <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of the English Poor Law,  <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irish famine,  <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belgian riots,  <a href='#Page_532'>532</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American charity,  <a href='#Page_543'>543</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Democracy, 11, 25.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Church.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dibdin, Mr., on the present features of Establishment, 29.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Church.</span><br />
+<br />
+'Don Quixote,' Mr. Ormsby's, 43<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ignorance of Spanish literature in England, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a key to the history of Europe, 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">popularity of the work, 46</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">translations, 47-49</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dor&eacute;'s illustrations, 50</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proverbs, 51, 52</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opening of the 2nd Part, 53</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emendations, 54</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Life of Cervantes,' 58</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his personal history little known, 59</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early years, 61</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Rome, and at the battle of Lepanto, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prisoner in Algiers, 62</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberated, 63</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage, 64</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collector of revenue at Granada, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life in Madrid, 65</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 66</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 584]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">no known portrait of him, 67</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">describes his own features, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theories for the popularity of his work, 68-71</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">broad humour, 71</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chivalry, 72</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C. Kingsley's opinion, 73</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">madness of the knight, 74</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sancho's character, 76</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ordinances for good government, 78.</span><br />
+<br />
+D&ouml;rpfeld, on the method of lighting at Tiryns, 122.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Tiryns.</span><br />
+<br />
+Doyle, Sir F., translation of the Olympian Ode, 178.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pindar.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+E.<br />
+<br />
+Education, royal,  <a href='#Page_536'>536</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious, in France. <i>See</i> Christian Brothers.</span><br />
+<br />
+Eusebius. <i>See</i> Apostolic Fathers.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+F.<br />
+<br />
+Fergusson, Mr. J., on lighting the Parthenon, 123.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Tiryns.</span><br />
+<br />
+France, primary schools of,  <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Christian Brothers.</span><br />
+<br />
+Froude, J. A., his 'Oceana, or England and her Colonies,'  <a href='#Page_443'>443</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">our responsibility with the Boers,  <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Free Trade,  <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">love of 'old home' in the Colonies,  <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Travels.</span><br />
+<br />
+Fustel de Coulanges, M., his 'Recherches sur quelques probl&egrave;mes d'Histoire',<br />
+187.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+G.<br />
+<br />
+Gaius, the Commentaries of, found by Niebuhr, 183.<br />
+<br />
+Gasparin, Comte Agenor, on the titles of landowners, &amp;c., 17.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Church.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gildersleeve, Prof., his contribution to Pindaric literature, 161, <i>note</i>.<br />
+<br />
+Gladstone, Mr., his manifesto on Church Establishment, 5<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ambiguity, 6</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preparations for Home Rule in 1882, 261</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enigmatical replies, 263</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'healing measures' for Ireland, 265</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his 'Divine light' and Irish policy, 266</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coercions and concessions, 268</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech at Leeds, 273 belief in him, 275</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Irish question, 275, 276</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign policy, 281</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the advances of Russia, 282, 283.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gladstone-Morley Administration, the,  <a href='#Page_544'>544</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the two 'Orders' for the Irish Parliament,  <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voting power of the Nationalists,  <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Gladstone's appeal to Southport in  1867,  <a href='#Page_547'>547</a>-549</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolition of Irish Establishment,  <a href='#Page_549'>549</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Home Rule Association denounced at Aberdeen, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Butt on Home Rule,  <a href='#Page_550'>550</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Beaconsfield's warning in 1880,  <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Compensation for Disturbance Bill, and a Coercion Act, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Land League dissolved, Mr. Parnell and its leaders in jail,  <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Forster's exertions,  <a href='#Page_553'>553</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Spencer's responsibilities, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the National League, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal of Mr. Clifford Lloyd and Mr. Trevelyan,  <a href='#Page_554'>554</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">delay in renewing the Crimes Act, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declarations of Imperial unity,  <a href='#Page_555'>555</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. C. Bannerman on the Parnellite demands,  <a href='#Page_556'>556</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Hartington's protestation, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Gladstone's telegram denying the scheme as sketched in the Press,  <a href='#Page_557'>557</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Chamberlain's denial of being a party to it, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declaration of Lord Salisbury's Government to maintain the Union,  <a href='#Page_558'>558</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. J. Collings's motion, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new Ministry,  <a href='#Page_559'>559</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. J. Morley's appointment; his inexperience,  <a href='#Page_560'>560</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system of guarantees,  <a href='#Page_561'>561</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evictions,  <a href='#Page_562'>562</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">example of the French peasantry,  <a href='#Page_563'>563</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">power of the National League,  <a href='#Page_563'>563</a>,  <a href='#Page_564'>564</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instance of Farrell and Shee, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">election to local public offices, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Lecky on the National League,  <a href='#Page_566'>566</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy of the Irish priests,  <a href='#Page_567'>567</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archbp. Walsh,  <a href='#Page_567'>567</a>,  <a href='#Page_568'>568</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provision for Irish judges,  <a href='#Page_568'>568</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">our responsibilities to Ireland,  <a href='#Page_569'>569</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irish nationality,  <a href='#Page_570'>570</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population,  <a href='#Page_571'>571</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compared to Norway and Hungary,  <a href='#Page_572'>572</a>-574</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deficient resources of Ireland,  <a href='#Page_575'>575</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Jennings on an Irish Parliament,  <a href='#Page_577'>577</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Land Purchase Bill,  <a href='#Page_579'>579</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Goschen, Mr., his 'Hearing, Reading, Thinking,'  <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Books.</span><br />
+<br />
+Grant White, Mr. R., his sketches of English and American Life,  <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grosseteste's Letters,  <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+H.<br />
+<br />
+Hahn, F. von, on Roman Law, 187.<br />
+<br />
+Hallam's 'Hist. of the Middle Ages,' ignorance of English Monasticism,  <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Harcourt, Sir William, his prophecy about the Tory party, 261.<br />
+<br />
+Hardy, Sir T. Duffus, on the Madden Hypothesis,  <a href='#Page_301'>301</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the St. Albans Scriptorium,  <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Harnack, Dr. on episcopacy,  <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>-486.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Apostolic Fathers.</span><br />
+<br />
+Harrison, Mr., 'Choice of Books',  <a href='#Page_507'>507</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hartington, Lord, on Disestablishment, 3<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Law of the Land League, 267</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">no warning being given of the proposed legislation for Ireland, 556.</span><br />
+<br />
+Haxthausen, Baron von, on Slavonic and Russian society, 193-195.<br />
+<br />
+Historians of Greece and Rome, their superficial area,  <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Historical Commission, the, publication of the House of Lords MSS., 242.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Lords.</span><br />
+<br />
+Home Rulers, increased strength of, 260.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Parliament, Gladstone, &amp;c.</span><br />
+<br />
+Homicides, number in New York,  <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Horses, breed of, upheld in Hellas, 159.<br />
+<br />
+d'Houditot, Gen. C., tribute to his memory by the Duc d'Aumale, 107.<br />
+<br />
+H&uuml;bner, Baron, his 'Through the British Empire,'  <a href='#Page_444'>444</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the disadvantage of complete independence to the Australian Colonist,  <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Boers in Africa,  <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">idea of a grand confederation,  <a href='#Page_450'>450</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Civil Service of India,  <a href='#Page_452'>452</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devotion and daily labours of the officials,  <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">no desire for self-government,  <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Socialism and Atheism,  <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the native Press,  <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity,  <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his adventure in New York,  <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hughes, Mr., on the voluntary system in the United States, 32.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+I.<br />
+<br />
+Iddesleigh, Earl of, address to the Students at Edinburgh,  <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ignatian Epistles, the Bp. of Durham on the,  <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Apostolic Fathers.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ignatius, meaning of his name,  <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Indemnity, the Act of, 249.<br />
+<br />
+India, our administrations of,  <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Italy, the Popular Banks of, 152.<br />
+<br />
+Ireland. <i>See</i> Gladstone-Morley, Land Bill, National League.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+J.<br />
+<br />
+Jennings, Mr., on an Irish Parliament,  <a href='#Page_577'>577</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Gladstone-Morley.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+K.<br />
+<br />
+Killigrew, Tom, Charles II.'s representative at Venice,  <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>,  <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+L.<br />
+<br />
+Labour trade in the Pacific,  <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Laing, Mr., his 'Journal of a Residence in Norway during 1834, 35 and 36,'<br />
+384.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Yeomen Farmers.</span><br />
+<br />
+Land Bill, the, for Ireland, effect of it, 278<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress in Scotland and Wales, 279.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Parliament.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lewis, Sir G. C., his practical philosophy,  <a href='#Page_519'>519</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an eminent statesman,  <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distrustful of electoral reform,  <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Conservatism,  <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Liberal Press, the, activity of, 257.<br />
+<br />
+Liberation Society, the, financial report of, 8, 9<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its ability and skill, 11</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its publications, 13-16.</span><br />
+<br />
+'Liberator,' the, on Mr. Gladstone's ambiguity, 7.<br />
+<br />
+Lords, the, and Popular Rights, 239<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vague accusations, 241</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of the House of Lords MSS., 242</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards constitutional freedom, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moderate counsels and religious toleration, 242, 252</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">important position in the early years of Charles I., 244</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals and petitions, 244-246</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extensive jurisdiction, 246</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protection of private rights, 247</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intervention for peace, 248</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Restoration, 249</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Acts of Indemnity, &amp;c., <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restitution of property, 250, 251</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">execution of Vane, 251</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Act of Uniformity, 252</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Five Mile Act, 253</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposed to the re-establishment of Popery, 254</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Declaration of Indulgence and the Test Act, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advantage of the bicameral system, 255</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excesses of the House of Commons, 255, 256.</span><br />
+<br />
+Luard, Dr., his edition of Cotton's Chronicle,  <a href='#Page_299'>299</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Letters of Robert Grosseteste,'  <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Chronica Majora,'  <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the St. Alban's School of History,  <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lubbock, Sir John, his list of books for reading,  <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>,  <a href='#Page_505'>505</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+M.<br />
+<br />
+Maclay, Mr. Miklaho, his reception in New Guinea,  <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Travels.</span><br />
+<br />
+Madden, Sir F., Hypothesis about the 'Historia Minor,'  <a href='#Page_301'>301</a><br />
+<br />
+Magee, Bp., on Disestablishment, 25.<br />
+<br />
+Mahaffy Mr., on the destruction of Tiryns and Mycen&aelig;, 114.<br />
+<br />
+Maill&eacute;-Br&eacute;ze, Clemence de, her marriage with Cond&eacute;, 95<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heads an insurrection in his favour, 96</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisoned for life at Ch&acirc;teauroux, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Maine, Sir H. S., on the lowering effect of democracy, 12<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">describes the Patriarchal Theory, 182</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on monogamy, 206.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Patriarchal.</span><br />
+<br />
+Maitland, Dr., his 'Essays on the Dark Ages,'  <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mayne, Mr. J. D., his article on the Patriarchal Theory, 190.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a></span>Mezger, Prof. F., his '<i>Pindar's Siegeslieder</i>,' 163.<br />
+<br />
+Milton on the Ignatian Epistles,  <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monachism, British, in the 13th century,  <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Paris, Matthew.</span><br />
+<br />
+Monasteries at end of 13th century,  <a href='#Page_304'>304</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">popularity,  <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farming and pisciculture,  <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a place of refuge,  <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Monod, G., on the policy of the late Chamber in France,  <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <i>note</i>.<br />
+<br />
+Morgan, Mr. L. E., on 'group marriage,' 205.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Patriarchal Theory.</span><br />
+<br />
+Morice, Rev. F. D., his 'Pindar for English Readers, 156.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pindar.</span><br />
+<br />
+Morley, Mr. J. <i>See</i> Gladstone-Morley.<br />
+<br />
+Mortgages &amp; Bills of Exchange, 139.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+N.<br />
+<br />
+National League, the,  <a href='#Page_563'>563</a>-565.<br />
+<br />
+---- Records, the, Commission for methodizing and digesting, 295.<br />
+<br />
+Navy, the, and the Colonies,  <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Norway, the Bank of,  <a href='#Page_400'>400</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">State Mortgage Bank, and Savings Bank,  <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Yeomen.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+O.<br />
+<br />
+Oldham, business record of the co-operative spinners for 1885, 285.<br />
+<br />
+Ormsby, Mr., his 'Don Quixote,' 43<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Poem of the Cid,' 46.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+P.<br />
+<br />
+Pacific Islands. <i>See</i> Romilly, Travels.<br />
+<br />
+Paris, Mathew,  <a href='#Page_293'>293</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early years,  <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a monk at St. Alban's,  <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various accomplishments, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Norway,  <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">succeeds Roger of Wendover as historiographer, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">utilizes facts and documents,  <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lashes the enemies of the abbey,  <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his denunciations of the Pope,  <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>,  <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anecdotes,  <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omens and portents, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weather reports, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Parliament, the New, 257<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">activity of the Liberal press, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Radicalism based on pure ignorance, 258</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Chamberlain's bribe to the rural voters, 258, 259</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state of parties in 1880 and 1885, 260</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Home Rulers, 261</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Gladstone and Home Rule in 1882, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Salisbury's remarks on it, 262</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 'Quarterly Review' of Jan. 1882, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the scheme of separation and two Parliaments, 264</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Gladstone's 'healing measures' for Ireland, 265-268</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sir J. Stephen on the Irish Parliament, 269</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English capital in Ireland, 271</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Davitt on landlordism, 272</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parnell on Home Rule, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissentients in the press, 276</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'strenuous policy' of the American war, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Cowper on the Land Act of 1881, 277</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinions on the Land Bill, 278</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its progress in Scotland and Wales, 279</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. G. Smith on concession, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">good effect of Lord Salisbury's accession to power, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tone of European opinion, 280</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Gladstone's foreign policy, 281</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prince Bismark's opinion of great orators, 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russian advances, 282, 283</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state of trade, 284</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the co-operative spinners of Oldham, 285</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indifference of the Liberals, 286</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new channel for trade in Burma, 286, 287</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of a German Syndicate, 288</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discordant element of the Liberal party, 290, 291.</span><br />
+<br />
+Parnell, Mr., on national independence, 267<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protective tariffs, 270</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">private property, 271</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Home Rule, 272</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encomium on Mr. Gladstone,  <a href='#Page_544'>544</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Patriarchal Theory, the, 181<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Sir H. Maine, 182</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darwin's view, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Patria Potestas and Agnation, 185</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analogy in England, 186</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Teutonic and Roman families, 187</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salic Law, 188</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">family system of the Hindus, 189</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agnates and Cognates, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. J. D. Maynes's article, 190</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious origin of Civil law, 191</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahommedan law, 191, 192</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system among the Arabian tribes, 192</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Slavonic and Russian society, 193-195</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legend of Queen Libussa, 196</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejection of Roman law, 198</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maternal uncles and nephews, 200</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">want of history with savages, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theory of the origin and growth of the Family, 201</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hordes and their Totems, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">infanticide, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fewness of women, 202</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">female descents, 203</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exogamy, 204</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Polyandry, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two schools of 'agriologists,' 205</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sir H. Maine on monogamy, 206</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darwin on the habits of primitive men, 207</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancestor worship, 208.</span><br />
+<br />
+Peddie, Mr. Dick on Liberationist Literature, 10.<br />
+<br />
+Pegu, annexation of, 227.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Burma.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pentecost, Dr. G. F., on Denominational rivalry in America, 34.<br />
+<br />
+Phayre, Sir A., his works on Burma, 210<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wise ministration in Pegu, 228.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pindar's Odes of Victory, 156<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reverence paid to him, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imperfectly comprehended, 157</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Voltaire's opinion, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the English and the ancient Greek mind, 158</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public games, 159</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olympic festivals, 160</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constructive skill of the Odes, 161</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prof. Mezger's work, 163</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names of the members of the Terpandrian nome, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structural phenomena, 165</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fifth Isthmian Ode, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">innovation in the structure, 169</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">word-pictures, 170</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reference to architecture, 171-173</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structure, 173, 174</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">turgidity and bombast explained, 175</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">main source of obscurity, 176</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the love of Apollo and Cyrene, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the genius of Pindar and Bossuet compared, 178</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his human sympathies, 180.</span><br />
+<br />
+Polycarp, St. <i>See</i> Apostolic Fathers.<br />
+<br />
+Poor Law, the English, its value,  <a href='#Page_540'>540</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway,  <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Democracy.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+R.<br />
+<br />
+'Radical Programme,' the, 23.<br />
+<br />
+Radicalism based on ignorance, 258.<br />
+<br />
+Rae, Mr. George, 'The Country Banker,' 133.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Banker.</span><br />
+<br />
+Rangoon founded, 222.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Burma.</span><br />
+<br />
+Religious Schools in England,  <a href='#Page_344'>344</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tables of Accommodation,  <a href='#Page_345'>345</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Registers, attendance, and voluntary contributions,  <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Training Colleges,  <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diocesan Inspection,  <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">schools visited in 1884,  <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expense of education, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of gratuitous elementary education,  <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Revue Contemporaine</i>, the, on Lord Salisbury's accession to power, 280.<br />
+Richelieu, Cardinal.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Cond&eacute;.</span><br />
+<br />
+Riley, Mr., his 'Chronica Monasterii Sancti Albani,'  <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rochester, Bishop of, his estimate of the number of parishes which would<br />
+suffer from Disendowment, 40.<br />
+<br />
+Rogers, Mr. Guinness, on the good work of the Church, 22.<br />
+<br />
+Romilly, Sir John, of the Rolls,  <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposal for the publication of the 'Rolls Series,'  <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+----, Mr., his 'Western Pacific and New Guinea,'  <a href='#Page_445'>445</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cannibalism,  <a href='#Page_459'>459</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Solomon Islands,  <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a sorcerer,  <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the ladies of Laughlan Islands,  <a href='#Page_463'>463</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">describes a fine pearl,  <a href='#Page_464'>464</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">labour trade, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Bully Hayes,'  <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Travels.</span><br />
+<br />
+Russia, advances of, in Asia, 282<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of allotments upon the emancipated serfs,  <a href='#Page_411'>411</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall in value of cereals, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'redemption' dues,  <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peasant Land Banks,  <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+S.<br />
+<br />
+Sagredo, Giovanni, his mission from Venice to Cromwell,  <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Salisbury, Lord, on the Home Rulers, 262.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Parliament.</span><br />
+<br />
+Salle, J. B. de la,  <a href='#Page_325'>325</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canon of the Cathedral of Rheims,  <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes charge of an orphanage for girls,  <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patron of other schools,  <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spends his fortune on the poor,  <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prayer for guidance, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founder of the Christian Brothers,  <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his self-dedication,  <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">success of his work,  <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death,  <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Scherer, M., on Democracy, 11, 27.<br />
+<br />
+Schliemann, Dr. H. <i>See</i> Tiryns.<br />
+<br />
+Schmidt, C. A., on Roman Law, 187.<br />
+<br />
+Scottish Council, its contribution to the Liberation Society, 10.<br />
+<br />
+Senior, Nassau, W., 'Correspondence and Conversations of A. de Tocqueville,'  <a href='#Page_518'>518</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his intimate acquaintance with French statesmen,  <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the English Poor Law,  <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Irish famine,  <a href='#Page_541'>541</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Democracy.</span><br />
+<br />
+Smith, Mr. Goldwin, on concession in Ireland, 279.<br />
+<br />
+----, Rev. G. Vance, on the control exercised in Dissenting churches, 37.<br />
+<br />
+Spain. <i>See</i> Don Quixote.<br />
+<br />
+Stephen, Sir James, on an Irish Parliament, 269.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Parliament.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+T.<br />
+<br />
+Theebau, King, atrocities at the beginning of his reign, 228.<br />
+<br />
+Tiryns, Schliemann's 108<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the excavations mainly architectural, 110</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the plain of Argolis, 111</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">site of the citadel, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, 113</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Mahaffy's theory, 114</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">style of pottery, 116</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">upper citadel, 117</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrangements of the palace, 118</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">propyl&aelig;um, 120</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">men's forecourt, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">portico, 121</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">megaron and hearth, 122</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">basilican lighting, 123</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bath-room, 124</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women's apartments, 125</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cyanus frieze, 127</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cyclopean walls, 128</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ph&oelig;nician origin asserted by D&ouml;rpfeld, 129</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek architecture, 130, 131</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">date of the fall, 132.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tocqueville, M. Alexis de, 'Democracy in America,'  <a href='#Page_518'>518</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his practical wisdom,  <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conservatism,  <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rose-coloured portrait of democracy,  <a href='#Page_527'>527</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his <i>Ancien R&eacute;gime</i>,  <a href='#Page_528'>528</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the distinction between noble and <i>roturier</i>,  <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>&Eacute;galite</i>,  <a href='#Page_531'>531</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Travels in the British Empire,  <a href='#Page_443'>443</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonial Federation,  <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">better organization of the Navy,  <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the American Revolution,  <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">no desire for separation in our Colonists,  <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cape Colony, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its treatment from England,  <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions and prospects of trade,  <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Free Trade,  <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>,  <a href='#Page_450'>450</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers of aid in the Egyptian war,  <a href='#Page_450'>450</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">love of 'old home,'  <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">purity of language, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India and its Civil Service,  <a href='#Page_452'>452</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Ripon's endeavours to promote 'self-government,'  <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Ilbert Bill,  <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Radical ideas of dismemberment, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native press of India,  <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of British India,  <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cannibalism in New Ireland,  <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of children in the Solomon Islands,  <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sorcerers,  <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">David Dow, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Admiralty, Laughlan, Thursday, and Norfolk Islands,  <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>-463</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the labour trade,  <a href='#Page_464'>464</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Bully Hayes,'  <a href='#Page_465'>465</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial importance of the Australian Colonies,  <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+U.<br />
+<br />
+Uniformity, Act of, 252.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Lords.</span><br />
+<br />
+United States, National Banks of the, 150.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Banker.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+V.<br />
+<br />
+Venetian Republic, Archives of the,  <a href='#Page_356'>356</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their preservation and order,  <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution and the Great Council,  <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Senate or Pregadi,  <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Zonta, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collegio or Cabinet of Ministers,  <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Savii, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ducal Councillors,  <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Doge,  <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">election of,  <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>,  <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Council of Ten,  <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political training of the nobles,  <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Ducal, Secret, and Inferior Chancelleries,  <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>,  <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>,  <a href='#Page_371'>371</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duties of the Grand Chancellor,  <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">College of Secretaries, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Senatorial papers,  <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Relazioni,  <a href='#Page_373'>373</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paullizzi's despatches,  <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sagredo's mission to Cromwell,  <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diplomatic connection with England, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Collegio and the Lettere Principi,  <a href='#Page_377'>377</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">curious document of one Charles Dudley,  <a href='#Page_378'>378</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters from James Stuart, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Espozione Principi,' <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reception of Lord Northampton,  <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>-482</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tom Killigrew's expedient,  <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Verney, Lady, 'Cottier-owners and Peasant Proprietors,'  <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <i>note</i>.<br />
+<br />
+Villemain, M., his comparison of the genius of Pindar and Bossuet, 178.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+W.<br />
+<br />
+Wales, the Church in, 18-21.<br />
+<br />
+Water Companies of London, oppressive and insolent exactions,  <a href='#Page_524'>524</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wendover, Roger of, a monkish historiographer,  <a href='#Page_314'>314</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at St. Albans,  <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>,  <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Westphal, R., his examination of the Choric Odes of &AElig;schylus, 163.<br />
+<br />
+Wotton, Sir H., goes to Scotland from Venice to warn James VI. of a  design on
+his life,  <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Y.<br />
+<br />
+Yeomen Farmers in Norway,  <a href='#Page_384'>384</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of peasant proprietors in  1834,  <a href='#Page_385'>385</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the <i>Odels ret</i>, or Allodial Right, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of land,  <a href='#Page_386'>386</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life on the <i>S&oelig;ters</i>,  <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">private distillation of spirits prohibited,  <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pauperism, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">illegitimacy,  <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the agrarian class permanently represented in the Storthing,  <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attraction of the rural population to towns,  <a href='#Page_392'>392</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rate of wages,  <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railways, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress and ornaments,  <a href='#Page_394'>394</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of money, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of properties,  <a href='#Page_395'>395</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increasing subdivisions of land,  <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>,  <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creation of <i>Myrm&aelig;nd</i> in South Trondhjem,  <a href='#Page_397'>397</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of American competition in corn, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absence of good economy,  <a href='#Page_399'>399</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fare of the rural population, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heavy indebtedness of the farmers,  <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Banks and Savings Banks,  <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>-402</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sales of real property for debt,  <a href='#Page_403'>403</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">primitive condition of agriculture,  <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heavy and increasing charges on landed properties,  <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Poor Relief, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase of paupers,  <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>,  <a href='#Page_408'>408</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emigration, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political agitators,  <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church Disestablishment, <i>ib.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hereditary nobility abolished,  <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>, <i>note</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of subdivision of land in Norway, &amp;c.,  <a href='#Page_410'>410</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lady Verney on peasant proprietors,  <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <i>note</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>END OF THE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME.</h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No.
+324, April, 1886, by Various
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324,
+April, 1886, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No. 324, April, 1886
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26439]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK QUARTERLY REVIEW, APRIL, 1886 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+QUARTERLY REVIEW.
+
+NO. CCCXXIV. APRIL, 1886. VOL. CLXII.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+
+I. Matthew Parish
+
+II. The Christian Brothers.--Religious Schools in France and England.
+
+III. Archives of the Venetian Republic.
+
+IV. Yeomen Farmers in Norway.
+
+V. Oliver Cromwell: his character illustrated by himself.
+
+VI. Travels in the British Empire.
+
+VII. The Bishop of Durham on the Ignatian Epistles.
+
+VIII. Books and Reading.
+
+IX. Characteristics of Democracy.
+
+X. The Gladstone-Morley Administration.
+
+
+PHILADELPHIA:
+LEONARD SCOTT PUBLICATION COMPANY,
+1104 WALNUT STREET.
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+LEONARD SCOTT PUBLICATION CO'S.,
+
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+
+Single Copies for sale by the following Dealers in Cities named:
+
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+CHICAGO, ILL.,         Brentano Bros.,          101 State St.
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+HALIFAX, NOVA SCO.,    T. C. Allen & Co.,       124 Granville St.
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+NEW ORLEANS, LA.,      Geo. F. Wharton & Bro.,  5 Carondelet St.
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+PHILADELPHIA, PA.,     Leonard Scott Pub. Co.,  1104 Walnut St.
+PROVIDENCE, R. I.,     S. S. Rider.
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+SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.,   J. C. Scott.             22 Third St.
+ST. JOHN, N. B.,       A. & J. McMillan.        98 Prince William St.
+ST. LOUIS, MO.,        St. Louis News Co.,
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+VICTORIA, BR. COL.,    T. H. Hibben & Co.,      Masonic Building.
+WASHINGTON, D. C.,     Brentano Bros.,          1015 Penna. Av.
+
+_Annual Subscriptions Received by all Booksellers and Newsdealers._
+
+
+THE LEONARD SCOTT PUB. CO.,
+1104 WALNUT STREET.
+PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF NO. 324.
+
+
+Art.                                                              Page
+
+I.--Matthaei Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica
+Majora. Edited by Henry Richards Luard, D.D., Fellow of
+Trinity College, Registrary of the University, and Vicar of
+Great St. Mary's Cambridge. Published by the Authority of
+the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, under the
+direction of the Master of the Rolls. 7 vols. 8vo. London,
+Vol I. 1872--Vol. VII. 1883.                                       293
+
+
+II.--1. The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work, with
+a sketch of the Life of their Founder, The Venerable Jean
+Baptiste de la Salle. By Mrs. R. F. Wilson. London, 1883.
+
+2. La Premiere Annee d'Instruction Morale et Civique:
+notions de droit et d'economie politique (Textes et Recits)
+pour repondre a la loi du 28 Mars 1882 sur l'enseignement
+primaire obligatoire: ouvrage accompagne de Resume, de
+Questionnaires, de Devoirs, et d'un Lexique des mots
+difficiles. Par Pierre Laloi. Quatorzieme Edition. Paris,
+1885.
+
+3. Report of the Committee of Council on Education (England
+and Wales). 1884-85.
+
+4. Seventy-fourth Annual Report of the Incorporated National
+Society. 1885.                                                     325
+
+
+III.--The State Papers of the Venetian Republic; namely,
+Cancelleria Inferiore, Cancelleria Ducale, Cancelleria
+Secreta, preserved in the Convent of the Frari, at Venice.
+                                                                   356
+
+
+IV.--1. Journal of a Residence in Norway during the years
+1834, 1835, and 1836. By Samuel Laing, Esq. London, 1837.
+
+2. Le Royaume de Norvege et le Peuple Norvegien. Par le Dr.
+O. I. Broch. Christiania, 1878.
+
+3. Official Reports of Prefects on the Economic Condition of
+the Provinces of Norway in 1876-80. Christiania, 1884.
+
+4. Publications of the Statistical Bureau Christiania.             384
+
+
+V.--A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq.;
+Secretary, first to the Council of State, and afterwards to
+the Two Protectors, Oliver and Richard Cromwell. In Seven
+Volumes, containing authentic Memorials of the English
+affairs from the year 1638 to the Restoration of King
+Charles II. Vol. III. London, 1742.                                414
+
+
+VI.--1. Oceana, or England and her Colonies. By James
+Anthony Froude. London, 1886.
+
+2. Through the British Empire. By Baron von Huebner. 2. vols.
+London, 1886.
+
+3. The Western Pacific and New Guinea. By Hugh Hastings
+Romilly, Deputy Commissioner of the Western Pacific. London,
+1886.                                                              443
+
+
+VII.--The Apostolic Fathers: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp.
+Revised Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and
+Translations. By J. B. Lightfoot, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
+Bishop of Durham. London, 1885. 2 vols.                            467
+
+
+VIII.--1. An Address delivered to the Students of Edinburgh
+University on Nov. 3, 1885. By the Earl of Iddesleigh, Lord
+Rector of the University of Edinburgh.
+
+2. Hearing, Reading and Thinking: an address to the Students
+attending the Lectures of the London Society for the
+Extension of University Teaching. By the Rt. Hon. G. J.
+Goschen, M.P.
+
+3. The Choice of Books and other Literary Pieces. By
+Frederic Harrison. London, 1886.                                   501
+
+
+IX.--1. Popular Government. Four Essays. By Sir Henry Sumner
+Maine. Second Edition. London, 1886.
+
+2. Democracy in America. By Alexis de Tocqueville.
+Translated by Henry Reeve. New Edition. London, 1862.
+
+3. On the State of Society in France before the Revolution
+of 1789. Translated by Henry Reeve. Second Edition. London,
+1873.                                                              518
+
+And other Works.
+
+
+X.--1. Fourth Midlothian Campaign. Political Speeches
+delivered, November, 1885, by the Right Hon. W. E.
+Gladstone, M.P. Edinburgh, 1886.
+
+2. John Morley: The Irish Record of the New Chief Secretary,
+1886.
+
+3. Ireland: A Book of Light on the Irish Problem. Edited by
+Andrew Reid. London, 1886.                                         544
+
+And other Works.
+
+
+
+
+ART. I.--_Matthaei Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica Majora._
+Edited by Henry Richards Luard, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
+Registrary of the University, and Vicar of Great St. Mary's, Cambridge.
+Published by the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's
+Treasury, under the direction of the Master of the Rolls. 7 vols. 8vo.
+London, Vol. I. 1872--Vol. VII. 1883.
+
+
+Some of our readers are not likely yet to have forgotten the remarkable
+essay which the late Professor Brewer contributed to our pages in 1871,
+and which has since been reprinted in the volume of 'English Studies,'
+published shortly after the author's death in 1879. English History owes
+a larger debt to few men of our time than it owes to Mr. Brewer. As a
+teacher whose pupils were always eager to listen to all that fell from
+his lips, and whose enthusiasm never failed to awake a kindred spark in
+the minds of those who looked to him for light in dark places and
+guidance along tortuous paths of research, Mr. Brewer has had few
+equals, and perhaps has left no successor who can compare with him. As a
+writer he was always brilliant, lucid, and vigorous, and his unrivalled
+'Introductions' to the Calendars of Letters and Papers, concerned with
+the reign of Henry VIII., will long continue to be read by all students
+of our History, as necessary and indispensable interpreters of the vast
+storehouses of original documents which he did so much to rescue from
+the oblivion or obscurity to which they had previously been consigned.
+But it was as an organizer of research that Mr. Brewer earned his
+greatest fame and achieved his greatest success, and it was to him more
+than to any one man, to his immense persistence in urging upon the
+powers that be a more generous freedom of access to our Records, and to
+his prodigious powers of work in arranging and tabulating the enormous
+masses of documents of all kinds which constitute the _Apparatus_ of
+English History, that this country stands indebted, and will remain
+indebted as long as our literature lasts.
+
+In the Essay on 'New Sources of English History' the learned author has
+given us a startling account of the deplorable condition into which some
+of the most precious of our national manuscripts had been allowed to
+fall--of the utterly chaotic state of our depositories--of the
+hopelessness, the despair which must needs have come upon one student
+after another who might be fortunate enough to be turned loose into the
+various prison-houses of our muniments--and of the efforts made, and
+happily at last made with splendid success, to cleanse the Augean
+stable, and to let the world know something of the wealth it contained.
+With characteristic modesty Mr. Brewer said nothing of his own part in
+all that laborious and sagacious organization which resulted in our
+obtaining the magnificent _Calendars_, which have opened out to us all
+'that new world which is the old' that had become almost forgotten or
+unknown. He was not the man to assert himself, he knew that posterity
+would give him his due, but with a simple desire to stimulate research,
+and to show how much remained to be done, and how much to be discovered
+and made known, he drew the attention of his readers chiefly and
+primarily to the value of the Calendars, and to the important results
+which those Calendars had already produced, and were destined to produce
+hereafter. He had quite enough to say upon this point, and if his life
+had been spared, it is probable that he would eventually have given us a
+more comprehensive account of the series of volumes which, though now
+issuing from the press _pari passu_ with the Calendars, were originally
+undertaken a little later. Such an Essay by such a master would indeed
+have been an important aid to the student, but at the time of Mr.
+Brewer's lamented death the day had hardly come for such a _resume_; and
+even now, though so much has been achieved, so much and so well, the
+hour has hardly arrived nor the man for taking a comprehensive survey,
+and giving to the public an intelligent and intelligible account of that
+other Library of Chronicles, and biographies, and letters, and
+cartularies, and those other memorials of the Middle Ages in England,
+which it is to be feared are hardly as well known as they ought to be,
+nor as widely studied as they deserve.
+
+Meanwhile it is high time that attention should be drawn to that noble
+series of volumes now issuing from the press under the editorship of
+scholars whose reputation is assured, and whose work continues to
+enhance their reputation--high time that we should begin to do something
+like justice to the labourers, who have deserved so well at the hands
+of such Englishmen as have any sentiment of loyalty to the great
+thoughts, the great doings, and the noble lives of their forefathers.
+The philosopher, who 'holds the mirror up to nature,' has not of late,
+as a rule, missed his reward. The historian, who in his dogged, patient,
+toilsome fashion holds the mirror up to the life of bygone ages, has
+received among us scant recognition, and generally is rewarded with but
+barren honour. What has been done and still is doing will be best
+understood by briefly reviewing the progress of that movement, which has
+brought about the great revival of English Historical study, and under
+the influence of which the opinions and convictions of educated men have
+passed through a very decided change, one destined to produce still
+greater and more unlooked for changes of sentiment and belief before the
+present century shall have closed.
+
+It is just fifty years since 'the Father of Record Reform,' as he has
+been justly called, received his patent creating him Master of the
+Rolls. Although as far back as the year 1800 a Commission was issued for
+the methodizing and digesting the National Records, and for printing
+such calendars and indexes as should be thought advisable; and though
+during the next twenty-seven years many works of supreme interest and
+importance were printed at the public expense, the enormous extent of
+our National Records were known to few, and the difficulty of consulting
+them, (dispersed as they were through a score of different depositories)
+was enough to deter all but the most resolute enquirers. It was Lord
+Langdale who first set himself to reduce the chaos of our archives into
+something like order. When the old Record Commission expired in 1837, it
+was by Lord Langdale's influence that the Public Record Act was passed
+on the 14th of August, 1838, whereby the Records named therein were
+placed under the custody of the Master of the Rolls for the time being,
+and hereupon a new era began. Nevertheless it was not till July 1850
+that a vote was obtained from the Treasury for the erection of a
+national depository, wherein our vast archives should be assembled under
+a single roof, and not till 1855 that the magnificent _Tabularium_ in
+Fetter Lane was opened for the reception of our muniments.
+
+Lord Langdale died in April 1851;[1] he was succeeded in the Mastership
+of the Rolls by Lord Romilly, then Sir John. A happier choice could not
+have been made. To Lord Langdale belongs the credit of carrying out the
+grand scheme for consolidating the various collections of documents,
+which, as we have said, had up to this time been widely dispersed, and
+the very existence of the larger mass of which was known only to a few
+experts. To Lord Romilly we owe it that the great original sources of
+English History so assembled have been rendered accessible to any
+student who desires to consult them; and it is to him, too, that we are
+indebted for the issue of that unrivalled series of 'Chronicles and
+Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland, from the Invasion of the Romans
+to the Reign of Henry VIII.,' which has laid the foundation for a
+science of history firmer and deeper and wider than before was believed
+to be even attainable.
+
+Great men are at once the leaders and the product of their age. When
+Lord Langdale set himself to his task he was only attempting that which
+had been talked of since the reign of Edward II. For five centuries the
+unification of our National Records had been recommended and advised by
+lawyers, statesmen, and scholars from generation to generation, but no
+practical scheme had ever been suggested, and the difficulties in the
+way of reform were supposed to be insuperable. It was a Herculean task,
+and one that grew ever more arduous the longer it was postponed. During
+the first quarter of the present century profound dissatisfaction had
+begun to be felt at the condition of our historical literature. The
+ordinary text-books were full of fables, more than suspected to be
+fables, and which yet it was extremely difficult to disprove
+satisfactorily. Theories which had long passed current were being rudely
+assailed, and yet--in the face of the obstacles that hindered
+research--stubbornly held their ground, or were repeated with peremptory
+dogmatism. A deep distrust of the old methods and the old assumptions
+had given rise to a widespread desire to drag forth from their
+hiding-places any documents, however dry or recondite, which might throw
+some clear light upon our national life and manners, and not only upon
+mere events of national importance during Medieval times. A desire to
+know the truth was _in the air_. The science of history had passed out
+of its infancy, and the stirrings of a new craving--the passion of
+Research--were making themselves felt in that mysterious restlessness
+which indicates that the old smooth-faced docility, the old childish
+submission to tutelage, the old unquestioning acceptance of authority,
+has gone for ever, and a new life has begun. The year before Lord
+Langdale received his appointment as Master of the Rolls, the Surtees
+Society had been founded for the printing of unedited MSS. illustrative
+of the history of the northern counties; and in the same year that the
+old Record Commission expired, the English Historical Society was
+started, a society which numbered amongst its promoters such men as the
+late Mr. Kemble, Mr. H. O. Coxe, Sir T. Duffus Hardy, and Mr.
+Stevenson--the leaders and teachers of that school of younger men who
+have so ably followed in the steps of their seniors, and who, mounting
+on the shoulders of the giants, have gained a wider view than it was
+given to those others to attain. The five years that followed saw the
+foundation of the Camden, the Percy, and the Chetham Societies, not to
+mention many another that has done useful work in its way. The labours
+of these pioneers soon made it quite apparent that the sources of our
+national history--social, ecclesiastical, and political--were quite too
+voluminous for private enterprise to deal with, and would demand the
+co-operation of a body of trained scholars and the resources of the
+public exchequer to make them available as apparatus for the teachers of
+the future.
+
+On the 26th of January, 1857, Sir John Romilly submitted to the Treasury
+his memorable proposal for the publication of certain materials for the
+History of England;[2] and on the 9th of February a Treasury Minute was
+put forth approving of the plan that had been drawn up as one 'well
+calculated for the accomplishment of this important national object in
+an effectual and satisfactory manner within a reasonable time.'
+Forthwith arrangements were made for the issue of that series of works
+which is now known as the 'Rolls Series,' a collection which has already
+extended to upwards of 200 volumes.
+
+The lines laid down by Sir John Romilly were almost exactly those which
+had been followed by the English Historical Society. Every editor was to
+'give an account of the MSS. employed by him, of their age and their
+peculiarities;' he was to add 'a brief account of the life and times of
+the author, and any remarks necessary to explain the chronology; _but no
+other note or comment_ was to be allowed, except what might be necessary
+to establish the correctness of the text.' The restriction was
+absolutely necessary if only for this, that when the 'Rolls Series' was
+first commenced even the most accomplished of its editors were mere
+learners. The time had not yet arrived for comments. The text was wanted
+first in its completeness and integrity.
+
+Looking back to this period--little more than a quarter of a century
+ago--it is difficult for us to realize the deplorable condition into
+which our historical literature had been allowed to fall. Kemble's great
+work, the 'Codex Diplomaticus aevi Saxonici,' the first volume of which
+appeared in 1839, and his 'History of the Saxons in England,' published
+in 1849, came upon the great body of intelligent men as the revelation
+of new things. It is sufficient to turn to the chapter on the
+Constitutional History of England before the Conquest, in Hallam's
+'History of the Middle Ages,' to be assured how meagre and superficial
+even Hallam's knowledge was of everything before the Norman invasion. It
+was no fault of his; he made good use of all such materials as were then
+accessible to the student--that is, all such as had been printed; for
+that incomparably larger _apparatus_ which since Hallam's days has been
+published to the world, it was for all practical purposes as if it had
+never existed at all. Even men of culture and learning were persuaded
+that all that was ever likely to be known about the religious houses had
+been collected in the new edition of Dugdale's 'Monasticon.' It is
+hardly too much to say that of the history of English monasticism Hallam
+knew nothing. Dr. Lingard himself had very little more to say of the
+great Abbeys than his predecessors, and had a very inadequate conception
+of the part they played in the development of our institutions; and when
+Dr. Maitland wrote his brilliant 'Essays on the Dark Ages,' he hardly
+names St. Edmundsbury or St. Alban's, and though one of his most
+fascinating chapters is concerned with the early days of Croyland, his
+only authority for the beautiful story, which he has handled so
+skilfully, is a romantic narrative attributed to Ingulphus, which has
+been demonstrated to be a somewhat clumsy though a clever forgery. Of
+the Mendicant Orders--of the work they did, of the influence they
+exercised, and of the attitude adopted towards them in the 13th century
+by the parochial clergy on the one hand, and by the monks on the
+other--even less was known, if less were possible, than of their
+wealthier rivals.
+
+Two years had scarcely elapsed since the issue of the Treasury Minute of
+February, 1857, before it began to be said that the history of England
+would have to be written anew. In the single year 1858 _eleven_ works of
+the highest importance were printed, and it was evident that neither
+original materials nor scholarly editors would be wanting to make the
+'Rolls Series' all that it was desired it should become. The 'Chronicles
+of the Monasteries of Abingdon and of St. Augustine at Canterbury,' the
+contemporary 'Life of Edward the Confessor,' and the priceless
+'Monumenta Franciscana,' telling the wonderful story of the settlement
+of the Minorites among us, were printed from unique MSS. Next year the
+'Chronicle of John of Oxnedes' was brought out by Sir Henry Ellis, and
+the 'Historia Anglicana' of Bartholomew Cotton, by Dr. Luard, neither
+work having ever before been printed. Volume followed volume in rapid
+succession, a steady improvement becoming observable in the style of
+editing, as the several editors became more familiar with the results of
+their predecessors' labours.
+
+It was while working at Bartholomew Cotton that Dr. Luard was brought
+into intimate relations with the 13th century. Hitherto the _composite_
+character of such chronicles as had been published had indeed been
+perceived, but no attempt had been made to trace the original authority
+for statements repeated in the same words by one writer after another.
+Dr. Luard opened out a new line of enquiry, and in his edition of
+Cotton's Chronicle he endeavoured to distinguish in every instance the
+material which might fairly be called original from that which his
+author had borrowed from older writers and incorporated into his text.
+The borrowed matter was printed in smaller type, and the sources from
+which it had been derived were indicated by references given at the foot
+of the page. Cottons' own additions were printed in a bolder type, so as
+at once to catch the eye. While conducting the laborious researches
+necessitated by this new method of editing his text, it became clear to
+Dr. Luard that Cotton had borrowed largely from Matthew Paris--who had
+lived just a generation before him--and that he had also borrowed from a
+mysterious writer much read in the 14th and 15th centuries, who went by
+the name of Matthew of Westminster. As to this Matthew of Westminster,
+Dr. Luard postponed dealing with him till some future time. He might
+prove a mere mythic personage, and it was suspected he would; but
+Matthew Paris was certainly no shadow, but a very real man, whose
+greatness seemed to grow greater the more he was studied and the better
+he was known. Yet as Dr. Luard became more familiar with the text of
+Paris, he was soon convinced that in its printed form it was bristling
+with the grossest inaccuracies of all kinds. Originally it had been
+published under the authority of Archbishop Parker in 1571; and though
+other editions had appeared, in this country and on the Continent,
+several times since then, Paris's great work had remained exactly in the
+same state as Parker (or whoever his agent was) had left it three
+centuries ago. That is to say, that by far the most important work on
+English history during the 13th century--not to mention European
+affairs--and by far the most minute and trustworthy picture of English
+life and manners during the reign of Henry III.--a record, too, drawn
+up by a contemporary writer of rare genius and literary skill--was
+defaced by blunders, audacious tampering with the text and gross
+inaccuracies, to such an extent that no conscientious student could
+allow himself to quote the printed work without first referring to one
+of the very MSS. which the Archbishop professed to have used.
+
+Nevertheless, the task of bringing out a critical edition of the
+'Chronica Majora' did not appear less formidable as fresh sources of
+information cropped up; and Dr. Luard shrank from the immense labour
+that such an edition involved, it was because he had formed a correct
+notion of its magnitude. In 1861 he brought out in the same series the
+'Letters of Robert Grosseteste,' the heroic and magnanimous Bishop of
+Lincoln; and while working at this volume, the England of the 13th
+century became more and more alive and present to the mind of the
+student.
+
+But distinctly and grandly as one noble character after another revealed
+itself, there was a strange mist that required to be dispelled before
+even the importance of great events could be rightly estimated. The
+inner life of the monasteries, great and small, must be enquired into,
+so far as it was possible to get any information on so obscure a
+subject; and, above all, the paramount influence which so magnificent an
+institution as the Abbey of St. Alban's exercised upon the intellectual
+life of the country must be studied with patient impartiality. Before a
+scholar with so lofty an ideal of an editor's duty could venture upon
+his _magnum opus_, there was indeed an enormous mass of preliminary work
+to get through. The horizon seemed to widen everywhere as the years of
+historical discovery went on. It was left to Mr. Riley to attack that
+wonderful collection of documents to which he gave the title of
+'Chronica Monasterii Sancti Albani'--a series occupying twelve thick
+volumes, and which furnish us not only with a priceless _apparatus_, by
+the help of which a hundred problems perplexing the historian are
+furnished with a clue towards their solution--but which afford such an
+insight into the life of the greatest monastery in England during its
+best times as nobody expected could ever be forthcoming. While Mr. Riley
+was occupied with the _Chronicles_ of St. Alban's and the lives of its
+Abbots, Dr. Luard was engaged in collecting all the _Annals_ of the
+lesser monasteries which he could lay his hands on. Some of these had
+already been printed more or less carelessly; others had never seen the
+light since they were written. Such as were printed were extremely
+difficult to procure--scarce and costly. Dr. Luard took six years in
+bringing out his five volumes--volumes referring to the golden age of
+English Monasticism, which threw all sorts of side-light upon Mr.
+Riley's 'Chronicles,' while they were in turn continually being
+explained and illustrated by them.
+
+While the 'Monastic Annals' were passing through the press, a very
+startling announcement was made by no less a person than Sir Frederick
+Madden, Keeper of the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum.
+Sir Frederick declared that he had come upon a copy of what was commonly
+called the 'Historia Minor' of Matthew Paris, not only written by the
+author himself, but actually annotated, corrected, and illustrated with
+drawings by his own hand. Such an announcement made by an expert of
+European reputation, one who had been handling MSS. all his life,
+necessarily created a sensation in the literary world. If it were
+accepted and proved true, it was one of the most curious romances in the
+history of literature. But was it true? To most critics the antecedent
+improbability of the theory put forth by Sir Frederick was so great as
+to relegate it to the domain of extravagant paradox; but the name and
+fame of its supporter were too high to allow of its being dismissed
+without refutation. For two or three years no one ventured to enter the
+lists against so formidable a champion who had staked his reputation
+upon the issue. At last another great specialist, not a whit less
+competent than the other, came forward to controvert the opinions and
+theory which had been so confidently maintained by Sir Frederick. In
+1871 Sir Thomas Duffus Hardy brought out the third volume of his
+_Catalogue_, and it was in the famous Introduction to this volume that
+the Madden Hypothesis was first assailed with damaging effect. Sir
+Thomas, it must be remembered, was Deputy Keeper of the Records. Sir
+Frederick was Keeper of the Department of Manuscripts at the British
+Museum. Each was the representative man in his own department, and a
+very pretty quarrel arose. Into the merits of that quarrel it is
+impossible to enter here; it is a matter for specialists, not for
+outsiders, to pronounce upon. This, however, may be said with
+confidence, that if we except that school of very able and accomplished
+experts which the British Museum has trained, experts whose _range_ of
+diplomatic knowledge must needs be wider than that of any 'Record man,'
+the refutation of Sir Frederick Madden by Sir Thomas Duffus was
+generally regarded as unanswerable and triumphant. With the exception
+indicated--a very important exception indeed--the Madden Hypothesis was
+believed to be utterly demolished, in fact 'blown into the air.'
+Nevertheless there are those, from whom something may be expected some
+day in the way of rejoinder who are by no means sure that the last word
+on this question has been said that deserve to be said, and even so
+scrupulous and sagacious a critic as Dr. Luard seems to be less certain
+than he was that Madden was quite wrong in _all_ he affirmed, and Hardy
+quite right in _all_ he denied.
+
+The attention which had been drawn to Matthew Paris by this remarkable
+controversy could not but have its effect in awakening a desire for that
+critical edition of the larger Chronicle which Dr. Luard had been so
+long preparing. The way was cleared for such an edition now; it was not
+likely that any more MSS. of the author would be discovered. Such as
+were deposited in the various libraries had been carefully scrutinized,
+or their homes were known, and the long years of preparatory study had
+been turned to good account--no pains had been spared nor any labour
+grudged. In 1872 the first volume of the 'Chronica Majora' appeared in
+the 'Rolls Series.' In 1884 the seventh and last volume was issued,
+containing the learned editor's last preface, glossary, and emendations,
+and an Index to the whole work, extending over nearly 600 pages. It is a
+long time since an English scholar has had the good fortune to carry to
+its completion so important a work as this, projected on so large a
+scale, executed with such conscientious care--characterized by so much
+critical skill and scrupulous accuracy--all this achieved single-handed
+in the midst of other duties, professional and academical, which would
+be quite sufficient to exhaust the energies of an ordinary man.
+
+Now that the work has been done, and done so thoroughly that it may
+safely be asserted the _standard edition_ of the 'Chronic Majora' has
+been published once for all, we are in a better position than we ever
+were heretofore for taking a survey of the life and labours of its
+author, and for answering the enquiries which of late have been made
+with increasing frequency, and made too among those who might have been
+expected to be able to answer them. Who and what was Matthew Paris? What
+did he do, and what did he write that the learned few should speak of
+him with so much reverence, though to the unlearned many he is little
+more than a famous and familiar name?
+
+Perhaps before dealing with his personal history, or entering into any
+examination of his literary labours, it will be well first to answer the
+question--_What_ was Matthew Paris? for it is simply impossible to
+estimate rightly the debt we owe to him, or to understand the brief
+account that could be drawn up of his career till we have learned to
+know something of the _profession_ to which he belonged, and the great
+foundation of which he was so distinguished an ornament. By profession
+Matthew Paris was a monk. A monk 'professed' is a term indicating the
+higher grade to which not every brother in a monastery attained. The
+very term 'profession' may be traced to the cloister. In its usual
+acceptation it is modern.
+
+To dilate upon the various monastic orders, which were almost as
+numerous in the 13th century as the different religious denominations
+are in the 19th, would be out of place here. Suffice it to say that the
+English monasteries in Henry III.'s time counted by hundreds. But there
+were monasteries and monasteries. Some the homes of the scholar, the
+devout and the high-minded, the seats of learning and the resting-places
+of the studious and the aged, who hated war and tumult, and only longed
+for repose. Some that were mere hiding holes for the lazy and the
+incompetent, the failures among the younger sons of the gentry, who had
+not the power of pushing their way in the world, or whose career had
+been a disappointment. Such men, where all else failed, could get
+themselves admitted into some smaller religious house by the interest of
+the patron; sometimes bringing in a trifling addition to the common
+property, sometimes simply 'pitchforked' into a vacancy, it is difficult
+to say how. Then they became 'brethren' of the monastery, and sharers in
+most of the good things that it could offer; they were almost exactly in
+the same position as Fellows of Colleges were twenty years ago, holding
+their preferment for life, with this difference, that a Fellowship at
+the smallest College in Oxford or Cambridge always implied _some_
+qualification for the post. A College Fellow, at the worst, must have
+had some claims to learning or culture; whereas in the smaller and more
+remote monasteries a man might be scandalously ignorant, and yet gain
+admittance as a brother of the house.
+
+Between the highest and the lowest of that great army of monks,
+dispersed through the length and breadth of the land, when English
+monarchism had declined from its earlier ideal, there was as great a
+distance as there is at this moment between the Fellows of Balliol or
+Trinity, and the poor brethren of the Charterhouse, or the bedesmen in
+the cathedrals of the old foundation.
+
+In the first half of the 13th century English monarchism was at its
+best; the 12th century was emphatically the reformation age of British
+monarchism. All the many schemes for starting new orders with improved
+_Rules_, and all the efforts to improve the discipline of the religious
+houses and fan the fire of devotion among their members, assumed that
+the monasteries were then living institutions with vast powers for good;
+and institutions which needed only to be reformed to make them all that
+the most earnest and ardent enthusiast claimed that they ought to be,
+and might become. In the fifty years preceding the accession of King
+John, more than 200 monasteries had been built and endowed--some of them
+munificently endowed, and the only purely English order (that of St.
+Gilbert of Sempringham) had been founded, and in little more than fifty
+years could count no less than fourteen considerable houses. Englishmen
+believed in the monastic system as they have never believed in anything
+else since then; never have such prodigious sacrifices been made, never
+has such lavish munificence been shown by the _upper classes_ as during
+the century ending with the accession of Edward I. In the next hundred
+years they were chiefly the townsmen and traders, not the landed
+proprietors, who emptied their money-bags into the lap of the Begging
+friars. Certainly the great religious houses at the end of the 13th
+century had the entire confidence of the country, and it is impossible
+to understand the long reign of Henry III. unless we are fully awake to
+the fact that then, too, the monasteries were not only thriving and
+powerful, but were institutions on whose help and power the people leant
+with an assured confidence, because they were pre-eminently the people's
+friends. But between the old foundations which had a history and the new
+houses that were springing up in every shire, some feeling of jealousy
+and soreness was sure to arise. The old abbeys, with a history that
+looked back into a past all clouds and mist, but none the less glorious
+for that, affected a supercilious tone towards the mushrooms that had of
+late sprouted into vigorous life. A man need not be an old man who can
+remember when the Eton and Winchester boys at the Universities affected
+an air of contempt for all the 'modern' places of education, and
+disdained to number such institutions as Cheltenham or Clifton among the
+'public schools.' These were all very well in their way, but where were
+their traditions? So with the older and grander Benedictine monasteries,
+with charters from Saxon kings, let alone anything else. Glastonbury,
+where men said two of the Apostles had built themselves a house of
+prayer, and where St. Patrick and St. Dunstan lay entombed; Canterbury,
+where Augustine, the English apostle, found a home; Malmesbury, where
+St. Aldhelm preached to the barbarous people, and when they tired of his
+sermon played to them upon his harp, and, anticipating Mr. Sankey, sang
+David's Psalms to the crowds that moved by him as they passed over the
+bridge of Avon. These venerable foundations, about whose origin a
+glamour of mystery had gathered, whose history had become strangely
+obscured by the body of myths that had grown up in the lapse of
+centuries--which had survived pillage and anarchy, and all the horrors
+of fire and sword, desolating, devastating--were there before men's
+eyes, testifying to the amazing vitality which a millennium of strange
+vicissitude had not only not destroyed, but not even impaired. Such a
+mighty pile of buildings, as had risen up to heaven there in the old
+Roman town of Verulam, appealed to the imagination of mankind--the very
+materials of the massive tower, ruddy in the blaze of the noon-day, must
+have been a wonder and astonishment to many an awe-struck pilgrim
+perplexed at the first sight of Roman bricks burnt on the spot a
+thousand years ago. There stood the mighty Roman rampart, vast,
+enormous--the ground beneath his feet teeming with the tangible memories
+of grisly conflict, or of an old civilization that had been blotted out
+long ago--the swords of Roman legionaries, the bones of British heroes,
+coins with legends that few could read turned up by the ploughman's
+share. Yonder, men said, away there at Redburn, the heathen pursuers had
+come upon England's proto-martyr and slain the saint of God, whose bones
+since then had been gathered up, and were now resting in their sumptuous
+shrine. When the Norman came, and the new order was set up in the
+land--not a day before it was needed--the thirteenth Abbot of St.
+Alban's was of the blood royal, and heir, they said, to Cnut, the Danish
+king, who had passed away. It was to him that the awful Conqueror made
+oath he would bind himself by the Confessor's laws, an oath which, if he
+ever meant to keep, he meant to interpret according to his mood. Even
+the very laxity and shortcomings of the abbots of generations back,
+which tradition, and something more to be trusted than tradition,
+declared to have been matters of scandal, proved no more than that the
+great Abbey could live through evil times, outride the storms which
+would wreck weaker vessels, and right itself, though overloaded with
+abuses which timid pilots would have shrunk from throwing overboard: and
+now that 400 years had passed since Offa, the Saxon king--(stirred
+thereto by Karl, the Emperor)--had founded the monastery in St. Alban's
+honour, and from generation to generation vast building operations had
+been going on almost without interruption, and the old Abbey still held
+up its head proudly, its Abbot taking precedence of every other in the
+land; any man might be excused for thinking that to become a monk of St.
+Alban's Abbey was to become a personage of no small consideration.
+
+Verily it was a great abbey in the days of King John. There, in the
+eighth year of that King's reign, was held that memorable council
+which, if it had been let alone, would doubtless have issued its protest
+against the intolerable aggression of the Pope and his _curia_. There,
+six years afterwards, another assembly was convened; the first occasion
+on which we find any historical proof that representatives were summoned
+to a national council in England. Eight times during his reign the
+ruffian King was himself a guest at the Abbey. Once after John's death,
+when Louis was desperately struggling to hold his own against young
+Henry's friends and supporters, he too came to St. Alban's, and
+threatened to give it over to fire and sword: only money saved it from a
+sack. There was always something to take, and yet always wonderful state
+kept up. The magnates in Church and State were for ever going in and
+out; the mere domestic expenditure was enormous. Yet, even when the
+country was groaning under horrible anarchy, and grinding taxation, and
+war and poverty, the building went on as if men lived only to glorify
+the great house, and to raise its church tower, or beautify the west
+front, or fill the windows with stained glass, or erect the splendid
+pulpit in the nave--a miracle of art.
+
+It would be a very great mistake to conclude that all this lavish
+expenditure implied the enjoyment of large rents from land. The revenue
+derived from the tenants of the Abbey and the profits of farming were no
+doubt considerable; but that revenue could never have sufficed alone to
+defray the cost of keeping up the establishment. In point of fact, when
+a monastery, great or small, depended wholly upon its landed property,
+it invariably got into debt; sometimes it got hopelessly into debt. It
+is clear that before the Dissolution a very large number of the
+religious houses were insolvent. The striking paucity in the number of
+'religious' at the time of the suppression--for hardly one house in ten
+had its full complement of inmates--is by no means wholly to be
+attributed to the reluctance on the part of people in general to take
+upon themselves the monastic vows. Where a monastery was financially in
+a critical condition, the brotherhood resorted to the expedient which is
+at this moment being carried out at more than one College in Oxford and
+Cambridge. Now, when times are bad, we temporarily suppress a
+Fellowship; then, on the death of a brother of the house, they chose no
+monk into his place.
+
+The income from landed estates at St. Alban's was probably at no time
+equal to what may be called the extraordinary income. The offerings at
+the shrines of SS. Alban and Amphibalus, the proceeds of the offertory
+at those magnificent and dramatic functions in which the multitude
+delighted, and the _douceurs_ that were always expected and almost
+always given in return for hospitality, which only in theory was
+free,--these and many another source of profit, which the universal
+habit of giving money for 'pious uses' supplied, all made up a sum
+total, in comparison with which the proceeds of the rent-roll were
+insignificant. In the taxation of Pope Nicholas (A. D. 1291) the whole
+revenue of the Abbey from rent and dues in the liberty of St. Alban's is
+set down at 392l. 8s. 3-1/4d., a sum which in those days would go as far
+as 5000l. a-year now. Even granting that this was only half the net
+income derivable from the Abbey's estates, which were widely
+distributed, an expenditure of 10,000l. a year would go in our own time
+a very little way towards meeting the charges which such an enormous
+establishment involved. The mere keeping up the buildings at all times
+entailed a very heavy annual outlay. Already in the 13th century the
+precincts of the Abbey were overcrowded with palatial edifices, which
+were never pulled down except to make room for larger ones. There were
+acres of roofs within the Abbey walls.
+
+And what return was being made to the nation, that every rank and every
+class were keeping up a rivalry in munificence in favour of such an
+institution as this? What had they done, what were they doing, these
+seventy men, with their Abbot at their head, who were in the enjoyment
+of an income larger than that of many a principality? How was it that no
+one _in those days_ accused them of being indolent drones? Mere burdens
+upon the earth, as they were called frequently enough, and loudly
+enough, and angrily enough, three centuries later? It was the age for
+the expansion of the monastic system--none then wished to sweep the
+monks away. One of the reasons why the monasteries had retained their
+hold upon the affection of the people, and were regarded with reverence
+and pride and confidence, lay in this, that they had moved with the
+times, and that the monasticism of the 13th was very different indeed
+from the monasticism of the 9th century. The primitive asceticism had
+almost vanished; it had not, however, died, leaving nothing in its
+place. No one now expected to find the religious houses filled with
+religious people, everyone holy, devout, and fervent; the personal
+sanctity of the inmates was one thing, the sanctity of their churches
+and shrines was quite another. In the old days the monks were separate
+from the world, living to save their own souls at best; examples to such
+as trembled at the wrath of God, and longed for the life to come. As
+time went on they mixed more boldly with the sinful world, and gradually
+they became more and more the illuminators of the darkness round them.
+Now they were regarded as in great measure the salt of the earth, and if
+that salt should lose its savour, where was such virtue elsewhere to be
+found? Personally, the men might be worldly--vicious, as a rule, they
+certainly were not--they were, _mutatis mutandis_, what in our time
+would be called cultured gentlemen, courteous, highly educated and
+refined, as compared with the great mass of their contemporaries; a
+privileged class who were not abusing their privileges; a class from
+whence all the art and letters and accomplishments of the time emanated,
+allied in blood as much with the low as the high, the aristocracy of
+intellect, and the pioneers of scientific and material progress. The
+model farming of the 13th century would be regarded as barbaric by our
+modern theorists; but such as it was, it was only to be met with on the
+demesne lands of the larger monasteries, and was a prodigious advance
+upon the _petite culture_ of the open fields. The Priory at Norwich made
+an income out of its garden in the days of Edward III., and probably
+much earlier; the pisciculture of the religious houses remains a mystery
+as yet unsolved; the skill exhibited in the management of the
+water-power of many a district round even the smaller houses, still
+awakes wonder in those who think it worth their while to study it. At
+St. Alban's, as at Glastonbury, St. Edmund's Abbey, and elsewhere, the
+culture of the vine was made profitable for generations. The monasteries
+were the first to give personal freedom to the villeins, and the first
+to commute for money payments the vexatious _services_ which worried the
+best men and maddened the worst. The landlords in the 13th century were
+real _lords_ of the _land_. They were, as a class, very poor, spite of
+the privileges they enjoyed and the power that they possessed of making
+themselves disagreeable; and though the constitution of a _manor_ was a
+limited monarchy, and the _limits_ were very many, yet the lord could
+exercise a great deal of petty tyranny in his little kingdom if he were
+so disposed. In the manors which were in the possession of the religious
+houses the lord was necessarily non-resident, and the tenants were left
+to manage their own affairs with very little interference. The tenants
+of the monasteries were in a far more favoured condition than the
+tenants of some small lord, needy and greedy, who extorted his dues
+literally to the last farthing, and who knew exactly what the best beast
+was, on the land that owed him a heriot; and, when the tenant was _in
+extremis_, kept a sharp look-out that a fat bullock or a promising young
+horse should not be driven off before the owner died.
+
+So the monasteries at the time we are now concerned with were regarded
+at once with pride and affection by the great bulk of the people; they
+were places of refuge where, in a turbulent time, men and women who had
+been stricken, bereaved or wronged, might find a quiet refuge and hide
+their heads and be forgotten and fall asleep, with the prayers of other
+sufferers to console and support them in their passage through the
+valley of the shadow of death. The gentlest spirits here could taste the
+bliss of a holy tranquillity; the ascetic could indulge his most
+fantastic self-immolation; the morbid visionary could dream at his will
+and give his imagination full play, none hindering him; evil demons
+might chatter and gibe and twit him at his prayers; choirs of angels
+might calm his despair with celestial lullabies; awful forms might rise
+from clouds of incense as the gorgeous procession moved along the vast
+church aisles, or stopped before some glittering shrine. What then? Who
+would question the reality of a miracle, or doubt that sublime
+revelations might be made to any holy monk as he wrestled in prayer with
+a rapture of the soul, and found himself lifted to the seventh heaven in
+ecstasy unutterable?
+
+What has been said applies mainly to the older houses, those which were
+under what may be called the _primitive_ Benedictine rule. If men were
+moved to rigid asceticism, however, and had a taste for bald simplicity;
+if art, and music, and ornate architecture, had no charm for them, and
+they dreamt that God could only be sought and found in the wilderness,
+the Cistercian houses offered such a congenial asylum. The Cistercians
+were the Puritans of the monasteries, and appealed to that mysterious
+sentiment which makes some minds shrink with fear from the touch of
+luxury, and regard culture as antagonistic to personal holiness. The
+sentiment was strong in the reign of Henry II., when nineteen Cistercian
+houses were founded; but it is not improbable that other motives, beside
+mere taste for a stricter discipline, led to the foundation of eight
+more in the reign of King John. Meanwhile the Benedictines had become by
+far the most learned and most _educating_ body in the land, and
+pre-eminent above them all was the great Abbey of St. Alban's. If it was
+not at this time the centre of intellectual life in England, it was
+because at this time centralization was unknown. Eadmer, Florence of
+Worcester, Gervase of Canterbury, William of Malmesbury, Simeon of
+Durham, were all 12th-century Benedictines. They were all students and
+writers of history, and history meant _literature_ till Peter Lombard
+arose at the end of the 12th century and revolutionized the world of
+thought--at any rate the domain of logic. John of Salisbury fiercely
+assails the intellectual innovators of his time on the ground that the
+new lights of the 12th century disdained to be students of history and
+affected contempt for the past. It was the old story; literary culture
+found itself in antagonism with scientific culture, and the vigorous
+childhood of scientific research was aggressive, insolent, and noisily
+insubordinate. The old seminaries, whose homes were in the Benedictine
+monasteries, refused to welcome the new learning. Its teachers settled
+themselves elsewhere; at Paris, on the other side of the water, they had
+a hard fight of it. Once in 1209 the Synod of Paris actually prohibited
+the reading of Aristotle's 'Metaphysics.' At Oxford they seem to have
+met with a more generous reception. Perhaps it was because that
+reception was too enthusiastic that King Stephen at the close of his
+miserable reign expelled Vacarius, the first teacher of scientific law
+in England. Whereupon young men of parts and ambition crossed the
+Channel, seeking and finding at Pavia and Bologna what was not to be had
+at home. The monastic schools held their own, and went on in the old
+groove; the intellectual revolution which soon came about by the agency
+of the Mendicant Orders was not yet dreamt of. St. Alban's, Malmesbury,
+and other such mighty foundations, stuck to the old studies, just as
+Eton and Winchester stuck to Latin Verse as the one thing needful, and
+reluctantly gave into the newfangled notion of having a 'modern side.'
+
+Outside the Abbey precincts, a hundred yards from the great gate, and
+separated from it by the _Rome land_, which may possibly have served the
+boys as a playground, stood the Grammar School. Whether it offered a
+different training from that which was usually supplied to the scholars
+who were under training in the cloister, it is difficult to say. Within
+the precincts, when the 13th century began, there stood the great
+church--enriched by the accumulated offerings of centuries, and glowing
+with dazzling splendour of jewels and cloth of gold, and glass that
+glorified the very sunshine, and wonders of sculpture and colour and
+needlework filling the heart to overflowing with inexplicable hopes and
+longings for an ideal that seemed possible of realization, if only the
+Church in heaven should be as far removed above the actual of the Church
+on earth, as the glories of the Church on earth were removed above the
+squalid life of the common workday world. All this in witness that the
+great Abbey was, first and foremost, a religious foundation, raised in
+the first instance to the glory of God, and meant to help forward the
+worship of God, and make the worship worthy of the Most High.
+
+But besides being primarily and emphatically a religious foundation, the
+Abbey in the 13th century had grown into something else, and had become
+the home of a corporation of scholars and students, who were the leaders
+of art and culture in an age when art and culture were to be met with
+nowhere outside the walls of a great monastery. There, in what might be
+called the museum of the Abbey, you might see no mean collection of
+antique gems that had once been the pride of Roman magistrates.
+Mysterious specimens of barbaric goldwork, fashioned by unknown
+craftsmen for the necks of nameless chieftains who had drawn the sword
+and perished, none knew when. Engraved gems that had been dug up in
+mysterious sepulchres, about which even imagination despaired of telling
+any story; relics of saints and martyrs, charters of Saxon kings,
+granted centuries before the Normans came to ring out the old and ring
+in the new. The wealth of mere archaeological specimens at St. Alban's
+made it such a museum of antiquities as provokes wonder and bitterness,
+as we read the catalogue of what was once there, and has perished
+utterly and for ever.[3]
+
+The range of buildings to the south of the church covered a far larger
+area than that which the church itself occupied. Uncertain though the
+exact site may be and is, there had already been added in Brother
+Matthew's time what we should now call an Art school, a Library, and,
+almost more famous than all, the Scriptorium. By-and-bye, too, came the
+printing-press which John Herford set up in 1480. Wynkyn de Worde was
+sometime schoolmaster of Saint Alban's, and Lady Juliana Berners' famous
+volume issued from the Abbey Press, while Caxton was still pursuing his
+craft in the almonry of another monastery at Westminster.
+
+In the days of King John, however, people had so little idea of the
+possibility of the printing-press, that they were almost equally
+ignorant of such a material as paper for literary purposes. Yet it is a
+huge mistake which has not yet been exploded, as it ought to be, that
+reading and writing were rare accomplishments in the 13th century.
+Knowledge of a certain kind was disseminated far more effectively and
+far more universally than is generally believed. The country parson was
+expected to be the schoolmaster of his parish, and generally was so, and
+there was hardly a village in England during the reign of Henry III, in
+which there were not one or more persons who could write a _clerkly_
+hand, draw up accounts in _Latin_, and keep the records of the various
+petty courts and gatherings that were continually being held, sometimes
+to the annoyance and grievous vexation of the rural population. The
+professional _writers_ were so numerous, and their training so severe,
+that they had got for themselves privileges of a very exceptional kind;
+the _clerk_ took rank with the _clergyman_, and the _writer_ of a book
+was almost as much esteemed as its _author_.
+
+The scriptorium of a great monastery was at once the printing-press and
+the publishing office. It was the place where books were written, and
+whence they issued to the world. With the traditional exclusiveness of
+the older monasteries there was less desire, no doubt, to diffuse and
+disperse than to accumulate books, but the composing and the
+multiplication of books was always going on. The scriptorium was a great
+writing school too, and the rules of the art of writing which were laid
+down there were so rigidly and severely adhered to, that to this day it
+is difficult to decide at a glance whether a book was written in St.
+Alban's or St. Edmund's Abbey. Sometimes as many as twenty writers were
+employed at once, and besides these there were occasionally
+supernumeraries, who were professional scribes, and who were paid for
+their services; but nothing short of perfect penmanship, such trained
+skill, for instance, as would now be required for an engraver, would
+qualify a copyist to take part in the finished work, which the copying
+of important books required.
+
+One of the conclusions which Sir Thomas Hardy arrived at during the
+course of his minute examination of Sir Frederick Madden's theory is so
+curious, and opens out such an unexpected view of the way in which our
+monasteries may have been brought under the influence of foreign
+literature, that it is worth while in this connection to quote the great
+critic's own words:
+
+     'After minutely examining every page of the manuscripts in
+     question, as well as others, which were undoubtedly written
+     in the monastery of St. Alban's, and comparing them with
+     others executed in various parts of England and on the
+     Continent, I can come to no other conclusion than that
+     during the latter half of the 13th century, and perhaps a
+     little earlier, there prevailed among the scribes in the
+     Scriptorium of St. Alban's, a peculiar character of writing
+     which is not recognizable in any other religious house in
+     England during that period; but which is traceable in some
+     foreign manuscripts, and even in private deeds executed in
+     England in the neighbourhood of St. Alban's during the 12th
+     and 13th centuries. These facts lead me to the inference,
+     that _the schoolmaster who taught the art of writing to
+     Matthew Paris and the other members and scholars of the
+     establishment at St. Alban's was a foreigner_; that his
+     pupils not only imitated their instructor in the formation
+     of his letters, but also in his exceptional orthography.'
+
+What questions suggest themselves as we accept the conclusion arrived
+at! Who was he, this 'foreigner,' who had come from across the sea to
+bring in his outlandish novelties into the great scriptorium? Was he
+some 'Frenchman' imported from sunny Champagne, where Thibaut, the
+mawkish singer was making verses which his people loved to listen to?
+Did he teach the young novices French as well as writing? Did he touch
+the lute himself on Feast-days, and charm them with some new lyric of
+Gasse Brusle, or delight them with one of Rutebeuf's merry ditties?
+France was all alive with song at this time, and princes were rivals now
+for poetic fame. It may be that this 'foreigner' brought in a taste for
+light literature as well as for a new fashion in penmanship, and made
+known to his pupils such alluring novelties as the 'Roman d'Alexandre,
+soon to be eclipsed by the 'Roman de la Rose.'
+
+The scriptorium at St. Alban's was founded by Abbot Paul, a kinsman of
+Archbishop Lanfrance, when the great Abbey had already existed for three
+centuries. Paul became Abbot eleven years after the Conquest, and he
+showed himself an able and earnest administrator. From this time
+learning and a love of books became a tradition of the house. Abbot
+after abbot continued to add to the collection of MSS., and to increase
+the value of the library. But St. Alban's had never had a great
+historian of its own. Strange and shameful fact! East and west and north
+and south, all over the land, there were great writers holding up their
+proud heads. Out in the desolate wilds there at Peterborough, they had
+been actually keeping up a chronicle for centuries--aye, and written in
+the vernacular too. The lonely monastery of Ely, among the swamps, had
+its historian. Malmesbury boasted her learned William; and Worcester,
+which St. Wulstan had raised from the dust, as it were, only the other
+day, had already her Florence. In the great houses of the Northern
+Province there had been no lack of writers to whom the past was an open
+book. Even Westminster had long ago had her _chronographer_, and far
+away in furthest Wales, Geoffrey, the Monmouth man, was making men open
+their eyes very wide indeed with tales--idle tales they might be, but
+they were well worth the reading--and there was talk too of another
+young Welshman, Giraldus, who was on the way towards outdoing the other
+by-and-bye. What are we coming to? Holy St. Alban, shalt thou and thy
+house be put to shame?--that be far from us!
+
+Thus it came to pass that about a century after the foundation of the
+scriptorium, and when the library had grown to an imposing size, Abbot
+Simon bestirred himself, and a new office was created in the Abbey, to
+wit, that of Historiographer. In our time we should have given this
+functionary a grander title, and called him Professor of History; but in
+the 12th century, they called him what he was, a writer of history, and
+from this time, in fact, the writing of history, after a certain
+authorized method, began, and what had been called, and deserves to be
+called, the St. Alban's School of History took its rise.
+
+It is evident that before the 13th century had well begun, an historical
+compendium of great value had already been drawn up, which must have
+been compiled by careful students with a command of books such as during
+this age was rare.
+
+     'The compilation,' says Dr. Luard, 'whenever and by
+     whomsoever it was written must be regarded as a very curious
+     and remarkable one. The very large number of sources
+     consulted, the miscellaneous character of many of the
+     extracts, the mixture of history and legend, the giving
+     fixed years to stories which even writers like Geoffrey of
+     Monmouth had left undated, the care at one time and the
+     carelessness at another, the slavishness with which one
+     authority is followed, and the recklessness with which
+     another is altered, the frequent confusion of dates, their
+     ignorance and want of care, the blunders displayed in many
+     instances from the compiler not understanding the author
+     whom he is copying, as is especially the case in the
+     extracts from the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;" all these
+     characteristics may well earn for the author the title that
+     Lappenberg has given to him, though under the name of
+     "Matthew of Westminster," namely, that of the "Verwirrer der
+     Geschichte." At the same time there is no doubt that he had
+     access to some materials which we no longer possess: and my
+     object has been to trace all his statements, where possible,
+     to their source, and to distinguish any additions that the
+     compiler has made when they are merely rhetorical
+     amplifications of his own, or when they are really from some
+     source not now extant.'--Pref. to vol. i., p. xxxiii.
+
+After all that can be said, the work surprises us by the erudition it
+displays. Nor is that surprise lessened when we have gone through the
+masterly analysis of its contents, which Dr. Luard has given us in the
+Preface to his first vol. Such as it was, it became the great text-book
+on which Roger of Wendover founded his own labours when he incorporated
+it into the chronicle which he left behind him. Roger of Wendover did
+good work, and laboriously epitomized, supplemented and improved, but he
+was a mere literary monk after all; a student, a bookworm, simple,
+conscientious, and truthful; a trustworthy reporter, 'a picker-up of
+learning's crumbs,' a monkish historiographer, in short; but by no means
+a historian of large views and of original mind. Roger of Wendover died
+in 1236, and Matthew Paris succeeded to his office and work.
+
+From what has been said, the reader may be presumed to have gained
+something like an answer to our first question: _What_ was Brother
+Matthew? Briefly, he was a representative monk of the most powerful
+monastery in England during the 13th century, when that monastery was at
+its best, and doing the work which in after times the Universities and
+great schools of the country took out of the hands of the religious
+houses; work, too, which since those days has been done by the
+printing-press, and by many other institutions better fitted to deal
+with the requirements of an immensely larger population, and to be the
+instruments of diffusing culture and refinement through the nation after
+it had outgrown the older machinery.
+
+When we come to look into the personal history of Brother Matthew, the
+details of his biography need not detain us long. Sir Henry Taylor's
+famous line is only half true, after all;
+
+    'The world knows nothing of its greatest men'
+
+really means that the world knows less about them than it would like to
+know. And yet the world knows almost as much about them as is good for
+it. The leading facts of a man's career are all that concern most of
+us--the main lines--not the details. Of Matthew Paris we know enough,
+because he has himself given us so faithful a picture of his times, and
+so charming an insight into the daily life which he led.
+
+Unnecessary doubt has been suggested as to his parentage, and whether
+his extraction was or was not from a stock that could boast of gentle
+blood. For our part we incline strongly to the belief, that Brother
+Matthew was called Paris because that was his name, and had been his
+father's name before him. A family of that name held lands in
+Bedfordshire in Henry III.'s time; others of the same stock were settled
+in Lincolnshire earlier still; and the Cambridgeshire family (one of
+whom was among the visitors of the monasteries under Henry VIII.)
+boasted of a long line of ancestors, and retained their estates in the
+Eastern Counties till late in the 17th century. Young Matthew probably
+received his education in the school at St. Alban's, and soon showed a
+decided taste for learning and the student's life, and that in the 13th
+century meant an inclination for the life of the cloister. Many a
+precocious lad is even now taught from his childhood to look forward to
+the glories of a College Fellowship, and the career which such an
+academic success may open to him; and in the 13th century a schoolboy's
+ambition was directed to the goal of admission to a great
+monastery--that step on the ladder which whosoever could reach, there
+was no knowing how high he might climb--how high above the common sons
+of earth or, if he preferred it, how high towards the heaven that is
+above the earth.
+
+Matthew was probably born about the year 1200, and in January 1217 he
+became a monk at St. Alban's, _i. e._, he became a _novice_. At this
+time a lad could commence his noviciate at 15; but the age was
+subsequently advanced to 19, the younger limit having been found, as a
+rule, too early even for the preliminary discipline required. On the day
+after the lad was admitted, a frightful scene took place in the
+monastery. A band of Fawkes de Breaute's cut-throats had stormed the
+town of St. Alban's, burst into the Abbey, and slaughtered at the door
+of the church one Robert Mai, a servant of the Abbot. William de
+Trumpington was Abbot at this time, a vigorous and resolute personage,
+who ruled the convent with a firm hand. Like all really able men, he was
+ably seconded, for he knew how to choose his subordinates. At first the
+monks had repented of their choice, and there were quarrels and
+litigation and appeals to the Pope, and many serious 'unpleasantnesses;'
+but as time went on, Abbot William had won the allegiance of all the
+convent, and they were proud of him. He was a man of books, among his
+other virtues, and had an eye for bookish men; and when he deposed Roger
+de Wendover from being Prior of Belvoir with a somewhat high hand, and
+brought him back to St. Alban's, he doubtless did so because he knew
+that at Belvoir he was a square man in a round hole, while in the
+scriptorium of the Abbey he would be in his right place. Certainly the
+event proved that the Abbot was right, and it was to this judicious
+removal of a student and man of letters to his proper home that we owe
+so much of our knowledge of those interesting minutiae of English history
+which the writer has revealed. It was under the eye of Robert de
+Wendover that Matthew Paris grew up, rendering him every year more and
+more substantial assistance in the library and in the scriptorium.
+
+But the young man was not only a bookworm and a copyist, he soon got to
+be looked upon as a prodigy. He was a universal genius; he could do
+whatever he set his hand to, and better than any one else. He could
+draw, and paint, and illuminate, and work in metals. Some said he could
+even construct maps; he was versed in everything, and noticed everything
+from 'the cedar that is in Lebanon to the hyssop upon the wall;' he was
+an expert in heraldry; he could tell you about whales, and camels, and
+buffaloes, and elephants--he could even draw an elephant--illustrate his
+history, in fact, with the elephant's portrait, the first elephant, he
+says, that had ever been seen in our northern climes. It was centuries
+before men had dreamt of what the science of geology would one day
+reveal. Then, too, he had vast capacity for work, and was a courtly
+person, and he had the gift of tongues, and had been a great traveller;
+he had early been sent by the convent to study at the University of
+Paris, and wherever he went, he was the man to make friends. When the
+Benedictines in Norway had convinced themselves that there was sore need
+of a reform of their rule and discipline, they applied to Pope Innocent
+IV. to send them a Visitor furnished with the necessary authority for
+carrying out so delicate and difficult a mission, and they made choice
+of Matthew Paris as the fittest possible person for such a work.
+Reluctantly Brother Matthew was compelled to undertake the task; he
+started on his northern voyage in 1248, and was absent about a year. In
+Norway he soon grew into high favour with King Hacon, who peradventure
+would have kept him at his side if he could. This seems to have been the
+most important episode in his otherwise uneventful life. But the
+advantages and opportunities which were at the command of any ambitious
+and studious young monk at St. Alban's were in themselves extraordinary.
+We have said that building was always going on. It was going on on a
+very large scale indeed in Abbot William's time. That means that there
+were the plans and sections and working drawings to be copied for the
+architect, and measurements and calculations by the thousand to be
+made--_a school of architecture_, in short: and besides that, what Roger
+de Wendover was in the scriptorium, that Walter of Colchester, _pictor
+et sculptor incomparabilis_, was in the painting room. Walter was a
+sculptor; indeed he wrought at his marvellous pulpit which the Abbot set
+up in the middle of the church: and he carved the story of St. Alban
+upon the great beam over the high altar, and did many another thing of
+which we have only too brief descriptions. Then, too, there was Richard,
+the monk who decorated the grand new guests' hall _deliciose_, as we are
+told, and who painted pictures and carried out other works of
+embellishment at a pace which none could have kept up, but that he had
+his father to help him with his brush, and another artist, John of
+Wallingford, to carry out his great designs, and many more skilled
+limners whose names have gone down into silence.
+
+When Abbot William's reign came to an end, the monks were unanimous in
+choosing John of Hertford as his successor, and the new Abbot lost no
+time in showing favour to Matthew Paris. Next year Roger de Wendover
+died, and who could there be so worthy to succeed him as historiographer
+as the versatile and accomplished brother, who by this time was the
+boast of the great house? And historiographer accordingly Matthew
+became--_mutatis mutandis_, a sort of 13th-century editor of the
+'Times;' his business was to gather from all points of the compass, if
+not the latest news, yet the best and most trustworthy reports upon
+whatever was worth recording. He had his correspondents all over Europe,
+and that he sifted the evidence as it came to him we know.
+
+Wherever there was any great event that deserved a place in the Abbey
+Chronicle, some splendid pageant to describe, some battle, or treaty, or
+pestilence, or flood, or famine, straightway tidings came to the
+vigilant historiographer; and there was a comparison of the evidence
+brought in, and some testing of witnesses, and finally the narrative was
+drawn up and incorporated into Matthew's history. Again and again it
+happened that a great personage who, while himself _making_ history, was
+anxious that his own part in a transaction should be represented
+favourably, would try and get the right side of the famous chronicler,
+and would furnish him with private information. Even the King himself
+thought it no scorn to communicate facts and documents to Brother
+Matthew. Once when Henry saw him in a crowd on a memorable occasion, he
+picked him out, and bade him take his seat by his side, and see to it
+that he made a true and faithful report of what was going on; and it is
+evident that the royal favour which he enjoyed through life must have
+extended to furnishing him with many a story and many a detail which
+none but the King could have supplied. The minute account of the attempt
+to assassinate Henry in 1238; the curious State paper giving a narrative
+of the dispute between the King and his nobles in 1242; the strange
+scene at the tomb of William Marshall in 1245, and scores of other
+incidents in the career of Bishop Grossteste and Richard of Cornwall,
+were evidently 'inspired,' and can only have come from eye-witnesses of
+the events recorded. Nevertheless Matthew, though he was willing enough
+to receive information, and to utilise facts and documents, was by no
+means the man to reproduce them exactly in the form in which they came
+to him. More than once he ventured to remonstrate with the King, and
+very much oftener than once he expresses his opinion of him in no
+measured terms. Some of the severest censures he had marked for
+omission, and some expressions he modified considerably, for we have the
+good fortune to possess his chronicle both in an earlier and in a later
+form; but even though the fuller and more outspoken record had perished,
+we should still have had enough proof to make it clear that we have in
+Matthew Paris an instance of a born historian, one who never consented
+to be a mere advocate, taking a side and seeing only half the truth of
+anything; but a man gifted with the judicial faculty, that precious gift
+without which a man may be anything you please--a rhetorician, a special
+pleader, a picturesque writer, a laborious collector of facts; but an
+historian never. And yet Matthew Paris was a magnificent hater, with a
+fund of indignant scorn and righteous anger which never fails him upon
+occasion. Friend of King and nobles as he was, he will not spare his
+words of wrathful censure upon the tyrant, or upon any that he held
+deserving of rebuke for cruelty, oppression and avarice. When he has to
+lay the lash on such as had proved themselves enemies to his much-loved
+Abbey, or who had wronged and defrauded it, he is well-nigh as fierce as
+Dante. He singles them out--the doomed wretches--and holds them, as it
+were, over the fire of hell before he drops them down into the burning
+flame.
+
+Did Ralph Cheinduit, that blustering, burly knight, cry aloud 'A fig for
+St. Alban and his monks! Since they excommunicated me--look you! I have
+only increased in girth, behold me fat and jolly, in faith almost too
+big for my saddle. A fig for them all!' Did he say so, the impious
+wretch? Be it known that from that very day Sir Knight began to shrink
+and waste and pine, and if he had not repented and been absolved in
+time, he had gone down to the bottomless pit with never a hope of
+deliverance.
+
+Did not Sir Adam Fitz William show the evil spirit that was in him when
+he sided against us time and again? And now, look to his awful end!
+Gorged with meat and drink one night, he sprawled upon his bed,
+_indigestus_, as you may say, and he never woke more. Aye! and he died
+intestate too. And as though that was not bad enough, his wife too died,
+straightway, like another Sapphira slain by the shock of the tidings.
+And then there was Alan de Beccles, too, always notorious for setting
+himself against us and our house, he too perished as the other did, for
+he loved choice dainties overmuch, and he dined late and he ate as none
+should eat, and when he could eat no more, suddenly his speech failed
+him and his veins burst, smitten with an apoplexy. And many another,
+whom it would take too long to name, following his evil course, and
+being prosecutors of Holy Alban's Church, perished for ever by God's
+vengeance.
+
+It is no longer the fashion now to denounce the Pope and his myrmidons,
+but if the rage of Exeter Hall should ever recur, and the orators of the
+old platform should revive a taste for anti-papal agitation, they might
+find in Matthew Paris as rich a repertory of testimonials against Roman
+aggression and greed as the most rabid Irish Protestant could desire. 'O
+thou Pope,' he bursts out once, 'thou the father of all the fathers in
+Christ, how it is that thou sufferest the realms of Christendom to be
+fouled by such creatures as are thine?' The 'creatures' were the papal
+legates and nuncios and all their belongings, who were plundering
+England without shame. 'Harpies they were and blood-suckers,' says
+Matthew, 'mere plunderers, skinning the sheep, not shearing them only.'
+Then there were the King's Justiciars--'Justice'--nay, with that they
+had nothing to do. Why tell of their unrighteous deeds? he asks. 'Better
+forbear from vainly writing about the _wrongers_, and return to the
+story of the wronged.'
+
+Of course the friars come in for their share of strong words--chiefly
+because the Pope made use of them so vilely, and not less because they
+set themselves above their betters--us, to wit--monks of the old houses.
+
+     'They started with such fair professions, they were going to
+     be so very poor, and so very unworldly, and were going to
+     supplement our work and interfere with nobody, and give us
+     all a helping hand. Look at them now!' says Matthew; 'they
+     march through the streets in pompous array with banners
+     flaunting in the sun and waxen tapers, and rich burghers in
+     holiday garments joining in the long train, and if they have
+     no land they have money, good store, and as for their
+     churches, they are eclipsing us all. Their invasion of our
+     territory is a dreadful scandal, and they sneer at us and at
+     all other religious men and women and they flout the parish
+     priests and call them humdrums, and schism is at work
+     horribly, and the people are running away from the old
+     guides, and there is no end to them. Actually in the year of
+     grace 1257,' he says, 'a new order of these fellows turned
+     up in London. Friars of the sack, forsooth, because they
+     were clothed in sackcloth! Of course they came armed with a
+     papal licence as usual. What did these fellows come for? Was
+     it to make confusion worse confounded? Alas! Alas! If we had
+     only been as we were in the golden age, these friars would
+     never have had a chance--not they! We too are not as the
+     monks of old were; they lived the guileless life--austere,
+     hard, self-denying, saintly! What are we in comparison with
+     them?
+
+     'Did not we find the bones of our brethren there, hard by
+     the High Altar, when we were beautifying the same? O ye
+     degenerate sons of this degenerate age! Two centuries ago
+     and our monks were men of faith and prayer. In the year of
+     grace one thousand two hundred and fifty-one, we found more
+     than thirty of them buried together, and their bones were
+     lying there, white and sweet, redolent with the odor of
+     sanctity every one; each man had been buried as he died, in
+     his monastic habit, and his shoes upon his feet too. Aye,
+     and _such_ shoes--shoes made for wear and not for
+     wantonness. The soles of these shoes were sound and strong,
+     they might have served the purpose for poor men's naked feet
+     even now, after centuries of lying in the grave. Blush ye!
+     ye with your buckles, and your pointed toes and your fiddle
+     faddle. These shoes upon the holy feet that we dug up were
+     as round at the toe as at the heel, and the latchets were
+     all of one piece with the uppers. No rosettes in those days,
+     if you please! They fastened their shoes with a thong, and
+     they wound that thong around their blessed ankles, and they
+     cared not in those holy days whether their shoes were _a
+     pair_. Left foot and right foot each was as the other: and
+     we, when we gazed at the holy relics--we bowed our heads at
+     the edifying sight, and we were dumbfounded, even to awe, as
+     we swung our censers over the sacred graves of the ages
+     past!'
+
+The anecdotes and out-of-the-way pieces of information in the 'Chronica
+Majora,' which may be said to represent the _paragraphs_ of modern
+journalism, are countless. Brother Matthew enlivens his history with
+these cross-lights at every page, and what gives to these scraps an
+added charm is that Matthew himself seems to be always with us when he
+prattles on. Not even Herodotus has succeeded more entirely in
+impressing his quaint personality upon his narrative. It is always
+something which he has seen, or heard from some living man who saw it
+with his own eyes.
+
+     'There was my friend John of Basingstoke, had studied at
+     Paris, and a wonder of learning he was, but he told me
+     himself that his best teacher by far was the young lady
+     Constantina, daughter of an archbishop she. Archbishop of
+     Athens, too--archbishops may marry out there! Before she was
+     twenty she knew all that men may know; she was worth two
+     universities of Paris any day; she foretold the coming of
+     plagues and storms, and eclipses--and--more wonderful
+     still--the coming of earthquakes too: and John of
+     Basingstoke was her scholar, and whatever he knew that was
+     deep and rare, he learnt it of the lady Constantina, the
+     Archbishop's daughter.'
+
+Matthew is very great when he has to tell of omens and portents:
+
+     'We were scurvily treated by Pope Innocent III.,' he says,
+     'in the days of Abbot John. Spite of all our privileges and
+     indulgences, the Pope would have him come to Rome every
+     third year; a sore burden and harm to us all. Forthwith evil
+     omens came. Thrice in three years was our tower struck by
+     lightning. After that wrong of his Holiness it was no wonder
+     that the impression of the papal seal in wax, which we had
+     taken good care to fix on the top of the steeple, availed
+     not to keep off the thunderbolt--small good you see in that
+     kind of thing.'
+
+Besides the miscellaneous paragraphs, there are periodical reports of
+the weather, and the storms, and the droughts, and the harvests.
+Moreover, there are what answer to our police reports, and details of
+criminal proceedings against Jew and Gentile, and births and deaths and
+marriages, and now and then brief notes upon the state of the markets,
+and sometimes hints and reflections upon the desirability of certain
+reforms in Church and State; and all this not in the spirit of modern
+journalism, which at its best too often bears the marks of haste, and
+betrays the literary soldier of fortune paid for his work at so much a
+column, but genuine, hearty, throbbing with a certain passionate loyalty
+to a tradition, or an idea which you may say is exploded, grotesque, or
+fanciful, but which in the 13th century honest men and devout ones lived
+by and lived for, and were trying in their own way to carry out into
+action.
+
+But now that we have got this precious 'Chronicle,' not to mention other
+works in the composition of which Brother Matthew had at least a large
+share--though our space forbids us dwelling upon them or their contents,
+and we must refer our readers to Dr. Luard's elaborate prefaces if they
+would desire to know all about them--another question suggests itself,
+which sooner or later will become a pressing question--What are we going
+to do with such a national work of which this country has great reason
+to be proud?
+
+The days are gone by when a man was supposed to be educated in
+proportion as he was familiar with the literature of Greece and Rome and
+ignorant of everything else. Already at Oxford candidates for the
+highest honours in the final schools think it no shame to read their
+Plato or their Aristotle in English translations, and in half the time
+that was needed under the old plan they get a mastery of their
+Thucydides or Herodotus, devoting themselves to the subject-matter after
+they have proved at 'Moderations' that they have a respectable
+acquaintance with the language of the authors.
+
+May the day be far off when Homer and AEschylus shall cease to be read in
+the original! The great writers of Hellas and Italy were poets or
+orators, great teachers or great thinkers; but they were something more.
+They were perfect instrumentalities too. Their thoughts, their lessons,
+their aspirations, their regrets, you may interpret and transfer into
+the speech and the idioms of the moderns; but the music of their
+language, the subtleties of melody and rhythm, and harmony and tone, can
+no more be translated than a symphony for the strings can be adequately
+represented upon the organ. You may persuade yourself that you have got
+the substance; you have missed the perfection of the form. Yet who but a
+narrow pedant will insist that the study of any literature, ancient or
+modern, is valuable chiefly for familiarizing us with the language, not
+for enriching our minds with the subject matter? Do we desire to
+understand the past and so to be better able to estimate the importance
+of great movements that are going on in the present or, by the help of
+the experience of bygone ages, to forecast the future? Then it behoves
+us to see that our induction shall be made from as wide a view as may
+be, and to avail ourselves of any light that may be gained. But it is
+mere waste of time to be for ever staring at the lamp which may be
+pretty to look at in itself, but is then most precious when it serves as
+a means to an end. If we are ever to construct a Science of History, the
+old methods must give place to something which may approximate to
+philosophic enquiry. When we come to think of it, how very small an area
+of time or space is covered by the historians of Greece and Rome: how
+small an area and how superficially dealt with! Even Thucydides hardly
+ventures to lift the veil which separates the civilization of his own
+age from that of an earlier period; he lifts it for a moment, then drops
+the curtain and passes on. It is true indeed that Herodotus introduces
+us to a world that is not Hellenic, and brings us into some sort of
+relation with men whose habits and art and religion had a character of
+their own; but then these nations were not as we, and not as men even of
+our race could ever become. We never seem to be _in touch_ with Egypt or
+Assyria, and when he prattles on about these nations it is less as a
+historian than as an observant traveller that Herodotus delights and
+allures. Xenophon's passing notices of the manners and education, of the
+_feudalism_ and the social life of the Medes, are too brief to be
+anything but tantalizing; but the neglect of Xenophon by professed
+students is not creditable, however significant. Perhaps of all the
+Greek writers Polybius was the man who had the truest conception of the
+historian's vocation; perhaps, too, it was just because he was so much
+before his age that his voluminous and ambitious work has come down to
+us little more than a fragment. Because he was something better than a
+compiler of annals, they who read history only to be amused found him
+dull, and the moderns have not yet reversed the verdict which was passed
+upon him. Who ever heard of a candidate for honours taking Polybius into
+the schools?
+
+It is from the Latin historians that we might have expected so much and
+from whom we get so little. What do they tell us of ancient Spain--the
+Spain that Sertorius pretended he was going to regenerate, and whose
+civilization, literature, and national life he did so much to
+extinguish? If it were not for what Aristotle has told us in the
+_Politics_, what should we know of that mighty commercial Republic which
+monopolized the carrying trade of the old world? It never seems to have
+occurred to Livy that the political organization of Carthage could be
+worth his notice. His business was to glorify Rome, and to tell how Rome
+grew to greatness--grew by war and conquest and pillage, and the
+ferocious might of her relentless soldiery. The 'Germania' of Tacitus
+stands alone--unique in ancient literature; but what would we not give
+for such a monograph upon the Britain which Caesar attempted to conquer,
+or the Gaul which he plundered and devastated? The great captain's
+famous missive might be inscribed as the motto of his 'Commentaries.'
+Veni! vidi! vici! sums up in brief the substance of what they contain.
+It was always Rome's way! Rome swept a sponge that was soaked in blood
+over all the past of the nations she subdued. She came to obliterate,
+never to preserve. Her chroniclers disdained to ask how these or those
+doughty antagonists had grown formidable, how their national life had
+developed; whether their progress had been arrested by the conquerors or
+whether they had become weak and enervated by social deterioration or
+moral corruption. Enough that they were _Barbarians_.
+
+The science of history can be but little advanced by writers such as
+these, who pass from battlefield to battlefield--
+
+    'Crimson-footed, like the stork,
+    Through great ruts of slaughter,'
+
+and to whom the silent growth of institutions and the evolution of
+ethical sentiments and the development of the arts of peace were matters
+which never presented themselves as worthy of their attention. You may
+call this history if you will, in truth it is little better than
+Empiricism. The world is a larger world than Rome or Athens dreamt of,
+and students of history are beginning to realize that not quite the last
+thing they have to do is 'to look at _home_.' Such a work as the
+'Chronica Majora' of Matthew Paris is a national heritage which it is
+shameful to allow much longer to be known only by the curious and
+erudite. Now that there is no excuse for our neglect, is it too much to
+hope that the day may not be far distant when the name of this great
+Englishman may become as familiar to schoolboys as that of Sallust or
+Livy, of Cornelius Nepos or Caesar--his name as familiar, and his
+writings better known and more loved?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Lord Langdale resigned three weeks before his death.
+
+[2] The proposal to print and publish the _Calendars_ had been approved
+by authority of the new Record Commissioners as early as January 1840.
+_See_ preface to Mr. Lemons' 'Calendar' (Domestic, 1547-1580), p. viii.
+
+[3] In Luard's sixth volume there are two facsimiles of certain coloured
+drawings of the more precious gems at St. Alban's, with careful
+descriptions of them, these and the illustrations being most probably
+_executed by Mathew Paris himself_.
+
+
+
+
+Art. II. 1.--_The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work, with a
+sketch of the Life of their Founder, The Venerable Jean Baptiste de la
+Salle._ By Mrs. R. F. Wilson, London, 1883.
+
+2. _La Premiere Annee d'Instruction Morale et Civique: notions de droit
+et d'economie politique (Textes et Recits) pour repondre a la loi du 28
+Mars 1882 sur l'enseignement primaire obligatoire: ouvrage accompagne de
+Resume, de Questionnaires, de Devoirs, et d'un Lexique des mots
+difficiles._ Par Pierre Laloi. Quatorzieme Edition. Paris, 1885.
+
+3. _Report of the Committee of Council on Education_ (England and
+Wales). 1884-85.
+
+4. _Seventy-fourth Annual Report of the Incorporated National Society._
+1885.
+
+
+Most travellers in France will have met occasionally in Paris and in the
+provincial towns a school of boys walking two and two, and followed by a
+serious-looking superintendent of very solemn deportment. The boys are
+in no marked respect different from other boys, but they are orderly and
+well conducted. They are probably on their way to a church; and if you
+watch them, you will see them march in with much propriety. The
+superintendent is evidently not an ordinary schoolmaster; you would
+suppose that he is an ecclesiastic of some kind. He wears a loose black
+cloak, a hat with a low crown and a portentous brim, and bands such as
+were much worn by English clergymen till late years, and which, when
+strongly developed, were supposed to indicate a sympathy with
+Calvanistic theology. Nevertheless, the solemn-featured young man is not
+an ecclesiastic, neither is he a Protestant minister. He is one of the
+Freres Chretiens, or Christian Brothers; and the boys whom he has under
+his charge are pupils in one of the Ecoles Chretiennes, or Christian
+Schools.
+
+We will venture to assume, that some of our readers are not well
+acquainted with the story and the principles of the remarkable
+institution known as the Schools of the Christian Brothers, or with the
+life of their remarkable founder. We propose in this article to supply
+some information upon the subject, not only because we think that such
+information will be interesting in itself, but also because we believe
+that from the story of the work and principles of the French schools of
+the Christian Brothers, we may proceed without difficulty, and almost by
+necessary consequence, to some useful considerations with respect to
+English schools as now established and conducted amongst ourselves.
+
+Jean Baptiste de la Salle was born in Rheims, April 30, 1651. The house
+in which he was born is still standing, and is regarded with reverence.
+He came of a noble family, which was originally of Bearn. His
+grandfather settled at Rheims, of which he became an honoured citizen,
+but was apparently in no way himself remarkable. His second son, Louis,
+was the father of a child, who received the name of Jean Baptiste on the
+same day as that upon which he was born.
+
+This child, whose career we purpose briefly to follow as that of the
+founder of the Christian Brothers, exhibited early signs of a devotional
+spirit; he learned to recite the Breviary from his grandfather, and
+continued to do so even before being bound to the practice by his
+ordination vows; and he soon made it clear to himself and to others that
+his vocation was that of the priestly office. His conduct as a student
+in the University of Rheims, which he entered at eight years old, was
+marked by diligence in study and gentle docility.
+
+Before he had reached the age of sixteen he was made a canon of the
+cathedral; such were the strange ecclesiastical possibilities of those
+times. An aged relative resigned in his favour, and died the following
+year. The preferment, however, did not spoil him; he looked upon it as a
+call to duty. He was diligent in attendance upon the offices of the
+Church, diligent in private prayer, diligent in study--in every way a
+remarkable boy-canon!
+
+In October 1670 he entered the seminary of St. Sulpice in Paris, where,
+amongst other fellow-students, was Fenelon, subsequently the great
+Archbishop of Cambrai. Little is recorded of his seminary life, except
+that it was gentle, modest, blameless. In 1672 he lost his father, and
+in the same year returned to Rheims to take charge of his younger
+brothers and sisters. The responsible position in which he was thus
+placed seems to have shaken for a time his persuasion that he had a true
+vocation for the priesthood; but after consultation with a friend who
+knew him well, his doubts vanished, and on the eve of Trinity Sunday in
+this same year he was admitted to the subdiaconate.
+
+Then follow six years of quiet home work and retirement. During this
+time he attended the theological course of the University, provided for
+the education of his brothers and sisters, and gave himself very
+earnestly to prayer and good works. In the year 1678, on Easter Eve, he
+was ordained Priest.
+
+During all this time De la Salle's attention does not seem to have been
+turned to that which ultimately became the great work of his life. As
+not unfrequently happens, the real bent was given to his energies by
+what might be described as accidental circumstances. The friend whom he
+consulted when in doubt concerning holy orders was one Canon Roland.
+This good man had interested himself much about an orphanage for girls
+at Rheims, which had fallen under bad management, and urgently needed
+reform. Canon Roland was taken ill just before De la Salle's ordination,
+and, dying not long after, left the young priest his executor,
+commending to his special care the orphanage just mentioned. De la Salle
+could not refuse the charge; it was not much to his taste, but it was
+the bequest of his friend; it was the leading of God; and he girded
+himself to the task. He applied through the Archbishop to the King for
+letters patent recognizing the institution, and thus put it upon a
+lasting foundation; he bore the expense of the whole transaction; then
+he supplemented the funds out of his own means; and having thus
+satisfied his obligations to his deceased friend, he returned to his
+quiet devotional life. The thought that this orphanage for girls would
+constitute a valuable training school for schoolmistresses seems already
+to have crossed his mind.
+
+Now comes the turning-point of De la Salle's life, and it comes in a
+curious way. There was a certain rich, fashionable, and extravagant
+married lady living in Rouen, who, like the rich man in the parable, was
+clothed in fine linen and fared sumptuously every day, while Lazarus lay
+at the gate. One day a poor beggar, who had been harshly repulsed from
+the door, touched the heart of a servant by his manifest misery, and was
+received into the stables, where he died the same night. The dead man
+must needs be buried; so the servant went to the mistress, confessed his
+fault, received some violent language and notice of dismissal, but at
+the same time procured a sheet to serve as a shroud for the corpse. At
+dinner-time the lady perceived the very sheet, which she had given for
+the burial, folded up and lying in her own chair; some mysterious hand
+had brought back the ungracious present, as though the deceased beggar
+would not receive a favour in death from one who had been so cruel to
+him in life.
+
+This strange and apparently not very important occurrence changed the
+whole course of the lady's life. She gave up all her old habits of
+magnificence and extravagance, lived the life of a devotee, and soon
+succeeded in separating from herself all her old companions and friends,
+who, in fact, deemed her mad. After her husband's death she became still
+more strict in her habits, and devoted to the service of the poor a
+large part of her fortune.
+
+Amongst other charities which she assisted was the female orphanage, of
+which we have already spoken as having been cared for by Canon Roland,
+and after his death by M. de la Salle. She conceived the idea of
+establishing something of the same kind for boys in her native town of
+Rheims, and she consulted Canon Roland on the subject. Ultimately she
+engaged a devout layman, named Adrien Nyel, who had experience of poor
+schools in Rouen, promised him maintenance for himself and a young
+assistant, gave him a letter of introduction to her relative M. de la
+Salle, and sent him to Rheims to open a school there for poor boys.
+
+This school, which was commenced in 1679, was the germ of the great
+system of _Ecoles Chretiennes_. Its success led a pious lady in Rheims
+to wish to establish another of the same kind in a different part of the
+town. She consulted M. de la Salle, who had become patron of the first
+school, on the subject; and thus he became, without any special wish or
+intention of his own, drawn into the work of the education of poor boys.
+His own account of the matter is worth quoting:--
+
+     'It was,' he wrote, 'by the chance meeting with M. Nyel, and
+     by hearing of the proposal made by that lady [to whom
+     reference has been made], that I was led to begin to
+     interest myself about boys' schools. I had no thought of it
+     before. It was not that the subject had not been suggested
+     to me. Many of M. Roland's friends had tried to interest me
+     about it, but it took no hold of my mind, and I had not the
+     least intention of occupying myself with it. If I had ever
+     thought that the care which out of pure charity I was taking
+     of schoolmasters would have brought me to feel it a duty to
+     live with them, I should have given it up at once; for as I
+     naturally felt myself very much above those whom I was
+     obliged to employ as schoolmasters, especially at first, the
+     bare idea of being obliged to live with such persons would
+     have been insupportable to me. In fact, it was a great
+     trouble to me when first I took them into my house, and the
+     dislike of it lasted for two years. It was apparently for
+     this reason that God, who orders all things with wisdom and
+     gentleness, and who does not force the inclinations of men,
+     when He willed to employ me entirely in the care of schools,
+     wrought imperceptibly and during a long space of time, so
+     that one engagement led to another in an unforeseen way.'
+
+This passage somewhat anticipates events; but it is convenient for the
+condensed character of this narrative that it should be so. We will
+therefore briefly fill up the gap left by M. de la Salle's own statement
+by saying, that he found the work of directing schools for the poor
+increase upon his hands in a wonderful manner. The success of those
+which he visited and superintended led to the establishment of others.
+Soon the masters themselves formed a small body which required
+superintendence and guidance. He took a house in which he placed them;
+the home of course needed rules for its orderly and efficient working;
+these M. de la Salle supplied. But still all was not quite as it should
+be. Cathedral duties took up much of the Canon's time; these duties were
+of primary obligation, and left comparatively little of the day to be
+given to the superintendence of schoolmasters. But more than this, the
+difference of station and comfort and habits between a well-endowed
+Canon of a Cathedral, enjoying in addition a private fortune of his own,
+and poor schoolmasters taken from the humblest ranks, and living in the
+most humble manner, was quite immeasurable. It was comparatively easy to
+have the whole company to dine with him, and so to meet them half way
+down the social hill; but this was not enough. M. de la Salle began
+gradually to realize the fact, that his great undertaking of supplying
+schools and schoolmasters for the gratuitous education of the poor,
+could only be crowned with complete success on the condition of his own
+adoption of poverty in all its thoroughness. Accordingly he determined
+to resign his canonry and spend his fortune upon the poor. Not
+altogether so easy a thing as might at first sight appear. Great
+opposition was made by his friends: the Archbishop was unwilling to
+accept his resignation: nothing but persevering determination on the
+part of De la Salle could have carried the business through; but he was
+full of perseverance and full of determination, and in 1683 he at last
+succeeded in divesting himself of his Cathedral preferment. The sale of
+his property, and spending the money upon the poor, was an easier
+matter, especially as the year 1684 was one of dearth; in the course of
+that year and the following he managed to get rid of all.
+
+This parting with his money, instead of spending it upon his great work,
+may well seem to be a conduct of doubtful wisdom; especially as at a
+later period much difficulty was encountered for want of funds. But it
+is hard, and perhaps not justifiable, to find fault with a man, who
+adopts the course of selling all that he has and giving to the poor,
+after using devoutly such a prayer as the following:--
+
+     'My God, I do not know whether to endow or not. It is not
+     for me to found communities, or to know how they should be
+     founded. It, is for Thee, Oh my God. Thou knowest how, and
+     canst do it in the way which is pleasing to Thee. If Thou
+     foundest them, they will be well founded. If Thou foundest
+     them not, they will be without foundation. I beseech Thee,
+     my God, make me know Thy will.'
+
+Soon after the last livre was spent, De la Salle had occasion to make a
+journey in connection with his work. He went on foot, as needs he must,
+and begged his way. An old woman gave him a piece of black bread; he ate
+it with joy, feeling that now he was indeed a poor man. He had at this
+time reached the age of thirty-three years.
+
+Behold the Society of the Christian Brothers, and the Christian Schools,
+taking form at last with De la Salle at the head! Let us examine that
+work and see how matters stand.
+
+In the first place, so far as the founder was himself concerned, his
+life was one of asceticism, but still more of prayer:--
+
+     'He prayed by day and by night--his life was one incessant
+     communion with God. He would fain have avoided even the
+     interruption caused by sleep, and he grudged every moment
+     given to it, because it shortened his time of prayer. He
+     slept on the ground, or sometimes in his chair, and was the
+     first to rise at the sound of the morning bell. While at
+     Rheims he regularly spent Friday night in the Church of
+     Saint Remi; he made the sacristan lock him in, and there
+     poured out his soul in prayer for help, and guidance, and
+     success in his work.'
+
+The Superior and the Brothers of course lived a common life. The great
+principle of bringing himself exactly to the level of those who worked
+under him, which had led to his resignation of his stall and the sale of
+his property, made it quite certain that he would not call upon the
+Brothers to do or to bear anything which he was not willing to do and to
+bear himself. But the burden was heavier to him than to them. They were
+poor men originally, accustomed to hard work and rough fare; while he
+had been brought up in ease and plenty, and had never known what want
+and poverty were. Consequently it cost De la Salle much effort and
+self-denial to enter upon his new life; but he was satisfied with no
+half measures; the sacrifice was to be absolute and complete; he fought
+the battle and gained it,--yet not he, but the grace of God that was in
+him. At the first starting of the Society there was no distinct rule,
+but the following arrangements were made:--
+
+The food was to be substantial but frugal, fit for labourers engaged in
+hard toil; nothing costly, nothing but what was necessary; on the other
+hand no special rigour of abstinence, beyond that demanded of other
+Christians.
+
+For dress was adopted a capote, such as was common in the country, made
+of coarse material, and black; together with a black cassock, thick
+shoes, and a broad-brimmed hat.
+
+For a name they chose that of 'Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes,' or, as
+commonly abbreviated, 'Freres Chretiens.'
+
+With regard to vows, De la Salle decided that they should take the
+three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but for three years
+only. They might make them perpetual the following year.
+
+As to the Superior himself, he had little difficulty with regard to the
+first two points, for his only possessions were a New Testament, a copy
+of the 'Initiation,' a Crucifix and a Rosary; and to celibacy he was
+already committed. With regard to obedience, the fulfilment of the vow
+was not easy to a man in his position; but he endeavoured to find a way
+to make this vow also a practical one, by the method of resigning his
+post and putting one of the Brothers in his place; this he ultimately
+succeeded in doing, though only for a short time.
+
+We must leave to the reader's imagination the manner in which the work
+grew under such remarkable auspices, the growth of M. de la Salle's
+reputation as a saint, and the constantly increasing load of
+responsibilities of all kinds which rested upon his shoulders.
+
+In the year 1688 the work extended to Paris. When De la Salle arrived
+there he left behind him in Rheims a principal house containing sixteen
+Brothers, and a training college for country schoolmasters, containing
+thirty men, besides fifteen lads in their noviciate. For the purpose of
+his work in Paris he hired a house in the village of Vaugirard; this he
+occupied for seven years, collecting the Brothers about him in their
+vacations, and making it a home for the sick and weary, and a place
+where postulants might make proof of their profession. We shall not
+follow his footsteps during this time, except to say that the work
+flourished wonderfully well under his hand, as it always did,
+notwithstanding all kinds of difficulties. We may produce, however, a
+striking document of self-dedication which belongs to this period. The
+Brothers seem to have been strongly moved by the desire of making their
+vows perpetual, instead of only for three years; the Superior opposed
+the innovation, but finding them resolute, he at length gave way, and
+commenced the new system by a formal dedication of himself, expressed in
+the following remarkable words:--
+
+     'Most Holy Trinity, Father, Son and Holy Ghost, prostrate in
+     deepest reverence before Thine infinite and adorable
+     Majesty, I consecrate myself wholly to Thee, to seek Thy
+     glory in all ways possible to me, or to which Thou shalt
+     call me. And to this end I, Jean Baptiste de la Salle,
+     Priest, promise and vow to unite myself to, and abide in
+     society with, the Brothers [here follow twelve names], and
+     in union and association with them to hold free schools in
+     any place whatsoever (even though, in order to do so, I
+     should have to beg for alms, and live on dry bread), or to
+     do in the said Society any work which may be appointed for
+     me, whether by the Community or by the Superior who shall
+     have the direction of it. For which reason I promise and vow
+     obedience as well to the Society itself as to the Superior
+     of it. And these vows of association with, and steadfastness
+     in, the said Community, and of obedience, I promise to keep
+     inviolable during my whole life; in witness whereof I have
+     signed. Done at Vaugirard, this sixth day of June, being the
+     Feast of the Most Holy Trinity, in the year 1694.
+
+    '(Signed) DE LA SALLE.'
+
+Having taken this step, De la Salle made a great effort to divest
+himself of his post as Superior, but in vain. He argued, but the
+Brothers were not convinced. He insisted upon an election, and every
+single vote was given for him. He begged for a second voting, but the
+result was the same. The Brothers said it would be time enough for them
+to elect his successor, when death had deprived them of him. So in his
+post of Superior he remained; and doubtless the Brothers were right, and
+he was wrong, as to the point in dispute between them.
+
+Let us now look for a moment at the rule of the Christian Brothers in
+the complete form which it ultimately assumed.
+
+The first article sets forth the purpose of the Society as follows:--
+
+     'The Institute of the Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes is a
+     Society, the profession of whose members is to hold schools
+     gratuitously. The object of this Institute is to give a
+     Christian education to children, and it is for this purpose
+     that schools are held, in order that the masters, who have
+     charge of the children from morning to night, may bring them
+     up to lead good lives, by instructing them in the mysteries
+     of our Holy Religion and filling their minds with Christian
+     maxims, while they give them such an education as is fitting
+     for them.'
+
+Thus the schools were to be free, and they were to be essentially and
+fundamentally Christian; but there was no intention of making them
+exclusively religious and banishing secular studies. On the other hand,
+the greater part of the time given to the children was devoted, as in
+reason it must be, to secular teaching; and only a small portion
+retained for teaching of a more solemn kind. No doubt De la Salle
+depended for the religious results of schooling more upon the men who
+taught and the general atmosphere of his schools, than upon amount of
+religious lessons actually taught and learnt: this is indicated by the
+following article of the Rule:--
+
+     'The Brothers of the Society will have a very deep reverence
+     for the Holy Scriptures, and in token of it they will always
+     carry about them a copy of the New Testament, and will pass
+     no day without reading a portion of it, in faith, respect,
+     and veneration for the Divine Words which it contains. They
+     will look upon it as their prime and principal Rule.'
+
+Again:--
+
+     'The spirit of the Institute consists in a burning zeal for
+     the instruction of children, that they may be brought up in
+     the fear and love of God, and led to preserve their
+     innocence, where they have not already lost it; to keep them
+     from sin, and to instil into their minds a great horror of
+     evil, and of everything that might rob them of purity.'
+
+The great purpose of De la Salle was to form men suitable for the work
+of education as thus conceived; and one notable feature of his scheme
+was that they should be laymen; even with regard to the Superior of the
+Society, De la Salle, though himself a Priest, bound the Brethren down
+to a pledge that they would not, when he was gone, elect a Priest into
+his room. It is needless to say that he had no prejudice against the
+priestly office as such; but he was genuinely persuaded that the work
+which he wished to have done could best be performed by laymen; partly
+because they could give themselves up to it more completely, partly
+because they could be had more cheaply, and partly because poor men such
+as he enlisted, and intended to enlist, were more thoroughly on a level
+with the poor, whose children he desired to educate. It was in the same
+spirit that he forbade to the Brothers the knowledge of Latin.
+
+There are five vows in the Society. Brothers who have not attained the
+age of twenty-five years can take them for only three years. No one may
+take them even for three years, until he has been at least two years in
+the Society, and has had one year's experience of the Noviciate, and one
+year's teaching in the schools. The vows are as follows:--
+
+    1. Poverty.
+    2. Chastity.
+    3. Obedience.
+    4. Steadfastness.
+    5. Giving gratuitous instruction to children.
+
+By this last vow they also bind themselves to take all possible pains to
+teach them well and to bring them up Christianly; and they promise
+neither to ask nor to accept, from the scholars, or from their parents,
+anything, be it what it may, either as a gift, or in any other form of
+remuneration whatsoever.
+
+The rule of daily life is given by the following table:--
+
+     4.30 A.M. Hour of rising.
+
+     5. Prayer and meditation.
+
+     6. Attend Mass, reading, &c.
+
+     7.15. Breakfast; prayer and preparation for school.
+
+     8 till 11. School, and children taken to Church.
+
+     11.30. Particular examination of conscience; dinner and
+     recreation.
+
+     1 P.M. Prayer in oratory, and depart to various schools.
+
+     1.30 till 5. School; half an-hour given to catechism.
+
+     5.30. Spiritual reading and mental prayer. The reading
+     begins with a portion of the New Testament, read upon the
+     knees.
+
+     6. Mental prayer, and confession of faults one to another.
+
+     6.30. Supper; reading at all meals; recreation.
+
+     8. Study of catechism.
+
+     8.30. Prayers in oratory.
+
+     9. Retire to dormitory; in bed by 9.15.
+
+So much for the Rule of the Christian Brothers. It is sufficiently
+strict; but, as before remarked, not intensified by any special
+austerities. The general order prescribed is, however, strengthened by
+injunctions against unnecessary communications with persons outside the
+Brotherhood, unnecessary possessions, unnecessary exercise of the will:
+the devotion to the rule is absolute, the poverty complete, the
+submission of the will unbounded. Very wonderful all this, but quite
+true.
+
+In connection with the rule, it may be well to say a few words
+concerning the manuals which De la Salle composed for the guidance of
+the Brothers. The principal was a book entitled, 'Conduite a l'usage des
+Ecoles Chretiennes;' this was circulated in manuscript, and a copy given
+to each Brother in charge of a school, but was not printed during the
+author's lifetime. He revised it in 1717, when he had retired from his
+post as Superior, and it was printed in 1720, a year after his death. It
+has been the guide of the Brothers ever since, and is read through twice
+a year in every one of their houses. The book shows great insight and
+good sense. Here is an instruction for a lesson in arithemetic:--
+
+     'After the children have done their sums on the paper,
+     instead of correcting them himself the master will make the
+     children find out their mistakes for themselves, by rational
+     explanation of the processes. He will ask them, for
+     instance, why in addition of money they begin with the
+     lowest coin, and other questions of the same sort, so as to
+     make sure that they have an intelligent understanding of
+     what they do.'
+
+When the subject is religious teaching, the tone of the book rises to
+the occasion:--
+
+     'The masters will take such great care in the instruction of
+     all their scholars, that not one shall be left in ignorance,
+     at least of the things which a Christian ought to believe
+     and do. And to the end they may not neglect a thing of such
+     great importance, they will often meditate earnestly on the
+     account which they will have to give to God, and that they
+     will be guilty in his sight of the ignorance of the children
+     who shall have been under their care, and also of the sins
+     into which their ignorance may have caused them to fall.'
+
+The faults which De la Salle regards as worthy of being treated with
+most severity are these: untruthfulness, quarrelling, theft, impurity,
+misbehaviour in church. It is notable that idleness and inattention to
+lessons, sauciness, and other boyish faults, which have brought much
+trouble upon many thousands of urchins, are not here enumerated at all;
+probably the wise Superior of the Christian Brothers thought that these
+and the like infirmities could be more successfully treated by other
+means than by severe punishment. We incline to believe that he was
+right. Certainly we shall have no difficulty in assenting to the wisdom
+of the rules laid down as to the conditions of punishment being useful:
+it must be (1) disinterested, that is, free from all feeling of revenge;
+(2) charitable, that is, inflicted from a real love to the child; (3)
+just; (4) proportioned to the fault; (5) moderate; (6) free from anger;
+(7) prudent; (8) voluntary on the part of the scholar, that is,
+understood and accepted by him; (9) received with respectful submission;
+(10) in silence on both sides.
+
+These samples must suffice to indicate M. de la Salle's practical and
+simple wisdom.
+
+The thought of all that we wish to say before concluding this article
+compels us once more to appeal to the reader's imagination with regard
+to the success of De la Salle's work. His fame went through France and
+beyond it; he became the recognized apostle of elementary education;
+when he made an expedition to Calais and the north in the latter part of
+his career, it was almost a triumphal progress; nothing, however, could
+spoil the sweet simplicity of his character, or interfere with his utter
+devotion to his work, and his humble desire to shift the burden upon
+what he believed to be stronger shoulders than his own. This desire was
+at length accomplished, and on the 8th of May, 1717, after much earnest
+consideration and religious observance, a second Superior of their
+Society was unanimously elected by the Christian Brothers.
+
+And now this remarkable man had nothing more to do in this world but to
+await his call and to depart in peace. At the earnest entreaty of the
+Brethren he took up his abode with them in their house at Rouen; and
+there, in the midst of increasing infirmities, and in the exercise (so
+far as was possible) of his priestly office, he tarried the Lord's
+leisure. We give the closing scene in the words of the interesting
+volume, the title of which heads this article, and from which we have
+been drawing the materials of our sketch.
+
+     'The Festival of St. Joseph, March 19, was approaching. He
+     had always had a special veneration for that great Saint,
+     whom he had chosen for patron of his Society, and he had a
+     great wish to celebrate once more on that Festival. He could
+     hardly have hoped to do so, for he had now for some time
+     been quite unable to leave his bed; but in the evening of
+     the 18th, about ten o'clock, his pain was unexpectedly
+     relieved, and he was conscious of some return of strength.
+     The night was quiet, and on the morning of the Festival he
+     was able to crawl to the Altar, and to celebrate the Holy
+     Mysteries in the presence of all the Brothers, who could
+     scarcely believe their eyes. All that day he continued
+     better, was able to converse with the Brothers, listened for
+     the last time to their confidential talk, and gave them some
+     last counsels. But the pain came on again, and he was
+     obliged to go to bed.
+
+     'The Cure of the parish, hearing that he was worse, hastened
+     to visit him, and thinking from the bright cheerfulness of
+     his face that the dying man was not aware of his own
+     condition, said to him, "Do you know that you are dying, and
+     must soon appear before the presence of God?" "I know it,"
+     was the answer, "and I wait His commands; my lot is in His
+     hands, His will be done." In truth, his soul dwelt
+     continually in unbroken communion with God, and he only
+     waited with longing for the moment when the last ties that
+     bound him to earth should be severed. Several days passed
+     thus. Feeling that he was getting worse, he asked for the
+     Viaticum, and it was arranged that he should receive it on
+     the following day, which was Wednesday in Holy Week. He
+     spent the whole night in preparation, and his little cell
+     was decorated as well as the poverty of the house allowed.
+     When the time came, he insisted on being taken out of bed,
+     and dressed, and placed in a chair, vested in a surplice and
+     stole. At the sound of the bell announcing the approach of
+     the Priest, he threw himself on his knees, and received his
+     last Communion with the same wonderful devotion which had
+     often formerly struck those who assisted at his Mass, only
+     with even more of the fire of love in his face. It was the
+     last gleam of a dying light, which was being extinguished on
+     earth, to shine with undiminished brightness "as the stars
+     for ever and ever."
+
+     'The next day he received Extreme Unction. His mind was
+     still quite clear, and the Superior asked him to give his
+     blessing to the Brothers who were kneeling round him, as
+     well as to all the rest of the Community. He raised his eyes
+     to heaven, stretched out his hands, and said, "The Lord
+     bless you all."
+
+     'Later in the day he became unconscious, and the prayers for
+     the dying were said; but again he revived. About midnight
+     the death agony came on: it was the night of the Agony in
+     Gethsemane. It lasted till after two: then there was another
+     interval of comparative ease, and he was able to speak. The
+     Superior asked him whether he accepted willingly all his
+     sufferings. "Yes," he replied, "I adore in all things the
+     dealings of God with me." These were his last words; at
+     three o'clock the agony returned, but only for a short hour.
+     At four o'clock in the morning of Good Friday, the 7th of
+     April, 1719, he fell asleep.
+
+     'As soon as the news of his death was spread abroad, the
+     house was beset by crowds desiring to see him. All revered
+     him as a Saint, and wanted to look once more on the
+     venerable face, and to carry away something in remembrance
+     of him. He had nothing belonging to him but a Crucifix, a
+     New Testament, and a copy of the Imitation; but his poor
+     garments were cut up, and distributed in little bits to
+     satisfy the people.'
+
+The Christian Brothers since the death of their great founder have
+steadily continued their charitable self-denying work. They have
+received much encouragement from high authorities in Church and State,
+much also from the good opinion which their work has gained for them
+wherever it has been known. Their history, however, records reverses:
+the chief of them connected with the catastrophe of the great
+Revolution. With regard to this, it might have been expected on general
+grounds, that in a social upheaval, which was essentially a rising of
+the poor and oppressed against the rich and the privileged, a society
+which had poverty as its foundation principle, and the free education of
+the children of the poor as its only reason of existence, must have been
+spared by general consent in the midst of the social ruin by which so
+much was overwhelmed. At first it seemed that this might have been so;
+when the Religious Orders were suppressed by decree of the National
+Assembly in 1790, exception was made in favour of those engaged in
+public instruction and the care of the sick; but in 1792 all
+corporations, specially including the Christian Brothers, were
+abolished, on the ground that their existence was incompatible with the
+conditions of a really free State. During the Reign of Terror the
+Institute was broken up, the Brothers scattered, and many suffered.
+There was a revival under Napoleon, which lasted till the Revolution of
+1830. At this time the Institute was shaken, as was almost everything
+else in France; but the recognized merits of the Christian Brothers
+carried them safely through the storm, and one of the most telling and
+triumphant facts in their history is the confidence reposed in them by
+M. Guizot, when Minister of Public instruction under Louis Philippe.
+More than once M. Guizot endeavoured, but in vain, to persuade the
+Superior to accept the Cross of the Legion of Honour.
+
+The work of the Christian Brothers in France at the present time is of
+special value; but also carried on under much chilling discouragement. A
+systematic attempt is being made to secularize education, and to drive
+every indication of religious faith from the primary schools. It remains
+to be seen what will be the result of the fanatical opposition to all
+that is dear to the minds of many French men and almost all French
+women, which is carried on so persistently by the Legislature and the
+Government. Already there are signs of reaction; the result of the late
+elections, which has substantially changed the proportion of parties in
+the representative Chamber, is probably not a little connected with the
+enforcement of an utterly godless education.[4] Meanwhile it would seem,
+as a matter of fact, that the number of children under the teaching of
+the Christian Brothers has increased instead of diminishing: there are
+still some French people left who have not bowed the knee to Secularism,
+and Materialism, and Atheism: even those who tremble at Priestcraft can
+accept the ministration of the Christian Brothers, who cannot (as we
+have seen) be Priests, according to their fundamental rule: and so,
+although the secularist flood is just now frightfully high, there is a
+gleam of hope to be found in the work of the Christian Schools, and the
+light which shines in them and from them may serve as a witness for God
+till the tyranny be overpast, and then may perhaps serve as a light at
+which the torch of religious teaching will be lighted again once more.
+
+We have placed at the head of this article the title of one of the
+manuals in use in the primary schools of France. It is worth studying in
+connection with the work of the Christian Brothers, and on other grounds
+as well. The entire absence of all reference to God or to any kind of
+religious knowledge or religious principle in connection with duty is
+startling, and gives the book a complexion somewhat strange to an
+English mind; and there are portions which can scarcely fail to strike
+an Englishman as droll; but is full of French ingenuity. It contains a
+vast amount of compressed information, and the dry instruction of the
+text is enforced, or rather sweetened and made palatable, by a series of
+stories in the form of a running commentary or collection of foot-notes,
+in which the heroes of the stories illustrate the lessons which the
+scholars have to learn.
+
+We take two or three specimens from the manual, which we will present in
+a free translation:--
+
+     OUR DUTIES TOWARDS OURSELVES
+
+     'As you grow older, you become more serious. Consider what
+     your duties are.
+
+     'You have duties towards yourselves, that is, towards your
+     bodies and towards your souls.
+
+     'Sound health must be taken care of; weak health must be
+     strengthened by a good hygiene.
+
+     'Hygiene demands cleanliness; wash your whole body carefully
+     and frequently.
+
+     'Keep nothing dirty upon you, nor in your house, nor near
+     your house.
+
+     'Hygiene demands good air: air your bed, your chamber, and
+     all places in which you live and work.
+
+     'Hygiene forbids all excess, and the use of injurious
+     things, as alcohol and tobacco. It prescribes temperance and
+     sobriety.
+
+     'Hygiene requires you to avoid a sudden change from heat to
+     cold. When you are in a perspiration, do not lie down upon
+     the ground, do not expose yourself to draughts, and do not
+     drink cold water.
+
+     'Hygiene requires gymnastic exercises, which make the body
+     supple, healthy, and strong.
+
+     '_Attention to health gives a chance of long life._
+
+     'In order to fulfil your duties towards your soul, you must
+     continue to cultivate your intelligence and to educate
+     yourself.
+
+     'Do not forget that you can educate yourself at any age.
+
+     'You must fight against sensuality, which would make you
+     gluttons, drunkards, and debauchees; against idleness, which
+     would make you useless to others and a burden to them;
+     against selfishness and vanity, which would make others
+     detest you; envy, which would render you unhappy and
+     hateful; anger and hatred, which might lead you to all kinds
+     of evil deeds.'
+
+These lessons are enforced by an extract from the French Law, which
+informs scholar that the persons found in a condition of manifest
+intoxication in the street or a public-house are punished by a fine of
+from 1 to 15 francs; that for a second offence the punishment is
+imprisonment for three days; and that for a third breach of the law the
+offender may be sentenced to imprisonment for from six days to a month,
+and to a fine of from 16 to 300 francs. In addition to this, the
+offenders will be declared incapable of exercising their political
+rights for two years.
+
+This is a very practical teaching; but the duties which little boys owe
+to their bodies and souls are rendered more attractive, than either the
+dicta concerning hygiene or the threatened results of evil ways are
+likely to make them, by the history of a certain Dr. John Burnett, a
+physician, who made an immense fortune in New York. This is found as a
+_feuilleton_ at the foot of the page, under the title 'Un Bon
+Charlatan.'
+
+The pith of the teaching under the head of Morals, is contained in the
+following summary:--
+
+     '1. I will fulfil my duties towards myself. My duties
+     towards my body are, cleanliness, sobriety, temperance,
+     precaution against the inclemency of the seasons, exercise.
+
+     '2. I will fulfil my duties towards my soul by continuing to
+     educate myself, and by combating all bad passions.
+
+     '3. I will not do to another that which I would not that he
+     should do to me.
+
+     '4. I will not do him wrong, either by striking him, or
+     robbing him, or deceiving him, or lying to him, or by
+     breaking my promise, or by speaking evil of him, or by
+     calumniating him.
+
+     '5. I will do to another that which I should wish him to do
+     to me.
+
+     '6. I will love him, I will be grateful, exact, discreet,
+     charitable.'
+
+Very good resolutions these, but one cannot avoid the thought that the
+little scholar might estimate 3 and 5 not the less, perhaps the more, if
+informed of the life and character of Him who first spoke these apparent
+simple rules in such a manner as to impress them upon the heart of the
+world. Would not all the resolutions gain strength from the belief that
+duty towards God is the true spring of duty towards our neighbours and
+ourselves, and that the grace of God is necessary to make the best
+resolutions practically operative in the life?
+
+We will now give our readers a specimen of the tales by which the
+lessons of the manual are illustrated and enforced. It shall be taken
+from the section entitled _Society_, the second subsection of which is
+as follows:--
+
+     'FREEDOM OF LABOUR.
+
+     'In France; labour is free; every one employs, as he
+     pleases, his intelligence and his arms.
+
+     'You may choose any profession you please; but everybody
+     else has the same right as yourself.
+
+     'Competition is therefore permitted; never complain of
+     competition.
+
+     'If you hinder your neighbour from working as he pleases,
+     you may yourself be hindered in like manner.
+
+     'Competition excites the workman to do his best and at the
+     cheapest rate.
+
+     'Thus competition is advantageous to all. _Never ask Society
+     to interfere with the freedom of labour, but work hard
+     yourself._'
+
+These wholesome lessons on competition are illustrated by the following
+tale:--
+
+     GREGORY'S VIEWS ON COMPETITION.
+
+     'Our friend Gregory is a good husband; but he sometimes has
+     little arguments with his wife.
+
+     'The other day, Mrs. Gregory was angry, because she had
+     found out that a shoemaker was going to establish himself in
+     the village. "What do we want another shoemaker for," said
+     she "when you and I are here already? The Government ought
+     to prevent such things."
+
+     'Gregory, who was at his work, lifted his head and said:
+     "The Government ought to prevent women from talking
+     nonsense. Suppose that I was the shoemaker who had just
+     established himself in the village; what would you say if
+     any one interfered with my carrying on my trade? You would
+     not be very well pleased, I fancy."
+
+     'He then explained to his wife the necessity of competition.
+
+     '"There is plenty of work for everybody," said he. "If there
+     had been already two or three shoemakers in the place, this
+     new fellow would not have come to settle here. He would have
+     seen that there was nothing for him to do. I am surprised
+     that no competing shoemaker has come here before. You know
+     very well that we have sometimes to refuse work, and that
+     there are people in the village who have to go to the town
+     to get their shoes. Beyond doubt the newcomer will take some
+     of our custom; but it is our business to look after that. We
+     must work better than we have done hitherto; and that's all
+     about it."
+
+     'Mrs. Gregory was not convinced, but she said nothing.
+
+     '"You see," continued Gregory, "you must look a little
+     beyond the end of your nose. You wish that there should be
+     only one shoemaker in the place. The linendraper wishes that
+     there should be only one linendraper; the grocer only one
+     grocer; and so on through all the trades. Very well; don't
+     you remember when we had only one linendraper how dear
+     shirts used to be? And don't you remember some twenty years
+     ago, when there was only one smith? You could never get hold
+     of him; and when you did, his charges were tremendous. I
+     recollect him putting a bell to our front door. When he gave
+     me the bill, and I had seen the amount, I said to him, 'my
+     good fellow, I didn't order a silver bell.' 'And I have not
+     put up a silver bell,' was the reply. 'Oh! I thought from
+     the price it must have been silver,' said I. This vexed him,
+     and he answered, 'If you are not satisfied, go elsewhere.'
+     That was well enough; he was the only smith in the
+     neighbourhood. I could not send for a man from Pekin: he
+     would have been sure to be lost on the road, and I should
+     have been obliged to provide for his family."
+
+     'Gregory made some other good remarks to show that if
+     competition prevents a shopkeeper from selling his goods at
+     a high price, it enables him to buy from others at a cheap
+     rate. "So on the whole," concluded he, "do not let us fuss
+     and make ourselves ill. I would much rather have some
+     coffee, than be compelled to take medicine."'
+
+Gregory must have had some of the saintly qualities of his great
+namesakes to enable him to take so calm a view of the invasion of his
+shoemaking monopoly. We trust that Mrs. Gregory was eventually convinced
+by his wise and philosophical arguments, and still more, that the
+generation of Frenchmen who enjoy such teaching from their early years
+may emulate so bright an example.
+
+We cannot refrain from making one more extract from our little manual.
+The thirteenth section deals with 'The Rights and Duties of the Citizen'
+and the third subsection treats as follows of:--
+
+     'POLITICAL DUTIES.
+
+     'The French people ought more than any other people, to
+     respect the law made by its own deputies.
+
+     'It ought without murmuring to pay the taxes voted by the
+     Chambers, and to fulfil its military duties.
+
+     'It ought to respect the authority of all the agents of the
+     Government, from the lowest to the highest, from the _garde
+     champetre_ to the Ministers and the President of the
+     Republic, for the agents of authority are the servants of
+     the law, and all are chosen directly or indirectly, by the
+     deputies of the people.
+
+     '_The greater the rights of citizens, the greater their
+     duties._
+
+     'It used to be said, _Noblesse oblige_. This meant: a
+     nobleman ought to behave himself better than another, to be
+     worthy of his nobility.
+
+     'It should now be said, _Liberte oblige_. This means that a
+     free citizen ought to behave himself better than another, in
+     order to be worthy of liberty.
+
+     'You have the duty of putting your name upon the electoral
+     roll at the Mairie of the Commune in which you reside.
+
+     'You have the duty of voting, and you must vote according to
+     your conscience.
+
+     'You have not the right of being indifferent to public
+     affairs, and of saying that they do not concern you.
+
+     'You have an interest in securing to your Commune good
+     Municipal Councillors, who will look well after the
+     finances, will take care of the schools, and of the roads,
+     and attend to all wants.
+
+     'You have an interest in securing to your Department good
+     General Councillors, who will do for the Department what the
+     Municipal Councillors do for the Commune.
+
+     'You have an interest in nominating good Deputies and good
+     Senators, who may make useful and just laws, choose a
+     President of the Republic worthy of that supreme honour, and
+     keep the Government in good ways.
+
+     'You ought to make a good choice, not merely for your own
+     interest, but for the love of your country.
+
+     '_Love those republican institutions which France has
+     provided for herself._
+
+     'Endeavour to make them loved, respecting the while your
+     neighbour's opinions, and restraining yourself from all
+     hatred and from all violence.
+
+     'The future of the Republic depends upon each of you. If
+     each of you does his duty, it will be strong: strong enough
+     to make our lives happy, and to restore to us one day the
+     brothers whom we have lost--the BROTHERS OF ALSACE AND
+     LORRAINE.'
+
+This is the conclusion of the manual. All works up to ALSACE AND
+LORRAINE. (The capital letters are in the original.) Is it not
+delightful? Is it not most truly French?
+
+We should be sorry to see a parody or parallel to this French manual
+introduced into our schools. At the same time we think there is
+something to be learnt from studying it. Our neighbours seem to have in
+some respect learnt better than ourselves the maxim of Horace:--
+
+               'pueris dant crustula blandi
+    Doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima.'
+
+The pages of our manual are full of literary _crustula_; and we imagine
+that most boys would find themselves sufficiently amused to read and
+study the book, whether they were desirous of profiting by the contents
+or not. And after all it is a great thing to _get hold_ of a boy,
+whether it be by the loving and evidently self-sacrificing efforts of
+the Christian Brothers, or by the ingenious mental food provided by the
+Minister of Public Instruction. Notwithstanding such ingenuity, we do
+not, however, believe that the present system of French teaching can
+answer: it is hollow and unsound: it ignores the deepest of motives, and
+disregards the most potent of influences: it may breed a desire to fight
+with Germany for the recovery of Alsace and Lorraine, but it can
+scarcely produce the highest class of citizens and heroes, because it
+does not acknowledge the fear of God as the beginning of wisdom, and the
+love of God as the best foundation of the love of man. The principles of
+duty inculcated in the manual from which we have been exhibiting a few
+elegant extracts will never rear such a character as De la Salle, nor
+supply the foundation of such an institution as that of the Christian
+Brothers.
+
+But we must come nearer home--
+
+    'Nam tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet.'
+
+We have not yet arrived in England at the complete secularization of our
+elementary schools; but we are, in the opinion of some and in the wish
+of others, within measurable distance of the Paradisiacal terminus of
+secularism and secular reform; and therefore, with the thought of what
+has been going on and is still going on in France, we may do well to
+look for a few moments to our own country, and examine what has been
+going on and is going on there.
+
+Let us beware, however, of exaggeration or alarmism. We do not at all
+desire to imply that there is anything approaching to parallelism in the
+conditions and possibilities of the two countries. Had it been proposed
+to do in England what has been done in France, the opposition would have
+been indignant and overwhelming. There is no such desire for
+emancipation from Priests and Priestcraft in England as has long existed
+and still exists in France. To be sure we hear something on this side of
+the Channel of sacerdotal pretensions and unwarrantable clerical claims;
+but the men by whom the offence comes are few in number, and, at the
+worst, they and their conduct are but as a drop in the great bucket of
+the English Church and its influence upon the nation. In France matters
+are painfully different. While the women are largely _devotes_, the men
+are very sparingly _devots_. Unfortunately the admission of
+superstitious practices, the practical hiding of Holy Scripture, the
+adoption under the patronage of the Church of foolish tales of miracles,
+and the absence of effectual protest against the unwarrantable
+assumptions of the Vatican, have combined to offer to the intellect of
+France an unnecessary obstacle, which in too many instances causes
+shipwreck to faith; and so, while in England the men, who make the laws,
+are, speaking broadly, Christian believers, in France the men, who
+equally make the laws, are as broadly unbelievers. This difference is
+not likely to disappear. France has reached a point at which the disease
+of unbelief may be said to have become chronic; England, on the other
+hand, although there have been of late, and are still, symptoms of
+infidel proclivities, appears nevertheless, so far as her condition can
+be tested to be sound at heart, and in some respects in a more healthy
+state of religious conviction and activity than has been manifested
+hitherto.
+
+The question of the comparative conditions of France and England is one
+with which we have no desire to enter at length; and indeed a native of
+one of the countries is very unlikely to be in a condition to take a
+quite just and fair view of the other. We only desire to guard ourselves
+from appearing to assume the probability of the secularization of our
+English schools on the ground of the step having been already taken in
+France. And having premised this caution, we will ask our readers to
+accompany us in the consideration of some details, suggested by the
+Report of the National Society, and by that of the Committee of the
+Privy Council on Education. Afterwards we will submit a few general
+reflections, and so close our article.
+
+It was feared by some and hoped by others fifteen years ago, when the
+law of compulsory education and School Boards was enacted in this
+country, that Voluntary Schools would undergo what was described at the
+time as a 'process of painless extinction,' and that Board Schools would
+reign supreme. These fears and hopes have been curiously falsified; the
+Voluntary Schools have not been extinguished either painlessly or
+otherwise; on the other hand, they have increased, both in work done and
+in support given, to an extent which could never have been anticipated.
+It will be observed that the question is not purely and simply between
+Board and Voluntary Schools; it may be so in some parishes, where with
+unanimity on the part of the parishioners, one Parish School can be made
+to supply the wants of all; but generally the question is that of
+supporting Voluntary Schools and paying towards Board Schools as well;
+the support of one does not exclude the legal claim of the other, as it
+has been frequently argued that it ought in equity to do; consequently
+Voluntary Schools are heavily handicapped, and nothing but a deep sense
+of the advantage of freedom in religious teaching, and an utter dread of
+secularism, can account for the remarkable results exhibited by the
+progress of Voluntary Schools under such manifest difficulties.
+
+The following Tables are so exceedingly instructive, that we make no
+apology for introducing them:--
+
+_Accommodation._
+
+
+Day Schools, Year ended August 31      1882.       1883.       1884.
+
+Church                               2,385,374   2,413,676   2,454,788
+British, &c.                           384,060     386,839     394,009
+Wesleyan                               200,909     200,564     203,253
+Roman Catholic                         269,231     272,760     284,514
+Board                                1,298,746   1,396,604   1,490,174
+
+                                     4,538,320   4,670,443   4,826,738
+
+_Number on the Registers._
+
+Day Schools, Year ended August 31.     1882.       1883.       1884.
+
+Church                               2,133,978   2,134,719   2,121,728
+British, &c.                           339,812     337,531     333,510
+Wesleyan                               177,840     175,826     172,284
+Roman Catholic                         232,620     226,567     226,082
+Board                                1,305,362   1,398,661   1,483,717
+
+                                     4,189,612   4,273,304   4,337,321
+
+_Average Attendance._
+
+Day Schools, Year ended August 31.     1882.       1883.       1884.
+
+Church                               1,538,408   1,562,507   1,607,823
+British, &c                            245,493     247,990     253,044
+Wesleyan                               125,109     125,503     128,584
+Roman Catholic                         160,910     162,310     167,841
+Board                                  945,231   1,028,904   1,115,832
+
+                                     3,015,151   3,127,214   3,273,124
+
+_Voluntary Contributions._
+
+Day Schools, Year ended      1882.           1883.           1884.
+       August 31.
+
+                           L. s. d.        L. s. d.        L. s. d.
+Church                   581,179  5  3   577,313 16  5   585,071 11 10
+British, &c               75,132 11  8    71,519  2  9    72,978 10  0
+Wesleyan                  15,705  2  2    15,271 14  1    16,802  2  0
+Roman Catholic            51,283 11  7    51,564 15  2    57,672  1  2
+Board                      1,545  2  2     1,420  1  3     1,603  7 10
+
+                         724,845 12 10   717,089  9  8   734,127 12 10
+
+From these Tables it appears that in spite of the surrender of some
+Church Schools to Boards, a process which is always to some extent going
+on, and which causes an increase in the number of Board Schools beyond
+that produced by actual building, the accommodation in Church Schools
+rose in 1884 by 41,112, and the average attendance by 45,316. The Church
+was also educating about half as many again as were being educated in
+Board Schools, and the amount voluntarily contributed during the year
+was more than 585,000l., in addition to a large sum expended on
+buildings and improvements.
+
+This does not look much like speedy extinction, and we sincerely trust
+that that event is still far distant. It is not so much that we are
+opposed to Board schools on principle, still less that we disapprove of
+the national determination that every child shall be educated, which
+logically leads to some national machinery involving the principle of
+Board Schools in some form or other,--not so much this, as that we are
+persuaded that the existence of Voluntary Schools is an unspeakable
+benefit even to the Board Schools themselves. We hold that a definite
+system of religious teaching, according to which the religious studies
+of the school and the secular are co-ordinate and equally regarded, and
+the religious atmosphere which such consideration implies, are of the
+very essence of a rightly ordered school; the ideal may be reached in a
+Voluntary School, it is impossible that it should be reached in a Board
+School; nevertheless, there may be Board schools _and_ Board Schools; in
+some there may be simple secularism, and in others there may be a good
+religious spirit and fair religious teaching; and the degree in which
+the average quality of Board Schools will approximate to the latter
+limit rather than the former, will depend very much upon the standard
+set up by the Voluntary Schools. A reference to the Report of the
+Committee of Council on Education proves that Voluntary Schools are
+worked more cheaply, and, so far as can be judged by the results of
+examination, are secularly not less successful than schools upon the
+Board system; and therefore even with reference to economy there is some
+advantage in keeping the two classes of school going side by side. But
+all questions of comparative economy, and of advantages arising from an
+honourable competition, are as nothing compared with the reflected
+influence in the direction of bringing up the average religious
+character of Board Schools to the highest point which the shackles of
+legislation allow.
+
+In addition to the work of voluntary elementary schools, there are two
+other departments in which voluntary efforts are doing much in support
+of the religious and Christian character of English Education.
+
+There are no less than thirty Training Colleges in connection with the
+Church. The pupils trained in these Colleges are not in general bound by
+any rule to accept posts only in Church schools; as a matter of fact,
+many are drafted into Board Schools; but it is impossible to exaggerate
+the importance to the subsequent influence for good, in a school of
+whatever kind, of a thorough religious training in youth upon definite
+religious principles. So far as an opinion can be formed, it would seem
+that these Training Colleges must always rest upon a voluntary
+foundation; it is difficult to conceive of their being carried on upon
+State principles; you may make religious teaching optional in an
+elementary day school, and the evil results may be not easily
+perceptable; but when eighty or a hundred young men or young women are
+brought together into one home, to lead a common family life with common
+purposes and prospects, the religious equality principle breaks down;
+you must have common religious teaching and common worship, and these
+must be utterly vapid and miserable, unless there be a hearty agreement
+upon the grounds and articles of faith, such as is only possible for
+those who are of one Church, or at all events of one denomination.
+Doubtless on this very account efforts have been made, and efforts will
+be made, to break down the Church Training College system, or to erect
+something on broader principles which shall gradually extinguish it; but
+on all grounds we trust that these efforts may fail, and that at all
+events no change may be introduced which shall be successful in
+rendering impossible the carrying on of institutions, to which we are
+convinced that the education of the poor children of England is indebted
+more than to almost any other. We have but been working out under new
+conditions the great problem which De la Salle perceived to lie at the
+root of elementary education: the forming of the instrument wherewith to
+do the work was, as he clearly perceived, the great thing to be
+accomplished; and for that purpose personal influence was needed; it was
+necessary to stir up in each young aspirant to the office of a teacher
+something of the enthusiasm of teaching, to breed a high conception of
+the value and responsibilities of the office, to make it felt that
+self-denial and self-devotion were essential conditions of any lasting
+success. English Training Colleges differ very widely from that
+community which De la Salle established, and over which he presided; in
+our opinion, they, at least their managers, might profit by studying his
+work and emulating his spirit; but after all, they will still be widely
+different, and any attempt at exact imitation amongst ourselves would
+perhaps produce a parody rather than an adequate copy. Any one who can
+remember the early work of Derwent Coleridge at St. Mark's, Chelsea, and
+the vast change which was brought about in the training of the
+schoolmaster, the estimate of his qualifications, and his general
+status, by the admirable and laborious efforts of that good and able
+man, will be conscious that a work has been done amongst us in these
+latter days, upon which De la Salle himself would have looked with a
+kindly smile of approval, though in some respects he might have
+imagined, and perhaps with justice, that it was not so thorough as his
+own.
+
+The other department of voluntary action to which we proposed to refer,
+is that which is known as Diocesan Inspection.
+
+This system of inspection is carried on by Clergymen, who are appointed
+with the approval and in connection with the Bishops, and whose stipends
+are provided by voluntary contribution. The action is not uniform
+throughout the Dioceses, but there is scarcely a Diocese in which the
+work is not carried on with great energy. These Inspectors visit the
+schools, in some Dioceses and Board Schools as well as those in
+connection with the Church; they examine the children, confer with the
+masters and mistresses, give advice and encouragement as may seem to be
+necessary and fitting, and make a report upon the general condition of
+the school with reference to religious knowledge. In most Dioceses there
+is in addition some kind of prize scheme, by means of which children are
+encouraged to give special attention to the religious side of their
+education.
+
+We think it worth while to call attention to this system of Diocesan
+Inspection, because it is well that Englishmen, and especially English
+Churchmen, should be awake to the religious needs of our times, and the
+efforts which are being made to meet them. We are aware that all such
+machinery as that which we have described must be ineffectual in
+implanting in the minds of children that 'fear of the Lord,' which is
+'the beginning of wisdom.' No system of inspection and examination, and
+no careful grinding of certain lessons, whether they be taken from Holy
+Scripture or from any other book, into the minds of little children, can
+be a substitute for the true influence of heart upon heart; the teacher
+who would generate religious life in the soul of a child must imitate
+the Prophet, who put his mouth to the child's mouth, and his eyes upon
+his eyes, and his hands upon his hands, and prayed that the child might
+awake to new life; nevertheless on the supposition that no pains are
+spared in obtaining suitable masters and mistresses, much may be done to
+encourage them in their difficult work by making it manifest that the
+heart of England and of England's Church is with them. And indeed it
+_is_ a difficult work: the education of children will never be a simple
+and easy thing as long as the world lasts: the value of the finished
+article may generally be taken as some measure of the labour and care
+necessary to produce it: and the value of a pure, simple-hearted,
+well-taught Christian child is so immeasurably and indescribably great,
+that we may safely conclude that the workmen and workwomen employed in
+producing the result must have spent upon their work an incredible
+amount of honest self-denying toil: a perfunctory discharge of the
+office of schoolmaster,--so many hours a week, and so much pay,--will
+never do: the master of the Elementary School must ever be a Christian
+Brother in reality, if not in name.
+
+Passing for a moment from the religious side of the educational
+question, the reader may be interested by looking at a few statistics,
+indicating the general position of England, or rather England and Wales,
+with reference to elementary education.
+
+In the year ending August 31, 1884, Her Majesty's Inspectors visited
+18,761 day schools, having on their registers the names of 4,337,321
+children. Of these, 3,273,134 were, on an average, in daily attendance
+throughout the year. The amount of income arising from school-pence, it
+may be worth while noting, was 1,734,115l., or nearly two millions. The
+Government grants reached 2,722,351l., or nearly three millions.
+
+Besides the day schools, 847 night schools were examined. In many parts
+of the country these night schools were very important: they afford big
+boys the only opportunity of keeping up their knowledge, or
+intellectually improving themselves. Nearly twenty-five thousand
+scholars over twelve years of age are, on an average, in attendance each
+night.
+
+There are nearly forty thousand certificated teachers at work; and 3214
+students are being prepared in forty-one Training Colleges.
+
+The expense of education at different places varies remarkably, and
+apparently without any intelligible principle. Thus the income per
+scholar from voluntary contributions in Voluntary Schools, and from
+rates in Board Schools, is in certain selected towns as follows:--
+
+                     Voluntary
+                  contributions.         Rates.
+                     L    s.   d.        L    s.   d.
+London               0    9    0-1/4     1    9    9
+Brighton             0   11    7-1/2     0   17    7
+Birmingham           0    5    3-3/4     0   13   10-3/4
+Bradford             0    2   11-3/4     0   13    2
+Sheffield            0    2    4-3/4     0    9    8
+Manchester           0    4    7         0   10   10
+
+We submit the above figures and facts to the reader's consideration, and
+we are compelled to confess that we do not find ourselves in a condition
+to offer a satisfactory solution of the difficulties which they suggest.
+We should probably have expected that London would be in an exceptional
+position with regard to this as to many other matters; but the
+magnificent manner in which its Board contributions exceed those of any
+other town quite baffles us; it will be observed that the odd shillings
+and pence of London more than pay the whole expense at Sheffield.
+Possibly the practical difficulty of understanding this economical
+anomaly may have had something to do with the results of the late Board
+election in London.
+
+On the whole, we English people seem to be solving the national
+education question _more nostro_. We have got a system not quite
+symmetrical, not quite logical, not the perfect exponent of the
+crotchets of any particular school, but nevertheless one which has on
+the whole produced remarkable results, and seems to have in it
+sufficient powers of adaptation and development. Of late a new question
+has been opened--and an important one--namely, that of making elementary
+education entirely gratuitous. There is something to be said in favour
+of the proposal, and it is a pity that the merits of the question should
+have been somewhat obscured by the intolerable, but to some persons
+perhaps attractive, suggestion that the additional expenditure necessary
+for making education gratuitous should be supplied by the robbery of the
+Church, or (in politer phrase) by the appropriation to the purposes of
+education of the national property hitherto supplied to the support of
+religion. This cat can scarcely be said to have been let out of the bag,
+for her head was no sooner seen peeping out than the alarm created was
+dangerously great, and Puss was concealed again in a twinkling; _but she
+is inside the bag still_. A much less objectionable proposal was
+speedily made, namely, that the deficiency created by the remission of
+school-pence should be supplied by a Parliamentary grant. And this
+proposal, we presume, may be regarded as at present before the country.
+
+Looking upon the matter from a Chancellor of the Exchequer point of
+view, it is a serious thing to think of having to make an addition of
+about two millions to the annual national expenditure; and it may be
+observed that leading statesmen on both sides of politics may be found
+who are at present unconvinced. Doubtless an expenditure of two millions
+would not be grudged by the nation for any necessary purpose; but when
+the proposal is to substitute a payment of two millions by the Exchequer
+for the two millions paid in driblets by the persons most interested,
+for the most part gladly and with special provisions for preventing the
+payment pressing hardly upon the exceptionally poor, it may well be that
+many sensible persons will ask the question, _Cui bono_?
+
+Independently, however, of any fiscal considerations, it seems to us
+that there are weighty arguments against the proposal of a gratuitous
+education.
+
+It may be observed, and we think it an important observation, that the
+proposal of free education is in the teeth of all our recent policy; and
+some pressing reasons ought to be given for a complete and sudden
+reversal of all that we have hitherto been doing. There are many free
+schools in the country, endowed by 'pious founders,' and established for
+the special purpose of giving free education to the children of
+particular parishes. Some of these schools have had to pass through the
+hands of the School Commissioners and to receive new schemes. It has
+been, we believe, the invariable practice to insert into these new
+schemes the condition of school-pence; the portion of the endowment so
+saved has been applied to the foundation of exhibitions and other
+methods of assisting deserving children. The inhabitants of the parishes
+in which this innovation has been introduced have grumbled and
+submitted; it has in some cases been a bitter pill, but the law-abiding
+character of the Englishman has caused it to be swallowed without noisy
+remonstrance. We cannot, without raising a suspicion of having practised
+educational quackery, retreat from the position which we have thus taken
+up.
+
+What is the argument for the position? It is sometimes stated thus, that
+people value a thing more when it costs them something to get it. The
+argument is not to be despised; but we think that it yields in
+importance to the consideration, that the payment of the school fees is
+almost the only indication left of the great truth, that the parent is
+responsible for his children's education. We have sometimes trembled
+when we have seen in Board Schools directions concerning the doings of
+the children, which would seem to have had a right to come from parents,
+but which do in fact come 'by order of the Board.' We have almost feared
+lest in the Fifth Commandment our boys and girls of the rising
+generation should be tempted to substitute 'Board' for 'father and
+mother.' Certainly there is great danger in virtue of modern social
+arrangements lest parents should forget their highest duties to their
+children, and children cease to honour their parents in the good
+old-fashioned way. We confess, therefore, that we are jealous of the
+proposal to take away from the father the proud privilege of paying for
+his children's schooling, even though it may sometimes cost him an
+effort to do so.
+
+It may be said, of course, that every man does pay indirectly, because
+he pays according to his means to the taxes of the country, and that
+therefore the proposal only gives him of his own. The argument is
+defective, because it ignores the fact that whatever a man may pay
+indirectly in taxes, there is a conscious effort in finding the pence
+for the children's schooling, which morally is of great importance. But
+the argument fails also on other grounds: it assumes that all men have
+children equally; it asserts that the married man with his five children
+has no more responsibility than the elderly spinster who lives next
+door; it supposes that the parents have not a special interest in their
+children, distinct from that which can be felt by any other person
+whatever. It may be further urged, that if a man pays for his children
+while they are in process of education, the pressure comes upon him when
+he is in full vigour, and most able to bear it; whereas if the payment
+of pence be commuted for a perpetual tax, the pressure becomes one of a
+lifelong character, and is not relieved when the powers of earning begin
+to diminish.
+
+We do not deny that painful cases have occurred, and are likely to still
+occur, in which parents are summoned before the magistrates for the
+non-attendance of children at school. But free education will not get
+rid of these painful cases. Already arrangements are made by law for the
+payment of fees for very poor parents who make the proper application;
+and if there be any obstacle in the way of the smooth working of the
+law, the matter should be looked into and the law amended; but the great
+difficulty in the way of good attendance on the part of very poor
+children lies, as we apprehend, not more with school-pence, than with
+school-clothes, and school-dinners. Attendance cannot be enforced
+completely all round, unless free education comprise in its idea free
+food and clothing, as well as free books and lessons.
+
+We cannot but fear also lest the remission of school-pence should be
+another step towards the destruction of Voluntary Schools. It is evident
+that the proposal is so regarded; and though it may not be difficult to
+find arguments to show, that if the loss from school-pence be made up
+from the Exchequer, the compensation will work equally and fairly with
+respect to all schools, whether Voluntary or Board, still there can be
+little doubt that the additional grant will give a handle for proposing
+to introduce some more direct interference with the management of
+Voluntary Schools than has existed hitherto: and it is probably a true
+instinct which leads many friends of Voluntary Schools to look upon the
+free system with sincere apprehension. Certainly the indirect abolition
+of Voluntary Schools would be a great calamity; and if the views already
+expressed be correct, the abolition would leave a legacy of weakness,
+and a permanent injury to the Board Schools, when they found themselves
+'monarchs of all they survey,' and without the wholesome rivalry of
+Voluntary Schools.
+
+There was no such objection to the free education offered to his poor
+brethren by the hero of this article, the sainted De la Salle. He made
+himself poor and bound all his disciples to a life of poverty, in order
+that they might have fullest sympathy with the poor, and might teach
+their children for no other payment or purpose but the love of God. The
+atmosphere of a school conducted upon such principles would be so
+saturated with the spirit of holiness and godly love, that there would
+be no danger of duty to parents, or indeed of any duty either to God or
+man, being left out of sight. It would never be forgotten in such
+schools that the formation of character is the chief aim of education:
+_manners makyth man_--as William of Wickham, our great English father of
+liberal education, has taught us: and _manners_, taken in the broadest
+and best sense, even more than the three Rs and all the extra subjects
+of all the standards, is what we want in our elementary schools, and
+what we shall never get, except upon the condition of a religious tone
+and a pure atmosphere, and teachers whose hearts are animated by the
+love of little children and by the love of God.
+
+We gladly turn once more, before laying down our pen, to the volume
+which we have already introduced to the reader, and out of which we have
+told the tale of De la Salle, and the Christian Brothers. We do so for
+the purpose of showing what kind of men these good Brothers are, when
+put to the test in a severe and unexampled manner.
+
+     'After the disasters of the Prussian invasion in 1871,' says
+     our author, 'the City of Boston, in America, placed at the
+     disposal of the French Academy a special prize of two
+     thousand francs to be given to whoever should be judged most
+     worthy of the honour, on account of services rendered during
+     the siege and in presence of the enemy. The Academy could
+     find no more fitting recipient of this distinction than the
+     Community, which during the whole time of the war had sent
+     five hundred infirmarians into the battlefields, one of whom
+     had fallen under the fire of the Prussians, among the
+     wounded at Bourget. Public opinion fully endorsed the
+     decision, when the first literary body in the world adjudged
+     this reward to the humble and despised corps of the Freres
+     des Ecoles Chretiennes. At the same time the National
+     Defence Government insisted on decorating their venerable
+     Superior with a cross of honour. He would have refused it,
+     as he and his predecessors had already done many times, and
+     he only yielded when he was told that there was nothing
+     personal in the honour; that it belonged to his Institute;
+     and that it was only as the representative of the Society
+     that he was asked to wear it. The eminent Dr. Ricord, who
+     had been an eyewitness of the devotion of the Brothers, was
+     charged with the office of fastening the cross on the
+     cassock of Frere Philippe, in the great hall of the
+     mother-house. This was the most embarrassing moment in the
+     life of that man of God. He could not bear to wear the cross
+     of honour, and in fact he never did wear it. When he
+     returned after conducting the Doctor to the door at the end
+     of the ceremony, he somehow managed that no one should
+     perceive his decoration. The cross was not to be seen; and
+     it has remained ever since as a kind of myth, or mysterious
+     souvenir; it was never found.'
+
+Thus in France Ministers of Public Instruction and Superiors of the
+Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes agree in removing the cross from
+elementary schools: but how marvellous the distance between the
+religious principles which lead to the two kinds of removal!
+
+And now, in these days of payment by results, let us look for one moment
+to the Ecoles Chretiennes from this point of view; and then we will bid
+the Brothers a respectful farewell.
+
+     'For the last forty years a certain number of exhibitions or
+     scholarships (bourses) have been offered by the City of
+     Paris for competition amongst the scholars of elementary or
+     primary schools, which give to the successful candidates a
+     right of free education in the higher class schools. The
+     number of scholarships which are offered varies. In 1848
+     there were twenty-nine; in 1871, fifty; in 1874, eighty; and
+     in 1877 the number was raised to a hundred. Competition is
+     open to all elementary schools, whether taught by the
+     Christian Brothers, or by lay teachers of no religious order
+     or society.
+
+     'The result, taking the thirty years from 1847 to 1877, has
+     been that of 1445 exhibitions gained by scholars, 1148 have
+     been won by boys from the Christian schools, and 297 by
+     those from other schools. Or to take the last seven years of
+     that period, during which every effort has been made by the
+     Government, at a lavish outlay, to promote the efficiency of
+     the secular schools, the results, though the numbers are not
+     quite so disproportioned, yet show a marked superiority in
+     the schools of the Christian Brothers. Out of 490
+     exhibitions, 364 have been adjudged to their pupils, and 126
+     to those of the secular schools.'
+
+Well done, Christian Brothers! You have preached an admirable sermon to
+all those who take an interest in the education of children upon those
+comprehensive and deep-reaching words of Christ, 'Take no thought,
+saying, What shall we eat? or, What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal
+shall we be clothed?... But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and His
+righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you.'
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] 'The policy of the late Chamber with regard to religion, education,
+and the army had very much greater weight with the electors.... The
+persistent threat held out by certain Republicans to destroy the Church,
+either by a hypocritical fulfillment of the Concordat or by the forcible
+separation of Church and State, has been skilfully used by their
+adversaries amongst the peasantry, who dread nothing so much as having
+to pay their cure themselves. The Government was so well aware of this
+fact, that in some of the departments the Catechism was ordered to be
+recited in the schools during the last week before the elections, though
+only two months earlier the teachers had been strictly forbidden to use
+it. This childish stratagem had, as might have been expected, no great
+success.'--Gabriel Monod, in 'Contemporary Review,' of December, 1885.
+
+
+
+
+Art. III.--_The State Papers of the Venetian Republic_; namely,
+_Cancelleria Inferiore, Cancelleria Ducale, Cancelleria Secreta,_
+preserved in the Convent of the Frari, at Venice.
+
+
+In recent years a new tendency has been given to historical studies by
+the avidity with which scholars have investigated the masses of State
+documents accumulated through centuries, almost untouched, in the Record
+Offices of various nations. This tendency has been in the direction of
+minuteness and accuracy of detail. The finer shades of policy, the
+subtler turns in the game of nations, have been revealed by this
+intimate study of the documents which record them. Among the archives of
+Europe there is none superior, in historical value and richness of
+minutiae, to the Archives of the Venetian Republic, preserved now in the
+convent of the Frari at Venice. The importance of these archives is due
+to three causes: the position of the Republic in the history of Europe,
+the fullness of the archives themselves, and the remarkable preservation
+and order which distinguishes them, in spite of the many dangers and
+vicissitudes through which they have passed. Venice enjoyed a position,
+unique among the States of Europe, for two reasons. Until the discovery
+of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, she was the mart of Europe
+in all commercial dealings with the East--a position secured to her by
+her supremacy in the Levant, and by the strength of her fleet; and, in
+the second place, the Republic was the bulwark of Europe against the
+Turk. These are the two dominant features of Venice in general history;
+and under both aspects she came into perpetual contact with every
+European Power. The universal importance of her position is faithfully
+reflected in the diplomatic documents contained in her archives. The
+Republic maintained ambassadors and residents at every Court. These men
+were among the most subtle and accomplished diplomatists of their time,
+and the government they served was exacting and critical to the highest
+degree. The result is that the dispatches, newsletters and reports of
+the Venetian diplomatic agents, form the most varied, brilliant, and
+singular gallery of portraits, whether of persons or of peoples, that
+exists. There is hardly a nation in Europe that will not find its
+history illustrated by the papers which belong to the Venetian
+department for foreign affairs. Nor are the papers which relate to the
+home government of the Republic less copious and valuable. Each
+magistracy has its own series of documents, the daily record of its
+proceedings: in this we find the whole of that elaborate machinery of
+State laid bare before us in all its intricacy of detail; and we are
+enabled to study the construction, the origin, development, and
+ossification, of one of the most rigid and enduring constitutions that
+the world has ever seen; a constitution so strong in its component
+parts, so compact in its rib-work, that it sufficed to preserve a
+semblance of life in the body of the Republic long after the heart and
+brain had ceased to beat.
+
+Admirable as are the preservation and order of these masses of State
+papers, it is not to be expected that each series, each magisterial
+archive, should be complete. There are many broad lacunae, especially in
+the earlier period, which must ever be a cause for regret: for Venice
+growing is a more attractive and profitable subject than Venice dying.
+During the nine hundred and eighty-seven years that the Government of
+the Republic held its seat in Venice, the State papers passed through
+many dangers from fire, revolution, neglect, or carelessness. When we
+recal the fires of 1230, 1479, 1574, and 1577, it is rather matter for
+congratulation that so much has escaped, than for surprise that so much
+has been destroyed. The losses would, undoubtedly, have been much more
+severe had all the papers and documents been preserved in one place, as
+they are now. But the Venetians stored the archives of the various
+magistracies either at the offices of those magistrates, or in some
+public building especially set apart for the purpose. The Secret
+Chancellery, which was always an object of great solicitude, containing
+as it did all the more private papers of the State, was deposited in a
+room on the second floor of the Ducal Palace. Many of the criminal
+records belonging to the Council of Ten were stored in the Piombi under
+the roof of the Palace; and the famous adventurer Casanova relates how
+he beguiled some of his prison hours by reading the trial of a Venetian
+nobleman, which he found among other papers piled at the end of the
+corridor where he was allowed to take exercise. Soon after the fall of
+the Republic, the following disposition of the papers was made. The
+political archive was stored at the Scuola di S. Teodoro; the judicial,
+at the convent of S. Giovanni Laterano; the financial, at S. Procolo. In
+the year 1815, the Austrian Government resolved to collect and arrange
+all State papers in one place. The building chosen was the convent of
+the Frari; and the work was entrusted to Jacopo Chiodo, the first
+director of the archives. The scheme suggested by Chiodo has served as a
+basis for the arrangement that has been already carried out, or is still
+in hand.
+
+Under the Republic it was natural that access to important diplomatic
+papers and to secrets of State should be granted with reserve, and only
+to persons especially authorized to make research. The directors
+appointed by the Austrian Government showed a disposition to maintain
+that precedent; and M. Baschet relates that it was only by a personal
+appeal to the Emperor that he obtained access to the archives of the
+Ten. The Italian Government allow nearly absolute liberty; and nothing
+can exceed the courtesy of the officials under their distinguished
+director, the Commendatore Cecchetti.
+
+Any attempt to explain the archives of Venice and to display their
+contents, must be preceded by a statement of the main features of the
+constitution of the Republic upon which the order and the arrangement of
+the archives is based. The constitution of Venice has frequently been
+likened to a pyramid, with the Great Council for its base and the Doge
+for apex. The figure is more or less correct; but it is a pyramid that
+has been broken at its edges by time and by necessity. The legislative
+and political body was originally constructed in four groups, or
+tiers--if we are to preserve the pyramidal simile--one rising above the
+other. These four tiers were the Maggior Consiglio or Great Council, the
+Lower House; the Pregadi or Senate, the Upper House; the Collegio, or
+the Cabinet; and the Doge. The famous Council of Ten and its equally
+famous Commission, the Three Inquisitors of State, did not enter into
+the original scheme; they are an appendix to the State, an intrusion, a
+break in the symmetry of the pyramid. Later on we shall explain their
+construction and relation to the main body of government. For the
+present we leave them aside, and confine our attention to the four
+departments of the Venetian constitution above mentioned.
+
+The Great Council, as is well known, did not assume its permanent form
+and place in the Venetian constitution till the year 1296. At that date
+the famous revolution, known as the closing of the Great Council, took
+place. By that act, which was only the final step in a revolution that
+had been for long in process, those citizens who were excluded from the
+Great Council remained for ever outside the constitution; all functions
+of government were concentrated in the hands of those nobles who were
+included by the Council; the constitution of the Republic was
+stereotyped as a rigid oligarchy. Previous to the year 1296, a great
+council had existed, created first in the reign of Pietro Ziani (1172);
+but this council was really democratic in character, not oligarchic; it
+was elected each September, and its members were chosen from the whole
+body of the citizens. Earlier still than the reign of Ziani, the
+population used to meet tumultuously and express their opinion upon
+matters of public interest, such as the election of a Doge or a
+declaration of war, first in the _Concione_ under their tribunes, while
+Venetia was still a confederation of lagoon-islands; and then in the
+_Arengo_ under their Doge, when the confederation was centralized at
+Rialto. But of these assemblies the latter was disorderly and irregular,
+and the former was of doubtful authority. It is from the closing of the
+Great Council that we must date the positive establishment of the
+Venetian oligarchy, and the completion of that constitution which
+endured for five hundred years, from 1296 till the fall of the Republic
+in 1797.
+
+The age at which the young nobles might take their seats in the Council,
+that is to say, might enter upon public life, was fixed at twenty-five,
+except in the cases of the Barbarelli, or thirty nobles between the ages
+of twenty and twenty-five, who were elected by ballot on the fourth of
+each December, St. Barbara's day; and in the case of those who, in
+return for money advanced to the State, obtained a special grace to take
+their seats before their twenty-fifth year.
+
+The chief functions of the Great Council were the passing of laws, and
+the election of magistrates. But in process of time the legislative
+duties of the Council were almost entirely absorbed by the Senate; and
+the Maggior Consiglio only retained its great and distinguished
+function, the election of almost every officer of State, from the Doge
+downwards. The large number of these magistracies, and the various
+seasons of the year at which they fell vacant, engaged the Great Council
+in a perpetual series of elections. It is not our intention to explain
+in detail the elaborate process by which the Venetians carried out their
+political elections; such an explanation would carry us beyond our
+scope, which is to state the position and functions of each member in
+the constitution of the Republic. But, briefly, the process was this.
+The law required either two or four competitors for every vacant
+magistracy, and the election to that magistracy was said to take place
+_a due_ or _a quattro mani_, respectively. If the office to be filled
+required _quattro mani_, the whole body of the Great Council balloted
+for four groups of nine members each, who were chosen by drawing a
+golden ball from among the silver ones in the balloting urn. Each of
+these groups retired to a separate room, and there each group elected
+one candidate to go to the poll for the vacant office. The names of the
+four candidates were then presented to the Council and balloted. The
+candidate who secured the largest number of votes, above the half of
+those present, was elected to the vacant office. Thus the election to
+the magistracy was a triple process; first, the election of the
+nominators, then the election of the candidates, and finally the
+election to the office.
+
+The Great Council, as representing the whole Republic, possessed certain
+judicial functions, which were used on rare occasions only, when the
+State believed itself placed in grave danger through the fault of its
+commanders. The famous case of Vettor Pisani, after his defeat at Pola,
+in 1379, and the case of Antonio Grimani, in the year 1499, were both
+sent to the Grand Council, who passed sentence on those generals. But,
+broadly speaking, the judicial functions of the Maggior Consiglio hardly
+existed, its legislative functions dwindled away, and were absorbed by
+the Senate, and its chief duty and prerogative lay in the election of
+almost every State official.
+
+Coming now to the second tier in the pyramid of the constitution, the
+Senate, or Pregadi,--the invited, we find that the Senate proper was
+composed of sixty members, elected in the Great Council, six at a time.
+The elections took place once a week, and were so arranged that they
+should be complete by the first of October in each year. In addition to
+the Senate proper, another body of sixty, called the _Zonta_ or
+addition, was elected by the outgoing Senate at the close of its year of
+office; but it was necessary that the names of the _Zonta_ should be
+approved by the Great Council before their election was valid. The
+Senate and the Zonta together formed one hundred and twenty members; and
+besides these, the Doge, his six councillors, the Council of Ten, the
+Supreme Court of Appeal, and many special magistrates, who presided over
+departments of Finance, Customs, and Justice, belonged _ex officio_ to
+the Senate, and brought the number of votes up to two hundred and
+forty-six. Further, fifty-one magistrates of minor departments also sat,
+with the right to debate, but without the right to vote.
+
+The Senate was the real core of the Administration. The presence, _ex
+officio_, of so many and such various officers of State sufficiently
+indicates the wide field which was covered by the authority of the
+Pregadi. The large number of the Senatorial body, and the diversity of
+subjects with which it dealt, required that business should be carried
+on with parsimony of time and precision of method; and therefore private
+members were restricted to the right of debate. Only the Doge, his
+councillors, the Savii Grandi and the Savii di Terra ferma had the right
+to move the Senate; and their propositions related to peace, war,
+foreign affairs, instructions to ambassadors, and representatives of
+foreign Courts, to commercial treaties, finance, and home legislation.
+The various measures were spoken to by their proposers, and by the
+magistrates whose offices they affected. As in the case of the Great
+Council, the Senate also on rare occasions exercised judicial functions.
+It was in the discretion of the College to send a faulty commander for
+trial either to the Great Council or to the Senate; but in that case the
+charge must be one of negligence or misjudgment; if the charge implied
+treason, it was taken before the Council of Ten. A few of the higher
+officers of State were elected in the Senate, among them the Savii
+Grandi and the Savii di Terra ferma, and the Admiral of the Fleet. The
+functions of the Senate were legislative, judicial, and elective. But
+just as the Great Council was pre-eminently the elective body, so the
+Senate was pre-eminently the legislative body in the constitution of
+Venice.
+
+The Collegio or Cabinet of Ministers, formed the third tier in the
+pyramid. The College was composed of the following members: The Doge,
+his six councillors, and the three chiefs of the Court of Appeal; these
+ten persons formed the Collegio minore, or Serenissima Signoria; in
+addition to these there were the six Savii Grandi; the five Savii di
+Terra ferma, and the five Savii da mar; a body of twenty-six persons in
+all, forming the College. Beginning with the lowest in rank, the Savii
+agli ordini, or da mar, were, as their name implies, a Board of
+Admiralty; but they acted in that capacity under the orders of the Savii
+Grandi upon whom the naval affairs of the Republic immediately depended.
+The Savii agli ordini had a vote but no voice in the College; this post
+was given, for the most part, to young and promising politicians; it was
+a training school for statesmen: 'Officio loro,' says Giannotti, 'e
+tacere ed ascoltare.' The office lasted for six months only; and so
+there was a constant stream of young men passing through the political
+school, and becoming intimately acquainted with the affairs of the
+Republic and the methods of government. How excellent that school must
+have been will become apparent as we proceed to note the functions of
+the College of which the Savii agli ordini formed a silent part.
+
+Next in order above the Savii agli ordini came the Savii di Terra ferma.
+This Board was composed of five members; the Savio alia Scrittura, or
+Minister for War; the Savio Cassier, or Chancellor of the Exchequer; the
+Savio alle ordinanze, or minister for the native militia in the cities
+on the mainland; the Savio ai da mo, or minister for the execution of
+all measures voted urgent; the Savio ai Ceremoniali, or Minister for
+Ceremonies of State. These Savii di Terra ferma, like the Savii agli
+ordini, held office for six months only.
+
+The six Savii Grandi, who came above the Savii di Terra ferma,
+superintended the actions of the two boards below them, and, if
+necessary, issued orders which would override those of the other
+ministers. They were, in fact, the responsible directors of the State.
+The Savii Grandi were required to prepare all business to be laid before
+the College, where it was first discussed and arranged before being
+submitted to the Senate for approval. To facilitate this labour of
+preparation, each of the Savii Grandi took a week in turn, and the Savio
+of the week was, in fact, Prime Minister of Venice. It was he who read
+dispatches, granted audiences to ambassadors, and prepared official
+replies. The Doge presided in the College, it is true, but it was the
+Savio of the week who opened the business, and suggested the various
+measures to be adopted.
+
+Besides these boards of Savii, the College included the Ducal
+Councillors, and the three chiefs of the Court of Appeal. We shall speak
+of these latter when we come to the judicial department of the
+constitution. The office of Ducal Councillor was, perhaps, the most
+venerable in Venice. These six men held, as it were, the Ducal honours
+and functions in commission; they embodied the authority of the Doge to
+such an extent, that without their presence he could not act; he became
+a nonentity unless supported by four at least of his council; while, on
+the other hand, the absence of the Doge in no way diminished the
+authority of the Ducal Councillors. For example, the Doge without his
+council could not preside, neither in the Maggior Consiglio, nor in the
+Senate, nor in the College, but four Ducal Councillors had the power to
+preside without the Doge. The Doge might not open dispatches except in
+the presence of his council, but his council might open dispatches in
+the absence of the Doge. Yet, great as were the external honours of the
+Ducal Councillors, the office was rather ornamental than important. It
+was the Savii Grandi who were the directing spirit through all the
+multitudinous affairs of the College. As we have seen, those affairs
+embraced the whole field of government, except the field of Justice. The
+College had no judicial functions, nor did it legislate. As the Maggior
+Consiglio was the elective member, and the Senate the legislative, so
+the College was the initiative and executive member of the State. The
+College proposed measures which became law in the Senate; and the
+execution of those laws was entrusted to the College which had the
+machinery of State at its disposal. It is this right of initiating which
+distinguishes the College; and it is just upon this point that the Ducal
+Councillors appear to have a slight pre-eminence; for the Doge, his
+council, and the Savii alone, had the right to initiate in the Senate;
+the Doge, his council, and the chiefs of the Ten alone, had the right to
+initiate in the Council of Ten; the Doge and his council alone had the
+right to initiate in the Maggior Consiglio. The Doge and his council
+alone move through all departments of government, presiding and
+initiating, embodying the spirit of the Republic; and yet in no case is
+their power great; for the Savii had more influence in the Senate, the
+Chiefs of the Ten in the Council of Ten; and the Great Council, where
+the Doge and his councillors had the field to themselves, was of little
+importance in the direction of affairs.
+
+At the apex of the constitutional pyramid we find the Doge. The Doge
+also had his distinctive functions in the State; his duties were
+ornamental rather than administrative. Though all the acts of the
+Government were executed in his name, laws passed, dispatches sent,
+treaties made, and war declared, yet it is not in these departments that
+the Doge stands pre-eminent; it is throughout the pomp and display of
+the Republic that he is supreme; and the archive wherein his glory shows
+most brightly is the _Ceremoniali_.
+
+The Doge was elected for life. When a Doge died, the eldest Ducal
+Councillor filled the office of Vice-Doge until the election of the new
+Prince. The remains of the deceased Doge were laid out in the Chamber of
+the Pioveghi, on the first floor of the Ducal Palace, dressed in robes
+of State, the mantle of cloth of gold and the ducal beretta. Twenty
+Venetian noblemen were appointed to attend in the chapelle ardente. On
+the third day the Doge was buried; and the Great Council on the same day
+elected the officers who were to revise the coronation oath, and to
+render its provisions more stringent if the conduct of the deceased had
+revealed any point where a future Doge could exercise even the smallest
+independence in constitutional matters. At the same time the Council
+elected another body of officers, who were required to examine the
+conduct of the late Doge, and, if he had violated his coronation oath,
+his heirs paid the penalty by a fine. Immediately after the appointment
+of these officers, the Maggior Consiglio proceeded to create the
+forty-one electors to the dukedom. The process of election was long and
+intricate, and occupied five days at the least; for there was a
+quintuple series of ballots and votings to be concluded before the
+forty-one were finally chosen. When the forty-one noblemen had been
+appointed they were taken to a chamber specially prepared for them,
+where, as in the case of a papal election, they were obliged to stay
+until they had determined upon the new Doge. They were bound by oath
+never to reveal what took place inside this election chamber. But this
+oath was not always observed in the spirit; and memoranda of the
+proceedings of the forty-one are still preserved in the private archives
+of the Marcello family. The first step was to elect three priors, or
+presidents, and two secretaries. The presidents took their seats at a
+table on which stood a ballot-box and an urn. The secretaries gave to
+every elector a slip of paper, upon which each one wrote the name of the
+man whom he proposed as Doge. The forty-one slips of paper were then
+placed in the urn, and one was drawn out at hazard. If the noble, whose
+name was written upon the slip, chanced to be an elector, he was
+required to withdraw. Then each of the electors was at liberty to attack
+the candidate, to point out defects and recal misdeeds. These hostile
+criticisms, which covered the whole of a candidate's private life, his
+physical qualities and his public conduct, were written down by the
+secretaries, and the candidate was recalled. The objections urged
+against him were read over to the aspirant, without the names of the
+urgers appearing, and he was invited to defend himself. Attack and
+defence continued till no further criticisms were offered, and then the
+name of the candidate was balloted before the priors. If it received
+twenty-five favourable votes, its owner was declared Doge; if less than
+twenty-five, a fresh name was drawn from the urn, and the whole process
+was repeated until some candidate secured the necessary five-and-twenty
+votes. As soon as this issue was reached, the Signoria was informed of
+the result, and the new Doge, attended by the electors, descended to
+Saint Mark's, where, from the pulpit on the left side of the choir, the
+Prince was shown to the people, and where, before the high altar, he
+took the coronation oath and received the standard of Saint Mark. The
+great doors of the Basilica were then thrown open, and the Doge passed
+in procession round the Piazza and returned to the Porta della Carta. At
+the top of the Giants' Stair the eldest Ducal Councillor placed the
+beretta on his head, and he was brought to the Sala dei Pioveghi, where
+the late Doge had lain in state, and where he too would one day come.
+Then the Doge retired to his private apartments, and the ceremony of
+election closed.
+
+As we have already observed, the position of the Doge in the Republic of
+Venice was almost purely ornamental. The Doge presided, either in person
+or by commission through his councillors, at every Council of State; he
+presided, however, not as a guiding and deliberating chief, but as a
+symbol of the Majesty of Venice. He is there not as an individual, a
+personality, but as the outward and visible sign of an idea, the idea of
+the Venetian oligarchy. The history of the personal authority of the
+Doge falls into three periods. A period of great vigour and almost
+despotic power dates from the foundation of the Dukedom, in the year
+697, down to the reign of Pietro Ziani in 1172. During this first
+period, the Ducal authority showed a tendency to become concentrated,
+and almost hereditary in the hands of one or two powerful families. For
+example, we have seen Doges of the Partecipazio house, five Doges of the
+Candiani, and three of the Orseoli. But the rivalry and balanced power
+of these great families eventually exhausted one another, and preserved
+the Dukedom of Venice from ever becoming a kingdom. A second period
+extends from the year 1172 down to 1457, and is marked by the emergence
+of the great commercial houses, and the development of the oligarchy
+upon the basis of a Great Council. The aristocracy during this period
+were engaged in excluding the people from any share in the government,
+and in curbing and finally crushing the authority of the Doge. The steps
+in this process are indicated by the closing of the Great Council, the
+revolution of Tiepolo, the trials of Marino Faliero, Lorenzo Celsi, and
+the Foscari. The third period covers what remains of the Republic, from
+1457 down to 1797. During this period the Doge was little other than the
+figurehead of the Republic; the point of least weight and greatest
+splendour; the brilliant apex to the pyramid of the Venetian
+constitution.
+
+So far, then, we have examined the four tiers in the original structure
+of the constitution, the Doge, the College, the Senate, and the Great
+Council; and we have seen that, broadly speaking these were,
+respectively, ornamental, initiative and executive, legislative, and
+elective. But this pyramid of the constitution was not perfectly
+symmetrical; its edges were broken. This interruption of outline was
+caused by the Council of Ten. The exact position in the Venetian
+constitution occupied by this famous Council, and its relations to the
+other members of the government, have proved a constant source of
+difficulty and error to students of Venetian history. Leaving aside the
+obscure problem of the origin of the Ten, it is still possible for us to
+indicate the constitutional necessity which called that Council into
+existence. As we have pointed out, the College could not act on its own
+responsibility without the Senate; the Senate could not initiate without
+the College, for the preparation of all affairs passed through the hands
+of the College. To establish connection between these two branches of
+the administration was a process that required some time; it could not
+be done swiftly and secretly. In all crises of political importance,
+whether home or foreign, some instrument, more expeditious than the
+Senate, was required to sanction the propositions of the College. That
+instrument, acting swiftly and secretly, with a speed and secrecy
+impossible in so large a body as the Senate, was created with the
+Council of Ten. The Ten were an extraordinary magistracy, devised to
+meet unexpected pressure upon the ordinary machine of government. The
+emergence of the Ten proves this view. Without determining whether the
+Council existed previous to the year 1310, we may take that year as the
+date of its first appearance as a potent element in the State. The
+rebellion of Tiepolo and Querini, an aristocratic revolt against the
+growing power of the new commercial nobility, paralysed the ordinary
+machinery of State, and revealed the danger inherent in a large and
+slow-moving body of rulers. The Ten were called to power, just as the
+Romans created the Dictatorship, in order to save the State in a
+dangerous crisis.
+
+The place of the Ten in the constitutional structure is below the
+College and parallel with the Senate. Below the College the
+administration bifurcates, the ordinary course of business flows through
+the Senate, the extraordinary through the Ten. The Ten possessed an
+authority equal to that of the Senate; the choice of which instrument
+should be used, rested with the College. The Ten appear to be of more
+importance than the Senate, solely because they were used upon more
+critical and dramatic occasions. Wherever the machinery of the College
+and Senate moves too slowly, we find the swifter machinery of the
+College and the Ten in motion. And so not only in political affairs,
+home and foreign, but also in affairs financial and judicial, the
+Council of Ten takes its part. The Ten, as being the readier instrument
+to the hands of the College, gradually absorbed more and more of the
+functions which originally belonged to the Senate. This process of
+absorption, and the extension of the province of the Ten, is marked by
+the establishment of its sub-commissions, that took their place in every
+department side by side with the delegations of the Senate and the
+ordinary magistrates. In politics and foreign affairs there is the
+famous office of the Three Inquisitors of State. In the region of
+Justice all cases of treason and coining, and certain cases of outrage
+on public morals, came before the Ten; and it was always open to the
+College to remove a case from the ordinary courts to the Ten, when State
+reasons rendered it expedient to do so. In the Police department the
+Esecutori contro la Bestemmia, and in Finance the Camerlenghi, were
+officers of that Council. In the War Office the artillery was under
+their control; and in the arsenal certain galleys, marked C.X., were
+always at their disposal.
+
+These five great members of the State, four regular and one irregular,
+formed the political and legislative departments of the Venetian
+Government. It would require too many details to give a similar account
+of the Judicial, Educational, and Religious machinery.
+
+One of the most remarkable features in the Venetian constitution is the
+infinite subdivision of government, and the number of offices to be
+filled. Nobles alone were eligible for the majority of these offices,
+and if we consider how small a body the Great Council really was, it is
+clear that the larger number of Venetian noblemen must have been
+employed in the service of the State at some time in their lives. The
+great political and administrative activity which reigned inside the
+comparatively small body that formed the ruling caste, as compared with
+the absolute stagnation and quiet which marked the life of the ordinary
+citizen, is one of the most noteworthy points in the history of Venice.
+Every noble above the age of twenty-five was a member of the Maggior
+Consiglio; every week that council had to fill up some office of State,
+had some new candidate before it. The tenure of all offices, except the
+Dukedom and the Procuratorship of St. Mark, was so brief, rarely
+exceeding a year, or sixteen months, that the fret and activity of
+elections must have been nearly incessant. This constant unrest bore its
+fruit in perpetual intrigues, and the censors were appointed to check
+the rampant canvassing and bribery. But the main point which is
+impressed upon us is the universality of political training to which all
+the nobles of Venice were subjected. No matter how frivolous a young
+patrician might be, he would be obliged to sit in the Great Council; he
+would be called upon to assist in electing the Ten, whose omniscience
+and severity he had every reason to dread; he might even find himself
+named to fill some minor post. It was impossible, under these
+circumstances, that he should fail to be educated politically, or that
+he should ever lose the keenest interest in every movement of the State.
+It is to this political activity that we may possibly look for one of
+the reasons which conduced to that extraordinary longevity which the
+constitution of Venice displayed.
+
+Each of the Government offices, many as they were, possessed its own
+collection of papers. These are either still in loose sheets, just as
+they left the office, or bound in volumes. They are indicated by the
+name of the Government department, the subject dealt with, and the date.
+The pages are of three kinds; first, there are the files or _filze_, the
+original minutes of the Board, written down in actual Council by the
+secretaries, and with the _filze_ are the dispatches or other documents
+upon which the Council took measures. In many of the more important
+departments, such as the Senate, the Ten, or the College, these _filze_
+were epitomized; the substance of each day's business was written out in
+large volumes known as _Registri_; each entry was signed by the
+secretary who had made the digest, and was accepted as authentic for all
+purposes of reference. These registers are, in many cases, of the
+greatest value where the files have been destroyed or lost. They were
+more constantly in use, and therefore more carefully preserved; and now
+they frequently form our sole authority for certain periods. As a rule
+the registers are very full and good; they contain all that is of
+importance in the files; but in making research upon any point it is
+never safe to ignore the files where they exist. In some cases the
+secretaries made a further digest of the registers in volumes known as
+Rubrics, which contain in brief the headings of all materials to be
+found in the registers. As the registers sometimes supply the place of
+lost files, so the rubrics are occasionally our only authority where
+registers and files are both missing. The rubrics are often of the
+highest value. As an instance, we may cite the twenty volumes of rubrics
+to the dispatches from England between the years 1603 and 1748. The
+method of research, therefore, where all three kinds of documents exists
+is this, to examine first the rubrics, then the registers, and then the
+files. But the infinite subdivisions of the Government offices in Venice
+render the task of research somewhat bewildering; and a student cannot
+be certain that he has exhausted all the information on his subject,
+until he has examined a large number of these minor offices. He will
+probably find some notice of the point he is examining in the papers of
+the Senate or of the Ten, and, if it be a matter of home affairs, he can
+trace it thence through the various magistracies under whose cognizance
+it would come; or if it be a matter of foreign policy, he will find
+further information in the papers of the College.
+
+Under the Republic these collections of State papers were not known as
+archives, but as chancelleries. The collections of highest interest, the
+papers to which the student is most likely to turn his attention, are
+those relating to the ceremony, to the home, and to the foreign policy
+of Venice. These three groups are contained in the Ducal, the Secret,
+and the Inferior Chancelleries. The three chancelleries were committed
+to the charge of the Grand Chancellor and his staff of secretaries, who
+received, arranged, and registered the official papers as they issued
+from the various Councils of State. The Grand Chancellor was not a
+patrician; he was chosen from that upper class of commoners known as
+_cittadini originarii_, an inferior order of nobility, ranking below the
+governing caste, but bearing coat armour. The office of Grand Chancellor
+was of great dignity and antiquity, and was held for life. The
+Chancellor was head and representative of the people, as the Doge was
+head and representative of the patricians; and, when the nobility began
+to exclude the people from all share in the government, the Grand
+Chancellor was allowed to be present at all sessions of the Great
+Council and of the Senate as the silent witness of the people,
+confirming the acts of the Government, and bridging, though by the
+finest thread, the gulf that otherwise separated the governed from the
+governing. The part which the Grand Chancellor took in the business of
+the Maggior Consiglio and of the Senate was a constant and an active
+part. It was his duty to superintend the arrangements for every
+election, to direct the secretaries in attendance, to announce the names
+of the candidates for office, and to proclaim the successful competitor.
+His seat in the Great Council Hall was on the left-hand of the Doge's
+dais, and his secretaries sat below him. But the custody of the State
+papers was by far the most important function which the Grand Chancellor
+had to perform. To assist him in these labours he was placed at the head
+of a large College of Secretaries, trained in a school especially
+established to fit them for their duties. In the year 1443 a decree of
+the Great Council required the Doge and the Signoria to elect each year
+twelve lads to be taught Latin, rhetoric and philosophy, and the number
+of the pupils was gradually increased. From this school they passed out
+by examination, and became first extra-ordinaries and ordinaries, called
+Notaries Ducal, then secretaries to the Senate, and finally secretaries
+to the Ten. The post of secretary was one which required much diligence
+and discretion. The secretaries were in constant attendance on the
+various Councils of State, and thus became intimately acquainted with
+all the secret affairs of the Republic. They were frequently sent on
+delicate missions. It was a secretary of the Ten who brought Carmagnola
+to Venice to stand his trial; and, as we shall presently relate, it was
+a secretary of the Senate who announced to Thomas Killigrew, the English
+Minister, his dismissal from Venice. The secretaries were sometimes
+accredited as Residents to foreign Courts, though they were not eligible
+for the post of Ambassador. Inside the Chancellery the secretaries were
+entirely at the disposal of the Grand Chancellor, and their duties were
+to study, to invent, and to read cipher; to transcribe the registers
+and rubrics; to keep the annals of the Council of Ten, and to enter the
+laws in the statute book.
+
+We may now turn our attention to the principal series of State papers
+which issued from the five great members of the Constitution, the
+Maggior Consiglio, the Senate, the Ten, the College, and the Doge, and
+show how these papers were arranged under the three Chancelleries of
+which we have spoken.
+
+The Cancelleria Inferiore was preserved in one large room near the head
+of the Giants' Staircase in the Ducal Palace, and was entrusted to the
+care of the Notaries Ducal, the lowest order of secretaries. The
+documents in this Chancellery related chiefly to the Doge; his rights,
+his official possessions, his restrictions, and his state. Among these
+papers, accordingly, we find the coronation oaths, the Reports of the
+Commissioners appointed to examine those oaths, and the Reports of the
+Commissioners appointed to review the life of each Doge deceased. This
+series is valuable as revealing the steps by which the aristocracy
+slowly curtailed the personal authority of the Doge, and bound his
+office about with iron fetters, and crushed his power. In addition to
+these papers the Inferior Chancellery contained the documents relating
+to the dignitaries of St. Mark's in its capacity as Ducal Chapel; the
+order and ceremony of the Ducal household; the expenditure of the Civil
+List; and the archives of the Procurators of Saint Mark, which contained
+the will, trusts, and bequests of private citizens.
+
+The Ducal Chancellery, which the Council of Ten once called 'cor nostri
+status,' was preserved on the upper floor of the palace, and was reached
+by the Scala d'oro. The papers were arranged in a number of cupboards
+surmounted by the arms of the various Grand Chancellors who had presided
+in that office. The documents of the Ducal Chancellery are of far higher
+importance than those contained in the Cancelleria Inferiore; they
+consist of political papers which it was not necessary to keep secret.
+Among the many interesting series of documents which fell to the Ducal
+Chancellery, the most valuable are the 'Compilazione delle Leggi,' or
+statute-books distinguished by the various colours of their
+bindings--gold, roan, and green--to mark the statutes which relate to
+the Maggior Consiglio, the Senate, and the College respectively; the
+Secretario alle voci, or record of all elections in the Great Council;
+the Libri gratiarum, or special privileges. But most important of all is
+the great series of documents which include the whole legislation of the
+State relating to Venetian affairs on sea and land. Of this vast series
+those marked _Terra_ contain 3128 volumes of files, 411 volumes of
+registers, and 7 volumes of rubrics; those marked _Mar_ number 1286
+volumes of files, 247 volumes of registers, and 7 volumes of rubrics. It
+will easily be seen how important the Ducal Chancellery is both for the
+verification of dates, and also as displaying so large a tract of the
+Venetian home administration.
+
+But important as the Ducal Chancellery undoubtedly is, it cannot vie in
+interest with the Cancelleria Secreta, which might, with every justice,
+have been called 'cor nostri status', for it is in the papers of that
+Chancellery that the long history of the growth, splendour, and decline
+of the Republic is to be traced in all its manifold details and
+complicated relations. The Secret Chancellery was established by a
+decree of the Great Council in the year 1402. Its object was to preserve
+those papers of the highest State importance, from the publicity to
+which the Ducal Chancellery was exposed. The regulation of the Secret
+Chancellery was undertaken by the Council of Ten, and the rigorous
+orders which they issued from time to time abundantly prove the
+difficulty they experienced in securing the secrecy which they desired.
+The Secret Chancellery became the depository of all State papers of
+great moment; and if we take the chief members of the constitution in
+order, and note the documents issuing from them which fell to the
+custody of the Secreta, we shall see how the great flow of Venetian
+history is to be followed here rather than in any other department of
+the archives.
+
+To begin with the Maggior Consiglio, we have the long series of
+registers containing the deliberations of the Council from the year 1232
+down to the fall of the Republic in 1797, occupying forty-two volumes,
+and distinguished, at first, by such capricious names as Capricornus,
+Philosus, Presbiter, and Fronesis; and later on by the names of the
+secretaries who prepared them, Ottobonus primus, Ottobonus filius,
+Busenellus, and Vianolus. In the special archive of the Avogadori di
+Commun a contemporary series of registers is to be found; it covers from
+1232 to 1547, and should be consulted together with the first series,
+for it is more voluminous and minute. The first reference to England
+that occurs in the Venetian archives is in the volume Fronesis
+(1318-1385). This, and all other documents relating to Great Britain,
+have been collected and rendered accessible in the splendid and
+monumental series of the 'Calendar of State Papers,' edited with such
+diligence and care by the late Mr. Rawdon Brown. Mr. Brown's published
+work goes down to the year 1552; and it is only after that date that any
+work relating to England remains to be done. That work, however, is
+voluminous, for the regular and unbroken series of dispatches from
+England does not begin till the reign of James I. Little more respecting
+England is to be expected from the papers of the Great Council, however;
+for at the date where Mr. Brown's work ends, the Maggior Consiglio had
+ceased to occupy a high position in the direction of Venetian foreign
+policy; its functions were chiefly confined to the election of
+magistrates.
+
+The Senate supplied a far larger number of papers to the Secret
+Chancellery than that yielded by the Great Council. This was to be
+expected, owing to the central position of the Senate in the
+constitution, and its prominent place in the management of Venetian
+policy, home and foreign. The oldest documents in the archives of Venice
+belong to the Senate. They are contained among the volumes of Pacts or
+treaties, seven in number, without including the volume Albus, which is
+devoted to treaties between the Republic and the Eastern Empire, nor the
+volume Blancus, which contains the treaties between Venice and the
+Emperors of the West. The thirty-three volumes of Commemoriali formed a
+sort of commonplace book for the use of statesmen; in them were
+registered briefly the most important events and abstracts of principal
+documents which passed through the hands of the Government. The
+Commemoriali cover the years 1293 to 1797; but after the middle of the
+sixteenth century they were neglected, and they are chiefly valuable
+down to that date only. After the Patti and Commemoriali we begin the
+record of the regular proceedings in the Senate. This series contains
+papers relating to home government, foreign policy, the dominions of
+Venice on the mainland, in Dalmatia and the Levant, ecclesiastical
+matters, relations with Rome, instructions to ambassadors and reports
+from governors. So widely spread and so varied were the attributes of
+the Senate, that the analysis of a single day's proceedings in that
+house would prove most instructive to the student of the Venetian
+constitution, and would, in all probability, bring him into contact with
+a large number of the leading magistracies of the Republic. The series
+of senatorial papers proceeds in almost unbroken completeness from the
+year 1293 down to the close of the Republic; and counting files,
+registers and rubrics, numbers 1599 volumes. This main series is known
+by different names at different periods, and shows signs of that
+tendency to subdivision which characterizes all Venetian Government
+offices. The volumes which run from the year 1293 to 1440 were known as
+Registri misti; those covering from 1491 to 1630, and overlapping the
+first Misti, were called Registri secreti. After the year 1630 the
+papers of the Senate are divided into those known as Corti, relating to
+foreign Powers; and those known as Rettori, relating to the government
+of the Venetian dominion.
+
+Besides this great series of Deliberazioni, containing the general
+movement of business in the Senate, there is another voluminous series
+of documents, equally important, and even more interesting to the
+student of general history, the dispatches received from Venetian
+representatives in foreign Courts, and the Relazioni, or reports which
+ambassadors read before the Senate upon their return from abroad.
+Nothing can exceed the brilliancy of this series; and the value of the
+Relazioni at least has been fully recognized. Yet it should be borne in
+mind that the Relazioni are only a part of the series, and that, taken
+alone and isolated from the dispatches, they lose much of their value.
+For we must not forget that the Relazioni were drawn up on more or less
+conventional lines; the headings, under which the report was to fall,
+were indicated by the Government, and were invariable; and, further, the
+home-coming ambassador handed his report to his successor, who
+frequently used it as a basis in drawing up his own. The result is that,
+except in the descriptions of Court life, and in the sketches of
+prominent characters, the Relazioni are apt to repeat themselves. But,
+taken with the dispatches, which arrived almost daily, they form the
+most varied, brilliant, and minute gallery of national portraits that
+the world possesses. The reports and dispatches were made by men whose
+whole political training had rendered them the acutest of observers, and
+they were presented to critics who were filled with the keenest
+curiosity, and were accustomed to demand full and precise information.
+Not a detail is omitted as unimportant; the diurnal gossip of the Court,
+the daily movements of the sovereign and his favourites; are all
+recorded with impartial and unerring observation. The relation of the
+Dispacci to the Relazioni is the relation of the study to the picture.
+The Relazioni are the large canvas upon which the whole nation is
+broadly depicted, the Dispacci are the patient and minute studies upon
+which the excellence of the picture depends. The majority of the
+Venetian Relazioni between the years 1492 and 1699 have been published;
+the earlier part by Signor Alberi, and the later by Signori Barozzi and
+Berchet. The eighteenth century still remains to be worked out. In the
+series of Relazioni and Dispacci, Great Britain occupies a comparatively
+small space. While France, Germany, and Constantinople, each give five
+volumes of reports, England gives one only, dating from 1531 to 1763. Of
+dispatches from England there are 139 volumes in all; while from
+Constantinople we have 242, from France 276, from Milan, 230, and from
+Germany 202.
+
+Previous to the year 1603, when the regular series of dispatches from
+England begins, there had been intermittent relations between the
+Republic and the English Court. Sebastian Giustiniani was Venetian
+ambassador in London in the reign of Henry VIII. (1515-1519); and in the
+reign of Mary, Giovanni Michiel represented the Republic for four
+years--from 1554 to 1558. The Protestant reign of Elizabeth caused a
+long break, during which the Republic received its information about the
+affairs of England from its ambassadors in France and Spain. Permanent
+relations were not resumed between the two Powers till the accession of
+James I., one of whose earliest acts was to send Sir Henry Wotton to
+Venice as his ambassador. The appointment of Sir Henry Wotton was a
+movement of gratitude on the part of the King; and the cause of it
+cannot be better told than in the words of Sir Henry's biographer, who
+thus describes this 'notable accident:'
+
+     'Immediately after Sir Henry Wotton's return from Rome to
+     Florence--which was about a year before the death of Queen
+     Elizabeth--Ferdinand, the Great Duke of Tuscany, had
+     intercepted certain letters that discovered a design to take
+     away the life of James, the then King of Scots. The Duke
+     abhorring this fact, and resolving to endeavour a prevention
+     of it, advised with his Secretary Vietta, by what means a
+     caution might be best given to that King; and after
+     consideration it was resolved to be done by Sir Henry
+     Wotton, whom Vietta first commended to the Duke, and the
+     Duke had noted and approved of above all the English that
+     frequented his Court.
+
+     'Sir Henry was gladly called by his friend Vietta to the
+     Duke, who dispatched him into Scotland with letters to the
+     King, and with those letters such Italian antidotes against
+     poison as the Scots till then had been strangers to.
+
+     'Having parted from the Duke, he took up the name and
+     language of an Italian; and thinking it best to avoid the
+     line of English intelligence and danger, he posted into
+     Norway, and through that country towards Scotland, where he
+     found the King at Stirling. Being there, he used means, by
+     Bernard Lindsey, one of the King's bed-chamber, to procure
+     him a speedy and private conference with his Majesty.
+
+     'This being by Bernard Lindsey made known to the King, the
+     King required his name--which was said to be Octavio
+     Baldi--and appointed him to be heard privately at a fixed
+     hour that evening.
+
+     'When Octavio Baldi came to the Presence-chamber door, he
+     was requested to lay aside his long rapier--which,
+     Italian-like, he then wore;--and being entered the chamber,
+     he found there with the King three or four Scotch Lords
+     standing distant in several corners of the chamber; at the
+     sight of whom he made a stand; which the King observing,
+     bade him be bold and deliver his message; for he would
+     undertake for the secrecy of all that were present. Then did
+     Octavio Baldi deliver his letters and message to the King in
+     Italian; which when the King had graciously received, after
+     a little pause, Octavio Baldi steps to the table, and
+     whispers to the King in his own language that he was an
+     Englishman, beseeching him for a more private conference
+     with his Majesty, and that he might be concealed during his
+     stay in that nation; which was promised and really performed
+     by the King, during all his abode there, which was about
+     three months. All which time was spent with much
+     pleasantness to the King, and with as much to Octavio Baldi
+     himself as that country could afford; from which he departed
+     as true an Italian as he came thither.'
+
+The presence of Sir Henry in Venice, where he was a _persona
+gratissima_, both for his love of Italy and his knowledge of the
+language, did much to strengthen the new relations between England and
+the Republic. The feeling between Venice and the Stuart kings became
+extremely cordial; but on the outbreak of the Civil War, in 1642, the
+Republic suspended the commission of Vincenzo Contarina, who had been
+appointed to succeed Giovanni Giustinian as ambassador to England. The
+secretary Girolamo Agostino, however, continued to discharge Venetian
+affairs till the year 1645; and his dispatches contain minute
+particulars concerning the progress of the Civil War. In the year 1645,
+Agostino was recalled, and the interests of Venice in England were
+entrusted to Salvetti, the Florentine resident. Agostino left behind him
+in England a secret agent, with instructions to forward a weekly report
+on the progress of affairs to the Venetian ambassador in France, among
+whose dispatches we find these newsletters from London. After the death
+of Charles I it is not likely that the Republic would have been
+represented at the Court of Cromwell, towards whom the feeling of Venice
+was not cordial, had she not been in great straits for help against the
+Turk. But in the year 1652 she resolved to dismiss the representative of
+Charles II, then in Venice; and, at the same time, the Government
+instructed the ambassador at Paris to send his secretary, Lorenzo
+Pauluzzi, to London to open negociations with Cromwell. With Pauluzzi
+the series of dispatches from London recommences; but these dispatches
+are to be found among the communications from the Venetian ambassador in
+Paris, by whom they were forwarded to the Senate. The dispatches of
+Pauluzzi are of great importance, and give us a vivid though hostile
+picture of Cromwell and his surroundings. 'Nell' universale,' he says,
+'ha pochissimo affetto;' and further on, 'non ardiscono tentare alcuna
+cosa ne parlare che tra i denti; ma ognuno sta sperando un giorno
+verificate le profizie che questo governo non possa a lungo durare.' In
+1655 the negociations between England and Venice had advanced so far
+that the Republic had determined to send an Ambassador Extraordinary to
+the Protector's Court. Giovanni Sagredo, ambassador at Paris, was
+chosen, and the closing paragraph of his first dispatch shows how
+strongly Cromwell's personality impressed him. 'Per il resto,' he
+writes, 'e uomo di 56 anni, con pochissima barba, di complessione
+sanguigna, di statura media e robusta e di presenza marziale. Ha una
+fisonomia cupa e profonda. Porta una gran spada al fianco. Soldato
+insieme ed oratore, e dotato di talenti per persuadere e per operare.'
+The result of Sagredo's mission is contained in the long and brilliant
+Relazione which he read in the Senate on his return to Venice in 1656.
+In this splendid specimen of a Venetian report, he gives, with singular
+lucidity and grasp, a brief sketch of the condition of Great Britain; of
+the causes of the Civil War; of Cromwell's rise to power; of his foreign
+relations; and closes with a portrait of the Protector which confirms
+Pauluzzi's unfavourable view, and draws a terrible picture of that
+restlessness and dread which clouded Cromwell's last days--'piu temuto
+che amato ... vive con sempiterno sospetto.' When Sagredo returned to
+Venice, his secretary Francesco Giavarnia was left behind in England, as
+Venetian resident, and continued to hold that post till the Restoration,
+sending dispatches every week direct to Venice, detailing the close of
+the Protectorate, and the return of Charles II., whom he was the first
+to welcome at Canterbury the day after his landing. In 1661 the Republic
+gladly re-opened full relations with the Stuarts. Giavarnia was
+superseded by two Ambassadors Extraordinary, who conveyed to Charles two
+gondolas for the water in St. James's Park, and from that date onwards
+the diplomatic connection between England and the Republic followed the
+ordinary course.
+
+We come now to the papers of the Council of Ten; all of these were
+committed to the custody of the Secret Chancellery. We have already seen
+that the Council of Ten was an extraordinary office, used upon
+extraordinary occasions, where secrecy and speed were required. Its
+chief occupations may be summed up under three heads--safety of the
+State, protection of citizens, and public morals. That being the case,
+the number and interest of its documents is very great--greater than
+that of any other Council of State; but this interest is confined, for
+the most part, to matters affecting the home policy of the Republic;
+foreign affairs finds comparatively little illustration among the
+papers of the Ten. The series of documents, containing the ordinary
+business of the Ten, dates from the year 1315 to the close of the
+Republic. The documents are arranged according to the matter they deal
+with, that is to say political matter, _parti communi_ and _secreti_, or
+criminal matter, _parti crimminali_. The immense importance and interest
+attaching to the papers of the Ten will be illustrated by the statement,
+that there we find the cases of Marino Faliero, of the Carraresi, of
+Carmagnola, of Foscari, of Caterina Cornaro, and of Foscarini.
+
+Among the papers of the Collegio we find ourselves once more in the
+general current of foreign politics. The ordinary proceedings of the
+College, the papers containing the arrangement and discussion of affairs
+to be presented to the Senate, are included in the volumes of files and
+registers, known as the Notatorii del Collegio. The College was
+entrusted, as we have said, to receive all the representatives of
+foreign Powers and to open all letters and dispatches addressed to the
+Government. It is in the three series known as Lettere Principi,
+Espozioni Principi, and Ceremoniali, that we obtain the fullest
+information about the action of the agents from foreign Courts resident
+in Venice. The series called Lettere Principi, letters from royal
+personages, covers the years between 1500 and 1797, and is contained in
+fifty-four volumes of _filze_. England is represented by two of these,
+beginning with the year 1570, and ending with 1796, entitled 'Collegio,
+Secreta, Lettere. Re e Regina d'Inghilterra.' These volumes contain one
+hundred and seventy-one letters, thus distributed among the various
+sovereigns; there are thirteen in the reign of Elizabeth; forty in that
+of James I.; four in that of Charles I.; three from Oliver Cromwell; one
+from Richard Cromwell; one from Speaker Lenthal: ten during the reign of
+Charles II.; five during that of his brother; three during the reign of
+William, including one from the Old Pretender; seven in the reign of
+Anne; eight in that of George I.; twenty-one from George II; and
+fifty-five from George III. These letters are concerned with formal
+announcements and the exchange of courtesies, the credentials of
+ambassadors and notices of royal births, marriages and deaths. Their
+historical importance is very slight. The long series of George III. is
+almost entirely occupied by noting the yearly increase of his family.
+The autographs of the ministers who countersigned the letters, form
+their greatest attraction. The late Mr. Rawdon Brown has published
+facsimiles of these autographs down to the year 1659; but after that
+date we find such interesting endorsements as those of Lauderdale,
+Arlington, Bolingbroke, Carteret, Pitt, Halifax, Henry Conway,
+Shelburne, and Charles James Fox. On a loose parchment among these
+letters is one very curious document. It is dated Bologna, 21st
+February, 1671, and begins 'Carlo Dudley per la gratia di Dio Duca di
+Northumbria et del Sacro Romano Impero, Conte di Woruih e di Licester,
+et Pari d'Ingliterra.' The document goes on to state that Charles
+Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, in consideration of the affection and
+partiality always shown towards his person and house, grants to Ottavio
+Dionisio, noble of Verona, the title of Marquis to him and to his eldest
+son, to his younger sons and to his brothers and their sons the title of
+Count, in perpetuity; and this in virtue of the declaration and
+authority of His Holiness Pope Urban VIII., which conferred on Charles
+Dudley and his eldest born the right to exercise all the privileges of
+an independent prince. At the date which this document bears, 1671,
+there was no Duke of Northumberland; that title had lately been bestowed
+by Charles II. on an illegitimate son, and had perished with him. This
+Charles Dudley was probably some pretender to the honours of the Dudley
+family who once held the dukedom of Northumberland. The document is
+curious, for the noble family on whom Charles Dudley conferred this
+title of Marquis still exists, and we do not know if any British
+subject, either before or after, has even claimed to be a fountain of
+honour. But Charles Dudley is not the only English pretender who figures
+among the papers at the Frari. Filza 8 of the loose papers, titled
+'Miscellanea Diversi Manoscritti,' contains the marriage certificate and
+will of James Henry de Boveri Rossano Stuart, natural son of Charles
+II., and seven letters from his son James Stuart, dated Milan, Gemona
+and Padua, 1722 to 1728. The majority of these letters are addressed to
+Cardinal Panighetti, from whom this 'povero principe Stuardo,' as he
+calls himself, hoped to receive money and support in some imaginary
+claims on the Crown of England. The letters are full of a certain
+pathos--the pathos which cannot fail to attach itself to fallen royalty.
+The handwriting is that of an uneducated man; and James Stuart, in these
+letters, certainly shows no signs of the ability required to meet so
+trying a situation. He appeals to the Cardinal first on the grounds of
+his creed. It is 'for the Faith that he finds himself in the miserable
+little town' of Gemona. Failing upon this line, James Stuart abandons
+himself to astrology, in the hope that the stars may give an answer
+favourable to his hopes. But to all his appeals the Cardinal replies
+with cold reserve, and when he hears of astrology, he adds a sharp and
+crushing reprimand.
+
+Leaving the Lettere Principi we come to the last two series of State
+papers of which we shall speak, the Espozioni Principi, or record of
+all audiences granted to ambassadors and of the communications made by
+them in the name of the Power they represented; and the Libri
+Ceremoniali, or record of the great functions of State, coronations and
+funerals of the Doges, the elections of the Grand Chancellors, the
+reception accorded to ambassadors, princes and distinguished travellers.
+The Republic of Venice was as punctilious as any Court of Europe upon
+the points of precedence, ceremony, and etiquette. The reader will not
+have forgotten the amusing account, given by the elder Disraeli, of the
+long struggle between the Master of the Ceremonies and the Venetian
+ambassador at the Court of St. James. The Government required from its
+representatives a minute account of every detail of etiquette observed
+towards them, and replied in kind in their treatment of foreign
+ministers in Venice. The Republic was punctilious abroad, and no less so
+at home. Every stage in the public entry, first audience and _conge_ of
+foreign ambassadors were carefully regulated and based upon precedent.
+The ambassadors of Spain and France had each a special volume devoted to
+the ceremonies and etiquette which the Republic observed towards them.
+M. Baschet describes at length the receptions of the French ambassadors,
+for whom he claims the highest rank among the representatives of foreign
+Powers at Venice. Great Britain sent fifty-eight embassies, in all, to
+the Republic, between the years 1340 and 1797. Of these ambassadors, Sir
+Gregory Cassalis filled the office twice, Sir Henry Wotton thrice, the
+Earl of Manchester twice, and Elizeus Burgess twice. The ceremony to
+which the ambassador was entitled may be gathered from the accounts of
+these embassies preserved in the Esposizioni Principi and the
+Ceremoniali.
+
+The reception of Lord Northampton in the year 1762 will afford us the
+most detailed view of the ceremony, for on that occasion some questions
+of precedent arose, and the Cavaliere Ruzzini, who was entrusted with
+the conduct of the affair, presented a long report to the Senate on the
+subject. The ambassador was not officially recognized by the Government
+until he had made his public entry, and presented his credentials at his
+first audience in the College. Until that had taken place, he remained
+incognito, and was in fact supposed not to be in Venice. Before the
+ambassador arrived, the English Consul was expected to hire a palace for
+his use. There was no fixed embassy in Venice; Thomas Killigrew lodged
+at San Cassano, Lord Holdernesse at San Benedetto, Lord Manchester at
+San Stae. John Udny, who was consul at the time of Lord Northampton's
+Embassy, rented the Palazzo Grimani at Cannaregio for the ambassador
+whenever his appointment was announced, and an amusing and
+characteristic story attaches to this affair. The palace belonged to a
+Contessa Grimani, and was in bad repair; but the owner promised to
+restore and fit it up for the ambassador. When the consul went to see
+the palace, shortly before the ambassador's arrival, he found that
+nothing had been done to it, and moreover that a gondolier and his wife
+occupied the ground-floor and refused to move. He wrote at once to the
+Contessa requesting her to remove the gondolier, to which he received
+for answer that the gondolier's wife had been nurse to one of the
+Countess's boys, and the Grimanis had promised her twenty ducats a-year;
+if the ambassador liked to pay that amount, the gondolier would turn
+out; if not, they must manage to share the palace between them. The
+consul appealed to the English Resident, John Murray, who wrote an angry
+letter to the Government, complaining of this treatment; 'La carita
+della nobile donna,' he says, 'verso la moglie del gondoliere merita
+senza dubbio gran lode, ma il sottoscritto s'imagina che l'avvocato piu
+scaltro si troverebbe bene intrigato di produrre una legge o esempio per
+incaricare l'Ambasciatore Inglese di questa carita.'
+
+The matter was probably arranged, for on the 22nd of October Lord
+Northampton arrived, incognito, of course, with all his suite, and took
+up his residence. Lord Northampton was ill, and it was not until the
+beginning of the next year that he took the necessary steps to make his
+entry and to secure his first audience. The etiquette observed upon such
+occasions required that the ambassador should send his secretary to
+leave copies of his credentials at the door of the College, and to ask
+on what day the Doge would receive him. The College reply through one of
+their secretaries that an answer will be sent. The Doge was then
+consulted what day would suit him, and he answers by putting himself at
+the disposal of the College. The Senate is then informed of the
+ambassador's arrival, and sixty senators, under the direction of a
+leader, are appointed to attend the ambassador until the ceremonies of
+his reception shall be completed. The days selected for Lord
+Northampton's reception were the 29th and 30th of May, 1763; and the
+Caveliere Ruzzini was named as head of the sixty senators who were to
+attend the ambassador. Ruzzini informed Lord Northampton of these
+arrangements, and at the same time sent him a programme of the ceremony,
+which was based upon that observed towards Lord Holdernesse, and was
+identical with that which the Republic offered to the ambassador of the
+King of Sardinia. Before his public entry, the ambassador and all his
+suite went to the island of San Spirito, in the lagoon towards
+Malamocco. The fiction of the ceremony supposed all ambassadors to be
+lodged there until they had presented their credentials. San Spirito was
+chosen as the point of departure for the ambassadorial procession
+because the distance between that island and Venice was supposed to
+correspond exactly with the distance between London and Greenwich,
+whence the Venetian ambassador was wont to begin his progress. Sir Henry
+Wotton's second embassy forms a rare exception to this rule, for the
+Venetians were so fond of that charming and accomplished poet, that they
+allowed him to make his entry from San Giorgio Maggiore, which is much
+nearer the city and more convenient. After midday on the 29th, Ruzzini
+and his sixty senators, each in his gondola, arrived at San Spirito, and
+found the household of the ambassador drawn up along the landing-place
+_en grande tenue_. Lord Northampton was informed of Ruzzini's arrival,
+and came to meet him on the staircase. After exchanging the prescribed
+compliments, Ruzzini, with the ambassador on his right hand, descended,
+and both entered the Cavaliere's gondola. The whole procession left San
+Spirito and proceeded by the Grand Canal to the ambassador's lodging at
+San Girolamo, accompanied, as Ruzzini says, by 'un immenso popolo
+spettatore del nostro viaggio;' for these official entries were among
+the most popular of the Venetian spectacles, and the whole city went out
+to witness them. At the palace fresh speeches and compliments followed.
+Lord Northampton was suffering acutely from an illness of which he died
+that same year, but Ruzzini reports with obvious satisfaction that he
+did not spare him a single ceremony, 'adempi ad ogni parte del consueto
+ceremoniale.' The next day Ruzzini and the sixty senators again attended
+at the ambassador's palace to conduct him to his audience in the
+College. Lord Northampton was worse than he had been the day before; but
+Ruzzini was implacable. It cost the ambassador three-quarters of an hour
+to ascend the Giant's Stair. When at last he reached the door of the
+Collegio, the Doge and all the College rose; the ambassador uncovered
+and made three bows, and, leaving his suite behind him, he mounted the
+dais and took his seat on the right hand of the Doge. The ambassador
+then covered his head, and simultaneously one of each order of the Savii
+did the same. The ambassador handed his credentials to the Doge, and
+remained uncovered while they were being read. The Doge made a brief and
+formal reply, welcoming the ambassador to Venice, and each time the
+King's name occurred, the ambassador raised his cap. After repeating his
+three bows, the ambassador retired, and was accompanied to his palace
+by the sixty senators who had waited for him at the door of the
+Collegio. This closed the ceremony of entry.
+
+The English Ambassador Extraordinary enjoyed certain privileges which
+were established on the precedent of the embassy of Lord Falconberg,
+Cromwell's son-in-law. Among these privileges was the right to lodging
+and maintenance at the cost of the Republic, a right which the
+ambassador usually compounded for the sum of five or six hundred ducats;
+a box at each theatre in Venice was placed at his disposal, and when he
+took his _conge_ the Senate voted him a gold chain and medal of the
+value of two thousand scudi. The ambassadors ordinary enjoyed certain
+exemptions from customs dues. These exemptions were frequently abused,
+and were the cause of constant friction between the Government and the
+representatives of the Powers. In the year 1763 Mr. John Murray's
+Istrian wine was seized, and he only recovered it after expressing
+himself _ben mortificato_. Mr. Murray was constantly in trouble on this
+subject. The year before he had addressed an indignant letter to the
+Government because 'a certain official of the Custom House had accused
+him of allowing his servants to sell wine and flour at the door of the
+Residency. It is but a poor satisfaction after so long a period of
+suspicion to know that that official is bankrupt and no proof of the
+accusation is forthcoming.' But by far the most curious episode of this
+nature was that which befell Tom Killigrew, the poet, grandfather of the
+Mrs. Anne Killigrew of Dryden's famous ode and a friend of Pepys, who
+recals him as 'a merry droll, but a gentleman of great esteem with the
+King, who told us many merry stories,' this, perhaps, among the number.
+Killigrew was sent to represent Charles II. at Venice in 1649, just
+after the execution of Charles I., and while his son was _a ramingo_, or
+knocking about, as the Venetian ambassador politely puts it. Killigrew
+was received in the usual way on February 10, 1650, and made his address
+'in lingua cattiva,' as the report affirms. But the Republic soon tired
+of its alliance with an exiled king, and resolved to dismiss Killigrew
+as soon as possible. Killigrew was poor, and his master had little or
+nothing to give him, so he hit upon the expedient of keeping a butcher's
+shop, where he could sell meat, cheaper than any one else in Venice, by
+availing himself of his exemptions from octroi. The Senate resolved to
+fasten upon this illicit traffic as a pretext for dismissing Killigrew;
+and on the 22d of June, 1652, they sent their Secretary, Busenello, to
+tell Killigrew, _viva voce_, that he must go. Busenello went to San
+Fantin, and there found one of Killigrew's butchers, who told him that
+the Resident only kept his shop there, but lived himself at San Cassano.
+At San Cassano Busenello was told that Killigrew was dining at Murano,
+and would not be home till evening; but very soon after he saw the
+Resident at his window, and insisted on being announced. He explained
+'with all possible delicacy,' as he says, the order of the Senate; but
+Killigrew received the message with every sign of anger and pain. With
+tears in his eyes he declared that it was the other ambassadors who
+robbed the customs, while he had all the blame. It was true that he did
+keep 'a little bit of a butcher's shop to support himself,' but that
+could not hurt the revenue; and he added that, under any circumstance he
+should leave Venice, for he had received his letters of recall from
+France, four days previously. The Senate no more than their secretary
+believed in the existence of this letter of recall; but Killigrew really
+had the letter, dated March 14th, and it was sent into the College,
+along with a brief exculpatory epistle from the Resident, on the 27th of
+June. Killigrew left Venice the same day as he was bound to do by
+ambassadorial etiquette; and Charles had not another recognized agent to
+the Republic until his restoration; for the Venetians definitely adopted
+the policy of courting Cromwell, in the vain hope that he would assist
+them against the Turk.
+
+With the papers of the College we close this notice of the political
+documents in the archives at the Frari. The other departments of the
+Government had each their own series of papers, equally copious and
+valuable. The heraldic and genealogical archives of the Avvogadori di
+Commun, for example, the Charters of the German and Turkish Exchanges
+and the records of the Mint and the public Banks, offer a wide and a
+rich field for study; and in spite of the profound and extensive labours
+of such scholars as Thomas, Checchetti, Barozzi, Berchet, Fulin,
+Lamansky, Mas Latrie, and Rawdon Brown, it will be long before the
+materials in the vast storehouse of the Frari are exhausted or even
+adequately displayed.
+
+
+
+
+Art. IV.--1. _Journal of a Residence in Norway during the years 1834,
+1835 and 1836._ By Samuel Laing, Esq. London, 1837.
+
+2. _Le Royaume de Norvege et le Peuple Norvegien._ Par le Dr. O. I.
+Broch. Christiania, 1878.
+
+3. _Official Reports of Prefects on the Economic Condition of the
+Provinces of Norway in 1876-80._ Christiania, 1884.
+
+4. _Publications of the Statistical Bureau, Christiania._
+
+
+The advocates of a general redistribution of landed property in Ireland,
+as well as those who are holding out to the agricultural labours of
+other portions of the United Kingdom the Arcadian lure figuratively
+known as the 'three acres and a cow,' will find in the work cited at the
+head of this article the amplest materials for the justification of the
+views they are pressing for adoption partly as a remedy for agricultural
+distress, but essentially in application of the Socialist doctrine that
+the people of a country have an inherent right to an absolute,
+proportionate possession of its soil.
+
+Mr. Laing's 'Journal' is, indeed, not a record of travel and adventure,
+but a treatise, admirably written and replete with facts, in
+demonstration of the great superiority of the Norwegian system of land
+tenure over that of any other part of civilized Europe. His views have,
+moreover, been to a great extent adopted in the numerous works that have
+since been produced by British travellers who, after a rapid drive over
+the main routes of Norway, have described in terms equally glowing the
+happy and enviable condition of the _Bonde_ or yeoman farmer of that
+country.
+
+Considering there is much in common in regard to race, religion,
+language, character, and civilization, between the inhabitants of that
+interesting little country and its maritime neighbours--the populations,
+more especially, of England and Scotland, it will be instructive, on the
+eve of the agrarian revolution with which the United Kingdom is
+threatened, to study and analyse the statements and conclusions of Mr.
+Laing, and to trace the subsequent and present operation of the peculiar
+land laws which he so highly extolled in the earlier part of this
+century.
+
+With that object we proceed to describe, almost in Mr. Laing's own
+words, the condition of the peasant proprietors of Norway at a period
+(1835) when, out of a population of 1,194,827, only about eleven per
+cent. inhabited towns, the land in rural districts being held by 103,192
+proprietors and tenants, the proportion of the two latter being
+respectively seventy and thirty per cent.
+
+     'The Norwegians,' wrote Mr. Laing, 'are the most interesting
+     and singular group of people in Europe. They live under
+     ancient laws and social arrangements totally different in
+     principle from those which regulate society and property in
+     the feudally constituted states. Their country is peculiarly
+     interesting to the political economist. It is the only part
+     of Europe in which property from the earliest ages has been
+     transmitted upon the principle of partition among all the
+     children. The feudal structure of society with its law of
+     primogeniture, and its privileged class of hereditary
+     nobles, never prevailed in Norway. In this remote corner of
+     the civilized world we may therefore see the effects upon
+     the condition of society of the peculiar distribution of
+     property; it will exhibit, on a small scale, what America
+     and France will be a thousand years hence.... Here are the
+     Highland glens without the Highland lairds.... If there be a
+     happy class of people in Europe it is the Norwegian _Bonde_,
+     king of his own land, and landlord as well as king.'
+
+This state of happiness is, according to Mr. Laing, the result of the
+still existing _Odels ret_ or Allodial Right, under which, he asserts,
+the land of Norway was always the property of the people, not of a
+feudal class of high nobility. But although this assertion does not much
+affect the main and practical object of our enquiry, it may be as well
+to point out at once that, whatever might have been the inherent right
+of every Norwegian to a portion of the soil on which he was born, Dr.
+Broch, an eminent native authority, maintains that a considerable
+portion of the land belonged anciently to the kings of Norway, and had
+been acquired, as in other countries, partly by confiscation from
+nobles. Those lands were leased and, gradually, to a certain extent,
+sold. In the days of Roman Catholicism, the Church also held great
+landed estates, which the State appropriated at the Reformation. No
+inconsiderable part of the State domains was then leased, and, in short,
+before the middle of the seventeenth century, leases comprised a little
+more than half of the landed property of the country; while even in
+1814, they constituted one-third of it. Later, the State lands, and
+those which had been distributed among nobles at the Reformation, were
+repartitioned among the bulk of the population or sold.
+
+But to return to the _Odels ret_. It gives, Mr. Laing shows,
+
+     'to all the kindred of the Odelsmand in possession, in the
+     order of consanguinity, a certain interest in it. If the
+     Odelsmand should sell or alienate his land, the next of kin
+     is entitled to redeem it on paying the purchase-money; and
+     should he decline to do so, it is in the power of the one
+     next to him to claim his _Odelsbaarn ret._'
+
+At the present time, the allodial right is acquired only by the
+uninterrupted possession of the same person, his descendants or his
+wife, during a period of at least twenty years, and it is lost if the
+property has been in strange hands for three years. Testamentary
+dispositions, in the case of persons leaving issue, are now limited to
+one quarter of the testator's property; whereas before 1854, a testator
+could not bequeath anything individually. Since the year 1860, also,
+there is perfect equality between the two sexes in the division of real
+and personal property. At the period when Mr. Laing visited Norway, the
+division of land among children had
+
+     'not had the effect of reducing properties to the minimum
+     size that would barely support human existence. One sells to
+     the other and turns his capital and industry to pursuits
+     that would enable him to acquire the necessaries of life.
+     The heirs who sell, very often, instead of a sum of money,
+     which is seldom at the command of the parties, take a
+     life-rent payment or annuity of so much grain, the keep of
+     so many cows, so much firewood, a dwelling-house on the
+     property, or some equivalent of that kind. Few properties
+     have no such burthens.' He argued that 'in a country where
+     land is held, not in tenancy merely, as in Ireland, but in
+     full ownership, its aggregation by the death of co-heirs,
+     and by the marriages of female heirs,[5] will balance its
+     subdivision by the equal succession of children; and also,
+     that in such a condition of society, the whole mass of
+     property would be found in such a State to consist of as
+     many estates of 1000l., as many of 100l., as many of 10l. a
+     year, at one period as at another.'
+
+     'Norway,' our author urges, 'affords a strong confutation of
+     the dreaded excessive subdivision of land. Notwithstanding,
+     the partition system, continued for ages, it contains farms
+     of such extent that the owner possesses forty cows.'
+
+On the whole, the farms appeared to him to be of various sizes: many so
+large that a bell was used to call the labourers to or from their work;
+while some were so small as to have only a few sheaves of corn, or a rig
+or two of potatoes, scattered among the trunks of the trees. These,
+however, were occupied by the farm servants, or cotters, paying for
+their houses and land in work (_Husmoena_). Twenty to forty cows could
+be counted on the large farms. In the district of Verdal
+(Trondhjemsfiord) Mr. Laing saw beautiful little farms of forty to fifty
+acres, each having a pasturage or grass tract in the mountains, where
+the cattle were kept during the summer until the crops were taken in,
+and upon each such out-farm, or _Soeter_, there was a house and
+regular dairy, to which, he informs us, 'the whole of the cattle and
+the dairy-maids, with their sweethearts, are sent to junket and to amuse
+themselves for three or four months of the year.[6] We can well believe
+that, in such circumstances, Mr. Laing found 'this class of _Boender_ the
+most interesting people in Norway,' and that 'there are none similar to
+them in the feudal countries of Europe.' He appears to have been more
+particularly impressed with
+
+     'the farms large enough to keep a score of cows, six horses
+     and a small flock of sheep and goats, and to maintain a
+     family and servants in all that land usually produces,
+     leaving a surplus for sale sufficient to pay taxes, wages,
+     and to provide the comforts and necessaries of life to a
+     fair extent,' all which could be bought 'for 1000l. or
+     1200l., or even less.'
+
+As regards the agricultural labourer, or cotter, Mr. Laing conceived
+'his average condition to be that of holding land on which he could sow
+three-quarters of an imperial quarter of corn and three imperial
+quarters of potatoes, and which would enable him to keep two cows, or an
+equivalent number of sheep or goats.' His wages are stated to have been
+4-1/2d. to 6d. per diem, in addition to his food. It was consequently
+'amusing to recollect the benevolent speculations in our Agricultural
+Reports, of the Sir Johns and Sir Thomases in our midland counties of
+England, for bettering the condition of labourers in husbandry, by
+giving them, at a reasonable rent, a quarter of an acre of land to keep
+a cow on, or by allowing them to cultivate the slips of land on the
+roadside, outside of their hedges.' He also derides 'the agricultural
+writers' who 'tell us, indeed, that labourers in agriculture are much
+better off as farm servants, than they would be as small proprietors,'
+for 'if property is a good and desirable thing, the very smallest
+quantity of it is good and desirable.' It was obvious to Mr. Laing that
+the forty families of two or three Norwegian highland glens, 'each
+possessing and living on its own little spot of ground and farming well
+or ill, as the case might be, were in a better and happier state, and
+formed a more rationally constituted society, than if the whole belonged
+to one of these families (and it would be no great estate), while the
+other thirty-nine families were tenants and farmers.'
+
+Mr. Laing found the happy agricultural population of Norway 'much
+better lodged than our labouring and middling classes, even in the south
+of Scotland;' and that no nation was at that period either better
+housed, or so well provided with fuel. The standard of living appeared
+to be higher in Norway than in most of our Scotch highland districts,
+although the materials were the same, namely, oatmeal, barley meal,
+potatoes, fish--fresh and salted--cheese, butter, and milk. He
+understood that it was even usual for the yeoman farmers to have animal
+food--'salt beef and black-puddings'--at least twice a week. At all
+events, he says, four meals a day formed the regular fare, and with two
+of those meals even the labourers had a glass of home-made brandy,
+distilled from potatoes by the yeoman, who 'could malt and distil in
+every way he pleased,' and thereby 'make free use of his agricultural
+produce,' with the result of 'increasing the general prosperity,
+improving the condition of the people, and promoting the increase of
+their numbers.'[7]
+
+There was, at the time of Mr. Laing's residence in Norway, 'small
+difference in the way of living between high and low, because every man
+lived from the produce of his farm, and observed the utmost simplicity
+and economy with regard to everything that took money out of his
+pocket.' Furniture and clothes, except the yeoman's Sunday hat, were all
+home-made. 'Here was a whole population, in an old European country,
+dealing direct with Nature, as it were, for every article, without the
+intervention of money, or even of barter.' It was only the small yeomen
+on the verge of the Fjeld, or in the glens, far above the level of the
+land producing corn, and the inhabitants of districts less favoured by
+nature, 'whose common bread consisted of the bark of trees, mixed and
+ground up with ill-ripened oats; but even in their case, trout, dried
+and salted for winter, was no inconsiderable part of their provision,
+their houses being, at the same time, comfortable, though small, with
+wooden floors and glass windows.
+
+Apart from these exceptionally situated proprietors, Mr. Laing found
+there really was 'no difference between the residence of a public
+functionary, of a clergyman, or of a gentleman of larger property and
+that of a _Bonde_, or peasant. The latter are as well, as commodiously
+and even showily, lodged as the former can be, and the properties are as
+good.' Mr. Laing, however, makes a reservation under this head in
+respect of the 'cultivated classes,' as being indisputably superior in
+mental acquirements to the yeoman farmer, and who lived in the same
+manner as the corresponding classes in England.
+
+Towards the end of his stay in Norway, Mr. Laing often heard 'from the
+most intelligent men in the country' that the yeoman farmer lived too
+high; indulged too much in expensive luxuries, as coffee and sugar; in
+frequent and expensive entertainments at each other's houses; in
+carrioles, sledges, and harness of a costly kind; and even in a horse or
+two more than the farm work required; and he certainly thought this had
+resulted in a general want of money among them to pay even the most
+trifling taxes and other sums. A man with land worth three or four
+thousand dollars, and with horses, cows, and all sorts of products in
+abundance, was often at a loss for five or ten dollars. Nevertheless, he
+was of opinion that 'the increase of the tastes and habits which belong
+to property tended to keep population within the bounds of what can be
+comfortably subsisted, and without which the increase of subsistence
+would tend to evil rather than good.' It was, indeed, 'a good thing that
+they all had the ideas, habits, and character of people possessed of
+independent property upon which they were living without any care about
+increasing it, and free from the anxiety and fever of money making or
+money losing.'
+
+Their subsistence, Mr. Laing exultingly and repeatedly points out, was
+derived mainly from husbandry, carried on under less favourable
+conditions of soil, climate, crops, and pasturage than in the Scotch
+highlands;--
+
+     'but on the simple Norwegian system, to live on the produce
+     of the land being the main object, and the labourer (the
+     cotter) being paid chiefly in land, a good crop would be an
+     unmingled blessing; whereas in countries where agriculture
+     is carried on as a manufacture, a succession of good crops
+     may glut the markets, ruin the tenant, and even reduce the
+     money wages of the labourer. In Norway neither good nor bad
+     crops can affect the proportion of population to the land
+     that could in ordinary seasons subsist on it. Paying no
+     rent, the Norwegian yeoman farmer is not usually employed in
+     prospective improvements, but simply in raising food, so
+     that he can see at once whether the land is sufficient to
+     produce subsistence for himself and his labourers. If grain
+     and potatoes for the use of the farm, and a little surplus
+     for sale to pay the land-tax and buy luxuries with, can be
+     raised by the farm, all the purposes of farming in Norway
+     are answered.
+
+On the subject of pauperism, Mr. Laing alleges that 'the dread of
+poverty was less influential in Norway, where extreme destitution is as
+rare as great wealth, and where there is so much less difference in the
+comforts and consideration of the richer and poorer classes.' The
+indigent were farmed out for a week or so at a time among the yeomen
+farmers, 'whose poor-rate like the tithes of the Church, was too
+inconsiderable to mention.' The state of property, and its general
+diffusion throughout the social body, had also, he had no doubt, a
+beneficial effect on the moral condition of the people. 'The desire for
+wealth being considerably blunted, it was not the same actuating,
+engrossing principle of human action, the spring of much that was evil
+and immoral being thus removed.' Only one case of downright
+drunkenness--that of a Laplander--had come under his personal
+observation, and it was only on special occasions that the yeoman farmer
+could be seen a little elated. His theory, however (we may remark in
+passing), respecting the influence of property on the moral condition of
+the people is not supported by other facts which he quotes, namely, that
+owing to the restraints upon marriage, 'exercised as in Paris or London,
+by a high standard of living,' the 'proportion of illegitimate to
+legitimate children in Norway was 1 in 5,' while in a parish he
+specifies, it was (between 1826 and 1830) 'as high as 1 in 3-26/136.' He
+mentions that engagements between couples lasted generally one, two, and
+often several years, especially in the case of servants in husbandry
+waiting for a house and land to settle in as cotters. In such cases, he
+says, 'it too often happened that the privileged kindness between
+betrothed parties was carried too far,' and 'the betrothed became a
+mother before she was a wife.'
+
+We quit this painful phase of peasant proprietorship with the
+observation that, notwithstanding a still wider diffusion of property
+and of moral qualities which, according to Mr. Laing, that diffusion is
+calculated to engender, 8.38[8] per cent. of the live children born in
+Norway between 1866 and 1870 were born out of wedlock, the corresponding
+proportion in 1836 having been 7.07 per cent. It is natural to find,
+under these circumstances, that the marriage rate was 6.84 per 1000 of
+the population in 1866-75 against 7.31 per 1000 between 1834 and 1836,
+with a fractional decrease of the total number of births in the former
+period, the average per family remaining slightly over four.
+
+The ancient Allodial Right and the happy social system based upon it,
+Mr. Laing found jealously guarded by the yeomanry, 'who have not only
+the legislative power and the election of the Storthing' (or Parliament)
+'almost entirely in their own hands, but also the whole civil business
+of the community.' He may, therefore, well say, without fear of
+contradiction, that 'the Norwegian people enjoy a greater share of
+liberty, have the framing and administering of their own laws more
+entirely in their own hands, than any European nation of the present
+time;' and, further, that 'it is not a little extraordinary that almost
+the only result' of the universal delirium of 1790,[9] 'which approaches
+in reality to the theories of that period, has been the Norwegian
+Constitution.'
+
+The paramount influence of the agrarian class over the destinies of the
+kingdom may be judged by the circumstances that the rural districts are
+permanently represented in the Storthing by two-thirds of the total
+number of members, limited by the Constitution to 114; and that
+practically the suffrage is now universal, the principal conditions of
+its possession being, under recent legislation, a qualification of age
+(25 years) and a residence of five years in the country. It is well
+known that the Parliament thus elected (under a system of double
+election), with its _de facto_ single Chamber, subdivided for the more
+rapid and effective discharge of certain business into what Mr. Laing
+chooses to call an 'Upper House' and a 'House of Commons,' has, within
+very recent days, in virtue of the largely predominant rural, radical
+vote, exercised its power of impeaching and punishing, by fine and
+dismissal from office, an entire Cabinet, for the crime of having
+advised the King that his veto was not merely suspensive, but absolute,
+in the matter of any Bill affecting the principles of the Constitution,
+and that the questions in dispute between the Sovereign and the
+Storthing were of a constitutional character, involving indirectly not
+only the stability of a monarchical form of government, but also that of
+the personal union between the crowns of Norway and Sweden--a stability
+pre-eminently essential in both respects to the highest interests of
+Scandinavia, and in no small degree also to the maritime and political
+interests of this country. It is this form of Parliament that Mr. Laing
+extols 'as a working model of a constitutional government on a small
+scale, and one which works so well as highly to deserve the
+consideration of the people of Great Britain.'
+
+We have at last done with Mr. Laing's remarkable statements, views, and
+recommendations; and the principal question we now have to consider is:
+What is the latest phase (after an interval of half a century) of the
+development of the peculiar social organization of Norway, and
+especially of its system of land tenure, differing, as both do, from the
+organization and system evolved out of feudality in Great Britain and
+Ireland? We therefore intend to enquire: (1) Has the system of land
+tenure in Norway prevented, as foretold by Mr. Laing, an excessive
+subdivision of land? (2) Has a dead level of ease and contentment been
+maintained? (3) Has the diffusion of land by a natural process, under
+the widest form of home rule, kept the rural population of Norway within
+the bounds of possible modern existence? (4) Has no pauperism affected
+the taxation of landed property? and (5) generally, Is the Norwegian
+yeoman farmer in a more thriving condition at the present time than the
+tenants and agricultural labourers elsewhere, from whom is still
+withheld the freehold possession of land to which, it is alleged by a
+certain school of politicians, they have a natural right, disputed only
+by monopolists and land-grabbers?
+
+These are the questions we shall endeavour to answer with the aid,
+exclusively, of the latest publications of the Norwegian Government. We
+must, however, preface our replies by sketching roughly the influences
+that have sprung into operation since Mr. Laing published the Journal of
+his residence in Norway.
+
+In his time the towns contained only about eleven per cent. of the total
+population of the kingdom, whereas at the present moment the proportion
+is double that of 1835.[10] This urban agglomeration, Dr. Broch shows,
+has been 'due principally to causes which have operated in the rest of
+Europe. Facilitated means of communication promoted the migration of the
+agricultural population towards the towns, where the development of
+industry and commerce offered the lure of gains or salaries higher than
+those in rural districts.' One of the causes, he justly adds, of the
+displacement of the population has been the immense and laudable
+progress of public instruction, 'and the growing taste for intellectual
+and material enjoyments which gave a great force of attraction to the
+towns.'
+
+As in other advancing countries, the attraction of towns, and the
+facilities for obtaining employment in them, operate also in Norway, to
+the disadvantage of the yeomen farmers of the present day. Among the
+causes of the economic decline of the Province of North Bergen, the
+Prefect mentions that
+
+     'the disinclination of young men of the yeoman farmer class
+     to take permanent service is very general in this district,
+     and is easily explained by the ease with which men in the
+     prime of their strength obtain occupation as labourers in
+     the fisheries. The great bulk of the day labourers do not
+     seek with any great eagerness for work in the fields, so
+     long as they hold previously acquired means sufficient to
+     provide them with the necessaries of life, however scantily.
+     As a rule, so long as want does not look in at the window,
+     they will not engage themselves for such work, except at
+     very good wages. The wages for a yearly labourer have
+     doubled during the last twenty years.[11] At the same time
+     the houseman has lost the command he previously had over his
+     workmen, and consequently does not get the same amount of
+     work out of them as formerly. Fishing attracts labour by a
+     larger immediate return, acquired with less bodily exertion
+     than in husbandry. It gives the population less taste for
+     harder work.'
+
+We leave Mr. Laing in doubt whether the steam-engine could 'ever be
+brought to perfection.' That doubt was speedily removed, and in 1852
+Norway followed in the wake of other European nations by building
+railways, their total length in 1883 having reached very little short of
+a thousand English miles. Nor did their construction, with capital
+raised chiefly abroad and punctually repaid, arrest the improvement or
+the laying down of ordinary roads, to the extent of 4000 miles, between
+1845 and 1875. In addition to this extensive opening-out of
+communication by rail and road, the introduction of steamers on inland
+waters and their employment as coasters and sea-going vessels, the
+construction of telegraphs, and development of fisheries, of ship
+building, of banking and other companies, and generally of trade and
+industry, produced gradually a wide disturbance in the social economy
+found by Mr. Laing. The expansion and prosperity of the towns, as well
+as the more refined habits of life adopted by the clergy and the
+officials of Government, were viewed by the yeomen farmers with a
+jealousy that was undoubtedly the original cause of their present
+radical proclivities, the old conservatism being relegated to towns,
+contrary to the experience of other European countries, and particularly
+to that of Great Britain, until the metaphorical three acres and a cow
+were dangled before the eyes of its rural population.
+
+Under all these influences, and we may include among them the effect of
+a constantly-increasing number of travellers, equipped with the modern
+appliances of civilization, and demanding accommodation and other
+material comforts of a more and more superior character, the Robinson
+Crusoe existence of the yeoman farmer, as depicted by Mr. Laing, has
+suffered so much invasion that it has well-nigh disappeared.
+
+In the matter of clothing, an assimilation to general, central European
+dress has for years past been noticeable even in districts the most
+remote, to the prejudice of home-spinning and weaving. Ancient silver
+ornaments have been largely discarded by the women, and converted, first
+into money, and eventually into articles of modern use or embellishment,
+to an extent that now renders travellers more and more suspicious of the
+Brummagem origin of the objects that remain for sale. And it is the same
+with old furniture and with the multifarious knicknacks which travellers
+less recent delighted to find in the country at reasonable prices.
+
+The value of money has become more generally appreciated since Mr. Laing
+admired the absence of all incentive to 'money-making and money-losing,'
+and the previously unambitious character of the yeoman and his sons has
+undergone a tolerably complete change since education has opened out the
+widest avenues to personal advancement, even from the plough. They no
+longer live by bread alone, and therefore their artificial wants have
+been increasing at a greater ratio than their means of satisfying them
+out of the produce of the land. Without entering here upon the important
+effect of the corn supplies from America, and of the depreciation of the
+value of the Norwegian timber, owing to the increased competition of
+America and other countries, we may sum up this imperfect prefatory
+sketch by stating that, from a general point of view, the Gamle Norge
+(Old Norway) of Mr. Laing's days has for many years been passing through
+a process of transformation, the latest results of which we shall now
+describe.[12]
+
+Mr. Laing's contention, that when land is held in freehold, not as a
+rule in tenancy, the relative size or value of the estates into which
+the land is divided will remain the same at one period as at another, is
+entirely refuted by the official statistics of Norway. In the first
+place, the total number of properties, which was about 111,000 in 1838,
+had grown, in 1870, to 149,000 (34-1/2 per cent.), and is still higher
+at the present day, with a continued tendency to multiplication by
+partition. Secondly, the proportion that existed in 1838 between the
+various sizes of agricultural holdings has undergone a notable change,
+marking a very considerable increase in the relative number of small
+plots.
+
+As it was found practically impossible to estimate the value of landed
+property on the basis of its acreage (the physical conditions of the
+country giving such great variety to the value of estates), the
+'Cadastre' introduced in 1836, established, for purposes of assessment,
+a classification based on 'skylddaler,' or taxable, value. This unit of
+taxation was assumed to represent a mean capital value of about 89l.,
+arrived at by estimating the net income derived at that period from the
+working of land during an average year.
+
+The following statement exhibits the cadastral classification of
+properties,[13] and the changes that have occurred in the several groups
+between 1838 and 1870.
+
+                                              1838.      1870.
+Estates below 0.2 skylddaler in value         8,866      26,048
+   "    between 0.2 and 1      "             31,265      52,067
+   "       "    1    "  2      "             28,652      33,427
+   "       "    2    "  5      "             32,854      29,498
+   "       "    5    " 10      "              7,043       6,012
+   "       "   10    " 20      "              1,791       1,617
+   "     above         20      "                315         344
+                              Total         110,786     149,013
+
+It is thus evident that, even fifteen years ago, the increase in the
+total number of properties, as compared with the number in 1838, had
+affected only the three groups of smaller holdings, and particularly the
+group (below 0.2) which, according to Dr. Broch, 'includes the sites of
+houses and cottages owned by labourers, fishermen, seamen, and artizans,
+but estimated to yield an average of 5-1/2 bushels of corn, 8 bushels of
+potatoes, and grass for half a cow. The holdings more purely
+agricultural, and designated by the same authority as 'small
+properties,' are those comprised in the two next categories, namely,
+parcels of land over 0.2 and under 2 skylddaler in value. In 1870, we
+find that a little more than one-half of the landed properties in Norway
+and one-third of the total cadastral area, were included in those two
+groups. The average yield of those small properties is estimated by Dr.
+Broch at '55 bushels (20 hectol) of cereals, and 82-1/2 bushels (30
+hectol) of potatoes, with fodder for four cows, seven sheep or goats,
+and half a horse.' He states, nevertheless, that--
+
+     'without subsidiary means of existence, the most frugal
+     families cannot subsist on them, even when free from debt
+     and other incumbrances. There can be no question of
+     employing hired labour on such farms, although a domestic
+     servant is sometimes kept. The owners or tenants of such
+     small properties seek their principal means of existence in
+     fishing, forest work, and a variety of other occupations.'
+
+The group of properties more particularly admired by Mr. Laing is that
+which is officially classed under 'Properties of medium size,' ranging
+between two and ten skylddaler in cadastral value. They represented in
+1870 only 24 per cent. of the total number of properties, but 59 per
+cent. of the cadastral area of Norway. These are the farms which can, on
+an average, feed fifteen head of cattle, thirty or forty sheep or goats,
+and a couple of pigs, and yield 30 imperial quarters of cereals, 40
+imperial quarters of potatoes, and fodder for a couple of horses.
+
+     'Agriculture on these properties,' continues Dr. Broch, 'is
+     not only the most important means of existence, but also in
+     many cases the only resource. _They suffice for a family of
+     simple habits, provided the proprietor is not crippled with
+     debt, that he has not to pay too heavy "foederaa"_
+     (annuities, incumbrances) _and on condition that he lives as
+     a peasant, assisting personally in the work of the
+     firm_,[14]
+
+Estates of an assessed value of more than ten 'skylddaler' are
+designated as 'Large Properties.' They cover 13.4 per cent. of the total
+cadastral area, but represent only 1.3 per cent. of the total number of
+properties; and it is exclusively these that afford, according to Dr.
+Broch, 'easy circumstances to their possessors, who are not infrequently
+ship-owners, forest-owners, engaged in the fishery-trade,' &c.
+
+It is thus manifest that, in 1878, when Dr. Broch drew up his Report for
+the Universal Exhibition at Paris, the diffusion of property in Norway
+had left only about 25 per cent. of the yeomen farmers (excluding the
+group of 'Large Properties') capable of maintaining themselves and their
+families on their freeholds on conditions which, as we shall presently
+show, no longer exist, and that the great bulk of the landed proprietors
+were in occupation of such small patches of land that their subsistence
+was entirely dependent upon other employments. This view is very fully
+borne out by the 'Reports of the Norwegian Prefects for the Quinquennial
+Period 1876-80.' Their observations on the growing subdivision of land
+as one of the causes by which the agricultural economy has been
+disturbed, to its great disadvantage, are well worth attention.
+
+An increasing subdivision of land is reported from the provinces of
+North Bergen, Romsdal, South Trondhjem, and Tromsoe. The Prefect of North
+Bergen points to it as one of the reasons of the unfavorable condition
+of the province:--
+
+     'It may,' he writes, 'with just cause be said to exist when
+     the properties parcelled out are insufficient for the
+     maintenance of a family, and when the farms are situated in
+     a locality which does not afford the opportunity of some
+     kind of subsidiary employment, or if the proprietor of such
+     a small holding cannot attach himself to another man as a
+     labourer for hire. When utilised, however, by the
+     inhabitants of the coast, such subdivision cannot be
+     regarded as excessive, for the owners of the small patches
+     are able to obtain for themselves and their families the
+     necessaries of life by fishing. When, however, a landowner,
+     on account of the insignificant extent or the small
+     productiveness of his farm, finds himself unable to subsist
+     without seeking the wages of a labourer, his position is not
+     better, or but little better, than that of the cotter
+     (Husmand) alongside of him, notwithstanding that the latter
+     is not owner of the land he cultivates. It is a matter of
+     course that such farmers will be destitute of economical
+     power, and unable to give the communal or the provincial
+     exchequer any visible contribution towards the funds that
+     have to be raised in order to meet the public expenditure.
+     The existence of such small proprietors is not, on the
+     whole, desirable.'
+
+In the province of South Trondhjem the great increase of the
+indebtedness of the landowners is ascribed in part to the subdivision of
+property by the creation of _Myrmoend_, literally 'bogmen'
+(bog-trotters?), or men supplied gratuitously, in recent times, with
+small plots of waste land, for the purpose of qualifying them as voters.
+Subdivision has likewise resulted from the partition of holdings in
+common, which, according to Dr. Broch, formed, in 1870, 13.4 per cent.
+of all the properties in Norway; principally in the Western Provinces,
+from the Naze to the Fiord of Trondhjem, where they constituted at that
+period, on the average as much as 30 per cent. of the landed property.
+Under a law passed in 1857, those lands are now divisible or
+exchangeable, and it appears from the report of the Prefects that the
+demands in that direction cannot be satisfied by the Government
+officials with sufficient promptness. In the province of South
+Trondhjem, for instance, about 40 per cent. of the properties were still
+held in common in 1875, but between 1876 and 1880 the partition of such
+lands was advancing 'at the rate of about twenty farms per annum.'
+
+The Prefect of Romsdal enumerates the causes of an increasing
+subdivision of landed property as follows: 1. The clearing of land for
+fields and meadows with the view of affording support to more families
+than one. 2. The desire of a proprietor to let more of his children than
+the nearest _Odelsberretige_[15] come into the possession of his estate.
+3. In the case of an indebted proprietor, the necessity of parting with
+a portion of his land in order to get clear of his creditors; and 4. The
+desire on the part of persons who have no real property to come into the
+possession of land, especially tenants and cotters. The yeomen farmers
+themselves, he reports:
+
+     'bring forward as a substantial reason for the increasing
+     subdivision of land the fact that, owing to the growing
+     difficulty of obtaining labourers, _it does not pay to
+     remain in possession of a larger estate than can be worked
+     by the family itself_.'
+
+Consequently, the number of holdings was increased in that province by
+nearly 10 per cent. between 1876 and 1880. A corroboration of this view
+is to be found in other Reports, particularly in the Report from the
+Province of North Trondhjem, in which the yeomen farmers are declared to
+be compelled to 'cultivate the land with the resources of their own
+households.' The effect of the conversion of cotters into small
+proprietors may be estimated from the following opinion of another
+Prefect: 'The burden of bad times is often felt more heavily by the
+proprietor than by the cotter;' and all the Reports show that 'the
+times' are as bad in Norway as they are in the United Kingdom, with this
+aggravation, that 70 to 80 per cent. of the population of Norway is
+settled on the land, and steeped in debt.
+
+Most of the Prefects report unfavourably on the condition and prospects
+of agriculture, and on the depressing influence of American competition
+in corn, which began to make itself distinctly felt about the year
+1875,[16] when also the forest industry, so intimately connected with
+agriculture, first encountered the effects of a greatly increased
+shipment of timber from America and other countries to Europe. But these
+are not the only reasons, over and above the subdivision of property
+already dwelt upon, to which they ascribe a very general decline in the
+economic condition of the yeomen farmer. In one province, 'habits of
+thrift and providence had been awakened and replaced by new habits of
+life, with greater demands for comforts and enjoyments.' High prices
+previously realized for timber had caused luxury to enter into all the
+circumstances of life, stimulating in many quarters a reckless waste of
+money earned.' In another, 'the demand for comforts of life has risen,
+and it is not all that have found it easy to limit the satisfaction of
+their wants,' and 'more has been consumed than means allowed.' The
+female part, more particularly, of the population of North Bergen, is
+reproached with an inability to withstand the temptation of buying the
+wares of all kinds, 'neither useful nor necessary,' which the present
+great number of country storekeepers insidiously placed before their
+eyes. 'The improved mode of living introduced during a previous,
+flourishing period, has also contributed to ruin the economic condition
+of the people, who in the harder times that have succeeded have not
+known how to cut their coats according to their cloth.' At the same
+time, the Prefect adds, 'the mode of living, taking the rural population
+as a whole, is very frugal; yes, far too frugal. It is very desirable
+that they should have more substantial food than they have at present,
+but they must first have the means to obtain it.' Even so far north as
+the Provinces of Nordland and Tromsoe, a similar tendency to live beyond
+means, the absence of good economy, and the dissipation of money 'on no
+particular system,' are reported to be the present characteristics of
+the people who are largely engaged in the fisheries.
+
+No one who has travelled in Norway can fail to endorse the assertion,
+that the fare of the yeomen farmer, however many may be his cows, is of
+a character which no English agricultural labourer would be satisfied
+with. Oatmeal cakes, potatoes, porridge, butter and milk, and of late
+years American pork (when within reach of the yeoman's means) are the
+principal articles of food; and the hardiest traveller, whether native
+or alien, would not venture to leave the main arteries of communication
+without making his own provision of potted meats, or trusting for his
+sustenance to the fish and game to be killed by himself. Mr. Laing's
+'salted meat and black-puddings' are certainly not to be found, except
+at farms that are few and far between. On the high roads, where
+tourists' gold circulates, the traveller suffers no deprivation, and the
+houses and stations are so comfortable and well-appointed, that only the
+most exacting foreigner can find fault with the accommodation provided.
+Mr. Laing's observations in this respect apply at present only to
+establishments of this kind, and to the very few farms at which the
+servants are still 'called to and from their work by means of a bell.'
+
+Except, therefore, along the course of the tourists' gold stream, and in
+the vicinity of towns, the mode of living is rude in the extreme, and
+the lament of the Prefect of North Bergen is in reality applicable to
+the great bulk of the yeomen farmers of Norway, as well as to their
+tenants and cotters. Nor is there any trace of that equality in the mode
+of living which Mr. Laing found in existence among the several classes
+of the rural population--'the public functionary, the clergyman, the
+gentleman of larger property, and the _Bonde_ or peasant.' Refinement
+and culture, equal to what exists amongst corresponding classes of this
+country, are wanting only to the yeomen farmers; and their efforts to
+adopt a 'higher standard of living,' and to acquire the 'comforts of
+life,' have in no small degree conduced to the encumbrance of their
+estates. From the Reports of the Prefects it is evident that the gravest
+symptom of the decline of the rural economy in Norway, and, at the same
+time, one of its principle causes, is the heavy indebtedness of the
+yeomen farmers, great and small. Its origin is traceable to the year
+1816, when the Bank of Norway was founded, chiefly for the purpose of
+'advancing on its own notes, upon first securities over land, any sum
+not exceeding two-thirds of the value of the property' mortgaged to it.
+Mr. Laing alludes to it as 'the peculiar, and for the wants of the
+country, well-imagined, Bank of Norway,' which 'facilitates greatly the
+family arrangements with regard to land.' Its capital was originally
+raised by a forced loan or tax upon all landed property, and the
+landholders became shareholders according to the amount of their
+respective shares. The borrower repaid half-yearly to the Bank the
+interest of the sum that might be to his debit at the rate of 4 per
+cent. per annum, and was also bound to pay off 5 per cent. yearly of the
+principal, which was thus liquidated in twenty years. Although Mr. Laing
+was of opinion that 'a circulation of paper money on such a basis is
+evidently next, in point of security, to that of the precious metals,'
+he fails to mention that the Bank was forced to suspend specie payments
+three years after its establishment, and that the resumption of those
+payments was not commenced until 1823, when the notes of the Bank began
+to be convertible at little over half their original value; the
+operation of raising them to par, on a graduated scale, having been
+completed only in 1842, a period since which the Bank, with an increased
+Reserve Fund, has maintained an uninterrupted and unimpeachable
+stability. But while the Bank still advances money on the security of
+landed property, two-thirds of its resources are now employed in the
+discount of mercantile bills. At the end of 1883, its loans to the
+landed proprietors amounted only to 626,000l.
+
+In 1852, however, the State had come again to the assistance of the
+landowners for the extinction of private mortgages and the consolidation
+of old debts by the creation of a special 'State Mortgage Bank,' with an
+original capital of 291,000l., increased by successive issues of bonds
+representing advances on the security of real property, bearing interest
+at the rate of 4 per cent, (at present 4-1/2 per cent.), and repayable
+by drawings over a period of thirty years. The amount of the bonds
+issued up to 1884 was about 3,812,000l., and in 1878 about
+three-quarters of the bonds were held in the country itself, their
+market value being still almost at par.
+
+It is principally into this Bank that the yeomen farmers have been
+dipping their estates at a rapidly increasing rate. Thus, while the
+loans on the security of real property in rural districts averaged
+57,500l. per annum between 1853 and 1855, and 220,600l. between 1876 and
+1880, the advances made in 1883 amounted to 396,500l. At the end of that
+year the balance of outstanding loans had reached the sum of
+3,752,000l., of which about 77 per cent., or 2,889,000l., represented
+advances in rural districts, the remaining 23 per cent, having been
+borrowed in towns. The interest payable on those loans is respectively
+4-1/4 and 4-3/4 per cent., according to whether the borrowers have been
+supplied with bonds bearing interest at the rate of 4 or 4-1/2 per cent.
+per annum; and 3 per cent. of the capital is repayable per annum until
+the extinction of the debt over a period of thirty years.
+
+There is a third public source available to the landed proprietors for
+loans on mortgages and on bonds or bills, namely the Savings Banks. In
+1884, the savings-banks, in rural districts alone, held in 'mortgage
+bonds' and in 'bonds and bills' a sum of about 3,553,000l.; but in what
+proportion that debt was incurred by local traders and by farmers, it is
+impossible to say. It is, however, clear that the yeomen farmers have
+benefited largely by the deposits made in those banks by the
+comparatively few who have been able to accumulate, instead of
+borrowing, money. Thus, the Prefect of Hedemarken reports that, 'while
+large amounts, realized by the sale of timber, were deposited in the
+savings-banks, extensive loans were made by those establishments to
+persons in less favourable circumstances,' and that 'the savings-banks,
+to be found in so many parishes, have, by the easy access they afford to
+loans, beguiled many into a needless borrowing of money, subsequently
+squandered.'
+
+Over and above these facilities for borrowing money from public
+institutions, the yeomen farmers are undoubtedly heavily in debt to
+local storekeepers, and to merchants and traders in the towns. In fact
+the great bulk of the landed proprietors have been borrowing in every
+direction as much as they could raise by mortgage or by bill. Owing to
+the excellent system of registration that exists in Norway, there is no
+difficulty in ascertaining the extent to which the charges on real
+property in rural districts have increased between the years 1876 and
+1880. It appears from the Reports of the Prefects that, between those
+dates, the balance of mortgages newly effected over those extinguished
+in rural districts amounted to a sum of about four millions sterling.
+The State Mortgage Bank is bound not to advance more than six-tenths of
+the value of land and buildings (forests excepted), and it is supposed
+that the loans have so far not exceeded four-tenths of the value of
+mortgaged property; but as the yeomen farmers generally contrive to
+borrow on second mortgages, it may safely be assumed, that their estates
+are charged with interest at 4-1/4 to 6 per cent. on a considerable part
+of the nominal value of what is not purely forest land, in addition to
+an annual repayment of 3 per cent. of the capital borrowed from the
+State Mortgage Bank. The forests, on the other hand, have been largely
+used up in paying the interest and capital on those loans, either by
+cutting them down, or by leasing or pawning them to traders, or to
+yeomen who have been able to keep their heads above water and to profit
+by the economic distress of the great majority of their
+fellow-landowners. The difficulty experienced by that majority in
+meeting the payment of interest and capital, especially at a time when
+the value of agricultural produce has been considerably diminished by
+American competition, and when also the competition of American and
+Baltic timber has simultaneously reduced the profits of the forest
+industry to a point that hardly repays the felling of trees, is clearly
+shown from the statistics of forced sales, of auctions and of distraints
+in the rural districts, and from an accompanying increase in the number
+of lawsuits before Courts of First Instance. It appears from the
+Reports of the Prefects that the sales of real property for debt have
+increased in every Province between the two periods 1871-1875 and
+1876-1880 to an extent that ranges from 30 per cent. to 600 per cent.,
+the greatest increase having taken place in the Provinces of
+Kristiansamt (600 per cent.), Norland, Nedenaes, Buskerud, Hedemarken and
+Akershus, where it ranged between 600 per cent. and 146 per cent. From
+another official source we obtain the following statement:--
+
+1876-1880.
+
+                               Number.    Amount.
+1. Compulsory sales
+    of real property
+    in rural districts.        2513     563,000l. averaging 224l. per sale.
+2. Do. of personal
+    property.                  5136     134,000l. ditto 26l. per sale.
+3. Distraints for arrears
+    of taxes, &c.              --      1,089,000l.
+
+But since real property is of comparatively low value in Norway, and
+personal property limited mostly to the veriest necessities of life, it
+is not so much the total of the amounts realized by forced sales, or the
+sums for which 'executions' and 'distraints' were effected, that give
+the measure of the depressed condition of the yeomen farmers, as the
+great and steady increase that took place between 1876 and 1880 in the
+number of those operations. Thus, while the number of forced sales of
+real property in towns, as well as in rural districts, was 424 in 1876,
+it had grown to 1378 in 1880. It is therefore not surprising to find in
+the Reports of the Prefects from which we have so largely drawn our
+figures that 'the means of meeting liabilities and of paying taxes at
+the proper time have grown more feeble, and recourse to legal
+enforcement of pecuniary claims has consequently become more frequent.'
+'The condition of this Province' (Kristiansamt) 'is all the worse from a
+pretty widespread misuse of credit during the previous period'
+(1871-75). In another province (N. Bergen) we find that the depression
+in 1879 and 1880 'compelled those who had claims to enforce them
+rigorously. Mortgages, distraints, sales, &c., have therefore increased,
+and there has been an exceptionally, large number of suits before the
+Courts of Mutual Agreement. 'The value of agricultural produce has
+fallen, owing to a great extent to a scarcity of money and to great
+competition from a desire to convert as much produce as possible into
+money.' In the northern province of Tromsoe 'merchants have suffered from
+the impoverishment of their customers' (mostly fishermen as well as
+landowners), 'and have caused them to be made bankrupts. Credit has
+been misused on a large scale. Its facility induces the population to
+live beyond its means. It also encourages traders to set up in business
+and get customers with ease, without having capital or means of their
+own. The one misuse reacts on the other. All products are sunk
+considerably in value, and this fall is even greater in the case of real
+estate.'
+
+The latter statement is not generally applicable to the remaining
+provinces, for we find that while the average value of the 'skylddaler,'
+or unit of assessment, was 153l.,[17] according to prices paid for land
+in 1871-1875, it has risen to about 180l. in 1876-1880, thus confuting
+Mr. Laing's theory, that the peculiar succession of property would tend
+to keep land at a low value. It would not, however, be right to conclude
+from these figures that landed property has, on the whole, increased of
+late years in value, despite the general indebtedness of its owners.
+Land in the vicinity of towns and railways must naturally become more
+and more valuable, and the relatively much higher prices paid for such
+land have no doubt had the effect of raising the total average deduced
+from sales of every description of landed property. It may also be
+assumed that the demand for land is artificially increased by the
+facility with which it may be purchased, since at least one-half of the
+purchase money generally remains on mortgage, in addition to other
+encumbrances. At the same time, the financial institutions, to which so
+large a proportion of the real property in Norway is mortgaged, are
+interested in maintaining its value, and attain their object by
+abstaining from offering at any one period too many defaulting
+properties for sale; and it may also be suspected that the statistics of
+forced sales represent only cases in which no compromise could be
+effected, or in which it was expedient or possible to have recourse to
+the ultimate means of recovery without sensibly deteriorating locally
+the value of landed property. Cases are, in fact, not infrequent in
+which the mortgagees find themselves compelled to retain the property of
+the defaulter, and either to place it in the hands of caretakers, with
+the hope of future realization on more favourable terms, or to sell it
+in small lots as opportunity occurs. In any case, the full and exact
+effect of the pawning of all the landed property of the country at a
+time when its agriculture has to compete with American cereals, its
+timber industry with supplies from America and the Baltic, and its
+wooden ships with iron steamers transporting cargoes at an almost
+nominal freight, is not yet to be found in statistical records.
+
+The indisputable fact remains that, notwithstanding the existence of a
+system of land tenure which, according to Mr. Laing, was so perfect
+between 1834 and 1836 as to render its adoption in this country, and
+especially in Ireland, highly desirable, the yeomen farmers of
+Norway--framers of their own laws and absolute masters of their own
+destinies--are not only at present suffering from the commercial and
+agricultural depression that obtains in other countries of Europe, in
+which the social state is more or less differently constituted, but also
+find themselves, in face of that depression, with exceptionally heavy
+burdens on their backs in the form of pecuniary indebtedness at a rate
+of interest which mere agriculture, under the most favourable
+circumstances, cannot possibly afford to pay.
+
+This heavy indebtedness has not, as a rule, been incurred for productive
+purposes, such as drainage, improved methods of agriculture, the
+increase of stock, &c.; and although the use of simple agricultural
+machinery is somewhat on the increase in Norway, yet agriculture remains
+very much in the same primitive condition in which it was found by Mr.
+Laing.[18] The Prefects attribute this backwardness to want of skill on
+the part of the proprietors (Romsdal), to the poverty of the soil, to
+the dearness of agricultural labour, and generally to the unremunerative
+results of husbandry since the depreciation of the value of its
+products. In a letter addressed last year to the 'Morgenblad,' the
+leading Journal at Christiania, by a native authority on the subject of
+agriculture, it is urged that the landed proprietors of Norway have 'for
+some years past been going down hill;' the hopes of improving the
+condition of agriculture, entertained about thirty years ago, when
+efforts were first commenced in that direction, being now entirely
+dissipated.
+
+     'It is painful,' he says 'to see how the forests are
+     decreasing and how land once under cultivation is lying
+     unused. When asked the reason, the proprietors reply that
+     the prices of corn and other agricultural products are so
+     low and the wages of labour so high, owing to emigration,
+     that they have not the means to cultivate a large portion of
+     the land, and could derive no advantage from it even if the
+     means were available.'
+
+The yeomen farmers, being therefore in a distressed condition, and
+their children and best hands forced to leave their homes in order to
+cultivate the fruitful soil of America, to the growing detriment of
+those who remain to till the soil of Norway--those farmers, he points
+out with great force of argument, must have the same protection which is
+accorded to the industrial classes, if agriculture is to be saved from
+final ruin. In fact, this remarkable letter points to an agitation in
+favour of the imposition of a 'fiscal duty,'[19] on corn, food of all
+kind, cattle, dairy produce, &c.; and supports this conclusion with the
+argument used by Prince Bismarck on the second reading of his recent
+Corn Duties Bill:
+
+     'The trade of the Baltic will suffer nothing from protective
+     duties. As regards agriculture, I am opposed to all
+     legislation against the subdivision of land ... but if you
+     want to have small occupiers of land, you must vote for
+     duties on corn.'
+
+Account must at the same time be taken of the heavy and increasing
+charges that fall on landed property for the administration of rural
+districts in Norway. While the inhabitants of the rural communities
+contribute towards the support of the Central Administration only in the
+form of Customs and Excise duties, stamps, succession duties, and
+contributions towards the construction of highways, the burthen of local
+administration, justice, police, prisons, the Church, public
+instruction, poor relief, sanitary service, parochial roads, posting
+stations, interest on communal loans, &c., falls on their landed
+property. This self-assessed and self-imposed burthen has naturally been
+growing more heavy, from year to year, under the exigencies of modern
+progress. Thus, while the total communal expenditure in 1853 was
+167,000l., it had risen to 497,000l. in 1880, or 197-1/2 per cent. About
+one half of the requisite resources is derived from a tax on the
+cadastral value of real property; the remaining half is raised by a tax
+on capital and income. In 1880 the communal impositions on land
+represented a taxation of about 6s. 7d. per head of the rural
+population. That the whole of the communal expenditure is not covered by
+taxation is apparent from the fact, that in the same year the rural
+districts had increased the amount of their total debts to about half a
+million sterling, from 312,000l. in 1874.
+
+In this respect it is certainly significant to discover that Poor
+Relief, organized by a law passed in 1863, is the largest item of
+communal expenditure, being indeed very little less than half of the
+total annual liabilities of the rural districts, in a country in which,
+in the halcyon days of Mr. Laing, only the infirm were supported for a
+few days at a time by the yeomen farmers. He appears to have attributed
+this to the absence of collieries, the introduction of coal as fuel
+having, he argues, been coeval in England with the imposition of a rate
+for the poor, deprived by that industry of the work of chopping up
+firewood which gave so much employment to idle hands in Norway. However
+that might be, in 1880 and 1881 the number of persons in receipt of
+relief or maintained in hospital, at the charge of rural communities
+alone, was respectively 109,688 and about 114,000, or in both years a
+little over 7 per cent. of the total rural population. Inclusive of
+urban districts the same totals amounted in those years to 81 and 83 per
+1000, or above 8 per cent. of the population of the kingdom, the cost of
+support having been about 3s. 10d. per head of the entire population,
+which contributed 2s. 9d. per head in special taxation for that object,
+and the balance in an indirect manner, apparently by housing paupers,
+&c.
+
+These paupers include cotters and labourers, as well as the ruined among
+the smaller yeomen. Farmers who had previously been able to employ
+labour, 'no longer find their advantage in it,' and consequently--
+
+     'even able-bodied workmen (in Hedemarken) were compelled to
+     seek relief from the Poor Fund when their families were
+     large. The smaller farmers and the labourers are in the
+     worst plight, since the falling off in the timber trade has
+     made them feel the want of the usual steady demand for
+     labour at high wages.' Further: 'it has become very
+     difficult for the least affluent and for labourers to gain a
+     livelihood in the prevailing money and timber crisis.... The
+     depression must for a long time be felt by many.
+
+We need only point out that, in the United Kingdom, the percentage of
+persons in receipt of relief during the year 1881 was 3 per cent. in
+England and Wales, 2.6 per cent. in Scotland, and 11 per cent. in
+Ireland,[20] involving an expenditure at the rate respectively of 6s.
+3d., 4s. 6d., and 3s. 9d. per head of population.
+
+Obviously, the relatively greater cost of relieving the poor in Great
+Britain is due to the more expensive character of the support afforded,
+and to the very heavy sums paid for salaries and other establishment
+charges; but it is unquestionably a damaging fact against the system of
+land tenure in Norway, that the pauperism by which it is in the present
+day accompanied, with a strong tendency to increase, is equalled only by
+the state of things in Ireland, which certain legislators now desire to
+remedy by the creation of peasant proprietors.
+
+The relative state of matters in Great Britain and in Norway has
+therefore greatly changed since Mr. Laing wrote:
+
+     'The distribution of the wealth and employment of a country
+     has much more to do, than the amount, with the well-being
+     and condition of the people. The wealth and employment of
+     the British nation far exceed those of any other nation; yet
+     in no country is so large a proportion of the inhabitants
+     sunk in pauperism and wretchedness.'
+
+An increasing rate of pauperism is one of the symptoms of agricultural
+distress in Norway, but the strong tide of emigration from rural and
+urban districts marks with equal force the depression and congestion
+from which the country is suffering in the same degree as the United
+Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Aided by improved and cheapened
+means of transport, the number of emigrants from Norway ranged between
+20,212 in 1880 and 22,167 in 1883, giving an average of 1.3 to 1.5 per
+cent. of the total population, the contingent of the rural districts
+being about 70 per cent. of the total number. As in the case of
+pauperism, the corresponding rate of emigration from Ireland, namely 1.5
+per cent., exhibits a remarkable similarity, and affords another
+convincing proof that peasant proprietorship is no _panacea_ for rustic
+indigence.
+
+Those who have not studied the present economic condition of the yeoman
+farmer and agricultural labourer in Norway, or who have not taken into
+consideration the change that has come over the entire country, and the
+ambition, as distinguished from previous apathy, which education and
+communication with an outer world, no longer closed to them, has
+awakened among the classes with which we are dealing, are inclined to
+attribute a good part of this emigrating tendency to the influence and
+the material assistance of those who have gone before. Indisputably, the
+Norwegian emigrant, by his persevering labour and steady conduct, rarely
+fails to succeed in Wisconsin and other States, in which he is always a
+welcome settler; and consequently he soon finds himself able to transmit
+money for the purpose of enabling his brothers and sisters, and not
+seldom his father and mother, to join him. No State or other aid is
+afforded for such purposes to Norwegians, although it is occasionally
+the case, that the hard cash with which the emigrant leaves his home is
+derived from the proceeds of a loan raised by the head of his family for
+the purpose of buying out co-heirs under the _Odels ret_, adding
+thereby, as we have already shown, to the indebtedness with which the
+land is burdened. Others, also, maintain that many young men emigrate
+from Norway in order to avoid military conscription, which, although
+milder there in its demands than in most other European countries where
+that system exists, undoubtedly diminishes the quantity and deteriorates
+the quality of agricultural labour. The strongest incentive to
+emigration, however, is the desire to escape from the misery and penury
+which accompany in Norway, as in every other part of Europe, the
+condition of a small landowner, cotter, or labourer who is unable to
+find regular employment on adjoining estates that can be kept going, if
+nothing more, with the aid of scientific knowledge, machinery and
+capital.
+
+There is, however, yet another proof of the prevalent material _malaise_
+in Norway, particularly among its rural classes, and strangely enough it
+bears the same character as that which has brought the 'three acres and
+a cow' and Irish land bills, past and expected, into such prominent
+relief in our country of lack-lands, namely political agitation.
+Whatever may be its merits or demerits on this side of the North Sea,
+our readers will scarcely be prepared to learn that a corresponding
+ferment has been engendered of late years on the opposite shores. We are
+told this by the Prefect of South Trondhjem, one of the most important
+provinces of a country where, in the days of Mr. Laing, there was a
+dead-level of contentment, where the widest form of home-rule has been
+in operation since the early part of the present century, and where the
+Crown Administration has all that time been more pure, blameless and
+efficient than in any other country on the Continent of Europe. His
+significant words are:
+
+     'As everywhere else in Norway, particularly in rural
+     districts, politicians (_i. e. agitators_) are here taking
+     more and more hold over the minds of the people. Political
+     unrest increases, and immature and extreme opinions are
+     being advanced more than is desirable. The quiet, temperate,
+     but progressive development to which Norway had previously
+     been accustomed, and with which the great bulk of the nation
+     had been well content, is in danger of being replaced by a
+     progress in fits and starts, accompanied by leaps in the
+     dark.'
+
+No less painful and suggestive is it to find, in the Report from the
+Prefect of Hedemarken, that 'the Christian earnestness of the people has
+suffered under the influence of the many misleading writings and
+tendencies which have in recent times found their way into every stratum
+of society.' As at home, so in Norway, the question of Church
+Disestablishment, with all its consequences, is approaching within
+measurable distance of practical solution.[21]
+
+Supported by official publications, we have now described the present
+condition of the yeomen farmers of Norway, and from the facts and
+figures we have marshalled, the following replies may confidently be
+given to the Socialistic theories and conclusions of Mr. Laing:
+
+1. Notwithstanding, or rather in part owing to, the existence of the
+Allodial Right [which has proved in its results to be an exaggerated
+form of primogeniture involving a greater multiplication of encumbrances
+even than exists under the system of land tenure in the United Kingdom],
+an excessive subdivision of the land has occurred and is still
+proceeding in Norway, to the prejudice of estates which in 1836, and
+even later, afforded moderate ease and contentment to their owners, and
+relatively well remunerated labour to the workman and the cotter.
+
+2. The dead-level of comfortable subsistence, attributed by Mr. Laing to
+the parcelling-out of land into small estates, has been converted, by
+the influence of irresistible economic laws, into one of general
+distress and discontent among the rural classes.
+
+3. The rates of pauperism and emigration prove that the agrarian
+population has not, as prophesied by Mr. Laing, kept 'within the bounds
+of possible modern existence.'
+
+4. The taxation of landed property, for local purposes, has greatly
+increased, particularly under the head of Poor Relief; and
+
+5. The distressed condition of the yeoman farmer in Norway is strongly
+attested by his heavy and growing indebtedness. He may now, in fact, be
+classed with the proverbially derided Fife laird, owning 'A wee bit of
+land, a great lump of debt, and a dookit.'[22]
+
+Such being the result of our enquiries into the economic condition of
+the great bulk of the yeoman farmers of Norway, the ideal fabric reared
+by Mr. Laing at a time when the Norse old world was still asleep, falls
+utterly to the ground, and there remains but one of his statements that
+we can with any advantage submit to the earnest attention of our
+readers, namely, that '_A single fact brought home from such a country
+is worth a volume of speculations._' We go further and say, that facts
+in relation to the question of land tenure collected in any other part
+of Europe are of equally inestimable value; and they have already been
+supplied in great abundance from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and
+Switzerland.[23] Nothing can truly be more fatal to the successful
+solution of such intricate problems than the relief of the agricultural
+distress of England and Scotland, or the satisfaction of the alleged
+earth-hunger of the Celtic population of Ireland, than to initiate
+legislation on the hypothesis that circumstances alter cases, and that
+our own country can with impunity be withdrawn from the operation of
+economic laws that have asserted their supremacy throughout the entire
+Continent of Europe.
+
+As history repeats itself, so are the laws of civilized development both
+general and inexorable. Even in the extreme case of Russia, it has been
+proved, in an article we published a few years ago,[24] that a heavy and
+ruinous price has been paid for the emancipation of the serfs on a
+Socialistic and partly Communistic basis, and on the erroneous
+assumption, that the continued existence of the 'Mir' (the ancient
+village community even of India) was an institution indigenous to the
+country itself, and therefore worthy of being perpetuated by
+legislation. Millions of a rural population, freed from personal
+servitude, were chained anew to the land by the indebtedness incurred in
+the expropriation of the lords of the soil. The allotments, averaging
+ten acres, parcelled out among them in 1861, were estimated to be
+sufficiently large and productive to provide not only for their support,
+but also, firstly, for the payment of the 'redemption dues' with which
+the allotted lands were charged for a limited period of years at an
+average rate of only 1s. 9d. per acre, and secondly, for the punctual
+payment of the moderate poll-tax, which the exigencies of the State
+required them to contribute. Those expectations began to vanish soon
+after they had been formed, and at the present time we see the
+previously rich agricultural plains of Russia, abandoned, as they almost
+wholly are, to the slovenly husbandry of a rude and greatly demoralized
+peasantry, deteriorating from year to year in the quality of their
+produce, and thereby opposing less and less impediment to the successful
+competition of other corn-growing countries.[25] The great fall that has
+taken place in the value of Russian cereals is apparent from the fact
+that, notwithstanding the depreciation of the paper currency of the
+country to the extent of about 25 per cent. since the serfs were
+emancipated (and nearly 37 per cent. from the par value of the standard
+rouble), the corn-grower in Russia actually receives for his produce, in
+paper money, some 40 per cent, less than he obtained for it when the
+currency was less debased.
+
+Despair, and the absence of that restraint which education, and the
+moral elevation inseparable from it, are establishing in other European
+countries, have driven the rural inhabitants of entire districts, and
+even provinces, into habits of drunkenness stronger and more general
+than those which existed before the autocratic creation of 'peasant
+proprietors' in Russia.
+
+Among the earliest measures adopted in Russia during the present reign
+was that of a reduction and partial remission of the 'redemption dues,'
+which, on the 1st of January, 1885, represented the interest and sinking
+fund on nearly 113 millions sterling,[26] expended by the Government in
+the partial expropriation of the now ruined landlords of the
+country.[27]
+
+During the year 1884, alone, those reductions and remissions inflicted a
+loss of 1,135,000l.[28] on the Imperial Treasury. The most recent
+measure of alleviation has been the total abolition of the poll-tax[29]
+(to be completed by the end of the present year); and, consequently, the
+State-contribution of at least 85 per cent. of the population of Russia
+is being limited to the excise duty on drink, an item of revenue with
+which the Imperial Government cannot possibly dispense, since it brings
+in a sum more than adequate for the maintenance of the imposing military
+forces of the Empire.
+
+Simultaneously, 'Peasant Land Banks' have been established by the State
+in order to facilitate the purchase of still more land by the ex-serfs.
+The Minister of Finance was authorized in 1882 to issue annually for
+that purpose a sum of 500,000l. in bonds, bearing 5-1/2 per cent.
+interest. But, by the 1st of January, 1886, these banks had already
+advanced over three millions sterling to 785 Communes, 1576
+'partnerships,' and 359 individual peasants, representing an aggregate
+number of 112,765 householders. On loans for 24-1/2 years the interest
+and sinking fund, payable by the borrowers, amount to 8-1/2 per cent.,
+and on those for 34-1/2 years, to 7-1/2 per cent., the lands purchased
+by such means remaining inalienable until the extinction of the
+mortgages, except with the consent of the mortgagees, _i. e._ the banks.
+The effects of this new departure in the direction of providing small
+landed proprietors with State funds, will no doubt soon be apparent.
+
+Whether, therefore, we examine the experience of a civilized, orderly,
+home-ruled country like Norway, with a steady, laborious, and, we may
+almost say, abstemious, population in many respects akin to our own, or
+that of a State still at an immensely distant stage of social
+development,--and under a very different form of Government,--the
+salient results of bolstering up, by means of State loans, or of
+artificially creating, equally at the cost of the State, a numerous body
+of small landed proprietors, have been strikingly identical in regard to
+the ultimate economic condition of the agrarian classes.
+
+Insisting, as we do, on the strength of the facts we have adduced, that,
+in old Europe, the operation of economic laws affecting land tenure,
+admits of no exceptions or extenuating circumstances in favour of their
+violation, it appears impossible, without presumptuous sophistry or
+political dishonesty, to resist the conclusion, that the infringement of
+those laws in any part of the United Kingdom could only terminate,
+infallibly and speedily, in damage to the State, after ruin to the
+individual.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] The physical results of intermarriage with the object of
+concentrating property, are very apparent in many of the older _Bonde_
+families in Norway.
+
+[6] It would not be right to allow this observation to pass without
+mentioning, even at the cost of destroying so fascinating a picture of
+pastoral felicity, that the hard-working dairy-maids of Norway are never
+accompanied by their sweethearts to the soeters, where, except from
+Saturday night until Monday morning, when the young men find time to
+visit them, they lead the most solitary lives, and are busy all day in
+milking cows and goats and making butter and cheese.
+
+[7] In 1833 the total production of spirits in the rural districts
+amounted to about 3-1/2 gallons per head of the population. The
+demoralization that resulted from its increase necessitated the
+enactment of restrictive measures, and at last, in 1848, the small
+stills were purchased by the State, and private distillation was
+prohibited. As in Great Britain, the vice of drunkeness is now
+decreasing in Norway, owing partly to the reduced means of the
+population, but chiefly to the influence of education and of temperance
+societies.
+
+[8] The average proportion of 1851-52 was 9.32 per cent. There is a
+difference of only 1 per cent, between the rates of illegitimacy in
+rural and urban districts, to the disadvantage of the latter.
+
+[9] 'The French Constitution of 1791 is one of the principal sources of
+the Fundamental Law of Norway. The suspensive veto has been derived from
+it.'--O. I. Broch.
+
+[10] At the end of 1882, the total population was estimated at
+1,922,500, or a decrease 3900 as compared with 1881, when the increase
+was only 1000 from the year preceding.
+
+[11] In 1880, the average rate of wages for labourers engaged by the
+year in agricultural districts was 8l. 10s. per annum, and that of daily
+labour, without food, 1s. 9d. per diem; the corresponding rates in towns
+having been 11l. 6s. 8d. and 2s.
+
+[12] Our readers must, however, bear in mind that we are dealing only
+with the rural economy of Norway, and that the facts we shall submit on
+that subject affect but slightly the general financial condition of a
+country which continues to derive its earnings mainly from the supply of
+timber, fish, wood-pulp, ice, &c., to foreign countries, and from its
+extensive carrying trade in sailing vessels and steamers. The prosperity
+of the towns is influenced chiefly by the state of trade in the rest of
+Europe, while being (to the extent of 122 out of 128) situated on the
+seaboard, their successful development reacts but little on the
+prosperity of the inland agricultural districts.
+
+[13] In the 'Tables of Landed Property,' published in 1880, the holdings
+(in 1865) are classified as follows:--
+
+Properties under 5 acres                 34,224 or 15.5 per cent.
+    "      between 5 and 12-1/2 acres    42,984  " 32.1    "
+    "         "    12-1/2 and 50  "      48,575  " 36.2    "
+    "      above 50 acres                 8,208  "  6.2    "
+
+[14] The italics our own. The author states that it is the custom among
+the peasants of Norway that when the eldest son or the daughter of the
+house (when there is no son), marries, the parents surrender the
+property, but retain a right of subsistence upon it. This, he shows,
+explains the existence of the large number of detached dwellings on the
+same estate, for very often cottages have to be built for the
+accommodation of persons who have a right to subsistence, which is not,
+however, limited to a dwelling-house, but frequently includes the
+usufruct of a small plot of land and, almost always fodder for a certain
+number of cows and goats. See also p. 386.
+
+[15] The eldest of kin having allodial right.
+
+[16] Between 1871 and 1875 Norway imported about 46 per cent. of the
+cereals required for home consumption, in addition to pork, butter, and
+other articles of food.
+
+[17] From statistics recently published, it appears that between 1881
+and 1883 the price of land, estimated on actual sales, has shown a
+tendency to rise in the Provinces which have a coast line, populated by
+fisherman, &c., and to fall in most of the inland, more purely
+agricultural districts.
+
+[18] Dr. Broch shows that in 1875, which was an average year for crops,
+the production of cereals and potatoes (reduced to the value of barley)
+was 3125 hectol. per 1000 inhabitants in Norway; whereas the average
+crops in France yielded 7400 hectol. per 1000 of the population.
+
+[19] In 1884 a motion to that effect was made in the Swedish Rigsdag by
+a peasant proprietor. At present the duty on cereals imported into
+Norway is merely nominal, averaging about 2-1/2 per cent. _ad valorem_.
+
+[20] From special causes, the number of persons relieved in 1881 and
+1882 was exceptionally high in Ireland. In 1879 it was 7-1/2 per cent.,
+and in 1883 about 8 per cent. of the population.
+
+[21] Hereditary nobility is already abolished. Under a law passed in
+1821, all titles of nobility become extinct in the persons of those who
+were born before 1822.
+
+[22] _I. e._ dovecot.
+
+[23] Lady Verney's 'Cottier-owners, Little Takes and Peasant
+Proprietors,' published last year, is replete with facts drawn from
+actual life, showing that small peasant-proprietorship is proving
+ruinous on the Continent, even where the system has grown up naturally.
+
+[24] In No. 302, April 1881.
+
+[25] It is certainly remarkable to find that Australian tallow, Indian
+linseed, and German barley are being imported at St. Petersburg, whence
+those articles were, in the days of large landed properties, extensively
+exported. The Minister of Finance, following the example of Prince
+Bismarck, attempts to check this competition with the staple products of
+the small landed proprietors by imposing protective duties.
+
+[26] Rs. 846,068,368, at the exchange of 32d., current when the great
+bulk of the expropriations were effected.
+
+[27] In provinces of Russia Proper alone, the landed proprietors
+(exclusive of the ex-serfs) have mortgaged their estates in various land
+and other banks to the extent of 30-3/4 per cent. of their aggregate
+acreage, the total remaining debt on such lands being about 49 millions
+sterling at the present reduced value of the rouble, or 65 millions
+sterling at the rate of exchange adopted in estimating the indebtedness
+of the peasantry.
+
+[28] At the same rate of exchange.
+
+[29] This tax had previously given to the Imperial Treasury a sum of
+about 5-1/2 millions sterling, at the depreciated rate of exchange. It
+was assessed at rates that varied in the different Provinces between 2s.
+7d. and 4s. 4d. per head of the male registered population, or 'per
+soul.'
+
+
+
+
+Art. V.--_A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq.;
+Secretary, First to the Council of State, and afterwards to the Two
+Protectors, Oliver and Richard Cromwell._ In Seven Volumes, containing
+authentic Memorials of the English affairs from the year 1638 to the
+Restoration of King Charles II. Vol. III. London, 1742.
+
+
+The character of Oliver Cromwell might, for our part, have rested
+undisturbed among the 'old, unhappy, far off things' of history, had it
+been our intention to fight over again, on the old lines, the contention
+whether he was a hero or a knave. On the contrary, towards the solution
+of that question a method, as yet untried, has been adopted. Instead of
+attempting a review of Cromwell's whole career, to gain an idea of what
+manner of man he was, a single train of events, in which his hand was
+visible throughout, has been subjected to some degree of scrutiny. A
+man's words and deeds, although arising only on one occasion, may supply
+an effectual test of his real self. There could, for instance, be hardly
+any doubt regarding the leading bias of his disposition, if a supremely
+able ruler, that he may procure his safety, consents to--
+
+                              'play one scene
+    Of excellent dissembling, and let it look
+    Like perfect honour.'
+
+These lines disclose our case. With prescient genius Shakspeare has
+described the part that Cromwell took in an event which occurred under
+his Protectorate, the so-called Insurrection of March 1655; and in our
+examination into the secret history of that occurrence lies the test
+that we have applied to Cromwell's character.
+
+The revelation that we are attempting is not, however, free from
+inherent difficulty. In these days of literature made easy, the products
+of close research are not readily acceptable. To open up a new vista in
+history, much has to be cut down, much put into new order; and the
+reader must unavoidably share in the labours of the writer. And though
+some curiosity may be aroused by the discovery of that which has
+remained hidden, for over two centuries; still, to gratify that
+curiosity, many an ingrained idea must be laid aside. Difficult as it
+may seem to many, Cromwell at the outset must be regarded not as 'our
+heroic One,' but as a man who sold himself to falsehood, that he might
+'ride in gilt coaches, escorted by the flunkeyisms, and most sweet
+voices.' Nor to appreciate the secret of our character-test, can the
+assertion of any historian, from Clarendon down to Carlyle's last
+imitator, be credited, that 'a universal rising of Royalists combined
+with Anabaptists' broke out in March 1655. On the contrary, it must be
+accepted as a preliminary condition in this investigation that England
+was, at that time, in a state of immovable tranquillity, and that any
+insurrectionary movement during the year 1655 sprang from a far-reaching
+design, which Cromwell practised alike on friends, neutrals, and
+enemies.
+
+That this was the case has hitherto escaped notice. Every historian, who
+has taken part in the Cromwelliad, regards that revolt as 'a very tragic
+reality;' they all agree, that it was 'prevented from breaking into a
+dangerous flame by vigilance, prompt action, and by necessary severity.'
+That this event might be regarded in a very different light was an idea
+far from every one of them. Proof, however, goes before disproof. The
+historians should have their say first; and our readers must endure, for
+a few moments, what may be termed the received version of the
+Insurrection of March 1655.
+
+According to Godwin, 'A general rising was meditated about the beginning
+of March 1655, by the Royalist party in various parts of
+England,--Yorkshire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, Devon and Wilts,' and
+also in North Wales. 'Wilmot, about this time created Earl of Rochester,
+came over to England' to head the enterprise, 'accompanied by Sir J.
+Wagstaff. Charles II., who had spent the winter at Cologne, now came
+privately to Middleburg in Holland, that he might be ready to pass over
+to England, if the condition of affairs authorized such a measure. The
+activity of Cromwell and his assistants speedily defeated these
+multiplied intrigues. It does not appear that hostilities anywhere were
+actually commenced, except in Yorkshire and the West of England.'
+
+As historians persist that on Marston Moor, the scene of the
+'hostilities' in Yorkshire, an actual affray occurred,--Carlyle throws
+in 'a few shots fired';--we must turn to the 'Perfect Proceedings' News
+Letter, of March 1655, for a truer description of that event:--
+
+     'York. The 8th of March instant, there was a meeting
+     appointed by the Malignants in Yorkshire to surprise York
+     City. To that end a party was to come on the west side of
+     the City, where Sir Richard Malliverer, with divers others,
+     was on their March. About 100 horse came with a cart load of
+     arms and ammunition to Hessey (i. e. Marston) Moor. And at
+     the wynd-mill upon the Moor there came some intelligence,
+     that a party, that sh'd' have come on the other side of the
+     City, was not ready that night. And more company failing,
+     which they expected to meet them that night upon the Moor
+     they suddenly and disorderly retreated; some Pistols was
+     scattered and found next morning, and a led horse, with a
+     velvet saddle, left in Skipbrig Lane, which was found next
+     day.'
+
+In Wiltshire, however, the Royalists effected a brief revolt, an
+incident which the following quotation from Carlyle will readily recall
+to mind:--
+
+     'Sunday, March 11th, 1655, in the City of Salisbury, about
+     midnight, there occurs a thing worth noting. Salisbury was
+     awakened from its slumbers by a real advent of Cavaliers.
+     Sir John Wagstaff, "a jolly knight" of those parts, once a
+     Royalist Colonel: he, with Squire, or Major Penruddock, "a
+     gentleman of fair fortune," Squire, or Major Grove, and
+     about two hundred others, did actually rendezvous in arms
+     about the Big Steeple, that Sunday night, and ring a loud
+     alarm in those parts. It was Assize time; the Judges had
+     arrived the day before. Wagstaff seizes the Judges in their
+     beds, seizes the High Sheriff, and otherwise makes night
+     hideous;--proposes on the morrow to hang the Judges, as a
+     useful warning; but is overruled by Penruddock and the rest.
+     He orders the High Sheriff to proclaim King Charles; High
+     Sheriff will not, not though you hang him; Town-crier will
+     not, not even though you hang him. The Insurrection does not
+     spread in Salisbury, it would seem. The Insurrection quits
+     Salisbury on Monday night, marches with all speed towards
+     Cornwall, hoping for better luck there. Marches;--but
+     Captain Unton Crook marches also in the rear of it; marches
+     swiftly, fiercely; overtakes it at South Molton in
+     Devonshire, "on Wednesday about ten at night," and there, in
+     a few minutes, put an end to it. We took Penruddock, Grove,
+     and long lists of others; Wagstaff unluckily escaped ... and
+     this Royalist conflagration, which should have blazed all
+     over England, is entirely damped out. Indeed so prompt and
+     complete is the extinction, thankless people begin to say
+     there had never been anything considerable to extinguish.
+     Had they stood in the middle of it,--had they seen the
+     nocturnal rendezvous at Marston Moor, seen what Shrewsbury,
+     what Rufford Abbey, what North Wales in general, would have
+     grown to on the morrow,--in that case, thinks the Lord
+     Protector, not without some indignation, they had
+     known!--Carlyle's 'Cromwell,' vol. iv. pp. 129, 130.
+
+If Carlyle had been more heedful he might have taken the hint furnished
+by those 'thankless people.' Men are not usually thankless if preserved
+from a real and obvious danger. Carlyle, however, thought that he knew
+more about those transactions than the men who might have witnessed
+them; and so we will accept his somewhat incautious invitation, and our
+readers, if they choose to do so, shall perceive, perhaps, 'not without
+some indignation,' what the Lord Protector 'had known' about the
+insurrection of March 1655; they shall, to a certain extent at least,
+regard that event from his point of view. And to enable them to do so
+as promptly as possible, they may be at once informed, that the
+Protector himself admitted the Earl of Rochester, Sir John Wagstaff, and
+their associates into England, in order that they might, in his behalf,
+play the part of the conspirator. The circumstance being appreciated,
+the Protector's position becomes quite clear. It is obvious that he
+wished his subjects to believe, in common with his historians, that
+England was, during the opening months of 1655, 'from end to end of it,
+ripe for an explosion.'
+
+Taking then for granted, upon Cromwell's own showing, that he wanted an
+insurrection, the assistance toward that end on which he could rely, and
+the obstacles that stood in his way, must be considered. The assistance
+which Cromwell had at hand, lay in the little band of courtiers who hung
+in penury, and vexation of heart, round Charles II. Wanderers on the
+Continent, in total ignorance of English opinion, acutely sensible of
+their own discomfort, raging against their great Tormentor, the King's
+'over sea' counsellors were, by irritation and by 'zeal, made so blind,'
+that they were 'soon persuaded of good success' in any possible attempt
+to overthrow the Protector.[30] The chief hindrance to Cromwell's
+projected insurrection was his palpable prosperity. It was notorious
+during the winter and spring of the year 1655, that he had appeased
+discontent among his soldiery; had quieted, in prison, Harrison,
+Wildman, and the leaders of the Anabaptists; that the Levellers were
+reduced to inaction; and that therefore the Royalists were powerless.
+And for this reason. Every Englishman, even the most 'Wildrake' among
+the Cavaliers, knew full well, that they, unassisted, could not for a
+moment stand before Cromwell's armies; and they knew equally well, that
+if the King landed on our shores, at the head of a foreign army, all
+England would meet him with passionate resistance. Even at the best, the
+most confident Royalists knew that a young man, nurtured by a popish
+mother, and amidst papists, would not be readily accepted as our King.
+
+But one chance, therefore, remained to the Royalists, both at home and
+abroad: and that was the possibility that Anabaptist fanaticism and army
+discontent might unite together against the Protector. If that could be
+reckoned on, and if a rising of the Royalists, all over England, could
+be timed so as to explode, when the Levellers broke into action, that
+would offer a chance indeed, especially if some of the mutineers could
+be won over to the King. That chance was, at this season, wholly denied
+to the Royalists. The King's most trusted English advisers, the Council
+styled 'The Sealed Knot,' repeatedly warned him during January 1655,
+that 'since no rising of the Army is to be hoped for, any rising of the
+King's party would only be to their destruction.'[31]
+
+To a person who desired to stimulate an insurrection against the
+Protector the course was therefore clear. He must act on the impatient
+credulity of those who shared in their King's exile. Far from the scene
+of action, they might be persuaded that the Anabaptists and the
+discontented soldiers had leagued together, and that the warnings of the
+'Sealed Knot' might be set at naught. Charles was thus acted upon. As
+the wicked King of Israel was lured on to his destruction by the cry of
+false prophets bidding him to go up and prosper, the King was persuaded
+to disregard his best counsellors, to believe that 30,000 Royalists were
+armed and ready to join in an organized revolt, so skilfully planned
+that it would break out, at one moment, all over England, with the
+co-operation of the Levellers, and of a portion of Cromwell's army.
+Charles was also assured, that if he would but fix the day, the
+insurrection would immediately take place.
+
+The King was hard to persuade; young as he was, his sagacity was not
+wanting. He long remained incredulous: he did not believe the
+'expresses' which reached him 'every day' from England: he felt sure
+that those zealous emissaries were deceived. More messengers accordingly
+crossed the water: they were confident that 'the rising would be
+general, and many places seized upon, and some declare for the King
+which were in the hands of the army, for they still pretended, and did
+believe, "that a part of the army would declare against Cromwell, at
+least, though not for the King."'
+
+Those messengers, however, would promise nothing, if Charles did not,
+when the Earl of Rochester and his associates started for England,
+approve the reality of the plot, by stationing himself on the sea coast,
+that he might 'quickly put himself into the head of the Army, which
+would be ready to receive him.' And he was warned that this was his last
+chance, and that 'if he neglected that opportunity,' his followers would
+desert him, as one hopelessly apathetic. Besides these threats, the
+persons, who dispatched those messengers from England, resorted to other
+means to force Charles into the enterprise. They appointed the day for
+the outbreak: he was not able 'to send orders to contradict it:' so he
+felt constrained, 'with little noise,' to quit Cologne for Middleburg,
+to await there the summons to England.
+
+Whilst Charles was being thus cajoled, the bright anticipations of his
+companions were suddenly saddened. In the midst of their preparations,
+Cromwell arrested several noted Royalists in London: it was obvious that
+he had discovered 'the design.' But that dark cloud had its silver
+lining; it was even converted into an augury of success. The
+conspirators at Cologne were 'cheered by letters' from their colleagues
+in England, assuring them 'that none of their particular friends at the
+intended sea-ports were known.'
+
+Clarendon, and his associates, little knew how much was known by
+Cromwell. He afterwards repeated in public, almost word for word, 'all
+those particulars' which these 'expresses' 'communicated in confidence'
+to the Royal Court 'to let them know in how happy condition the King's
+affairs were in England;' he was forewarned of the very day when Charles
+would 'with little noise' quit Cologne for Middleburg 'ten days before
+he did stir;' and if so, even Clarendon would have perceived, that the
+Protector felt quite assured about the safety of his sea-ports.[32]
+
+That the project proved in the end, as Charles expected at the
+beginning, a weak and improbable attempt, Clarendon admits, and that
+they had been befooled; but he maintained, to the end, that those
+messengers were 'very honest men, and sent by those who were such.'
+Clarendon's opinion is not so indisputable, but that it may be
+questioned. The utter failure of the promises that those messengers held
+out, might have aroused his doubt as to their good faith. Who was it
+then that instructed those false prophets? So improbable were the
+expectations which they urged upon Charles, that it is impossible to
+credit any true Royalist with the creation of those false hopes: to
+dispel them, the King's wisest English advisers did their utmost. Those
+encouragements then must have been the counsels of false friends. And
+who could be, as we shall prove, a warmer, or a falser friend to the
+enterprise of March 1655, than Cromwell?
+
+Even without direct proof of Cromwell's guilty complicity in that
+attempt, it is brought home to him by a variety of antecedent
+circumstances. He knew precisely how to spread the only lure that could
+ensnare the King; for the counsels of the 'Sealed Knot' were no secret
+to Cromwell. He was aware that the King had, in consequence, written,
+4th Jan. 1655, to Mr. Roles, 'his loving friend,' and probably also the
+Protector's friend, in a tone of utter despair.[33] And who could set
+against the King a stream of systematic false encouragement, sufficient
+to dispel his just despair, except Cromwell, who had all the secret
+agents at home and abroad at his command? or who would undertake so
+difficult a task as the creation of such an elaborate scheme of
+deception, but one who was anxious that the outbreak should take place?
+And we know that such was his wish.
+
+In every way this is apparent. Even though no actual assistance be
+given, still complete foreknowledge of a coming mischief, unfollowed by
+corresponding precautions, implies a sanction. And this form of sanction
+Cromwell gave to the Insurrection. In a tone of triumphant cunning he
+assured his Parliament, during the ensuing year, that he had possessed
+'full intelligence of' the conspiracy; though, with characteristic
+craft, he concealed the most effectual informant 'of these things,' the
+clerk who wrote out the despatches in the King's closet; and poor
+Manning, 'as he was dead,' was credited with the discovery; although his
+term of espial was not commenced soon enough to supply that 'full
+intelligence,' of which his employer boasted.[34]
+
+Cromwell could even have informed his corps of informers, of the course
+that the coming movement would pursue. Two months before they began to
+reflect back to him an account of his own design, Cromwell's detection
+office in Whitehall contained a report from a supposed Leveller, who had
+passed from Essex to Cornwall, and then from Cornwall to Scotland, that
+a rumour was afloat, that the republicans in the army who were 'resolved
+to stand by their first principles, in opposition to the Government,'
+had banded together, under noted leaders, and had chosen the very places
+afterwards selected by the Royalists, namely, Salisbury Plain and
+Marston Moor for the rendezvous where they might show their strength.
+Other informers reported to Cromwell that the Royalists in London, and
+in Northumberland, hoped, that if they appeared in arms, they would be
+able to 'make use of a good part of the army;' and similar evidence
+warned the Government that a man claiming to be a Royalist had been at
+work, during February, journeying to and fro between Gloucestershire and
+Wiltshire, tempting Royalists to join with him in an insurrection,
+because 'the design was first put on foot by the Levellers, who were to
+be aiding and assisting the Cavaliers.'[35]
+
+This information reached Cromwell in ample time for action. A word from
+him to his agents abroad, a hint to the editors of the News Letters, or
+a proclamation, would have dispersed those mischievious rumours, and
+would have reduced Charles to inaction. Although he knew that Charles
+based his sole hope of success upon an Anabaptist revolt, and a mutiny
+in the army, Cromwell did nothing of the kind. Not that he failed to
+secure himself by some ostensible precautions. 'It having pleased God to
+make some further notable discovery to Us of the Conspiracy, and the
+particular Persons engaged therein,' Cromwell arrested some Royalists,
+shortly before the outbreak, but, as we know on the best authority, he
+touched none of those 'engaged therein.' He secured London: he moved
+troops from Ireland to Liverpool, and may thereby have disconcerted the
+Lancashire Cavaliers; but he did not forewarn the Customs House officers
+at Dover, or guard that port; just as he, subsequently, somehow failed
+to station soldiers near those obvious points of danger, Marston Moor
+and Salisbury Plain.[36] 'Oliver, Protector,' evidently 'understood his
+Protectorship moderately well, and what Plots and Hydra-Coils were
+inseparable from it.'
+
+Cromwell thus assisting us, we had before us the relative positions of
+all engaged in the Insurrection, during the last weeks of February 1655.
+Charles was on the Dutch coast awaiting a possible summons to England;
+to that end he had despatched the expedition, composed of the Earl of
+Rochester, Sir John Wagstaff, Major Armourer, Mr. O'Neale, and their
+companions, about fourteen in number; and Cromwell was watching them,
+and was preparing for their reception at Dover, not soldiers, but the
+friendly assistance of his servant, Mr. Day, the Clerk of the Passage.
+In true Cavalier fashion the Earl of Rochester and his comrades
+approached our shores, with ostentatious contempt of danger. They came
+not in a small party, dropping over one by one, selecting different and
+out-of-the-way spots for landing, but almost in a body, in quick
+succession, they alighted at Dover. That was the most public port they
+could have chosen; and being courtier Cavaliers, long resident abroad,
+they were, in dress and look, marked men, and most unfitted to play the
+part they chose, of traders resident in France or Holland. Their
+selection of Dover was not, however, so ill-advised as it seemed, for
+they also reckoned on the help of Mr. Day, the Clerk of the Passage.
+
+Thus in appearance, at least, the conspirators did everything they could
+to get themselves into trouble. And, as might be anticipated, Major
+Armourer, alias 'Mr. Wright,' and his man 'Morris,' that is to say, Mr.
+O'Neale, the first of that company to set foot in Dover, were
+immediately arrested. Armourer was imprisoned in the Castle, and O'Neale
+in the Sergeant's house. Their detention, however, was of but brief
+duration. Armourer at once sought for help through Mr. Day's agency; but
+one greater than the Clerk interposed; and after about three days
+captivity, Mr. Wright, together with some other captured suspects, was
+released by the Dover Port Commissioners 'on receipt of a Commission
+from H.H.' the Protector.[37]
+
+That Commission from His Highness was no ordinary proceeding. By it
+Cromwell disturbed order and discipline in the chief entrance-gate to
+England, and drove the Port Commissioners into direct collision with the
+officers of Dover Castle. Captain Wilson, the Deputy-Lieutenant, who had
+charge over the Castle prisoners, was, as shown by his letters, a
+straightforward servant of the Protector. Such a serious interference
+with his duties, as the release of one of his own prisoners, disturbed
+him; and the more so, as it was authorized by the Protector himself.
+Accordingly he wrote to Thurloe, greatly troubled, to free himself from
+any connection with so untoward an event as the escape of Mr. Wright,
+who,--of all the men that Wilson 'had secured'--was the very one with
+whom he was most unsatisfied.' Thurloe also felt that it was an awkward
+affair; and to avert suspicion from his Master and himself, he reverted
+to a mean trick, the causeless accusation of an innocent man. He
+reproved Wilson for neglecting to warn Whitehall of the detention of
+such a noted suspect as Mr. Wright; although Thurloe was in no ignorance
+of that event, and knew all about the prisoner. For besides the
+knowledge which he shared with Cromwell, of the near advent of the Earl
+of Rochester and his associates, Thurloe held a letter signed 'N.
+Wright,' dated 'Dover Castell, 14th February,' to Sir R. Stone, a
+supposed friend, who, forwarding it to Thurloe, informed him that Morris
+therein mentioned was a 'gentleman to the Princess Royal;' whilst it
+was evidently presupposed by Stone, that the Secretary would know who it
+was 'that writ' the enclosed letter; as, indeed, is proved by Thurloe's
+indorsement, '_Nicholas Armourer to Sir Robert Stone_.' And
+again, within seven days after Armourer's release, a similar
+'cross-providence' occurred. A Mr. Broughton, evidently another
+Royalist, was taken out of Captain Wilson's custody, much to his
+surprise and vexation, and set free by the Mayor of Dover.
+
+The release of one or two prisoners under a Commission from H.H. the
+Protector does not, however, prove that he purposely admitted into
+England that gang of conspirators. But even that can be proved. Thurloe
+and Cromwell knew on the best authority that the Royalists regarded Mr.
+Day as their ally; for Armourer, in that letter, mentions 'Mr. Robert
+Day, Clarke of the Passage' as a man ready to do him service. Yet
+Cromwell, knowing that Armourer and O'Neale were the precursors of even
+more dangerous associates, who would also resort to Mr. Day, retained
+him in his post; and in spite of prompt and repeated warnings from the
+Continent, that Day was a traitor, he acted as Clerk of the Passage
+until, during the following July, he had seen safe back across the
+Channel the conspirators whom he had admitted in March. And as if the
+more fully to trick the Royalists, Day was permitted by the Protector to
+intervene actively in their behalf. The Clerk of the Passage obtained,
+by his personal undertaking for Armourer's good conduct, the requisite
+pass inward, and certified that he was, in truth, a merchant from
+Rotterdam.[38]
+
+It follows from the assistance which the Protector gave to Armourer,
+that his man 'Morris' was restored to his master, and that the Earl of
+Rochester, after repeated detention and examination, was set free. And
+again Cromwell reappears as the patron of the conspiracy. According to
+information imparted to the King by Cromwell's nephew, Colonel William
+Cromwell, 'my Lord of Rochester was known to Cromwell to be in England
+as soon as he landed,' and was met by pretended agents from the army,
+Rochester's friends 'in show,' but the Protector's 'really,' who, to
+make the Earl 'have the greater confidence' in the enterprise, gave him
+false offers of co-operation, and assurances that Cromwell's soldiers
+were ripe for mutiny.[39] And facts confirm Colonel Cromwell's words.
+
+Immediately after his final escape from the custody of Captain Wilson,
+the Earl of Rochester 'found Mr. Morton, who carries on their trade
+there, ready to come, with some account of his business.'[40] If Morton
+had been a true Royalist, in momentary fear for himself, and for the
+success of an insurrection that was to overthrow the Protector, would he
+have risked a meeting with the Earl of Dover, in a place where he had
+been twice arrested, instead of awaiting his arrival in the security of
+London? Such a strange course arouses strong suspicion that Morton was
+the Protector's emissary referred to by Col. Cromwell; and assuredly a
+Mr. Morton is mentioned to Thurloe, by one of his continental agents, as
+a friend, and fellow sham-Royalist, who might assist him in enticing
+some of the King's retinue into projects, such as the 'murther of H. H.
+the Protector.'[41]
+
+Nor was Mr. Morton the only agent busy in doing all he could 'to ripen
+the design of a general rising.' During January and February, 1655,
+messengers passed to and fro through the Northern and Western districts
+of England to prepare the way for the Earl of Rochester and his
+associates, who spread abroad rumours that the 'Levellers were to be
+aiding and abetting the Cavaliers,' and that on the 8th of March, a
+general rising would take place. Two men can be traced who thus prepared
+Wiltshire for insurrection, one of whom was the chief instigator of
+Wagstaff's rising at Salisbury.
+
+Both of them were obscure men, not known in that part of England. An
+unnamed emissary came from Yorkshire, passing through London, to
+Dorsetshire, taking, on the way, the house, near Lewes, of Col. Bishop,
+a Leveller, one of the Wildman faction.[42] The other, Mr. Douthwaite,
+reached Wiltshire from Somersetshire. This circumstance, of itself,
+aroused suspicion; and he was asked why, if the revolt, as he asserted,
+was to be throughout all England, he did not choose Somersetshire,
+instead of Wiltshire, for the scene of action. The reason he gave for
+that choice had in it a strong dash of unreality. His motive was, he
+declared, because 'if he did any mischief, or killed anybody,' he
+preferred to do mischief 'among strangers, where he was not known.' So
+unsatisfactory was his demeanour, that a recruit, whom he endeavoured to
+cajole, refused to join the conspiracy, declaring that 'he was confident
+this was a plot of my Lord Protector's own devising, and that he had
+some of his own agents in it.' And as, during that winter, the
+Dorsetshire Cavaliers had 'whispered that the plot' then 'so loudly
+talked on at Court, is nothing but a trick of the great Oliver's,' this
+idea seems to have been prevalent in the West of England. Some such
+whisper, undoubtedly, had a marked influence on the Wiltshire revolt.
+Not a single landowner of importance went out with Wagstaff. Though he
+had been told off by the King expressly for that service, no Royalist of
+eminent position answered the King's call. They, also, doubtless
+suspected Douthwaite, an unknown, low-class stranger, who took upon
+himself to summon them to arms against the Protector. And Douthwaite was
+undoubtedly the chief instigator of that attempt, 'the very principal
+verb' in the affair: a very capable witness, Major Butler, so described
+him. In itself this was a suspicious circumstance. And another reason
+may be urged for deeming that Cromwell, and not the King, was served by
+Douthwaite. Like a shady witness, he proved too much. Antedating the
+event by at least three weeks, he asserted in February, that Charles had
+left Cologne for the Dutch coast, 'for an opportunity to sail for
+England.' This was a startling piece of news, and most arousing to a
+hearty Royalist: and the King did take that step on the 4th of March.
+But it is noteworthy that a foreknowledge of the King's movements, which
+was undoubtedly possessed by Cromwell and Thurloe in London, should have
+been so speedily communicated to Douthwaite, in the depths of
+Somersetshire.[43]
+
+Whilst England was thus being prepared for the coming insurrection, the
+Earl of Rochester went to London, where, although soldiers were
+stationed at the ends of the streets, and extra precautions taken
+against the Royalists, 'he consulted,' as Clarendon observes, 'with
+great freedom with the King's friends.' Nor were he and his comrades
+hindered from traversing England, and passing on into Wiltshire and
+Yorkshire, that they might head the intended rendezvous of the Royalists
+on Salisbury Plain and Marston Moor; the very places, it should be
+remembered, that rumour had designated for a gathering of the Levellers.
+Cromwell was powerless: he dared not touch the men he had passed into
+England: the object for which he had admitted them must be fulfilled,
+even to the end.
+
+That the end, which Cromwell desired, followed the lines indicated by
+his master hand, might be anticipated. But he could not allow the
+project to become too real; a necessity that rather stood in his way.
+His power of creating the semblance of an actual insurrection was
+limited. Of the 'hidden works,' all over England, which he attributed
+to the Royalists, but one mine actually exploded, one nearly went off,
+and the rest remained dormant. The tameness of that shadowy meeting on
+Marston Moor evidently caused Cromwell much vexation. As his dupes
+refused to exhibit themselves, and as not a soldier was near at hand,
+paragraphs in the News Letters, 'some pistols scattered' on the heath,
+and 'a led horse, with a velvet saddle,' were all the proofs that
+Cromwell could show that aught had happened on Marston Moor, during the
+night of the 8th of March. Nor could he solemnize the event, as he
+desired, by the appearance on the scaffold of a single Yorkshireman.
+
+He sent, for that purpose, to York as Judges, Baron Thorpe, Mr. Justice
+Newdigate, and Mr. Serjeant Hutton; but they refused to obey his
+bidding. They declined to try upon a capital charge the men that had
+been arrested by the Protector's informers, not in arms nor on
+horseback, nor even on the highway, but in their own houses. The judges
+were doubtful 'whether in point of law,' a possible midnight ride could
+be declared by them 'to be treason.' It was in vain that Colonel
+Lilbourne used 'diligence' to 'pick up such as are right,' to serve on
+the jury. The judges even left York altogether, objecting that due
+notice, under which they could try that 'great affair,' had not been
+given.
+
+Pressure was renewed upon Newdigate and Hutton; they were despatched
+back to York, to undertake the trial of the Marston Moor prisoners.
+Cromwell's law officer, however, found them at Doncaster, on their
+return to London, and in a very contrary state of mind. They again
+refused to act; and they based their refusal on an objection, which
+affected not those prisoners alone, but all Cromwell's prisoners. They
+asserted, evidently reckoning on Baron Thorpe's concurrence, that they
+could not, as judges, put in force the Ordinance, by which Cromwell had
+adapted the Statute Law of England to meet the crime of high treason
+against himself, because it was of no validity! They thus anticipated,
+in the most unpleasant way, Mr. Coney's refusal to pay taxes imposed,
+not by an Act of Parliament, but by an 'Ordinance.' Cromwell was forced
+to yield; the Yorkshiremen preserved their lives, but not their liberty
+or their estates; and almost immediately, 'Judges Thorpe and Newdigate
+were put out of their places, for not observing the Protector's pleasure
+in all his commands.'[44]
+
+Cromwell's 'pleasure' was, however, served by Mr. Serjeant Glyn and Mr.
+Recorder Steele, and by the jurymen, 'such as were right,' over whom
+they presided, in the trial of the Salisbury insurgents. Those poor
+dupes pleaded what may be termed, Baron Thorpe's plea. They argued that
+their indictment was not founded on an Act of Parliament, and that
+'there can be no treason by an Ordinance.' They urged that a sentence
+pronounced by the Serjeant and the Recorder, who were mere 'pleaders,
+servants to the Lord Protector,' would be illegal; and they asserted
+their right to be tried by Baron Thorpe, 'a sworn judge.' The prisoners,
+who could not be convicted of high treason, were condemned to death as
+horse stealers. They vainly pleaded, that to requisition a horse for a
+warlike enterprise was not felony, and that 'the country knew we did not
+intend to steal,' but acted 'as the soldiers did now at London, and
+elsewhere, who came against us.'[45] About fourteen of those poor
+fellows were put to death, with Grove and Penruddock; and seventy were
+sold into West Indian slavery. Accordingly Cromwell was able, as Thurloe
+exulted, to prove 'that the Plot was real,' as 'the persons were real,'
+who, in consequence, lost their lives, or were condemned to lifelong
+misery.
+
+Thus Cromwell, by a deliberate course of fraud, compassed the death of
+men, who might otherwise have lived void of offence against his
+government. He next proceeded to delude all his subjects by means of the
+sham conspiracy by which he had ensnared his victims on to the scaffold.
+This development in Cromwell's course of deception brings us back to the
+ordinary path of history. Every historical text-book mentions that
+Cromwell, within a few months after the Insurrection of March 1655,
+subjected England to the authority, almost unlimited, of twelve
+Major-Generals. To each one a separate province was allotted, with power
+to imprison, fine, or sell as slaves, all that he might select. The
+Major-Generals also were directed by Cromwell to pay themselves, and the
+soldiers under them, by the levy of a tax of ten per cent. on the
+incomes of all but the poorest Royalists, which he imposed for that
+purpose. As historians have believed in the reality of the Insurrection
+of March 1655, they hold that Cromwell, therefore, 'found himself
+compelled to divide England into districts, over which he set
+Major-Generals,' and to inflict upon the Royalists the tax, 'known by
+the name of the Decimation.' Yet, curiously enough, these hearty
+believers in Cromwell have ignored that solemn confirmation of their
+opinion, which he addressed to his subjects, namely, the 'Declaration of
+his Highness, by the advice of his Council, showing the Reasons of their
+Proceedings for Securing the Peace of the Commonwealth, upon occasion
+of the late Insurrection and Rebellion,--October 31, 1655.'
+
+Than this document, no more admirable illustration could be given of the
+manner in which Cromwell carried on his Protectorate. By that
+'Declaration' he engrafts into his policy the deception he had practised
+on the Royalists, and adapts it to the benefit of the whole nation, by a
+description of the pious uses to which it could be applied. And for our
+purposes this document is especially convenient, for, whilst it proves
+what Cromwell wished his people to believe about the Insurrection, it
+enables us to disprove throughout the statements that he makes. But
+before we can reach that portion of our disclosure, the operative
+clauses of the 'Declaration' must be dealt with. It commences with a
+justificatory recital of the misdeeds of the Royalists. As God, Cromwell
+argues, 'by His gracious dispensation,' had 'subjected' the Royalists
+'to the power of those whom they had designed to enslave and ruin,' 'the
+Parliament's party' might, Cromwell asserts, have 'extirpated those men,
+with designs of possessing their Estates and Fortunes.' Their
+conquerors, however, refrained themselves, 'it having pleased God in his
+providence, so to order things;' and the Royalists were allowed to live
+and 'enjoy their freedom, and have equal protection in their persons and
+estates, with the rest of the Nation.' But what return, the Protector
+declares, has been made by the Malignants for the lenity thus extended
+to them? 'The actings of that party' proves that 'neither the
+dispensations of God, nor kindness of men, would work upon them;' that
+'they were implacable in their malice and revenge'; and he cites 'the
+late Insurrection and Rebellion,' 'as the greatest and most dangerous'
+of all 'their hidden works of darkness.'
+
+The Protector therefore announces, that as 'he knows by experience, that
+nothing but the Sword will restrain the late King's party from blood and
+violence,'--'We do now not only find Ourselves satisfied, but obliged in
+duty, both towards God and this Nation, to proceed upon other grounds
+than formerly,'--and that, to secure 'the Peace of this Commonwealth, We
+have been necessitated to erect a new and standing Militia of Horse, in
+all the Counties of England, under such Pay as might be a fitting
+encouragement to the officers and soldiers. And We, therefore, have
+thought fit, to lay the burthen of Maintaining those forces, upon those
+who have been engaged in the late Wars against the State.' And Cromwell
+declares, in conclusion, that 'We can with comfort appeal to God,
+whether this way of proceeding with 'the Royalists' hath been the matter
+of Our Choice, or that which We have sought occasion for; or whether
+contrary to Our own inclinations, We have not been constrained and
+necessitated hereunto, and without the doing whereof, We should have
+been wanting to Our Duty to God and these Nations.'
+
+Such words uttered by a man who, with utmost fervour, has claimed for
+himself, that 'I have learned too much of God, to dally with Him, and to
+make bold with Him in these things,' ought surely to be believed; and if
+there be any one who is still unconvinced that Cromwell, of his own
+'choice,' enticed the Earl of Rochester and his associates across the
+Channel, and admitted them into England, that they might constrain and
+necessitate him to appoint those Major-Generals, 'we can with comfort
+appeal' to that 'Declaration' and ask such a believer in Cromwell to
+follow us in a comparison between what he really did, with what he
+declared he did, 'for securing the Peace of the Commonwealth upon the
+occasion of the late Insurrection.'
+
+In order that his subjects might appreciate the skill and vigilance, by
+which the 'contrivements' of the 'cruel and bloody enemy had been
+thwarted, Cromwell commenced the account of his execution of his duty as
+England's Protecter by a general description of the projects of the
+Royalists in March 1655. He asserted that they intended to surprise and
+seize London, and all the principal ports and cities throughout England,
+and that they reckoned on the support of more than 30,000 armed men.
+This description of the projects and resources of the Royalists may be
+at once, and contemptuously set aside: it was founded upon lies supplied
+by such men as Manning, the spy, or Bamfield, the informer. Cromwell's
+words were contradicted by the abortive and petty nature of the
+insurrection, by the obvious refusal of all England to join in the
+enterprise, and by the conduct of the Protector himself. For he would
+not have placed England at the mercy of the Earl of Rochester and his
+companions, had he thought that they could call 30,000 men to arms, or
+that every important town from London to York, was in danger. Having
+thus dealt out fiction by wholesale, and ascribed the overthrow of that
+'great and general design' to 'The Lord,' Cromwell proceeds, according
+to this method, to show how that was accomplished.
+
+Beginning with the rising at Salisbury, he declared that
+
+     'the Insurrection in the West was bold and dangerous in
+     itself, and had in all likelihood increased to great Numbers
+     of Horse and Foot by the conjunction of others of their own
+     party, besides such Foreign forces, as in case of their
+     success, and seizing upon some place of Strength, were to
+     have landed in those parts, had they not been prevented by
+     the motion of some troops, and diligence of the officers,
+     in apprehending divers of that Party a few days before; and
+     also been closely pursued by some of our Forces, and in the
+     conclusion supprest by a handful of men, through the great
+     goodness of God.'
+
+As Charles had not at his disposal a single ship, or one soldier in the
+pay of any foreign Power, the possibility of a foreign invasion needs no
+disproof. And how did Cromwell deal with his enemies at home? Shortly
+before the rising of the 11th of March, troops were undoubtedly moved
+about in Wiltshire: their course can be traced from day to day. As the
+Protector, according to his habit, bases his statements as far as he
+can, on facts, so far we can agree with him. But as certainly as they
+were marched about, Cromwell's soldiers were marched not towards, but
+away from Salisbury.
+
+During the latter part of February, Major Butler, the officer in charge
+over Wiltshire, wrote to Thurloe, telling him that as Bristol was in 'a
+peaceable state,' the Major intended to leave that city. He did so: just
+eleven days before the outbreak he was on the march to his central
+station, at Marlborough, when a messenger from the Protector, summoned
+him back to Bristol. Butler was, in consequence, detained there, whilst
+the event took place; nor did he reach Salisbury until the third day
+after the insurgents had left the town. Cromwell knew what he was about:
+on the very Sunday when Wagstaff took possession of Salisbury, Cromwell
+occupied Chichester by horsemen, sent there at daybreak; and he
+dispatched a warning to Portsmouth, that 'some desperate design was on
+foot.' But he kept his soldiers away from Salisbury. He took this
+course, although he knew that Salisbury Plain had been named as a
+Levellers' rendezvous; and although he had received a report, about
+three weeks before the 11th of March, from an officer sent to Salisbury
+on police duty, 'that it would be convenient for some horse to be
+quartered hereabouts,'[46] because the Royalists in the neighbourhood
+were restless.
+
+And Cromwell himself proves why Major Butler was detained at Bristol:
+for when he did reach the scene of the revolt, though the insurgents had
+been two days at large in the neighbourhood, and were disbanding,
+drifting aimlessly towards Devonshire, Butler was withheld from active
+operations by orders from Whitehall. He was directed to keep at a
+distance from the insurgents for fear of a mishap. This is shown by the
+opening words of Butler's letter of remonstrance to the Protector. 'Now,
+my Lord,' Butler wrote, 'though I know it would be of sad consequence if
+we assaulting them should be worsted,' still, he pleaded with much
+earnestness that he, under 'the good providence of The Lord' would
+assuredly be successful. So palpably absurd it was to suppose that his
+four troops of horsemen could not make short work of that undisciplined,
+badly armed, and disheartened band of men, that Butler declared, that he
+could not 'with any confidence stay' here at Salisbury, 'nor look the
+country in the face, and let them alone.''[47]
+
+The Protector, however, was resolute. Butler was forced to let the enemy
+alone; and, after four days' delay, they yielded at South Molton to one
+troop of horse sent after them from Weymouth. Thus it was Cromwell, and
+not Butler, as was surmised by a contemporary observer, who kept his
+troopers 'at a distance in the rear' of the Royalists, 'to give them an
+opportunity of increasing.'[48]
+
+With this suspicion afloat, and Major Butler unable 'to look the country
+in the face,' Cromwell felt that to ascribe the suppression of
+Wagstaff's attempt mainly to the 'close' pursuit of the enemy 'by some
+of Our Forces,' would hardly suffice. He accordingly also attributed
+that happy result 'to the goodness of God,' and to 'the diligence of the
+officers in apprehending some of the party.' In this statement Cromwell
+made some approach to the truth. Butler had been diligent; and though he
+failed to seize Douthwait, that mysterious 'principal verb', still,
+during the last two weeks of February, he did arrest suspects in the
+West of England, but none within the district round Salisbury.[49]
+Wagstaff and his comrades were undisturbed, whilst preparing for their
+attempt. Nor is it an unfounded assumption, if their security is
+attributed to the same influence which sanctioned Wagstaff's repair to
+the rendezvous, and which protected him from Major Butler's horsemen.
+
+Having thus dealt with that 'bold and dangerous insurrection in the
+West,' Cromwell turned northward, and took in hand that rather vague
+affair at Marston Moor, on which, as he asserted, 'the enemy most
+relied.' His account of that event was, that the Royalists who met there
+dispersed and ran away in confusion, partly because of a failure among
+the plotters; but also, 'in respect that Our Forces, by their marching
+up and down in the country, and some of them providentially, at that
+time, removing their Quarters, near to the place of Rendezvous, gave
+them no opportunity to reassemble.' Again, Cromwell is, to a certain
+extent, correct. Divided counsels did keep one of the principal
+Yorkshire Royalists from the meeting, and he may have had followers;
+and others were stayed, when on the march, by a timely warning that they
+were on a fool's errand. But the assertion, that the Royalists were
+dispersed by a providential movement of troops, and by 'Our Forces
+marching up and down' Yorkshire, is utterly false. And, as before, the
+witness against Cromwell is one of Cromwell's servants. An officer,
+responsible for the peace of Yorkshire, reported to his chief in London
+regarding himself and his comrades, that 'notwithstanding all our
+frequent alarums from London of the certainty of this plot, carried on
+with such secrecy on the traitor's part, though we were upon duty, and
+in close quarters, we had no positive notice of it till the day was
+past.' And no other soldiers were in that neighbourhood during the night
+of the 8th of March. The only martial display that the occasion called
+forth, was the march of two troops of horsemen into York about three or
+four days subsequently; and the officer in command reported that if more
+men were wanted, they must be drawn from Durham, Newark, or Hull.[50]
+
+Thus it was that Cromwell dealt with 'the Insurrection of Yorkshire.' If
+the Royalists had, in truth, 'reckoned on 8000 in the North,' or if York
+had been in danger, soldiers, and not 'alarums' would have been sent
+into Yorkshire. Nor was he mistaken in deeming that the Royalists relied
+most on that attempt. Hoping to find a large gathering of Levellers in
+arms against the Protector, many of the principal Yorkshire landowners,
+of higher rank and more influential than poor Penruddock or any of his
+comrades, met that night on Marston Moor. And probably it was owing to
+their social position, that the trick was not fully played out, and
+that, sorely to Cromwell's disappointment, they saved their lives.
+
+Besides the insurrectionary displays at Salisbury and Marston Moor, it
+was arranged that on the 8th of March similar symptoms should appear in
+various other places, to create the idea that 'the Design was great and
+general.' Cromwell was accordingly able to declare that 'the coming of
+300 foot from Berwick' dispersed 'those who had rendezvoused near
+Morpeth to surprise Newcastle:'--that in North Wales and Shropshire,
+where they intended to surprise Shrewsbury, 'some of the chief persons
+being apprehended, the rest fled:'--and that, 'at Rufford Abbey, Notts,
+was another rendezvous, where about 500 horse met, and had with them a
+cart load of horse-arms, to arm such as should come to them; but upon a
+sudden, a great Fear fell upon them,' and they, also, dispersed
+themselves, and 'cast their arms into the pond.' Nor did the Protector
+omit to describe the action of 'other smaller Parties,' also in motion
+during the night of the 8th of March, who, 'as in the Town of Chester
+designed the surprise of the Castle there, but they, failing in their
+expectations, were discouraged for that time.' 'And thus by the goodness
+of God, these hidden works of darkness' were discovered. 'Fear' was 'put
+into the hearts' of the cruel and bloody enemy, and their great and most
+dangerous design was 'defeated, and brought to nothing.'
+
+The depositions on which Cromwell based his description of the minor
+passages of the Insurrection are all mere informers' tales, none rising
+above the inanity of the story of a tobacco-pipe-maker's attack on
+Chester Castle, of which more anon; and, from Carlyle's point of view,
+this sample of Thurloe's papers might assuredly be classed among 'human
+stupidities.' But Carlyle has overlooked the fact, that to Cromwell
+these depositions were an important element in his government, and were
+worked up into his speeches and the 'Declaration of October 1655. Hence
+the greater the absurdity of those documents, the greater their
+historical importance, as showing, not only how the Royalists were
+duped, and how Cromwell duped his subjects, but also that the tricks of
+his trepanners were so clumsy that, almost without exception' no
+Cavaliers of any standing were drawn into the Protector's game.
+
+An apt example of the kind of evidence on which Cromwell based his
+statements, and also a comical illustration of his propensity to cling
+to fact in the midst of fraud, is afforded by that alleged 'rendezvous'
+of Royalists 'to surprise Newcastle.' If his spies are to be believed,
+presumably with that object, on the 8th of March, 'about 3 score and 10
+horsemen armed with swords and pistols' met by night 'at a place called
+Duddo;' and then vanished, not, however, for fear 'of 300 foot coming
+from Berwick,' but because the conspirators were warned 'that there was
+300 sail of ships come into Newcastle, for fear of whom they durst not
+fall upon Newcastle at that time.' Much in the same way, and during the
+same night, a party of Royalist gentlemen and their servants, repaired
+to the inn on Rufford Abbey Green; and a real cart was driven to the
+door containing 'horse-arms,' fifty-six pair of pistols, two buff coats,
+two suits of arms, &c., and was then driven away, and the party broke
+up. So far the Protector's words are verified by the very full
+information that Thurloe collected regarding the Rufford Abbey incident;
+but if to the conspirators therein specifically mentioned, a large
+addition be made for 'divers unnamed gentlemen,' seen 'coming in and
+going out of the inn-door,' the plotters cannot be rated at much above
+20, instead of at Cromwell's 500.
+
+The Protector's concluding statements may be briefly disposed of.
+Shrewsbury Castle was to have been taken by 'two men in the apparel of
+gentlewomen,' acting in combination with their comrades, 'in certain
+alehouses near unto the said castle;' and the determined purpose of
+these plotters may be tested by the temper of their ringleader, who
+urged his recruits to appear at the rendezvous, but refused for his
+part, to join with them, 'because his wife was not well.'[51] The
+Shropshire insurrection was, indeed, of so visionary a nature, that
+zealous Commissary Reynolds could not manipulate it into any definite
+shape. Though sent to Shrewsbury that he might develop the existence of
+'a general plot of the malignants' in the West of England, he entirely
+failed. And so annoyed was he at his failure, that he suggests to
+Thurloe, that it would 'not to be unfit to make' the malignants 'speak
+forcibly, by tying matches, or some kind of pain, whereby they may be
+made to discover the plot;' and as he re-urges his craving to inflict
+torture on his prisoners, the proposal had drawn no disapproval from the
+Secretary.[52]
+
+An account of the 'great and signal disappointment, as great as any this
+age can produce,' which the 'goodness of God' inflicted upon that
+'smaller party,' 'who' according to Cromwell, 'designed the surprise of
+the castle' of Chester, forms an appropriate close to this portion of
+our narrative. An 'exceeding poor' dupe, Francis Pickering, tells the
+story, and the duper was a Colonel Worthing. After enticing Pickering
+into the plot by assurances of a general rising against the Protector,
+on the night of the 8th of March, Worthing announced that his part in
+the design 'was principally to surprise the Castle of Chester;' and as
+related by Pickering, while he and the Colonel remained quietly at home.
+
+     'Accordingly that night three or four went, sent by Col.
+     Worthing' to seize the Castle: they were all inhabitants of
+     Chester, and one of them is commonly known by the name of
+     Alexander, the tobacco-pipe-maker. These persons brought
+     back word to Col. Worthing that at the place where they
+     intended to raise a ladder to surprise the Castle, they
+     heard a sentinel walk and cough. At which report Col.
+     Worthing was very much startled! and sent them back again to
+     seize any other convenient place; and they brought back word
+     that they had centinels walking.'[53]
+
+No third attempt was made by Mr. Alexander and his friends; and next day
+Pickering was told by Worthing 'that he was much troubled, for that he
+could not contrive how to take said Castle;' and, in due time, Pickering
+found himself in custody.
+
+In singular contrast to the vague and absurd stories told by 'exceeding
+poor' and foolish men, such as Mr. Pickering and his fellow plotters,
+are the numerous and positive assurances that Cromwell received from his
+own officers, that all was well with England both before, during, and
+after the Insurrection of March 1655. Headed by Thurloe, they are all
+unanimous in reporting 'that the nation was much more ready to rise
+against, than for Charles Stuart;' that, in the town of Leeds, 'not
+thirty men were disaffected to the present Government;' and that 'there
+was no design on foot' even in 'the most corrupt and rotten places of
+the Nation,' such as Hampshire, Dorsetshire, Kent, and the Eastern
+Counties. From Bristol to York all was quiet, or wished to be so, during
+February, March, and April, 1655.[54]
+
+Further illustration of this statement is needless. For, if Cromwell had
+thought otherwise, even though he might in his wisdom have admitted the
+Earl of Rochester and his associates into England, he certainly would
+not have allowed them to remain here, apparently as long as they chose,
+after their enterprise was over. That the Protector gave them this
+freedom of action is made singularly clear by the Thurloe Papers': they
+contain repeated indications of the 'whereabouts' of the Earl of
+Rochester, the leader of the revolt. He and Major Armourer did not,
+after the Marston Moor failure, fly to the coast, or seek separate
+hiding-places. They journeyed together, with two servants, leisurely
+through England towards London: and to guard his safety, Rochester would
+not disturb his bedtime, or his dinner-hour. After the outbreak, people
+were naturally anxious to pick up what they could, by arresting 'the
+great ones.' Of these, Rochester was the greatest; and he and Armourer
+were arrested at Aylesbury. The resident magistrate gave a warrant to
+the constable, desiring him to keep safely the bodies of the Earl and
+his three companions, 'in the name of my Lord Protector.' The warrant
+was acted upon; the prisoners evidently were 'persons of great quality.'
+Yet somehow, both magistrate and constable left the Earl and the Major
+in charge of the innkeeper 'where they lay;' and naturally enough, 'when
+the constable came in the morning, he found that the innkeeper had let
+the two chiefs escape,' taking with them 'all their rich apparel.'[55]
+Had this been merely a sample of Aylesbury carelessness, the incident
+need not have been noticed. But the example of the magistrate and
+constable was followed by Cromwell. Although the escape of Rochester and
+Armourer was promptly known, and their course was closely tracked, and
+though Cromwell was informed where they might be found, they 'wrote very
+comfortably from London;' and they endeavoured 'to lay the foundation of
+some new design.' And at last, as if he were an ordinary traveller,
+sending his servants before him, Rochester left England for the
+Continent, having been a resident here for about five months; and the
+latter part of his stay in England was a season of extraordinary
+severity against the Royalists. In like manner, every one of his
+thirteen comrades returned 'weekly without difficulty' to their King's
+presence, apparently at their pleasure; whilst Cromwell's continental
+informers repeated their warnings that 'Day, the Clerk of the Passage,'
+is 'a rogue,' and that if the Protector had 'been ruled' by them 'all
+these had not escaped.'[56]
+
+In this matter, and indeed throughout his connection with the
+Insurrection of March 1655, Cromwell was not his own master. The
+conditions under which he obtained the espial of one of the King's most
+trusted friends, and a member of the 'Sealed Knot,' formed a complete
+protection to the Earl of Rochester and his associates. Nor for his own
+sake could he touch those conspirators. Their seizure would have
+disclosed the fact, that 'persons in the very bosom of our enemies' gave
+him 'intelligence;' and hence, if 'he once discovered the grounds, he
+would destroy the intelligence.'[57] Anyhow, it is evident that Cromwell
+could with entire safety allow his most determined enemies to remain in
+England, and lay foundations for new projects against him.
+
+Having seen Cromwell's conspirators safe home again, tribute must be
+paid to his amazing dexterity. The Prince of Wire-Pullers, he made his
+puppets perform what part he chose. Some jerked the royal doll Charles,
+against his liking, from Cologne to Middleburg, and some warned him to
+keep quiet, and others seemed to fight against the manager of the show,
+though in reality they fought in his behalf: all played Cromwell's game,
+whilst they thought they were playing their own; and even the most
+innocent outsiders were pressed into his service. With comic audacity he
+assured his audience that the more trivial was the scene at Salisbury,
+the more they ought to recognize its dramatic force. 'Observe,' he said,
+'when this Attempt was made--it was made when nothing but a well-formed
+Power could hope to put us into disorder. Do you think that' such a
+company of mean fellows 'would have attacked Us, if they had not been
+supported by vast unseen forces behind the scenes.'[58] With what cruel
+craft, but seeming indifference, the artful old showman treated his
+manikins! He cut off the heads of some amongst those who responded most
+vigorously to his touch; whilst others, not less free upon the wire,
+were carefully packed up, and sent home safe. By seizing and boxing up
+in the Tower mere bystanders, wholly unconcerned in the sport, he made
+his 'little tin soldiers' fancy that he did not see their antics. The
+only hitch in his 'knavish piece of work' arose when, too assured, he
+placed upon the boards a real live judge, who refused to take the bench
+in the manager's sham Court of Justice. In every other respect the
+mystery play was a complete success; everybody was puzzled, players,
+spectators, and the gentlemen of the press; not one even guessed at the
+true meaning of the performance; though a few 'men of wicked spirits'
+would try to peep behind the curtain. But they never found him out; they
+all danced to Cromwell's tune, but none discovered that the pipe they
+heard was in their Protector's mouth. Even Ludlow, with all the
+proverbial opportunities of a bystander, though most anxious to know his
+great opponent's game, never guessed that he had patched up the
+Insurrection of March 1655, from the beginning to the end.
+
+And such was Cromwell's power of deception, that though dead, he still
+deceived; his works did follow him, as he desired, out of sight. He
+seems to have anticipated that the records of his detective department
+might remain as a witness against him, and to have cast over the
+'Thurloe Papers' a spell, that has hitherto rendered them invisible. For
+nearly 150 years these evidences of his 'hidden works of darkness' have
+been before the world; but Cromwell has preserved his secret; he has
+humbugged every historian as effectually as he hoodwinked his
+contemporaries. The 'Thurloe Papers' were published in 1742, well
+edited and indexed; they contain the documents which Cromwell himself
+read and handled, the notes of his speeches, the information of his
+spies, the letters of his enemies and of his clerks. Though called after
+Thurloe, those papers are, in fact, Cromwell's own. Yet such is the
+glamour that he has cast over all that has approached him, that they
+have accepted his words without question, or, if they have read his
+writings, they have read them according to his inspiration.
+
+Yet there was much even in that Insurrection itself to arouse suspicion.
+Cromwell, in January 1655, assured his Parliament that he had crushed
+the various conspiracies which were then on foot against him, all most
+'real dangers,' and that he had disarmed and rendered powerless those
+conspirators; yet within six weeks they had organized a universal
+revolt, and had secreted stores of arms and ammunition all over England.
+This universal revolt broke out at Salisbury, 'bold and dangerous'; and
+it was put down by a single troop of horsemen, after the rebels had
+paraded, disheartened and deserted, across England. Except on that
+occasion, the vast design was suppressed without the aid of a single
+soldier or even a beadle. And, strangely enough, the Protector himself
+supplied a hint which might have provoked some curiosity about the
+nature of that 'Rebellion.'
+
+For surely it is odd that 'such a terrible Protector this; no getting of
+him overset!' should have been compelled to contend with the notorious
+and obstinate incredulity of the members of his Parliament regarding the
+late attempt to overset him? Yet Cromwell's speech of September 1656 is
+pervaded with expressions such as these, regarding the 'bold and
+dangerous Insurrection' of March 1655,--'I think the world must know and
+acknowledge, that it was a general design,'--'I doubt if it be believed,
+that there was any rising,' either in North Wales or at Shrewsbury, or
+on Marston Moor, 'at the very time when there was an Insurrection at
+Salisbury'--' therefore, how men of wicked spirits may traduce Us in
+that matter--I leave it!'[59] Surely 'sluggish mortals, saved from
+destruction,' not caused by secret agencies, but from an actual
+'Rebellion,' which threatened to bring every one of them into 'blood and
+confusion,' need not be required to believe in the very existence of so
+great and conspicuous a danger!
+
+And Cromwell felt that he could not afford to leave that 'matter'
+untouched. A suspicion was prevalent, during the whole of Cromwell's
+reign, that plots were manufactured to suit his purposes. He knew that
+full well; he knew also the danger of such a suspicion. The surmises of
+the 'men of wicked spirits,' were those 'half tales,' that 'be truths.'
+It had been hoped that such a 'real plot' as 'the late Insurrection,'
+would give that suspicion a quietus. When it was safely transacted,
+Thurloe and his associates congratulated each other over that hope.[60]
+But it was not fulfilled. Hence arises the tone of angered honesty,
+which Cromwell so repeatedly assumed when he addressed his Parliament,
+and Carlyle's indignant protest--'What a position for a hero, to be
+reduced continually to say he does not lie!'
+
+But what was Cromwell's motive in the fabrication of this Insurrection
+of March, 1655? It was not, as might be suggested, a device to thwart by
+a premature explosion, a dangerous conspiracy during a critical moment
+in the Protectorate. Cromwell himself asserts in his 'Declaration,' that
+'this Attempt was made, when nothing but a well-formed Power could hope
+to put Us into disorder; Scotland and Ireland being perfectly reduced;
+Differences with most Neighbour Nations composed; our Forces, both by
+Sea and Land, in order and consistency.' Nay, he artfully converted the
+very security of his Government into a proof that 'the pretended King'
+would not have sent over his servants, and that the Royalists would not
+'have actually risen' at Salisbury, had the insurrection been other than
+'a general design,' based on a vast secret organization. No one in all
+England possessed more certain knowledge, than did Cromwell, that such
+was not the case, and that he could not plead in his behalf the poor
+excuse, that the Nation as a Nation needed a severe lesson, or that it
+was to save England from civil war that he had sacrificed the lives of
+those fourteen victims of his deception, and consigned that band of
+seventy or eighty Englishmen to the horrors of West Indian slavery.
+
+But if Cromwell could not claim that excuse, what then was his motive?
+Dark as was the light within him, he was not in such utter darkness as
+to encompass himself about with written, spoken, and acted lies merely
+to gratify caprice, or that he might indulge in causeless cruelty. His
+motive was a very simple one. He was forced to obey his servant, the
+Army. The men whom he had made, and who had made him, demanded a visible
+share in the power and profit that he enjoyed. Reverting to the autumn
+of 1654, much had then occurred to disquiet the Army. Cromwell had taken
+a distinct step towards Kingship, by attempting to persuade Parliament
+to make the Protectorate hereditary. Parliament had made a distinct
+movement towards a large reduction in the Army and Navy. If rumour be
+evidence, there was, during November, 'a great division in the army.'
+And it is certain that, at the close of that month, Cromwell and his
+military men came to terms. At a meeting held in St. James's Palace, the
+staff of the army agreed 'to live and die with Cromwell.'[61] And a
+train of events, occurring in direct sequence after that meeting, proves
+that it was at this conjuncture that Cromwell agreed to parcel out his
+Protectorship among the leading officers of the Army. Parliament was
+dissolved 22nd January, 1655, on the pretext that under its shadow,
+conspiracy and discontent had thriven; and Cromwell gave an alarming
+account of the 'real dangers,' of imminent insurrection and anarchy,
+that threatened England. That speech was the prologue; then came the
+tragedy itself, the Insurrection of March, 1655; then came its
+consequence, the appointment of the Major-Generals. And in the end, the
+reason why they were appointed, was brought to light by a state of
+affairs, very identical with that which had raised them to power.
+
+Cromwell had renewed the attempt that he had made in the autumn of 1654,
+and in his quest after Kingship he had come, during February 1657,
+almost within sight of the throne. Again the army officers interfered;
+and again Cromwell was forced to meet them face to face; to receive, on
+this occasion, their protest against his acceptance of the Crown. He
+made a compromise as he had done before; but in speech, he was not
+conciliatory. If the Protectorate had been a failure, he told his former
+comrades, it was their fault. It was they, and not he who had governed;
+as for himself, 'they had made him their drudge upon all occasions: to
+dissolve the Long Parliament,' and 'to call a Parliament or Convention
+of their naming,' which proved so unsuccessful; and then another
+Parliament, alike in unsuccess; and he concluded that catalogue of their
+untoward interferences with his government, by reminding his hearers
+that they thought it was necessary to have Major-Generals; adding that
+so they 'might have gone on,' if they had not insisted on his calling
+the Parliament of 1656, against his will, which had given them 'a
+foil.'[62]
+
+
+That speech is the most exceptional, in some respects the most
+important, of all Cromwell's speeches. Spoken if not 'in haste,'
+certainly 'out of the fulness of the heart,' that is caused by anger, it
+is, though unusually brief, delightfully incautious. Being addressed to
+men who could not well be deceived, the speech must be true, at least so
+far as they are concerned, in every particular; it does not contain a
+single appeal to God; and of no other among Cromwell's speeches, are the
+original MS. notes in existence. This speech, of the utmost historic
+importance, is essentially unheroic in tone and circumstance,--the
+querulous complaint of a master against servants who have overmastered
+him,--an assertion of supremacy made by a man, who felt that he was not
+really supreme. But the singularity that attends the address to the
+recalcitrant officers is not yet exhausted. Surprise may well be felt
+that Carlyle, with this speech before him, ventured on the construction
+of his false image of Cromwell, the Hero. Judged even as an ordinary
+ruler, he must have been a very sorry Protector who, according to his
+own showing, was only a sham supreme magistrate,--the minister, the
+'drudge,' of his servants but real masters--who had compelled him to
+call, and to dissolve Parliaments, and to impose on England those
+military despots.
+
+Carlyle has endowed his ideal Protector 'with the virtue to create
+belief,' by the force of self-assertion, which still finds its
+imitators, by pouring out contempt on all who differ from him, and by
+implying that, as all other Cromwellian authorities are 'stupidities and
+falsities,' he alone was wise and true. This was but a risky basis on
+which to exhibit 'this Oliver' to the world, as the noblest Hero 'among
+the noblest of Human Heroisms, this English Puritanism of ours,' and as
+'not a Man of falsehoods, but a Man of truths.' But reading over these
+words, and calling to mind the confidence with which Carlyle compels all
+to join with him in his Cromwell-worship, it is impossible to resist the
+conviction, that it was with good faith that he could see in Cromwell
+'the glimpses,' even the revelation 'of the god-like,' and that he would
+not attend to aught that disclosed Cromwell 'not' as 'august and divine,
+but hypocritical, pitiable, detestable.' Even though he claimed a
+familiar acquaintance with the 'Thurloe Papers,' he must have been
+ignorant, it is impossible to think otherwise, of the black stories
+which Cromwell's 'expertest of secretaries' could publish against his
+master.
+
+And passing from the worshipper to the Idol; surely it is but in
+accordance with common sense and common charity to hope that, as with
+Carlyle, so also with his Oliver, the real Cromwell was wholly shrouded
+from Cromwell's sight. That hope might, indeed, be forbidden by some. It
+might be argued that, although many a wrong-doing, such as bloodshed,
+oppression, or even treachery, has been committed by men in the sincere
+belief that they were doing God service, Cromwell cannot be placed among
+that group of self-deceivers: that he stands by himself, and on a lower
+level. It was to save himself, to propitiate a gang of mutinous
+servants, that Cromwell contrived and wrought out the deception of
+March, 1655, and obtained in the bloodshed that it produced, the
+essential result that he desired. And then, to give validity to his
+imposture, to grace it with the Divine sanction, he ascribed his course
+of acted and uttered lies, and the cruelty and misery they had
+engendered, to God himself.
+
+Undoubtedly that statement is true. But yet on the other hand it may be
+pleaded, that nothing but an intense living conviction, that God was
+with him in all his ways, could have enabled Cromwell to make 'with
+comfort' his 'appeal to God, whether' the Insurrection of March 1655
+'hath been the matter of Our Choice' or 'according to Our own
+inclinations?'
+
+This is but a sorry plea to urge in Cromwell's behalf. The blackness and
+the fury of the storm, which roared across England during his dying
+hours, cannot have exceeded the blinding energy of that strong delusion,
+that ever drove him onward, through his cruel and crooked devices, fully
+persuaded that 'God was even such a one as' himself. Though all may
+agree in believing that it was not from the lips, but truly from the
+heart--not to cheat his hearers, but in a veritable ecstasy--that
+Cromwell claimed to stand before God, as one who 'had learned too much
+of God, to dally with him,' still it must be felt, that such an
+assertion, coming from such a Protector, reveals a mental condition that
+baffles the understanding. But as man, when he shrinks from passing
+judgment on another, ever takes the better part; and as even with the
+best amongst us, the relation of the soul to God is a question which, of
+all others, should not be intermeddled with, assuredly we must leave
+Cromwell, whose being is one of 'the deep things of God,' to His
+judgment.--'Hell and destruction are before the Lord: how much more then
+the hearts of the children of men?'
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] 'Report of French Ambassador in Holland.' Thurloe, iii. 322.
+
+[31] 'Clarendon' (Bodleian Papers), iii. II.
+
+[32] 'Clarendon,' ed. 1839, 871. 'Clarendon' (Bodleian Papers), Cal.
+iii. 13 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2535. fo. 637.
+
+[33] We thus found this conjecture: Cromwell held an intercepted letter
+from the King to Mr. Roles, addressed to him under his alias, Mr. Upton,
+expressed in terms of entire confidence (Thurl. iii. 75); but Roles was
+not arrested. And the suspicion inspired by the immunity which Cromwell
+granted to such a conspicuous Royalist, was confirmed by finding that
+Thurloe in a letter (dated 6th April, 1655) to Manning the spy, refers
+to 'Mr. Upton' as their common friend. (Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2542.
+fo. 166.)
+
+[34] Masonet. See Note, 'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian) Cal. iii. 14
+Carlyle, iv. 108.
+
+[35] Information of J. Dallington, R. Glover, J. Stradling, E. Turner.'
+Thurloe iii. 35, 74, 146, 181, 222.
+
+[36] Several Proceedings, &c. Thurs., 8th Feb.--15th Feb. 1655.
+'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian Cal.) iii. 16.
+
+[37] Thurloe, iii. 164.
+
+[38] Thurloe, iii. 137, 180, 190, 198, 224.
+
+[39] Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2535, fo. 637. This communication appears
+in an anonymous letter addressed to Nicholas. Mr. Warner, with that
+ready help that he and his department afford, by a comparison of the
+handwriting, attributes that letter to Col. Price, who shared in
+Rochester's expedition.
+
+[40] 'Clarendon Papers' (Bodleian), Cal. iii. 23.
+
+[41] Thurloe, iii. 573.
+
+[42] Ibid., iv. 344.
+
+[43] Thurloe, iii. 122, 182. Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus., 2535, fo. 627
+
+[44] Whitlock, 625. Thurloe, iii. 359, 382.
+
+[45] Thurloe, iii. 391.
+
+[46] Thurloe, iii. 162 172, 177, 182, 219, 243, Rolls Cal. (1655), 73.
+
+[47] Thurloe, iii. 238, 243.
+
+[48] Heath's Chronicle, 367.
+
+[49] Thurloe, iii. 176, 181, 191.
+
+[50] 'Rolls Cal.' (1655), p. 216; Baynes Coll., Add. MSS. Brit. Mus.
+21,424 fo. 50; Thurloe, iii. 226.
+
+[51] Thurloe, iii. 210, 222, 228, 241, 253.
+
+[52] Ibid., iii. 298, 356. In addition to constant terror of 'the
+Barbadoes,' to which all Cromwell's prisoners were subject, a Royalist
+in the Tower mentions, in a pencilled letter, that he had been
+threatened with torture; and that the Protector himself used the menace
+of the rack rests on the evidence of another prisoner's
+brother.--'Clarendon Papers,' Bodleian Cal., iii. 82, 87.
+
+[53] Thurloe, iii. 676.
+
+[54] Pell Coll. Landsdowne MSS., 752. fo. 275, 282. Baynes Coll. Add.
+MSS. 21, 423, fo. 74. Thurloe, iii. 170, 224, 246, 248, 253, 281, 284.
+'Rolls Cal., 1655, 81, 84, 88, 99, 200.
+
+[55] Thurloe, iii. 281, 335.
+
+[56] 'Clarendon Papers,' Bodleian Cal., iii. 27, 34, 36. 'Rolls Cal'
+(1655), 193, 245. Thurloe, iii. 358, 530, 561, 659.
+
+[57] Whalley's Statement; Burton, iv, 155.
+
+[58] Adapted from the 'Declaration' of Oct. 1655, and Speech. Carlyle,
+iv. 107, Vol. 162.--_No. 324_
+
+[59] Carlyle, iv. 108, 111.
+
+[60] Pell Corresp., Landsdowne MSS. Brit. Mus. 752, fo 275, 289. Hist
+Rec. Comn. 6th Report, 438.
+
+[61] 1 Dec. 1654. Pell Corr., Lans. MSS. Brit. Mus., 752 fo. 215, 220.
+
+[62] 27 Feb. 1657. Burton, i. 383. Carlyle, iv. 177.
+
+
+
+
+Art. VI.--1. _Oceana, or England and her Colonies._ By James Anthony
+Froude. London, 1886.
+
+2. _Through the British Empire._ By Baron von Huebner. 2 vols. London,
+1886.
+
+3. _The Western Pacific and New Guinea._ By Hugh Hastings Romilly,
+Deputy Commissioner of the Western Pacific. London, 1886.
+
+
+In days when proposals for the dismemberment of the Empire can be put
+forward by great leaders of public opinion without exciting either
+indignation or surprise, it may be worth the while of Englishmen to
+spend a few hours in making themselves acquainted with the volumes which
+we have cited at the head of this article. Most men are so absorbed in
+what is going on immediately under their eyes, that they seldom bestow a
+thought upon the remoter portions of the vast territory which
+acknowledge allegiance to the Queen. They have but the most vague ideas,
+or none at all, concerning the thoughts, wishes, and purposes, of the
+large and growing communities which sprung from these islands, and which
+have hitherto been proud of their English origin. It is true that this
+pride has not been increasing of late years. The neglect or contempt
+with which the Colonies have been treated by successive Liberal
+Administrations did much to estrange the people, especially of Canada
+and Australasia, and the whole foreign policy of England under Mr.
+Gladstone's rule served to strengthen the general impression that our
+decadence had not only set in, but was advancing with a rapidity which
+was palpable to all the world except to those who were chiefly concerned
+in arresting it. Mr. Froude tells us that one of the shrewdest and most
+eminent of all the colonists whom he met expressed his amazement at the
+popularity in this country of Mr. Gladstone,--an amazement which, Mr.
+Froude adds, is felt 'wherever the English language is spoken' outside
+England itself. We can fully confirm this statement. The hold which Mr.
+Gladstone retains upon the country, after the long series of
+unparallelled mistakes which a faithful view of his career must forever
+associate with his name--the mistakes abroad, the mistakes at home, the
+crowning and almost incredible mistakes in Ireland; that he should still
+keep his hold of power and popularity after all this, absolutely passes
+the understanding of our fellow-subjects abroad, no matter what politics
+they profess. To them, we appear to be a people controlled by some
+Circean spell, having cast common-sense and prudence to the winds, and
+decided to be ruled henceforth by the man who can tickle our ears with
+the longest speeches and the smoothest words. Byron was accustomed to
+say that he looked upon the opinion of America as the verdict of
+posterity. It is certain that our own kinsfolk beyond the seas are
+sometimes in a far better position to realize the consequences of what
+we are doing here than those who are actually playing the game. We are
+too much wrapped up in self-complacency to allow their opinions to have
+any weight with us, but they have the satisfaction, such as it is, of
+seeing all their prognostications verified one after the other, and of
+knowing that a rude and stern awakening from our dreams is hanging over
+us.
+
+Of the three books to which we invite attention, Mr. Froude's is least
+like the average book of travel, and undoubtedly is the most suggestive
+of thought. Whether we agree with Mr. Froude or whether we do not, it is
+always a pleasure to read him. The 'shoddy' work which extends to
+everything in the present day, and which is eating into the very heart
+of our new literature, has not corrupted the older handicraftsmen among
+us. Not one record of travel in a hundred deserves to be mentioned in
+the same breath with 'Oceana;' there are not very many books of the kind
+in the language which excel it in variety, in vigour of style, in
+picturesqueness of description, or in vivid glimpses of insight into
+personal character. Baron Huebner is a more genial, discursive, and
+garrulous traveller. He tells us everything that comes into his mind,
+and has a note about everything he saw. We must add that these notes
+are, generally speaking, of great interest, and often very amusing. He
+undertook a journey over the greater part of the British Dominions, at a
+somewhat advanced period of life, for his readers ought to be reminded
+that he is the last survivor of the Congress of Paris, and that few men
+have had more valuable experience in the diplomatic service. Before he
+started, the Baron heard that his project was freely discussed at the
+Traveller's Club. Some said, 'what a plucky old fellow he is!' His
+comment upon this shows that he knows something of men as well as of
+places: 'If any harm befals me, they will say, "what an old fool he
+was!"' Happily, there was no occasion for pronouncing this judgment upon
+him. He followed out his prescribed route with wonderful success, and he
+has presented a graceful and highly interesting narrative of his
+adventures. His observations may, in many respects, be usefully compared
+with those of Mr. Froude, though it will not do to carry this comparison
+much further. We must, however, do the Baron the justice to acknowledge,
+that he always manifests an earnest desire to be fair and just. As for
+the third book on our list, it has the advantage of being short and to
+the point, and the additional advantage of being founded upon a
+personal residence in one of the islands of the Western Pacific. Travels
+based upon something more substantial than a mere flying visit are not
+too common, and we are grateful to Mr. Romilly for making a very
+entertaining addition to the number. We should be equally glad to
+receive the account of North New Guinea which a Russian gentleman, Mr.
+Miklaho Maclay, is so well able to furnish. It so chanced that he was
+landed one night on the north coast of New Guinea, and in the morning
+the natives found him sitting upon his portmanteau, like a man waiting
+for a train. They took him for a being of supernatural origin, but by
+way of making sure, they fired arrows at the stranger, tied him to a
+tree, and forced spears down his throat. As he survived these injuries,
+though by a narrow chance, the first impression of the natives was
+confirmed, and Mr. Maclay was afterwards treated in a manner which seems
+to have left him little ground for complaint. Thus far Mr. Maclay, as
+Mr. Romilly informs us, has declined to commit any account of his
+experience to paper; but a resolution of this kind is seldom unalterable
+when a man has anything new to tell the world.
+
+Mr. Froude, as we have already intimated, intersperses the records of
+travel with weighty reflections, or with valuable information, no part
+of which can be prudently ignored by the reader. We do not know, for
+instance, where in a short compass the arguments for and against
+Colonial Federation have been so clearly set forth. As a rule, the
+colonists everywhere view with great aversion the idea of placing
+themselves under the direct authority of Downing Street, and no one will
+be surprised at this who recollects the treatment they have almost
+invariably received from that quarter. On the other hand, they are by no
+means impatient or eager to proclaim their independence. 'British they
+are,' says Mr. Froude, 'and British they wish to remain.' It will not be
+their fault, but ours, if total separation ever becomes a popular cry in
+Australasia or in Canada. There have been projects of a purely _local_
+colonial confederation, but they are not regarded with much favour by
+the leading public men. Mr. Dalley of Sydney, expressed strongly his
+disapproval of the scheme, and he also objected to the plan of having
+the colonies represented in the Imperial Parliament by Colonial
+Agents-general. The one thing which seems at present to be universally
+desired is a better organization of the Navy. 'Let there be one Navy,'
+Mr. Dalley said, 'under the rule of a single Admiralty--a Navy in which
+the colonies should be as much interested as the mother country, which
+should be theirs as well as ours, and on which they might all rely in
+time of danger.' In these respects, the ideas of modern colonists differ
+widely from those held in the last century. The great grievance of the
+American colonists was that they were not represented in the British
+Parliament. Had that demand been conceded, Mr. Froude is of opinion that
+'Franklin and Washington would have been satisfied.' We do not quite
+agree with him, for the party of Independence, though small at first,
+was never likely to remain long contented with any compromise.
+Originally, indeed, as we all remember, the leaders of the Revolution
+disclaimed any intention of bringing about a separation. Franklin to the
+last protested his desire to keep the colonies united to the mother
+country; but Franklin was not the most sincere or straightforward of
+men. Undoubtedly, however, the American colonists did not begin the
+Revolution with the least desire to create a separate nationality, any
+more than in the great civil war of 1861-65 there was at first, or for a
+long time, any intention of effecting the abolition of slavery. Both
+ideas were acquired by the people by slow degrees. Massachusetts, New
+Hampshire, Virginia, and other States gave emphatic instructions to
+their delegates in 1774 to 'restore union and harmony between Great
+Britain and her Colonies,' and the party of independence was thoroughly
+unpopular down even to the close of the struggle. One of its leading
+spirits gave emphatic testimony on this point. 'For my own part,' wrote
+John Adams, 'there was not a moment in the Revolution when I would not
+have given everything I possessed for a restoration to the state of
+things before the contest began, provided we could have a sufficient
+security for its continuance.' This feeling had no small share in
+misleading George III. on the American question, and in deepening his
+determination not to let the colonies go--a fact which was brought out
+for the first time, we believe, by one of the ablest and most judicious
+of modern historians--Mr. Lecky. He also was the first to show, in a
+very striking manner, that the American Revolution was practically the
+work of a small minority, who, as he remarks--and the remark has no
+slight application to the other revolution now going on in our
+midst--'succeeded in committing an undecided and fluctuating majority to
+courses for which they had little love, and leading them step by step to
+a position from which it was impossible to recede.'[63] Nearly one-half
+of the Revolutionary army consisted of Irish, who have ever since played
+so important a part in the politics of the United States.
+
+In the present day, our colonists do not seek for separation,
+neither--if Mr. Froude is right--do they ask for representation at
+Westminster. They 'are passionately attached to their Sovereign,' and
+they desire that their Governors 'should be worthy always of the great
+person whom they represent.' They wish to have their trade encouraged,
+as it might so easily have been a few years ago, if we had possessed
+foresight enough to adopt a system of differential duties; they wish to
+have good immigrants, and they see the growing necessity for a strong
+navy. The information on these subjects which Baron Huebner acquired
+should be considered in connection with Mr. Froude's statements. It will
+be found that the two writers substantially agree. Baron Huebner found
+that the Australian colonists fully comprehend the disadvantage which
+complete independence would be to them. They are practically independent
+now, but they are spared the political and social turmoil in which the
+periodical election of a President would necessarily involve them. 'The
+Queen,' said one of the Baron's friends, 'sends every five years a
+Governor, who is not an autocrat like the President of the United
+States, but the representative of constitutional royalty. In America
+every four years, business is arrested, public order is disturbed, and
+passions are let loose to the point sometimes of threatening even public
+life itself. And why? In order that the nation may elect an absolute
+master, irremovable by law during his period of office. Here every one
+understands this, and every one knows how to leave well alone.' We do
+not quite see how the President of the United States can be described as
+an 'autocrat' or as an 'absolute master,' but the Australians are right
+in their conclusion, that the American system would be a sorry
+substitute for the arrangement which gives them a Governor without
+inconvenience to themselves, and without any risk of infringement upon
+their liberties.
+
+In the Cape Colony, the problem presents itself in a different form. In
+its origin--as everybody ought to know, but does not--it is not an
+English, but a Dutch Colony, and the Boers have never been disposed to
+render to English sovereignty more than a passive obedience. The chief
+facts in their recent history are but too easily recalled. When the
+Transvaal was annexed by Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the people at first
+submitted quietly; but the new Commissioner aroused first their fears,
+and then their anger, by various encroachments which were regarded as
+invasions of their rights. The Boers took up arms, English troops were
+despatched from the Cape to suppress the rising, and these troops were
+beaten at Lang's Neck. General Colley, who then commanded the forces at
+Natal, hastened forward with more troops in the hope of retrieving this
+disaster, but was himself beaten at Ingogo. He then, without waiting for
+the reinforcements which were on their way to him, took up a new
+position, was attacked by the Boers, and defeated in the memorable
+disaster at Majuba Hill. Mr. Gladstone forthwith surrendered everything,
+and since that time the Boers have been, as a matter of course, more and
+more antagonistic to the English power. 'They came to Africa,' says
+Baron Huebner, 'in 1652, with the intention of remaining there, and they
+do remain there. The future and Africa belong to them, unless they are
+expelled by a stronger power, the blacks or the English. They accept the
+struggle with the blacks, and they avoid all contact with the English.'
+Mr. Froude takes now, as he has always taken, a very strong view of our
+own responsibility for all the difficulties which have arisen with the
+Boers. We have, he says with some bitterness, 'treated them unfairly as
+well as unwisely, and we never forgive those whom we have injured.' The
+story is long, and it has been treated more than once, and we believe
+with strict fairness and impartiality, in these pages. Mr. Froude
+himself does not deny, that the effect of the surrender after Majuba
+Hill 'was to diminish infallibly the influence of England in South
+Africa, and to elate and encourage the growing party whose hope was and
+is to see it vanish altogether.' The work was not half done. We insisted
+upon a new Treaty, which was immediately broken by the Boers. Mr. Froude
+once more recommends us to 'leave the Cape alone'--not to get out of it,
+but to allow the Boers to manage their affairs in their own way. 'Our
+interferences,' he tells us, 'have been dictated by the highest motives;
+but experience has told us, and ought to have taught us, that in what we
+have done or tried to do, we have aggravated every evil which we most
+desired to prevent. We have conciliated neither person nor party.'
+
+Baron Huebner arrived at his conclusions by a totally different road from
+that pursued by Mr. Froude, but the burden of his story is much the
+same. It is the indecision of the Central Government, the uncertainty in
+which the Colony is always kept as to what will happen to them next,
+which causes nearly all the mischief. We have treated the Cape Colony as
+we have treated Ireland, and with every prospect of bringing about the
+same results. First 'coercion,' then abject surrender, then coercion
+again--'a process,' as Mr. Froude justly remarks, 'which drives nations
+mad, as it drives children, yet is inevitable in every dependency
+belonging to us which is not entirely servile, so long as it lies at the
+will and mercy of so uncertain a body as the British Parliament.' Baron
+Huebner, who stands beyond the influence of our party politics, tells us
+the same thing in other words. We want a policy, he says, in effect,
+which shall be permanent in its application, and therefore not affected
+by changes in Ministries. The fact is that we want such a policy for
+many parts of our Empire besides South Africa, and we are likely to want
+it. With Parliaments elected at short and frequent intervals, and
+depending largely on shifting caprices, there is not likely to be any
+fixed principle in dealing with political problems arising either at our
+own doors or thousands of miles away.
+
+There is one question in which all the colonists take a deep interest,
+and that is the condition and prospects of our trade. The Colonies are
+now our best customers, and we sincerely hope they will continue to be
+so, for with them we may possibly get, even yet, something like Free
+Trade, whereas no chance of securing even an approach to it can be
+looked for in the rest of the world. The Colonies will always raise at
+the Custom House the greater part of the money they want for the
+expenses of internal government, but they may be induced to offer
+England more favourable terms than other nations receive. In Australia,
+as elsewhere, it begins to be doubted whether 'England can trust
+entirely to Free Trade and competition to keep the place she has
+hitherto held.' If all our Colonies were bound with us in one commercial
+federation, we could make sure of Free Trade over a large part of the
+world's surface. 'We should have purchasers for our goods,' remarks Mr.
+Froude, 'from whom we should fear no rivalry; we should turn in upon
+them the tide of our emigrants which now flows away.' But at present,
+and with the fiscal system of 1846 still regarded as sacred and
+inviolable, nothing can be done. When we are prepared to acknowledge
+that the world has moved since 1846, and that we must move with it,
+there may be a possibility of widening the field of our
+commerce--unless, indeed, we delay too long. Public opinion in England
+is beginning to stir upon the subject. The demand for a great and
+radical change will come, when it does come, from the working men, and
+they are already showing signs of deep interest in a matter which
+concerns the very means of their livelihood. They are in advance of
+Parliament and Ministries on this subject. Mr. Froude is well within
+bounds in asserting that 'those among us who have disbelieved all along
+that a great nation can venture its whole fortunes safely on the power
+of underselling its neighbours in calicoes and iron-work, no longer
+address a public opinion entirely cold.' What, perhaps, has tended as
+much as anything else to open our eyes is the discovery, that other
+nations begin to be able to undersell us, not only in foreign markets,
+but even in our own--here in England, at Sheffield, Birmingham, and
+Manchester. Carlyle usually defined the Free Trade theory as the system
+of 'cheap and nasty.' As we have never had Free Trade, and therefore as
+it has never been properly tested, it is impossible to say what effects
+it was capable of producing, properly worked out. The great fact which
+confronts us to-day is that no other nation in the world, and not even
+our own colonists, will have anything whatever to do with it on any
+terms. This fact, at least, the English workingmen are beginning to see
+and to understand, and results will flow from it at present not
+anticipated by 'statesmen,' who know little or nothing about the hard
+matter-of-fact conditions under which trade is carried on, and who are
+assiduously primed by underlings with statistics which they repeat by
+rote, and as to the real value or signification of which they are
+completely and hopelessly in the dark.
+
+According to Baron Huebner, the Australian colonists have not abandoned
+the hope of forming a customs' union with the mother country, and they
+are far from regarding the proposals for giving them representation in
+Parliament with the indifference which Mr. Froude imagines that he
+detected. No one yet seems to have made even an effort to settle the
+details of a scheme by which a navy could be kept up for the defence of
+the Colonies, and an Imperial Zollverein formed between England and her
+foreign possessions. But the 'advanced men,' according to Baron Huebner,
+feel convinced that the idea can be carried out, and they are desirous
+of finding, as a preliminary, direct representation in some form at
+Westminster. The growth of this idea, says Baron Huebner, 'of a grand
+confederation, which would completely revolutionize Old England, or
+rather, which would create a new England by the handiwork and after the
+pattern of her children in Australia--the growth of this idea among the
+masses is, to my mind, an indubitable fact.' More improbable things have
+happened than that England, weakened at home by the selfish ambition of
+her statesmen, and by the frenzy of party warfare, may be saved by the
+patriotism of her descendants in other lands. The first opportunity
+which the colonists have had of evincing their determination to stand by
+the old country was promptly taken advantage of, and with a heartiness
+of spirit that we hope is not yet forgotten, quickly as all events,
+great or small, are nowadays crammed into 'the wallet of oblivion.' The
+offers of colonial aid during the Egyptian war roused a feeling
+throughout the Colonies which astonished all Europe, and probably took
+many of the colonists themselves by surprise. 'When English interests
+were in peril,' Mr. Froude tells us, 'I found the Australians, not cool
+and indifferent, but _ipsis Anglicis Angliciores_, as if at the
+circumference the patriotic spirit was more alive than at the centre.
+There was a general sense that our affairs were being strangely
+mismanaged.' The men who think and talk like this are not struggling for
+place and power amid the demoralizing surroundings of modern
+Parliamentary life. They are able to take a cool and dispassionate view
+of us and our affairs, and they begin to think that public life has
+degenerated into a mere scramble for the spoils of office. Their
+indignation, when Gordon was deserted by the Government which he had
+tried to serve, was far greater than we seem to have had any experience
+of amongst ourselves. They looked upon him as 'the last of the race of
+heroes who had won for England her proud position among the nations; he
+had been left to neglect and death, and the national glory was sullied.'
+They volunteered to come over and help us fight our battles. The
+Colonial Office, then under Lord Derby, was for a few days disposed to
+turn the cold shoulder to these efforts of assistance. But the feeling,
+which had been aroused in the country by the first announcements in the
+newspapers, was too deep to be mistaken. It broke through the ice in
+which the Colonial Office is usually imbedded, and compelled Lord Derby
+to make a warm and grateful response to the Colonies. In reality, the
+people there are, as many travellers besides Mr. Froude have remarked,
+more English than the English themselves in their sensitiveness as
+regards the national honour. We talk very coolly here of 'standing
+aside,' of 'having seen our best days,' and of giving up one part of our
+inheritance after another; but the Englishmen abroad are animated by
+very different sentiments. The love of the 'old home' is strong in them,
+even though they may have been born in the Colonies. It shows itself in
+a thousand different ways. At Ballarat, Mr. Froude seems to have been
+struck with a garden which might have been attached to an old cottage in
+Surrey or Devonshire. There were cabbage-roses, pinks, columbines,
+sweet-williams, laburnums, and honey-suckle--all prized because they
+were the flowers of Old England. The people everywhere speak the
+language with remarkable purity. The aspirate is rarely misplaced,
+unless by a recent immigrant. The misuse of the aspirate is, indeed, a
+peculiar part of the birthright of an Englishman. No one ever yet heard
+it from the poorest or most illiterate class in the United States. In
+Australia, says Mr. Froude, 'no provincialism has yet developed itself.
+The tone is soft, the language good.' The young people looked fresh and
+healthy, 'not lean and sun-dried, but fair, fleshy, lymphatic.' Mr.
+Froude could not see any difference between his countrymen at home and
+those who had settled down in this new and wider field of industry. 'The
+leaves that grow on one branch of an oak are not more like the leaves
+that grow upon another, than the Australian swarm is like the hive it
+sprung from.' Mr. Service, the Prime Minister of Victoria, fully shares
+the English predilections of his fellow colonists, but he appears to
+feel some irritation at the tone so frequently adopted by the Liberal
+press and party in this country, and emphatically urged in their day by
+Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright. This tone is founded upon the argument, 'The
+Colonies are of no use to us; therefore the sooner they take themselves
+off the better.' If some leaders and members of the Liberal party had
+their way, we should be without a colony in the world, without India,
+and with Ireland close to our own doors a hostile and an independent
+Foreign Power.
+
+With regard to India it is to Baron Huebner's records of a very
+remarkable journey, that we must turn for the notes of the most recent
+traveller. The work is not so exhaustive, especially as regards the
+Native States, as M. Rousselet's 'L'Inde des Rajahs,' but it is
+eminently readable and lively, and the author gives abundant evidence,
+that he took with him everywhere an earnest desire to arrive at the
+truth, and a determination to form his conclusions with strict
+impartiality. It is evident that in India he soon began to feel the
+influence of that peculiar spell which the country exercises over most
+persons of a susceptible or imaginative temperament. 'India,' he says,
+'has always fascinated me, 'and few who have travelled there will not be
+ready to make the same confession. It is much to be hoped that the
+Radicals will be induced to listen to Baron Huebner's testimony
+concerning the way in which we carry on government in our great Eastern
+dependency. Nowhere, strange as it may appear, but in our own country is
+English rule misunderstood or misrepresented. Injustice is
+systematically done to the purest, most conscientious, and most
+industrious Civil Service in the whole world; and our countrymen who are
+spending the best part of their lives in the effort to promote the
+welfare and prosperity of India, are too often held up to opprobrium as
+examples of merciless tyrants, whose only object is to grind down the
+natives into the dust. We seem to be losing many of the characteristics
+which formerly distinguished us in the world, but there is one which
+marks us out very plainly from all other nations--the habit of
+disparaging our own achievements and vilifying our own reputation. We do
+not find the Germans pertinaciously seeking to bring into disrepute the
+efforts now being made to extend their colonial possessions; the
+Americans have a motto, upon which they invariably act: 'our
+country--right or wrong.' This may be carrying a good principle a little
+too far; but it is better than the course we pursue, of striving with
+might and main to dishonour our past, and to place our country in the
+most contemptible light before the rest of mankind. Instead of our
+having any reason to be ashamed of what we have done in and for India,
+we have every cause to be proud of it; and, if English people had an
+adequate knowledge of that work, and were in a position to exercise
+their common-sense on the question, untrammelled by agitators and
+demagogues, they would acknowledge gladly that they were heartily proud
+of it. We believe that the great body of Englishmen in India are
+honestly endeavouring to do their duty, according to the measure of
+their abilities, and that, if any event occurred to cause our removal
+from the country, it would inflict the direst forms of suffering and
+calamity upon the people. It is important to hear what a foreigner, not
+unduly prejudiced in our favour, has to say upon these points. First,
+then, in reference to the men who are engaged in the practical work of
+government--the Civil Service--Baron Huebner says:--
+
+     'I have met everywhere men devoted to their service, working
+     from morning till evening, and finding time, notwithstanding
+     the mutiplicity of their daily labours, to occupy themselves
+     with literature and serious studies. India is governed
+     bureaucratically, but this bureaucracy differs in more than
+     one respect from ours in Europe. To the public servant in
+     Europe one day is like another; some great revolution, some
+     European war, is needed to disturb the placid monotony of
+     his existence. In India it is not so. The variety of his
+     duties enlarges and fashions the mind of the Anglo-Indian
+     official; and the dangers to which he is occasionally
+     exposed serve to strengthen and give energy to his
+     character. He learns to take large views and to work at his
+     desk while the ground is trembling beneath his feet. I do
+     not think I am guilty of exaggeration in declaring that
+     there is not a bureaucracy in the world better educated,
+     better trained to business, more thoroughly stamped with the
+     qualities which make a statesman; and, what none will
+     dispute, more pure and upright than that which administers
+     the government of India.'
+
+Of late years, as everybody is aware, a demand has sprung up for 'local
+self-government' in India--a demand not originating with natives
+themselves, but with the sentimentalists and philosophers who are doing
+their best and their worst to take all the manliness out of the English
+character. Lord Ripon was the mechanical mouthpiece of this sect, and
+there can be no doubt whatever that no Governor-General or Viceroy of
+India ever did so much harm in so short space of time. He and his school
+tried their utmost to persuade the natives that what they want is 'Home
+Rule'--that panacea for all the evils of modern life which is likely to
+entail so many new burdens and trials upon us. The natives of India
+never suspected, until Lord Ripon strove to impress it upon them, that
+Home Rule is indispensable to their happiness. They are perfectly well
+aware that if our hold upon the country is ever relaxed, there will be
+nothing but chaos all through the land,--internecine wars, rebellions,
+and massacres, such as marked the history of India until our rule became
+well established there. Lord Ripon closed his eyes to all
+this--_doctrinaire_ at heart, he could see nothing but his own
+crotchets. The native, he declared, must have local self-government. But
+Baron Huebner found that the people did not understand or desire this
+much vaunted contrivance. The native, he says, 'refuses to be elected by
+his equals. He wishes to be chosen by his superiors, and his superiors
+are the English officials, represented in this case by the district
+officer or magistrate. In the North-Western Provinces, this opposition
+was so strong that the Supreme Government have been obliged, much
+against their own views, to give to the Governor of those Provinces the
+power of constituting the municipalities.' The sentimentalists may try
+to develop the 'native mind' as they please, but they will never
+persuade Hindoos or Mussulmans to trust their own countrymen as they
+trust us. We have a reputation among them for fairness and for justice
+which no native would ever aim to deserve, although he is not incapable
+of understanding and admiring it. An East Indian of any race or religion
+will never speak the truth if he can possibly help himself, but he has a
+certain respect for the man who can and does. No doubt, the very
+earnestness, with which we seek to dispense equal justice among all
+classes, is a stumbling-block in our path, and always has been so. The
+native likes to deal with a judge who will wink at perjury, and who is
+not above taking a bribe. Yet the Englishman is everywhere trusted. 'If
+proof were needed,' says Baron Huebner, 'to show how deeply rooted among
+the populations is English prestige, I would quote the fact that
+throughout the peninsula the native prefers, in civil and still more in
+criminal cases, to be tried by an English judge. It would be
+impossible, I think, to render a more flattering testimony to British
+rule.' But these are facts which had no signification for Lord Ripon. He
+pursued a policy which, designedly or undesignedly, was calculated to
+bring our rule to an end. 'Lord Ripon's resolution,' some one told
+Baron Huebner, 'means nothing or means this: The Government foresees that
+the time will come when we must leave India to herself.' Then there was
+the Ilbert Bill, placing Europeans in the country districts under the
+jurisdiction of native judges. How could the natives of all classes fail
+to look upon this as another evidence that the reins of power were
+dropping from our nerveless hands? The point of the whole matter was
+thus put by one of the civilians to Baron Huebner:--'The principle, that
+the jurisdiction over European subjects of the Crown must be reserved
+for judges and magistrates who are also European subjects, has always
+been maintained. And it has always been recognized that in this
+principle lies the only possible effectual guarantee to Europeans living
+in country districts against the perjury and false witness so common
+among the rural populations.' The Ilbert Bill proposed to take away
+these safeguards from the European, and would have left him at the mercy
+of native judges and native witnesses, whose only idea of justice is to
+make a few rupees out of its administration.
+
+The school of Radicals represented only too numerously in the present
+Parliament--unreasoning, ignorant of India, impulsive, narrow and
+insular--is also represented among the more recent importations of
+'competition wallahs.' Baron Huebner met with many of them. 'In their
+opinion,' he says, 'the ideal of a sound English policy is the
+dismemberment of the British Empire, and above all the abandonment of
+India. To save England, it is necessary first to destroy her.' To the
+shrewd and experienced Austrian diplomatist, these ideas seem to be
+absolutely ruinous, but the oddity of it is that thousands of persons in
+England cling to them with a sort of idolatry, as if within them was
+compressed the sum and substance of human wisdom. The Radical party
+to-day lives upon these theories of dismemberment, although it is
+careful to keep its ultimate aim as much as possible in the background.
+In India, its adherents are doing an immense amount of harm. Baron
+Huebner seems to have been struck with amazement at the phenomenon. 'This
+is, indeed,' he exclaims, 'a curious and perhaps a unique spectacle--an
+immense administration, managed according to doctrines which are
+repudiated by the large majority of those who compose it.' The natives
+who are educated in our schools and colleges emerge from them filled
+with ideas of Socialism and Atheism. We break down their faith in their
+own creeds, without succeeding in inducing them to adopt Christianity.
+They find themselves free to construct a religion of their own, or to do
+without any religion. As regards the Government, they are led to
+believe that it ought not to be where it is, and that India should be
+ruled by its own people. The native press is full of sedition. Let us
+hear what Baron Huebner has to say upon this subject, for it is worth
+attention:--
+
+     'Is there any public opinion in India? It is declared that
+     there is none. And yet people agree in saying that the
+     natives who have been educated in the State colleges have
+     become singularly importunate of late years, that they are
+     beginning to adopt a high tone, and that they take especial
+     delight in criticising the acts of the Government, who,
+     unwisely, as it seems to me, encourage if not provoke such
+     criticism. These baboos and their newspapers, I am told,
+     would only become dangerous at a crisis; and by a crisis is
+     understood a disastrous European war. But the life of
+     nations, like that of individuals, is nothing but a series
+     of successes and reverses. Looked at from this point of
+     view, the baboo is not such an insignificant being as he
+     appears to be considered.'
+
+No doubt our Radicals would contend that the Austrian's notion, that it
+is unwise on the part of the Government to encourage criticism directed
+against itself, is worthy of a man who has seen the Napoleonic _regime_,
+and who perhaps admires the 'one man' form of government. But what is
+the English Radical party itself living under now? Was ever the 'one man
+form of government' carried out in so relentless a fashion as we see it
+now in Parliament? Is there not one man in the Government, surrounded by
+a crowd of nonentities--the one man filling the exact position for which
+the Americans have invented the significant word 'Boss'? All liberty of
+thought or freedom of action is gone. The principle insisted upon is 'do
+whatever our leader tells us; go where he leads; give what he asks--all
+without murmuring or discontent. The man who murmurs must be drummed out
+of the ranks.' If we saw the French submitting to this system, no words
+that we could use would be strong enough to express our contempt for
+them. As we happen to be doing it ourselves, it must, of course, be good
+and wise. Granted that it is so, we may fairly ask even the Radicals
+whether they are quite sure that it is wise to think of giving up India?
+With what do they propose to replace our government? The testimony of
+every fair-minded man is that we have accomplished an incalculable
+amount of excellent work there. Our magnificent highways and railroads,
+our appliances for irrigation, would alone make our name immortal in the
+country. The people thrive under our rule; every man is secure in the
+possession of his property; war no longer devastates the country. We
+recommend everybody who is unaware of these and similar facts to
+consider well the evidence adduced by Baron Huebner:--
+
+     'Materially speaking, India has never been as prosperous as
+     she is now. The appearance of the natives, for the most part
+     well clothed, and of their villages and well-furnished
+     cottages, and of their well-cultivated fields, seems to
+     prove this. In their bearing there is nothing servile; in
+     their behaviour towards their English masters there is a
+     certain freedom of manner, and a general air of
+     self-respect; nothing of that abject deference which strikes
+     and shocks new comers in other Eastern countries. I have no
+     means of comparing the natives of to-day with the natives of
+     former generations, but I have been able to compare the
+     populations who owe direct allegiance to the Empress with
+     the subjects of the feudatory princes. For example, when you
+     cross the frontier of Hyderabad, the climate, the soil, the
+     race, are the same as those you have just quitted, but the
+     difference between the two States is remarkable, and
+     altogether to the advantage of the Presidency of Madras or
+     of Bombay.'
+
+He goes on to say, that no one can deny that the British India of to-day
+presents a spectacle that has no parallel in the history of the world:
+
+     'What do we see? Instead of periodical, if not permanent,
+     wars, profound peace firmly established throughout the whole
+     Empire; instead of the exactions of chiefs always greedy for
+     gold, and not shrinking from any act of cruelty to extort
+     it, moderate taxes, much lower than those imposed by the
+     feudatory princes; arbitrary rule replaced by even-handed
+     justice; the tribunals, once proverbially corrupt, by
+     upright judges whose example is already beginning to make
+     its influence felt on native morality and notions of right;
+     no more Pindarris, no more armed bands of thieves; perfect
+     security in the cities as well as in the country districts,
+     and on all the roads; the former bloodthirsty manners and
+     customs now softened, and, save for certain restrictions
+     imposed in the interests of public morality, a scrupulous
+     regard for religious worship, and traditional usages and
+     customs; materially, an unexampled bound of prosperity, and
+     even the disastrous effects of the periodical famines, which
+     afflict certain parts of the peninsula, more and more
+     diminished by the extension of railways which facilitate the
+     work of relief. And what has wrought all these miracles? The
+     wisdom and the courage of a few directing statesmen, the
+     bravery and the discipline of an army composed of a small
+     number of Englishmen and a large number of natives, led by
+     heroes; and lastly, and I will venture to say principally,
+     the devotion, the intelligence, the courage, the
+     perseverance, and the skill, combined with an integrity
+     proof against all temptation, of a handful of officials and
+     magistrates who govern and administer the Indian Empire.'
+
+Such is the testimony of an Austrian. It ought to bring a flush of shame
+to the faces of not a few Englishmen.
+
+We have scarcely alluded to the lighter parts of Baron Huebner's
+volumes--to the excellent touches of description or sketches of
+character which enliven his pages, or to the numerous pleasantly-told
+anecdotes of personal adventure. One of these anecdotes is worth
+repeating, though the author must pardon us if we tell it in our own
+way. It is too characteristic of life in New York--too full of valuable
+hints for future travellers--to be lost sight of.
+
+It appears that on his last morning in New York, the Baron found that
+his note-book had been taken from his room in the hotel. His servant and
+his baggage had already gone on to the steamer, and the Baron prepared
+to follow. First, however, as he still had two hours to spare, he
+thought he would take a final glimpse of Fifth Avenue. These are the
+little accidents which generally decide our fate in life--the visit to
+some friend, the call on a stranger, the unpremeditated walk. As the
+Baron was passing along, a carriage suddenly stopped, a
+'fashionably-dressed gentleman' jumped out, and ran up to the traveller
+with a cordial salutation. He introduced himself as a guest who had
+dined, with the Baron, at a dinner given by Lord Augustus Loftus in
+Sydney. 'I am one of the admirers,' he said, 'of your "Promenade autour
+du Monde," and I venture to ask you to do me the favour of writing your
+name in my copy of that book. In return, pray accept a volume of
+Longfellow's poems, with the author's autograph.' The fashionable
+stranger had skilfully touched the weak place in an author's heart.
+Baron Huebner consented to be driven back to his hotel, where his new
+friend was also residing. On the way, the stranger suddenly bethought
+himself that the two books were at the house of an acquaintance, 'two
+steps from the hotel.' He put his head out of the window, gave some
+fresh directions to the coachman, and the Baron soon found himself being
+whirled along at a furious rate along streets which he did not
+recognize. Still, the old traveller had no suspicion of anything wrong.
+His voyages and adventures certainly seem to have left him in a more
+than ordinarily unsophisticated condition. At last the carriage stopped,
+our author was conducted into the dark passage of a small house, and
+then into a little dirty room, where he found a tall man seated before a
+table, with his back to a mirror. In that mirror, the Baron saw his dear
+friend from Sydney gently lock the door, and put the key in his pocket.
+Then he understood all about it.
+
+Of course the tall man was polite, and after promising to go and fetch
+the volume of Longfellow, he proposed to the gentleman from Sydney a
+game at cards. While the two men played their sham game, the Baron had
+time to reflect; he saw that he had been pounced upon very skilfully--in
+less than two hours the 'Bothnia' would sail, all the people at the
+hotel would think he had gone by her, no one would miss him, no one
+would search for him. He might be murdered with impunity--with what
+impunity the Baron would have fully realized if he had known a little
+more of New York. No city in the world presents greater facilities for
+getting rid of the evidences of foul play. We have not seen the recent
+statistics of murders in New York, and doubt whether they have been
+published; but in the five years between 1870 and 1875, we happen to
+know that 281 'homicides' were committed there, and that only seven of
+the murderers were hanged. Twenty-four were sent to prison--nominally
+for life, although that is a mere form--and more than one-fourth of the
+criminals were never brought to trial at all. If Baron Huebner had known
+all this, he would have regarded his two new acquaintances with even
+greater interest than he did.
+
+How and why they let him go scot-free is to us a mystery. They invited
+him to take a hand in the game, and he declined. They pretended to play
+for him; won, and offered him the stakes. He told them he had no money
+with him, that they would get nothing for their trouble, that the French
+Consul was to meet him on board the 'Bothnia' to bid him adieu; if he
+were not there a hue and cry at once would be raised. 'Then,' adds the
+Baron, 'turning to my friend from Sydney, I said to him, "Open the
+door." The ruffians gave in without further trouble. There was an
+exchange of looks between them, and the tall man said to the other,
+'show him out.' We have heard of many strange things happening in New
+York, but never of one so strange as that.' When I stepped upon the deck
+of the "Bothnia," says the Baron, 'a few minutes before departure, I
+felt that I had had a narrow escape.' Very narrow; we should advise
+Baron Huebner, if ever again he finds himself in New York, not to tempt
+his good fortune by taking a drive with strangers who admire his
+writings.
+
+For the novel and stirring incidents of travel, we must turn to Mr.
+Romilly's narrative of his experiences in the Western Pacific. He
+transports us to a comparatively little known region, and it was his
+good or ill fortune to come into contact with phases of life which must,
+it is to be hoped, for ever remain unknown to most of us. Few living
+men, for instance, have been present at a great feast on human flesh,
+cannibalism being one of the habits of savage life which is found to
+yield at the first touch of civilization. In New Ireland, however, Mr.
+Romilly happened to be present at a sort of state banquet, given in
+honour of a victory over the enemy. The enemy himself supplied the
+materials of the repast. The details of the preparation of the horrible
+food may be read in Mr. Romilly's pages by all who have a curiosity on
+the subject. Some few particulars concerning a compound called 'Sak-sak'
+may here be given:--
+
+     'They, [the heads of the victims] were then disposed of in
+     various ways, and when I asked what would be done with them,
+     I was told, "They will go to improve the sak-sak." The
+     natives on the East coast of New Ireland prepare a very
+     excellent composition of sago and cocoa-nut, called sak-sak.
+     I used to buy a supply of this every morning, as it would
+     not keep, for my men. Now it appeared that for the next week
+     or so, a third ingredient would be added to the sak-sak,
+     namely, brains. I need hardly say that for the next two days
+     of my stay I did not taste sak-sak, though my men made no
+     secret of doing so. The flesh in the ovens had to be cooked
+     for three days, or until the tough leaves in which it was
+     wrapped were nearly consumed. When taken out of the ovens
+     the method of eating it is as follows. The head of the eater
+     is thrown back, somewhat after the fashion of an Italian
+     eating macaroni. The leaf is opened at one end, and the
+     contents are pressed into the mouth until they are finished.
+     As Bill, my interpreter put it, "they cookum that fellow
+     three day; by-and-by cookum finish, that fellow all same
+     grease." For days afterwards, when everything is finished,
+     they abstain from washing, lest the memory of the feast
+     should be too fleeting.'
+
+Mr. Romilly was informed by the natives that human flesh tastes even
+better than pork. One is satisfied to take their word for it. In the New
+Hebrides it appears that the people prefer to eat it dried, or 'jerked.'
+At present, we are told,
+
+     'the cannibals in the world may be numbered by millions.
+     Probably a third of the natives of the country where I am
+     now writing (New Guinea) are cannibals; so are about
+     two-thirds of the occupants of the New Hebrides, and the
+     same proportion of the Solomon Islanders. All the natives of
+     the Santa Cruz group, Admiralties, Hermits, Louisiade,
+     Engineer, D'Entrecasteaux groups are cannibals, and even
+     some well-authenticated cases have occurred among the "black
+     fellows" of Northern Australia. I do not know that the fact
+     of a native being a cannibal makes him a greater savage.
+     Some of the most treacherous savages on this coast are
+     undoubtedly not cannibals, while most of the Louisiade
+     cannibals are a mild-tempered, pleasant set of men.'
+
+This testimony can do no harm in England, but it is to be hoped that Mr.
+Romilly will not repeat it too often among his black friends, or the
+moral of it might be misunderstood.
+
+The Solomon Islands still form a part of the world of which very little
+is known. They are rarely visited, and travellers who have gone for the
+purpose of 'taking notes,' have either altered their minds in good
+season, or never returned. Some years ago, Mr. Benjamin Boyd, a member
+of the Royal Yacht Squadron went out in his yacht, the 'Wanderer,' and
+was captured by the natives. Search was made for him from time to time,
+and his initials were found carved on trees. A notice was placed on all
+the goods sent to the natives to this effect: 'B. B., we are looking for
+you'--but no tidings were ever heard of the missing man. Mr. Romilly was
+told by the captain of a labour schooner that somewhere on the south
+coast he had noticed a European skull in a sort of temple; he recognized
+it as European from its size, and he also observed that one of the teeth
+was stopped with gold. We take it for granted that the dentists among
+the Solomon Islanders do not use gold for filling teeth. This, then, was
+probably the skull of the hapless owner of the 'Wanderer.' The Solomon
+Islanders now make a practice of killing white men, if it can be done
+safely, in revenge for the way in which they have been 'kidnapped' for
+the labour traffic. The diseases introduced by their treacherous white
+friends have made terrible ravages among them, and their own habits tend
+still further to reduce their numbers. There are several places,' says
+Mr. Romilly, 'where it is the custom to kill all, or nearly all, of the
+children soon after they are born.' This is the only region we ever
+heard of where so frightful and unnatural a custom exists. Female
+children are, or used to be, destroyed in many countries; but the
+indiscriminate slaughter of all children is decidedly uncommon. These
+islanders have another device which is supported by an argument not
+entirely devoid of strength. 'In a battle the victorious party, if they
+can surprise their enemies sufficiently to admit of a wholesale
+massacre, kill not only the men, but also the women and children. "We
+should be fools," say they, "if we did not. This must be revenged some
+day, if there are any men to do it; but how can they get men if we kill
+the women and children?"' The same thought has doubtless occurred to
+modern conquerors elsewhere, though, happily, circumstances have not
+enabled them to carry it into practical effect. Some other curious
+details respecting this group of islands, are given by Mr. Romilly. The
+old women it appears, become adepts in the occult sciences, and the men
+occasionally find the trade of wizard lucrative. They are chiefly called
+upon to bring about a change in the weather, and their plan of
+operations is to gain time. It resembles, in some striking features, the
+method adopted by the 'inspired statesman' of our own latitudes when he
+is trying to feel his way towards the development of some scheme which
+he is half afraid of himself, and which the public view with profound
+suspicion. Surely the most of us could find a counterpart to the
+individual described in the following passage:--
+
+     'One old sorcerer of my acquaintance was a most interesting
+     study. If he was asked for fine weather (which, by the way,
+     in the Solomons is the usual request, the rainfall being
+     enormous), he used to temporize in a truly masterly manner.
+     First he would hold out for more payment. This policy he
+     could continue for an indefinite length of time, as he would
+     of course require payment in a form which he knew was
+     difficult or impossible for the natives to comply with.
+     Then, if he thought there was any likelihood of fine weather
+     for a day or two, he would become possessed of a devil which
+     would leave him at once if the sun made its appearance, but
+     if the bad weather lasted the devil would last too; and
+     finally, if the bad weather was very obstinate and would not
+     come, he would hold out again for more payment. In this
+     manner my old sorcerer was very seldom mistaken in his
+     forecasts, and the influence he exerted over the clerk of
+     the weather must have been very irksome to that functionary.
+
+This leader of his tribe, we are further informed, had a 'great hold
+over the imagination of his dupes.' We are more civilized--or _we_ think
+so--than the islanders of the Western Pacific; but human nature is
+pretty much the same there as here. As for the philosophy of such
+matters, it is thus summed up by Mr. Romilly: 'I have often wondered
+what the sorcerer thinks of himself; whether he really believes himself
+to be a magician, or whether he realizes the fact that he is an arrant
+old humbug. I think there is a mixture of both feelings.' It would be
+useless to pursue this enquiry any further.
+
+Another of the unexplored islands of these seas forms a part of the
+Admiralty group, and is called Jesus Maria. It was visited by the
+'Challenger' in 1875, and again by Mr. Romilly on two occasions, the
+last in 1881, in H.M.S. 'Beagle.' The natives, a fierce and warlike
+race, crowded round the vessel, eager to sell everything they had
+including their babies. Bottles and hoop-iron were eagerly sought for.
+While engaged in carrying on this simple traffic, the party on board
+noticed, to their amazement a white man on shore who fired off a gun to
+attract their attention. The next day a boat rowed to the beach, and
+there stood the white man. He proved to be a Scotchman named David Dow,
+who was collecting _beche de mer_, and found his trade prospects so good
+that he desired to remain where he was. The Admiralty Islanders have
+some 'very singular customs,' not to be met with anywhere else; but
+after thus piquing our curiosity, Mr. Romilly ruthlessly balks it by
+remarking 'that they are, unfortunately, of a nature which cannot be
+described here.' We share his regret upon his being obliged to keep the
+secret; for when a traveller has found out anything absolutely fresh and
+startling, common humanity should, in these dull and overcast times,
+induce him to disclose it. But no doubt Mr. Romilly has his reasons for
+silence, and we must submit to them. The Germans have recently hoisted
+their flag upon several of these islands, and we may trust them to tell
+all that they can find out, and more.
+
+In the Laughlan islands--a small group--the Germans are also to be
+found. Indeed, they are spreading rapidly, over the Pacific Isles. As
+the spirit of adventure is dying out among Englishmen, it appears to be
+increasing in other nations. The genius for colonization appears to have
+fled from us to Germany. Certain it is that Germans are everywhere
+displaying that daring and enterprise in which we once shone above all
+other people in the world. They will probably end by becoming masters of
+the larger part of the Western Pacific. As for the Laughlan Islands, it
+cannot be said that any one whose lot takes him there need be regarded
+as an object of pity. The climate is good; food is abundant; life is
+tolerably easy. True, there are no newspapers and no Parliament; but
+existence has often been found supportable in the absence of these
+things. The natives are friendly; and there are no animals anywhere, not
+even rats. The men are decently clad, and the women wear a very
+voluminous kilt, sometimes two or three of them, over each other. These
+garments are made of grass, leaves, or fibre, stained various colours.
+'In wearing two or three, care is taken to produce an aesthetic mixture
+of colours--a little vanity which is met with sometimes at home amongst
+ladies who like to display petticoats of many colours. It is considered
+just as essential here to walk well as it is at home, but the two styles
+are not quite the same. The Laughlan lady, in walking, at each step
+gives a little twist to the hips, which has the effect of making the
+kilts fly out right and left, in what is considered a highly fashionable
+and beautiful manner. Though a somewhat similar effect to this may, I am
+informed, occasionally be seen in petticoats at home, still I fear that
+the firm stride of the Laughlan lady could hardly be reproduced in
+English boots. To see ten or twelve of these ladies walking in the
+unsociable formation of single file, which they adopt, with their
+many-coloured kilts flying out on either side, is a very pretty sight.'
+Evidently, a judicious traveller and observer might do worse than take a
+tour to the Laughlans.
+
+Two other interesting spots to visit are Thursday Island and Norfolk
+Island, both British possessions, and the first a place of some
+importance, as the centre of the Torres Straits pearl-shell fishery.
+This trade has demoralized the natives, who now seem to spend a great
+part of their time in getting drunk, the Europeans too often setting the
+example, 'It is a common thing,' says Mr. Romilly, 'for a diver to go
+down three-parts drunk. The dress is supposed to have a very sobering
+effect.' Here is a little story which will produce a pang of regret in
+the minds of the jewellers of Bond Street:--
+
+     'The best pearl I ever saw was in the possession of a
+     celebrated diver who was a shipmate of mine from Thursday
+     Island to Brisbane. He was offered on board the ship two
+     hundred pounds for it, which could not have been a third of
+     its value. But he refused every offer, as he had just been
+     paid off, and had plenty of money. I felt sure it would go
+     the way of all pearls when his money was finished, and
+     accordingly I informed a Sydney jeweller of it, and where he
+     could see it. When I was in Sydney a few weeks later I made
+     inquiries about it, and the jeweller told me that it was the
+     finest pear-shaped pearl he had ever seen, but that it was
+     unsaleable at its proper value in Australia, and he had
+     therefore made no attempt to buy it.'
+
+But the pearl fishery on these coasts is becoming less lucrative every
+year, and it is now falling almost entirely into the hands of natives,
+who can stay under water longer than men of our own race, and seem to be
+endowed with greater powers of endurance. As for the 'labour trade' of
+which we all have heard so much, Mr. Romilly gives us to understand that
+it is dying out. It arose under the stimulus which the American war gave
+to cotton growing, and to the sudden necessity for procuring assistance
+for the planters. At first, the natives were found ready enough to
+volunteer for the service, but the treatment they received was not
+calculated to encourage the spirit of volunteering. Then all sorts of
+artifices were tried to deceive them. Sometimes the labour-hunters
+pretended to be missionaries. 'On the usual question being asked, "Where
+shippy come?" they would reply, "Missionary." Perhaps they would all
+pretend to sing a hymn very slowly, while the hatches would be left
+open, and several tins of biscuits would be put into the hold.'
+Curiosity would gradually draw the natives aboard, and then the hatches
+would be clapped on, and the man-stealers made off for Queensland or
+Fiji. It is to be hoped that Mr. Romilly is right in stating that these
+practices have ceased, but unless we are mistaken, accounts have
+appeared in colonial journals, within a very recent period, of organized
+raids upon these coasts for the purpose of carrying off the natives. It
+is needless to say, that a sentiment of hostility to all white men is
+likely to remain as the permanent result of this abominable system.
+
+The fact is, that the white men who had the run of these islands down to
+a few years ago were chiefly the off-scourings of other countries. They
+found among the savages far fewer vices than they brought with them from
+the civilized world. Some of them had run away to escape from the
+vengeance of the laws which they had outraged; others were attracted by
+the freedom which an entirely new life opened up to them. From them have
+sprung a brood of half-castes who are the curse of the islands--like
+many other half-castes, they manage to combine the evil qualities of
+both races. The chief traders along the Pacific are now becoming much
+more respectable. Some of them, indeed, appear to emulate the style and
+condition of the prosperous English merchant. Mr. Romilly knows such a
+man, living 'within a day's march' of the wildest cannibals in the
+Pacific, who keeps up an establishment of forty or fifty men, with a
+French _chef_. 'In a hitherto almost unknown island, he will give you a
+dinner, every night, which could not be equalled at any private house or
+club in Australia.' He keeps a yacht for private exploring expeditions,
+and is to-day the principal 'trader and pioneer in the Pacific.' A
+narrative of his observations and experiences would be of very unusual
+interest, but like the Russian settler before referred to, he reserves
+for his own benefit the knowledge he has acquired. The Germans are
+pushing us hard, and in many respects they are better fitted for their
+work than English traders. There seems a fair prospect of a gradual
+elevation of social as well as of commercial life throughout the
+Pacific. Already, lawlessness is discouraged. Not so very many years
+ago, piracy was carried on openly in these seas. Mr. Romilly gives a
+very interesting and curious account of one of the last pirates, a
+desperado known as 'Bully Hayes,' once a boatman on the Mississippi.
+This man began life by robbing his father, and soon afterwards made his
+appearance on the Pacific coast the proud proprietor of a fifty-ton
+schooner. 'How he had obtained possession of this schooner,' says Mr.
+Romilly, 'was a matter of surmise, but he had been seen at Singapore not
+long before this time, and a fifty-ton schooner had mysteriously
+disappeared from that port without the knowledge of her captain and
+owner.' He carried on a bold career of plunder for many years, and only
+came to grief at last by an accident which he could not have foreseen.
+He had stolen another vessel, and was making for some of his favourite
+haunts along the coast, when the cook, who was steering, happened to
+give him some offence. At that time, Hayes was accustomed to settle all
+disputes off-handed with his revolver, and in accordance with this plan
+he ran below to get his 'shooting irons.' Mr. Romilly thus relates the
+sequel:--
+
+     'The cook objected, and, catching up the first piece of wood
+     he saw, got on to the top of the little deck-house over the
+     ladder, and, the moment Hayes showed his head above deck,
+     gave him a blow which killed him on the spot. This cook
+     seems to have been some what doubtful as to whether Hayes
+     was even now dead, so he fetched the largest anchor the
+     cutter possessed, and bound the body to it, after which he
+     hove anchor and body overboard, remarking, "For sure Massa
+     Hayes dead this time."'
+
+Mr. Romilly, in the course of his wanderings, made a journey to New
+Guinea, a portion of which has now been placed under British protection.
+Little is known of the resources of this country, trading operations
+having hitherto been almost entirely confined to the south coast. Mr.
+Romilly's visit was brief, and he was not enabled to add much to our
+previous stock of information. He does not seem to be aware of the
+progress which the Germans are making in this island, or of the results
+of the energetic support which Prince Bismarck invariably extends to his
+adventurous countrymen.
+
+Here, then, are three works which ought to have the effect of reviving
+the interest of the English people in their possessions abroad, if they
+have not sunk into a hopeless state of indifference and apathy on the
+subject. We do not for a moment believe that the working men are
+indifferent to the present and future welfare of our Colonies, but they
+need to be instructed as to the true value of their great inheritance,
+and therefore it is that we earnestly wish such books as these could be
+made readily accessible to them. It would be difficult to exaggerate the
+importance of convincing them that it is our duty as a nation to hold
+fast to all that we have added, from time to time, to the dominions of
+the Crown. The foreign policy of the country, no less than the domestic
+policy, must henceforth be directed mainly in accordance with their
+opinions; and if those opinions are left to be influenced and guided by
+the hereditary dislike of the Colonies which infects all Radicalism, our
+position in the world will soon be reduced to one of comparative
+insignificance. Baron Huebner concludes his volumes with these words:
+'Had I to sum up the impressions derived from my travels, I should say,
+"British rule is firmly seated in India; England has only one enemy to
+fear--herself."' That is the whole truth of the matter. We have to fear
+our own party divisions, the want of true public spirit among too many
+of our 'politicians,' the tendency of Radical leaders to teach the
+doctrine that England ought to shut herself within her own island
+boundaries, and cast off all outside responsibilities. Sentiments of
+this kind may be, and are, loudly cheered in the House of Commons, but
+very few Liberals are daring enough to advocate them in the country.
+Lancashire knows how valuable India is to her, and the manufacturing
+districts generally see the growing importance to them, merely from a
+commercial point of view, of the Australian Colonies. The anti-Colonial
+policy is growing less and less popular among the people. To discredit
+it altogether, it is only necessary to distribute, far and wide among
+the working men, facts and considerations of the kind furnished in the
+works to which we have endeavoured to call attention.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] See Mr. Lecky's 'History of England in the Eighteenth Century,'
+vol. ii, p. 443, &c.
+
+
+
+
+ART. VII.--_The Apostolic Fathers: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp._ Revised
+Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. By J.
+B. Lightfoot, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Bishop of Durham. London, 1885. 2
+vols.
+
+
+This a great book, dealing principally with a great subject--the
+'Ignatian Epistles.' The two volumes contain altogether 1849 Pages, 1311
+being devoted to St. Ignatius, the remainder to St. Polycarp. It is no
+exaggeration to say that they are full of the most valuable information,
+dealing with matters of vital ecclesiastical importance, the whole
+presented in the most lucid style, and marked by broad, strong,
+scholarship. They are the result of 'a keen interest in the Ignatian
+controversy conceived long ago' by the Bishop of Durham. 'The subject
+has been before me,' he writes in his Preface, 'for nearly thirty years,
+and during this period it has engaged my attention off and on in the
+intervals of other literary pursuits and official duties.' The
+conception, execution, and production of the work had therefore been
+protracted. The volumes as they are issued to-day are not in the form
+they were originally written. Thus, the 'Appendix Ignatiana' was in type
+several years before the commentary on the genuine Epistles of Ignatius,
+and the Introduction and texts of the 'Ignatian Acts of Martyrdom'
+passed through the press in 1878. In 1879 Cambridge and London
+surrendered their great teacher to Durham; and there in the intervals,
+few enough, snatched from official duties, the first volume has been
+written, and from thence sent forth. It is necessary to bear this in
+mind; because it will, on the one hand, explain absence of reference to
+some works published since 1878; and on the other hand it increases the
+value of the Bishop's results, when reached in entire independence of,
+and yet in entire accordance with, those of other scholars in the same
+field.
+
+This work testifies to the truth, that it is a mark of true greatness to
+be modest. The most superficial examination of these volumes exhibits a
+_Corpus Ignatianum_ superior to anything yet published. It is, says Dr.
+Harnack,[64] 'without exaggeration the most learned and careful
+Patristic monograph which has appeared in the nineteenth century.' It
+exhibits 'a diligence and knowledge of the subject which show that Dr.
+Lightfoot has made himself master of this department, and placed himself
+beyond the reach of any rival.... There is nothing in it that is not up
+to date, and the whole treatise forms a well-knit unity.' This is the
+willing testimony of one of the ablest of the scholars of Germany who
+have handled the great questions connected with Ignatius; the testimony,
+moreover, of one who, as we shall see presently, finds himself at
+variance with the Bishop upon two points, especially which, more than
+any other, materially affect the genuineness of the Epistles and their
+date. Such, however, is not the Bishop of Durham's thought. As he looks
+back upon the work to which he has consecrated the prime of his life, he
+speaks of it in language touching in its modesty--
+
+     'I have striven to make the materials for the text as
+     complete as I could.... Of the use which I have made of the
+     critical materials I must leave others to judge. Of the
+     introductions, exegetical notes, and dissertations, I need
+     say nothing, except that I have spared no pains to make them
+     adequate, so far as my knowledge and ability permitted. The
+     translations are intended not only to convey to English
+     readers the sense of the original, but also (where there was
+     any difficulty of construction) to serve as commentaries on
+     the Greek. My anxiety not to evade these difficulties forbad
+     me in many cases to indulge in a freedom which I should have
+     claimed, if a literary standard alone had been kept in
+     view.'
+
+He follows up such words by others, conveying his thanks to those who
+have helped him in his work, and the generosity of his recognition of
+their services does but enhance the reserveful simplicity with which he
+comments upon his own. The 'English reader' and the 'others' whose
+judgment he desires, will, at least in England, unite in rendering to
+him a respectful and grateful homage. The subject treated by the Bishop
+is in a very real sense an Englishman's subject. For three centuries
+English critics have not only entered the literary arena, in which the
+great historic and ecclesiastical questions connected with his subject
+have been discussed, but they have contributed largely to the materials,
+offensive and defensive, which the combatants have employed. Ussher,
+Pearson, Churton, and Cureton, have been English champions whose merits
+all have acknowledged. The Bishop of Durham has now entered the lists to
+support what has been proved sound in their conclusions, to remove what
+was weak, and do battle for the truth. An impartial English public will
+appreciate the gravity of this challenge, and may be trusted to grant or
+withhold the victory he puts forth his best powers to win.
+
+The volumes lend themselves by their construction to an easy statement
+of their contents, if those contents by their fulness must be of
+necessity the despair of critic and reviewer. First there is the life of
+the Saint, then the discussion of the manuscripts and versions which
+delineate the Saint and his literary remains. These are followed by
+exhaustive discussions upon all that tells for or against their
+genuineness, the whole being treated both historically and critically.
+Such will be found, briefly stated, the mode of discussing the life and
+works both of St. Ignatius of Antioch and of St. Polycarp of Smyrna; and
+two results will reward a patient persual of these volumes. The Bishop
+has indeed limited these results to the study of the Ignatian Epistles,
+but--under his guidance--the reader will find what is affirmed of one to
+be true of both:--
+
+     'The Ignatian Epistles are an exceptionally good
+     training-ground for the student of early Christian
+     literature and history. They present in typical and
+     instructive forms the most varied problems, textual,
+     exegetical, doctrinal, and historical. One who has
+     thoroughly grasped these problems will be placed in
+     possession of a master key which will open to him vast
+     storehouses of knowledge.
+
+     'But' (continues the Bishop) 'I need not say that their
+     educational value was not the motive which led me to spend
+     so much time over them. The destructive criticism of the
+     last half century is, I think, fast spending its force. In
+     its excessive ambition it has "o'erleapt itself." It has not
+     indeed been without its use. It has led to a thorough
+     examination and sifting of ancient documents. It has
+     exploded not a few errors, and discovered or established not
+     a few truths. For the rest, it has by its directness and
+     persistency stimulated investigation and thought on these
+     subjects to an extent which a less aggressive criticism
+     would have failed to secure. The immediate effect of the
+     attack has been to strew the vicinity of the fortress with
+     heaps of ruins. Some of these were best cleared away without
+     hesitation or regret; but in other cases the rebuilding is a
+     measure demanded by truth and prudence alike. I have been
+     reproached by my friends for allowing myself to be diverted
+     from the more congenial task of commenting on St. Paul's
+     Epistles; but the importance of the position seemed to me to
+     justify the expenditure of much time and labour in
+     "repairing a breach" not indeed in the "House of the Lord"
+     itself, but in the immediately outlying buildings.'
+
+St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp (together with St. Clement of Rome) are
+the links which connect the Apostolic age proper with the Fathers of the
+second and third centuries; and this fact has made them and their scanty
+literature the hope and despair, the pride and the scorn, of opposing
+factions. In the whirl and confusion of discordant criticisms it is
+everything to study and to build up by the help of one who has caught
+the spirit of the master-lives he expounds. There breathes throughout
+the volumes of the Bishop of Durham the spirit of St. Ignatius's
+counsel--
+
+     'Speak to each man severally after the manner of God. Bear
+     the maladies of all, as a perfect athlete. Where there is
+     much toil, there is much gain. If thou lovest good scholars,
+     this is not thankworthy in thee. Rather bring the more
+     pestilent to submission by gentleness.... The season
+     requireth thee, as pilots require winds, or as a
+     storm-tossed mariner a haven, that it may attain unto God.
+     Be sober, as God's athlete. The prize is incorruption and
+     life eternal, concerning which thou also art
+     persuaded.'--(Ep. of St. Ignatius to St. Polycarp, I, 2.)
+
+Ignatius of Antioch: Men of old loved to find in his name (or its
+Syriace quivalent, Nurono, [Greek: youra = phyr], _fire_) a prescience
+of the torch of divine love which blazed in him. The fancy may pass, if
+etymologically unsound; for Ignatius, 'the Inflamed,' was a true child
+of the fiery East. Contrast him and his letters with St. Clement of Rome
+and his Epistle to the Corinthians. Nothing is more notable in the Roman
+'than the calm equable temper,' the 'sweet reasonableness.' He is
+essentially a _moderator_. On the other hand, impetuosity, fire,
+strong-headedness, are impressed on every sentence in the Epistles of
+Ignatius. He is by his very nature an _impeller_ of men. Both are
+intense, though in different ways. In Clement, the intensity of
+moderation dominates and guides his conduct. In Ignatius it is the
+intensity of passion--passion for doing and suffering--which drives him
+onward. In Clement we listen to the voice of a judge delivering calmly
+his sentence from his throne; in Ignatius we
+
+     'are startled by the ringing cry of the trumpet-call--sharp,
+     stirring, penetrating--sounding for the battle. The fire of
+     the hot East bursts in, like a sun, strong and impassioned;
+     a vivid personality, in flame with love, flashes in upon
+     the world, quivering as a sword of the cherubim; a rhetoric
+     in which the rapid, electric thought breaks out of the
+     strained and formless chaos of the _imagination_, as
+     lightning out of the rolling and dark thunder-cloud; a
+     theology, which, by the intense passion of metaphor, forces
+     an almost violent entrance into the secrets of the Most
+     High; a morality which can carry forward into the heights of
+     holiness the madness of faith, the extravagance of zeal, the
+     recklessness of enthusiasm, the audacity of love, dragging
+     them into the service of Christ at the chariot-wheels of
+     God's triumph--such are the characteristics of Ignatius of
+     Antioch.'[65]
+
+The Roman name of Ignatius (or Egnatius) tells nothing as to his birth
+or origin. It was not unknown in Syria and Palestine, and was sometimes
+borne by Jews. But another and a second name--Theophorus--of regular
+recurrence in the seven genuine Epistles records at least his spiritual
+birth. Ignatius probably assumed the name of 'the God-bearer' at the
+time of his conversion or his baptism; the precedent lay before him of a
+Saul commemorating a critical incident in his career (Acts xiii. 9) by a
+similar adoption of a name; and that assumed by Ignatius became in its
+turn an epithet freely applied to the Fathers at the Oecumenical
+councils. The name gave birth to more than one beautiful legend. Was not
+Ignatius, according to the Eastern belief, the 'God-borne' [Greek:
+theophoros], the very child whom the Lord took into His arms (St. Mark
+ix. 36, 37)? Was he not the 'God-bearer' [Greek: theophoros] on the
+fragments of whose heart according to Western tradition, was found
+stamped in golden letters the name of Jesus Christ? Whether he were a
+slave or not must remain uncertain. It is a more probable deduction from
+his own language that he--the 'untimely birth,'[66]--the 'one born out
+of due time' and 'the last' of the faithful, had been rescued from a
+pagan life, such as Antioch on the Orontes, the home of panders and
+dancing girls, and 'Daphnici mores' would have applauded.
+
+     'His,' says Bishop Lightfoot, 'was one of those "broken"
+     natures out of which God's heroes are made. If not a
+     persecutor of Christ, if not a foe to Christ, as seems
+     probable, he had at least been for a considerable portion of
+     his life an alien from Christ. Like St. Paul, like
+     Augustine, like Francis Xavier, like Luther, like John
+     Bunyan, he could not forget that his had been a dislocated
+     life; and the memory of the catastrophe, which had shattered
+     his former self, filled him with awe and thanksgiving, and
+     fanned the fervour of his devotion to a white heat.
+
+There is no chronological inconsistency in supposing that Ignatius was a
+disciple of some Apostle, if nothing can be affirmed as to the date of
+his accession to the ministry or episcopate. On the supposition that he
+was martyred, as an old man, about A. D. 110, his birth may be placed
+about A. D. 40. When 25 years of age, or in A. D. 65, companionship
+would still have been opened to him with St. Peter and St. Paul; or, if
+his teacher were St. John, his conversion may be brought to A. D. 90,
+when he would be about 50 years of age. Confessedly all this is
+conjectural or traditional, as are also any details of episcopal
+administration.' A 'pitchy darkness' envelopes the life and work of
+Ignatius, till it is 'at length illumined by a vivid but transient flash
+of light.' The story of Ignatius begins and ends with the story of his
+death. 'If his martyrdom had not rescued him from obscurity, he would
+have remained like his predecessor Euodius, a mere name.' His martyrdom
+has made him a distinct and living personality, a true father of the
+Church, a teacher and example to all time.'
+
+Thrilling though the narrative of this martyrdom must ever be, the
+barest outline only can be given here. The Martyrologies, if they are to
+be set aside as not containing authentic history, will fascinate afresh
+the student who turns to them to find in the notes and discussions light
+cast upon many a critical and ecclesiastical problem. The genuine
+Epistles have furnished the Bishop with the materials of a sketch of
+terror which every one will read with the deepest interest.
+
+For some unknown reason the Church of Antioch was by God's will deprived
+of its venerable head; and with other 'convicts,' collected from the
+provinces to be
+
+    'Butcher'd to make a Roman holiday.'
+
+Ignatius was led Romeward. His journey lay along a route which in part
+had been traversed by Xerxes. The procession of the Persian, foremost
+among his myriads of men for beauty and stature, halting near Sardis to
+decorate a beautiful plane-tree with golden ornaments, and commit it to
+the custody of an 'immortal'[67] is in vivid contrast to the procession
+of 'criminals,' the Christian leader 'bound amidst ten leopards (or
+soldiers) who wax worse when kindly treated,' halting also at Sardis,
+his own decoration the 'bonds' which are to him 'spiritual pearls,' and
+at Smyrna, writing letters which shall make him immortal.[68] At Troas,
+like another St. Paul, he looked upon the shores of the Europe which was
+in later ages to rise up and call them blessed; and from thence he
+wrote how prepared, how eager he was to meet the 'fire, the sword, the
+wild beasts,' how to be 'near to the sword was to be near to God; to be
+encircled by wild beasts was to be encircled by God.' And then Rome at
+last!--among those who thirsted for his blood, among those whose very
+love he dreaded lest it should do him the injury of keeping him from
+martyrdom. Touching is the appeal he had sent before him to the Church
+'filled with the grace of God without wavering and filtered clear from
+every foreign stain':--
+
+     'Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through them I can
+     attain unto God. I am God's wheat, and I am ground by the
+     teeth of wild beasts that I may be found pure bread of
+     Christ. Entice the wild beasts that they may become my
+     sepulchre and may leave no part of my body behind, so that I
+     may not, when I am fallen asleep, be burdensome to any one.'
+
+Into the colossal pile, erected for the display of the bloodiest of
+inhuman crimes, he was led; and his own impassioned appeal was answered:
+
+     'Come fire and cross, and grapplings with wild beasts! Come
+     cuttings and manglings, wrenching of bones, hacking of
+     limbs, crushings of my whole body! Come cruel tortures of
+     the devil to assail me! Only be it mine to attain unto Jesus
+     Christ!'
+
+Men, with tear-stained faces, looked away from his death to 'form
+themselves'--as he had bidden them--
+
+     'into a chorus in love and sing to the Father in Jesus
+     Christ. God had vouchsafed that the Bishop from Syria should
+     be found in the West, having summoned him from the East.
+     Good was it to set from this world unto God, that he might
+     rise unto Him.'
+
+Love is perhaps wrong in asserting that his remains were brought back to
+Antioch: it is unerringly right in having raised the Epistle to the
+Romans--'his paean prophetic of his coming victory'--to be the martyr's
+manual of a grateful posterity.
+
+     'The glory of Ignatius as a martyr,' writes the Bishop of
+     Durham, 'has commended his lessons as a doctor. His teaching
+     on matters of theological truth and ecclesiastical order was
+     barbed and fledged by the fame of his constancy in that
+     supreme trial of his faith.'
+
+If interest in the heresies he combated may be said to be confined
+to-day to scholars who study them as a chapter in heresiology, or seek
+in them a bone of contention, the interest in the points of
+ecclesiastical order delineated by him was never more intense than now.
+Only last year the testimony of the Ignatian Epistles to the burning
+question of Apostolical succession was one point in the discussion
+between Canon Liddon of St. Paul's and Dr. Hatch; this year, the view
+presented by the Bishop of Durham meets with its ablest antagonist in
+Dr. Harnack. In very truth the letters of the martyr have been the
+battlefield of the controversy, which affirms or disallows the threefold
+ministry of the Church of Christ.
+
+It will be perceived at once how much turns, not first upon the
+interpretation of the Epistles, but upon the genuineness of the text
+presenting itself for interpretation. What is the text? Never before
+have the lovers of textual criticism had the opportunity of examining
+and answering this question as they have now in the Bishop of Durham's
+volumes. He first describes at length the Manuscripts and Versions, on
+which a true text may be reasonably founded, and then gives the text,
+together with the Versions, accompanied by Introductions and Notes which
+leave nothing to desire. The labour necessary for massing and bringing
+together all this information is only equalled by the exactness and
+orderliness with which it is presented. But the Bishop writes not only
+for the scholar, but for the man of general culture and intelligence,
+who can enter with interest into a problem historical and antiquarian,
+as well as textual and critical. To many the battle of the giants, over
+the 'long,' the 'middle,' and the 'short,' form or recension of the
+Ignatian Epistles, will be an intellectual treat, as he watches the
+fence and scholarship of the various disputants. He will see that in
+literary as in political controversy the spirit of compromise is to-day
+in the ascendant, and that 'middle'-men have for once their value.
+
+To explain these terms. By the 'short' form is meant that which consists
+of _three_ Epistles only--to St. Polycarp, to the Ephesians, and to the
+Romans. This exists only in a Syraic version. By the second, 'the middle
+form,' are understood these three Epistles, and four more, namely,
+Epistles to the Smyrnaeans, Magnesians, Philadelphians, and Trallians.
+This form is originally Greek, and is found also in Latin, Armenian,
+and--in a fragmentary state--in Syriac and Coptic. The third or 'long'
+form, contains the seven already enumerated in a more expanded state,
+together with six others, the recension being in a Greek and in a Latin
+translation.[69]
+
+Practically the contest as to the truest form has been reduced to a
+duel between the 'short' and the 'middle.' The 'long' form can be shown
+to be the work of an unknown author, probably of the latter half of the
+fourth century, and constructed from the genuine Ignatian Epistles by
+interpolation, alteration and omission. But the 'long' form died hard,
+and mainly through the thrusts of our own Ussher.
+
+     'The history of the Ignatian Epistles,' says the Bishop, 'in
+     Western Europe before and after the revival of letters, is
+     full of interest. In the Middle Ages the spurious and
+     interpolated letters alone have any wide circulation.
+     Gradually, as the light advances, the forgeries recede into
+     the background. Each successive stage diminishes the bulk of
+     the Ignatian literature, which the educated mind accepts as
+     genuine; till at length the true Ignatius alone remains,
+     divested of the accretions which perverted ingenuity has
+     gathered about him.'
+
+In the 'long' recension there is a letter to one Mary of Cassobola. This
+was made the parent of a 'correspondence between St. John and the
+Virgin,' bearing the name of Ignatius: and it is not improbably
+connected with the outburst of Mariolatry in the eleventh and following
+centuries. But with 'the first streak of intellectual dawn this Ignatian
+spectre vanished into its kindred darkness.' The forgery was 'consigned
+to the limbo of foolish and forgotten things.' This pretender set aside,
+St. Ignatius was represented in Western Europe by the epistles of the
+'Long' recension. The Latin text was printed in 1498, and the Greek in
+1557. At first no doubt was felt about their genuineness. Gradually,
+however, unwelcome critics pointed out gross anachronisms and blunders.
+Men, with unpleasant habits of comparison, noted that Eusebius, the
+Church historian (C. A. D. 310-25), quoted from only seven epistles, and
+that the divergence of the 'long' text from that given by early
+Christian writers[70] fully warranted the comment of Ussher, that it was
+difficult to imagine 'eundem legere se Ignatium qui veterum aetate
+legebatur.' Theological and ecclesiastical prejudice lent bitterness to
+the rising strife. On the Continent, Reformer and Romanist ranged
+themselves in opposite camps: the one quoting with delight passages
+which favoured Roman supremacy, or advocated Episcopacy; the other
+throwing them over as 'nursery stories' (or 'silly tales,' _naenia_), and
+denouncing 'the insufferable impudence of those who equipped themselves
+with ghosts like these for the purpose of deceiving' (Calvin). After the
+publication of the edition of Vedelius, a Genevan Professor, in 1623,
+Anglican writers, such as Whitgift, Hooker, and Andrewes, seem to have
+accepted without hesitation the twelve (the seven named by Eusebius and
+five others) contained in that edition; but in England as on the
+Continent, the absence of so much, which could alone lead men to a right
+conclusion, prevented the consideration of the question on its true
+merits:--
+
+     'Episcopacy was the burning question of the day; and the
+     sides of the combatants in the Ignatian controversy were
+     already predetermined for them by their attitude towards
+     this question. Every allowance should be made for their
+     following their prepossessions, where the evidence seemed so
+     evenly balanced. On the one hand, external testimony was so
+     strongly in favour of the genuineness of certain Ignatian
+     letters; on the other hand, the only Ignatian letters known
+     were burdened with difficulties. At the very eve of Ussher's
+     revelation, a fierce literary war broke out on this very
+     subject of Episcopacy--evoked by the religious and political
+     troubles of the times.'
+
+On the one side were Hall's (Bishop of Exeter) 'Episcopacy by Divine
+Right asserted' (1639), and 'An Humble Remonstrance' on behalf of
+Liturgy and Episcopacy (1641); Ussher's 'The original of Bishops and
+Metropolitans,' and Jeremy Taylor's 'Of the Sacred Order and Offices of
+Episcopacy' (1642); on the other, the five Presbyterian ministers whose
+initials composed the monstrous name Smectymnuus,[71] issued their
+'Answer to the Book entituled an Humble Remonstrance' (1641), and
+Milton, in his short treatise 'Of Prelatical Episcopacy' (1641),
+fulminated with 'fiery eloquence and reckless invective' against Ussher.
+
+     'Had God,' wrote Milton, 'intended that we should have
+     sought any part of useful instruction from Ignatius,
+     doubtless He would not have so ill-provided for our
+     knowledge as to send him to our hands in this broken and
+     disjointed plight; and if He intended no such thing, we do
+     injuriously in thinking to taste better the pure evangelic
+     manna by seasoning our mouths with the tainted scraps and
+     fragments from an unknown table, and searching among the
+     verminous and polluted rags dropped overworn from the
+     toiling shoulders of Time, with these deformedly to quilt
+     and interlace the entire, the spotless, and undecaying robe
+     of Truth. What impiety,' he added, 'the confronting and
+     paralleling the sacred verity of St. Paul with the offals
+     and sweepings of antiquity, that met as accidently and
+     absurdly as Epicurus his atoms to patch up a Leucippean
+     Ignatius.'
+
+'Out of his own mouth,' says Bishop Lightfoot, 'he was soon convicted.'
+The "better provision for knowledge" came full soon. To the critical
+genius of Ussher belongs the honour of restoring the true Ignatius.
+Ussher observed that the quotations from this Father in three English
+writers, Robert (Grosseteste) of Lincoln (c. 1250), John Tyssington (c.
+1381), and William Wodeford (c. 1396), agreed--not with texts hitherto
+known (the Greek and Latin of the 'long' Recension), but--with the
+quotations in Eusebius and Theodoret. He concluded that somewhere in the
+libraries of England he ought to find MSS. of a version corresponding to
+this earlier text of Ignatius: and he discovered two--(1.) _Caiensis_
+395 [L1], a MS. given to Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge, in
+1444 by Walter Crome; and (2.) _Montacutianus_ [L2], a parchment from
+the library of Bishop Montague or Montacute, of Norwich. Of the first a
+transcript was made for Archbishop Ussher, and is still in the library
+of Dublin University (D.3.II), and is dated 20 June, 1631. It is full of
+inaccuracies, arising sometimes from indifference to spelling on the
+part of the transcriber, or to carelessness and inattention, but most
+frequently from ignorance of the numerous and perplexing contractions.
+The second has disappeared, probably on the day when Parliament ordered
+the Archbishop's books to be seized and confiscated (1643). Bishop
+Lightfoot has in part restored it by drawing attention to the collation
+of this Montacute MS., which occurs between the lines or in the margin
+of the Dublin transcript of the Caius MS. Archbishop Ussher's
+examination of the Latin version, thus discovered, induced in his mind a
+suspicion that Bishop Grosseteste was himself the translator. A marginal
+note, for example, betrayed the nationality of its author; 'Incus est
+instrumentum fabri; dicitur Anglice _anfeld_ [anvil].' Who so likely to
+have had the ability to translate from a Greek version as Robert
+Grosseteste, one of the very few Greek scholars of his age? Evidence is
+not wanting that the Ignatian Epistles were imported from Greece, and
+translated under the Bishop's direction by one or other of the Greek
+scholars who were with him: and it is significant, in connection with
+this point, that Tyssington and Wodeford belonged to the Franciscan
+Convent at Oxford to which Grosseteste left his books.
+
+The result of Ussher's discovery was to determine, that this Latin
+translation--valuable for critical purposes on account of its extreme
+literalness[72]--represented the Ignatius known to the Fathers of the
+fourth and fifth centuries. The Greek text still remained unknown, and
+Ussher attempted to restore it from the 'long' recension by the aid of
+his newly discovered Latin version. This he did by bringing the former
+as nearly as possible into conformity with the latter. Ussher's book
+appeared in 1644. It was marred by one blot. Eusebius had mentioned
+seven Epistles, but Ussher--deceived by a mistake on the part of St.
+Jerome--exscinded the Epistle to Polycarp, and condemned it as spurious.
+Two years later, Isaac Voss published the Greek of six Epistles from a
+Florentine MS., the Epistle to the Romans having disappeared from the
+copy; and this omission was finally rectified in 1689 by Ruinart. From
+the middle of the seventeenth century disputants ceased to trouble
+themselves about the 'long' form. Controversy, presently to be noted,
+raged about the Vossian letters, Daille (1666) attacking them, Pearson
+defending them.
+
+It is a great leap to the year 1845, but not till then did a new era
+dawn upon the questions at issue. It was in that year that Cureton
+published the 'Antient Syriac Version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius to
+St. Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the Romans.' This version was
+discovered in two MSS. at the British Museum, and contained the Epistles
+named in a shorter form than either of the Greek or Latin texts.[73]
+Cureton's contention was that he had discovered the genuine Ignatius,
+and that the remaining four Epistles of the Vossian collection, as well
+as the additional portions of these three, were forgeries. Cureton was
+opposed by Dr. Wordsworth, the late Bishop of Lincoln, then Canon of
+Westminster, and defended by Bunsen. There followed quickly the
+_Vindiciae Ignatianae_ (1846) and _Corpus Ignatianum_ (1849), in which
+Cureton was considered to have not only refuted his adversary, but also
+to have presented arguments which rallied to his standard Ritschl,
+Lipsius, Pressense, Ewald, Milman, and Boehringer. Opposition to
+Cureton's view was not, however, wanting. The Orientalists, Petermann
+and Merx, united with the Conservative critical school, represented by
+Denzinger and Uhlhorn, in preferring the Vossian collection; while the
+Tuebingen school (Baur and Hilgenfeld) opposed itself to Ignatian
+letters, short, middle, or long, as utterly subversive of their theories
+of the growth of the Canon, and of the history of the Early Church. The
+Bishop of Durham was himself, at that time on Cureton's side, 'led
+captive' (as he says) 'for a time by the tyranny of this dominant
+force.' We can but record the change in his opinions, and leave to the
+reader to follow, in the Bishop's own pages, the reasons which induced
+him to abandon a method and decline results that would not stand the
+test of a searching criticism. Independent investigation of the
+phenomena of the Armenian version and of the Syriac fragments led him to
+regard the 'short' or Curetonian recension as an abridgment or
+mutilation, rather than the nucleus, of the 'middle' or Vossian form;
+and Zahn's monograph, _Ignatius von Antiochien_(1873), never yet
+answered, dealt a fatal blow at the claims of the Curetonian letters.
+Since then Lipsius has been convinced by Merx; Renan and Harnack are
+agreed; and most scholars will come to the conclusion, that through the
+Bishop of Durham's own serious investigation of the diction and style of
+the 'short' form, 'the last sparks of its waning life have been
+extinguished.' The collection was directed by no doctrinal, Eutychian or
+Monophysite, motive, nor composed (as Hefele suggested) in support of
+moral aim or monastic piety. It is simply a 'loose and perfunctory
+curtailment of the middle form, neither epitome nor extract, but
+something between the two,' and to be dated about the year A. D. 400 or
+somewhat earlier.
+
+The ground having been thus cleared from the accretions of the 'long'
+form and the mutilations of the 'short,' the Bishop of Durham considers
+in the next place the genuineness of the seven Epistles known to
+Eusebius, and preserved to us not only in the original Greek, but also
+in Latin and other translations. It is a bitter reflection, that
+discussion on this subject was (and--in a less degree--is still) evoked,
+not so much by critical and textual variations and difficulties, as by
+the exigencies of party spirit and theological animosity. A dreary, if
+necessary, page of ecclesiastical history has to be studied, when French
+Protestant and English Puritan turned passionately against the discovery
+of Ussher and Voss. It is small comfort to the charitably minded to be
+told that, had no Daille attacked[74] the Ignatian letters, Pearson
+would not have stepped forward as their champion.
+
+The consideration of the genuineness of the Seven Epistles falls
+naturally under the head of external and internal evidence.
+
+The Bishop gives his conclusion on the external evidence in the
+following words:--
+
+     '(1.) No Christian writings of the second century, very few
+     writings of antiquity, whether Christian or pagan, are so
+     well authenticated as the Epistles of Ignatius. If the
+     Epistle of Polycarp be accepted as genuine, the
+     authentication is perfect. (2.) The main ground of objection
+     against the genuineness of the Epistle of Polycarp is its
+     authentication of the Ignatian Epistles. Otherwise there is
+     every reason to believe that it would have passed
+     unquestioned. (3.) The Epistle of Polycarp itself is
+     exceptionally well authenticated by the testimony of his
+     disciple Irenaeus. (4.) All attempts to explain the phenomena
+     of the Epistle of Polycarp, as forged or interpolated to
+     give colour to the Ignatian Epistles, have signally failed.'
+
+These four propositions sum up an examination minute and masterful. Not
+only is the testimony of the Epistle of Polycarp adduced, but also that
+of Irenaeus; that of the letter of the Smyrnaeans, giving the account of
+the martyrdom of Polycarp; that of Lucian, and that of Origen (middle of
+third century). After the age of Eusebius (half a century later than
+Origen) 'no early Christian writing outside the Canon is attested by
+witnesses so many and so various in the ages of the Councils and
+subsequently.' Dr. Harnack, however, is opposed to the Bishop's
+conclusions, and considers that, 'if we do not retain the Epistle of
+Polycarp, the external evidence on behalf of the Ignatian Epistles is
+exceedingly weak, and hence is highly favourable to the suspicion that
+they are spurious.' This is not the place to enter into the dispute. We
+can but record our opinion, that in the Bishop's pages Dr. Harnack's
+objections are met by anticipation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The internal evidence is treated by the Bishop under six heads.
+
+1. The Historical and Geographical Circumstances dealing specially with
+the condemnation and the journey to Rome. Under this section are
+collected also the personal notices yielding their testimony to the
+genuineness of the letters in a manner not less striking, because
+incidental and allusive, than the testimony of the geographical section.
+The reader will linger here over the thought of the consolation and
+refreshment brought to the good Ignatius on his way to martydom. We
+learn to love Crocus and Alce, 'names,' says Ignatius, 'beloved by me,'
+Burrhus and the widow of Epitropus, for the love they bore the Saint; we
+learn to see in the Bishop of Durham's pages how such names bear
+undesigned testimony to the Epistles which record them.
+
+2. The Theological Polemics.
+
+3. The Ecclesiastical Conditions. To these we shall return immediately,
+after a few words on--
+
+4. The Literary Obligations, 5, The Personality of the Writer, and 6,
+The Style and Diction of the Letters. As regards the Literary
+Obligations, the Bishop lays down the following maxim: 'A primary test
+of age in any early Christian writing is the relation which the notices
+of the words and deeds of Christ and His Apostles bear to the Canonical
+writings;' and he adds, 'Tried by this test, the Ignatian Epistles
+proclaim their early date. There is no sign whatever in them of a Canon
+or authoritative collection of Books of the New Testament.' There are
+frequent references to the facts of Christ's life, death, and
+resurrection, and Gospel sayings are given; but there is 'not a single
+reference to written evangelical records, such as the "Memoirs of the
+Apostles," which occupy so large a place in Justin Martyr.' The same
+holds good of the Apostolic Epistles.
+
+     'I would ask,' the Bishop concludes, 'any reader who desires
+     to apprehend the full force of these (facts with reference
+     to Ignatius) to read a book or two of Irenaeus continually,
+     and mark the contrast in the manner of dealing with the
+     Evangelical narratives and the Apostolic letters. He will
+     probably allow that an interval of two generations or more
+     is not too long a period to account for the difference of
+     treatment.'
+
+The personality of the writer is no doubt unusual. A power of
+communication with angels,[75] 'extravagant' humility and
+self-depreciation;[76] and a not less 'extravagant' desire for martyrdom
+(confined, however, to the Epistle to the Romans), are not certainly
+what a later age commended or found in the Martyrs; but due allowance
+being made for the temperament of the Saint and the circumstances of the
+case, 'it is a picture much more explicable as the autotype of a real
+person than as the invention of a forger.'
+
+Once more, the Style and Diction of the Letters may be, as Daille and
+his followers have thought, 'forced and unnatural' in the use of images,
+'confused' as to language, and 'bombastic' as to diction. But what then?
+asks the Bishop:--
+
+     'What security did his position as an Apostolic Father give
+     that he should write simply and plainly, that he should
+     avoid solecisms, that his language should never he
+     disfigured by bad taste or faulty rhetoric?'
+
+     'It may not,' he continues, 'be considered very good taste
+     to draw out the metaphor of a hauling engine (Ephes. 9)--to
+     compare the Holy Spirit to the rope, the faith of the
+     believers to the windlass, &c. But on what grounds, prior to
+     experience, have we any more right to expect either a
+     faultless taste or a pure diction in a genuine writer at the
+     beginning of the second century, than in a spurious writer
+     at the end of the same?'
+
+Elaborate compounds, Latinisms, reiterations, are no proof of
+spuriousness.
+
+It is not, however, so much on these as on so-called anachronisms that
+assailants have attacked the letters. In every instance a supposed
+success has ended in a reverse. Thus the term 'leopard,' applied to the
+soldiers who conveyed Ignatius,[77] was said to have been unknown before
+the age of Constantine; and it was argued that the forger of these
+letters had antedated the word by two centuries. Pearson pointed out an
+example of the word about A. D. 202; but the Bishop of Durham has found
+it in a rescript of the Emperors Marcus and Commodus (A. D. 177-80), and
+in an early treatise written by Galen, which carries it back within
+about half a century of Ignatius. Evidently it was then a familiar term.
+Another alleged anachronism is the use of the term 'Catholic
+Church.'[78] Cureton and others have urged, that a period of full fifty
+years must have intervened between the time when Ignatius wrote and the
+first trace we find of the term 'Catholic Church.' This, says Bishop
+Lightfoot, 'is founded on the confusion of two wholly different
+things'--Catholic as a technical, and Catholic as a general term.
+Centuries before the Christian era, the word Catholic [Greek:
+katholikos] is found in the sense of 'universal'; both before and
+after the age of Ignatius it is common in writers, classical and
+ecclesiastical. 'In this sense the word might have been used at any
+time, and by any writer, from the first moment that the Church began to
+spread, while yet the conception of its unity was present to the mind.'
+It was only later that the term 'Catholic' acquired a technical
+meaning--orthodoxy as opposed to heresy, conformity as opposed to
+dissent. In Smyrn. 8, 'where Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic
+Church,' the word is used in its sense of 'universal,' as contrasted
+with the Smyrnaean or local Church over which Polycarp presided. Not only
+is its use here not indicative of a later date, but this archaic sense
+emphasizes an early one. After the word 'Catholic' had acquired its
+later and technical use, it could not have been employed in its earliest
+meaning without the risk of considerable confusion.
+
+We must refer our readers to a similarly thorough refutation of the
+charge of anachronism brought against these letters on account of their
+use of the term 'Christian,' and suggest to them an examination of the
+interesting proofs of the position next secured,[79] that certain
+characteristics of style and diction tell largely in favour of their
+genuineness.
+
+We turn, after noting the summary of the internal evidences attesting
+the genuineness of these letters, to the headings omitted (2, 3) on the
+Theological Polemics and the Ecclesiastical Conditions. That summary is
+as follows (i. 407):--
+
+     'The external testimony to the Ignatian Epistles being so
+     strong, only the most decisive marks of spuriousness in the
+     Epistles themselves, as, for instance, proved anachronism,
+     would justify us in suspecting them as interpolated, or
+     rejecting them as spurious.--But so far is this from being
+     the case, that one after another the anachronisms urged
+     against these letters have vanished in the light of further
+     knowledge.--As regards the argument which Daille calls
+     "palmary"--the prevalence of episcopacy as a recognized
+     institution--we may say boldly that all the facts point the
+     other way. If the writer of these letters had represented
+     the churches of Asia Minor as under presbyterial government,
+     he would have contradicted all the evidence which, without
+     one dissentient voice, points to episcopacy as the
+     established form of Church government in these districts
+     from the close of the first century.--The circumstances of
+     the condemnation, captivity, and journey of Ignatius, which
+     have been a stumbling-block to some modern critics, did not
+     present any difficulty to those who lived near the time, and
+     therefore knew best what might be expected under the
+     circumstances; and they are sufficiently borne out by
+     example, more or less analogous, to establish their
+     credibility.--The objections to the style and language are
+     beside the purpose.--A like answer holds with regard to any
+     extravagances in sentiment, or opinion, or character.--While
+     the investigation of the contents of these Epistles has
+     yielded this negative result in dissipating the objections,
+     it has at the same time had a high positive value, as
+     revealing indications of a very early date, and therefore
+     presumably of genuineness, in the surrounding circumstances,
+     more especially in the types of false doctrine which it
+     combats, in the ecclesiastical status which it presents, and
+     in the manner in which it deals with the evangelical and
+     apostolic documents.--Moreover, we discover in the personal
+     environments of the assumed writer, and more especially in
+     the notices of his route, many subtle coincidences which we
+     are constrained to regard as undesigned, and which seem
+     altogether beyond the reach of a forger.--So likewise the
+     peculiarities in style and diction of the Epistles, as also
+     in the representation of the writer's character, are much
+     more capable of explanation in a genuine writing than in a
+     forgery.--While external and internal evidence thus combine
+     to assert the genuineness of these writings, no satisfactory
+     account has been or apparently can be given of them as a
+     forgery of a later date than Ignatius. They would be quite
+     purposeless as such; for they entirely omit all topics which
+     would especially interest any subsequent age.'
+
+The Section upon 'Ecclesiastical Conditions' deals with the ministry of
+men, the ministry of women, and the liturgy of the Church. Interesting
+though the two last points are of necessity to any student of Church
+organization and ritual, we pass them by to consider the 'Ecclesiastical
+Polemics.' The Bishop of Durham's view of the ministry of
+men--especially of episcopacy--as furnished by the Seven Epistles is
+briefly as follows. The name of Ignatius is inseparably connected with
+the championship of episcopacy. Such extracts as the following
+sufficiently attest the prominence and authority he assigns to the
+office: 'We ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself; 'Vindicate'
+(O Polycarp) 'thine office in things, temporal as well as spiritual. Let
+nothing be done without thy consent, and do thou nothing without the
+consent of God;' 'Give heed (ye Smyrnaeans) to your bishop, that God also
+may give heed to you;' 'Let no man do anything pertaining to the Church
+without the bishop.' Further, the extension of the episcopate in the
+time of Ignatius is quite clear. He is himself the bishop 'belonging to
+Syria.' He salutes and names the Bishops of Ephesus, of Magnesia, and
+Tralles. In those parts of Asia Minor and Syria, with which he is
+brought into contact, the episcopate properly so called is an
+established and recognized institution. This is in accordance with what
+the Bishop of Durham traces elsewhere in the history of the origin and
+development of episcopacy;[80] but it is not in accordance with Dr.
+Harnack's view. 'The evidence,' says the Bishop, 'points to episcopacy
+as the established form of Church government in these districts from the
+close of the first century.' Not so, says Dr. Harnack:--
+
+     'Ignatius' conception of the position and significance of
+     the bishop has its earliest parallel in the original
+     conception of the author of the Apostolic Constitutions (_i.
+     e._ the end of the 3d cent.); and the Epistles show that the
+     Monarchical Episcopate in Asia Minor was so firmly rooted,
+     so highly elevated above all other offices, so completely
+     beyond dispute, that on the ground of what we know from
+     other sources of early Church history, no single
+     investigator would assign the statements under consideration
+     to the second, but at the earliest to the third century.'
+
+Let the reader, however, look up the references under the head of
+"Apostolical Constitutions" in the Index to vol. i. of the Bishop's
+work, and we shall be very much surprised if he agree with Dr. Harnack's
+first conclusion. Will there not be even a lurking apprehension that Dr.
+Harnack, in arguing from the 'original conception of the author of the
+Apostolic Constitutions,' is confounding the 'long' and the 'middle'
+Recensions of the letters? Possibly the anxiety of determination to fix
+upon the third century rather than the close of the first as the date of
+the establishment of Episcopacy may have been tolerable in the time of
+Daille, but is it tolerable or should it be repeated now when the means
+of a far more critical study of the question is open to all? In fact,
+Dr. Harnack is evidently disturbed by the _parti pris_ of his position;
+and he may be said to abandon it immediately for a more negative one:
+but even so, how can a critic with the authorities placed before him
+come even to his second and modified conclusion:--'The statements of
+Ignatius regarding the rank to which the Episcopate has attained,
+occupy, so far as our knowledge goes, an altogether isolated position in
+the second century.' Isolated! This can be examined upon evidence. The
+point is this: Are there, or are there not, witnesses to show that
+monarchical Episcopacy had been developed in the later years of the
+Apostolic Age? Irenaeus (born c. 130, according to Lipsius) was a scholar
+of Polycarp, and Polycarp was a scholar of St. John. He delighted to
+recal the reminiscences of his teacher, as did Polycarp those of St.
+John. He was a travelled scholar; if born in Asia Minor, he lived at
+Rome during middle life, and was Bishop of Lyons in Gaul in his later
+years. He was probably the most learned Christian of his time. 'The
+appreciation of the position of the man,' urges Bishop Lightfoot, 'is a
+first requisite to an estimate of his evidence.' And what is his
+evidence? Just that which is marked by such development as the man, his
+time, and circumstances, would lead us to expect, when compared with the
+Ignatius, from whom he is separated by about two generations. To
+Ignatius, the bishop is the centre of ecclesiastical unity; so Irenaeus,
+the depositary of Apostolic tradition. Irenaeus overlooks the identity of
+'bishop' and 'presbyter' in the New Testament, and speaks of 'bishops
+_and_ presbyters from Ephesus and the other cities adjoining' coming to
+St. Paul at Miletus. It is to him an undisputed fact, that the bishops
+of his own age traced their succession back in an unbroken line to men
+appointed to the episcopate by the Apostles themselves. Thus he points
+out the sequence of the bishops of the Church of Rome 'founded by the
+blessed Apostles,' St. Peter and St. Paul, up to his own day; and in the
+case of the Church in Smyrna, he finds in Polycarp not only one
+'instructed by Apostles and who had conversed with many who had seen
+Christ,' but also 'one who was appointed bishop in the Church of Smyrna
+by Apostles in Asia.'[81] Similar opinions are reflected in many
+passages, and they lead up to this conclusion:--
+
+     'After every reasonable allowance made for the possibility
+     of mistakes in details, the language (of Irenaeus) from a man
+     standing in his position with respect to the previous and
+     contemporary history of the Church leaves no room for doubt
+     as to the early and general diffusion of episcopacy in the
+     regions with which he was acquainted.'
+
+Yet it is by fastening upon alleged 'mistakes in details,' and through
+counter-conclusions with respect to some of the passages quoted, that
+Dr. Harnack affirms that 'from the words of Irenaeus there is absolutely
+nothing gained in regard to the origin of the episcopate and its spread
+during the period between A. D. 90 and 140.' His method is somewhat
+vexatious. He takes, for example, the list of the Bishops of Rome, and
+he says, 'Irenaeus communicates this list, and declares that the Apostles
+had _ordained_ Linus as Bishop of Rome;' and he adds, 'that this is
+false can be proved, and is not denied even by Lightfoot.' The
+marvellous part of this statement is, that Irenaeus says nothing of the
+kind. The word 'ordination' does not occur in the passage in question.
+The sentence is far from faithfully translated by the Bishop of
+Durham:[82] Linus 'was entrusted with the office of the bishopric' by
+the Apostles. Again, what is 'false'? the whole list, or the statement
+as regards Linus individually? Neither is false when rightly understood,
+and no denial is therefore forthcoming from the Bishop of Durham, or
+required for what is not questioned. But Dr. Harnack--not satisfied with
+having refuted an imaginary foe--next proceeds to ask, 'What reliance
+then can we have in the statement of Irenaeus, that Polycarp was ordained
+a bishop by the Apostles'? It might be answered, 'Your first premiss was
+wrong, and until that be mended, further argument is unnecessary.' But
+examine the question on its own merits--viz. that due to 'an
+appreciation of the position' of Irenaeus--and its veracity is beyond
+question.
+
+The Bishop of Durham supports the language of Irenaeus by the testimony
+of Polycrates, of Ephesus, his contemporary, if junior; but without
+dwelling upon that and other passages of more general reference, we can
+come nearer to the time of Ignatius by reference to his contemporary,
+Polycarp. We assume, with Bishop Lightfoot, that the testimony of
+Irenaeus to Polycarp is of the highest value; but that assumption is no
+rash one. Every one can verify the value of the testimony by perusing
+the Bishop's interesting pages on the subject. The relation of Polycarp
+to the Apostles has been given above. It is to his language about
+episcopacy that we wish to refer. In Polycarp's letter to the
+Philippians, the Bishop of Smyrna speaks at length about the duties of
+presbyters, deacons, widows, &c., but he makes no mention either of the
+bishop, or--in other parts where it might have been expected--of
+obedience due to him. This is naturally explained on the supposition
+that the see was then vacant, or that ecclesiastical organization was
+not fully developed at Philippi. How rash, however, it would be to
+affirm the non-existence of episcopacy, or to raise objections to it
+such as would render incredible the statements of Ignatius, may be
+inferred from the 'Letter of the Smyrnaeans,' which, speaking of 'the
+glorious martyr Polycarp, who was found an Apostolic and prophetic
+teacher in our own time, a bishop of the Holy Church which is in
+Smyrna,' attests at once the respect paid to the office by the writer of
+the Letter and to the title by which Polycarp himself was usually
+called.
+
+Other contemporaries of Polycarp's were Clement of Rome and Papias. Do
+they give no testimony to the development of monarchical episcopacy in
+the later years of the Apostolic Age? Polycarp, if not acquainted with
+Clement personally, was yet intimately acquainted with his genuine
+letter, the first Epistle to the Corinthians. In this letter there is no
+mention of episcopacy properly so-called. With St. Clement, as in the
+New Testament, bishop and presbyter are convertible terms. He even drops
+all mention of his own name though bishop of the Church in Rome. There
+is not even the 'I' of Polycarp, but a 'we,' which defines that the
+letter is written in the name of the Church and speaks with the
+authority of the Church. The name and personality of the individual are
+absorbed in the Church of which he is the spokesman.[83] The same
+phenomena are observed in the letter written by Ignatius to the very
+Church--Rome--in which alone they are noticed as occurring. The Epistle
+of Ignatius to the Romans--save for the mention of his own
+rank--contains no indication of the existence of the episcopal office,
+inculcates no obedience to bishops, and says not a word about a bishop
+of Rome. A like phenomenon is to be noticed in the next (chronologically
+speaking) document, emanating from the Church of Rome--viz. the Shepherd
+of Hermas. What does this contrast throughout mean, but that where--as
+in Asia Minor--false doctrine and schismatical teachers prevailed, there
+episcopacy was a safeguard; where these were absent--as in Rome--there
+the episcopate had not yet assumed the same sharp and well-defined
+monarchical character as in the Eastern churches: and what does this
+contrast tend to disprove but the opinion of Dr. Harnack?--'Apart from
+the Epistles of Ignatius we do not possess a single witness to the
+existence of the monarchical episcopate in the churches of Asia Minor so
+early as the times of Trajan or Hadrian' (_i. e._ A. D. 98-138).
+
+Turning to the other point--the Theological Polemics--disputed by
+Harnack, Bishop Lightfoot has dealt with the subject on its positive and
+negative sides respectively. The positive side yields results of real
+importance in attestation of the date of the letters. The heresy
+combated by Ignatius is a type of Gnostic Judaism, the Gnostic element
+manifesting itself in a sharp form of Docetism. This marked type of
+Docetism, far from being a difficulty, is an indication of early date,
+since the tendency of Docetism was to mitigation, as time went on. The
+negative side is educed by cross-questioning the writer's silence. There
+were certain controversies which rent the Church in the middle and
+latter half of the second century. These were such as, first, the
+Paschal controversy (the proper day and mode of celebrating the Paschal
+festival); secondly, the controversy about Montanism, the theatre of
+which was the very region with which these Epistles are concerned. Yet,
+not a word, not a hint is there, that the writer felt any interest in,
+or was disturbed by, anxieties about either. A similar silence points to
+the same conclusion, when we consider the absence of allusion to the
+three great heresiarchs, Basilides, Marcion, and Valentinus. Give to the
+first a period of notoriety conterminous with the reign of Hadrian (A.
+D. 117-38), yet there is not the slightest allusion in Ignatius to the
+tenets of the leader or his followers. Place Marcion some years before
+the middle of the second century. Remember that he was a native of Asia
+Minor and taught at Rome that there he was denounced by Polycarp as the
+'first born of Satan;'[84] and that he enjoyed a world-wide reputation
+for evil (according to some), for good (according to others). Yet in the
+Ignatian letters there is not the faintest aquaintance with the man or
+his teaching. Valentinus also taught at Rome (c. A. D. 140-60), and his
+strange theories about _AEons_ and Ogdoads, about spiritual, psychical,
+and material men, or any other fantasy of his speculative mythology,
+were not thought beneath the criticism of an Irenaeus, a Clement of
+Alexandria and a Tertullian. Yet no hint is there in the Seven Epistles
+that these thoughts were familiar to the writer. At one time an exultant
+Daille found in his reading of 'Magn.' 8 an attack on Valentinianism,
+and consequently a welcome anachronism which proved the writer of the
+letters a forger. The discovery of the true reading has been followed
+not only by the collapse of the objection, but also by the adhesion to
+the belief, that the writer's use of certain expressions is a testimony
+to his existence in a pre-Valentinian epoch, when language had not been
+abused to heretical ends.
+
+Dr. Harnack has little to say against the Bishop of Durham's conclusions
+from the negative side of the investigation of these theological
+polemics; but he has much to say against the Bishop's deductions from
+the positive aspect of them. Though, says Bishop Lightfoot,
+
+     'in the Trallian and Smyrnaean letters the writer deals
+     chiefly with Docetism, while in the Magnesian and
+     Philadelphian letters he seems to be attacking Judaism, yet
+     a nearer examination shows the two to be so closely
+     interwoven that they can only be regarded as different sides
+     of one and the same heresy.'
+
+Not so Dr. Harnack. To him
+
+     'the identification of the Judaists and Gnostics in the
+     Ingnatian Epistles is quite inadmissible. Ignatius combats
+     the Doketists in the Epistle to the Ephesians, the
+     Trallians, and the Smyrnaeans, while in the Epistles to the
+     Magnesians and Philadelphians he warns against the
+     Ebionistic danger. In the last-named Epistle he warns
+     against other tendencies which threatened the unity of the
+     Church.'
+
+In fact, it is this Epistle to the Philadelphians which, in his opinion,
+has led scholars astray. No one he thinks would have misunderstood 'the
+fact--that the Judaists in the Epistle to the Magnesians were certainly
+not Doketists, and the Doketists described in the Epistles to the
+Ephesians, Trallians, and Smyrnaeans were not Judaists--had the Epistles
+of Ignatius come to us without the Epistle to the Philadelphians.' It
+would be beyond the province of this Review to enter into an
+examination of the arguments adduced on each side; it would also be an
+injustice to the disputants to infer that each selects or presses what
+tells most of his view, but certainly a calm and dispassionate
+inspection of these arguments will lead most men to think Uhlhorn,
+Lipsius, and Lightfoot more correct in their unanimous verdict, that but
+one heresy is attacked in the Ignatian letters, than Hilgenfeld and
+Harnack in their preference of two distinct heresies--Ebionism and
+Docetism. This latter conclusion can only be reached by treating the
+Letters of Ignatius as Hilgenfeld has treated St. Paul's Epistles to the
+Colossians; the former is attained by critical methods defining the
+Judaism and Gnosticism observable to be but web and woof of one and the
+same fabric.
+
+The very early date, and the consequent genuineness of these Epistles
+are thus the legitimate conclusion from the study of the internal as
+well as external evidences. That date is placed by the Bishop of Durham
+between A. D. 100-118 in the time of Trajan. Wieseler had placed the
+date of the martyrdom (upon which depends the date of the letters) as
+early as A. D. 107, Harnack as late as A. D. 138; and the latter still
+prefers to place them and the Epistle of Polycarp after the year A. D.
+130. The earlier date reached by the Bishop of Durham is to him 'a mere
+possibility which is highly improbable, because it is not supported by
+any word in the Epistle, and because it rests only upon a late and very
+problematic witness (Eusebius).' Dr. Harnack's present view is, in all
+essentials, the same as that which he previously held. He has had the
+advantage--which he courteously acknowledges--of examining Bishop
+Lightfoot's 'painstaking consideration' of his views held in 1878; but
+nevertheless he considers that the Bishop's method of considering the
+whole question is 'not the proper' one--that his 'admittedly profound
+learning has contributed little or nothing to the main question,' and
+that 'he has not rightly comprehended the problem.'[85] Yet the ordinary
+reader, who examines Dr. Harnack's re-statement of some of his views,
+will feel that to ask the Bishop of Durham to re-examine them will be
+but to ask him to slay afresh the slain. Dr. Harnack still clings, for
+example, to his view, that Polycarp is attacking the Docetism of
+Marcion; a view which, if sound, would convince the writer of an
+anachronism; because in pretending to write between A. D. 100 and 118 he
+has introduced a heresiarch not then notorious. But his view has been
+shown by Bishop Lightfoot to be fallacious; and all that Dr. Harnack can
+now answer is to repeat his preference for his own interpretation of
+two passages adduced in the argument.
+
+From the amenities of this battlefield of friendly criticism we turn for
+a few concluding remarks to the second and shorter life--that of
+Polycarp--which these monumental volumes discuss.
+
+In point of method and treatment, the consideration of the history and
+writings of this saint of the early Church follows the same lines, as
+those followed in the case of St. Ignatius. First, the biography proper.
+Next, one of those collections of passages and documents which render
+these volumes so remarkable. In seventy pages the student will find a
+_corpus_ of original extracts embellished with notes explanatory and
+critical--Such as Imperial acts and ordinances relating to or affecting
+Christianity; Acts and notices of martyrdoms. Passages from heathen
+writers, containing notices of the Christians; Passages from Christian
+writers illustrating the points at issue--most helpful to him in
+apprehending not only the history of the persecutions, but also the
+relations between the Church and the Empire, in the reigns of Hadrian
+(A. D. 117-38), Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-61), and Marcus Aurelius (A.
+D. 161-80). Then come in successive order the examination of the MSS and
+Versions, a collection of quotations and references, the consideration
+of the genuineness of the 'Epistle of Polycarp' and of the 'Letter to
+the Smyrnaeans,' closed by a discussion upon the date of the Martyrdom.
+
+The Church of Christ owes a great debt to Polycarp:--
+
+     'In him one single link connected the earthly life of Christ
+     with the close of the second century, though five or six
+     generations had intervened. St. John, Polycarp,
+     Irenaeus--this was the succession which guaranteed the
+     continuity of the evangelical record and of the Apostolic
+     teaching. The long life of St. John, followed by the long
+     life of Polycarp, had secured this result. What the Church
+     towards the close of the second century was--how full was
+     its teaching--how complete its canon--how adequate its
+     organization--how wise its extension--we know well enough
+     from Irenaeus' extant work. But the intervening period had
+     been disturbed by feverish speculation and grave anxieties
+     on all sides. Polycarp saw teacher after teacher spring up,
+     each introducing some fresh system, and each professing to
+     teach the true Gospel. Menander, Cerinthus, Carpocrates,
+     Saturninus, Basilides, Cerdon, Valentinus, Marcion--all
+     these flourished during his lifetime, and all taught after
+     he had grown up to manhood. Against all such innovations of
+     doctrine and practice there lay the appeal to Polycarp's
+     personal knowledge. With what feelings he regarded such
+     teachers we may learn not only from his own epistle (Sec. 7),
+     but from the sayings recorded by Irenaeus, "O good God, for
+     what times hast Thou kept me, I recognize the firstborn of
+     Satan." He was eminently fitted, too, by his personal
+     qualities to fulfil this function as a depositary of
+     tradition.... Polycarp's mind was essentially unoriginative.
+     It had no creative power. His Epistle is largely made up of
+     quotations from the Evangelical and Apostolic writings, from
+     Clement of Rome, from the Epistles of Ignatius.... A
+     stedfast, stubborn adherence to the lessons of his youth and
+     early manhood, an unrelaxing, unwavering hold of "the word
+     that was delivered to him from the beginning"--this, so far
+     as we can read the man from his own utterances or from the
+     notices of others, was the characteristic of Polycarp. His
+     religious convictions were seen to be "founded," as Ignatius
+     had said long before (Polyc. 1) "on an immovable rock." He
+     was not dismayed by the plausibilities of false teachers,
+     but "stood firm as an anvil under the hammer's stroke."
+     (_ib._ 3).'
+
+The Church has ever claimed for her Saint not so much the reverence paid
+to the martyr, or the deference due to the ruler, or the teachableness
+powerful in the writer, as the attention obligatory to an 'elder.' Why?
+We may give the reason in the Bishop's words:
+
+     'While the oral tradition of the Lord's life and of the
+     Apostolic teaching was still fresh, the believers of
+     succeeding generations not unnaturally appealed to it for
+     confirmation against the many counterfeits of the Gospel
+     which offered themselves for acceptance. The authorities for
+     this tradition were "the Elders." To the testimony of these
+     Elders appeal was made by Papias in the first, and by
+     Irenaeus in the second generation after the Apostles. With
+     Papias the Elders were those who themselves had seen the
+     Lord, or had been eye-witnesses of the Apostolic history:
+     with Irenaeus the term included likewise persons who, like
+     Papias himself, had been acquainted with these
+     eye-witnesses. And among these Polycarp held the foremost
+     place.'
+
+The existing letter to the Philippians is now recognized as a genuine
+work of the Saint; and this on the testimony of internal evidence, quite
+as much as on the direct testimony of Irenaeus, his own disciple. The
+arbitrary method of a Daille, the interpolation-theory of Ritschl, and
+the wholesale rejection of the Epistle by Schwegler, Zeller, and
+Hilgenfeld, have ceased to command attention or demand refutation. The
+Epistle is too closely confined to the letters and martyrdom of Ignatius
+to warrant our looking for much refutation in it of existing error; but
+the spirit and counsel of the 'elder' is truly there warning against
+false and hypocritical brethren, and impelling his readers to turn unto
+the word delivered unto them from the beginning.
+
+Never was Christian counsel and sturdy faith more needed than in the
+period covered by the lifetime of Polycarp. The Bishop of Durham
+describes it as 'the most tumultuous period in the religious history of
+the world'; and in connection with the Bishop of Smyrna he notes that 'a
+chief arena of the struggle between creeds and cults was Asia Minor.' If
+in the earlier part of the second century (A. D. 112) Pliny, in his
+celebrated letter to Trajan,[86] deplored what Polycarp may have
+witnessed--on the one hand, heathen temples deserted and heathen
+sacrifices starved as to their victims; on the other, young and old, man
+and woman, patrician and peasant, bond and free, attracted to and
+mastered by a 'superstition' which affected alike the city and the
+village, the nobleman's mansion and the herdsman's hut, yet the splendid
+successes of Christianity did not blind either saint or philosopher. 'A
+veritable Pagan propaganda,' as Renan calls it, also set in in the
+second century; and when Polycarp died, it was at its height. Everywhere
+was it supported by the reigning emperors. 'The political and truly
+Roman instincts of Trajan were not more friendly to it than the
+archaeological tastes, the cosmopolitan interests, and the theological
+levity of Hadrian. From their immediate successors, Antoninus Pius and
+Marcus Aurelius, it received even more solid and efficient support.'
+
+Smyrna, the see of Bishop Polycarp, was fully exposed to the influences
+of this reviving Paganism. The rhetorician, Aristides--true type of the
+Pagan charlatan who summoned to his aid in subjugating a superstitious
+people the mysterious and occult powers with which astrology and dreams,
+auguries and witchcrafts, invested their possessors--was himself a
+frequent dweller in Smyrna. Often must he have heard of and despised the
+man branded by the titles, 'the teacher of Asia, the father of the
+Christians, the puller-down of our gods, who teacheth numbers not to
+sacrifice nor worship'[87] which--like the inscription over his
+crucified Lord--did unconsciously proclaim the very and only truth.
+Twice did the city of Smyrna, during Polycarp's prime, receive fresh
+honours and privileges for her devotion to the worship of Imperial
+deities. The religious guild of the temples of the Augusti celebrated
+here their festivals with exceptional splendour; the 'theologians' and
+'choristers,' who owed their existence and affluence to the magnificence
+of a Hadrian, not only saluted him as their 'god,' their 'saviour and
+founder,' but by senatorial decree established games--the Olympia
+Hadrianea--grotesquely pompous in titular magnificence. Naturally this
+affected the well-being of the infant Church of Christ in Smyrna; but
+that Church was assailed from another quarter, and by the sharpened
+weapons, not of a scornful superiority, but of fanatical hatred. The
+Jews were both numerous and powerful in Smyrna, and two cruel episodes
+in their late national history accentuated their fury against the
+Christians wherever they met with them. The first was the destruction of
+Jerusalem (A. D. 70). The fugitives from Palestine, who found refuge in
+Smyrna with their fellow-countrymen already settled there, found
+sympathy also--save from one class, the Christians. Compassion these
+last could feel for men whose best blood had welled over the courts of
+the Temple, whose dearest and nearest had perhaps perished in Jerusalem,
+that 'cage of furious madmen, a city of howling wild beasts and of
+cannibals--a hell' (Renan); but they knew to be true what a Titus had
+acknowledged, that 'the hand of God' was in the victory of Rome. They
+saw in the downfall of the Holy City the retribution of the Heavenly
+Father for the crucifixion of the Messiah; and sorrow with the sorrow of
+the weeping patriots of Israel they could not and would not. Their
+refusal was the signal for a determination to seize every opportunity of
+revenge; and the second episode, to which we have alluded, is connected
+with a specially furious outburst of maddened passion against Christians
+on the part of the Jews. Hadrian, fifty years after the fall of
+Jerusalem, had resolved upon rearing on its ruins the city of AElia
+Capitolina. Then flashed forth the rebellion of the Jew Bar-cochba (A.
+D. 132-4). The 'Son of the Star,' supported by his standard-bearer,
+Akiba, the greatest of the Rabbins, measured his strength with Rome.
+With mouth breathing forth flames,[88] he inspired his partisans with
+confidence, and his enemies with terror. Flung back, disappointed, and
+slain at Bither, the 'Son of a Lie,' as his disappointed countrymen had
+found him to their cost and re-named him, had yet found opportunities of
+inflicting terrible tortures and agonizing deaths upon those Christians
+in Palestine, who had dared to reject his Messianic claims, and refused
+to blaspheme Christ. And the spirit of vengeance spread from the Holy
+Land to the provinces. Twenty years after the death of the rebel leader,
+the Jews of Smyrna--probably to Polycarp 'a synagogue of Satan,' as in
+earlier times St. John his master had described
+
+them (Rev. ii. 9)--found their opportunity. Their vengeance then was
+only slaked by the blood of the Christian Bishop.
+
+The Saint's martyrdom was the crowning consummation of the Saint's life.
+With the Bishop of Durham's help we can now collect all that we shall
+probably ever know of both; and to this we turn in conclusion.[89]
+
+The date of his martyrdom may be accepted as about 155 A. D.[90] If
+Polycarp was then 86 years of age, his birth may be placed in A. D. 60
+or 70, at a time nearly coincident with the date of the destruction of
+Jerusalem. That event was the cause which drove St. John to fix his
+abode ultimately at Ephesus, the traditional home of St. Andrew, and
+near to the Phrygian Hierapolis, where St. Philip the Apostle died and
+was buried. The proximity of Smyrna to Ephesus, and the reputation
+accorded to both in the flattering designation of 'the two eyes' of
+proconsular Asia, would make intercourse between the cities familiar and
+frequent. In the Christian advantages consequent upon such intercourse
+Polycarp had his full share, if it be impossible to assert positively
+that he was a Smyrnaean by birth, and of Christian parentage. But the
+legends at the close of the fourth century, as embodied in the story of
+Pionius, sought and found for his origin a more romantic, if sad,
+beginning. One night, God's Angel appeared to a widow of Smyrna named
+Callisto, rich in worldly wealth, but still more rich in good work.
+'Go,' he bade her, 'to the Ephesian gate. There you will find two men.
+They have with them a young lad for sale. Give them their price, and
+take and keep the child. He is by birth an Eastern.' The child was
+Polycarp. She did as she was bid. She bought and reared him, and
+eventually left to him all her substance. The fact implied in the last
+words, that Polycarp was a comparatively well-to-do man, is the one fact
+out of the above story supported by more authentic documents. Perhaps
+also the picture of the man, so pleasing and natural, drawn by Pionius,
+may present traits faithful to the original:--
+
+     'The love of knowledge and the fondness of the Scriptures,
+     which distinguishes the people of the East, bore rich fruit
+     in him. He offered himself a whole offering to God, by
+     prayer and study of the Scriptures, by spareness of diet and
+     simplicity of clothing, by liberal almsgiving. He was
+     bashful and retiring, shunning the busy throngs of men, and
+     consorting only with those who needed his assistance. When
+     he met an aged wood-carrier outside the walls, he would
+     purchase his burden, would carry it himself to the city, and
+     would give it to the widows living near the gate. The
+     Bishop Bucolus cherished him as a son, and he in turn
+     requited his love with filial care and devotion.'
+
+But we may catch from real and genuine sources three glimpses of the
+man: in youth as the disciple of St. John, in middle age as the champion
+of Ignatius, in closing life as the teacher of Irenaeus. Of the circle of
+disciples who gathered round St. John, Polycarp is indubitably the most
+famous. He delighted, in his declining years, to tell his younger
+friends what he had himself heard from eye-witnesses of the Lord's life
+on earth; and he would dwell especially on his intercourse with the
+Apostle of Love. There is nothing improbable in the belief, that he was
+ordained to the episcopate by the venerable Apostle. Among his
+contemporaries were Clement, Papias, and Ignatius. Polycarp knew, as has
+been stated, the letter of the great Bishop of Rome, and Papias--his
+'companion,' as Irenaeus[91] calls him--became his neighbour at
+Hierapolis. But it is with Ignatius that the younger man is inseparably
+linked. They met, probably for the first (and only) time, at Smyrna when
+the great Bishop of Antioch was on his way to martyrdom at Rome.
+Touching in their affectionateness are the remarks which each passes
+upon each. Polycarp inspires Ignatius with 'love.' The younger man is to
+the older 'most blessed,' 'clothed with grace,' marked by 'fervid
+sincerity,' a man 'whose godly mind is grounded on an immovable rock'
+(Letter to Polycarp). To Polycarp, Ignatius 'the blessed' is the pattern
+of men, 'obedient unto the word of righteousness and practising all
+endurance,' 'encircled in saintly bonds which are the diadems of them
+that be truly chosen of God and our Lord.' The two men parted, never
+again to meet on earth, yet to be linked together by 'martyrdom
+comformable to the Gospel' But ere that 'birthday' arrived, Polycarp had
+to live for nearly half a century; and potent was his influence upon the
+men of a younger generation. Melito, Claudius Apollinaris, and
+Polycrates, famous among the Fathers of Asia, must have known him well;
+Justin Martyr visited him from Ephesus; but mightiest and dearest of all
+was his pupil Irenaeus, the champion of orthodoxy against Gnosticism.
+
+     'When I was still a boy,' wrote Irenaeus, '(I was) in company
+     with Polycarp in Asia Minor.... I can tell the very place in
+     which the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed,
+     his goings out and comings in, his manner of life and his
+     personal appearance, his discourses which he gave to the
+     people, and his description of his intercourse with John,
+     and the rest of those who had seen the Lord.'[92]
+
+Those were reminiscences and lessons never forgotten by the future
+Bishop of Lyons. To him, as to 'all the churches of Asia and to the
+successors of Polycarp' himself, the pupil of St. John was 'a much more
+trustworthy and safe witness of the truth than Valentinus and Marcion,
+and all such wrong-minded men.'[93]
+
+The end came at last. A persecution was raging; how or why we know not.
+All that can be known is told in the 'Letter of the Smyrnaeans.'[94] The
+simplicity and pathos of the story, as told by this ancient document, so
+moved the great Scaliger, that he felt hardly master of himself. We
+cannot tell the tale of triumph in better words than in those of that
+exquisite piece of ecclesiastical antiquity. The great annual festival
+was being held at Smyrna, presided over by the Asiarch and 'high
+priest'[95] Philip, a wealthy citizen of the wealthy Tralles, and graced
+by the presence of the Proconsul Statius Quadratus. The persecutor had
+asked for blood, and blood had been granted him. Already several
+victims, Philadelphians, 'so torn by lashes that the mechanism of their
+flesh was visible even as far as the inward veins and arteries,' had
+'endured patiently;' showing to the weeping bystanders such bravery that
+the explanation became current--'(these) martyrs of Christ being
+tortured, were absent from the flesh, or rather the Lord was standing by
+and conversing with them.' Others 'condemned to the wild beasts, endured
+fearful punishments, being made to lie on sharp shells and buffeted with
+other forms of manifold tortures, that the devil might, if possible, by
+the persistence of the punishment bring them to a denial; for he tried
+many wiles against them.' Men remembered afterwards how 'the right noble
+Germanicus,' scorning the pity the Proconsul would have extended to his
+youth, 'used violence, and dragged the wild beast towards him.' Such
+bravery, 'the bravery of the God-fearing and God-beloved people of the
+Christians,' only whetted the pagan thirst for blood. There rang out the
+shout, 'Away with the atheists![96] Let search be made for Polycarp!'
+He had gone against his will into the country, probably to one of his
+own farms; and he was found without much difficulty. He placed before
+his captors food and drink, and asked but a single boon of them--'one
+hour that he might pray unmolested.' Those mounted soldiers, 'wondering
+why there should be such eagerness for the apprehension of an old man
+like him,' gave their consent. 'He stood up and prayed; and being full
+of the grace of God, for two hours he could not hold his peace, so that
+they who heard him were amazed, and many repented that they had come
+against such a venerable old man.' They brought him to the city, seated
+on an ass. Steadily did he refuse the real and sincere endeavours of
+compassionate heathen to 'save himself.' 'What harm,' they asked, 'is
+there in saying, Caesar is Lord, and offering incense?' He would only
+answer, 'I am not going to do what you counsel me.' As he entered the
+stadium, the human roar, fiercer and more cruel than that of wild
+beasts, rose above every other sound. Polycarp did not heed it; a voice
+came to him from heaven, 'Be strong, Polycarp, and play the man;' and,
+nerved by what other Christians had also heard, he stood at last before
+Statius. Words, at first pitiful, greeted him: 'Have respect to thine
+age!--Swear by the genius of Caesar! Say, "Away with the atheists."' The
+Saint caught up the last word. He 'looked with solemn countenance upon
+that vast multitude of lawless heathen; and groaning and looking up to
+heaven, he said, 'Away with the atheists.' Was he then yielding? The
+Proconsul had misunderstood him, but he pressed him hard and said 'Swear
+the oath, and I will release thee. Revile the Christ!' Polycarp looked
+him in the face, and gave him the answer which can never die. 'Fourscore
+and six years have I been His servant, and He hath done me no wrong. How
+then can I blaspheme my King Who saved me?' The words of pity changed
+into threats. 'I have wild beasts here,' said Statius, 'and I will throw
+thee to them except thou change thy mind.' 'Call them,' was the
+unflinching answer. 'If thou despisest the wild beasts, I will cause
+thee to be consumed by fire.' Polycarp remembered a dream of three days
+before in which he had seen his pillow burning with fire, and which he
+had interpreted to those with him as signifying that he would be burnt
+alive. He answered now, 'Thou threatenest that fire which burneth for a
+season and after a little while is quenched. For thou art ignorant of
+the fire of the future judgment and eternal punishment, which is
+reserved for the ungodly:' and then he added--in his impatience to be
+'made a partaker with Christ'--'But why delayest thou? Come, do what
+thou wilt.' Saying this, 'he was inspired with courage and joy, and his
+countenance was filled with grace.'
+
+The herald's proclamation was soon heard announcing three times,
+'Polycarp hath confessed himself to be a Christian;' and again the human
+yell broke forth from Gentile and Jew, this time fashioning itself into
+distinct speech: 'This is the teacher of Asia, the father of the
+Christians, the puller down of our gods, who teacheth numbers not to
+sacrifice nor worship.... Let the lion loose upon him!' 'That is
+impossible' was the answer of the Asiarch, 'for the sports have closed.'
+They shouted out 'with one accord, "Burn him alive!" Quicker than words
+could tell, the crowds collected timber and faggots from workshops and
+baths, and the Jews especially assisted in this with zeal, as was their
+wont.' They placed around him the 'instruments prepared for the pile,'
+and were going to nail him to the stake. He interposed with his last
+request of men, 'Leave me as I am. He that hath granted me to endure the
+fire, will grant me also to remain at the pile unmoved, without the
+security you seek from nails.' They 'tied him to the stake.' He stood up
+'like a noble ram out of a great flock for an offering, a
+burnt-sacrifice made ready and acceptable to God;' and looking up to
+heaven, made his last request of God in one of the noblest prayers
+preserved in ancient or modern literature. His Amen said, 'the firemen
+lighted the fire. The mighty flame flashed forth,' and men saw then,
+what in later days they saw repeated at the martyrdom of a Savonarola
+and of a Hooper,[97] the fire, 'like the sail of a vessel filled with
+wind, surrounding as with a wall the body of the martyr. It was there in
+the midst, not like flesh burning, but like gold and silver refined in a
+furnace.' Could he not die?
+
+     'Lawless men, seeing that his body could not be consumed by
+     the fire, ordered an executioner to go up to him and stab
+     him with a dagger. And when he had done this, there came
+     forth a quantity of blood,[98] so that it extinguished the
+     fire; and all the multitude marvelled that there should be
+     so great a difference between the unbelievers and the
+     elect.'
+
+The Christians hoped to have taken away the 'poor body,' but 'the
+jealous and envious Evil One, the adversary of the family of the
+righteous,' instigated the Jews to urge upon the magistrate not to give
+up his body, lest they (the Christians) should abandon the crucified One
+and begin to worship this man,... 'not knowing' (add the narrators) 'how
+impossible it would be for them to forsake at any time the Christ Who
+suffered for the salvation of the whole world of those who are
+saved--suffered, though sinless, for sinners--not to worship any other.'
+The body was placed again on the pile and consumed. Then 'the bones,
+more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold,' were
+taken up and laid in a suitable place.
+
+So died a Polycarp as had died an Ignatius, both martyred, and both
+memorable for 'nobleness, patient endurance, and loyalty to their
+Master.' The motto of their deaths was the motto of their lives,
+condensed into the saying of the martyr of Antioch to the martyr of
+Smyrna:--
+
+    '[Greek: hopou pleion kopos, poly kerdos.]
+
+    'The greater the pain, the greater the gain.'
+
+We know nothing certain of the tombs which tradition or affection have
+pointed out as the last resting-place of the calcined remains of either
+Saint, but we need no longer such perishable monuments. The
+English-speaking and English-reading race have in the volumes of the
+Bishop of Durham a fitting shrine for those literary remains which
+survive destruction. Scholarship and piety, study and prayer, have here
+combined to shed light upon the writings, and to raise a monument to the
+lives, of those champions of early Christianity, who in their day
+wrought a good work, and still speak, though dead.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] Bishop Lightfoot's 'Ignatius and Polycarp,' by Prof. A. Harnack,
+Ph.D, in 'Expositor' for December, 1885, p. 401.
+
+[65] 'The Apostolic Fathers,' p. 116. By Canon Scott Holland.
+
+[66] [Greek: hechtroma], 'Ep. to the Romans,' 9, with Bp. Lightfoot's
+note. Compare 1 Corinth. xv. 8.
+
+[67] Herod, vii. 31, 187.
+
+[68] 'Ep. to the Rom.' 5, 'to the Ephes.' II, with note
+
+[69] See the useful Table in i. 222, and the excursus on 'Spurious and
+Interpolated Epistles' in i. 223-266. Cf. also the 'Appendix Ignatiana,'
+ii. 587, &c.
+
+[70] Such as Eusebius and Theodoret. Cf. i., pp. 137-40, 161-4. The
+catena of quotations and references from the second to the ninth
+century, given in i. 127-221 (cf. the hint on p. 220) is most important
+for the construction of the text, and as a preliminary to the
+determination of the priority and authenticity of the Epistles.
+Harnack's objections to the quotation from Lucian (i. 129) are not
+shared by Baur or Renan, and are indirectly met by Bishop Lightfoot, i.
+331-5.
+
+[71] Stephen Marshall, Edward Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen,
+William Spurstow.
+
+[72] i, 79 For example, as regards the order of the words in the Greek
+text this latin translation may be treated as an authority. The Greek is
+rigidly followed without any regard for Latin usage. So also Greek
+articles are scrupulously reproduced, in violation of Latin idiom. New
+or unusual Latin words are introduced to correspond as exactly as
+possible to the original; _e.g._ ingloriatio = [Greek: akanchesia];
+multibona ordinatio = [Greek: to polyeutaktan], &c.
+
+[73] See i. 72. For the text edited by Dr. W. Wright, see ii. 657., &c.;
+and for a translation, ii. 670, &c.
+
+[74] 'De scriptis quae sub Dionysii Areopagitae et Ignati Antiocheni
+nominibus circumferuntur,' &c. (1666). The Bishop of Durham
+characterizes Daille's treatment of the Ignatian writings as marked 'by
+deliberate confusion.' He knows the facts, but makes the Vossian letters
+bear all the odium attached to the 'long' recension. Pearson's work,
+'Vindiciae Epistolarum S. Ignatii,' appeared six years later in 1672.
+This reply as compared with the attack was 'as light to darkness.' In
+England it closed the controversy.
+
+[75] Trall. 5.
+
+[76] See, for example, Rom. 4, 9: Trall. 3, 13; Ephes. 1, 3, 21.
+
+[77] Rom. 5.
+
+[78] Smyrn. 8.
+
+[79] See i. 400, 405.
+
+[80] Consult Bishop Lightfoot's Essay on this subject in his Commentary
+on the Epistle to the Philippians (p. 181, &c.). The 'Teaching of the
+Twelve Apostles,' published in 1884, is rightly referred to now by the
+Bishop of Durham as confirming his positions.
+
+[81] Comp. Irenaeus, 'Haer.' iii. 3, Sec. Sec. 3,4; iii. 14, Sec. 2.
+
+[82] Essay in 'Philippians,' p. 218.
+
+[83] Cf. Bishop Lightfoot's edition of 'St. Clement of Rome,' App. p.
+252, &c.
+
+[84] Iren. 'Haer.' iii. 3, 4.
+
+[85] Cf. i. 568, &c.
+
+[86] See i. 50, &c.; ii. 532. The Bishop of Durham's collection of facts
+and references dealing with this subject is an admirable
+specimen--everywhere repeated--of the exhaustive treatment he applies to
+single points.
+
+[87] Letter of the Smyrnaeans, Sec. 12.
+
+[88] He had learnt the trick of keeping lighted tow or straw in his
+mouth. See other instances in Milman's 'History of the Jeos,' ii. 429,
+n. _x_.
+
+[89] Cf. Justin Martyr in Eusebius, 'Hist.' iv, 8.
+
+[90] i. 422, 629, &c. Mr. Rendell, in the 'Studia Biblica' (oxf. 1885),
+has come to the same conclusion by an independent treatment.
+
+[91] Haer. v. 33, 34.
+
+[92] Euseb. 'Hist. Eccl.' v. 20
+
+[93] Iren. 'Haer.' iii. 3.
+
+[94] The genuineness of the main document (at least) is unaffected by
+recent attacks. The impugning process of Schuerer, Lipsius, and Kelm has
+been successfully resisted by Renan, Hilgenfeld (in part), and the
+Bishop of Durham (i 588, &c.).
+
+[95] The subjects of the Asiarchate, of the identity of Asiarch and
+high-priest, have suggested to the Bishop of Durham another of those
+exhaustive discussions which will win for him the gratitude of the
+students (see ii. 987, &c.)
+
+[96] The name given by the heathen to the Christians, whom they counted
+godless because they had neither image nor visible representation of the
+Deity. See ii. 160, note to line 1.
+
+[97] See i. 599 nn. 1, 6.
+
+[98] On the celebrated reading, 'there came forth a dove and a quantity
+of blood, see ii. 974, note to i. 3. It is to be explained by the
+belief, that the soul departed from the body at death in the form of a
+bird; the dove most readily suggesting itself as the emblem of a
+Christian soul.
+
+
+
+
+Art. VIII.--1. _An Address delivered to the Students of Edinburgh
+University on Nov. 3, 1885._ By the Earl of Iddesleigh, Lord Rector of
+the University of Edinburgh.
+
+2. _Hearing, Reading and Thinking: an address to the Students attending
+the Lectures of the London Society for the Extension of University
+Teaching._ By the Rt. Hon. G.J. Goschen, M.P.
+
+3. _The Choice of Books and other Literary Pieces._ By Frederic
+Harrison. London, 1886.
+
+
+The subject of Books and Reading is _in the air_ at the present time;
+Lord Iddlesleigh raised the question last November, by his admirable
+discourse on Desultory Reading, delivered at Edinburgh. Sir John Lubbock
+was not slow to follow the lead, in his lecture at the Working Men's
+College; and lastly, we have Mr. Goschen's more abstract and despondent
+remarks on Hearing, Reading, and Thinking. The discussion has been
+carried forward from Newspaper to Journal, and from Journal to Magazine,
+and has attracted representatives of the most heterogeneous elements
+into the ever widening circle. Sir John Lubbock wound up by enumerating
+a _hundred_ of the books--
+
+     'most frequently mentioned with approval by those who have
+     referred directly or indirectly to the pleasure of reading,
+     and I have ventured to include some, which though less
+     frequently mentioned, are especial favourites of my own. I
+     have abstained for obvious reasons from mentioning works by
+     living authors.' ('Self Help,' however, is admitted into Sir
+     John's revised list), 'though from many of them, Tennyson,
+     Ruskin, and others, I have myself derived the keenest
+     enjoyment; and have omitted works of Science, with one or
+     two exceptions, because the subject is so progressive. I
+     feel that the attempt is over bold, and must beg for
+     indulgence; but indeed one object I have had in view is to
+     stimulate others, more competent far than I am, to give us
+     the advantage of their opinions. If we had such lists drawn
+     up by a few good guides, they would be most useful.'
+
+The challenge thus thrown down was quickly taken up by the Editor of the
+'Pall Mall Gazette,' who forthwith sent out a Circular to certain
+eminent men of the day, inviting them 'to jot down such a list--not
+necessarily containing a hundred volumes--as would help the present
+generation to choose their reading more wisely.' Whether the majority of
+the 'guides' thus appealed to have responded to the call, we are not
+informed; the replies of several have been published; and our thanks are
+due to those who have been instrumental in opening up a discussion of
+great variety and universal interest; though we must confess to some
+regret that the initiative was not given in a different form. Why the
+number should be fixed at one hundred; why works of Science should be
+excluded; why Biography and Travels should enjoy so meagre a
+representation on Sir John Lubbock's list, are questions to which no
+satisfactory answer has been given.
+
+Who is it, we would ask in the first place, for whom this list is
+primarily intended? Not the man whose love of books is firmly
+established, for he will have chosen for himself his own walk among the
+innumerable highways and byepaths of literature; nor he whose tastes are
+just forming, for the field is too wide, and he would hardly prefer the
+Analects of Confucius, the Shahnameh, and the Sheking, to 'Marco's
+Polo's Travels,' Lockhart's 'Life of Scott,' and 'AEsop's Fables.' No
+list, however, that could be drawn up would escape criticism, and our
+desire is not so much to suggest in what manner the present list might
+be amended, as to indicate how, in our opinion, it might have been made
+to serve some practical purpose.
+
+'Books have brought some men to knowledge and some to madness. As
+fulness sometimes hurteth the stomach more than hunger, so fareth it
+with arts; and as of meats, so likewise of books, the use ought to be
+limited according to the quality of him that useth them.' Thus wrote
+Petrarch, and the comparison between the bodily and mental digestion, if
+trite, is very far from being a mere superficial analogy.
+
+Those who are blessed with a judicial friend, quite competent to make a
+diagnosis of their literary capacity and prescribe a diet, are indeed
+fortunate--'sua si bona norint.' Such prescriptions have been long since
+made, and handed down to us. That written out by Doctor Johnson, for his
+friend the Rev. Mr. Astle of Ashbourne, is brief enough, and savours of
+the drastic remedies fashionable in the last century.[99] If on glancing
+over the Doctor's list our readers are inclined to assume that the Rev.
+Mr. Astle was possessed of a very healthy digestion, we would remind
+them that solid joints and heavy folios were more in vogue at that time
+than in these days of French cookery and periodical literature.
+
+In later times Comte also, among others, has furnished a catalogue, or
+syllabus of books for general reading; but even his faithful follower
+Mr. Harrison admits, half apologetically, that it 'has no special
+relation to current views of education, to English literature, much less
+to the literature of the day. It was drawn up thirty years ago by a
+French philosopher, who passed his life in Paris, and who had read no
+new book for twenty years.'
+
+'What shall I read?' There are few questions more frequently asked than
+this; few, perhaps, to which a thoughtless answer is more frequently
+given. Coming from one of that large class to which Lord Iddesleigh has
+given the name of 'indolent readers,' it might be assumed to be lightly
+asked, and might be as lightly answered by the recommendation of some
+three-volume novel, or the more fashionable shilling's-worth of gruesome
+mystery; but if the enquirer be a young book-lover, a worthy answer is
+far to seek. The diagnosis and opinion of the physician do not present
+greater difficulties, and in many cases are not attended by more
+momentous results. To turn a juvenile adrift in Sir John Lubbock's list
+would be to prescribe an exclusive diet of richly seasoned dishes and
+rare wines to a convalescent patient--to feed him on strong meats, on
+cavaire and truffles, and to omit the simple, wholesome, homely fare on
+which, in his condition, health and efficient progress must in the main
+depend.
+
+How often has the young enquirer been imbued with a distaste for solid
+literature by being compelled to read 'masterpieces' long before he was
+able to appreciate their value, or even to comprehend their history! The
+system at many of our schools is much to blame in this respect. There
+are, we believe, comparatively few boys who acquire, until they seek it
+for themselves, even the roughest general outline of the world's
+history, to which their various episodic studies may be applied, so that
+each may fall into its proper place and order. 'Periods' and 'Epochs'
+are studied minutely and painfully, without any knowledge of the grand
+structure of which they form but a single fragment; and history is too
+often divorced from geography. A schoolboy is set to work on a play of
+Aristophanes before he has made acquaintance with the social and
+political movements of which Pericles and Cleon were the
+representatives. He reads his Bible and his Homer, his Virgil and
+Horace, his Caesar and Livy, but probably with the vaguest ideas of their
+relations to one another, or their respective positions in the world's
+chronology. Or it may be that the whole of one term is devoted to one or
+two books of 'the Iliad' and 'the Odyssey,' 'the AEneid' or the 'Odes,'
+which are ground out line by line and word by word, all the interest and
+flavour of the complete work being inevitably and hopelessly dissipated
+in the process. Even 'the college prizeman, and the college tutor cannot
+read a chorus in the Trilogy but what his mind instinctively wanders on
+optatives, choriambi, and that happy conjecture of Smelfungus in the
+antistrophe.'[100] But certain books having to be got up for an
+examination by the cramming process, the receptacle for all this
+erudition only looks forward to the time when he may throw his Classics
+behind the fire for ever. No book with the least pretention to permanent
+value can be read purely by and for itself; inevitably it must draw on
+the reader--if he be in any sense worthy of the name--from point to
+point beyond its own immediate sphere, until he finds his interest
+expanding and his tastes forming under a natural and rapid process of
+evolution. Can any intelligent person read his Homer or his 'AEneid,' his
+Boswell, his 'Old Mortality,' or 'The Voyage of the Beagle' without
+asking himself who are these strange characters, and where are these
+strange lands that seem so familiar to us?
+
+He who stands on a hill and surveys a wide landscape, easily recognizes
+the leading features of the country--the river and the homestead, the
+church and the corn-field--they need no guide, they tell their own tale.
+In like manner the great landmarks of the literature of the past are
+well defined and unmistakable to him who has eyes to see and a mind to
+comprehend. The traveller may choose his line, and as he goes his way he
+will not fail to find guides who will give him the directions which
+passing doubts and difficulties may render necessary. The world's great
+books stand out as the old stone walls of some great feudal
+fortress--prominent and indestructible. Their original uses have been
+superseded by the world's advance; but time and change add greatly to
+their interest. He, however, who finds himself entangled in the dense
+jungle of books that are not 'masterpieces,' and are so plentiful in
+modern literature, is in a sorry plight; his way lies through this
+jungle, be it long or short, and he cannot escape it altogether. He has
+heard of the quiet groves of the Academy, and of the heights of
+Parnassus, but he is rarely able to catch a glimpse of them. He is
+whirled along and loses his foothold in the eddying torrent of
+periodical literature; or he is entangled in the briars of controversy,
+and, torn and vexed, is apt to lose his way. Here then it is that he
+particularly needs a guide, and here it is that Sir John Lubbock bids
+good-bye to him, and leaves him to his own resources.
+
+The student, thus perplexed, may be surprised to learn from Mr. Ruskin
+that 'any bank clerk could write a history as good as Grote's,' and that
+Gibbon only chronicled 'putrescence and corruption; 'he may be deeply
+interested in the information that Professor Bryce prefers Pindar to
+Hesiod, that the Lord Chief Justice knows nothing of Chinese or
+Sanskrit, and that Miss Braddon has spent 'great part of a busy life
+reading the "Quarterly and Edinburgh Reviews."' But all this does not
+help him in his bewildering journey among the 10,000 books which are
+annually flooding the world of English speaking readers--a mass of which
+we fear that the quality advances in inverse ratio to the quantity.
+
+Sir John Lubbock's list, as it stands, suggests a gathering of
+illustrious Generals and officers, without any men. They are very
+distinguished and admirable in appearance and qualifications, but would
+be doubly so if seen at the head of the army which they lead and
+represent. Had Sir John commenced by marshalling his hundred books in
+groups, either of subjects to be studied or of readers to be provided
+for, and then called upon the 'guides' to fill up the gaps, and supply
+the rank and file of his army, he would have earned the thanks of all
+book-lovers.
+
+In the selection of books two considerations must alternately be
+paramount. One of these would have reference to the subjects to be
+studied, the other would have reference to the readers to be provided
+for. We are aware of the long controversies and technical difficulties
+involved in this question of Classification, which has stirred the
+hearts of Librarians from time immemorial, but for our present purpose
+the elaboration of an exhaustive scientific system is unnecessary; a
+statement of the rough headings and divisions, under which the books for
+general readers should be grouped, presents no insurmountable obstacles.
+Various minor considerations may subsequently assert themselves; as, for
+example, whether the books are required with the ultimate object of the
+formation of a library, and 'the cultivation of literature is an object
+which cannot be accomplished without the acquisition of a library of a
+greater or less extent,' or for the mere purpose of amusement. To draw
+up such a catalogue as we propose would exceed the capacity of any
+single individual; each section should be the work of one or more
+persons specially versed in the subject.
+
+We are, of course, dealing rather with those who are aspiring to be book
+lovers than with those who, having already attained to that distinction,
+can trust to the guidance of their own inclinations. These aspirants
+must seek first an able and judicious guide for each department of
+study. One guide may be fully competent to make a list of works in
+history or biography, but may lack experience in philosophy or in art;
+while, on the other hand, the regimen prescribed for the country curate
+would hardly be appropriate for the mechanic or the soldier.
+
+But, first, we must endeavour to define, by a rough process of
+elimination, the book lover, whether mature or in embryo. He is not the
+mere 'glutton of the lending library,' who bolts the contents of the
+monthly box without discrimination and without reflection, his main
+object being to while away an idle day or to gain a superficial
+reputation at the next dinner party at which he may be present; nor is
+he the collector of gaudy bindings; nor one who has never possessed nor
+desired to possess a library of his own, who has never read a book more
+than once, and has never committed to memory a single passage. He is not
+the man, in short, who fails to realize that 'the utility of reading
+depends not on the swallow but on the digestion.'
+
+From the American Westerner who buys an Encyclopaedia in parts, and finds
+in it all that he requires of instruction and amusement, to the princely
+founders of libraries--the Spencers and Parkers, the De Thous, the
+Sunderlands, and the Beckfords--is a wide interval, and includes all
+sorts and conditions of men, diverse from one another in everything but
+their love of books.
+
+Sir John Lubbock, by his eminence in the world of science and the world
+of commerce, is admirably qualified to draw up a list of works on
+science and trade. But these he has unfortunately excluded from his
+consideration. Such lists would be invaluable to the thousands who from
+intellectual, or more purely mercenary motives, are now seeking for
+light. Had Sir John classified his list on some simple and
+discriminating plan, such as we have suggested, we might, as a result of
+the discussion, have obtained a summary of works on art by Mr. Ruskin,
+or a soldier's library by Lord Wolseley. Others, whose replies have been
+published, would have furnished special lists; and a still wider circle
+would, no doubt, have seen their way to rendering much help and service.
+We should, moreover, have been spared some rather irrelevant and wayward
+criticisms to which the discussion has given rise.
+
+Two or three of the 'guides' have, with more or less success, adopted
+for themselves a definite system. Mr. William Morris has given us a
+list, the perusal of which may perchance arouse serious misgivings in
+the heart of the general reader, who cannot 'even _with_ great
+difficulty read Old German,' and who has not yet been educated up to the
+point of regarding Virgil and Juvenal as 'sham classics.' The
+'Admiral's' list is good, if somewhat too technical; and we would plead
+for the admission of Southey's 'Life of Nelson,' even, if need be, to
+the exclusion of the 'Annual Register' in 110 volumes. The Head Master
+of Harrow 'tried to think how he should answer a boy's question if he
+were to ask, at any point of his school life, what books it were best
+worth while to read before the end (let me say) of his thirtieth year;'
+and we venture to regard Mr. Welldon's list as the best of all in point
+of conciseness and practical value.
+
+The last to enter the lists, though not under the auspices of the 'Pall
+Mall Gazette,' is Mr. Frederic Harrison, who comes armed with a volume
+entitled 'The Choice of Books,' though four-fifths of the contents have
+strayed far away into such remote pastures as 'The Opening of the Courts
+of Justice,' 'A Plea for the Tower of London,' and 'The AEsthete.' With
+the small residue of the book, which has remained faithful to the
+titlepage, we have little fault to find. Mr. Harrison, as might be
+expected, regards everything through the spectacles of Auguste
+Comte--'hinc omne principium, huc refer exitum.' Comte's 'Syllabus,' to
+which we have already referred, was the basis of at least one of his
+essays, and is the subject of his closing remarks.
+
+For our present purpose, the first article, 'How to Read,' is
+undoubtedly the most valuable and practicable. It deals in a
+straightforward and vigorous manner with many of the snares and
+difficulties by which the reader is beset, and sweeps away much of the
+sentimental, sickly, criticism which is unfortunately prevalent at the
+present time. We think, however, that Mr. Harrison is inclined to raise
+the standard of taste too high for the mass of general readers.
+
+     'Putting aside the iced air of the difficult mountain tops
+     of epic, tragedy, or psalm, there are some simple pieces
+     which may serve as an unerring test of a healthy or vicious
+     taste for imaginative work. If the "Cid," the "Vita Nuova,"
+     the "Canterbury Tales," Shakspeare's "Sonnets," and
+     "Lycidas" pall on a man; if he care not for Malory's "Morte
+     d'Arthur" and the "Red Cross Knight"; if he thinks "Crusoe"
+     and the "Vicar" books for the young; if he thrill not with
+     the "Ode to the West Wind" and the "Ode to a Grecian Urn";
+     if he have no stomach for "Christabelle," or the lines
+     written on "The Wye above Tintern," he should fall on his
+     knees and pray for a cleanlier and quieter spirit.'
+
+Now we believe that there is many a humble aspirant to literary taste on
+whom the above paragraph will produce an effect similar to that of 'iced
+air and mountain tops' by taking his breath away. Literary palates are
+mercifully endowed with tastes and appreciations as varied as mere
+bodily palates, and we must protest against any such Procrustean method
+of ascertaining whether a man's 'spirit be cleanly and quiet,' or, which
+is terrible to contemplate, the reverse. On another page Mr. Harrison
+himself loudly deprecates and disclaims any narrow or sectarian view; he
+is nothing if not Catholic in his tastes. 'I protest that I am devoted
+to no school in particular; I condemn no school; I reject none. I am for
+the school of all the great men; and I am against the school of the
+smaller men.'
+
+All taste must be founded on knowledge, and between the hard, dry
+teaching of the Board School or the Examination Room on the one hand,
+and the aetherial atmosphere of Desultory Reading and the purest literary
+discernment on the other, there lies an intermediate region, a
+'penumbral zone,' which differs from the first in that it is entered
+voluntarily, and from the second in that it is attainable by all who
+care to enter it. The way through this region, though pleasant is
+laborious; system, accuracy, and discipline are essential to him who
+would traverse it. To be a desultory reader, in the sense defined by
+Lord Iddesleigh, a man must first have been a student; and not to every
+student is given the temperament, capacity, and opportunity, to become a
+desultory reader--still less can every student aspire to that refined
+literary taste, which Mr. Harrison possesses in so large a measure, and
+which, in its characteristics, he describes so well.
+
+So far as modern literature is concerned, it may be said, that the
+Reviewers are, by their skill and experience, qualified to direct, and
+ever ready to aid the wayfarer; and in theory this is true. But, putting
+aside the few leading journals and periodicals, daily and weekly--of
+which we would only speak with the greatest respect--we fear that the
+reviewer's art is at a low ebb in these days. Often the side breezes of
+controversy, of private jealousy, or of personal interest, intervene to
+divert straightforward criticism; still more often does absolute
+incompetence render these guides worthless. A score of books may be
+seen, huddled together in an unbroken column of so-called criticism,
+with no other bond of union than their publication in course of the same
+week. The interested author, wading through this disconnected mass,
+suddenly stumbles on a few words extracted--possibly perverted--from his
+own preface, to which a line of commonplace commendation is affixed; and
+he then suddenly encounters a subject as far removed from his own as the
+'Republic' of Plato is distant from 'Called Back.'
+
+Among all these discordant voices, who shall help us to detect the true
+ring? Thrice happy are those privileged few who enjoy the loving care
+and supervision of some wise mentor to guide their choice and to watch
+their progress; but for the multitude, to whom such a privilege is
+denied, a good classified list, not excluding recent works, carefully
+sifted and added to by the most prominent men of the day, would be of
+inestimable value.
+
+In the first place, a connected chain of histories, from the earliest
+times to the present day, with a selected list of contemporary memoirs
+and biographies, would throw a guiding gleam of light on thousands who
+are wandering, dark and aimless, in a labyrinth of 'masterpieces.' In
+this enquiry system is essential. Of desultory comments, charming and
+instructive in themselves and valuable in the formation of taste, we
+have abundant store. Who that has read Emerson's 'Essay on Books,' or
+Charles Lamb's 'Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading,' or Isaac
+Disraeli's 'Curiosities of Literature' and 'Literary Character,' or
+Byron's brilliant and impulsive criticisms on books and authors, can be
+without some kindling of enthusiasm and of desire to know more fully the
+great works thus passed in critical review? But the essential
+characteristics of such commentaries as these are snares to the student.
+The temptation to pass from one subject to another is inseparable from
+treatment of this kind, and so becomes a hindrance to more earnest
+application.
+
+Dibdin's 'Library Companion' in some respects fulfils the requirements
+we have mentioned; but apart from the fact, that the information it
+contains is now in a great measure obsolete, too much space is devoted
+to the description and value of choice and rare editions. It is a
+book-buyer's rather than a reader's guide. Perkins's 'The Best Reading'
+is too bald a catalogue, and requires a vast amount of sifting, and the
+addition of a few words of running comment to render it serviceable. It
+lacks, in short, the characteristics of a _catalogue raisonnee_.
+
+The Historical List which we have proposed should be prefaced by a
+chronological table, indicating the epochs into which the World's
+History divides itself, and the periods covered by each of the works
+recommended. This would give the student a bird's-eye view of the field
+which he is about to explore, and enable him, at any moment in his
+exploration, to take his reckonings and verify his position.
+
+Careful distinction should be made between Chroniclers and Historians,
+between those who have provided the materials and those who have
+designed and reared the complete structure. Sometimes these chroniclers
+have furnished merely rough and unhewn stones, useful in themselves,
+but with no pretence to artistic finish or individuality of character;
+and these have been absorbed into the building. Other chronicles, again,
+are perfected in form, and are not merely integral, essential portions
+of the complicated structure, but become a source of endless pleasure
+from the merit of their workmanship. Thucydides and Clarendon are
+universally read, while Hecataeus has all but vanished; and Thomas May's
+'History of the Long Parliament,' though pronounced by Lord Chatham to
+be a 'much honester and more instructive book of the same period than
+Lord Clarendon's,' is relegated to the shelves of the specialist or the
+bookworm.
+
+Histories are scarcely less ephemeral than books of science; and the
+object of the list we are advocating is not to provide an exhaustive
+catalogue, a task which in these days would overtax the capacity of
+half-a-dozen Dr. Johnsons, but to select those works which will give the
+best continuous narrative of the period under discussion, and represent
+the most recent scholarship; omitting those which have been absorbed or
+superseded.
+
+Mitford and Gillies have given place to Thirwall and Grote; and even the
+star of Hallam, outshining De Lolme, is beginning to wane before the
+searching light which, by the publication of State Papers and other
+archives, is being brought to bear on the History of England and of
+Modern Europe. But such materials, though ruthlessly relegating much of
+what we have hitherto regarded as the 'Pearls of History' to the
+category of 'Mock Pearls,' cannot immediately be made available for the
+ordinary student, or become absorbed into the popular histories of the
+day. We can ill spare from our list the names of those writers, who,
+from Livy to Lord Macaulay, have added a fascination to the study of
+history; though in their works most beautiful Mock Pearls abound. But
+the student should be warned against implicit reliance on their records.
+
+To Clarendon has been ascribed the honor of being the first Englishman
+who wrote History, as we regard it; his predecessors having been in the
+main mere chroniclers or annalists. Clarendon elaborated the picture of
+which these annalists had merely supplied the materials; and the
+eighteenth century saw the development of this new method in the
+brilliant triad of contemporaries, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Our own
+age has witnessed a further advance in the school of philosophical
+historians, who, without aiming at any connected narrative of events,
+present to us the profound lessons which history teaches; pointing out
+the far-reaching causes which have influenced and are influencing
+events occurring in widely distant countries; causes and events which to
+the superficial observer seem totally disconnected. This philosophical
+category would form one of the most interesting, and in these days, when
+political empiricism shows a growing tendency to supplant statesmanlike
+research, not the least important portion of our historical list. If to
+this main stem of History there be added the due complement of branches
+and leaves--memoirs and biographies--the Plutarchs and Pepyses, the
+Walpoles and St. Simons, the Crokers and Grevilles of each
+generation--we shall have a tree of knowledge which would yield to none
+in point of interest and utility.
+
+We have dwelt at some length on this part of the subject, first, because
+of its almost unlimited extent; and secondly, because, owing to this
+extent, there is such difficulty in making a genuine and trustworthy
+selection. There is, besides, an apparently constant antagonism in
+history between the qualities of strict accuracy and literary
+brilliancy. The two are not incompatible, but the striving after
+literary merit is as great a snare to the writer as its attainment by
+the writer is, in too many cases, to the student.
+
+Of voyages and travels, 'I would also have good store, especially the
+earlier, when the world was fresh and unhackneyed, and men saw things
+invisible to the modern eye: They are fast-sailing ships to waft away
+from present troubles to the Fortunate Islands.'[101] Grouped under each
+quarter of the globe, we should have selections of the works of those
+travellers, who, from Herodotus to Mr. Stanley, and from Marco Polo or
+Captain Cook down to Miss Bird, have made us who stay at home familiar
+with the remotest corners of the earth. Much of the romance of travel
+has of necessity perished in these matter-of-fact days; but as the
+writing of history has developed from a mere chronicle of events into a
+scientific and philosophical method, so the art of travelling is now
+assuming a political form under pressure of the gigantic problems which
+are exercising the mind of the civilized world; and a section of
+political travels, of which Mr. Froude and Baron von Huebner have
+recently given us examples, should not be omitted.
+
+Without pretending to enumerate all the departments which our catalogue
+should comprise--and most of them are too obvious to require
+enumeration--we would suggest a good selection of the best translations
+and editions of the Greek and Roman Classics. In mentioning translations
+we, of course, disclaim any recommendation of the common 'crib,' but
+refer to those scholarly works which have brought the classical
+masterpieces to the very doors of the general public; such, for example,
+as Rawlinson's 'Herodotus,' or Prof. Jowett's 'Plato and Thucydides;' as
+Lord Derby's 'Iliad,' Gifford's 'Juvenal,' or Conington's 'Virgil:' nor
+is the crib more widely removed from such works as these, than, in the
+matter of editions, is Anthon's 'Virgil,' for example, from Munro's
+'Lucretius.' In the opinion of Mr. Harrison, this 'is the age of
+accurate translation. The present generation has produced a complete
+library of versions of the great Classics, chiefly in prose, partly in
+verse, more faithful, true, and scholarly than anything ever produced
+before.' Mr. Harrison's own essay on the 'Poets of the Old World,' goes
+far to supply one at least of the branches of this section. Last, but by
+no means least, do we plead for a guide to 'Children's Books.' We run
+some risk in these days of competitive examinations and 'higher
+education,' of placing instruction too prominently in the front, to the
+exclusion of pure amusement; forgetting that it is through the
+imagination that the interest of a child is most readily aroused, and
+that, unless the interest be aroused, our educational labours will be
+worthless. A child can live in an atmosphere of genial fiction, and
+appreciate it, without the danger which lurks in a misrepresentation of
+what passes around him in his daily experience. It is exaggeration, not
+fiction, that is liable to injure the mind of a child.
+
+On the vital question, 'how to read,' the student has received matter
+for careful and deliberate consideration, alike from Lord Iddesleigh and
+Mr. Goschen, from Mr. Harrison and Mr. Lowell. The burden of their
+advice is the same, though the forms differ; they all unite in
+deprecating and deploring the hurry, the want of application, the want
+of restraint which prevail in the present day. The hurrying reader, on
+the one hand, and the indolent reader, on the other, are the types to be
+avoided with the most scrupulous care. We suffer from an excess of
+opportunities, and require to be constantly reminded that 'it is
+impossible to give any method to our reading till we get nerve enough to
+reject.'
+
+If we look through the long list of English literary celebrities, we
+cannot but be struck with the large proportion of those who have
+received little or no regular education in their early days, and whose
+opportunities of study have been of the scantiest. Ben Jonson working as
+a bricklayer with his book in his pocket: Wm. Cobbett reading his
+hard-earned 'Tale of a Tub' under the haystack, or mastering his grammar
+when he was a private soldier on the pay of 6d. a day; when 'the edge of
+my berth or that of my guard-bed was my seat to study in; my knapsack
+was my bookcase; a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing table,
+and the task did not demand anything like a year of my life:' Gifford,
+as a cobbler's apprentice, working out his problems on scraps of waste
+leather; or Bunyan, confined for twelve years in Bedford jail with only
+his Bible and 'Foxe's Book of Martyrs,' are but a few among scores of
+instances which will immediately suggest themselves.
+
+There are many persons who are possessed with a strange and
+unaccountable conviction, that to read a book and to write a book are
+processes which require little, if any, previous training or
+preparation. The one error is sufficiently obvious to all who pay any
+attention to the great mass of cheap literature which is pouring from
+our printing-presses; the other is less easy of detection. 'The first
+lesson in reading is that which teaches us to distinguish between
+literature and merely printed matter,' is the admirable maxim laid down
+by Mr. Lowell, and this is one of the essential points in which the
+personal influence of an experienced friend is of inestimable value. As
+the latent beauties of some great masterpiece of art unfold themselves
+to our eye under the guidance of a Kugler or a Ruskin, and we are thus
+enabled to detect their presence or their absence in the works of other
+hands and other schools, so in the masterpieces of literature the
+realization of the points, wherein the chief merits of each lie, places
+us in a position to form a standard--to possess a talisman, which shall
+enable us unerringly to detect the true from the false. Mrs. Knowles
+said of Dr. Johnson, 'He knows how to read better than any one; he gets
+at the substance of a book directly; he tears the heart out of it.' This
+faculty, which was exhibited in a marvellous degree also in Southey and
+Macaulay, is as rare as it is enviable; but there are not a few who
+erroneously suppose themselves to be possessed of it. The hurried,
+careless, method of reading is one of the chief dangers a student should
+guard against. In studying a work of biography, for example--but above
+all in studying the classics--the first requisite, and one which is, as
+we have said, sadly overlooked in public school teaching, is the
+acquisition of a simple, general outline of the period to which the work
+relates. In the fashionable phrase of the day, the books so read are
+frequently not in correspondence with their environment. To him whose
+views of Roman history are but a shapeless mist, if not an absolute
+void, Virgil and Horace are sealed books; nor can any one who is
+ignorant of Scotland and her traditions penetrate beyond the husk of
+'Waverley' or 'Old Mortality.' To the young beginner a few judicious
+words of explanation at the commencement of a book may serve to awaken
+that interest without which reading is useless, and to make darkness
+light; and, similarly, a few words of discussion, when the book is
+completed, will have the effect of consolidating the floating ideas to
+which the perusal has given rise. The habit of casting aside a book as
+soon as the last page is read, without pondering over its contents and
+recalling the argument and refreshing the memory where it has failed, or
+allowing the 'frenzied current of the eye to be stopped for many moments
+of calm reflection or thought,' is apt to render worthless all the
+previous effort. Lord Erskine, we are told, was in the habit of making
+long extracts from Burke, and Lord Eldon is said to have copied out
+'Coke upon Littleton' twice with his own hand. 'Writing an analysis,'
+says Archibishop Whately,[102] 'or table of contents, or index, or
+notes, is very important for the study, properly so called, of any
+subject. And so also is the practice of previously conversing or writing
+on the subject you are about to study.' Reading can produce a beneficial
+result only in proportion to the extent and accuracy of information
+previously stored in the mind of the reader. Such information is like
+the roots of some flourishing oak; every fresh fact is, as it were, a
+new fibre confirming and strengthening the growth of the tree, and
+attracting nourishment from new soil.
+
+'The moment you have a definite aim, attention is quickened, the mother
+of memory; and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself in an
+order that is lucid, because everywhere and always it is in intelligent
+relation to a central object of constant and growing interest.'[103]
+Bearing this in mind, we would urge the student to investigate every
+unfamiliar allusion which may occur in the course of his reading or
+conversation. A fact or subject thus sought out fixes itself more firmly
+in the memory than most of those which are merely passed in the ordinary
+course of reading.
+
+The use of odd moments should not be overlooked. 'Blockheads,' wrote Sir
+Walter Scott, 'can never find out how folks cleverer than themselves
+came by their information. They never know what is done at
+dressing-time, meal-time even, or in how few minutes they can get at the
+sense of many pages.' It is not possible always to have a book at hand,
+but any one who will take the trouble to copy out, from time to time,
+passages which have attracted his attention, and carry them about with
+him to learn by heart at odd moments, may perhaps be astonished to find
+how much may be acquired in this manner.
+
+There are some books which by their nature lend themselves to a snatchy
+method of perusal, and a few minutes may often be well employed in
+reading an ode of Horace, or the disjointed conversations of Dr.
+Johnson, but such moments should as a rule be devoted to books which are
+already more or less familiar. The habit of frivolously taking up, and
+as frivolously casting aside, a book is, however, one which should be
+guarded against with the utmost care. It was a strict rule in the family
+of Goethe the elder, that any book once commenced should be read through
+to the end. Dr. Johnson, on the other hand, considered a rule of this
+kind 'strange advice; you may as well resolve that whatever men you
+happen to get acquainted with, you are to keep them for life.'
+
+A snare, which did not exist in the time of Goethe or of Dr. Johnson,
+presents itself in these days to the reader, in the ever-increasing mass
+of periodical literature. But the busy man, who has not time to turn
+aside from his own work to the thorough investigation of the topic of
+the hour, may sometimes, in the pages of a magazine, find the case
+stated tersely by distinguished advocates on both sides; and he may thus
+at least discern the main positions of assailant and assailed. An
+exhaustive and genuine review of a book is occasionally afforded by
+periodical literature, more rarely perhaps than is generally believed;
+but such essays to have any value, should be read only after the work to
+which they relate, a condition that is, we fear, seldom fulfilled.
+
+The 'desultory reader' has now been defined and elevated. We can hardly
+be mistaken in considering that by reason of Lord Iddesleigh's admirable
+remarks the expression has acquired a new signification; at least a
+large number of those who may have fondly imagined themselves to be
+desultory readers have now been effectually eliminated from the
+category.
+
+We live in days of 'specialism,' and the book-making specialist of our
+generation probably yields to none of his predecessors in the literary
+roll in respect of industry, skill, and accuracy; but his subject, as a
+rule, is his business, his breadwinner. The desultory reader regards
+literature as his pastime and recreation. Happy is he who has the time,
+the opportunity, and the education, to become a desultory reader, in
+Lord Iddlesleigh's sense of the word.
+
+But admitting that Desultory Dilettanteism may under certain favourable
+conditions be both profitable and a fascinating attainment, and claiming
+as we do a very high value for good guidance in the choice of books, we
+must not lose sight of the fact, that the basis on which the main
+practical question of the selection and proper use of books rests, is
+not what is good in general, or in special literature, but what is
+fitted for each individual man. And to discover this the man himself, or
+his immediate ancestor, the youth or boy, must be examined. The
+foundation of success in any sphere of life is physical and mental,
+nervous and moral aptitude; and those who have to direct, or to decide
+for, or to advise the young respecting their career in life, should make
+the personal condition of their proteges their careful study. From the
+ascertained condition the capacity of each may be discerned, and his
+future capabilities may be, to some extent, foreseen. These capabilities
+are the indicators of the course of reading first required; by them the
+youth's career should chiefly be selected and decided on. Unfortunately
+in most cases careful forethought is neglected. Qualities that actually
+make the man are, in a decision that affects his hopes and happiness for
+life, too often overlooked; and some mere transient incident, esteemed
+perhaps a stroke of fortune, is accepted, without any hesitating thought
+about the suitability of its results, as a sufficient introduction to
+the business of the world. The consequence of this neglect is obvious
+enough. In every social and commercial sphere we find men drudging on in
+hopeless slavery, or ruined by the natural revolt of sensibilities that
+could not be controlled, against the influence of circumstances wholly
+inappropriate, and for which these sensibilities, most useful in their
+proper sphere, were not of course designed.
+
+A young man's very desultory reading will perhaps be one of the most
+useful means for finding what his life's career should be. Knowing
+himself, or being known, as has been said, by those directing him, and
+by his own discursive reading having learnt what work for his peculiar
+abilities is open for him in the world, he probably will judge quite
+readily what line of study he should at first pursue, and following out
+this clue, at first by the aid of judicious external guidance, he will,
+with ever-increasing self-reliance and discrimination, proceed to fulfil
+the requirements of education and the inclination of his own mental
+disposition. This method of development is the natural order by which
+intellectual growth, by means of books, or any other means, proceeds. To
+make a choice of certain hundred books for any man's perusal, in his
+youth or afterwards, is but a feat of cleverness, arousing curiosity or
+wonder, but evolving nothing--ending in the choice. A man may be
+possessed of any number of good books; and possibly a thousand books
+might be selected, all of which would be by general consent called
+excellent, and worth possessing; and perhaps he would be none the
+better for them all. Young men do not require a hundred books at once.
+Indeed the fewer well-selected books a youth has to begin with, the more
+safe he is against excessive loss of time. His most important question
+is not, what shall I read? but, what need I read? The student's care
+should be to read as little, and to think as much as possible. Thus, he
+will find what thing it is that he at any time immediately requires to
+know, and he will make this pressing need the object of his next
+acquirement in books. This method tends to education; it develops mental
+power, and makes a cultivated man. A hundred books procured and read
+without appropriate sympathy, and interest, and thought, will merely
+make an animated bookcase of the man.
+
+Not only should the student's books be few, but as he reads he should be
+constantly upon his guard. Most readers read to be informed or to be
+entertained; and books of information are absorbed as if all printed
+statements must of course be true, or even if not true must, as a
+record, be worth knowing. This omnivorous, careless style of reading is
+a grievous waste of life and energy. Were books read with critical,
+enquiring thought, the time misspent in reading would be wholesomely
+reduced, and readers would increase in mental power in due proportion to
+their increased information.
+
+In books of entertainment, and especially of fiction, corresponding
+carefulness is necessary. There are books among the best which are, in
+various degrees and ways, of evil influence, and should be read with
+caution and reserve. To yield one's self to the enjoyment of an
+entertaining book may be as foolish as to give one's self into the hands
+of an untried agreeable companion. Ability to please is to these
+incautious subjects of it a most dangerous influence; and books as well
+as men when most attractive should be treated warily. In Rabelais and
+Swift, in Fielding and Smollett, coarse manners must be reprobated. In
+George Eliot's novels, with exceptions, and in 'Jane Eyre,' there is a
+subtle taint that is unwholesome to the unguarded reader. Thackeray too
+frequently compels us to associate with evil company; and, while
+admiring the writer's skill, the reader should keep well outside of
+almost every group in Thackeray's novels.
+
+Distinct alike from the progressive student and the discriminating
+reader, is an abundant class who, without individuality, and mere
+omnivorous devotees of books, chiefly reading the lighter literature of
+the day. These people, through excess and self-indulgence, become
+feeble-minded, intellectually dissipated, and incapable of serious
+study. In every rank of life the book-devouring vice abounds; but
+chiefly among women, girls, and boys; men finding in the newspapers
+their daily pabulum. This thoughtless, fragmentary, reading has
+debilitated the contemporary mental fibre of the nation; and has so
+absorbed the time, we cannot say the attention, of the immense majority
+of the reading public, that many of them are ignorant even of the
+existence of the standard works of literature. The late discussion,
+therefore, about books has been of use; it has made known to the great
+community of people, who now can read, the fact, that there are certain
+books, a hundred more or less, far more worth reading than the popular
+and periodical literature of the day. If this discovery could be
+impressed upon the public mind with practical effect, the result would
+be a beneficial change in their condition. The abundant tattle and
+affected interest about names and things of mean and transient
+notoriety, and the discursive dinner-table gossip of the world would
+then perhaps subside; and English conversation would become a constant
+and a beneficial intellectual enjoyment.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[99] Croker's 'Boswell,' pp. 767, 8vo. ed.
+
+[100] 'The Choice of Books,' p. 37.
+
+[101] Mr Lowell's Address at the dedication of the Free Public Library,
+Chelsea, Massachusetts.
+
+[102] Notes to Bacon's 'Essays.'
+
+[103] Mr. Lowel.
+
+
+
+
+Art. IX.--1. _Popular Government. Four Essays._ By Sir Henry Sumner
+Maine. Second Edition. London, 1886.
+
+2. _Democracy in America._ By Alexis de Tocqueville. Translated by Henry
+Reeve. New Edition. London, 1862.
+
+3. _On the State of Society in France before the Revolution of 1789._
+Translated by Henry Reeve. Second Edition. London, 1873.
+
+4. _Correspondence and Conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with
+Nassau W. Senior, 1834-59._ London, 1872.
+
+5. _On the Government of Dependencies._ By Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
+London, 1841.
+
+6. _On the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion._ By the Same.
+London, 1849.
+
+7. _A Dialogue on the best Form of Government._ By the Same. London,
+1863.
+
+8. _The English Constitution._ By Walter Bagehot. Revised Edition.
+London, 1883.
+
+
+Of the latest Work on the Characteristics of Democracy we are precluded
+from speaking, as Sir Henry Maine's valuable Essays first appeared in
+the pages of this Review. But we desire on the present occasion to call
+attention to some writers on the subject, who are almost unknown to a
+younger generation, or known only by occasional references made to them
+by those who were well acquainted with the writers and their works. And
+among these half-forgotten names few perhaps will recur more frequently
+in the recollections of the best-informed men of from forty-five to
+sixty, or more surprise those who have entered on life since their
+owners left it, than those of Alexis de Tocqueville, Nassau William
+Senior, and Walter Bagehot. Among the statesmen of the last generation,
+few who will fill so small a space in history are so often or so
+reverently quoted by those who remember Lord Palmerston's Government,
+the Crimean War, and the Indian Mutiny, as Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
+Most men under forty will hear with surprise that in the City, at least,
+he was deemed a sounder and safer financier than Mr. Gladstone; honoured
+as the Chancellor of the Exchequer who first redeemed the financial
+reputation of the Whigs from the discredit that had clung to the party
+of retrenchment and reform for a whole generation. Of the small minority
+who know him as the founder of the English school of historical
+sceptics, how many have heard of his multifarious literary and political
+works, or his shrewd, genial, two-edged, criticisms on public and social
+life? It seems too probable that our grandchildren will retain nothing
+of his save the characteristic saying, that 'life would be very
+tolerable but for its pleasures;' and _that_, probably, will be assigned
+to some more famous and far less wise _causeur_ or phrasemaker, losing
+half its force in the transfer. Even Mill is known to the passing and
+the rising generation by different works and diverse characteristics. To
+the one he is little more than the greatest, most original, and most
+heretical of English economists; a standard author on logic and
+metaphysics. The other prefers to remember him by his later and lesser
+writings; those sexagenarian and posthumous Essays, in which the riper
+wisdom of a mind, very slow to learn the lessons of practical life, was
+gathered, and the wilder errors of his earlier theories modified or
+corrected. Much of that which is really best in his thought and
+teaching, set forth in these last writings, bears a close analogy to the
+views of Tocqueville Senior, and Bagehot, and shows that a tardy,
+hardly-acquired, unwillingly accepted, knowledge of men and women, of
+the real and ineradicable tendencies of human nature, brought the giant
+of the closet into nearer accord with the practical philosophy of a man
+like Sir George Cornewall Lewis, wise, calm, and judicial, by natural
+temper, wiser yet by the closet-study which had analysed the experiences
+of the literary, business, and political, world, of administration,
+Parliament, and the Cabinet.
+
+One common and very striking feature characterizes the political
+thought of all these men--all of them Liberals in more than mere nominal
+profession or party connection. All regarded the triumph of Democracy as
+near and inevitable, and all, from different points of view, regarded it
+with a mixture of resignation and distrust, strangely significant in men
+of such different views, of such diverse character, mental training, and
+personal experience. None of them were fatalists, much less pessimists;
+none inclined _a priori_ to that political superstition which
+recognizes, in the tendencies of a thing so uncertain and changeful as
+the spirit of the age, the hand of Providence, or the indication of
+'manifest destiny.' All were men of more than average independence of
+temper, an independence which, in one or two, approached nearly to that
+which practical politicians call impracticability. None of them were
+disposed to be silent when the many-headed Caesar had spoken. Mill's most
+striking, and--to the credit of Democracy be it spoken--most popular
+characteristic, was a stern and almost pardoxical defiance alike of
+personal consequences and of public opinion. On the verge of his
+entrance into public life he affronted the working-classes by telling
+them, with more than Carlylese directness and exaggeration, that they
+were 'mostly liars.' If ever there were a man sure to protest to the
+last against false doctrines and mischievous tendencies, to protest the
+more fiercely the more certain their victory seemed, it was John Stuart
+Mill.
+
+Tocqueville, conscious of no common political and administrative
+capacity--a statesman whose strong popular sympathies, practical wisdom,
+contempt of popular catchwords, knowledge of and respect for concrete
+facts; above all, whose signal freedom from the characteristic
+weaknesses and vices of French statesmanship, rendered him the fittest
+of all men to direct the destiny of France, whose counsels and guidance
+would have saved her from all the worst mistakes and most signal
+disasters--was content to spend a lifetime first in opposition,
+afterwards in absolute exile from public life, rather than go 'the way
+that was not his way for an inch.' An Orleanist, an enthusiastic lover
+of Parliamentary institutions, he would not stoop with Guizot and Thiers
+to serve a King whose power was founded on corruption. A minister of the
+President, he held aloof as sternly from the despotism of the Empire as
+from the factions of the Republican Assembly. He never designed to
+conceal or soften the expressions of the most unpopular sentiments or
+convictions.
+
+Sir George Cornewall Lewis was an eminently English statesman, fully
+aware of the necessity of mutual concession--more willing than most to
+be guided as a Minister by the tradition of his office, to leave the
+administration for which he must answer in Parliament to the practical
+experience of his permanent subordinates--but one whom, assuredly, no
+one ever accused of undue pliancy, or excessive deference to party or
+popular feeling.
+
+Mr. Bagehot alone of the three was a man likely, _coeteris paribus,_
+to prefer the winning side; to believe that the belief of the many was
+likely to be right; looking, however, to the opinion of the many
+educated and thoughtful rather than of the many ignorant and
+over-occupied. Yet all agree at once in treating the coming rule of
+numbers almost as a law of nature, which it were folly to criticize and
+madness to resist; and in anticipating its advent with doubt and
+distrust, with deep and sometimes gloomy apprehension. Their constant,
+thoughtful concurrence in both convictions, their equal assurance that
+pure Democracy was dangerous and that it was inevitable, deserves a
+profound significance from their utterly distinct points of view; from
+the utter unlikeness of their tempers, their experience, and their
+natural bias.
+
+Sir George Cornewall Lewis, as a Liberal politician, was decidedly
+distrustful of electoral reform, and accepted it only as a party
+necessity. His personal delight in the exposure of popular errors, his
+insistence on the value of authority, and the immense extent of the
+sphere in which the thought and conduct of the many are necessarily
+controlled by the authority of the few, the spirit of such books as his
+'Essay on the Government of Dependencies' are those of a mind wholly
+adverse to democratic theories, and intensely mistrustful of popular
+judgments. He was not fascinated by what he describes as 'the splendid
+_vision_ of a community bound together by the ties of fraternity,
+liberty, and equality, exempt from hereditary privilege, giving all
+things to merit, and presided over by a government in which all the
+national interests are faithfully represented.' He put these words into
+the mouth of the advocate of Democracy in his 'Dialogue on the best form
+of Government,' which he published shortly before his death. In this
+work his own views are expressed in the person of Crito.
+
+     'Even if I were to decide in favour of one of these forms,
+     and against the two others, I should not find myself nearer
+     the solution of the practical problem. A nation does not
+     change the form of its government with the same facility
+     that a man changes his coat. A nation in general only
+     changes the form of its government by means of a violent
+     revolution.... The history of forcible attempts to improve
+     governments is not cheering. Looking back upon the course of
+     revolutionary movements, and upon the character of their
+     consequences, the practical conclusion which I draw is, that
+     it is the part of wisdom and prudence to acquiesce in any
+     form of government, which is tolerably well administered,
+     and affords tolerable security to person and property. I
+     would not, indeed, yield to apathetic despair or acquiesce
+     in the persuasion that a merely tolerable government is
+     incapable of improvement. I would form an individual model,
+     suitable to the character, disposition, wants, and
+     circumstances of the country, and I would make all
+     exertions, whether by action or by writing, within the
+     limits of the existing law, for ameliorating its existing
+     condition, and bringing it nearer to the model selected for
+     imitation; but I should consider the problem of the best
+     form of government as purely ideal, and as unconnected with
+     practice; and should abstain from taking a ticket in the
+     lottery of revolution, unless there was a well-founded
+     expectation that it would come out a prize.'
+
+The conservatism of Lewis was that of a profoundly sceptical instinct,
+of practical cautious incredulity. Bagehot's was the conservatism of
+middle-class English thought and experience. Tocqueville's was that of
+wide observation and bitter disappointment. Mill was a Conservative only
+so far as conservatism was forced upon a mind essentially radical and
+even revolutionary, imbued with a profound faith in abstract principles
+leading far beyond universal suffrage to, if not across the verge of
+communism, by the danger which he foresaw to individual liberty and
+unfettered intellectual freedom from the ascendency of mere numbers.
+Upon this point he agreed closely with Tocqueville, though upon nearly
+every other their views were as opposite as their character and
+experience; and their teaching has been fully confirmed by the actual
+working of the most successful, the most tolerant, and the most
+fortunately situated democracy that the world has ever seen.
+
+The tendency of Democracy to naked despotism is obvious enough in the
+recent history of France; but sanguine democrats ascribe the special
+experience of France to the intense centralization inherited, as
+Tocqueville shows, by the Republic, the Constitutional Monarchy and the
+Empire from the _Ancien Regime_; the absence of any local school of
+practical discussion, mutual tolerance, and co-operation; the bitterness
+of factions fighting not for administrative or legislative control, but
+for fundamentally incompatible forms of Government,--to anything rather
+than the unfitness of the French nation for Teutonic liberties.
+Conservative pessimists and democratic optimists can only find a common
+ground, a test which both will accept, in the experience of the United
+States. Whatever vices are found in American democracy must be inherent
+in democracy itself; and it must be granted that, looking on the surface
+of public life, the larger facts of national history, and the material
+condition of the people, there is no evidence, obvious to the hasty
+observer, of interference with personal freedom, of any demoralizing or
+weakening influence on individual character exercised by political or
+social equality. It is outside of the proper field of politics, in facts
+invisible to distant observers, and not visible at a glance to
+thoughtful travellers, that we must seek for proof of the bearing of
+democratic institutions and ideas upon personal and social liberty, upon
+the maintenance of individual and collective rights.
+
+Upon such a point the remarks of a leisurely, thoughtful, cultivated
+writer, like Richard Grant White, a man who had enjoyed exceptional
+opportunities of comparing the effect upon daily life of English
+aristocracy and American democracy, are more instructive than the
+elaborate treatises of political theorists or the generalizations of
+historians. The testimony of such writers bears out the inference which
+careful students might draw from English history, that the influence of
+a local and landed aristocracy is far more favourable, than that even of
+a landed democracy, to the jealous and resolute assertion of legal
+rights, to a strenuous and successful resistance to the encroachments of
+power, social or political, upon the property, the comfort, the liberty,
+and the privileges, of individuals or communities. The moral of Mr.
+Grant White's sketches of English and American life is, that the English
+peasant or tradesman is far safer from practical oppression or injustice
+than the American farmer or citizen; that an Englishman, whatever his
+rank, is far more free to speak his mind, and far more likely to have a
+mind worth speaking, than one of the same position in France, or even in
+Massachusetts. The lively interest in, the diffused knowledge of,
+politics and public matters, found among educated, and even
+half-educated men and women throughout the upper and middle classes of
+England, evidently impressed Mr. White by the contrast it presented to
+the indifference of American 'Society' to State and Federal politics. He
+notes particularly the higher tone, the wider knowledge, the freedom
+from petty class and personal concerns, the broader range of thought,
+the familiarity with subjects of general human interest, which
+characterize the conversation of an English dinner-table or
+drawing-room, as compared with that of American clubs and parlours. He
+speaks, with the bitterness of a man often and deeply bored, of the
+limited range of American table-talk, the prominence of the 'shop,' the
+professional interests of each chance assemblage; the price of stocks
+and railway shares, and the chances and changes of Wall Street; the
+inferior tone of thought among men and women alike, in the best or at
+least the wealthiest society of New York and Philadelphia. In this he is
+incidentally confirmed by so observant and candid a social critic as
+Laurence Oliphant. There is an American society of higher cultivation
+and loftier interests; but that society, except in Boston, is
+necessarily scattered and somewhat exclusive; and, standing wholly aloof
+from politics, lacks the knowledge of history, of legislation, of social
+and economic interests, of current opinion, of foreign affairs--which is
+in itself a sort of liberal, if necessarily superficial, education.
+American ladies, and even gentlemen, hardly know who are the Senators
+for their State, much less who is the representative of their district;
+care nothing for, and know little of, the debates in Congress, still
+less in the State Legislature, deeply as these may affect the well-being
+of the community, the laws under which they and their children are to
+live.
+
+But this lack of interest in public affairs has a deeper and far more
+reaching consequence. Everybody's business is nobody's business. In a
+community really democratic there are no natural leaders; none bound by
+rank, station, and recognized primacy, to originate resistance; none too
+strong to be crushed by the animosity of a Fiske or a Gould, or
+grievously wronged by a corrupt corporation like that of New York, a
+dishonest political organization like Tammany Hall, or a powerful
+Tramway or Railway Company. The consequence is, that not only the
+individual citizen, but a whole community submits to high-handed
+oppression, to administrative and judicial corruption, to impudent
+usurpation and flagrant illegalities, such as the greatest of English
+corporations would never dream of attempting. Perhaps the most
+oppressive and insolent exactions, to which living Englishmen have as
+yet submitted, are those of the Water Companies of London; but the
+offenders have repeatedly been resisted and brought to justice; and it
+is in London alone, the one English city which lacks natural leaders and
+protectors, which is too large for any citizen or body of citizens--save
+that great City Corporation which English Radicalism has marked for
+destruction--to speak and act in its name, that the Water Companies
+would have been endured for five years. Even in London, no such
+high-handed interference with the rights of property and the comfort of
+families, as the Elevated Railways of New York, with their uncompensated
+destruction of individual privacy and comfort throughout many of the
+wealthiest streets of the first city in the Union, would have been
+obviously and utterly impossible.
+
+The tolerance of Democracy for what seem to English ideas the grossest
+form of oppression--oppression systematic and legal, arbitrary power and
+class privilege, formally embodied in the law and made a fundamental
+principle of government--is illustrated by that clause of the Code
+Napoleon, which exempts the whole bureaucracy of France from civil or
+criminal liability. No official can be prosecuted, no redress sought at
+law for the abuse of powers the most extensive, affecting every man's
+daily life--powers which enable their holder to harass and almost ruin
+individuals and communities at his pleasure--save by permission of the
+Council of State, a body of officials inclined of course to believe and
+to shield its subordinates. This law has been sustained by each
+successive Government that has seized the reins of centralized power;
+nor are we aware that any serious effort has been made to repeal it.
+
+The tyranny of democracy is, as Mill insists, the most formidable,
+searching, and irresistible of all. Under an autocracy or oligarchy,
+public opinion is the protector of the injured, and imposes limits on
+arbitrary power. Assassination is the resort of the victim driven to
+frenzy by individual oppression, and tempers the sternest despotism; but
+Demos wields opinion and defies the dagger. By general confession life
+is far less free, individual taste, caprice or eccentricity is kept
+under far sharper restraint by fashion and feeling, in America than in
+aristocratic England. At every epoch of American history, the freedom of
+opinion has been curtailed at certain points within strict if
+ill-defined limits. The patriots of Virginia proclaimed in 1775 that any
+who dared 'by speech or writing to maintain' Royalist or Constitutional
+views should be treated as an enemy of his country. A similar ban was
+put some fifty years ago upon the Abolitionists of Illinois and
+Connecticut. A time came when it was almost equally dangerous to
+maintain the constitutional doctrines which the Abolitionists had
+assailed. Nowadays, of actual persecution there is little, because there
+is little need; because the repression acts, save with the most
+independent, original and contradictious tempers, upon thought rather
+than expression. No human intellect or character can resist the
+universal, insensible, unconscious, pressure of the atmosphere which
+surrounds it from the cradle. Upon certain political, social, and
+ethical dogmas, wherever national pride and democratic prejudice are
+touched, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say, that the 'unanimous
+opinion' of the North and West has demoralized or extinguished thought
+itself.
+
+Demos is not only tyrant but Pope. He feels, and his courtiers venture
+openly to claim for him, not only the royalty which can do no wrong, but
+the infallibility which can define right and wrong themselves. He
+resents, we are told upon democratic authority, all pretension to
+special knowledge.
+
+     'No observer of American polities' (Mr. Godkin admits in his
+     reply to Sir Henry Maine) 'can deny that, with regard to
+     matters which can become the subject of legislation, the
+     American voter listens with extreme impatience to anything
+     which has the air of instruction; but the reason is to be
+     found not in his dislike of instruction so much as his
+     dislike in the political field of anything which savours of
+     superiority. The passion for equality is one of the very
+     strongest influences in American politics. This is so fully
+     recognized now by politicians, that self-depreciation, even
+     in the matter of knowledge, has become one of the ways of
+     commending one's self to the multitude, which even the
+     foremost men of both parties do not disdain. In talking on
+     such subjects as the currency, with a view of enlightening
+     the people, skilful orators are very careful to repudiate
+     all pretence of knowing anything more about the matter than
+     their hearers. The speech is made to wear as far as possible
+     the appearance of being simply a reproduction of things with
+     which the audience is just as familiar as the speaker.
+     Nothing is more fatal to a stump orator than an air of
+     superior wisdom on any subject. He has, if he means to
+     persuade, to keep carefully, in outward seeming at all
+     events, on the same intellectual level as those whom he is
+     addressing. Orators of a demagogic turn, of course, push
+     this caution to its extreme, and often affect ignorance, and
+     boast of the smallness of the educationale opportunities
+     enjoyed by them in their youth, and of the extreme
+     difficulty they had in acquiring even the little they know.
+     There is nothing, in fact, people are less willing to
+     tolerate in a man, who seek office at their hands, than any
+     sign that he does not consider himself as belonging to the
+     same class as the bulk of the voters--that either birth, or
+     fortune, or education has taken him out of sympathy with
+     them, or caused him, in any sense, to look down on them.'
+
+Historians treat the vote of the present generation as decisive, morally
+as well as practically, on the issues of the past. The people has, by
+chance or caprice, passed judgment upon questions, in discussing which
+consummate statesmen with intimate practical knowledge of their bearings
+profoundly differed; and that judgment concludes the controversy,
+determines the right or wrong, the wisdom or folly, of men like J.Q.
+Adams, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. We have seen too
+much of this abject superstition in recent English historical essays, as
+well as in political polemics. It is needless to point out the debasing
+effect upon all discussion of such anticipatory appeal to the arbitrary
+decision of Pope or posterity. No man can reason vigorously, frankly,
+forcibly, and fully, who feels that he, or the heirs of his thought, may
+be forced not merely to accept defeat, but to cry '_peccavi_.' The maxim
+'_securus judicat orbis terrarum_' has no place in historical
+criticism; and if it had, one nation is not the world, nor the next
+generation a posterity on whose experience and impartiality reliance
+might be placed.
+
+M. de Tocqueville is known to the world chiefly by two great works. His
+'Democracy in America' was the production of his early manhood. In New
+England he saw democracy at its best and brightest; saw nothing of that
+deterioration which the decay of the old Puritan severity, the infusion
+of a strong foreign element, the corruption and the passions of the
+Civil War, have confessedly caused. The colonial traditions and
+principles were still in modified force; simple habits of life, a
+general prevalence of competence, the absence of ostentatious wealth and
+luxury, left women content to be mothers and housekeepers; a position of
+which, as trustworthy witnesses allege, modern luxury, culture, and love
+of leisure, have rendered them impatient; while the impossibility of
+devolving their domestic duties upon servants makes the family a burden,
+and maternity no longer the deepest instinct and strongest hope of
+womanhood. He saw no beginning of that manifold change of morals and
+manners which the survivors of an elder generation now regard with deep
+dismay. His portrait of Democracy, as seen in New England, is decidedly
+rose-coloured. He saw enough in the Middle and Southern States of the
+working of democracy under different social conditions, to tinge that
+picture with the hues of doubt, if not yet with the sombre colours of
+deep apprehension.
+
+How apt to be partial is the widest and closest political observation is
+shown by the very partial lessons derived from the experience of the New
+World. Few observe how signally the history of Central and South America
+contradicts the inferences so confidently drawn from the United
+States--or rather from the New England of yesterday, and the present
+condition of California and the States bounded by the Lakes and the
+Ohio, the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. Among the States of Spanish
+and Portuguese speech and civilization--it would be too much to say
+blood--the failure of democracy has been complete, glaring, and ruinous.
+Social and political anarchy, utter insecurity of life and property,
+incessant revolution and murderous war, have been its only fruits. The
+happy accident of hereditary princes, exceptionally wise, able, and
+forbearing, has barely saved Brazil. The one prosperous, solvent,
+orderly State between the Rio Grande and Cape Horn is the aristocratic
+republic of Chili. So large, striking, and impressive a fact can hardly
+have escaped a thinker like Tocqueville, whose French birth and
+experience protected him in great measure from the insular ignorance,
+rather than arrogance, which leads the ablest English writers to base
+their political philosophy exclusively upon Anglo-Saxon experience and
+examples: yet it is strange to find so striking a lesson so lightly
+touched by the wisest, widest, most reflective, and best-informed, among
+the political teachers of his age.
+
+In the _Ancien Regime_ we see the seeds of all that is worst and most
+dangerous in the modern French polity: the hothouse which fostered into
+a growth, unknown elsewhere, that passion of envy, which Tocqueville
+regards as the radical vice, the paramount impulse, the fundamental
+principle, of Democracy. The peculiar reasons for this dominant
+sentiment of hatred and jealousy in the democracy of France will be
+found in his own writings. Much as there was to admire in the old
+nobility of France, the people saw it only in an aspect calculated to
+excite unmingled hatred and contempt. It had ceased to govern, to render
+any service in return for privileges, exemptions, and exactions so
+odious, vexatious, and oppressive that no service could atone for them.
+Even these were forgiven to the resident aristocracy of La Vendee. But
+absentees supported by such exactions, an Order known to the people not
+even by neglected duties and ill-directed interference, but solely by
+demands and extortions unconnected with any remaining or remembered
+functions, a class whose wealth and luxury were supported not by rents
+or other returns paid by the tillers of the soil to its original owners,
+holders, or 'lords,' but by rates, tithes, fines, heriots, monopolies
+(to use the nearest English equivalents) levied for their benefit, and
+levied in the worst possible way--what feelings could these excite among
+a people consciously fainting beneath the load of taxes, _corvees_,
+restrictions and imposts, fees and stamps, of which only a part ever
+reached the empty Treasury of the State? Is it strange that so monstrous
+a fabric, when those on whose living bodies it was built rose in revolt,
+should have fallen with a great ruin, and have crushed all whom it had
+sheltered? 'The guilt of an Order cannot palliate the massacre of its
+Innocents.' True; but human nature being what it is, the unreasoning
+burst of fury which strove to stamp out every trace of old institutions,
+to exterminate the race of the unconscious oppressors, was less strange
+than the fidelity of the Vendeans.
+
+And yet that massacre is in itself suggestive. The wholesale butcheries
+of the Terror are accountable; even the attempt of Robespierre, St.
+Just, and Barere to suppress revolt and discontent by _noyades_ and
+_mitraitlades_, if fiendish, is intelligible. It had a political aim. It
+satisfied a definite if diabolical desire. But the executions of
+veteran philosophers, of grey-haired parish-priests, of harmless
+nuns--the deliberate cold-blooded cruelty which punished with death the
+resentment, the imprudence, often the mere birth, of orphaned lads; the
+prayers or the tears of schoolgirls who might well hav urged the piteous
+plea of Sejanus' infant daughter--these recal the indiscriminate
+ferocity of wild beasts, the atrocities occasionally committed by
+destructive maniacs in an excess of fury, or the infectious frenzies of
+lycanthropy and similar forms of epidemic madness, rather than such
+human cruelty as prompted the massacre of Drogheda, the butchery of
+Melos, or the destruction of Carthage. What could schoolboys have done
+worthy of the guillotine, even in the eyes of the Jacobin Club? Girls,
+like children, can try the temper and patience of manhood, and among
+rough men or in rough times get roughly punished; but when, save in
+1793, did men ever think of killing them? There was but one fault
+besides their birth--a fault almost inseparable from their birth--which
+the boy-ensigns and pages, the convent-bred demoiselles, shared with
+their parents; that inalienable, instinctive, inborn grace, that sense,
+air, and bearing of superiority, which we find acknowledged alike by the
+noble and the _bourgeois_, the _von Adel_ and the _buerger_, acknowledged
+by those who regret or resent as distinctly as by those who would uphold
+it. The unpardonable sin of the _noblesse_, the inheritance of which
+they could not be deprived but with their lives, the secret sting that
+maddened the Jacobin to slay not merely the beardless heirs but the
+innocent and helpless daughters of the captured chateau, may perhaps be
+hinted in a question and answer like the following, between Senior and
+De Tocqueville, after the third Revolution had proved its impotence to
+efface the footmarks of nature:--
+
+     'I said that I was told that the distinction between noble
+     and _roturier_ existed in its full force in real life.
+
+     '"Yes," said Tocqueville, "it does, meaning by noble,
+     _gentilhomme_; and it is a great misfortune, since it keeps
+     up distinctions and animosities of caste; but it is
+     incurable--at least, it has not been cured, or perhaps much
+     palliated, by our sixty years of revolution. It is a sort of
+     Freemasonry. When I talk to a _gentilhomme_, though we have
+     not two ideas in common, though all his opinions, wishes,
+     and thoughts are opposed to mine, yet I feel at once that we
+     belong to the same family, that we speak the same language,
+     that we understand one another. I may like a bourgeois
+     better, but he is a stranger." I mentioned the remark to me
+     of a very sensible Prussian, _buerger_ himself, that it was
+     unwise to send out as ambassador any not noble. I said it
+     did not matter in England, where the distinction is unknown.
+     "Yes," he replied, "unknown with you; but you may be sure
+     that when any of our _buerger_ ministers meets one who is
+     _von Adel_, he does not negociate with him on equal terms;
+     he is always wishing to sneak under the table."'
+
+In these conversations, preserved in a separate series of Senior's
+Journals, we have the best, latest, and wisest, of De Tocqueville's
+thoughts; none the less valuable, and to English readers all the more
+intelligible and impressive, that we have them in undress; put into the
+terse, pithy, concentrated style of summarized oral conversation by the
+recorder, instead of being elaborately tricked out in all the formal
+grace of French literary diction by one of the most fastidious of French
+writers. Senior, who habitually wrote down in his Journals the
+conversation of the great, wise, and thoughtful--the leaders of
+political action or literary criticism, the statesmen and thinkers--with
+whom in the course of a leisurely life of social observation he was
+brought into intimate intercourse, had a gift of getting from each man
+the best he had to give. His friends knew that their table-talk was
+recorded, often themselves read and corrected the record, and therefore
+gave him what they were willing to give not to the contemporary world,
+but to posterity; those opinions upon the current facts of the day by
+which they were willing to be judged hereafter. No opinions upon the
+tendencies and consequences, the prospects and passions, the strength
+and weakness of democracy, could well be more valuable than those which
+the painter of Democracy in America--after the experience of many years
+in the public life of France, in the Representative Chamber of the
+Orleans Monarchy, and in the Legislature of the Republic,--delivered for
+the benefit of readers far removed by time and distance, during the
+latter months of the rickety infancy of that ill-starred Government and
+the first period of the Second Empire. Tocqueville spoke from a point of
+vantage, such as few other men have attained, upon a theme which he had
+studied profoundly in youth, and upon which Fate had ever since been
+writing elaborate commentaries. He spoke with a mind naturally calm,
+candid, and judicial, enriched by a deeper knowledge than any other
+Continental writer enjoyed of the working of popular institutions in
+England and America, matured by the experience of a lifetime; spoke
+while the most critical experiments in democratic Constitutionalism and
+democratic Caesarism were being worked out before his eyes.
+
+Founding a so-called Constitutional Monarchy upon a corruption as gross
+as that of Walpole, Louis Phillippe had rendered his power absolute at
+the price of sapping its foundation; and Tocqueville had predicted the
+Revolution long before accident precipitated it--predicted it as an
+inevitable result of the corruption he denounced, and indicated the
+forces of silent discontent which were sure to overthrow it. In 1848,
+and still more in 1871, the people of France at large turned
+instinctively to those natural leaders whom at all other times they had
+so persistently ostracized. Alarmed in the first case by an unexpected
+and undesired triumph of the Parisian populace--in the second, chastened
+by a great national disaster, without definite views or objects of their
+own--they deliberately trusted their interests to the larger landowners,
+whose interests must coincide with theirs; to the men of hereditary
+culture, of thoughtful habits, and wider experience, in whom they
+recognized a natural capacity to deal with problems that bewildered
+themselves, with events that had taken them utterly unawares. But, save
+at such times, and under the sobering influence of such lessons,
+equality, and not liberty, is the root of French Democracy. To equality,
+liberty is readily and unhesitatingly sacrificed.
+
+     _'"Egalite,"_ said Tocqueville, "is an expression of envy.
+     It means in the real heart of every Republican, 'No one
+     shall be better off than I am;' and while this is preferred
+     to good government, good government is impossible. In fact,
+     no party desires good government. The first object of the
+     reactionary party is to keep down the Republicans; the
+     second, if it be the second, object of each branch of that
+     party, is to keep down the two others. The object of the
+     Republicans is, as they admit, _egalite_--but as for
+     liberty, or security, or education, or the other ends of
+     government, no one cares for them."'
+
+It was the passion for Equality that made the Second Empire possible.
+The city _proletariat_ would endure anything but a privilege of class, a
+constitutional monarchy associated in their experience with an
+artificial peerage and a narrow uniform franchise; the _bourgeoisie_,
+terrified by socialism--that is, confiscation--would accept any
+Government strong enough to put and keep down the Reds, the Anarchists,
+who under the Republic had kept Paris always within a week--had brought
+her more than once within twenty-four hours--of sack and pillage. The
+peasantry hated privilege and Socialism with an equal and impartial
+hatred. The First Empire had given them much of what they most prized in
+their actual condition, and was credited with all. Its one hateful
+association was incessant and at last disastrous war, anticipated
+conscriptions, and foreign invasion. The Second Empire, with its promise
+of peace, was the embodiment of their ideal. It promised work to the
+operative, opportunities of fortune to the restless, and safe investment
+to the prudent among the middle-class. Its protectorate of the Pope
+secured the clergy and the women; and it mattered nothing that, crushing
+under foot the freedom at once of the press and the tribune, it incurred
+the bitter hatred of the intellectual classes in a country where pure
+intellect is more ambitious and more immediately powerful than in any
+other. It stood firm and unshaken while it kept its promise of peace and
+prosperity--the firmer that it embodied so distinctly the errors and
+illusions of the many, and not the less popular that it showed so
+profound and cynical a contempt for the intelligence of the few. Its
+Budgets alone would have been fatal to a Government resting on and
+responsible to Opinion, for the rapid growth of the Debt in a time of
+peace and plenty would have terrified men accustomed to sift the
+'capital' and 'revenue' accounts of great Companies, and to calculate
+the resources of Empires as a peasant the yield of his farm. But the
+millions were content; the worse the credit of the State, the higher the
+interest on their savings; the embellishment of Paris and other great
+public works were a practical acknowledgement of the _droit au travail_;
+and the calculations of those, who criticised the fearful waste
+(_coulage_) of such a system, proved to demonstration that a spendthrift
+State must come to the end of a spendthrift _rentier_--with what
+consequences the Commune of 1871 bare witness--found no attention; spoke
+in a tongue not understood by the people. The masses were not even
+alarmed by the warnings of veteran statesmen, consummate financiers, and
+_doctrinaires_ of every school. Only in those great crises when all that
+is left to wisdom is a choice of calamities, as in 1848 and 1871, does
+Demos abdicate; recognize for a moment that all men are not born, much
+less trained to remain, free _and equal_, and entreat the pilots by
+hereditary profession to see the ship of State through the breakers.
+
+In the criticism, and especially in the best, most thoughtful, and least
+obvious criticism, provoked by the long foreseen electoral settlement of
+last year, the direct and indirect influence of Mr. Bagehot's writings
+was constantly to be traced. On this subject he had looked back and
+looked forward farther than most political reasoners. Household suffrage
+seemed to him the inevitable consequence, the logical development, of
+the reform of 1832. It was at that point, as he considered, that the
+right and wrong path had diverged; that chance and destiny, rather than
+choice, determined at the moment the adoption of that which led
+necessarily and logically to sheer Democracy. The practice of the old
+system had become throughly vicious, but the underlying principle was
+sound and safe. All classes, all interests, were represented; but
+accident had given, not to wealth or birth, but to a particular kind of
+wealth, a certain set of families, an enormously disproportionate
+representation. The landed interest was wronged in the utterly
+inadequate representation of the counties. Ireland was misrepresented;
+and the Scotch people could not be said to be represented at all. But
+every class, every great interest, had its spokesmen; exercised a direct
+and independent influence in the national councils. Rotten or pocket
+boroughs were not only nurseries of professional statesmanship, but a
+back door through which interests, whose direct representation was
+impossible, found access to Parliament. The West Indian interest, the
+East India Company, and the statesmen trained in its service, with their
+special knowledge and zealous care for the welfare of our Oriental
+empire, could secure a hearing for views to which no English
+constituency would listen. Under such a system our Australian Colonies,
+the great Dominion of Canada, the English minority which sustains the
+Imperial cause in South Africa, would never have complained, as now,
+that their voice was unheard, their feelings unreflected, in an assembly
+which is no longer merely the Parliament of Great Britain, but the
+Senate of an Empire greater than that of Rome.
+
+The working classes were represented through those numerous
+constituencies in which the scot and lot franchise prevailed. It was
+imperative that the abuses of the system should be redressed; that the
+new communities which had grown up since the Restoration should be
+directly represented; that the borough proprietors and the great
+families should be deprived of their excessive weight in Parliament;
+that the middle class should acquire a power more adequate to its new
+social and political importance; that Scotland, again, should be really
+and directly represented. But in Mr. Bagehot's view universal and varied
+representation was of more consequence than arithmetical proportion. No
+class, no interest, represented in the House of Commons, was likely to
+be grossly wronged, none could be neglected or unheard. No class
+intelligent enough to understand its own grievances, to have distinct
+ideas and desires of its own, would have failed, under a reform
+retaining the principle of the old system, to command attention and
+secure redress. Had Pitt been able to carry out his well-known and
+thoroughly sincere scheme of practical reform, or had Canning and his
+followers sided with the Whigs upon this as upon almost every other
+question, reform might have anticipated revolution. It was the weakness,
+rather than the will, of the Whigs that compelled them to go not only
+farther and faster, but in another direction, than their actual opinions
+and traditional inclinations would have carried them. They were
+compelled to present a scheme broad, simple, and extreme enough, to
+attract irresistible support.
+
+When once uniformity of franchise and proportionate representation were
+made the basis of the electoral system, the extension of the former, the
+more and more accurate adjustment of the latter, became a mere question
+of time. The poorest class of householders in towns in 1886 are probably
+as intelligent and competent as were the ten-pounders of 1832. The
+masses might have been satisfied with the gradual enlargement of their
+old representation; having been once disfranchised by wholesale, it was
+certain that they would ere long demand and ultimately secure that
+wholesale enfranchisement, by which every other class must necessarily
+be swamped. Minority representation, electoral districts, and single
+seats, are at best lame and unsatisfactory methods of engrafting on pure
+democracy securities and checks, which were essential and natural parts
+of the old representation of classes and interests. When once every
+borough below a certain numerical standard had been extinguished, and
+all below another deprived of their second member, the upward extension
+of the principle became a logical and historical necessity. So again
+much, perhaps most, of what has been written upon the contrast between
+the American and English constitutions--the two great types of popular
+government, Parliamentary and Presidential, the direct and indirect
+election of the actual Executive, terms fixed by law or dependent upon
+Parliamentary favour--was anticipated in the best chapters of Mr.
+Bagehot's 'English Constitution.'
+
+Few writers so terse, compact, and clear, have been so completely free
+from the temptation of deliberate phrase making as Mr. Bagehot; yet few
+professional phrase-makers have left in the minds of their readers so
+many telling, forcible, and suggestive phrases; sentences in which a
+novel or striking thought, an impressive view of new or old truth, a
+principle apt to be forgotten or imperfectly appreciated, is vivified
+and incarnated in a few emphatic words. It would be difficult to quote
+any passage of ten times the length half so suggestive of the
+exceptional conditions that have secured to England peace and stability
+during the last two centuries of storm and shipwreck, revolution, and
+reaction abroad, any phrase so expressive of the distinctive character
+of the nation and its Government, as the two aptly chosen epithets
+employed by Mr. Bagehot--the 'dignified parts' of the English
+Constitution and the 'deferential tendency' of the English people. In
+both instances he has, as we think, overstated his point. The dignified
+parts of the Constitution are more real and living, are more intimately
+associated with the practical work of Government, than he was disposed
+to allow. Popular deference is paid more to truth and less to fiction
+than he supposed. It is eminently characteristic of the cautious English
+temper, the distrust of sharp contrasts and clever paradoxes engrained
+in his nature, that (so far as we remember) he never adopts the familiar
+saying of Thiers, that a constitutional Prince _regne et ne gouverne
+pas_. But his actual conception of the English monarchy approaches far
+too near that misleading and mischievous fallacy.
+
+It is a little strange that so devoted a disciple of Darwin, a writer
+who applied the principle of Evolution with so much skill, insight, and
+success, to the life of nations and the course of politics, should have
+allowed so little weight to the natural selection which operates so
+powerfully upon the character of hereditary Princes and aristocracies.
+It is far from obvious why so close and careful an observer should have
+drawn his illustrations of the working of constitutional monarchy so
+exclusively from the past, and especially from the examples of George
+III. and William IV., ignoring so completely the experience of the
+present reign; the deep, lasting, and for the most part wholesome,
+influence exercised in European politics by men like Leopold I., Prince
+Albert, and the present Emperor of Germany. Prince Bismarck owes to
+Royal favour and trust the foundation of his power, the strength which
+enabled him in the teeth of a short-sighted Liberal opposition to create
+that Prussian army, to carry out that ruthless but eminently successful
+policy of blood and steel, which excluded Austria from her place in the
+Confederation, put an end to the old dualism, and achieved the union of
+Germany. Italy owes everything to Cavour; but she owed Cavour to Victor
+Emmanuel. The selection of Russian, Austrian, and German ministers, the
+consistency of their policy, the power or rather authority, most
+judiciously used by the Crown at more than one critical period of recent
+English history, completely refute Mr. Bagehot's theoretical and
+historical doctrine that a Parliament must be wiser than an average
+sovereign. He forgets that a Prince is exempt from the influence of
+party, whose disastrous action in the great crisis of the national
+fortunes has been brought home of late with painful force to all
+thoughtful Englishmen.
+
+Nor has he escaped that influence in his criticism of George III. It
+would be easy to show that the modern theory of Parliamentary
+Government, the theory accepted by his immediate predecessors and now
+firmly established, was one on which no scrupulous and conscientious
+Prince in the position of George III. could possibly have acted. The
+King found throughout the earlier years of his reign, until the younger
+Pitt obtained an actual potent and controlling influence in the Houses
+and in the closet, that the influence which secured a Parliamentary
+majority was not his ministers' but his own. The dismissal of the elder
+Pitt and Newcastle broke at once the strongest coalition of aristocratic
+and popular influence, the mightiest league between intellect sustained
+by national confidence, borough-mongering wealth, and family interest,
+that ever dominated the unreformed Parliament. It was in the King's
+power to give the control of the House to whom he would--to Chatham,
+Grafton, Rockingham, or North. The one thoroughly unconstitutional use
+of the Royal influence, with which the King can fairly be charged, was
+employed to defeat the most unconstitutional and indefensible measure
+ever brought forward by a corrupt and unprincipled coalition--the India
+Bill, which endeavoured to secure for Fox and North personally the power
+and patronage of our Oriental Empire. The King could not shift the
+responsibility of administration upon ministers who owed office and
+Parliamentary support to himself. The American war was not his work. The
+Stamp Act was brought in during his first illness by the minister he
+most hated. The Tea Duty was the madness of Townshend; and the step,
+which gave the signal for revolt, was really a remission of two-thirds
+of that duty. True that the King was the last man to agree to the
+disruption of the empire, the abandonment of thousands of American loyal
+subjects, to lower the flag of England before her coalesced European
+enemies; but in that perseverance, surely not unkingly, he had one
+enthusiastic supporter; and those who censure the King pass the same
+censure on the dying speech of Lord Chatham. The one fatal error of a
+long and conscientious reign should be laid to the account less of
+George III. than of those who betrayed Pitt's counsels and played upon
+the conscientious vagaries of a half-crazed brain.
+
+Mr. Bagehot dwells exclusively upon the unfavourable incidents of a
+royal education. He overlooks the direct and indirect influences which
+are brought to bear from the very cradle upon an hereditary Prince--the
+sense of responsibility, the consciousness of a great position, the
+familiarity with the gravest interests, a youth passed under the tuition
+of the ablest masters, and above all that constant intercourse with the
+finest intellects of the age, which secure for a future King a moral and
+intellectual training unequalled in its excellence. The effect of that
+training we see in our own Royal family, unfortunate as they have been
+in the withdrawal at the most critical period of a father's control and
+guidance. Of the Queen's daughters it is needless to speak. Her sons
+are, by general admission, soldiers and sailors of more than average
+professional ability. The Crown Prince of Germany, the late King of
+Spain, the present heir of the House of France, Leopold II. of Belgium,
+and King Humbert of Italy, are generally credited with high ability; and
+more than one of them would take rank among the first statesmen of his
+Kingdom. A Prince of fair abilities, with such a training and such
+knowledge of the men with whom he is necessarily brought into contact,
+has every means of knowing, at least as well as Parliament, who are the
+most competent and most trustworthy statesmen to whom he can commit the
+fortunes of his Kingdom. His continuous, experience of politics,
+legislation, and government, his access, especially with regard to
+foreign affairs, to wider and more impartial sources of information,
+lend to his counsels an authority which no prudent or thoughtful
+statesman will disregard. He looks at affairs from a higher point of
+view, with a wider survey as a rule, and also with a calmer and more
+unbiassed judgment.
+
+Mr. Bagehot dwells at length on what may be called the fictitious value
+of Constitutional Monarchy; and this he was evidently inclined to
+exaggerate. The English people, he thought, are, as a rule, too ignorant
+to understand what the Queen's Government really is--how completely it
+is carried on in the Royal name by Parliamentary Ministers. For them the
+law is really incarnate in the Sovereign; in yielding obedience to
+magistrates and policemen, to common law and Parliamentary statutes, in
+forbearing or resisting riot, they obey or uphold the Royal authority.
+Were they aware that at each general election they choose their real and
+effective rulers for an indefinite period, they would be confused,
+alarmed, and bewildered, to a degree which would render them incapable
+of a real and intelligent choice. The people--the lower orders--may have
+been, when Mr. Bagehot wrote, and probably are now, somewhat wiser and
+better informed as to the real character of the Government--the actual
+responsibility for particular measures--than their critic supposed. But
+it is beyond doubt that the Queen's name is a great power. The law is
+too mere an abstraction, the names of Ministers represent too much party
+feeling, excite too much antagonism, to command the prompt obedience,
+the loyal reverence, the enthusiastic support which is rendered to the
+name of the Sovereign. In France and America a very different feeling
+prevails.
+
+Mr. Senior, than whom no Englishman of his day was more intimate with a
+number of French statesmen of different parties, views and
+character--than whom there was, perhaps, no cooler, closer, or more
+constant observer of French politics--remarks that Frenchmen are always
+weak and timid in upholding, daring, resolute, and even fierce in
+resisting the powers that be. Confidence, enthusiasm, conviction, seem
+in every case of insurrection and dangerous riot to be on the side of
+the mob. The revolution of 1848 afforded very striking examples of this
+contrast. The overthrow of Louis Philippe, deeply as the King himself
+was disliked and despised, narrow as was the electorate, unpopular as
+was the Ministry, was the act of a small minority. The Republic was
+imposed upon France by a knot of reckless journalists and
+semi-communistic dreamers, backed by the dreaded populace of Paris,
+against the will of the peasantry who formed four-fifths of the voters,
+and of the educated or semi-educated classes, amounting to one half of
+the remaining fifth. Again and again was the Provisional
+Government--though backed by all who had anything to lose, by all who
+dreaded anarchy--on the point of overthrow, and saved only by
+Lamartine's eloquence from the conspiracy of a few thousand desperadoes,
+and the stormy passions of a mob that hardly knew what it wanted. The
+Assembly itself was invaded and terrorized for several hours: the lives
+of the leaders, to whom all France looked up with reverence, were in
+imminent peril at the hands of a faction numerically insignificant. Only
+in the terrible days of June did the National Guard, after four months
+of distress and incessant panic, of daily and hourly fear of sack and
+pillage, act with energy and decision; and even then the struggle
+between the army, supported by the National Guard and the Anarchist
+faction of the barricades, was long balanced and doubtful: yet the party
+of order in Paris itself constituted an overwhelming majority.
+
+In America, New England perhaps excepted, the mob and the people, the
+party of lawless force and law-abiding principle, meet on more equal
+terms. No one dreams of disputing, in the last resort, the authority of
+the Sovereign, but that Sovereign is invisible and inaccessible. It must
+be remembered, moreover, that more than one of the hundred popular
+risings, that the Union has seen during its hundred years' existence,
+were risings, not against the law, but for the law against the laxity of
+its administrators. This very fact makes it the more clear how uncertain
+and ineffective is the authority of abstract law and an impersonal
+Sovereign. The legal authorities, State or Federal, are not necessarily
+representative of the power by which they are elected. In California,
+after a period of anarchy, the respectable classes rose with the tacit
+support of the people against the State Government which the people had
+elected; deposed it almost without an effort, and established in its
+place the arbitrary rule of a self-appointed Vigilance Committee, whose
+members no one knew. That lawless Government hanged as many rowdies,
+pilferers, highway robbers and card sharpers as it thought fit;
+banished hundreds under penalty of death--a penalty sure to be
+enforced--re-established order, and laid down its power without having
+encountered the shadow of legal or popular resistance. We have seen an
+actual insurrection of the better elements of society provoked by the
+escape of murderers and other criminals through the hands of lax or
+corrupt juries, and of an administration whose use of the prerogative of
+mercy was imputed to partisanship or to bribery. But in a great majority
+of instances, riots that have reached the proportions of insurrection
+have been simply anarchical or rebellious. It is not so long since the
+railway employes of Pennsylvania, striking work upon an every-day
+quarrel between employer and employed, took possession of the iron
+highways of the State, intercepted communication, seized the great
+railway arsenal of Pittsburg, and fought a pitched battle against the
+militia, as obstinate and almost as sanguinary as the minor combats of
+the Civil War. While we write, another strike of the same class has
+suspended the traffic of the great Western railway line. In three States
+the militia have been called out to protect property and liberty, the
+rights of capital, the freedom of labour, the interest of the public,
+against a class insurrection; the public authorities have been forcibly
+resisted, and lives have been lost in a skirmish with fire-arms between
+the _posse_ of the Sheriff and the insurgent Knights of Labour. Every
+American mob feels itself invested with something of the majesty of the
+sovereign people. Every body of English rioters--political, social, or
+simply lawless--knows and feels itself guilty of resistance to the
+Sovereign. The truncheon of the police, the uniform of the soldier,
+unquestionably represents the legal will of the Sovereign; and before
+that will the largest and most excited multitude gives way at once.
+
+Mr. Bagehot overlooks the _certainty_ which personal sovereignty gives:
+the absence of a moment's possible doubt on which side is that supreme
+arbiter, sure to be backed by nine-tenths of the physical forces of
+society. He underrates, if he does not altogether ignore, the much wider
+and deeper influence of the Royal name; its power over passion as well
+as over ignorance. The omnipotence of Parliament, even when, in the
+belief of half the nation, a Parliamentary majority represents a
+minority of the people, is due less to traditional respect for the House
+of Commons, or superstitious reverence for a majority vote, such as
+prevails in America, than to the fact, that resistance means rebellion,
+visible, unmistakable disobedience to the Queen. It is therefore deeply
+to be regretted, not for any sentimental reason, but for the sake of
+order and the protection of life and property, that the democratic
+changes in our Constitution are gradually undermining the habit of
+submission to the Queen's Majesty which still characterizes, to a great
+extent, the English people. The Services still feel proud to consider
+that they serve, in their own phrase--not the State but--'the Queen.'
+That sentiment of loyalty, which Mr. Bagehot ascribes to the ignorant
+alone, is as strong in the upper or middle as in the lower orders; has a
+far wider, deeper influence than he allows, than it was consistent with
+the whole scope of his work on the English constitution to recognize.
+
+One of the most remarkable and interesting points in Tocqueville's
+conversations, as recorded by Mr. Senior, is the value which he and
+other interlocutors ascribe to the English Poor Law. Mr Senior had seen
+its essential principle, the right of subsistence, worked out
+farther--to extremer and more dangerous consequences--than perhaps any
+other political or social experiment, before the practical common sense
+of England interfered. Under the old Poor Law, at least in the rural
+districts, the income of a household was regulated by its number. Every
+head of a family was entitled to an allowance, increasing with its
+increase, and wholly independent of his earnings. Nominal wages had been
+actually forced down _below_ the starvation point. The law had
+demoralized industry by placing the idlest ditcher on a level of comfort
+with the best ploughman, and threatened to swallow up property in the
+support of poverty. Tocqueville and his friends had seen the danger from
+another point of view. The most popular and most formidable of the
+dogmas of that Socialism, which had infected so deeply the _proletariat_
+of Paris and other French cities, was in another and yet more insidious
+and destructive form the doctrine of the Poor Law. The right of
+subsistence was admitted by the establishment of the _ateliers
+nationaux_, and asserted by the insurgents of June, 1848, under the
+nobler and more dignified guise of the _droit au travail_. The State was
+bound, according to that doctrine, not to keep the idle alive, but to
+furnish the industrious with work suited to their skill at market rate
+of wages; a rate which had no right to fall below the average standard
+of an artizan's needs, or rather of his habits.
+
+A principle which contradicts the laws of nature is obviously false; and
+the right to subsistence--if claimed not for all who do, but for all who
+may, exist in a given country--yet more clearly the _droit au travail_
+of which this is the practical meaning--involves the demand, that
+agricultural production shall keep pace with population. But, save for
+checks all ultimately reducible to the fear of want, checks which it is
+the essential object of a Poor Law to relax, population would rapidly,
+in any old country, overtake subsistence. That, were the population of
+England or France to multiply at an American rate, it would soon lack
+standing room, is mathematically demonstrable. A poor law then must be
+attended by checks on population as effective as those of Nature
+herself; and from their artificial character necessarily more offensive,
+revolting, and difficult to enforce. None the less, Englishmen familiar
+as Senior with the ruinous operation of the old Poor Law, Frenchmen
+confronted like Tocqueville by the terrible theory of the _droit au
+travail_, the alarming experience of the _ateliers nationaux_, were
+inclined to regard that admission of the right to subsistence--limited
+to those actually born--which is the fundamental principle of the
+present Poor Law, as a most valuable, if not an indispensable, guarantee
+of social security; a signal instance of that practical English wisdom,
+which refuses to push admitted principles, sound or false, to
+consequences undeniably logical, but practically dangerous.
+
+It might be thought that in a Christian, and especially a Roman Catholic
+country, the danger of starvation could never be very practical--that
+men, and still more women and children, bearing in their forms and faces
+the stamp of actual want, of pinching hunger, would never be denied. But
+Senior's experiences of the Irish famine pointed to a different
+conclusion. Death by famine is at last rapid, sudden, and unexpected. On
+the road to Kenmare, from which many Irish emigrants were despatched to
+America, corpses were daily found with collapsed stomachs _and money in
+their pockets_. Hoping to reach the port, keeping their money to pay
+their passage, death had overtaken them unawares; and this in the face
+of organized measures of relief, the largest and most liberal that
+public or private charity has ever provided. In cases of prolonged and
+extreme distress, but for the Poor Law, hundreds would die of want
+almost unawares, before want had overcome their reluctance to beg. And
+if actual starvation were rare, yet in the absence of a recognized right
+to food and shelter, the fear of starvation must be ever present. This
+spectral horror, Tocqueville evidently thought, haunted the imagination
+of the French operative; and had much to do with the popularity of
+Socialism in a country of diffused property and general thrift, and with
+the ferocity of Socialistic or Red Republican insurrections. Charity,
+however liberal, is an uncertain and--to their credit be it spoken--to
+the majority of French operatives, a repulsive and degrading resource.
+It cannot exorcise the hideous spectre of actual famine, which, though
+remote, seems ever to threaten them, their wives and their children; and
+which in times of distress and depression looms terribly near, distinct,
+and horrible. No wonder that men haunted by such a spectre should be
+driven to gloomy envy, sullen hate, and outbreaks of ferocity worse than
+those provoked by actual suffering. No wonder that any schemes, however
+frantic and however unrighteous, should have charms for a class whose
+reason is disturbed by the perpetual vision of that ultimate but
+undeniably possible horror. We have seen in France within the last few
+weeks moral portents which can hardly be ascribed to any other final
+cause an atrocious murder committed by workmen, and, what is infinitely
+worse, extenuated and almost approved by responsible legislators. It is
+probable that the Belgian riots approach as near as any witnessed in
+Europe during the last two centuries to a revolt of actual want. Belgium
+has secured an artificial manufacturing prominence--a disproportionate
+trade to hard toil and low wages. The latter had lately been forced down
+to the _minimum_, as profits had been well-nigh extinguished, by the
+general depression of business. In fear of actual want, the populace
+rose, wasted farms, destroyed factories, plundered and levied
+blackmail--in a word, tried to inflict on others the misery that had
+maddened themselves. The word has been given to the most quiet and
+law-abiding people in Europe _to defend themselves_: a step far more
+significant of stern intentions than the sharpest military repression.
+Yet the Government is forced to accompany its preventive measures with
+an expenditure of 20_s_ per head of the population on public
+works--equivalent to an English rate in aid of twenty millions! Could
+there be a more conclusive proof that the dread of hunger is a real and
+a terrible power for evil among Continental nations; that their choice
+lies, in a word, between a recognition of the right to subsistence--a
+Poor Law with severe labour tests and restrictions--and periodical,
+spasmodic measures of relief enforced by insurrection? Or can there be a
+doubt, that the latter is infinitely the more dangerous and demoralizing
+alternative: that only the adoption of a Poor law can prevent the
+lessons of 1886 from shaking the very foundations of order, property and
+civil government in countries situate as are France and Belgium?
+
+It seems strange that French Democracy should not have long since
+insisted on laying for ever the spectre of starvation by a Poor Law more
+liberal than that of England. It must be remembered, however, that the
+democracy of France is a propertied and landed democracy, heavily
+burdened with taxes and interest on mortgages, pinched by necessity,
+and pinching itself by thrift. No class is so hard to want, so ruthless
+to idleness, as a peasantry which wins for itself a bare subsistence by
+constant toil, and provides for the future by constant self-denial.
+
+The temper of a progressive and prosperous democracy is very different.
+Many, perhaps most of the American States, are without a Poor Law.
+Slavery dispensed with it, and the race antagonism consequent on the
+manner and circumstances of emancipation has rendered a thorough
+revision of social relations--a systematic attempt to meet the new and
+very exceptional conditions of Southern society in its present
+form--hitherto impossible. Yet, by the confession of one of their
+bitterest enemies, no people are so tender, so generous, so lavish of
+active sympathy towards the sick, the bereaved, and the unfortunate. In
+States which, probably from an instinct under their circumstances just
+and wise, refuse to recognize the right to subsistence by a legal
+provision for the poor, whereby the idle and vicious would chiefly
+benefit, nevertheless paupers by the visitation of God--the aged and
+infirm, the blind, the deaf, and dumb, lunatics and idiots--are amply
+provided by public and private charity with all that can alleviate their
+lot: or teach them, as far as possible, the means of self-dependence.
+American charity towards the victims of great natural catastrophes, far
+more common there than here--communities burned out by a forest fire, or
+ruined by a flood--and yet more the personal sacrifices made, the
+readiness with which men and women devote their leisure thought, and
+energy to the supervision of public institutions, the efficient
+distribution of public subscriptions, the succour and nursing of a
+community stricken by pestilence, are above praise. A careful study of
+Transatlantic examples might put our own boasted lavishness of charity
+to shame.
+
+Even in England, organized private charity, wisely directed, might
+surely contrive to effect a discrimination between those who are paupers
+by vice, unthrift, and idleness, and those whom God has striken for no
+fault that humanity is entitled to pass judgment upon; between the
+fitting inmates of the workhouse, and those--helpless from age,
+infirmity, accident, and disease--to whom the associations of the
+workhouse are humiliating, painful and demoralizing. Nothing is more
+essential, under democratic rule, than the maintenance of due severity
+towards those who will not work; nothing more likely to relax that
+needful severity than its indiscriminate application to those who
+cannot.
+
+
+
+
+ART. X.--1. _Fourth Midlothian Campaign._ Political speeches delivered,
+November, 1885, by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P. Edinburgh, 1886.
+
+2. John Morley: _The Irish Record of the New Chief Secretary, 1886._
+
+3. _Ireland; A Book of Light on the Irish Problem._ Edited by Andrew
+Reid. London, 1886.
+
+4. _Home Rule._ Reprint from the 'Times' correspondence, &c. 1886.
+
+5. _Social Order in Ireland. Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union._ Dublin,
+1886.
+
+6. _Speech of Mr. Gladstone in the House of Commons, April 8, 1886, on
+moving for leave to bring in a Bill to make provision for the future
+Government of Ireland._
+
+
+The fate of the scheme for the Government of Ireland, which Mr.
+Gladstone disclosed in the House of Commons last week, has been
+practically determined. Whether the Bill be rejected on the second
+reading, whether amidst the currents of adverse opinion which have
+already set in, it slowly goes to wreck upon the shoals of Parliamentary
+procedure, its ultimate doom is already settled, but the mischief which
+has been done will not be removed so promptly. A great blow has been
+struck at the United Kingdom. The proposal to recognize Irish
+nationality as a political force apart from Great Britain--a proposal
+made by a Prime Minister, a leader of a great Parliamentary party--will
+for many a day to come stimulate in Ireland all the elements of
+disorder, which a noble series of statesmen, from Burke to Peel, have
+resolutely laboured to eradicate.
+
+It was no surprise to the House that had listened to the marvellous
+dream of Mr. Gladstone, when Mr. Parnell rose to express his gratitude
+in terms almost of emotion:--
+
+     'It will prove a happy and fortunate thing, both for Ireland
+     and England, that there was one man living, one English
+     statesman living, with the great power and the extraordinary
+     ability of the right hon. gentleman to lend his voice on
+     behalf of poor helpless Ireland. He had devoted his great
+     mind, his extraordinary energy to the unravelling of this
+     question and to the construction of this Bill.... To none of
+     the sons of Ireland--at any time has there ever been given
+     the genius and talent of the right hon. gentleman--certainly
+     nothing approaching to it in these days.'
+
+The people, whom a few months ago Mr. Parnell denounced as representing
+to him and his friends 'imprisonment, chains and death,' now came to
+offer him a scheme of Irish nationality, and Shylock, recognizing the
+wisdom of the sham Balthazar, was not more appreciative: 'A Daniel come
+to judgment, yea a Daniel,' but, like Shylock, Mr. Parnell relied upon
+his bond. Whilst he accepted the offering with the effusion of a
+successful speculator, he took care to remind his hearers that he was
+not bound to take it in discharge of his claim. He reserved any
+'definite or positive expression of opinion;' 'there were undoubtedly
+great faults and blots in the measure,' but he could safely say,
+'whavever might be the fate of the Bill, the cause of Ireland, the cause
+of Irish autonomy, will enormously gain by the genius of the right hon.
+gentleman.' This is the solid result of the strange events which have
+been passing for the last three months. A distinguished public man has
+been called to office by the Parnellite vote. He has demanded and
+obtained ample time to consider the difficulties of his position and
+offer his solution.
+
+A glance at the new scheme shows that the proposal is at once
+disingenuous and fantastic. The Prime Minister shrinks from admitting
+the nature of the work he is engaged in. He breaks up the unity of the
+Kingdom, but he will not allow that his Bill involves the repeal of the
+Union. But whatever quibbles may be indulged in, the main principle of
+the Act of Union, that Ireland should be represented at Westminster is
+swept away. As Irish nationality is not to be ignored, it finds
+expression in a Parliament in Dublin; but Ireland is to pay a
+contribution towards the debt and towards public defence, and in the
+application of this money is to have no voice. Thus we have Irish
+nationality started with machinery which sets aside the first principle
+of free governments, that there should be no taxation without
+representation; and the internal arrangements of the Dublin Parliament
+are equally suggestive of confusion in the future.
+
+The Prime Minister does not ask Parliament to disregard the risks to
+which property and loyalty will be exposed in the Dublin Assembly, and
+he proposes to satisfy our conscience by giving them the security of
+representation in Dublin by a special Order. The Dublin Parliament is
+divided into two Orders, each of which shall have a veto on the
+legislation of the majority. The First Order consists of persons who
+must be possessors of 4000l. or an equivalent income. That is their
+personal qualification, and they are to be elected by occupiers rated at
+25l. Property qualification for Members of Parliament was abolished in
+England some thirty years ago. Rating, as a qualification for electors,
+has been abandoned in a series of deliberate public measures from 1866
+to 1885; but it is these old clothes of English Parliaments which Mr.
+Gladstone offers to his new nationality. Why should these expedients be
+adopted in Ireland? Checks upon legislative action, a second Chamber, a
+Second or a First Order, are questions upon which theorists are divided.
+They are certainly not questions which have occupied the National
+League. These 'Orders' in Parliamentary life are not native Irish ideas.
+These reproductions of quaint customs, such as we might find in some
+ecclesiastical synod, or in the village organization of some old
+Scandinavian community, are England's guarantees for the security of
+property in the Sister Island. That Island, we know, has been abandoned
+for some years to the National League, whose power was founded on their
+opportunities of excommunicating any one who did not subscribe to their
+funds and obey their decrees. The principle of the National League was
+that property in land was an outrage on Irish opinion; and we are asked
+to believe that this American-Irish organization, clothed with
+Parliamentary power in Dublin, will be kept in check by a device, which
+has no sanction in ancient tradition, in local sympathy, in recognized
+opinion. The First Order in the new Chamber will be so many people
+marked out for plunder. If any one possessing 4000l. worth of property,
+which he can convert into cash, is venturesome enough to accept a seat
+in the Chamber, what will become of him and his electors, people who are
+scheduled in each locality as the owners of property rated at 25l. a
+year? The majority of them in the South and West will be tenants who
+have not dared to pay their rents, because the National League
+prohibited the payment. Let us suppose people are found to constitute
+the First Order, and they veto some scheme of the majority, and a
+general election occurs, will the expedients which have made the League
+what it is be suddenly forgotten? Can we doubt that the First Order and
+its electors would be straightway boycotted out of existence? The
+Ministerial proposal is an attempt to meet the views of Mr. Parnell;
+and, without admitting that it is all he requires, the Irish leader
+cordially accepts it, but he wants, he has told us, 'the full and
+complete right to arrange our own affairs and make ours a nation--to
+secure for her, free from outside control, the right to direct her own
+course among the peoples of the world.' We are asked to suppose that he
+and his friends, started in their new career, will be stopped by such a
+ridiculous invention as this First Order. And it is a project like this,
+inconsistent with itself, implying constitutional degradation of the
+very people whom it is supposed to conciliate, patched up with strange
+curiosities as unknown in England as in Ireland, which Parliament is
+asked to accept as a 'final settlement' of our Irish difficulties.
+
+The Bill proposed settles nothing. Its only result is a renewed
+manifestation of the power and influence of the Irish agitator. In this
+extraordinary state of affairs men are apt to forget the series of
+events which have brought about our present condition. Ministries come
+and go at the bidding of Mr. Parnell. English policy in the future,
+important schemes affecting the gravest concerns of England, of
+Scotland, of Ireland, depend not on any principle accepted by the
+British public, but on the humour of the Irish leader. The existence of
+the House of Lords, the legal position of the Church of Scotland, the
+maintenance of our most important military reserve, the right of the
+Sovereign in relation to peace and war, are exposed to critical
+divisions, not because British opinion is eager for revolution, or has
+become indifferent to the vast interests involved, but because the
+Nationalist party wish to remind us of their voting power.
+
+Our alarm at all this should not make us lose sight of the antecedent
+facts which have built up this force of mischief. Mr. Gladstone is Prime
+Minister by the favour of the Irish party, and this party is the outcome
+of Mr. Gladstone's own policy. Whether the fluent rhetorician foresaw
+his present position, whether perched on his slender ledge of power he
+now enjoys it, we need not stop to consider. What we would remind our
+readers is that for nearly twenty years past he has, in the main line of
+his public life, notwithstanding some convulsive oscillations, pursued
+with the pertinacity of one possessed the policy of which the present
+Irish organization is the natural and the logical development. The
+National League represents the spirit to which Mr. Gladstone appealed at
+Southport in 1867. In the December of that year he charged the new
+voters, in words of solemn adjuration, to look at Ireland from the Irish
+point of view. This appeal had an electric effect upon the population of
+that island. In the years which have passed since, his own injunction
+has been sometimes rudely disregarded by Mr. Gladstone himself, but he
+never long delayed to turn again to his favourite theory, to make
+another effort to justify the principle with which he had started, and
+at each renewal of his enterprise he plunged himself and his party
+deeper into the morass of Hibernian disorder. Mr. Gladstone's admirers
+are very proud of his numerous successes in carrying important Bills
+through Parliament, but it is forgotten that his Irish Bills, though
+carried, have never attained the ends for which they were passed. Twice
+have all the resources of his genius, all the machinery of his party,
+been called into requisition to bring about a final settlement of the
+Irish Land question, and yet the work is still to be done. The
+explanation is not far to seek. Mr. Gladstone's passionate recklessness
+committed him in 1867 to an enterprise, the magnitude of which excited
+his vanity, the actual nature of which he only dimly perceived.
+
+In the year we have named he was trying to recover his footing after a
+heavy fall in his first start as leader of the Liberal Party. A scheme
+of Parliamentary reform, carried by his political opponent, had marked
+the commencement of another epoch. In the new arena of public life two
+centres of political energy were certain to be strongly represented in
+the organization which Mr. Gladstone hoped to lead back to office. The
+Spirit of Dissent was all powerful among the English householders. The
+Irish tenant, whose electoral strength, directed by the Roman
+priesthood, had been exhibited with much effect in 1852, was sure to
+receive a great increase of power under the new Reform Bill. To combine
+these influences was one of the conditions of any prolonged tenure of
+office by the Liberal party. The Irish Establishment had been forsaken
+by English opinion in previous years. Its overthrow would be hailed with
+enthusiasm by the Dissenting communities, whilst the Irish priesthood
+would regard disestablishment with undoubted satisfaction. The condition
+of Irish Land Tenure was admitted by all parties to require amendment,
+and its settlement would be a substantial benefit to the Irish farmer.
+
+These were subjects which naturally tempted the daring energies of a man
+occupying Mr. Gladstone's position in the winter of 1867. Turned out of
+office after the death of Lord Palmerston, his subsequent management of
+the reform question, as leader of the Opposition, had only increased the
+distrust of his party. He was without a constituency at the coming
+election, and he went down to Lancashire to seek in that great centre of
+hard-headed Englishmen the confiding constituency which he subsequently
+found in Midlothian. New legislation on the Irish Church, a reform in
+Irish Land Tenure, were subjects for which his party, for which the
+majority of Englishmen were pretty well prepared. The Liberal Churchmen,
+like Sir Roundell Palmer, who held back on the subject of
+Disestablishment, were more than counterbalanced by the Dissenters, who
+were attracted by the scheme. Popular Legislation on these subjects
+might have been granted to Ireland as the matured outcome of British
+opinion. Such a mode of approaching the work in hand did not suit the
+exuberant temperament of Mr. Gladstone. Whilst the report of the
+Clerkenwell explosion was still echoing through the land, he announced
+his policy as one to be recommended, not because the great British
+community had examined and adopted the proposed measures, but because
+Irish opinion was to be henceforth accepted as our guide in Irish
+Legislation. With characteristic recklessness he hurried to turn to the
+account of his own ambition the throb of excitement which he saw
+traversing the nation. He appealed to his audience to regard the Fenian
+outrages as a sort of revelation from heaven, to commune with their own
+hearts, not on the state of Ireland, and the remedies sensible men could
+offer, but on the sentiments of Irishmen. His final test of legislation
+was to be, not its consonance with the judgment of the British people,
+but with the demand of the Irish crowd.
+
+     'Ireland is at your doors. Providence has placed her there.
+     Law and legislation have been a compact between you. You
+     must face these obligations. You must deal with them and
+     discharge them. As to the modes of giving effect to this
+     principle I do not now enter upon them. I am of opinion they
+     should be dictated, as a general rule, by that which may
+     appear to be the mature, well-considered, and general sense
+     of the Irish people.'--20th Dec. 1867.
+
+At this date 'the general sense of the Irish people' was, to Mr.
+Gladstone's mind, the policy formulated by the Irish Episcopacy, the
+scheme which at a later stage of the campaign in the following year he
+described as the lopping off the three branches of the Upas tree of
+Protestant ascendancy. He failed in Lancashire, but his success in other
+parts of the kingdom was complete; and then ensued the abolition of the
+Irish Establishment and an adjustment of the land question which carried
+the recognition of local customs farther than Englishmen had
+anticipated.
+
+The Liberal party had been charged to consult Irish opinion. As long as
+Cardinal Cullen and Mr. Gladstone were agreed all went merrily, even if
+some rude coercion like the Westmeath Act was required to deal with
+Irish ideas which did not find expression in the Cardinal. But whilst
+the English Minister and the Irish Primate declared, that Ribbonism was
+an impudent pretender to any representative character and must be rooted
+out, a third organ of opinion claimed the benefit of the Southport
+principle in the form of the Home Rule Association, and Mr. Gladstone at
+Aberdeen replied with angry scorn:
+
+     'Can any sensible man, can any rational man, suppose that,
+     at this time of day, in this condition of the world, we are
+     going to disintegrate the capital institutions of this
+     country for the purpose of making ourselves ridiculous in
+     the sight of all mankind, and crippling any power we possess
+     for bestowing benefits, through legislation, on the country
+     to which we belong?'--26th Sept. 1871.
+
+The ideas expressed by the Roman hierarchy, attracted by the
+Disestablishment, substantially interested in the better position of the
+farmer, and confidently anticipating for themselves the acquisition of a
+power over public education such as their order enjoyed nowhere else in
+the world, these were ideas which Mr. Gladstone recognized as national.
+On the subject of education, however, he was not able to go as far as
+the Ultramontane party required. They directed the Irish members to vote
+against him. The coalition between Dissent and the Roman Hierarchy was
+dissolved. The Minister, who had brought it about, suddenly awoke to a
+sense of the evil teaching of his late allies in the government of
+Ireland, and '_Vaticanism_' held them up to the reprobation of
+Protestant England.
+
+The new Liberal discovery, the principle of Irish ideas, had broken down
+as a party engine. It had made the Ministry of 1868, but it had failed
+to preserve it. Mr. Gladstone retired from the leadership of the party
+to the greater freedom of an independent member of Parliament, and in
+this capacity led the stormy agitation against Lord Beaconsfield, making
+the foreign policy of England a party question.
+
+Meanwhile the theory of the Southport speech, and the results which had
+attended it, were not forgotten in Ireland. The Home Rule movement,
+which was denounced so angrily at Aberdeen, enlisted all the resources
+of local sentiment, feelings similar to those which make a Lancashireman
+proud of Lancashire, a Scotchman delight in Scotch associations. Among
+its promoters were professors, poets, Irish Catholics, who were glad to
+show themselves on a public platform without being the puppets or the
+opponents of their bishops, Irish Protestants, who were irritated at the
+desertion of the Irish Church, a number of well-meaning people who were
+attracted by the opportunity of talking eloquently and vaguely about
+nothing in particular. This Academic scheme of Home Rule found an
+admirable exponent in Mr. Butt, an able lawyer of ambitious politics.
+
+What answer were Liberals to give to this new embodiment of their great
+statesman's theory? They denounced Mr. Butt, pondering feebly meanwhile
+what it all meant; but the Home Rule organization, once set a-going, was
+soon permeated by the Fenian spirit. Platitudes about 'patriotism' and
+'green Erin' meant to an Irish crowd, 'Down with England and with
+landlords.' That great hotbed of disatisfaction, Irish popular feeling,
+supplied stimulating nutriment to the new party. In proportion as
+hostility to England was more openly declared, funds came in rapidly
+from the Irish in America. Year by year the Home Rule members gained in
+parliamentary power, one section of the Liberal party after another
+giving them encouragement--in the first place because they were
+troublesome to a Tory Ministry, in the second because the flaccid
+thought of modern Liberalism made them welcome any organization, which
+would save them the trouble of facing the difficulties of Irish
+administration.
+
+In 1880 the public took no heed to Lord Beaconsfield's historic warning,
+that danger was brewing in Ireland. The Liberal legislation of ten years
+before had, they tried to believe, disposed of Irish difficulties in
+their most serious aspect. Both before and after the General Election
+they were assured by Mr. Bright and Mr. Gladstone, that Irish affairs
+were proceeding satisfactorily. The new Ministry had, however, to face a
+formidable parliamentary party, who refused to recognize the legislation
+of 1869 and 1870 as any settlement of the Irish question. Their first
+device was to abandon the Act of their predecessors, passed in 1875,
+which applied some of the milder provisions of the Westmeath Act to the
+whole of Ireland. A reconstruction of the Local Government of the United
+Kingdom, and a new Reform Bill, were the tasks assigned by public
+opinion to the second Gladstone Ministry; but finding the abandonment of
+coercion did not conciliate the Irish party, the Premier returned with a
+rush to the policy of 1867. He determined to justify his claim to be the
+statesman who had found out the secret of Irish administration. Within
+two months after the Ministry was formed the public were warned that
+they were within measurable distance of civil war. This danger was not
+urged as a reason for recurring to accepted principles of government; on
+the contrary, it was a plea for new expeditions in pursuit of the _ignis
+fatuus_ of Irish opinion. We know the events which followed.
+
+The Compensation for Disturbance Bill seemed a small matter in itself,
+but involved principles fatal to all security for property. During the
+next autumn and winter, Ireland was abandoned to the savage dominion of
+the Land League. The quiescence of the Government excited remonstrance
+even from advanced Radicals like Mr. Leonard Courtney. That stalwart
+Liberal had not been then in office, had not had the experience he has
+since acquired. He had not yet learned the dutiful lesson that, whatever
+his own convictions, the probabilities were in favour of the view that
+his great leader was in the right, or at least, might be successful. As
+a concession to public opinion, a Coercion Act was passed, new fangled
+and hesitating. But it was not so much on effective legislation and a
+resolute determination to curb disorder that the Ministry relied, as on
+the recognition of Irish opinion which the Land Act of 1881 embodied.
+It was truly said of that measure by an exulting Radical, that it struck
+a blow at property which was felt in every country in Europe. In his
+main calculation, his purpose to win popularity in Ireland, Mr.
+Gladstone failed, as he has so often failed; and as usual the failure
+was due to the wickedness or perversity of some one else. In 1874 it was
+Pius IX. and the Jesuits who had misled his Irish friends. In 1881 the
+evil influence was Mr. Parnell.
+
+In the autumn the Prime Minister startled his hearers at Leeds by a
+passionate complaint, that--
+
+     'a small band of men had arisen who were not ashamed to
+     preach in Ireland the doctrine of public plunder ... now
+     that Mr. Parnell is afraid, lest the people of England by
+     their long continued efforts should win the hearts of the
+     whole Irish nation, he has a new and enlarged gospel of
+     plunder to proclaim.'
+
+He went back with a swing to the high-handed policy he had so often
+denounced. Irishmen must be made to recognize Gladstone, and not
+Parnell, as their true friend. The Land League was dissolved by
+proclamation, its principal leaders, including Mr. Parnell, were clapped
+into jail, and it was proclaimed at Knowsley that the Cabinet were going
+'to relieve the people of Ireland from the weight of a tyrannical yoke.'
+
+These speeches, full as they were of denunciation of Mr. Parnell, were
+still on the lines of the Southport speech. They were not declarations
+of the opinion of the British community, warnings to Ireland to take
+account of the settled judgment of the nation, of which the sister
+island must always form part. They contrasted with the manly utterance
+of Mr. Chamberlain on this subject, the same month, at Birmingham. They
+were angry appeals to Ireland to quarrel with her chosen leaders. Mr.
+James Lowther was denounced for stating, that 'the party headed by Mr.
+Parnell commanded the support of the large majority of the people of
+Ireland.' Mr. Gladstone added, 'The proposition here made is one on
+which we are entirely at issue. I profoundly disbelieve it; I utterly
+protest against it. I believe a greater calumny on the Irish nation,...
+a more gross and injurious statement could not possibly be made against
+the Irish nation.'
+
+In the following year it was found that the recognition of Mr.
+Gladstone, as the father of the Irish people was still remote; whilst
+Mr. Forster declared, that a stronger Coercion Bill was necessary, if
+life was to be protected in Ireland. Then came another plunge after the
+coveted ideal. Mr. Forster, who had so generously devoted himself to
+his party and his leader in the pursuit of a new Irish policy, was
+abandoned to the Irish members, and to Mr. John Morley's crusade against
+him in the columns of the 'Pall Mall Gazette.' Mr. Parnell was called
+out of jail to secure votes to the Government, and order in Ireland, by
+the help of Mr. Sheridan and other ex-convicts. The Phoenix Park
+murder, following on the Kilmainham Treaty, postponed the full carrying
+out of this arrangement. The sort of measure, which Mr. Forster had been
+refused a month before, was now passed with provisions of excessive
+stringency; and Lord Spencer, who had been sent to Ireland to win that
+popularity, which the late Chief Secretary had been unable to obtain,
+was chiefly occupied in curbing the violence which that Minister had
+denounced, in bringing to justice the criminals whom he had not been
+allowed to reach. We recollect that the new Viceroy was exposed to a
+storm of unpopularity so violent and outrageous, that the public readily
+forgot the discreditable folly of his original enterprise, and honoured
+the resolution and dignity with which he discharged the laborious duties
+of a thankless office.
+
+The construction of the Irish Government at this time was such as to
+make the Lord Lieutenant personally responsible for the administration
+of justice, and the carrying out of the main provisions of the Crimes
+Act. He was in the Cabinet, whilst his chief Secretaries, Mr. Trevelyan
+and Mr. Campbell-Bannerman, were only subordinate members of the
+Ministry. They conducted Irish business in the House of Commons,
+representing in their relations with the Irish members, as far as
+circumstances allowed, their leader's yearning after Irish popularity,
+whilst Lord Spencer, the Whig Earl, who belonged to things that had been
+rather than to the rising power of the Radical party, bore all the odium
+of unpopular imprisonments or executions.
+
+The significance of such an arrangement was not lost on the Irish crowd.
+By the end of 1882 the Land League was reconstructed under the name of
+the National League. The new organization, of which 'United Ireland' was
+the especial organ, gradually established branches from one end of
+Ireland to the other. Strong as the provisions of the Crimes Prevention
+Act were, no attempt was made to bring the new society under its
+operation. The columns of 'United Ireland,' on the other hand, bore
+plenty of evidence of a disposition to move on. The Irish farmers were
+reproachfully asked if they were content with a paltry reduction of
+rent. 'Had they no other account to settle with England?' The leaders
+reminded their followers that the Crimes Act would expire before long.
+They renewed with savage energy that campaign against the _personnel_
+of the Irish administration, which Mr. John Morley had so warmly
+espoused up to the murder of Mr. Burke. A continual storm of abuse and
+calumny was directed against Lord Spencer and every one else concerned
+with Irish government. Mr. Clifford Lloyd and Mr. Trevelyan were removed
+by way of warning, that there was no room in Ireland for public servants
+who did their duty. The National League, in fact, became in each
+district a conspicuous and formidable power. Their representatives in
+Parliament received much attention from the Prime Minister and his
+colleagues. They exercised great influence and had many chances before
+them in the new organization of the electorate. With all these
+advantages on the side of the Irish Revolution, the Queen's Government
+had nobody to champion it but the not imposing personality of Lord
+Spencer.
+
+It is not surprising that in such a state of things Ireland was already,
+at the commencement of 1885, like a country occupied by two hostile
+armies. There was the National League camp with its scouts and
+emissaries all over the country, with a vigorous Press proclaiming its
+policy and success. The Government forces remained within their lines,
+attempting nothing, doing nothing, unless some outrage by a moonlight
+gang compelled them to make some show of interference to check violation
+of the truce between treason and loyalty. The greatest care was taken
+not to identify the Government with the scattered Loyalists. They might
+be very worthy persons, but they were the special aversion of the
+Nationalist party, and the business of the Government was not to protect
+or encourage loyalty, but to prevent Nationalism from going too fast.
+The Nationalist aspirations of Mr. Gladstone's friends were not to be
+irritated by attentions shown to their adversaries.
+
+When Parliament reassembled in the spring of 1885, men asked what
+provision was made for renewing the Crimes Act, which would expire in
+the autumn. Week after week passed, month after month; and it was
+impossible to extract from the Ministry what their policy was as regards
+the government of Ireland. At length, in the summer, it was announced
+that on a day, which was never fixed, a Bill would be introduced
+renewing certain provisions of the expiring Act. This announcement from
+the Treasury Bench was followed at once by a notice from Mr. John Morley
+to oppose the Bill. So much time had already been lost, that it was
+practically impossible for any Ministry to carry a Coercion Bill against
+the determined opposition of the Irish members, without the most
+resolute effort on the part of Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues. Were
+they prepared to make these exertions? One of the conditions, on which
+the Reform question had been settled, was the definite postponement of a
+dissolution until after the 1st November. Each day men became more and
+more engrossed with the great question of the winter--the new
+election--more indifferent to the business of the Session; the
+Parnellite party more exultant and defiant. Rumours of dissensions in
+the Cabinet, had been already rife, and grew more frequent every day.
+The country awoke one morning to find that the second Gladstone
+Ministry, with its clear majority of over eighty, was at an end. Rather
+than confess their disunion, the ministry had allowed themselves to be
+defeated on another question, and Mr. Parnell came before his countrymen
+as the avenger who had chastised the suggestion of renewed coercion by
+destroying the Government which made it.
+
+In this collapse of administration the only course open to the Tory
+party was to prepare as rapidly as possible for an appeal to the
+country, doing what they could meanwhile in foreign and in home affairs
+to mitigate the mischief which they were powerless to remedy. When the
+dissolution came, Mr. Gladstone opened his canvass in Midlothian by many
+sneers at the election policy of the Irish Nationalists. He reminded his
+hearers, that the subject of extending local government in Ireland must
+come forward in the new Parliament, and urged that, 'in dealing with
+this question the unity of the empire was not to be compromised or be
+put in jeopardy.' 'Nothing was to be done which should tend to
+impair,--visibly or sensibly to impair,--the unity of the Empire.'
+Auditors who had made no special study of Mr. Gladstone's phraseology
+interpreted these words as a declaration against a separate Parliament
+in Dublin. He apparently was prepared for large schemes of
+decentralization, either specially for Ireland or in connection with the
+projected reform of local government in England; but there was to be
+nothing which should 'visibly impair' the Imperial unity. He went on to
+dwell on the danger of 'condescending either to clamour or to fear,' and
+added:--
+
+     'But quite apart from the names of Whig and Tory, one thing
+     I will say, and will endeavour to impress, and it is this,
+     that it will be 'a _vital danger_ to the country if at the
+     time that the demand of Ireland for large powers of
+     self-government is to be dealt with--it will be a _vital
+     danger_ to the Empire if there is not in Parliament ready to
+     deal with that subject, ready to influence the proceedings
+     upon that subject, _a party totally independent of the Irish
+     vote_.'
+
+Even the most enthusiastic followers of the Liberal chief have learnt to
+be very cautious in saying what meaning is to be attributed to his
+utterances, but there can be no doubt that this language was read by
+the public as saying, 'whatever lengths I may go in working out the
+principle of local government, whatever may be the understanding between
+the Home Rulers and the Tories, I at least will not accept the principle
+of an Irish Parliament.' Not only was this the natural reading of Mr.
+Gladstone's declarations at the election, but nearly every member of his
+party, who referred to this question at all, spoke in the same sense.
+Mr. Campbell Bannerman denounced the Parnellite demands as 'separation
+under one name or another,' and many other Liberals were equally
+emphatic, whilst a still larger number never alluded to the subject.
+
+Well may Lord Hartington protest against the competence of the present
+Parliament to deal with the legislation now proposed.
+
+     'There was no thought, no warning held out to the country,
+     that a radical reform in the relations between Great Britain
+     and Ireland would be the main work of the present
+     Parliament.... The country had no sufficient warning--I
+     think I may say the country had no warning at all--that any
+     proposals of the magnitude and vastness of those which were
+     unfolded to us last night were to be considered in the
+     present Parliament, much less were to form the first subject
+     of consideration upon the meeting of this Parliament. I am
+     perfectly aware that there exists in our Constitution no
+     principle of the mandate. I know that the mandate of the
+     constituencies is as unknown to our Constitution, as the
+     distinction between fundamental laws and laws which are of
+     an inferior sanction. But, although no principle of a
+     mandate may exist, I maintain that there are certain limits
+     which Parliament is bound to observe, and beyond which
+     Parliament has morally not the right to go in its relations
+     with the constituencies. The constituencies of Great Britain
+     are the source of the power, at all events, of this branch
+     of Parliament, and I maintain that in the presence of an
+     emergency which could not have been foreseen, the House of
+     Commons has no moral right to initiate legislation,
+     especially upon its first meeting, of which the
+     constituencies were not informed, and of which the
+     constituencies might have been informed, and as to which, if
+     they had been so informed, there is, at all events, the very
+     greatest doubt what their decision might be.'
+
+Over and over again in the Parliament of 1874 and of 1880 have we heard
+Mr. Gladstone appealing to this principle, that schemes of crucial
+importance ought to be discussed before the constituencies; yet the most
+important proposal made in Parliament for some generations is presented
+after a general election, in which the constituencies were invited by
+the Prime Minister and his colleagues to believe, that this particular
+question was outside the region of practical politics.
+
+No sooner had it become apparent that the country had refused that
+renewal of power which Mr. Gladstone had asked for, than his resolution
+not to accept defeat was promptly manifested. Public men remembered his
+use of the Royal prerogative in 1872, to carry into execution a scheme
+for which he had sought and failed to obtain the consent of Parliament.
+He had not been a week at Hawarden after his journey from Scotland, when
+people became conscious that the return to office, which he had told the
+country would be their security against Mr. Parnell, he was now ready to
+seek with the aid of that leader.
+
+It was on the 8th of December, just after the main results of the
+elections were settled, that Mr. Herbert Gladstone wrote from Hawarden
+to a casual correspondent, 'If five-sixths of the Irish people wish to
+have a Parliament in Dublin, for the management of their own local
+affairs, I say in the name of justice and wisdom, let them have it.' A
+few days afterwards the Press announced that the Liberal chief had, in
+consultation with some former colleagues, matured a scheme which
+embodied the points desired by Mr. Parnell. The announcement was
+immediately followed by a telegram from Hawarden, denying the accuracy
+of the scheme as sketched in the Press. On the main point, whether he
+was prepared to co-operate with the Home Rule Party, whether he had
+recovered from the fear he expressed at Edinburgh, that it would be a
+'vital danger' to the Empire, if Home Rule came on for discussion
+'without the presence in Parliament of a party totally independent of
+the Irish vote,' on these questions, with which all England was busy,
+Mr. Gladstone said never a word. He relied on the virtue he assumed to
+protect him from inconvenient questionings, and meanwhile the
+Nationalists were invited to reflect during the Christmas holidays, that
+perhaps after all their best friend was at Hawarden.
+
+Mr. Chamberlain followed up the rumour of a settled scheme by a prompt
+denial that he was a party to it, and added an emphatic statement of the
+way in which he and his friends read the Midlothian speeches--'all
+sections of the party were determined that the integrity of the Empire
+should be a reality, and not an empty phrase.' Mr. Chamberlain had
+listened to his great leader too long not to be aware of the importance
+of marking the distinction between a 'reality' and a 'phrase.' In a few
+days Lord Hartington too wrote to say, that he was no party to the
+suggested policy.
+
+The ultimate result of the elections left the government at Christmas
+only 251 votes, and the Liberals 333. Had it been clear that the
+Liberal party were united in a scheme, which was consistent with the
+current of British opinion, the solution would have been simple enough.
+Had the appeals for straightforward dealing, made more than once during
+the election by Lord Salisbury and Lord Randolph Churchill, been
+responded to, the Government might have made way for a Liberal Ministry,
+the best men on both sides recognizing, what the soundest public opinion
+required, that the Irish vote of 86 should be disregarded on questions
+affecting the existence of a Cabinet; but before the elections were all
+over, the divisions in the Liberal party were obvious. Mr. Gladstone had
+returned with more eagerness than ever to the policy of Irish ideas,
+whilst experience had at length opened the eyes of his ablest
+lieutenants.
+
+In such a condition of affairs, the only course for Lord Salisbury's
+Government was to await the onset of their opponents, meanwhile applying
+themselves to settle that scheme of Irish policy which they as a party
+were prepared to champion in office or out of office. They met
+Parliament with an emphatic declaration to maintain the Union, and a few
+days afterwards announced that further legislation in defence of public
+order was necessary. This announcement was made on the 26th of January,
+when several of the Amendments in the Address were still on the paper.
+Before the House rose, the Government had ceased to exist. By a majority
+of 79, in a House of 583; a Resolution in support of a policy advocated
+by the Radical section of the Liberal party was carried against the
+Government. The motion of Mr. Jesse Collings was, it must be remembered,
+not a necessary assertion of a particular principle. The importance of
+the questions of allotments was acknowledged by the Ministry
+collectively and individually. It was not supposed, even by Mr. Collings
+himself, that the carrying of this particular Motion on the Address
+would advance legislation on the subject by a single day. The motion was
+one of those demonstrations of opinions, ordinary enough in Parliament,
+and generally resulting in a debate without a division or if pushed to a
+division, in the withdrawal from the House of all but declared
+partizans. On this particular occasion the motion was taken up and
+pressed to a division, in order that the National League was to be put
+down, was followed in a few hours by a vote which, in the existing
+constitution of parties, necessarily involved the restoration of Mr.
+Gladstone to power. So transparent was the object of the division that
+13 Liberals voted with the Ministers, among others such staunch
+adherents of Liberalism as Lord Hartington and Sir Henry James.
+
+When the new Ministry was formed, two extraordinary circumstances came
+to light. Lord Hartington, the heir-apparent to the Liberal Leadership,
+Lord Derby, Mr. Gladstone's most distinguished proselyte, Lord Selborne,
+and other eminent colleagues in the conduct of the Liberal party, would
+have nothing to do with the new scheme for the final settlement of
+Ireland for the third time. Another still more singular fact was soon
+disclosed. All the members of the new Cabinet, who had any future before
+them, had come in with reservations of a right of further consideration,
+when the subject of Irish policy should be brought up for discussion.
+
+One remarkable ally, however, Mr. Gladstone had found in his momentous
+enterprise. The appointment of Mr. John Morley to the principal post in
+the Government of the part of the kingdom, which had fallen under the
+sway of such an organization as the National League, was in itself a
+revolution. The new Chief Secretary had no official experience, and no
+parliamentary position. A favoured person, who had audience of great
+Trades' Union gatherings, he was observed with some interest by the late
+Parliament, busy with speculations on the character of the new
+Electorate. But, if his parliamentary work had been slight, he had
+considerable literary reputation, and had taken an active part, in the
+press, in discussions on the Irish question. The apologist of Danton,
+the champion of the Jacobin Club, he was the one English political
+writer who believed himself able to find in the throes of the French
+Revolution valuable examples of public policy. The figures of that
+terrible convulsion did not attract him so much by their range of human
+passion, by the largeness of the space they filled in a great drama of
+humanity. It was their fanaticism which inspired him. Their capacity to
+combine, with the perpetration of atrocious crimes, an ardent apostolate
+of abstract ideals, had for him a vivid fascination. A gentle critic of
+Robespierre, he could see in the execution of Marie Antoinette traces of
+discriminating statesmanship. Entering on political work with such
+dispositions, he was early attracted to the seething cauldron of Mr.
+Gladstone's Irish policy. Having satisfied himself that Ireland was in a
+state of revolution, he regarded murder and robbery as necessary
+incidents. When an unfortunate lady driving in the evening along a
+country road was shot dead beside her husband, whose only offence was
+that of being a landlord, the public were lectured for the inconsequence
+of their indignation. On the Dublin conspirators, who were watching to
+murder Mr. Forster, were not lost the lessons which Mr. Morley had been
+preaching on the vileness of the permanent officials at the Castle. They
+determined to murder Mr. Burke, and in killing him slew his companion
+also; and Mr. Morley deprecatingly reminded his readers, that the death
+of Lord Frederick Cavendish was 'almost an accident.' With these
+professed opinions, it was easy for him to acknowledge what Mr.
+Gladstone might have hesitated to confess, that Mr. Parnell and the
+National League were the true expression of 'the general sense of the
+Irish people.'
+
+The Nationalist party had long recognised the value of his aid in
+Parliament. They felt the truth of the saying, that he was 'Mr. Parnell
+in an Englishman's skin,' and consequently enjoying more freedom of
+action, able, on occasion, to do more service for the National League in
+a Parnellite Cabinet than Mr. Parnell himself. Although the principles
+he had laid down, strictly applied, would oblige him to say, let Ireland
+take care of herself and work out her own destiny, he has qualified his
+faith--he has never very clearly explained why--by a declaration in
+favour of the integrity of the Kingdom. A believer in revolution, Mr.
+Morley is astute enough to be ready to take what he can get. 'We do
+wrong,' he said, writing after the breakdown of the Kilmainham Treaty,
+'in being content with nothing short of perfection and finality. If we
+see our way to the next step, that is enough.' 'Perfection' in Irish
+affairs would perhaps be that Irish opinion should be organized in a
+convention at Dublin, and then, tempered by a full course of revolution,
+should come to the conclusion, that the Union after all was the best
+thing for both islands. As the public are not yet prepared for trying
+this experiment, we are to have a succession of 'next steps.'
+
+As a set off to Mr. Morley's want of official experience and of weight
+in the House of Commons, Mr. Gladstone placed the consideration he
+enjoyed with the Parnellite party and a disposition, composed of
+fanaticism and adroitness, fitting him well to co-operate in the schemes
+which were to follow from the wild passion of the National League in
+combination with the skill of the 'old Parliamentary hand.'
+
+No sooner was the new Ministry formed than the Nationalist party
+recognized the greatness of their opportunity. An attitude of reserve
+was taken up by the Nationalist members and their Press. The Ministry
+had not been a week in office, when the most advanced and outspoken of
+the Irish leaders, Mr. John Dillon, presiding at a meeting of the
+National League, frankly declared 'he never felt more inclined to say
+nothing than to-day, the present Ministry had been formed on one
+question and on one question alone, and that was the rights of the Irish
+nation.' With Mr. Gladstone in office, the policy of the League was to
+apply the policy of silence so often inculcated by Mr. Parnell. Speaking
+out might only embarrass their new allies.
+
+The country, up to a week ago, knew nothing of the momentous scheme on
+which the Ministry were engaged. One Cabinet council considered it with
+the result, that the collective action of the Cabinet ceased for the
+next fortnight; and then the only two public men of weight, whom Mr.
+Gladstone had induced to give his scheme the compliment of a hearing,
+retired from the Ministry. Our readers are now in possession of so much
+of the new scheme as they may be able to discern through the glamour of
+Mr. Gladstone's rhetoric; but the condition of affairs during the last
+three months is a picture to remember for all time.
+
+When the Hawarden scheme was disclosed before Christmas, Mr. Gladstone's
+principal organ in the London Press declared within a week that the game
+was up. The public would have none of it. The return of Mr. Gladstone to
+office, with Mr. John Morley as Irish Secretary, suddenly revived the
+hopes of the 'Pall Mall Gazette.' His new start in pursuit of the Irish
+ideal banished the despair which had settled upon even the most reckless
+of his adherents. The age, the physical power of the Premier, his long
+public career, called up reflections which could not be disposed of in a
+moment by foes, still less by former allies. He claimed time, and he has
+taken the most important part of the Session, to mature his plans,
+amidst the silence of the Opposition and of his Home Rule allies.
+
+But, if his opponents were silent, his nomination of Mr. Morley to the
+most important place in his Cabinet was not lost upon the motly crowd
+outside. All the dancing dervishes of politics rushed upon the scene to
+amaze a bewildered public with fantastical gyrations. 'The Empire of
+Liberty,' cried one, 'can never employ coercion.' Another enthusiast
+exclaimed, after reviewing the course of events since the Hawarden
+revelations, 'To call these things to mind does one's heart good. It
+seems as if nothing need be despaired of, as if words of hope need never
+be empty words.' A well-known economist tried to ease the public
+conscience, and to neutralize the resistance of the unfortunate Irish
+landlord, by a nebulous scheme for buying up the landlords' rights, but
+what the supply of money is to be, and who is to supply it, are
+questions to which the answers vary every hour. A separate Parliament is
+to be accompanied by a system of guarantees, and Professor Rogers
+declares that the surest guarantee was the hostages we have in the two
+millions of Irish inhabiting Great Britain; as if these unfortunate
+persons could be made liable to imprisonment or torture in order to
+secure the good conduct of Mr. Parnell's Dublin Cabinet, as if such an
+arrangement, if made, would have the slightest effect upon the Irish
+revolutionists.
+
+But whilst Mr. Gladstone lingered, waiting to see how far the outer
+public could be brought into sympathy with his schemes, he did not
+hesitate a moment to consolidate the power of the National League. The
+subject of evictions for non-payment of rent was brought before the new
+Government in the form of a question, alleging that a particular
+eviction was not in strict conformity with the landlord's right. Mr.
+Morley offered to consider the question of right, and added that what
+was much wanted in Ireland was 'a strict and scrupulous and literal
+spirit of legality.' Later on the same evening, Mr. Dillon made a
+vigorous appeal to the Chief Secretary not to give the aid of armed
+force to carry out evictions. Mr. Morley responded with alacrity. 'I for
+one am not prepared to admit that we are justified in every case, in
+which a shadow of legal title is made out, to bring out the military
+force to execute decrees which, on the ground of public policy as well
+as that of equity, may seem inadvisable and unnecessary.' Legal right,
+if it is relied on in favour of the subjects of the Land League, must be
+interpreted in a 'scrupulous and literal spirit.' If it is acted on by
+the landlord, there come in considerations of public policy and of
+equity.
+
+The result of a long debate was that organized resistance to the
+execution of the law would not be interfered with, unless the Government
+were satisfied that in particular circumstances equity required such
+interference. We have thus arrived at once at a system of official
+despotism. The law is not to be a guarantee of the rights of the
+subject, unless so far as the Minister may think fit to permit it. And
+this dispensing power is to be exercised in favour of the subjects of
+the National League.
+
+The self-sufficiency of the Liberal party had been vigorously appealed
+to during the years 1883-5. Liberals tried to persuade themselves, that
+the comparative repose of Ireland was due to, or was likely to generate,
+a Conservative feeling amongst the farmer class. Their harvests were
+good, and they had got so much from the Land Bill, they had so much, in
+fact, to lose now, in comparison with their condition in former years,
+men argued, that they would not care to risk their well-being in pursuit
+of Nationalist projects, with the certainty of being subject to the
+village ruffians Mr. Forster had described whilst the struggle was going
+on, with the probability of having to share what they had with these
+same ruffians as soon as an Irish Parliament obtained power.
+
+This reasoning took little account of historical experience in cases
+where property is suddenly given to one class by an arbitrary act. Care
+for what one possesses, forethought to avoid its loss, come only with
+habits of acquisition. The Irish farmer was confessedly careless in the
+past, because, it was said, providence could be of so little use to him
+in the then state of the law, but his prosperity under the legislation
+of 1881 was not the result of his own industry. It was due to a long
+course of agrarian outrage in Ireland and of Parliamentary outrage at
+Westminster. A favourite commonplace of Land Reformers is the
+conservatism of the French peasant, turned into a proprietor by the
+decrees of the Legislative Assembly of 1791. We are reminded of his
+industry, his self-denial, his distrust of the revolutionary spirit
+which rages in the towns, but we forget the date at which this sober,
+assiduous, conservatism made its appearance in history. The immediate
+result of the change made in 1791 was a savage orgie of bloodshed and
+outrage, nor was the wild fury, once let loose, sated by the blood of
+Frenchmen. It was nearly a generation before the fire of Revolution
+burnt itself out. The French peasantry of 1815 only came to value the
+land they acquired, to devote their lives to its cultivation, after
+twenty-three years of savage warfare had strewed the bones of their
+fathers and their brothers over every battlefield from Salamanca to
+Borodino, after Teuton and Cossack and Saxon had traversed French
+territory from end to end.
+
+Nor does the work of revolution produce other effects among the backward
+turbulent British population, whom Irish rhetoric describes as the Irish
+nation. Whatever we might hope from the children or grandchildren of
+those farmers who profited by the change which Mr. Parnell had already
+brought about, to suppose that prudence and a judicious spirit of
+self-interest would come to them as rapidly as the reduction of their
+rents, was to ignore all the facts of human nature. The desire for
+further winnings possessed them, as the passion of a gambler. Mr.
+Parnell's triumphant personality was the first thought in their minds.
+He had already taken 20 per cent. off their rents. Next time they were
+confident he would take off 50 per cent. or abolish rent altogether.
+
+The Liberals who had been dreaming complacently about the happy results
+of Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy awoke to find Ireland in possession of
+the powerful, well-organized, hostile, combination known as the National
+League.
+
+To make our readers understand what this power means, we should like to
+be able to bring them within the closed doors of the room where the
+League Committee sits in the remote country village. We should then hear
+the report of the member, respecting the funds obtained, their review of
+the wealth and independence around them, within their reach, but not yet
+brought under tribute, the gleeful narrative of resistance subdued, the
+dark hints of resources for future conquest. The details of the action
+of the League, as avowed by their press, have been published by the
+Loyal and Patriotic Union, and would fill many pages of this Review.
+
+The rapid growth of the new organization is easily understood. They had
+the past success of Mr. Parnell to work on, and this success was both
+appreciable in their balance of unpaid rent at the Bank, and stimulating
+to the imagination. The whole island was busy observing the execution of
+Mr. Parnell's behests in the re-adjustment of contracts for land. The
+Ministry, which had rebelled against his criticism and sprung at his
+throat, had been compelled to bring him out of jail supplicating for his
+alliance. The object of creating the new body was not so much to move
+forward as to keep Mr. Parnell's friends well together, to take
+advantage of the effect on the popular mind, which Mr. Parnell's
+achievements were producing in every hamlet. The practical advantages
+already won were an earnest of the future, secured new support, and
+would give greater momentum and unity to the Parnellite movement; when
+the time came for another attack upon property. The suspects who had
+been imprisoned by Mr. Forster, constituted local centres for the
+establishment of branches of the League. Every country public-house was
+a place of meeting for the branches or their agents. Once the League was
+organized in a particular district, the next point was to secure
+subscriptions. Land-grabbing, that is, becoming tenant of land from
+which some one else had been evicted, was the offence against which the
+League in the first place directed its energies, and this disregard of
+popular opinion was punished by social excommunication; but the system
+of boycotting once called into requisition involved new duties and
+responsibilities. If a man had not taken land himself, he might have
+worked for some one who had, or bought cattle from a land-grabber. The
+League in Kerry enjoined the following procedure on their subscribers:--
+
+     'That any person found communicating with a few obnoxious
+     individuals in this locality will be expelled from the
+     league. That every person presenting cattle for sale at a
+     fair shall produce his card, and that no buyers shall
+     purchase from any person without producing the same.
+
+     'That no individual shall sell to any dealer without
+     presenting his card, as it is the only way to detect those
+     employed by the Defence Unionists, and that we call on the
+     other branches to follow this example.'--'United Ireland,'
+     Dec. 12th, 1885.
+
+As the power of the League became better established, the subscribers
+were guaranteed against the caprice of their customers by such
+resolutions as the following, adopted at New Ross:--
+
+     'That we hereby give final notice to Mr. Murtagh Stafford,
+     that if he does not give back his work to the Nationalist
+     blacksmiths, Messrs. Bowe and Busher, we cannot retain him
+     on our league. That we inform all members of our branch that
+     we expect them to patronize National blacksmiths, artisans,
+     etc., if they wish to remain members.'--'New Ross Standard,'
+     Jan. 9th, 1886.
+
+The complicated equities, which arose under the operation of these local
+tribunals, are illustrated by another case reported from Wexford.
+
+     'Farrell and a man named Shee had been partners in a
+     thrashing machine. Shee was boycotted in 1883 for having
+     taken an evicted farm, and accordingly the machine was
+     allowed to remain idle. Under these circumstances both
+     agreed to dissolve partnership, and Farrell purchased Shee's
+     share in the machine for 370l., a sum of 60l. being paid in
+     ready cash and the remainder being secured by a bill of
+     sale. Farrell then went to the Tullogher branch to get
+     "absolution for the machine," but his application was
+     refused, it being decided that Shee still had a certain
+     interest in it. In the "New Ross Standard," on Sept. 30th,
+     1885, Farrell, it is reported, being desirous of appealing
+     to the Central League in Dublin, had forwarded his statement
+     to the Tullogher branch and declared he was now ready to
+     verify it on oath. His request to have it sent on to the
+     Central League was, however, refused by the local
+     branch.'--'New Ross Standard.'
+
+The election to local public offices soon engaged the attention of the
+League. The branches were not content with nominating candidates and
+interfering with the elections; they next assumed the direction of the
+proceedings of Boards of Guardians and Town Councils. At Ennis this
+intervention was publicly announced by resolution.
+
+     'That in every future election to any office under the
+     board, no candidate shall be supported by the National
+     Guardians _unless he be a member of the National League_ for
+     at least six months previous to the date of the election,
+     and produces his certificate, signed by the chairman and
+     secretary of the branch, and further, that when selecting a
+     candidate to be put forward for election, the minority of
+     the National guardians should be bound to act on vote with
+     the majority present and voting.'--'Clare Journal,' Nov.
+     11th, 1885.
+
+Contracts were only to be given to Members of the League. No one could
+be elected to a country dispensary or engaged as solicitor by any
+electoral body without the sanction of the League. A large portion of
+the struggling professional classes in the South and West were forced by
+a sense of self preservation to join the local associations. To remain
+outside the ranks of the League was to forfeit a man's best chances of
+getting on in life, and might any day become a personal danger. Mr.
+Harrington M.P., who has been for some years in charge of the Central
+Office of the League, tells us that 'at Meetings of the branches of the
+Organization discussions frequently occur upon incidents in the
+locality.' We can quite believe it, and are not surprised to find from
+the columns of 'United Ireland' what is the result of these discussions.
+
+In a system of pillage and tyranny so elaborated, there was no necessity
+to perpetrate acts of violence, frequently or continually. The daily
+operation of the League was a standing outrage, bringing a proof of its
+power to every man's door. A limited number of conspicuous crimes was
+sufficient for the purposes of the League. Curtin was murdered in
+November; Finlay, in the West of Ireland, in February; and the local
+persecution of the families of the victims was even a more awful tribute
+to the sway of the popular organization.
+
+It is not surprising that Mr. Lecky, in former years the most
+distinguished advocate of Irish Nationalism, in what may be called its
+social aspects, should say of the organ of the National League, 'United
+Ireland,' 'any English statesman who reads that paper, and then proposes
+to hand over the property and the virtual government of Ireland to the
+men whose ideas it represents, must be either a traitor or a fool.'
+
+There is no occasion to dwell on the existence of this body or the
+character of its operations. They are part of the case of the
+Government. Mr. Morley has frankly told us, that we ought to pass the
+new Bill, because the League is so strong. If we did not, we should have
+to quarrel with the League, and to meet not only this great association
+as we knew it in its times of prosperity, but the League as supported by
+all the reserve forces of Mr. Egan and Mr. Ford. At present these
+leaders of public opinion send money; but if the National League, its
+staff, its secretaries, its branches, its newspapers and Members of
+Parliament, are not enough, they are ready to send dynamite.
+
+One remarkable fact, however, in connection with the National League
+deserves special consideration, for it illustrates the singularly
+disastrous character of Mr. Gladstone's interposition in Irish affairs.
+The society, which we have endeavoured to describe, and which Mr.
+Morley recommends to our attention as the _locum tenens_ of dynamite and
+the dagger, is now officered in nearly every village by the priests of
+the Roman Church. At the beginning of his career, Mr. Parnell personally
+was regarded by the Roman Catholic hierarchy with suspicion, if not with
+hostility. Mr. Butt had never succeeded in securing their hearty
+co-operation in his Home Rule scheme. Mr. Parnell was not only a
+Protestant, but expressed his contempt very freely for the adherents of
+the Roman Church, whilst he avowed his sympathy with Revolutionists,
+whom the Irish Catholic had been taught to regard as enemies of the Holy
+Father. We can always trace in the history of this Church two forces at
+work; the principle of order and authority, worldly and calculating, in
+sympathy with the powers that be, trusting by skill and caution to
+manipulate them for its own ends; and on the other hand, the wilder
+spirit of sacerdotal ambition ready to ride the storm and dare
+catastrophe. Before Mr. Gladstone's second Administration, the former
+influence was gaining much strength in Ireland. Even if we make
+allowance for the social origin of the Irish priests, filled from their
+infancy with the rebel sentiment of the peasantry, there are many sins
+that the disposition of their Church was until very recently to rely
+upon intrigue and organization for gaining its ends, rather than to ally
+itself openly with the Irish Revolution. Even after Mr. Parnell had
+secured the allegiance of the farmer class by his great largess in the
+shape of 20 per cent. reduction of rent, not only did Cardinal McCabe
+continue to oppose him, but Archbishop Croke evinced a desire to act on
+the side of Government.
+
+Such a line of action, however, was only possible on the supposition,
+that government was to be maintained in Ireland; and the tenure of
+Ireland by Lord Spencer gave no such assurance. We know the passionate
+efforts which Mr. Gladstone made to exclude Archbishop Walsh from the
+See of Dublin. Sir George Errington was sent to Rome to get the Pope to
+do what Mr. Gladstone dare not do himself--bid defiance to the Irish
+leader. That resolute politician had a policy; the English Minister had
+none. A quarrel with the Nationalist party meant to the Roman Church
+loss of income, loss of influence--influence which, in these
+iconoclastic days, it might take them generations to recover; and, after
+all their sacrifices, they might find that Mr. Gladstone had
+capitulated, and had handed them and the rest of Ireland over to the
+National League. Their only practical course, as discreet politicians,
+was to throw in their lot with the great Nationalist leader, relying on
+the old traditions of the Irish peasant to protect clerical interests
+against the host of Revolutionists, who would, on Mr. Parnell's triumph,
+flock into Ireland from all the ends of the earth. The priests do not
+forget that the member for Cork denounced their co-religionists. They
+have no enthusiasm for a revolutionary dictator, who, whatever his
+opinions on religious matters, cannot be claimed as a son of the Church.
+Mr. Gladstone, however, left the sacerdotal power no choice but to make
+the best terms they could with the Irish leader, who was only too glad
+to secure their co-operation. Archbishop Walsh has been accepted as a
+sort of ecclesiastical assessor to Mr. Parnell's government, and at the
+last election the priests went as one man for the National League.
+
+It is an Ireland, thus abandoned for years to the evil spirits evoked by
+the rhetorician of Southport--an Ireland, in which the natural springs
+of Conservatism have been dried up by the fever of slumbering
+revolution--that England is now called upon to deal with, and the remedy
+of the Ministry is to call into power a public opinion schooled in
+conspiracy and violence; for now at length Mr. Gladstone has given up
+the notion of intervening between Mr. Parnell and the Irish crowd. The
+preachers of the gospel of plunder are invited to share in the
+government of a part of the Kingdom.
+
+We shall not attempt to examine further the scheme which Mr. Gladstone
+has foreshadowed, but which, as we write, is not yet published in
+detail. One characteristic, we may note, in the Prime Minister's speech
+was very unusual with him. It is full of admissions which seem to be due
+not so much to his habitual daring as to unconsciousness of their
+import. He is ready to buy out the landlords at a great cost to the
+English taxpayer, because the idea of landed property came to the
+Irishman in English garb, and is therefore not likely to be respected in
+the new system; but why should he be obliged to make special provision
+for the Irish judges? They are men of ability, of stainless character.
+They do not belong to any particular party, or race, or creed; they are
+members of a great profession which all civilized societies require.
+They have that experience of their profession which would make their
+services particularly useful to a community entering on a new social
+stage; but the mere fact, that they have been engaged in applying the
+law, makes their position dangerous, and Mr. Gladstone is obliged to ask
+England to provide that they shall not suffer in purse from the opening
+of the new era which he proposes in that part of the United Kingdom
+where he has undertaken to reconstruct society.
+
+For the moment Mr. Morley prefers the _role_ of Sieyes rather than of
+Danton, but the outcome of the legislation, proposed by the Ministry
+with the assent of Mr. Parnell, must be to advance, if not to
+consummate, the theory of Irish Independence. We thus arrive at that
+result which Mr. Morley, on his own principles, would find it difficult
+to refuse assent to. He has told us that his policy is to be 'thorough.'
+A separate Irish nationality or reconquest must be the ultimate
+consequence of any substitution of local institutions in Ireland for the
+Parliament at Westminster, unless so far as the proposed substitution
+were part of a scheme common to all four components of the kingdom. Most
+people will agree with the old Duke of Wellington, that 'the repeal of
+the Union must be the dissolution of the connection between the two
+countries.'
+
+To withdraw the English flag from Ireland as we did from the Ionian
+Isles, to have a Convention called at Dublin to determine the future
+government of the Island, such a plan would have the advantage that it
+recognizes the one political opinion, which we can trace in Irish
+popular expression--the desire to be done with England. It is true, that
+the policy of Irish ideas declared at Southport was a means to an
+end--the better union of the two countries--but pledged to two
+antagonistic principles, Mr. Gladstone must some time choose which he
+will abandon.
+
+On the other hand, in accepting Irish independence we shrink from
+responsibility for the acts of England. We know that the disorder now
+ruling in Ireland is, to some extent, the result of English
+misgovernment in past generations, and instead of attempting by firmness
+and patience to remedy the mischief our fathers have done, we leave the
+future to Providence. In this aspect of the question, we would remind
+our readers of the words used in our article on 'Disintegration' not
+three years ago:--
+
+     'The highest interests of the Empire, as well as the most
+     sacred obligations of honour, forbid us to solve this
+     question by conceding any species of independence to
+     Ireland; or, in other words, any licence to the majority in
+     that country to govern the rest of Irishmen as they please.
+     To the minority, to those who have trusted us, and on the
+     faith of our protection have done our work, it would be a
+     sentence of exile or of ruin. All that is Protestant--nay,
+     all that is loyal--all who have land or money to lose, all
+     by whose enterprize and capital industry and commerce are
+     still sustained, would be at the mercy of the adventurers
+     who have led the Land League, if not of the darker
+     counsellors by whom the Invincibles have been inspired. If
+     we have failed after centuries of effort to make Ireland
+     peaceable and civilized, we have no moral right to abandon
+     our post and leave all the penalty of our failure to those
+     whom we have persuaded to trust in our power. It would be an
+     act of political bankruptcy, an avowal that we were unable
+     to satisfy even the most sacred obligations, and that all
+     claims to protect or govern any one beyond our own narrow
+     island were at an end.'--'Quarterly Review,' October, 1883,
+     pp. 593, 594.
+
+Mr. Gladstone assured his hearers last week, that he was bent on
+consolidating the unity of the kingdom; he would not tolerate that his
+new constitution should be called a repeal of the Union; but his final
+argument was this, 'Do not let us disguise this from ourselves. We stand
+face to face with what is termed "Irish nationality."' Now, what is this
+'Irish nationality'? Let us examine it from the point of view of the
+welfare of the Irish population. It may be conceded at once that there
+is a strong current of local sentiment running through the Irish
+population of the south and west. This is a tender, home feeling--a very
+different thing from the stronger, more complex, and more highly
+developed, conception round which a political nationality gathers. It is
+such a sentiment as exists in one form or another in every group of
+counties, in every county, in every country-side, in almost every
+village. It is a kindly recollection of old memories, associated with a
+disposition to stand up for our own. It is the result of intimate
+knowledge of certain habits and ideas, and a tender reminiscence of the
+best types of character associated with those habits. This sentiment of
+local feeling is the germ of nationality, but it exists in many regions
+where the wider ideas of nationality have never supervened. There are
+many other places again, where this same feeling remains fresh and
+vigorous after the political nationality connected with it has passed
+away, merged in larger conceptions, in a sense of more extended
+interests.
+
+Such was the feeling of Cicero when he said that he had two countries.
+His Volscian home was the country of his affection, but Rome that of
+duty and right. Arpinum will always be my country, said he, but Rome
+still more my country, for Arpinum has its share in the honours and
+dominion of Rome.
+
+Such is the feeling of the proud and vigorous nationality occupying
+North Britain, various in race, in creed, and in social condition, but
+united in mutual knowledge, in local sympathies, and in self-respect.
+The Scotch, as an aggregate, are intellectually, physically, and in
+their local institutions and habits one of the most distinct national
+types existing. They are drawn together by a strong sentiment of
+patriotism, but they are as little likely to demand a separate political
+system, a parliament sitting at Edinburgh, as the members from
+Hampshire and Wiltshire are likely to combine for the establishment of
+parliamentary government on the banks of the Itchin.
+
+Now what is Ireland, and what indications has that portion of the
+population known as Nationalist given of a capacity to form itself into
+a nation? Ireland has a geographical boundary in a sea channel crossed
+from Great Britain in three hours or in an hour and a-half, according to
+the line of passage selected. It is inhabited by some five millions,
+whose native language is English, with the exception of a decimal
+percentage of mountaineers, who nearly all speak English as well as
+Irish. The race is more mixed than in any other district of the kingdom
+containing the same amount of population. The northern coasts are
+thickly peopled by Scotch settlers. In the south and west are many
+varieties of race not of English introduction, but strongly different
+from each other. In many of the most Catholic districts of Munster and
+Leinster we find, in the names, physique, and temper, of the people,
+evident results of the Cromwellian settlements, although the faith and
+political principles of their forefathers have passed away. With this
+mixed population we have a social cleavage probably the most remarkable
+in Europe. The mass of the people, except in about one-fifth of the
+island on the north-east coast, are Roman Catholic, Celtic in their
+traditions and habits, and extremely poor. The Northern fifth is
+industrious, order-loving, prosperous, Protestant, and British in
+sentiment. Next to the masses of the population in importance are the
+great landowners, of whom six-sevenths are Protestants, and nearly the
+whole of Norman, Scotch, or English origin. There is no important
+mercantile class, except in the towns of Belfast, Dublin, and Cork; and
+the professional classes, with the exception of the Catholic priesthood,
+are chiefly Protestant and British.
+
+This population, so strangely wanting in homogeneity, have no history
+which might attract them into unconsciousness of their differences. It
+has been well said, that 'anybody who knew nothing of the Irish past,
+except what he got from the speeches of Irish Nationalists, would
+suppose that at some comparatively recent period the green flag had
+floated over fleets and armies, and that Irish kings had played a part
+of some kind in the field of modern European politics.' But as a matter
+of fact Ireland has no part in European history before its conquest by
+England. Not only was the kingdom of Ireland, as the style of the island
+went before 1800, an English creation; but the name of Ireland has never
+had any political significance except in connection with the English
+crown.
+
+External signs of difference between English and Irish there are many;
+nimble apprehension, fluent utterance, genial demeanour, the attraction
+of the flashing Celtic face, distinguish an Irish from an English group,
+but characteristics like this do not prove any original or consistent
+power of thought. They rather perhaps indicate the absence of it. It is
+not on qualities like these, cemented even by strong feelings of home
+sentiment, that we can expect to see the foundation of a new Nationality
+happily laid. With one exception there is not a single idea, which an
+orator could present to an Irish crowd, that could not be urged with
+equal chance of sympathy upon an English crowd. Personal liberty, the
+principles of no taxation without representation, of trial by jury,
+freedom of conscience, sympathy with the prosperity of the greatest
+number, all these are English ideas and must be illustrated, where they
+need illustration, by the events of history peculiar to England or
+common to the British dominion. The one topic, which is specially
+attractive to an Irish meeting, is abuse of England as the source of
+Irish misery. Community of hatred the mixed Nationalist population has,
+but whether such a passion is sufficiently creative to build up a new
+national type the reader can judge for himself. With this exception,
+laws, political teachings, commercial habits, are all of English origin.
+
+Mr. Gladstone, in recommending to the House of Commons his scheme for
+the establishment of an independent Parliament in Ireland, cited as
+precedents the independent Legislatures of Sweden and Norway, and of
+Austria and Hungary. He dwelt particularly upon the precedent of
+Norway:--
+
+     'The Legislature of Norway has had serious controversies,
+     not with Sweden, but with the King of Sweden, and it has
+     fought out those controversies successfully upon the
+     strictest constitutional and Parliamentary grounds. And yet
+     with two countries so united, what has been the effect? Not
+     discord, not convulsion, not danger to peace, not hatred,
+     not aversion, but a constantly-growing sympathy; and every
+     man who knows their condition knows that I speak the truth
+     when I say, that in every year that passes the Norwegians
+     and the Swedes are more and more feeling themselves to be
+     the children of a common country, united by a tie which
+     never is to be broken.'
+
+If Mr. Gladstone had been better acquainted with the recent historic and
+economic condition of Norway, of which we have given some account in our
+present number,[104] he might have quoted that country as a warning
+rather than an example. The 'Storthing,' or Parliament of Norway, is
+omnipotent, and two-thirds of its representatives are permanently in the
+hands of the peasant proprietor. The King has only a suspensive veto on
+Bills enacted by the Storthing, which therefore become law, if passed in
+their original form by three successive triennial Parliaments. The
+recent dispute between the King and the Parliament, to which Mr.
+Gladstone alluded, related to the right of the King to exercise an
+absolute veto in the case of Bills affecting the principles of the
+Constitution. The existence of such a right was denied by the Radical
+majority in the Storthing, which established in 1884 a Supreme Court of
+Justice composed exclusively of Radical members, and the Judges of the
+ordinary High Court of Justice. It was a packed Court, bound to secrecy;
+and the tribunal thus constituted condemned, in violation of the first
+principles of justice, all the King's Ministers in Norway to deprivation
+of office and to pecuniary fines, for having advised their master, that
+the Constitution could not be altered without his sanction. The King was
+compelled to yield, though he was supported in his opposition to the
+Storthing by his Swedish Cabinet; and his ultimate submission to the
+Radical majority in Norway was followed by a Ministerial crisis in
+Sweden. The Swedes rightly argue that, if the King has no absolute veto
+on matters affecting the principles of the Constitution in Norway, there
+is no obstacle to an abolition of the Monarchical form of government in
+that kingdom, or to a repeal of the union between the two countries.
+There is in consequence much discontent in Sweden at the conduct of
+Norway; and the Norwegians, on their side, have an intense and
+ever-growing 'hatred and aversion' to the Swedes. Hence has arisen a
+considerable tension in the official relations between the two countries
+instead of the 'constantly growing sympathy' of which Mr. Gladstone
+spoke. It is characteristic of the Prime Minister's mode of stating a
+case, that he tells us the Norwegian controversies are 'not with Sweden
+but with the King of Sweden.' Sweden has nothing to say in Norwegian
+affairs, except in the person of the King. The King is the only
+connecting link between the two countries. If the Dublin Parliament
+should impeach the Irish Viceroy, we suppose Mr. Gladstone would tell us
+that the difficulty was not with England but with Queen Victoria.
+
+Nor was Mr. Gladstone much happier in his allusion to Hungarian
+Nationality in recent times. For more than 150 years Austria endeavoured
+to extinguish the national life of Hungary. In 1867 this policy was
+definitely abandoned, and Hungary was called to a share in the Empire of
+the Hapsburgs. As recently as last October Mr. Parnell, when insisting
+that Ireland must have an independent Parliament, said: 'We can point
+to the example of other countries--to Austria and to Hungary--to the
+fact that Hungary, having been conceded self-government, became one of
+the strongest factors in the Austrian Empire.' The favour, with which
+these references have been received by the Liberal party, is a singular
+example how far afield they are ready to go in search of an argument.
+Austria, in 1867, was a great military despotism, tottering to its fall
+amidst a group of eager rivals. A general appeal to the nation, such as
+France made at the commencement of the Revolutionary war, was out of the
+question. Differences of race, differences of language, differences of
+social condition, made national unity impossible within the wide
+dominions of the House of Austria. The government at Vienna consented to
+the division of its territories into groups of nearly equal strength. In
+each of these groups various alien nationalities were clustered round a
+central power more advanced in politics, in civilization, and in wealth,
+than the adjacent territories. Instead of trying to weld their multiple
+varieties of race into one great popular community, Austria, smitten at
+Sadowa, shared her dominion with Hungary, and asked her to take charge
+of the Government of the East Leithan Slavs, whilst the German
+population of Austria dealt with the Czechs and Moravians and
+Carinthians on the western side of the river.
+
+Sir Henry Elliott has well pointed out, that what success the experiment
+has had is in no small degree due to the large powers still enjoyed by
+the Crown, and to the personal character and influence of the Emperor
+Francis, the connecting link between the two dominions; but apart from
+this actual result, the feasibility of the dual scheme depended on the
+following considerations. In the first place, there was no alternative
+in the condition in which the House of Austria found itself in 1867,
+defeated in battle and bankrupt in finance. Without some such
+arrangement civil war was inevitable, with the ultimate prospect of the
+absorption of the various races by the hostile neighbouring Powers. In
+the second place, the allies were pretty nearly equal in strength as
+regards each other, whilst they were each similarly weighted by the
+difficulty of holding their own within the respective territories
+assigned them. They were each so busy with their subordinate territories
+and the less advanced populations inhabiting them, that it was not their
+interest or their inclination to bring about conflicts with each other.
+Hungary boasts a larger area than Austria, and a population equal to
+three-fourths that of the Western Monarchy. On the western side of the
+Leitha the dominant race, dominant by force of nature, by brain power,
+and the traditions and acquirements this power has given them, are 36
+per cent. of the whole population. In the Transleithan provinces the
+race similarly situated, the Magyar, constitutes about 40 per cent. of
+the whole population.
+
+There is not a single circumstance in the relations between England and
+Ireland to make reference to the creation of the Empire-Kingdom anything
+but an absurdity. Ireland never can compare with Great Britain in
+material resources. Her population is hardly one-sixth that of the
+larger island, whilst her area is little more than a third. She is
+deficient in climate, in soil, in mineral resources, and in population.
+Not only is she without a well-organized aristocracy skilled in
+political science, such as Hungary boasted; Ireland, as the term is
+understood by the National League, is without an educated class. Her
+intellect is represented by the moonlight maurauder and the fanatic
+priest. As regards England, the parallel is still more preposterous: She
+is not a military despotism, but a well-organized community, boasting
+parliamentary traditions of a thousand years. Her shores are guarded by
+sea from foreign interference. Notwithstanding many scandalous
+shortcomings in her rulers, her influence and her power are still
+unrivalled in the world. However long Mr. Gladstone may rule, her Sadowa
+is yet to come; and, if it did come, the example of the Dual State would
+offer no solution of our Irish difficulties, for none of the conditions
+which made the Dual State possible exist in the case of the two chief
+British Islands.
+
+The delusive character of Mr. Gladstone's reference to the Dual State is
+best illustrated by the facts, that the council for common affairs
+consist of an equal number of representatives from each side of the
+dominion, that this council is concerned with military and foreign
+affairs, two subjects on which, according to the new scheme, Ireland is
+to have no vote.
+
+It will be found, on a little examination, that appeals to the example
+of the foreigner are as misleading as the theory of nationality. All
+such arguments are only endeavours to divert the public from the
+exercise of their own judgment and common-sense in dealing with the
+mischiefs which the perverse genius of Mr. Gladstone has created.
+Recognized principles of government, the ordinary traditions of England
+applied with the happy immunity from friction, which the commercial
+policy of modern times makes possible, would have long since settled the
+difficulty, but it would have been settled in disregard of that popular
+Irish feeling which, in 1867, Mr. Gladstone pledged himself to follow.
+He would have had to admit that his new Irish policy was a mistake; and
+he never admits that he has made any mistake--unless it be in Egypt--or
+in acting on the opinion of other people. When he has discovered a new
+line of policy, he believes himself infallible. Let us assume for a
+moment, that the combination of the personal adherents of Mr. Gladstone
+and of Mr. Parnell enables the Prime Minister to pass some measure on
+the lines he has selected, or on those laid down by Mr. Davitt, and that
+the rowdy treason of a Dublin Cabinet proceeds to bring within the
+sphere of its operations what wealth and civilization has hitherto
+escaped the National League.
+
+In the struggle which must ensue, we shall have within three hours of
+our shores a raging volcano of revolution, threatening the peace of
+Europe and our own. Fenians, Nihilists, and Irish Yankees, will flock to
+the new vantage ground. The conflict between Socialism and property,
+between infidelity and superstition, will be fought out amidst the
+strangest complications of local hatred and of fiscal disorder. If
+foreign governments abstain from interfering, and we escape consequent
+difficulties with them, are we sure that we ourselves will be able to
+remain passive spectators? Many of us are old enough to recollect the
+agitation which shook this kingdom during the struggle between North and
+South on the other side of the Atlantic. No question of Home politics
+for generations past had so deeply moved our people. It required all the
+exertions of the most sober part of the nation to prevent our becoming
+involved in the conflict, and we recollect the help this party of wisdom
+got from the impulsive statesman who has undertaken for the third time
+the final settlement of the Irish question. If the great American Civil
+War, desolating a country three thousand miles away, thus stirred
+popular feeling, what will be the result of a Civil War between, on the
+one side, the Irish Celt animated by religious hatred and love of
+plunder, and supported by the Irish American, and on the other the
+loyalty, endurance and Protestantism of Ulster--a Civil War almost
+within sight of our shores?
+
+But, if we turn from the suggestions of empiricism and vanity and come
+to those practical considerations which affect men's minds in matters so
+important as political organization, the main argument pressed on
+English people is that we cannot go on as we are. 'Irish Government is a
+failure.' 'We must close this terrible crisis as rapidly as possible.'
+'Separation itself, could not be worse than the present state of
+things.' 'The Act of Union has completely failed. After eighty-four
+years it has given an Ireland more hostile to England than at any period
+of its history.' Mr. Gladstone recites the number of Coercion Acts,
+which have been passed since 1832, and declares 'we are like the man
+who, knowing that medicine may be the means of his restoration to
+health, endeavours to live upon medicine.'
+
+Before considering whether this confession of failure is true, we would
+remind our readers what it implies, what it leads up to. It is now
+proposed as an argument for establishing a separate Parliament in
+Dublin. The establishment of this separate Parliament is necessary,
+because we must give Ireland the opportunity of doing what we ourselves
+are unable to do, to find the best machinery they can to carry on the
+business of government. But, when this machinery is once found and
+invested with the resources and influence of a Government, we cannot
+suppose that our troubles will be at an end. If disputes arise in the
+working out of the new Irish Constitution, the popular majority will not
+be slow to call in the aid of the American Irish who have founded the
+National League. Mr. Jennings, whose opinion on this matter is entitled
+to great weight, from his long residence in the United States, reminded
+the House that
+
+     'one consideration which they must bear in mind was that of
+     the formidable difficulties which would inevitably arise
+     from the action of the great body of Irish Americans. If
+     this Bill granted to Ireland a free and independent
+     Parliamentary Assembly with full powers over the Executive,
+     as proposed by the Prime Minister, there would inevitably
+     come a time when either the payment of the interest due, or
+     some other cause, would bring the Irish Parliament into
+     antagonism with the English. If they were to endeavour to
+     demand what was necessary, whether payment of interest or
+     what not, and to threaten to use force, could any one
+     suppose that the great body of Irish Americans would stand
+     by silently and see that done? He believed that the United
+     States would say to them: "You have acknowledged your
+     incompetence to govern Ireland; you have given her practical
+     independence, now you must take your hands off her; we will
+     not stand by and see her crushed." He believed that there
+     was no government in the United States which could withstand
+     such pressure as that which would be brought to bear on it
+     by the Irish Americans, especially if a Presidential
+     election were near.'
+
+But is this allegation of failure actually true? For our part we are
+inclined to agree with Lord Hartington, that the argument founded on the
+paralysis of government in Ireland in recent years is allowed more
+weight in this question than it should have. In the first place, it is
+difficult to see how any government conducted as ours has been during
+the last few years, could be other than disastrous, Mr. Gladstone, at
+the commencement of his career as leader of the Liberal party, pledged
+himself to the policy of Irish ideas, ignorant, if not reckless, of what
+the term meant. Year by year he has been getting a closer view of the
+creed he had unconsciously adopted, and, after a struggle, he accepts
+one dogma, then another. The great dogma of all in the Home Ruler's
+creed, that Englishmen should be sent bag and baggage out of Ireland,
+has not yet been adopted; and naturally the Home Ruler keeps his
+resources ready for that ringing of the chapel bell to which Mr.
+Gladstone alluded in speaking of the Clerkenwell explosion and its
+effect on the question of the Irish Establishment. The 'dynamite and the
+dagger,' to which Mr. Morley recently appealed as conclusive reasons for
+passing the Cabinet scheme, retain their fascination for the Irish mind.
+
+As long as Mr. Gladstone is a power in English public life, and his
+pledges given in Lancashire are unredeemed or unrepudiated, the Home
+Rule party will press him without mercy; but it is not reasonable to
+argue from their success, a success which Mr. Gladstone has given them,
+that they exercise a permanent influence on Irish affairs. When the
+Southport pledges were given, the Irish land laws were yet without that
+reform which a series of Governments, Tory as well as Whig, had admitted
+to be necessary. It could not be said until after 1870 that the book of
+English neglect of Irish interests was finally closed, and that is only
+sixteen years ago. During this period we have seen the great English
+Parliamentary Ruler continually plunging after coercion, and returning
+to make some other big concession to agitation. Thus Ireland has had no
+chance of trying what a good system of laws consistently administered
+could supply. The principle of the Land Act of 1870 was a provision for
+the protection of property--the tenants' property recognized by custom
+during a long course of years, although ignored by the law and exposed
+to confiscation by the reckless Whig legislation of 1850-2. The Land Act
+of 1881 was an arbitrary attempt to remedy the misfortunes of an
+improvident agricultural interest by legislative interference with
+contract. Contracts were readjusted and finally settled for fifteen
+years to come. Political economy was bidden to take itself off, but
+prices varied quite regardless of Mr. Gladstone's arrangements, and the
+weather did not pay them the least consideration. The passion for
+revolution was stimulated, and a large number of Mr. Gladstone's clients
+are as badly off as before. Might it not be worth while to try for a
+time how far good government, after the removal of all substantial
+grievances, might supply that 'real settlement,' 'that finality,' which
+the country is now asked to find in Dublin Parliaments, First Orders,
+and bribes at the cost of the English taxpayer?
+
+This counter-policy of maintaining order and good government in Ireland
+should be emphasized by measures to make that island, even more
+completely than she now is, a part of the United Kingdom. The Queen's
+laws in Ireland are the same, except in some slight details, as in
+England. The Irish judicature might be made part of the High Court at
+Westminster. The Queen's writs from Westminster should run throughout
+Ireland as they have done for hundreds of years throughout Wales.
+Limerick or Sligo are not so remote from London now as Harlech or Durham
+were in the reign of George I. The Irish judges would form no
+undistinguished addition to the English Bench, while the presence of
+English judges on circuit in Ireland would have the best effect in
+disarming the animosity of the people against the law. It is too often
+forgotten in these days that, however rapidly we move from place to
+place, however swift the transmission of intelligence, the human mind
+has not yet acquired the nimbleness of the telegraph needle. Habits of
+thought are not changed as rapidly as the fashions of our dress. It is
+only sixteen years since our Irish legislation has assumed its present
+form, and we are ready to throw to the winds all maxims of statecraft,
+all principles hitherto recognized in the delicate work of government.
+We are in despair, and call in the company of _a priori_ statesmen--men
+whose sole qualification to deal with complex questions is the fact that
+they have studied the science of revolution. Why should we not try, now
+that we have provided for manifest Irish grievances, what time, and
+resolution, and common-sense, might do for us and our Irish
+fellow-subjects?
+
+The first part of the Government policy is disclosed. We have still to
+learn what its complement, the Land Purchase Bill, is to be, what
+proposal is to be made about loyal Ulster, the subject on which Mr.
+Gladstone was so strangely vague, on which Mr. Parnell was discreetly
+silent. These further manifestations of Cabinet wisdom can hardly save
+the scheme now lingering on to death. We wish we could be certain, that
+this collapse would rid Parliament and Ireland of all such projects for
+the future. But, whatever be the fate of the present Ministry, we may be
+sure that the end is not yet, unless Mr. Parnell's faction is completely
+broken, unless the policy urged by Lord Hartington is firmly adopted,
+and party life reorganized in England, on the principle of excluding the
+Irish vote from consideration in our party conflicts. If no such
+resolution is enforced by English patriotism, Irish Nationalists will
+return to their demands, enhanced in power and renown by the tribute
+they have extorted from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
+
+On these events of the future we shall not now speculate; but if past
+history throws any light on the character of our population, one thing
+may be confidently predicted. If Home Rule should be ultimately conceded
+to Ireland, the political party which may be responsible for the
+carrying of the scheme, will have to look forward to a long period of
+exclusion from public confidence. However the British people may be
+worried or deluded into forgetfulness of their duty to themselves and to
+Ireland, the working of a Dublin Parliament will soon rouse them, the
+reaction will set in; and the authors of the scheme will have before
+them as lengthened a banishment from power, as the country gentlemen
+suffered when their chivalrous devotion to the House of Stuart blinded
+them for a time to the practical interests of England; as was the fate
+of the Whigs at the beginning of this century, when they identified
+their party with implacable opposition to Pitt's struggle to deliver
+Europe from the tyranny of Bonaparte.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] See Art. IV. 'Yeomen Farmers in Norway.'
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO THE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME OF THE QUARTERLY REVIEW.
+
+
+A.
+
+St. Alban's Abbey, 305
+  its revenue, 307
+  culture of the vine, 308
+  its Grammar School, 310
+  the Scriptorium, 312, 313
+  Historiographers, 314
+  Abbot's, 316, 317.
+
+Alford, Dean, on the severance of the Church from the State, 7.
+
+Apostolic Fathers, the, by the Bishop of Durham, 467
+  Ignatius contrasted with St. Clement, 470
+  his uncertain birth and origin, 471
+  martyrdom, 472, 473
+  testimony to the Apostolical succession, 474
+  the 'short,' 'middle' and 'long' form, _ib._
+  forgery in the 'long' recension, 475
+  literary war on episcopacy, 476
+  Milton's invective, _ib._
+  Archbp. Ussher's discovery, 477
+  condemns the Epistle to Polycarp, 478
+  Cureton's version, _ib._
+  genuineness of the seven Epistles known to Eusebius 479, 480
+  style and diction, 481
+  external testimony, 483
+  'Apostolical Constitutions,' 485
+  Irenaeus on Apostolic succession, 485, 486
+  Linus at Rome, 486
+  Polycarp on episcopacy, 487
+  Clement of Rome and Papias, _ib._
+  Theological Polemics, 488
+  Judaists and Gnostics, 489
+  _S. Polycarp_, his history and writings, 491
+  reverence paid to him, 492
+  reviving Paganism, 493
+  legend of his youth, 495
+  meets Ignatius, 496
+  reminiscences by Irenaeus, _ib._
+  his martyrdom, 498, 499.
+
+Aracan. _See_ Burma.
+
+Archives of the Venetian Republic, 356. _See_ Venetian.
+
+d'Aumale, Duc his 'Histoire des Princes de Conde,' 80
+  his tribute to Gen. France d'Houdetot, 107.
+
+
+B.
+
+Bagehot, Mr. Walter, his 'English Constitution,' 518
+  his character, 521
+  influence of his writings, 532
+  universal and varied representation, 533
+  clear style, 534
+  the principle of evolution, 535
+  on royal education, 536
+  Constitutional monarchy, 537.
+
+Banker, the Country, by Mr. George Rae, 133
+  Joint Stock Banking, 134
+  loanable capital, 135
+  trade interests, 136
+  individual responsibility, _ib._
+  limited liability, 137
+  uncovered advances, _ib._
+  prosperity of Scotland, 138
+  difference between a mortgage and a bill of exchange, 139
+  fixed capital, 140
+  floating capital, 141
+  telegraphic transfer, _ib._
+  personal security, 142
+  'runs' on a bank, 143-145
+  banking reserve, 145
+  panics, 146, 147
+  the Act of 1844, 147
+  the Golden Age, 149
+  Bank Law of Germany, 149, 150
+  National Banks of the U.S., 150
+  Swedish Banks, 151
+  banking system of Australasia, 152
+  'Popular Banks in Italy, 153
+  contrasted with the Post Office Savings-banks in England, 154.
+
+Batchelor, Rev. H., sermon upon 'The Bishops on Disestablishment,' 38.
+
+Beaconsfield, Lord, his historic warning in 1880 of danger in Ireland, 551.
+
+Bismarck, Prince, his opinion of Mr. Gladstone, 281, 282.
+
+Books and Reading, 501
+  Sir John Lubbock's list, _ib._
+  Comte's catalogue or syllabus, 502
+  indolent readers, 503
+  perplexity of the student, 504
+  difficulties in classification, 505
+  Mr. Weldon's practical list, 507
+  Mr. F. Harrison's 'Choice of Books, _ib._
+  the desultory reader, 508
+  Dibdin's 'Library Companion,' 509
+  Chroniclers and Historians, _ib._
+  philosophical histories, 510
+  Voyages and Travels, 511
+  Children's Books, 512
+  Mr. Lowell's maxim for reading, 513
+  use of odd moments, 514
+  periodical literature, 515
+  selection of books, 516
+  students' books, 517
+  fragmentary reading, 518.
+
+Brewer, Prof., his 'Introductions,' 293
+  Essay on 'New Sources of English History,' 294
+  draws attention to the value of the 'Calendars,' _ib._
+
+British Empire. _See_ Travels.
+
+Broch, Dr., '_Le Royaume de Norvege et le Peuple Norvegien_,' 384
+  his Report for the Exhibition at Paris, 397
+  production of cereals and potatoes in Norway, in 1875, 405 _note_.
+  _See_ Yeomen.
+
+Brown, Rev., on the control exercised in the Dissenting Churches, 37.
+
+----, Mr. Rawdon, the late, his facsimiles of the Autographs in the
+      _Lettere Principi_, 377.
+  _See_ Venetian.
+
+Burma, Past and Present, 210
+  number of rivers, 211
+  influence of India and China, _ib._
+  chief nationalities, 213
+  the Karens, _ib._
+  influence of Buddhism, 214
+  affinity with Ceylon, _ib._
+  Hindoo nomenclature, 215
+  architectural remains, _ib._
+  the city of Pagan, 216
+  Niccolo de' Conti's geographical accuracy, 217
+  Pegu captured, _ib._
+  the _Yuva Raja's_ gorgeous court, 218
+  extravaganzas of F. M. Pinto, _ib._
+  splendour of the monarchy, 219
+  internal and external wars, _ib._
+  reign of Nicote, 220
+  his execution, 221
+  decay of the power of Ava, _ib._
+  resistance of Alompra, _ib._
+  his successes and death, 222, 223
+  Ran-gun founded, 222
+  conquest of Aracan, _ib._
+  peace concluded between China and Ava, _ib._
+  Capt. Symes, Envoy to the Burmese Court, 224
+  Lord Wellesley's endeavours for a treaty of alliance, _ib._
+  geographical extent of the Empire, 225
+  Sir A. Campbell's conquests, 226
+  Col. H. Burney's residence, 227
+  Lord Dalhousie annexes Pegu, _ib._
+  Capt. A. Phayre's successful administration of Pegu, 228
+  death of Mengdun-Meng, and succession of Theebau, _ib._
+  massacre of the prisoners, 229
+  revolt at Hlain, 230
+  English Residency withdrawn, 231
+  relations with France cultivated, 232
+  Gen. D'Orgoni's mission, 233
+  the French Envoy's secret articles disavowed, 234
+  French occupation of the Anamite provinces, _ib._
+  Franco-Burmese Treaty, 235
+  and Bank at Mandalay, 236
+  the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation, 237
+  Ultimatum of the Indian Government, 238
+  resources of, 287.
+
+
+C.
+
+'Calendars,' the, of Letters and Papers, Prof. Brewer's 'Introductions' to,
+293, 294.
+
+Cape Colony, the, treatment of, 448.
+
+Carlyle's account of the Royalist attack on Salisbury, 416
+  his false image of Cromwell, 441.
+  _See_ Cromwell.
+
+Cervantes, Life of, 58.
+  _See_ 'Don Quixote.'
+
+Chamberlain, Mr., his bribe to the rural voters, 258
+  on Mr. Gladstone's manifesto, 290.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+Christian Brothers, the, Religious Schools in France and England, 325
+  the _Freres Chretiens_ founded by De la Salle, 330
+  work at Paris, 331
+  vow of dedication, _ib._
+  Articles of rules for the Society, 332
+  laymen appointed in preference to priests, 333
+  the five vows and rule of daily life, _ib._
+  Manuals for their guidance, 334
+  conditions of punishment, 335
+  success of the work, _ib._
+  abolished during the Reign of Terror, 337
+  revived under Napoleon, _ib._
+  discouragements, 338
+  Our Duties towards Ourselves, 339
+  Morals, 340
+  Freedom of Labour, _ib._
+  Gregory on Competition, 341
+  Political Duties, 342
+  Cross of honour awarded after the Prussian invasion, 354
+  scholarships gained, 355.
+
+Church and State, 2
+  Lord Hartington's loyalty, 3
+  imputation on the Tories, _ib._
+  Liberationist tactics, 4, 7
+  Mr. Gladstone's manifesto, 5, 6
+  finances of the Liberation Society, 8, 9
+  Scottish subscriptions, 10
+  Welsh Nonconformists, 11
+  characteristics of Democracy, _ib._
+  Liberation leaflets, 13-16
+  cost of 'voluntary schools,' 16
+  Pope Gelasius on tithes, 17
+  the Church in Wales and London, 18-21
+  number of adult baptisms, 21
+  Mr. G. Rogers on Disendowment, 22
+  the 'Radical programme,' 23, 24
+  Bp. Magee on Disestablishment, 25
+  M. Scherer on Democracy, 27
+  the question of inequality, 28
+  history and effects of Establishment, 29
+  misstatements, 30
+  spiritual influence, 31
+  example of the United States, _ib._
+  results of the voluntary system, 32, 33
+  denominational rivalry, 34
+  Mr. Bancroft on the Church in Virginia, 35
+  danger of rashness in any change, 36
+  control in the Dissenting Church, 37
+  case of Jones _v._ Stannard, _ib._
+  Rev. H. Batchelor's sermon, 38
+  decrease of Baptist and Congregational pastors, 39
+  the Bp. of Rochester's estimate of the parishes that would suffer, 40
+  Bp. of Derry's experience, _ib._
+
+Cid, the, Poem of, 46.
+  _See_ 'Don  Quixote.'
+
+Clement, St., compared to Ignatius, 470.
+
+Colonies, the British. _See_ Travels in British Empire.
+
+Conde, the House of, 80
+  character of Henri, the third Prince, 81
+  married to Charlotte de Montmorency, 82
+  avidity for wealth, 83
+  applies for a bishopric for his infant son, 84
+  Richelieu's reply, 85
+  imprisonment, 85-89
+  joined by his wife, 89
+  birth of his son Duc d'Anguien, 90
+  his education, 91-93
+  at the Military Coll., Paris, 94
+  government of Burgundy, _ib._
+  his child-bride, 95
+  imprisonment at Vincennes, 96
+  first campaign, 97
+  Richelieu's domination, 98
+  efforts for his safety, 99
+  treatment of the Cardinal-Archb., _ib._
+  changes on Richelieu's death, 100
+  his appearance described, 101
+  military talents, 102
+  generals, 103
+  personal courage, 104.
+
+Constitution, English, 518 _sqq._
+
+Cowper, Lord, his letter on supporting the Land-Act of 1881, 277.
+
+Cromwell, Oliver:
+  his character illustrated by himself, 414
+  received version of the Insurrection of March, 1655, 415
+  meeting at Marston Moor, _ib._
+  attack on Salisbury, 416
+  endeavours to stimulate an insurrection, 417
+  counsels of false friends, 419
+  secret agents, 420
+  intercepted letter to Mr. Roles, 420 _note_
+  Earl of Rochester and his comrades land at Dover, 421
+  arrested and released, 422, 423
+  Morton, the sham-Royalist, 424
+  Mr. Douthwaite's movements, suspected, 424, 425
+  the Judges refuse to try the Marston Moor prisoners, 428
+  trial of Salisbury insurgents, 427
+  twelve Major-Generals, _ib._
+  'Declaration' to secure the Peace of the Commonwealth, 428
+  projects of the Royalists in March, 1655, 429
+  officers and soldiers kept from Salisbury, 430
+  Major Butler forbidden to take active operations, _ib._
+  his account of the dispersal of the Royalists at Marston Moor, 432
+  alleged 'rendezvous' of Royalists to surprise Newcastle, 433
+  the Rufford Abbey incident, _ib._
+  Shropshire insurrection, 434
+  Pickering's story about Chester Castle, _ib._
+  Earl of Rochester and Armourer arrested at Aylesbury, 435
+  their escape, 436
+  power of deception, 437
+  the 'Thurloe Papers,' _ib._
+  incredulity of the members of his Parliament, 438
+  motive for the fabrication of the Insurrection, 439
+  speech on the dissolution of Parliament in Jan. 1655, 440
+  Carlyle's false image of the Hero, 441
+  claims the Divine sanction, 442.
+
+
+D.
+
+Dalley, Mr., of Sidney, on a better organization of the Navy for
+    the Colonies.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Darwin's view of primitive human society, 182.
+  _See_ Patriarchal Theory.
+
+Davitt, Mr., on Irish landlords, 292.
+
+Democracy, M. Scherer on, 2
+  characteristics of, 518
+  its tendency to despotism, 522
+  Mr. G. White on English aristocracy and American democracy, 523
+  its tolerance of oppression, 525
+  Mr. Godkin on American politics, 526
+  failure of, in the Spanish and Portuguese States, 527
+  political aim of the Reign of Terror, 528, 529
+  real meaning of equality, 531
+  Mr. Bagehot's views, 532
+  universal and varied representation, 533
+  influence exercised by hereditary Princes and aristocracies, 535
+  errors of George III.'s reign, 536
+  royal education, _ib._
+  of Constitutional Monarchy, 537
+  'Vigilance Committee' in California, 538
+  strikes in Pennsylvania, 539
+  value of the English Poor Law, 540
+  Irish famine, 541
+  Belgian riots, 532
+  American charity, 543.
+
+Democracy, 11, 25.
+  _See_ Church.
+
+Dibdin, Mr., on the present features of Establishment, 29.
+  _See_ Church.
+
+'Don Quixote,' Mr. Ormsby's, 43
+  ignorance of Spanish literature in England, _ib._
+  a key to the history of Europe, 45
+  popularity of the work, 46
+  translations, 47-49
+  Dore's illustrations, 50
+  proverbs, 51, 52
+  opening of the 2nd Part, 53
+  emendations, 54
+  'Life of Cervantes,' 58
+  his personal history little known, 59
+  early years, 61
+  at Rome, and at the battle of Lepanto, _ib._
+  prisoner in Algiers, 62
+  liberated, 63
+  marriage, 64
+  collector of revenue at Granada, _ib._
+  life in Madrid, 65
+  death, 66
+  no known portrait of him, 67
+  describes his own features, _ib._
+  theories for the popularity of his work, 68-71
+  broad humour, 71
+  chivalry, 72
+  C. Kingsley's opinion, 73
+  madness of the knight, 74
+  Sancho's character, 76
+  ordinances for good government, 78.
+
+Doerpfeld, on the method of lighting at Tiryns, 122.
+  _See_ Tiryns.
+
+Doyle, Sir F., translation of the Olympian Ode, 178.
+  _See_ Pindar.
+
+
+E.
+
+Education, royal, 536
+  religious, in France. _See_ Christian Brothers.
+
+Eusebius. _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+
+F.
+
+Fergusson, Mr. J., on lighting the Parthenon, 123.
+  _See_ Tiryns.
+
+France, primary schools of, 338.
+  _See_ Christian Brothers.
+
+Froude, J. A., his 'Oceana, or England and her Colonies,' 443
+  our responsibility with the Boers, 448
+  Free Trade, 449
+  love of 'old home' in the Colonies, 451.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Fustel de Coulanges, M., his 'Recherches sur quelques problemes
+d'Histoire', 187.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gaius, the Commentaries of, found by Niebuhr, 183.
+
+Gasparin, Comte Agenor, on the titles of landowners, &c., 17.
+  _See_ Church.
+
+Gildersleeve, Prof., his contribution to Pindaric literature, 161, _note_.
+
+Gladstone, Mr., his manifesto on Church Establishment, 5
+  ambiguity, 6
+  preparations for Home Rule in 1882, 261
+  enigmatical replies, 263
+  'healing measures' for Ireland, 265
+  his 'Divine light' and Irish policy, 266
+  coercions and concessions, 268
+  speech at Leeds, 273 belief in him, 275
+  on the Irish question, 275, 276
+  foreign policy, 281
+  the advances of Russia, 282, 283.
+
+Gladstone-Morley Administration, the, 544
+  the two 'Orders' for the Irish Parliament, 545
+  voting power of the Nationalists, 547
+  Mr. Gladstone's appeal to Southport in 1867, 547-549
+  abolition of Irish Establishment, 549
+  the Home Rule Association denounced at Aberdeen, _ib._
+  Mr. Butt on Home Rule, 550
+  Lord Beaconsfield's warning in 1880, 551
+  the Compensation for Disturbance Bill, and a Coercion Act, _ib._
+  the Land League dissolved, Mr. Parnell and its leaders in jail, 552
+  Mr. Forster's exertions, 553
+  Lord Spencer's responsibilities, _ib._
+  the National League, _ib._
+  removal of Mr. Clifford Lloyd and Mr. Trevelyan, 554
+  delay in renewing the Crimes Act, _ib._
+  declarations of Imperial unity, 555
+  Mr. C. Bannerman on the Parnellite demands, 556
+  Lord Hartington's protestation, _ib._
+  Mr. Gladstone's telegram denying the scheme as sketched in the Press, 557
+  Mr. Chamberlain's denial of being a party to it, _ib._
+  declaration of Lord Salisbury's Government to maintain the Union, 558
+  Mr. J. Collings's motion, _ib._
+  new Ministry, 559
+  Mr. J. Morley's appointment; his inexperience, 560
+  system of guarantees, 561
+  evictions, 562
+  example of the French peasantry, 563
+  power of the National League, 563, 564
+  instance of Farrell and Shee, _ib._
+  election to local public offices, _ib._
+  Mr. Lecky on the National League, 566
+  sympathy of the Irish priests, 567
+  Archbp. Walsh, 567, 568
+  provision for Irish judges, 568
+  our responsibilities to Ireland, 569
+  Irish nationality, 570
+  population, 571
+  compared to Norway and Hungary, 572-574
+  deficient resources of Ireland, 575
+  Mr. Jennings on an Irish Parliament, 577
+  the Land Purchase Bill, 579.
+
+Goschen, Mr., his 'Hearing, Reading, Thinking,' 501.
+  _See_ Books.
+
+Grant White, Mr. R., his sketches of English and American Life, 523.
+
+Grosseteste's Letters, 300.
+
+
+H.
+
+Hahn, F. von, on Roman Law, 187.
+
+Hallam's 'Hist. of the Middle Ages,' ignorance of English Monasticism, 298.
+
+Harcourt, Sir William, his prophecy about the Tory party, 261.
+
+Hardy, Sir T. Duffus, on the Madden Hypothesis, 301
+  on the St. Albans Scriptorium, 312.
+
+Harnack, Dr. on episcopacy, 484-486.
+  _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+Harrison, Mr., 'Choice of Books', 507.
+
+Hartington, Lord, on Disestablishment, 3
+  on the Law of the Land League, 267
+  no warning being given of the proposed legislation for Ireland, 556.
+
+Haxthausen, Baron von, on Slavonic and Russian society, 193-195.
+
+Historians of Greece and Rome, their superficial area, 323.
+
+Historical Commission, the, publication of the House of Lords MSS., 242.
+  _See_ Lords.
+
+Home Rulers, increased strength of, 260.
+  _See_ Parliament, Gladstone, &c.
+
+Homicides, number in New York, 459.
+
+Horses, breed of, upheld in Hellas, 159.
+
+d'Houditot, Gen. C., tribute to his memory by the Duc d'Aumale, 107.
+
+Huebner, Baron, his 'Through the British Empire,' 444
+  on the disadvantage of complete independence to the Australian
+    Colonist, 447
+  the Boers in Africa, 448
+  idea of a grand confederation, 450
+  the Civil Service of India, 452
+  devotion and daily labours of the officials, 453
+  no desire for self-government, 454
+  Socialism and Atheism, 455
+  the native Press, 456
+  prosperity, 457
+  his adventure in New York, 458.
+
+Hughes, Mr., on the voluntary system in the United States, 32.
+
+
+I.
+
+Iddesleigh, Earl of, address to the Students at Edinburgh, 501.
+
+Ignatian Epistles, the Bp. of Durham on the, 467.
+  _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+Ignatius, meaning of his name, 470.
+
+Indemnity, the Act of, 249.
+
+India, our administrations of, 453.
+
+Italy, the Popular Banks of, 152.
+
+Ireland. _See_ Gladstone-Morley, Land Bill, National League.
+
+
+J.
+
+Jennings, Mr., on an Irish Parliament, 577.
+  _See_ Gladstone-Morley.
+
+
+K.
+
+Killigrew, Tom, Charles II.'s representative at Venice, 382, 383.
+
+
+L.
+
+Labour trade in the Pacific, 464.
+
+Laing, Mr., his 'Journal of a Residence in Norway during 1834, 35
+    and 36,' 384.
+  _See_ Yeomen Farmers.
+
+Land Bill, the, for Ireland, effect of it, 278
+  progress in Scotland and Wales, 279.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+Lewis, Sir G. C., his practical philosophy, 519
+  an eminent statesman, 520
+  distrustful of electoral reform, 521
+  his Conservatism, 522.
+
+Liberal Press, the, activity of, 257.
+
+Liberation Society, the, financial report of, 8, 9
+  its ability and skill, 11
+  its publications, 13-16.
+
+'Liberator,' the, on Mr. Gladstone's ambiguity, 7.
+
+Lords, the, and Popular Rights, 239
+  vague accusations, 241
+  discovery of the House of Lords MSS., 242
+  attitude towards constitutional freedom, _ib._
+  moderate counsels and religious toleration, 242, 252
+  important position in the early years of Charles I., 244
+  appeals and petitions, 244-246
+  extensive jurisdiction, 246
+  protection of private rights, 247
+  intervention for peace, 248
+  the Restoration, 249
+  the Acts of Indemnity, &c., _ib._
+  restitution of property, 250, 251
+  execution of Vane, 251
+  the Act of Uniformity, 252
+  the Five Mile Act, 253
+  opposed to the re-establishment of Popery, 254
+  the Declaration of Indulgence and the Test Act, _ib._
+  advantage of the bicameral system, 255
+  excesses of the House of Commons, 255, 256.
+
+Luard, Dr., his edition of Cotton's Chronicle, 299
+  'Letters of Robert Grosseteste,' 300
+  'Chronica Majora,' 302
+  on the St. Alban's School of History, 314.
+
+Lubbock, Sir John, his list of books for reading, 501, 505.
+
+
+M.
+
+Maclay, Mr. Miklaho, his reception in New Guinea, 445.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Madden, Sir F., Hypothesis about the 'Historia Minor,' 301
+
+Magee, Bp., on Disestablishment, 25.
+
+Mahaffy Mr., on the destruction of Tiryns and Mycenae, 114.
+
+Maille-Breze, Clemence de, her marriage with Conde, 95
+  heads an insurrection in his favour, 96
+  imprisoned for life at Chateauroux, _ib._
+
+Maine, Sir H. S., on the lowering effect of democracy, 12
+  describes the Patriarchal Theory, 182
+  on monogamy, 206.
+  _See_ Patriarchal.
+
+Maitland, Dr., his 'Essays on the Dark Ages,' 298.
+
+Mayne, Mr. J. D., his article on the Patriarchal Theory, 190.
+
+Mezger, Prof. F., his '_Pindar's Siegeslieder_,' 163.
+
+Milton on the Ignatian Epistles, 476.
+
+Monachism, British, in the 13th century, 303.
+  _See_ Paris, Matthew.
+
+Monasteries at end of 13th century, 304
+  popularity, 307
+  farming and pisciculture, 308
+  a place of refuge, 309.
+
+Monod, G., on the policy of the late Chamber in France, 338, _note_.
+
+Morgan, Mr. L. E., on 'group marriage,' 205.
+  _See_ Patriarchal Theory.
+
+Morice, Rev. F. D., his 'Pindar for English Readers, 156.
+  _See_ Pindar.
+
+Morley, Mr. J. _See_ Gladstone-Morley.
+
+Mortgages & Bills of Exchange, 139.
+
+
+N.
+
+National League, the, 563-565.
+
+---- Records, the, Commission for methodizing and digesting, 295.
+
+Navy, the, and the Colonies, 445.
+
+Norway, the Bank of, 400
+  State Mortgage Bank, and Savings Bank, 401.
+  _See_ Yeomen.
+
+
+O.
+
+Oldham, business record of the co-operative spinners for 1885, 285.
+
+Ormsby, Mr., his 'Don Quixote,' 43
+  'Poem of the Cid,' 46.
+
+
+P.
+
+Pacific Islands. _See_ Romilly, Travels.
+
+Paris, Mathew, 293
+  early years, 315
+  a monk at St. Alban's, 316
+  various accomplishments, _ib._
+  sent to Norway, 317
+  succeeds Roger of Wendover as historiographer, _ib._
+  utilizes facts and documents, 318
+  lashes the enemies of the abbey, 319
+  his denunciations of the Pope, 319, 320
+  anecdotes, 321
+  omens and portents, _ib._
+  weather reports, _ib._
+
+Parliament, the New, 257
+  activity of the Liberal press, _ib._
+  Radicalism based on pure ignorance, 258
+  Mr. Chamberlain's bribe to the rural voters, 258, 259
+  state of parties in 1880 and 1885, 260
+  the Home Rulers, 261
+  Mr. Gladstone and Home Rule in 1882, _ib._
+  Lord Salisbury's remarks on it, 262
+  the 'Quarterly Review' of Jan. 1882, _ib._
+  the scheme of separation and two Parliaments, 264
+  Mr. Gladstone's 'healing measures' for Ireland, 265-268
+  Sir J. Stephen on the Irish Parliament, 269
+  English capital in Ireland, 271
+  Davitt on landlordism, 272
+  Parnell on Home Rule, _ib._
+  dissentients in the press, 276
+  'strenuous policy' of the American war, _ib._
+  Lord Cowper on the Land Act of 1881, 277
+  opinions on the Land Bill, 278
+  its progress in Scotland and Wales, 279
+  Mr. G. Smith on concession, _ib._
+  good effect of Lord Salisbury's accession to power, _ib._
+  tone of European opinion, 280
+  Mr. Gladstone's foreign policy, 281
+  Prince Bismark's opinion of great orators, 282
+  Russian advances, 282, 283
+  state of trade, 284
+  the co-operative spinners of Oldham, 285
+  indifference of the Liberals, 286
+  new channel for trade in Burma, 286, 287
+  formation of a German Syndicate, 288
+  discordant element of the Liberal party, 290, 291.
+
+Parnell, Mr., on national independence, 267
+  Protective tariffs, 270
+  private property, 271
+  Home Rule, 272
+  encomium on Mr. Gladstone, 544.
+
+Patriarchal Theory, the, 181
+  described by Sir H. Maine, 182
+  Darwin's view, _ib._
+  the Patria Potestas and Agnation, 185
+  analogy in England, 186
+  Teutonic and Roman families, 187
+  Salic Law, 188
+  family system of the Hindus, 189
+  Agnates and Cognates, _ib._
+  Mr. J. D. Maynes's article, 190
+  religious origin of Civil law, 191
+  Mahommedan law, 191, 192
+  system among the Arabian tribes, 192
+  Slavonic and Russian society, 193-195
+  legend of Queen Libussa, 196
+  rejection of Roman law, 198
+  maternal uncles and nephews, 200
+  want of history with savages, _ib._
+  theory of the origin and growth of the Family, 201
+  Hordes and their Totems, _ib._
+  infanticide, _ib._
+  fewness of women, 202
+  female descents, 203
+  Exogamy, 204
+  Polyandry, _ib._
+  two schools of 'agriologists,' 205
+  Sir H. Maine on monogamy, 206
+  Darwin on the habits of primitive men, 207
+  ancestor worship, 208.
+
+Peddie, Mr. Dick on Liberationist Literature, 10.
+
+Pegu, annexation of, 227.
+  _See_ Burma.
+
+Pentecost, Dr. G. F., on Denominational rivalry in America, 34.
+
+Phayre, Sir A., his works on Burma, 210
+  wise ministration in Pegu, 228.
+
+Pindar's Odes of Victory, 156
+  reverence paid to him, _ib._
+  imperfectly comprehended, 157
+  Voltaire's opinion, _ib._
+  the English and the ancient Greek mind, 158
+  public games, 159
+  Olympic festivals, 160
+  constructive skill of the Odes, 161
+  Prof. Mezger's work, 163
+  names of the members of the Terpandrian nome, _ib._
+  structural phenomena, 165
+  fifth Isthmian Ode, _ib._
+  innovation in the structure, 169
+  word-pictures, 170
+  reference to architecture, 171-173
+  structure, 173, 174
+  turgidity and bombast explained, 175
+  main source of obscurity, 176
+  the love of Apollo and Cyrene, _ib._
+  the genius of Pindar and Bossuet compared, 178
+  his human sympathies, 180.
+
+Polycarp, St. _See_ Apostolic Fathers.
+
+Poor Law, the English, its value, 540
+  in Norway, 408.
+  _See_ Democracy.
+
+
+R.
+
+'Radical Programme,' the, 23.
+
+Radicalism based on ignorance, 258.
+
+Rae, Mr. George, 'The Country Banker,' 133.
+  _See_ Banker.
+
+Rangoon founded, 222.
+  _See_ Burma.
+
+Religious Schools in England, 344
+  Tables of Accommodation, 345
+  Registers, attendance, and voluntary contributions, 346
+  Training Colleges, 347
+  Diocesan Inspection, 349
+  schools visited in 1884, 350
+  expense of education, _ib._
+  question of gratuitous elementary education, 351.
+
+_Revue Contemporaine_, the, on Lord Salisbury's accession to power, 280.
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal. _See_ Conde.
+
+Riley, Mr., his 'Chronica Monasterii Sancti Albani,' 300.
+
+Rochester, Bishop of, his estimate of the number of parishes which would
+suffer from Disendowment, 40.
+
+Rogers, Mr. Guinness, on the good work of the Church, 22.
+
+Romilly, Sir John, of the Rolls, 295
+  proposal for the publication of the 'Rolls Series,' 297.
+
+----, Mr., his 'Western Pacific and New Guinea,' 445
+  cannibalism, 459
+  the Solomon Islands, 461
+  a sorcerer, 462
+  the ladies of Laughlan Islands, 463
+  describes a fine pearl, 464
+  labour trade, _ib._
+  'Bully Hayes,' 465.
+  _See_ Travels.
+
+Russia, advances of, in Asia, 282
+  effect of allotments upon the emancipated serfs, 411
+  fall in value of cereals, _ib._
+  'redemption' dues, 412
+  Peasant Land Banks, 412.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sagredo, Giovanni, his mission from Venice to Cromwell, 376.
+
+Salisbury, Lord, on the Home Rulers, 262.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+Salle, J. B. de la, 325
+  Canon of the Cathedral of Rheims, 326
+  takes charge of an orphanage for girls, 327
+  patron of other schools, 328
+  spends his fortune on the poor, 329
+  prayer for guidance, _ib._
+  founder of the Christian Brothers, 330
+  his self-dedication, 331
+  success of his work, 335
+  death, 337.
+
+Scherer, M., on Democracy, 11, 27.
+
+Schliemann, Dr. H. _See_ Tiryns.
+
+Schmidt, C. A., on Roman Law, 187.
+
+Scottish Council, its contribution to the Liberation Society, 10.
+
+Senior, Nassau, W., 'Correspondence and Conversations of A. de
+Tocqueville,' 518
+  his intimate acquaintance with French statesmen, 537
+  the English Poor Law, 540
+  the Irish famine, 541.
+  _See_ Democracy.
+
+Smith, Mr. Goldwin, on concession in Ireland, 279.
+
+----, Rev. G. Vance, on the control exercised in Dissenting churches, 37.
+
+Spain. _See_ Don Quixote.
+
+Stephen, Sir James, on an Irish Parliament, 269.
+  _See_ Parliament.
+
+
+T.
+
+Theebau, King, atrocities at the beginning of his reign, 228.
+
+Tiryns, Schliemann's 108
+  the excavations mainly architectural, 110
+  the plain of Argolis, 111
+  site of the citadel, _ib._
+  history, 113
+  Mr. Mahaffy's theory, 114
+  style of pottery, 116
+  upper citadel, 117
+  arrangements of the palace, 118
+  propylaeum, 120
+  men's forecourt, _ib._
+  portico, 121
+  megaron and hearth, 122
+  basilican lighting, 123
+  bath-room, 124
+  women's apartments, 125
+  cyanus frieze, 127
+  Cyclopean walls, 128
+  Phoenician origin asserted by Doerpfeld, 129
+  Greek architecture, 130, 131
+  date of the fall, 132.
+
+Tocqueville, M. Alexis de, 'Democracy in America,' 518
+  his practical wisdom, 520
+  conservatism, 522
+  rose-coloured portrait of democracy, 527
+  his _Ancien Regime_, 528
+  the distinction between noble and _roturier_, 529
+  _Egalite_, 531.
+
+Travels in the British Empire, 443
+  Colonial Federation, 445
+  better organization of the Navy, 445
+  the American Revolution, 446
+  no desire for separation in our Colonists, 447
+  Cape Colony, _ib._
+  its treatment from England, 448
+  conditions and prospects of trade, 449
+  Free Trade, 449, 450
+  offers of aid in the Egyptian war, 450
+  love of 'old home,' 451
+  purity of language, _ib._
+  India and its Civil Service, 452
+  Lord Ripon's endeavours to promote 'self-government,' 454
+  the Ilbert Bill, 455
+  Radical ideas of dismemberment, _ib._
+  native press of India, 456
+  prosperity of British India, 457
+  cannibalism in New Ireland, 460
+  murder of children in the Solomon Islands, 461
+  sorcerers, 462
+  David Dow, _ib._
+  the Admiralty, Laughlan, Thursday, and Norfolk Islands, 462-463
+  the labour trade, 464
+  'Bully Hayes,' 465
+  commercial importance of the Australian Colonies, 467.
+
+
+U.
+
+Uniformity, Act of, 252.
+  _See_ Lords.
+
+United States, National Banks of the, 150.
+  _See_ Banker.
+
+
+V.
+
+Venetian Republic, Archives of the, 356
+  their preservation and order, 357
+  Constitution and the Great Council, 358
+  the Senate or Pregadi, 360
+  the Zonta, _ib._
+  Collegio or Cabinet of Ministers, 361
+  the Savii, _ib._
+  Ducal Councillors, 362
+  the Doge, 363
+  election of, 363, 364
+  Council of Ten, 365
+  political training of the nobles, 367
+  the Ducal, Secret, and Inferior Chancelleries, 368, 370, 371
+  duties of the Grand Chancellor, 369
+  College of Secretaries, _ib._
+  Senatorial papers, 372
+  the Relazioni, 373
+  Paullizzi's despatches, 375
+  Sagredo's mission to Cromwell, 376
+  diplomatic connection with England, _ib._
+  of the Collegio and the Lettere Principi, 377
+  curious document of one Charles Dudley, 378
+  letters from James Stuart, _ib._
+  'Espozione Principi,' _ib._
+  reception of Lord Northampton, 479-482
+  Tom Killigrew's expedient, 482.
+
+Verney, Lady, 'Cottier-owners and Peasant Proprietors,' 410, _note_.
+
+Villemain, M., his comparison of the genius of Pindar and Bossuet, 178.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wales, the Church in, 18-21.
+
+Water Companies of London, oppressive and insolent exactions, 524.
+
+Wendover, Roger of, a monkish historiographer, 314
+  at St. Albans, 316, 317.
+
+Westphal, R., his examination of the Choric Odes of AEschylus, 163.
+
+Wotton, Sir H., goes to Scotland from Venice to warn James VI. of a  design
+on his life, 374.
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yeomen Farmers in Norway, 384
+  condition of peasant proprietors in 1834, 385
+  the _Odels ret_, or Allodial Right, _ib._
+  division of land, 386
+  life on the _Soeters_, 387
+  private distillation of spirits prohibited, 388,
+  pauperism, _ib._
+  illegitimacy, 390
+  the agrarian class permanently represented in the Storthing, 391, _ib._
+  attraction of the rural population to towns, 392
+  rate of wages, 393
+  railways, _ib._
+  dress and ornaments, 394
+  value of money, _ib._
+  classification of properties, 395
+  increasing subdivisions of land, 397, 398
+  creation of _Myrmaend_ in South Trondhjem, 397
+  influence of American competition in corn, _ib._
+  absence of good economy, 399
+  fare of the rural population, _ib._
+  heavy indebtedness of the farmers, 400
+  Banks and Savings Banks, 401-402
+  sales of real property for debt, 403
+  primitive condition of agriculture, 405
+  heavy and increasing charges on landed properties, 406
+  Poor Relief, _ib._
+  increase of paupers, 407, 408
+  emigration, _ib._
+  political agitators, 409
+  Church Disestablishment, _ib._
+  hereditary nobility abolished, 409, _note_
+  effects of subdivision of land in Norway, &c., 410
+  Lady Verney on peasant proprietors, 410, _note_.
+
+
+END OF THE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly Review, Volume 162, No.
+324, April, 1886, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK QUARTERLY REVIEW, APRIL, 1886 ***
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