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+Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8
+       A series of pen and pencil sketches of the lives of more
+       than 200 of the most prominent personages in History
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Charles F. Horne
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26423]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT MEN, FAMOUS WOMEN, VOL. 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine P. Travers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.
+
+Captions marked with [TN] have been added while producing this file.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Justinian and his council.]
+
+
+
+
+GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN
+
+
+_A Series of Pen and Pencil Sketches of_
+
+THE LIVES OF MORE THAN 200 OF THE MOST PROMINENT PERSONAGES IN HISTORY
+
+
+VOL. III.
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1894, BY SELMAR HESS
+
+edited by Charles F. Horne
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's arm.]
+
+New-York: Selmar Hess Publisher
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1894, by SELMAR HESS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
+
+
+  SUBJECT                         AUTHOR                          PAGE
+
+  ALFRED THE GREAT,           _Sir J. Bernard Burke, LL.D._,       101
+  ST. AMBROSE,                _Rev. A. Lambing, LL.D._,             68
+  ARCHIMEDES,                 _John Timbs, F.S.A._,                 59
+  ARISTOTLE,                  _Fénelon_,                            54
+  ST. AUGUSTINE OF
+    CANTERBURY,               _Rt. Rev. Henry Codman Potter_,       88
+  ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO,     _James, Cardinal Gibbons_,            73
+  FRANCIS BACON,              _Hon. Ignatius Donnelly_,            154
+  WILLIAM BRADFORD,           _Elbridge S. Brooks_,                172
+  AUGUSTUS CÆSAR,                                                   66
+  JOHN CALVIN,                                                     140
+  CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND,      _F. Hindes Groome_,                  177
+  _Letter written on the eve of his
+    execution by Charles I. to his son_,                           180
+  CHARLES V. OF GERMANY,                                           133
+  MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO,      _Rev. W. J. Brodribb_,                63
+  NICHOLAS COPERNICUS,        _John Stoughton, D.D._,              122
+  OLIVER CROMWELL,            _Lord Macaulay_,                     181
+  DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL,      _Margaret E. Sangster_,               10
+  DEMOSTHENES,                _E. Benjamin Andrews_,                47
+  DIOGENES,                   _Fénelon_,                            54
+  ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF
+    ENGLAND,                  _Samuel L. Knapp_,                   149
+  FREDERICK, THE GREAT ELECTOR,                                    189
+  GALILEO GALILEI,                                                 161
+  JOHN HUSS,                  _Rev. Dr. Tweedy_,                   106
+  ISABELLA OF CASTILE,        _Sarah H. Killikelly_,               114
+  JUSTINIAN THE GREAT,                                              85
+  JOHN KNOX,                  _P. Hume Brown_,                     144
+  LOUIS XI. OF FRANCE,        _E. Spencer Biesly, M.A._,           111
+  LOUIS XIV.,                 _Oliver Optic_,                      192
+  MARTIN LUTHER,                                                   127
+  _Letter of affection from Luther
+    to his little son Hans_,                                       132
+  LYCURGUS,                   _Rev. Joseph T. Duryea_,              22
+  MAHOMET,                                                          95
+  MOSES,                      _Henry George_,                        1
+  ST. PATRICK,                _Rev. G. F. Maclear, B.D._,           80
+  WILLIAM PENN,                                                    200
+  PERICLES,                                                         34
+  CARDINAL RICHELIEU,                                              166
+  SOCRATES,                   _Fénelon_,                            38
+  SOLOMON,                    _Rev. Charles F. Deems_,              16
+  THEMISTOCLES,                                                     29
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME III.
+
+
+PHOTOGRAVURES
+
+
+  ILLUSTRATION                           ARTIST               TO FACE PAGE
+
+  JUSTINIAN AND HIS COUNCIL,             _Benjamin Constant_ _Frontispiece_
+  MOSES IN THE BULRUSHES,                _Paul Delaroche_            2
+  THE VICTORS OF SALAMIS,                _Fernand Cormon_           32
+  DEMOSTHENES PRACTISING ORATORY,        _Jules Jean
+                                           Lecomte-du-Nouy_         48
+  AUGUSTUS CÆSAR AND CLEOPATRA,          _August von Heckel_        66
+  LOUIS XI. AND OLIVIER LE DAIN,         _Hermann Kaulbach_        112
+  MARTIN LUTHER BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF
+    WORMS,                               _E. Delperte_             130
+  CHARLES V. ON HIS WAY TO THE CONVENT,  _Hermann Schneider_       138
+  MOLIERE AT BREAKFAST WITH LOUIS XIV.,  _Jean Lêon Gérôme_        198
+
+
+
+
+WOOD-ENGRAVINGS AND TYPOGRAVURES
+
+
+  DAVID CALMING THE WRATH OF SAUL,       _J. J. Lefebvre_           12
+  JUDGMENT OF SOLOMON,                   _Jos. Führich_             18
+  DEATH OF SOCRATES,                     _Louis David_              42
+  DIOGENES IN HIS TUB,                   _Jean Lêon Gérôme_         44
+  DEATH OF ARCHIMEDES,                   _Gustave Courtois_         60
+  AMBROSE REBUKES THEODOSIUS,            _Peter Paul Rubens_        72
+  ST. AUGUSTINE AND HIS MOTHER,
+    ST. MONICA,                          _Ary Scheffer_             74
+  ST. PATRICK JOURNEYING TO TARA,                                   82
+  CONVERSION OF ETHELBERT BY AUGUSTINE,  _H. Tresham_               92
+  THE MUEZZIN,                           _Jean Lêon Gérôme_        100
+  KING ALFRED VISITING A MONASTERY
+    SCHOOL,                              _Benziger_                104
+  EXECUTION OF HUSS,                     _C. G. Hellquist_         110
+  FERDINAND AND ISABELLA--THE SURRENDER
+    OF GRANADA,                          _F. de Pradilla_          120
+  COPERNICUS,                            _O. Brausewetter_         124
+  LUTHER INTRODUCED TO THE HOME OF FRAU
+    COTTA,                               _G. Spangenberg_          128
+  ELIZABETH AND MARY STUART,             _Hermann Kaulbach_        152
+  GALILEO BEFORE THE INQUISITION,                                  164
+  A CONCERT AT RICHELIEU'S PALACE,       _J. Leisten_              172
+  A PURITAN CHRISTMAS,                   _Hyde_                    174
+  PRINCESS ELIZABETH IN PRISON,          _J. Everett Millais_      180
+  CROMWELL'S DAUGHTER ENTREATS HIM TO
+    REFUSE THE CROWN                                               186
+  THE GREAT ELECTOR WITHDRAWS FROM THE
+    ASSOCIATION OF THE DUTCH NOBILITY,   _F. Neuhaus_              190
+
+
+
+
+STATESMEN AND SAGES
+
+  Lives of great men all remind us,
+    We can make our lives sublime,
+  And departing, leave behind us
+    Footprints on the sands of time.
+
+  --LONGFELLOW
+
+
+
+
+MOSES[1]
+
+By HENRY GEORGE
+
+(1571-1451 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 1: Copyright. 1894. by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Moses. [TN]]
+
+
+Three great religions place the leader of the Exodus upon the highest
+plane they allot to man. To Christendom and to Islam, as well as to
+Judaism, Moses is the mouthpiece of the Most High; the medium, clothed
+with supernatural powers, through which the Divine Will has spoken. Yet
+this very exaltation, by raising him above comparison, may prevent the
+real grandeur of the man from being seen. It is amid his brethren that
+Saul stands taller and fairer.
+
+On the other hand, the latest school of Biblical criticism asserts that
+the books and legislation attributed to Moses are really the product of
+an age subsequent to that of the prophets. Yet to this Moses, looming
+vague and dim, of whom they can tell us almost nothing, they, too,
+attribute the beginning of that growth which flowered centuries after in
+the humanities of Jewish law, and again, higher still and fairer,
+gleamed forth in that star of spiritual light which rested over the
+stable of Bethlehem, in Judea.
+
+But whether wont to look on Moses in this way or in that, it may be
+sometimes worth our while to take the point of view in which all shades
+of belief may find common ground, and accepting the main features of
+Hebrew record,[2] consider them in the light of history, and of human
+nature as it shows itself to-day. Here is a case in which sacred history
+may be treated as we would treat profane history without any shock to
+religious feeling. The keenest criticism cannot resolve Moses into a
+myth. The fact of the Exodus presupposes such a leader.
+
+         [Footnote 2: Moses, the lawgiver of the Hebrew people, was,
+         according to the Biblical account, an Israelite of the tribe of
+         Levi, and the son of Amram and Jochebed. He was born in Egypt,
+         in the year 1571 B.C., according to the common chronology. To
+         evade the edict of Pharaoh, the King of Egypt, that all the
+         male children of the Hebrews should be killed, he was hid by
+         his mother three months, and then exposed in an ark of rushes
+         on the banks of the Nile. Here the child was found by Pharaoh's
+         daughter, who adopted him for her son, entrusting him to his
+         own mother to nurse, by which circumstance he was preserved
+         from being entirely separated from his own people. He was
+         probably educated at the Egyptian court, where he became
+         "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians." At the age of
+         forty years Moses conceived the idea of freeing his Hebrew
+         brethren from their bondage in Egypt, and on one occasion,
+         seeing an Egyptian maltreating an Israelite, he interfered,
+         slew the Egyptian, and buried him in the sand. The next day,
+         upon his attempting to reconcile two Hebrews who had
+         quarrelled, his services were scornfully rejected, and he was
+         upbraided with the murder of the Egyptian. Finding that his
+         secret was known, he fled from Egypt, and took refuge with a
+         tribe of Midianites in Arabia Petræa, among whom he lived as a
+         shepherd forty years, having married the daughter of their
+         priest Jethro or Reuel.
+
+         As Moses led his father-in-law's flocks in the desert of Sinai,
+         God appeared to him at Mount Horeb in a bush which burnt with
+         fire, but was not consumed, and commanded him to return to
+         Egypt and lead out his people thence into the land of Canaan.
+         On his arrival in Egypt, the Israelites accepted him as their
+         deliverer and after bringing ten miraculous plagues upon the
+         land of Egypt before he could gain Pharaoh's consent to the
+         departure of the people, he led them out through the Red Sea,
+         which was miraculously divided for their passage, into the
+         peninsula of Sinai. While the people were encamped at the foot
+         of Sinai, God delivered to them through Moses the law which,
+         with some additions and alterations, was ever after observed as
+         their national code. After leading the Israelites through the
+         wilderness for forty years, Moses appointed Joshua as his
+         successor in the command over them, and died at the age of one
+         hundred and twenty years, on Mount Pisgah, on the east side of
+         the River Jordan, having first been permitted to view the land
+         of Canaan from its summit. God buried him in the valley of
+         Bethpeor, in the land of Moab, but his tomb was never made
+         known.]
+
+To lead into freedom a people long crushed by tyranny; to discipline and
+order such a mighty host; to harden them into fighting men, before whom
+warlike tribes quailed and walled cities went down; to repress
+discontent and jealousy and mutiny; to combat reactions and reversions;
+to turn the quick, fierce flame of enthusiasm to the service of a steady
+purpose, require some towering character--a character blending in
+highest expression the qualities of politician, patriot, philosopher,
+and statesman.
+
+Such a character in rough but strong outline the tradition shows us--the
+union of the wisdom of the Egyptians with the unselfish devotion of the
+meekest of men. From first to last, in every glimpse we get, this
+character is consistent with itself, and with the mighty work which is
+its monument. It is the character of a great mind, hemmed in by
+conditions and limitations, and working with such forces and materials
+as were at hand--accomplishing, yet failing. Behind grand deed, a
+grander thought. Behind high performance, the still nobler ideal.
+
+Egypt was the mould of the Hebrew nation--the matrix in which a single
+family, or, at most, a small tribe, grew to a people as numerous as the
+American people at the time of the Declaration of Independence. For four
+centuries, according to the Hebrew tradition--a period as long as
+America has been known to Europe--this growing people, coming a
+patriarchal family from a roving, pastoral life, had been placed under
+the dominance of a highly developed and ancient civilization--a
+civilization symbolized by monuments that rival in endurance the
+everlasting hills; a civilization so ancient that the Pyramids, as we
+now know, were hoary with centuries ere Abraham looked on them.
+
+[Illustration: Moses in the bulrushes.]
+
+No matter how clearly the descendants of the kinsmen who came into Egypt
+at the invitation of the boy-slave become prime minister, maintained the
+distinction of race, and the traditions of a freer life, they must have
+been powerfully affected by such a civilization; and just as the Hebrews
+of to-day are Polish in Poland, German in Germany, and American in the
+United States, so, but far more clearly and strongly, the Hebrews of the
+Exodus must have been Egyptian.
+
+It is not remarkable, therefore, that the ancient Hebrew institutions
+show in so many points the influence of Egyptian ideas and customs. What
+is remarkable is the dissimilarity. To the unreflecting nothing may seem
+more natural than that a people, in turning their back upon a land where
+they had been long oppressed, should discard its ideas and institutions.
+But the student of history, the observer of politics, know that nothing
+is more _un_natural. For "institutions make men." And when amid a people
+used to institutions of one kind, we see suddenly arise institutions of
+an opposite kind, we know that behind them must be that active, that
+initiative force--the "men who in the beginnings make institutions."
+
+This is what occurs in the Exodus. The striking differences between
+Egyptian and Hebrew policy are not of form but of essence. The tendency
+of the one is to subordination and oppression; of the other, to
+individual freedom. Strangest of recorded births! from out the strongest
+and most splendid despotism of antiquity comes the freest republic. From
+between the paws of the rock-hewn Sphinx rises the genius of human
+liberty, and the trumpets of the Exodus throb with the defiant
+proclamation of the rights of man.
+
+Consider what Egypt was. The very grandeur of her monuments testify to
+the enslavement of the people--are the enduring witnesses of a social
+organization that rested on the masses an immovable weight. That narrow
+Nile Valley, the cradle of the arts and sciences, the scene, perhaps, of
+the greatest triumphs of the human mind, is also the scene of its most
+abject enslavement. In the long centuries of its splendor its lord,
+secure in the possession of irresistible temporal power, and securer
+still in the awful sanctions of a mystical religion, was as a god on
+earth, to cover whose poor carcass with a tomb befitting his state
+hundreds of thousands toiled away their lives. For the classes who came
+next to him were all the sensuous delights of a most luxurious
+civilization, and high intellectual pleasures which the mysteries of the
+temple hid from vulgar profanation. But for the millions who constituted
+the base of the social pyramid there was but the lash to stimulate their
+toil, and the worship of beasts to satisfy the yearnings of the soul.
+From time immemorial to the present day the lot of the Egyptian peasant
+has been to work and to starve, that those above him might live
+daintily. He has never rebelled. The spirit for that was long ago
+crushed out of him by institutions which made him what he is. He knows
+but to suffer and to die.
+
+Imagine what opportune circumstances we may, yet to organize and carry
+on a movement resulting in the release of a great people from such a
+soul-subduing tyranny, backed by an army of half a million highly
+trained soldiers, requires a leadership of most commanding and
+consummate genius. But this task, surpassingly great though it is, is
+not the measure of the greatness of the leader of the Exodus. It is not
+in the deliverance from Egypt, it is in the constructive statesmanship
+that laid the foundations of the Hebrew commonwealth that the
+superlative grandeur of that leadership looms up. As we cannot imagine
+the Exodus without the great leader, neither can we account for the
+Hebrew polity without the great statesman. Not merely intellectually
+great, but morally great--a statesman aglow with the unselfish
+patriotism that refuses to grasp a sceptre or found a dynasty.
+
+It matters not when or by whom were compiled the books popularly
+attributed to Moses; it matters not how much of the code there given may
+be the survivals of more ancient usage or the amplifications of a later
+age; its great features bear the stamp of a mind far in advance of
+people and time, of a mind that beneath effects sought for causes, of a
+mind that drifted not with the tide of events, but aimed at a definite
+purpose.
+
+The outlines that the record gives us of the character of Moses--the
+brief relations that wherever the Hebrew scriptures are read have hung
+the chambers of the imagination with vivid pictures--are in every way
+consistent with this idea. What we know of the life illustrates what we
+know of the work. What we know of the work illumines the life.
+
+It was not an empire such as had reached full development in Egypt or
+existed in rudimentary patriarchal form in the tribes around, that Moses
+aimed to found. Nor was it a republic where the freedom of the citizen
+rested on the servitude of the helot, and the individual was sacrificed
+to the state. It was a commonwealth based upon the individual; a
+commonwealth whose ideal it was that every man should sit under his own
+vine and fig-tree, with none to vex him or make him afraid; a
+commonwealth in which none should be condemned to ceaseless toil; in
+which, for even the bond slave, there should be hope; in which, for even
+the beast of burden, there should be rest. A commonwealth in which, in
+the absence of deep poverty, the manly virtues that spring from personal
+independence should harden into a national character; a commonwealth in
+which the family affections might knit their tendrils around each
+member, binding with links stronger than steel the various parts into
+the living whole.
+
+It is not the protection of property, but the protection of humanity,
+that is the aim of the Mosaic code. Its sanctions are not directed to
+securing the strong in heaping up wealth, so much as to preventing the
+weak from being crowded to the wall. At every point it interposes its
+barriers to the selfish greed that, if left unchecked, will surely
+differentiate men into landlord and serf, capitalist and workman,
+millionaire and tramp, ruler and ruled. Its Sabbath day and Sabbath year
+secure, even to the lowliest, rest and leisure. With the blast of the
+Jubilee trumpets the slave goes free, the debt that cannot be paid is
+cancelled, and a re-division of the land secures again to the poorest
+his fair share in the bounty of the common Creator. The reaper must
+leave something for the gleaner; even the ox cannot be muzzled as he
+treadeth out the corn. Everywhere, in everything, the dominant idea is
+that of our homely phrase--"Live and let live!"
+
+And the religion with which this civil policy is so closely intertwined
+exhibits kindred features--from the idea of the brotherhood of man
+springs the idea of the fatherhood of God. Though the forms may resemble
+those of Egypt, the spirit is that which Egypt had lost; though a
+hereditary priesthood is retained, the law in its fulness is announced
+to all the people. Though the Egyptian rite of circumcision is
+preserved, and the Egyptian symbols reappear in all the externals of
+worship, the tendency to take the type for the reality is sternly
+repressed. It is only when we think of the bulls and the hawks, of the
+deified cats and sacred ichneumons of Egypt, that we realize the full
+meaning of the command--"Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
+image!"
+
+And if we seek, beneath form and symbol and command, the thought of
+which they are but the expression, we find that the distinctive feature
+of the Hebrew religion, that which separates it by such a wide gulf from
+the religions amid which it grew up, is its utilitarianism, its
+recognition of divine law in human life. It asserts, not a God whose
+domain is confined to the far-off beginning or the vague future, who is
+over and above and beyond men, but a God who in His inexorable laws is
+here and now; a God of the living as well as of the dead; a God of the
+market-place as well as of the temple; a God whose judgments wait not
+another world for execution, but whose immutable decrees will, in this
+life, give happiness to the people that heed them and bring misery upon
+the people that forget them.
+
+The absence in the Mosaic books of any reference to a future life is
+only intelligible by the prominence into which this truth is brought.
+Nothing could have been more familiar to the Hebrews of the Exodus than
+the doctrine of immortality. The continued existence of the soul, the
+judgment after death, the rewards and punishments of the future state,
+were the constant subjects of Egyptian thought and art. But a truth may
+be hidden or thrown into the background by the intensity with which
+another truth is grasped. And the truth that Moses brought so
+prominently forward, the truth his gaze was concentrated upon, is a
+truth that has often been thrust aside by the doctrine of immortality,
+and that may perhaps, at times, react on it in the same way. This is the
+truth that the actions of men bear fruit in this world, that though on
+the petty scale of individual life wickedness may seem to go unpunished
+and wrong to be rewarded, there is yet a Nemesis that with tireless feet
+and pitiless arm follows every national crime, and smites the children
+for the father's transgression; the truth that each individual must act
+upon and be acted upon by the society of which he is a part; that all
+must in some degree suffer for the sin of each, and the life of each be
+dominated by the conditions imposed by all.
+
+It is the intense appreciation of this truth that gives the Mosaic
+institutions so practical and utilitarian a character. Their genius, if
+I may so speak, leaves the abstract speculations where thought so easily
+loses and wastes itself, or finds expression only in symbols that
+become finally but the basis of superstition, in order that it may
+concentrate attention upon laws that determine the happiness or misery
+of men upon this earth. Its lessons have never tended to the essential
+selfishness of asceticism, which is so prominent a feature in Brahmanism
+and Buddhism, and from which Christianity and Islamism have not been
+exempt. Its injunction has never been, "Leave the world to itself that
+you may save your own soul," but rather, "Do your duty in the world that
+you may be happier and the world be better." It has disdained no
+sanitary regulation that might secure the health of the body. Its
+promise has been of peace and plenty and length of days, of stalwart
+sons and comely daughters.
+
+It may be that the feeling of Moses in regard to a future life was that
+expressed in the language of the Stoic, "It is the business of Jupiter,
+not mine;" or it may be that it partook of the same revulsion that shows
+itself in modern times, when a spirit essentially religious has been
+turned against the forms and expressions of religion, because these
+forms and expressions have been made the props and bulwarks of tyranny,
+and even the name and teachings of the Carpenter's Son perverted into
+supports of social injustice--used to guard the pomp of Cæsar and
+justify the greed of Dives.
+
+Yet, however such feelings influenced Moses, I cannot think that such a
+soul as his, living such a life as his--feeling the exaltation of great
+thoughts, feeling the burden of great cares, feeling the bitterness of
+great disappointments--did not stretch forward to the hope beyond; did
+not rest and strengthen and ground itself in the confident belief that
+the death of the body is but the emancipation of the soul; did not feel
+the assurance that there is a power in the universe upon which it might
+confidently rely, through wreck of matter and crash of worlds. But the
+great concern of Moses was with the duty that lay plainly before him:
+the effort to lay foundations of a social state in which deep poverty
+and degrading want should be unknown--where men, released from the
+meaner struggles that waste human energy, should have opportunity for
+intellectual and moral development.
+
+Here stands out the greatness of the man. What was the wisdom and
+stretch of the forethought that in the desert sought to guard in advance
+against the dangers of a settled state, let the present speak.
+
+In the full blaze of the nineteenth century, when every child in our
+schools may know as common truths things of which the Egyptian sages
+never dreamed; when the earth has been mapped, and the stars have been
+weighed; when steam and electricity have been pressed into our service,
+and science is wresting from nature secret after secret--it is but
+natural to look back upon the wisdom of three thousand years ago as the
+man looks back upon the learning of the child.
+
+And yet, for all this wonderful increase of knowledge, for all this
+enormous gain of productive power, where is the country in the civilized
+world in which to-day there is not want and suffering--where the masses
+are not condemned to toil that gives no leisure, and all classes are not
+pursued by a greed of gain that makes life an ignoble struggle to get
+and to keep? Three thousand years of advance, and still the moan goes
+up, "They have made our lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and in
+brick, and in all manner of service!" Three thousand years of advance!
+Yet the piteous voices of little children are in the moan.
+
+We progress and we progress; we girdle continents with iron roads and
+knit cities together with the mesh of telegraph wires; each day brings
+some new invention; each year marks a fresh advance--the power of
+production increased, and the avenues of exchange cleared and broadened.
+Yet the complaint of "hard times" is louder and louder: everywhere are
+men harassed by care, and haunted by the fear of want. With swift,
+steady strides and prodigious leaps, the power of human hands to satisfy
+human wants advances and advances, is multiplied and multiplied. Yet the
+struggle for mere existence is more and more intense, and labor is
+cheapest of commodities. Beside glutted warehouses human beings grow
+faint with hunger and shiver with cold; under the shadow of churches
+festers the vice that is born of want.
+
+Trace to their root the causes that are thus producing want in the midst
+of plenty, ignorance in the midst of intelligence, aristocracy in
+democracy, weakness in strength--that are giving to our civilization a
+one-sided and unstable development; and you will find it something which
+this Hebrew statesman three thousand years ago perceived and guarded
+against. Moses saw that the real cause of the enslavement of the masses
+of Egypt was, what has everywhere produced enslavement, the possession
+by a class of the land upon which and from which the whole people must
+live. He saw that to permit in land the same unqualified private
+ownership that by natural right attaches to the things produced by
+labor, would be inevitably to separate the people into the very rich and
+the very poor, inevitably to enslave labor--to make the few the masters
+of the many, no matter what the political forms, to bring vice and
+degradation no matter what the religion.
+
+And with the foresight of the philosophic statesman he sought, in ways
+suited to his times and conditions, to guard against this error.
+
+Everywhere in the Mosaic institutions is the land treated as the gift of
+the Creator to His common creatures, which no one has the right to
+monopolize. Everywhere it is, not your estate, or your property; not the
+land which you bought, or the land which you conquered, but "the land
+which the Lord thy God giveth thee"--"the land which the Lord lendeth
+thee." And by practical legislation, by regulations to which he gave the
+highest sanctions, he tried to guard against the wrong that converted
+ancient civilizations into despotisms--the wrong that in after centuries
+ate out the heart of Rome, and produced the imbruting serfdom of Poland
+and the gaunt misery of Ireland, the wrong that is to-day crowding
+families into single rooms and filling our new States with tramps. He
+not only provided for the fair division of the land among the people,
+and for making it fallow and common every seventh year, but by the
+institution of the jubilee he provided for a redistribution of the land
+every fifty years and made monopoly impossible.
+
+I do not say that these institutions were, for their ultimate purpose,
+the best that might even then have been devised, for Moses had to work,
+as all great constructive statesmen have to work, with the tools that
+came to his hand, and upon materials as he found them. Still less do I
+mean to say that forms suitable for that time and people are suitable
+for every time and people. I ask, not veneration of the form, but
+recognition of the spirit.
+
+Yet how common it is to venerate the form and to deny the spirit! There
+are many who believe that the Mosaic institutions were literally
+dictated by the Almighty, yet who would denounce as irreligious and
+"communistic" any application of their spirit to the present day. And
+yet to-day how much we owe to these institutions! This very day, the
+only thing that stands between our working classes and ceaseless toil is
+one of these Mosaic institutions. Let the mistakes of those who think
+that man was made for the Sabbath, rather than the Sabbath for man, be
+what they may; that there is one day in the week on which hammer is
+silent and loom stands idle, is due, through Christianity, to
+Judaism--to the code promulgated in the Sinaitic wilderness.
+
+It is in these characteristics of the Mosaic institutions that, as in
+the fragments of a Colossus, we may read the greatness of the mind whose
+impress they bear--of a mind in advance of its surroundings, in advance
+of its age; of one of those star souls that dwindle not with distance,
+but, glowing with the radiance of essential truth, hold their light
+while institutions and languages and creeds change and pass.
+
+That the thought was greater than the permanent expression it found, who
+can doubt? Yet from that day to this that expression has been in the
+world a living power.
+
+From the free spirit of the Mosaic law sprang that intensity of family
+life that amid all dispersions and persecutions has preserved the
+individuality of the Hebrew race; that love of independence that under
+the most adverse circumstances has characterized the Jew; that burning
+patriotism that flamed up in the Maccabees and bared the breasts of
+Jewish peasants to the serried steel of Grecian phalanx and the
+resistless onset of Roman legion; that stubborn courage that in exile
+and in torture has held the Jew to his faith. It kindled that fire that
+has made the strains of Hebrew seers and poets phrase for us the highest
+exaltations of thought; that intellectual vigor that has over and over
+again made the dry staff bud and blossom. And passing outward from one
+narrow race it has exerted its power wherever the influence of the
+Hebrew scriptures has been felt. It has toppled thrones and cast down
+hierarchies. It strengthened the Scottish Covenanter in the hour of
+trial, and the Puritan amid the snows of a strange land. It charged with
+the Ironsides at Naseby; it stood behind the low redoubt on Bunker Hill.
+
+But it is in example as in deed that such lives are helpful. It is thus
+that they dignify human nature and glorify human effort, and bring to
+those who struggle hope and trust. The life of Moses, like the
+institutions of Moses, is a protest against that blasphemous doctrine,
+current now as it was three thousand years ago; that blasphemous
+doctrine preached ofttimes even from Christian pulpits: that the want
+and suffering of the masses of mankind flow from a mysterious
+dispensation of Providence, which we may lament, but can neither quarrel
+with nor alter.
+
+Adopted into the immediate family of the supreme monarch and earthly
+god; standing almost at the apex of the social pyramid which had for its
+base those toiling millions; priest and prince in a land where prince
+and priest might revel in all delights--everything that life could offer
+to gratify the senses or engage the intellect was open to him.
+
+What to him the wail of them who beneath the fierce sun toiled under the
+whips of relentless masters? Heard from granite colonnade or beneath
+cool linen awning, it was mellowed by distance, to monotonous music. Why
+should _he_ question the Sphinx of Fate, or quarrel with destinies the
+high gods had decreed? So had it always been, for ages and ages; so must
+it ever be. The beetle rends the insect, and the hawk preys on the
+beetle; order on order, life rises from death and carnage, and higher
+pleasures from lower agonies. Shall the man be better than nature?
+Soothing and restful flows the Nile, though underneath its placid
+surface finny tribes wage cruel war, and the stronger eat the weaker.
+Shall the gazer who would read the secrets of the stars turn because
+under his feet a worm may writhe?
+
+Theirs to make bricks without straw; his a high place in the glorious
+procession that with gorgeous banners and glittering emblems, with clash
+of music and solemn chant, winds its shining way to dedicate the
+immortal edifice their toil has reared. Theirs the leek and the garlic;
+his to sit at the sumptuous feast. Why should he dwell on the
+irksomeness of bondage, he for whom the chariots waited, who might at
+will bestride the swift coursers of the Delta, or be borne on the bosom
+of the river with oars that beat time to songs? Did he long for the
+excitement of action?--there was the desert hunt, with steeds fleeter
+than the antelope and lions trained like dogs. Did he crave rest and
+ease?--there was for him the soft swell of languorous music and the
+wreathed movements of dancing girls. Did he feel the stir of
+intellectual life?--in the arcana of the temples he was free to the lore
+of ages; an initiate in the society where were discussed the most
+engrossing problems; a sharer in that intellectual pride that centuries
+after compared Greek philosophy to the babblings of children.
+
+It was no sudden ebullition of passion that caused Moses to turn his
+back on all this, and to bring the strength and knowledge acquired in a
+dominant caste to the life-long service of the oppressed. The
+forgetfulness of self manifested in the smiting of the Egyptian shines
+through the whole life. In institutions that moulded the character of a
+people, in institutions that to this day make easier the lot of toiling
+millions, we may read the stately purpose.
+
+Through all that tradition has given us of that life runs the same grand
+passion--the unselfish desire to make humanity better, happier, nobler.
+And the death is worthy of the life. Subordinating to the good of his
+people the natural disposition to found a dynasty, which in his case
+would have been so easy, he discards the claims of blood and calls to
+his place of leader the fittest man. Coming from a land where the rites
+of sepulture were regarded as all-important, and the preservation of the
+body after death was the passion of life; among a people who were even
+then carrying the remains of their great ancestor, Joseph, to rest with
+his fathers, he yet conquered the last natural yearning and withdrew
+from the sight and sympathy of men to die alone and unattended, lest the
+idolatrous feeling, always ready to break forth, should in death accord
+him the superstitious reverence he had refused in life.
+
+"No man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day." But while the despoiled
+tombs of the Pharaohs mock the vanity that reared them, the name of the
+Hebrew who, revolting from their tyranny, strove for the elevation of
+his fellow-men, is yet a beacon light to the world.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL[3]
+
+By MARGARET E. SANGSTER
+
+(1074-1001 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 3: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: David Rex. [TN]]
+
+
+More than a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era, in
+a little farmstead in Palestine, there was rejoicing at the birth of a
+son. Not the first-born, whose coming was a fit occasion for gifts and
+feasting, not the second, the third, nor even the seventh. David was the
+eighth son of Jesse the Bethlehemite. Jesse would seem to have been a
+landholder, as his fathers had been before him, a man of substance, with
+fields and flocks and herds. We first meet David, a ruddy, fair-haired
+lad, tough of sinew and keen of eye and aim, keeping the sheep among the
+mountains.
+
+Two hundred years before David's day, a fair woman of Moab had brought a
+new infusion of strength, a new type, into the princely line of Judah.
+The blood of the daring children of the wilderness flowed in the veins
+of those who descended from Boaz. Just as in modern times and in royal
+houses a single feature, as a set of the jaw, a curve of the lips, a
+fulness of the brow or the eye, is stamped upon a race by some marriage
+of its heir with a strong woman of another race, so, it has always
+seemed to me, that the poetry, the romance, the fire and the passion,
+came with Ruth of Moab into the household of Boaz. For they were strong
+and beautiful, these sons of Jesse, who had Ruth as their not remote
+ancestress, and the mother-qualities live long and tell through many
+generations.
+
+Of Jesse's many sons, David was the youngest. His early life was spent
+as was that of other boys belonging to his class and period. He must
+have added to his natural abilities and quickness, rare talents for
+attaining such knowledge as was possible, knowledge of all woodcraft and
+of nature, knowledge of musical instruments, and acquaintance with arms.
+Clean of limb and sure of foot, ready of repartee, fearless and alert,
+he was, even as a boy, something of what he was to become in maturity,
+one of the greatest men of his own or any age. Unique in some
+capacities, versatile and varied in arts and accomplishments, at once
+vindictive and forgiving, impetuous and politic, shrewd and impulsive,
+heroic and mean, of long memory for wrongs committed, of decisive act
+and incisive speech, relentless and magnanimous, strong and weak. A man
+whose influence has never died out among men, and who is to-day a vital
+force in the world of religion, of philanthropy, and of letters.
+
+The short and ill-starred reign of Saul, the first king of the Jews,
+chosen when the people had wearied of the theocratic style of
+government, came to a speedy end. While yet the crown was on his head,
+the favor of the Lord departed from Saul, and Samuel, the Lord's
+prophet, was sent, 1064 B.C., to anoint his successor. The monarch was
+virtually deposed, though still in power. Saul was like a man under
+sentence of death who is still ignorant of his coming fate, and Samuel,
+who entertained a strong regard for him, evidently cared little to carry
+out the command received from God to discover the new king. Almost under
+protest, the old prophet sought Jesse the Bethlehemite, great-grandson
+of Boaz and the beautiful Ruth, and father of the sturdy set of stalwart
+sons who passed in review before him.
+
+The youngest of these, a lad herding sheep in the fields, ruddy and
+goodly to look upon, bearing in his eyes the fearlessness of her who
+left her father's house to follow Naomi's desolate fortunes, came from
+the fields when he was sent for. Peaceful as was his shepherd's life in
+general, it was not without its occasional spice of danger, as when a
+lion and a bear, famished and furious and ravening for their prey, came
+out of the wintry woods to devour the sheep. Then, as the sacred
+chronicler tersely and with Homeric brevity tells us, the shepherd "slew
+both the lion and the bear."
+
+That strange possession, the Spirit of the Lord, came upon David from
+the day of his anointing by Samuel, though it is improbable that he
+understood then, or for long afterward, precisely what was the function
+to which he had been consecrated. David was far older, and had dipped
+deep into many cups, before he spoke or thought of himself as "The
+Lord's Anointed."
+
+The steps toward the throne were not smoothed for the boy's feet, though
+his upward path was in a comparatively straight line. First, quite
+naturally, it came about that he was sent for by King Saul, who was
+afflicted with periods of melancholia which were charmed away only by
+the sweetness of melody. David's harp, on which he played skilfully, was
+the instrument of relief to Saul, and Saul looking on the young man
+loved him, desired to attach him to his person, and speedily made him
+his armor-bearer. Jonathan, Saul's son, grew so deeply attached to
+David, that their souls were knit together in that strong friendship
+which strikes its fibres into the soil underlying passion, and godlike
+in its endurance. The friendship of the two young men passed into a
+proverb, a proverb which is the crystallization of history. As David and
+Jonathan, is friendship's strongest simile.
+
+Of the episodes of this portion of David's life, the conflict with
+Goliath is familiar to every reader. The youth, armed with a pebble and
+a sling, slays the boastful champion, storming about in helmet and
+greaves and brazen target, and the victorious hosts of Israel pursue the
+defeated and flying Philistines hour after hour, till the sun goes down.
+Saul, apparently forgetful of his former favorite and armor-bearer,
+inquires whose son the stripling is, led proudly into his presence by
+Abner, the captain of the host.
+
+"I am the son of thy servant, Jesse, the Bethlehemite," is the modest
+answer.
+
+Again, this time aroused by jealousy, Saul's moody fit returns and his
+insanity is once more dispelled by David's harp. David becomes the
+king's son-in-law, and Michal, the king's daughter, loves her husband so
+dearly that she sets her woman's wits at work to save him when her
+father's hot displeasure, in the summary fashion known to Eastern kings,
+sends messengers to seek his life. Poor Michal, whose love was never
+half returned!
+
+The next chapter in David's history is a curious one. Anointed king over
+Israel, he wanders an outlaw captain, hiding in crannies of the
+mountains, gathering to himself a band of young and daring spirits,
+reckless of peril, and willing to accept service under a leader who
+fears nothing, and whose incursions into the adjacent countries dispose
+people to hold him in wholesome terror. Again and again, in this
+precarious Robin Hood life of his, David has the opportunity to revenge
+himself upon Saul, but with splendid generosity puts the temptation
+aside.
+
+"The Lord judge between me and thee," he exclaims; "the Lord avenge me
+of thee, but mine hand shall not be upon thee."
+
+An interesting side-light is thrown upon this portion of David's career,
+by the incident of his meeting with Abigail, a woman fair and discreet,
+married to a sordid churl named Nabal. David and his band had protected
+Nabal's fields from other rovers, and had been, so to speak, a wall of
+fire between the churl's estate and the hand of depredation. But at the
+time of the sheep-shearing the surly ingrate refuses food and drink to
+the band of David, though the favor is most courteously asked. When the
+rough answer is brought back, one sees the quick temper of the soldier,
+in the flashing repartee, and the hand flying to the sword. Little had
+been left to Nabal of barn or byre, if sweet-voiced and stately Abigail,
+wiser than her lord, had not herself brought a present in her hand, and
+with a gentle tongue soothed the angry warrior.
+
+In days to come, Abigail was to be wife to David, after the custom of
+the period, which attached a numerous harem to the entourage of a
+chieftain or a king.
+
+[Illustration: David calming the wrath of Saul.]
+
+In judging of David, of his relations with women, and of his dealings
+with his enemies, it is not fair to measure him by the standards of our
+own time. His was a day of the high hand, and of lax morality. The kings
+of neighboring countries knew no gentleness, no law but of
+self-interest and of self-pleasing in their marriages, and in their
+quarrels. Many of the alliances made by David were distinctly in the
+line of political arrangements, bargains by which he strengthened his
+boundary lines, and attracted to his own purposes the resources or the
+kindly interest of other nations.
+
+Reading of David's dashing forays, when he and his valiant two hundred
+fought the Amalekites, chased the Philistines, took prisoners and spoil,
+yet with rare wisdom ordained that, in the division of the spoils, those
+who tarried at home by the stuff, the guard of wives and children,
+should share equally with those who took upon them the pleasanter, if
+more perilous, tasks of the battle, we are transported into the morning
+of the world. These were days when the trumpets blew and the flags
+fluttered, days of riotous health and the joy of life.
+
+After the death of Saul and of Jonathan his son, David succeeded to the
+throne. This story is very dramatic. The conquering Philistines affixed
+the bodies of the dead heroes to their temple walls, and hung their
+armor as a trophy in the house of Ashtaroth. But the valiant men of
+Jabesh-Gilead came by night, took down the bodies and burned them, then
+buried the bones, and wept over them for seven days. David himself
+ordered to execution the messenger who brought him Saul's crown and
+bracelet, confessing that his own hand had given the king the _coup de
+grâce_. His lamentation over Saul and Jonathan rises to the height of
+the sublime. Never laureate sang in strains more solemn and tender.
+
+But from this moment on the tenor of David's life was boisterous and
+broken. He was constantly at war, now war that was defensive only, again
+war that was fiercely aggressive. He had to face internal dissensions.
+As his sons grew up, children of different mothers and of different
+trainings, there came to the heart of the father, always most
+passionately loving, such bitterness as none but great souls know.
+
+Between David's house and that of Saul there was long and fierce
+dispute, and never any real peace. Treachery, assassination, jealousy,
+marked the course of these two houses, though David, to his lasting
+honor, be it said, showed only kindness and rendered only protection to
+the kindred of Saul. He could not control the cupidity or fierceness of
+his retainers, but he gave the crippled Mephibosheth the household and
+the income befitting a prince.
+
+David was thirty years old when he began his reign. His first capital
+was Hebron, where he was publicly anointed, after the custom of the
+period. His reign lasted forty years, seven years and six months of
+which he spent in Hebron. Observing the natural advantages of Jerusalem
+as a stronghold, he took it after a sharp contest, and set up the throne
+there, remaining there for thirty-three years.
+
+In nothing did David display great abilities in a more marked manner
+than in the choice of his generals and counsellors. Joab, Abishai, and
+Zeruiah, Hushai and Ahithophel were all men of great administrative or
+executive powers. They were not invariably faithful to David's
+interests, but in the main they served him well, and to his "mighty men
+of valor" he owed the debt for success that all great captains owe to
+those who surround their persons, further their plans, and aid their
+enterprises.
+
+In the Second Book of Chronicles the honor-roll of David's heroes is
+starred with undying lustre. Thirty captains are mentioned, among them
+three mightiest, and the record of these valiant men is like the record
+written of Thor and his followers in the legendry of the stormy
+Norsemen. There was one who slew an Egyptian, a giant five cubits high,
+with a spear like a weaver's beam, and the champion went down to the
+combat armed with a staff only, disarmed the Egyptian, and slew him with
+his own spear. Another slew "a lion in a pit in a snowy day." One sees
+the picture, the yellow-maned, fierce-eyed lion, the white drift of the
+blinding flakes, the hole of the pit, deep-walled and narrow, a fit lair
+for the wild beast. The incident of the well of Bethlehem belongs here.
+The king was spent and athirst, and he longed for a drink from the old
+well by the gate. But when three mighty men cut their way sword in hand
+through the enemy's host, and brought the precious water, the king would
+not drink it, but poured it out before the Lord in libation. "God
+forbid," he exclaimed, "that I should drink the blood of these men, that
+have put their lives in jeopardy!"
+
+If David had always been as noble! But men have the defects of their
+qualities. These mighty men of earth have often, on one side or another,
+a special liability to temptation. In the seduction of Bathsheba and the
+cowardly murder of Uriah, her husband, David committed a sin for which
+he was punished not only in the denunciation of Nathan the prophet and
+the loss of Bathsheba's first child, but by the stings of a deep
+remorse, which expresses itself in a psalm which is a miserere. Yet
+Bathsheba became the mother of Solomon, and Solomon was the heir chosen
+by the Lord to preserve the kingly line of David, and to maintain the
+kingdom in great glory and splendor.
+
+In the quaint language of the sacred scribes, we find David's frequent
+battles graphically described. Rapid and pitiless as Attila or Napoleon,
+he "smote" the Amalekites, and the Ammonites, and the neighboring
+warlike peoples, and compelled them to pay tribute. He was not more
+rapacious than France has recently shown herself to Siam, or than
+England to India, and he was emphatically the "battle-axe of God." It
+was enlightenment against savagery, the true religion against the
+idolatries and witchcrafts of a false worship. In every way David
+displayed statesmanship, not carrying on war for the mere pleasure of
+it, but strengthening his national lines, and laying deep the
+foundations on which his successor was to carry forward a kingdom of
+peace.
+
+It was not until Hiram, king of Tyre, sent cedar from Lebanon, on floats
+down the Mediterranean, that David built him a house. The hardy soldier
+had often slept with the sky for his roof, and the grass for his bed,
+but as he grew rich and strong he needed a palace. With the pleasure and
+security of the palace, the ceiled house, came the wish of the devout
+soul to erect a temple to God. Never was sacrifice greater nor pain more
+intense than that which the great king experienced when told that not
+for him was to be this crowning joy, this felicity which would have made
+his cup overflow. His hands had shed too much blood. He had been a man
+of war from his youth. The temple on Mount Zion, a glittering mass of
+gold and gems, shining like a heap of snowflakes on the pilgrims going
+up to the annual passover, was to be the great trophy not of David's,
+but of Solomon's time. David acquiesced in the divine ordering, though
+with a sore heart. But he occupied himself with the accumulation of rich
+materials, so that when Solomon came to the throne he might find much
+and valuable preparation made.
+
+The troubles of David's reign, gathering around him thickly, as the
+almond blossoms of age grew white upon his head, were chiefly brought
+upon him through dissensions in his family. Did so loving a father spoil
+his sons in their early youth, or were they, as is probable, influenced
+by the spites, the malignities, and the weaknesses of the beautiful
+foreign princesses who were their mothers? In the rebellion of Absalom,
+the king tasted the deepest draught of sorrow ever pressed to mortal
+lips, and the whole tragic tale is as vivid in its depiction, and as
+intensely real in its appeal to-day, as when fresh from the pen of the
+writer.
+
+The conduct of Absalom, whose beauty and vanity were equalled by his
+ambition and his ingratitude, has made him forever infamous. He omitted
+no act that could convict him of shameless infidelity to all that was
+worthy a prince, and with an armed host he set his battle in array
+against his father. One charge, reiterated again and again, showed the
+depth of that father's heart--a heart like that of the Father in Heaven
+for its yearning over ingrates and rebels:
+
+"Beware that none touch the young man Absalom!"
+
+Joab, of all men in the realm, least afraid of David and most relentless
+when any one stood in his way, himself became Absalom's executioner,
+when, David's people being victors, Absalom hung caught by his hair in
+the boughs of an oak, unable to escape. Then it was a question who
+should tell the king these tidings, which dashed the hearts of the
+conquerors with a sudden pang. Finally a swift runner reached the
+watch-tower, whence the old king looked forth, awaiting news of the day.
+
+"Is the young man Absalom safe?" he asked
+
+And Cushi answered, "The enemies of my lord the king, and all that rise
+against thee to do thee hurt, be as that young man is."
+
+"And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate,
+and wept; and as he went, thus he said 'O my son Absalom, my son, my son
+Absalom! Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom my son, my son!'"
+
+Long, long ago, these battles and sieges, these truces and victories,
+were over forever on this earth. Egypt and Assyria, contemporary with
+Israel in greatness, have perished from the memories of men, save as a
+few marbles remain to tell their tale. The vitality of David is
+imperishable, but not because he was a shrewd statesman, a doughty
+warrior, or a captain of conquering armies. David the shepherd, David
+the king, are of the past. David the musician, David the psalmist, is as
+alive to-day as he ever was, the music of his harp still vibrating in
+temples and cathedrals and in human souls. Those matchless hymns
+antedating our modern era by so many shifting centuries, are lisped by
+children at their mother's knee, form part of every religious ritual of
+which the one God is the centre, and voice the love and prayer and
+praise of every heart that seeks the Creator. With the intense adoration
+and trust of the Hebrew, we too exclaim, "The Lord is my shepherd, I
+shall not want," and "God is our refuge and strength, a very present
+help in time of trouble."
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON[4]
+
+By REV. CHARLES F. DEEMS
+
+(1033-975 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 4: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: A town. [TN]]
+
+
+Looking down the vista of the past ages we see standing conspicuous
+among men David, the father of Solomon. In David's case it is as if the
+all-wise God had constructed in one human being an organ with all the
+keys and stops possible to humanity, and as if the Holy Ghost had on
+that organ with those keys and stops played every tune of every song
+that all humanity may need to sing in life or death, or carry in memory
+from earth to heaven. When we remember who Solomon's father was we are
+helped to grasp the significance of the life and character of the son,
+who, narrower indeed than his father, was yet more brilliant and more
+intense.
+
+In 1033 B.C., shortly after the death of David's first child by
+Bathsheba, which was begotten in sin, a second child was born, whom
+David called "Solomon," or "peaceful," probably with reference to the
+peace between God and David brought about by the latter's deep penitence
+for his sin against Uriah. But the Prophet Nathan, to whose wise and
+tender care he was early committed, called him "Jedediah," or, "The
+beloved of the Lord." If, as the best authorities are agreed, Solomon
+wrote the thirty-first chapter of Proverbs, he had still another name,
+"Lemuel," which means, "to God," or "dedicated to God."
+
+The great number and variety of traditions about Solomon extant in
+Persia, Arabia, Abyssinia, and among the Jews and other peoples, is a
+proof of the profound impression which he made on his age, and an
+evidence of his greatness; for only the great among men beget many
+traditions. Before taking up the authentic and credible history of
+Solomon a few specimens of these traditions may well receive our
+attention.
+
+The Abyssinians claim that a son given to the Queen of Sheba by Solomon
+was the founder of their imperial dynasty! In Persian literature Solomon
+is a favorite character. With nothing to say of David, it has countless
+stories of his gifted son. One alone, called "Solomon-Nameh," fills
+eighty books. Arabia also claims Solomon as the Father of her kings, and
+to this day, under the eastern sky dusky Arabs sit around the lonely
+tent-fire and tell weird and wonderful tales of the wit, wisdom, and
+wealth of Solomon. Legends of which he is the hero are also preserved
+not only in Asia and Africa, but also in the remotest corners of Europe.
+According to these stories he could interpret the language of birds and
+beasts, was acquainted with the mysterious virtues of herbs and gems,
+knew spells for casting out demons and charms for curing diseases,
+possessed a ring which revealed to him the past, present, and future,
+was acquainted with the arts of magic and by them made evil spirits his
+slaves, who helped him with his vast buildings and other great
+enterprises. It was with the assistance of demons called Jinns that he
+built the gorgeous city of Persepolis; while other evil spirits,
+rebelling, he conquered after a long and fierce struggle and immured in
+dark depths and caves of the sea. But let us return to sober history.
+The only trustworthy account of the wise king available, is that which
+is written in the Bible and in the crumbling ruins of his great
+buildings and public and private works in the East, especially in and
+around Jerusalem.
+
+He was ten years of age when the rebellion of his older brother,
+Absalom, fell almost like a death-blow upon the brow and heart of his
+aged father David, with whom he shared the perils of flight and a brief
+exile. Not many years later Adonijah, another brother, with the
+connivance of Joab, David's rugged old general, and Abiathar, the elder
+high priest, attempting to steal the throne, Zadok the high priest,
+Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah, the most famous and heroic of Israel's
+captains after Joab, together with Bathsheba, the beautiful and
+ambitious mother of Solomon, succeeded in thwarting Adonijah's base
+designs and roused in David for a short time his old-time energy.
+Whereupon he placed Solomon upon the throne while yet a young man only
+fifteen or twenty years of age.
+
+Upon taking up his sceptre Solomon first of all, removed his father's
+enemies and the heads of the conspiracies which had been made against
+the throne, not even hesitating to cut off Joab, whose deeds of prowess
+had added a marvellous lustre to the military fame of Israel. Solomon
+now sat secure upon his throne, the undisputed monarch of the wide
+territory secured by the conquests of his great father. About this time,
+in order to strengthen his kingdom, he married a daughter of the
+Pharaoh of Northern Egypt, an alliance which pleased the people, for it
+showed that their king was a king among kings. The end of this political
+alliance, however, was not as brilliant as its beginning promised;
+because, although Egypt was at that time the most mighty nation of the
+world, because the most wealthy and civilized, yet it was divided into
+two kingdoms, and after the lapse of years, the Pharaoh of the united
+kingdom did not hesitate to become Solomon's foe because one of his
+wives had been an Egyptian princess.
+
+After removing the enemies of the throne, and marrying the daughter of
+Pharaoh, Solomon repaired to the heights of Gibeon, six miles north of
+Jerusalem, a spot far-famed as the home of the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, which was the original Tent of the wanderings. On the
+brazen altar in front of the Tabernacle the young king offered to
+Jehovah a holocaust of a thousand victims.
+
+It was on the night after this magnificent sacrifice that the Lord
+offered to Solomon, dreaming, his heart's chief desire. The wise and as
+yet pious young king asking for wisdom, the Lord was so pleased that He
+promised him not only wisdom, but also wealth, honor, and long life. He
+had already been endowed with extreme personal beauty.
+
+Immediately following this vision the wisdom of the king was tested in a
+way which showed that his God was a faithful promiser. Into the royal
+presence two women of bad character were ushered by the authorities,
+bringing two babes, the one living and the other cold in death. In the
+night the latter's mother had by accident smothered it, whereupon she
+had stolen the living babe from its mother's side. In the morning a
+bitter conflict was waged by the two women over the living child, each
+wildly claiming it as her own. When the officers of the law were
+appealed to they brought the case before their king, whose wisdom and
+fitness to judge a great kingdom were now to be tried. As the spectators
+of the dramatic scene looked on, it was with anxious curiosity, which in
+a moment was turned into horror as Solomon ordered a stalwart attendant
+to take a keen sword and cut the living little one into two parts and
+give to each mother a half. One of the women appeared stolidly satisfied
+with this arrangement, but the other sprang between the babe and its
+executioner, and, weeping, pleaded that its life might be spared and her
+rival be permitted to have the whole child. In this pity and tenderness
+Solomon discovered the true mother heart, and to her gave the babe,
+while the news of the marvellous wisdom of the new king spread like
+wild-fire through Jerusalem and all Israel.
+
+Solomon had now secured an assured place in the hearts of his subjects,
+and was firmly seated on a throne from which for forty years he governed
+Israel with a rule whose wisdom was surpassed only by its magnificence.
+
+As it is impossible at this date to get at the exact chronological order
+of the events of his life from the time that he ascended the throne, and
+as it was remarkable for the fruits of peace rather than war, we may
+best study it by considering his government, household, buildings,
+riches, and writings.
+
+[Illustration: Judgment of Solomon.]
+
+Solomon's rule extended over a wide territory and over many peoples, for
+it had been the glory of David that he fought successfully with and
+subdued the enemies of Israel on every side. From the Mediterranean
+Sea to the Euphrates, and from the Red Sea to the northern bounds of
+Syria, the great son of David held sway, and thus was God's ancient
+promise to Abraham fulfilled. (Gen. xv. 18.)
+
+Solomon's government was Asiatic, that is it was an absolutism, marked
+by luxury, display, and taxation so heavy as to amount almost to
+oppression. Its luxuriousness and display are illustrated by his
+seraglio, which included seven hundred wives (1 Kings xi. 3); and its
+despotic nature is seen in such acts as his summary and severe
+punishment of Adonijah, Joab, and Abiathar.
+
+For the first time in the history of Israel, alliances were entered into
+with other nations. We have already seen how Solomon had married an
+Egyptian princess. Then he made a treaty with his neighbor on the
+Mediterranean coast, Hiram, king of Tyre, who in exchange for corn
+agreed to supply Solomon with timber for building the Temple and his own
+magnificent palace. The timber was floated down from Tyre to Joppa
+whence it was transported to Jerusalem or wherever needed.
+
+At peace with surrounding nations, and with a thoroughly systematized
+and centralized government, Solomon sat on his throne of ivory and gold
+and looked around on his people, to see an astonishing increase of
+population and a tremendous growth in business and wealth, especially
+during the first half of his reign.
+
+Entering his court and his household, one saw all things in keeping with
+his Asiatic government: magnificent palaces, surrounded by beautiful
+gardens; multitudes of slaves, each one having his work and doing it
+with swiftness and precision; troops of courtiers, and a harem of seven
+hundred wives and three hundred concubines. Around his gorgeous throne
+stood his officers and attendants, in his stables were forty thousand
+horses, and chariots in proportion. Whenever he went forth before his
+people it was to dazzle them with his splendor. But, fond as he was of
+display and of women, he nevertheless did not neglect the business of
+his kingdom, a large part of each day being spent either in his
+throne-room with his officials, or superintending his great public and
+private works. Besides this no inconsiderable part of his time in his
+home was given to study, meditation, and writing.
+
+The king was one of the greatest builders of the ages. Among the
+structures erected by him, easily first in splendor was the Temple. In
+Solomon's Temple lies Solomon's true greatness and glory rather than in
+his songs, his proverbs, his riches, and his outward splendor. It was
+the bud whose blooming was in Christ and Christianity. Around it was to
+be preserved the people chosen to save the true knowledge of their God
+for the human race and produce the human nature of Jesus Christ,
+humanity's incarnate God and Saviour.
+
+The conception of a fitting, permanent, earthly abode for Jehovah, and
+for the ark and the sacred symbols therein, was David's. He it was who
+took the ark to Jerusalem and placed it in a temporary tabernacle or
+tent while he collected money and materials for a great shrine. To aid
+him in his great work David had already secured the friendship of Hiram,
+king of Tyre, with whom, as we have seen, Solomon made a treaty, and
+from whom he procured both workmen and materials for his great
+enterprise.
+
+The Temple was begun four hundred and eighty years after the exodus from
+Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign, or 1012 B.C., and was
+completed in the twelfth year of his reign. Its site was Mount Moriah at
+the point where Araunah's threshing-floor had been, and where the angel
+met David at the time the plague was stayed.
+
+The house of the Lord finished, Solomon built his gorgeous palaces. And
+thirteen years after the completion of the Temple (991 B.C.) the people
+of Israel assembled on the occasion of its dedication. This occurred at
+the time of the Feast of Tabernacles, when a magnificent festival of two
+weeks' duration was held. The priests bore the ark into the "Holy of
+Holies" and deposited it under the wings of the cherubim. When they had
+retired the cloud of glory filled the whole edifice, and thus proclaimed
+the approving presence of Jehovah. Thereupon Solomon stood upon the
+brazen platform which had been built for him and made his memorable
+prayer. He thanked God for helping him to build the Temple; and prayed
+that He would hear the prayers that should there be made. Scarcely was
+his prayer ended when fire came down from heaven and consumed the
+sacrifice which had been laid on the altar, and the awe-stricken
+multitude bowed with their faces to the ground upon the pavement and
+worshipped and adored the Lord, saying, "For He is good; for His mercy
+endureth forever." (2 Chron. vii. 3.)
+
+In keeping with the Temple were the gorgeous palaces on which for
+thirteen years Solomon lavished time and toil and money. In the "Tower
+of the House of David," as one of these was called, hung a thousand
+golden bucklers; while in the great judgment-hall stood the far-famed
+throne of the great king. (1 Kings x. 18-20.) Solomon's other buildings
+were beautiful gardens and pools, and aqueducts and a luxurious summer
+resort. He moreover, either established or built many important towns or
+fortresses, among others being Tadmor in the wilderness, afterward
+celebrated in history as Palmyra. Countless workmen and inestimable
+wealth were involved in the building enterprises of the great king,
+which included at the last, to his shame, rival temples to Moloch, and
+the other false gods of his heathen wives.
+
+Of course, Solomon's government, household, and buildings, as we have
+considered them, involved the accumulation and expenditure of vast sums
+of money. But the king's ambition, energy, industry, and business talent
+rose to the height of these demands. From two sources he drew his vast
+wealth, namely, taxation and commerce. He received large revenues in the
+way of tributes from subject peoples, in addition to the increasingly
+heavy taxes which he imposed on the people of Israel. Besides taxation,
+the king increased his wealth by means of his great commercial
+operations in the desert, which was the highway between the Orient and
+the Occident, and by means of his two fleets, one on the Mediterranean
+and the other on the eastern arm of the Red Sea, which provided a
+waterway to both Southern Asia and Western Africa. So rich did Solomon
+become from these sources that it is said that he "made silver and gold
+at Jerusalem as plentiful as stones." (2 Chron. i. 15.) There was,
+however, one fatal fault in Solomon's commercial policy: all the gain
+went to the palace and the government. Herein lay one of the secrets of
+the division and fall of the nation immediately upon the close of his
+career.
+
+Naturally, Solomon's commercial greatness, together with the pomp and
+splendor of his court and government, carried his fame to all parts of
+the earth. But that for which he received the greatest respect from
+surrounding nations was his wisdom, manifested in many ways but chiefly
+in his writings. One of the marked effects of David's long and vigorous
+reign was to stimulate mental activity in the Hebrew mind. The great
+foreign wars with the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Sabeans, and the
+surrounding nations, who were more or less advanced in a knowledge of
+the arts and sciences, had the effect of widening the range of knowledge
+of Israel as a nation, and of stirring her up to an ambition to excel
+her neighbors in affairs of peace as well as in those of war. Solomon's
+peaceful and wise reign, characterized as it was by commercial
+prosperity, gave the people both the time and means for cultivating the
+arts. In study and in wisdom the king was the leader of his day and
+generation. He was learned in political economy, a great king. He was
+learned in music and poetry, having composed some of the most beautiful
+of the Psalms, such as the second. But in cultivating the fine arts he
+did not neglect the physical sciences, for he was a botanist, writing of
+all kinds of trees and plants; and he was a natural historian, writing
+works on beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes. It would be most
+interesting to see these science primers prepared by Solomon, and
+compare them with what we see on the same subjects in our own day. But
+the Bible has not preserved them, and they have long centuries ago
+passed into oblivion. Solomon's knowledge was not of that shallow sort
+which is limited to the sphere of earthly material, "seen things;" for
+he was wise with that deeper knowledge which has for its object God and
+the human soul, and their natures and movements in their natural
+relations. This wisdom is illustrated and handed down to us in his
+Proverbs of which we are told he spoke three thousand. A portion of
+these is in the Book of Proverbs, the others are lost to us.
+
+In his poetry also was crystallized much of his wisdom. This consisted
+of one thousand and five songs, all of which have gone down in the flood
+of years, with the exception of the Song of Solomon, which is an
+epithalamium, in which pure wedded love is incarnated. It is a sort of
+poetry of the family relations, and, therefore, worthy a place in the
+sacred canon. Taken literally and read with a pure heart, it is
+eminently fitted to spiritualize the family relations. This theory of
+this much discussed portion of Solomon's writings by no means shuts out
+the more spiritual use of the book, wherein we see in it the Church
+represented by the bride and God by the bridegroom.
+
+In Ecclesiastes we have the latest conclusions of Solomon's moral
+wisdom. Read in the light of its general scope rather than the dim light
+of detached portions, it appears as the confessions of a humbled,
+penitent, believing, godly man, who, after piety followed by apostasy,
+comes back to piety with the conclusion that after all, "the fear of the
+Lord is the beginning of wisdom."
+
+Through his writings and sayings Solomon's genius flashed from Jerusalem
+into the surrounding darkness of the heathen nations, and lighted by its
+rays, as mariners by the beacon in the light-house tower, there came of
+all people to hear the wisdom of Solomon, from all kings of the earth,
+which had heard of his wisdom, (1 Kings x. 1-10.) The celebrated visit
+of the Queen of Sheba is a deeply interesting illustration of these
+royal visits to the court of Israel's splendid king.
+
+Such was King Solomon the magnificent, and such the life of one of
+earth's most famous men. But, after all, he is a striking illustration
+of Plato's saying, that "Princes are never without flatterers to seduce
+them, ambition to deprave them, and desires to corrupt them." So,
+forgetting that as a king he was God's vicegerent, he lived more and
+more to gratify his lusts and ambitions, and to please his flatterers,
+especially his heathen wives. These finally seduced him into permitting
+temples to be built to Moloch and their other false gods. This ended in
+Solomon's becoming idolatrous himself. Then his wealth gradually melted
+away, his allies plotted against him, and, in the midst of life, being
+about fifty-eight years old, he died in the year 975 B.C., leaving a
+terrible legacy to his sons: a corrupted religion, a depleted treasury,
+and a discontented and broken people.
+
+Although there is every reason to believe that Solomon died a penitent
+man, yet his sins and the consequent wretchedness of soul, and the ruin
+of his kingdom, teach most emphatically the weakness of human nature,
+even when accompanied by the greatest genius, the perils of material
+prosperity, and the real insufficiency of all possible earthly good to
+satisfy the wants of the soul of man.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+LYCURGUS[5]
+
+By REV. JOSEPH T. DURYEA
+
+(About 884-820 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 5: Copyright. 1894. by Selmar Hess.]
+
+
+Scholars generally agree in the judgment that Lycurgus was a real
+person. It is probable that he was born in the ninth century B.C., and
+that, in the later part of the same century (850-820), he was an
+important, if not the principal, agent in the reconstruction of the
+Dorian state of Sparta, in the Peloponnesus. According to Herodotus, he
+was the uncle of King Labotas, of the royal line of Eurysthenes. Others,
+whom Plutarch follows, describe him as the uncle and guardian of King
+Charilaus, and therefore in the line of Procles. Either way his
+mythical lineage would be traced to Hercules. We are able to find no
+trustworthy records of the circumstances of his birth, and of the
+incidents of his childhood and youth. Plutarch, with all his diligence,
+found nothing. Nor could he sift and blend the varying stories of his
+later life and so construct a consistent and credible narrative, O.
+Müller says: "We have absolutely no account of him as an individual
+person."
+
+[Illustration: Lycurgus. [TN]]
+
+Accordingly Lycurgus appears already in his maturity. We know what he
+was only from what he did. He has this imperishable honor, that he did
+something, and did it in such a manner and with such effect that the
+memory of him and his deeds has lasted until this late time, and bids
+fair to last throughout all time.
+
+The following traditions concerning Lycurgus are commonly repeated.
+Polydectes, his brother, was king in Sparta. After the king's death a
+son was born to the widow. Lycurgus became his guardian and presented
+him to the magistrates as their future king. He was suspected by the
+queen's brother of a design to take the crown, and even of a purpose to
+destroy his infant nephew. Accordingly he went into exile. He remained
+some time in Crete, studying the institutions of the Dorian people of
+that island. He travelled extensively in Asia and was especially careful
+to observe the manners and customs of the Ionians. He found the poems of
+Homer, transcribed and arranged them, and caused them to be more
+generally known. The Egyptians claimed that he visited their country and
+derived much of his wisdom from them. Meanwhile the affairs of Sparta
+were in a critical condition and the king and the people alike desired
+his presence and his aid in restoring peace and renewing the prosperity
+of the community and the people of Laconia. Immediately upon his return
+he entered upon the work of framing a constitution and reconstructing
+the state. Notwithstanding much opposition and complaint from the
+classes obliged to make concessions and sacrifices for the common good,
+he secured the assent of the people to his legislation. Having seen the
+system in working order, he announced his purpose to leave the country
+for a period, and moved the citizens to take an oath that they would
+observe the laws until he should return. He departed to remain away to
+the end of his life, but first repaired to Delphi and obtained an oracle
+promising prosperity to the Spartans, so long as they should maintain
+faithfully the constitution.
+
+Laconia was the southeastern portion of the peninsula. The soil was
+mainly mountain land and meagrely productive under toilsome and careful
+tillage. So much of it as was naturally fertile lay in the centre, shut
+in from the sea by the mountains. At the time of the Dorian immigration,
+it was occupied in part by the descendants of the old Pelasgian
+population and in part by a mixed people which had come in at different
+times and from various sources. Because of the limited area there was
+already considerable pressure between the several elements. Accordingly
+the Dorians and their Achæan and Æolian allies met with a stout
+resistance, and established themselves after an obstinate and
+long-continued struggle. They descended from the sources of the Eurotas
+and forced their way into the plains in the midst of the land. They
+seized the heights on the right bank of the river at a point where its
+channel is split by an island and it was most easy to cross the stream.
+The hill of Athene became the centre of the settlement. Their
+establishment in the land was a slow process. It is said Laconia was
+divided into six districts, with six capital cities, each ruled by a
+king. The immigrants were distributed among the inhabitants and lands
+were allotted to them, in return for which they recognized the authority
+of the kings and engaged to support them in power. They seem to have
+been adopted by the kings, as their kindred were in Crete, as the
+military guardians of their prerogatives. The result was inevitable.
+They who are intrusted to maintain power become conscious that it is
+really their own, take formal possession of it, and exercise it for
+their own ends.
+
+Two leading families drew to themselves the central body of the Dorians,
+rallied the rest, gathered them all at one point, and made it the centre
+of the district and the seat of government. They were supported by
+families of common descent and recognized by the people of the land, who
+suffered no change in the circumstances of their life. These gave them
+homage, paid to them taxes, and united with their kindred in celebrating
+funeral rites at their tombs. Sparta became the capital of the whole
+country, while the former capitals became country towns.
+
+But there were difficulties in the way of the new régime. There were
+conflicting claims between the two royal families. Both of them were in
+collision with families in all respects their equals as to lineage and
+rank. The older and newer elements of the mass of the population were
+mingled but not yet combined. Everywhere there was friction, with
+occasions enough for irritation and confusion. The descendants of the
+primitive races were attached to their ancient ways. The Dorians were
+not less, but more tenacious of their traditional customs. And they were
+conscious of their vantage and knew they were able to insist on their
+preferences. As the props of the royal houses they could hope to make
+terms with them, or withdraw and let them fall, or turn to cast them
+down. The kings were compelled, on the one hand, to exert themselves to
+hold in control a subject people, and, on the other, to check the
+headstrong Dorian warriors. There was danger of the disruption of the
+kingdom, a lapse into anarchy, the rise of opposing factions, and a
+conflict destructive alike and equally of the welfare of all classes of
+the people.
+
+There was need of a statesman who could comprehend the problem, find a
+solution, commend it to the judgment of all classes, and gain their
+cordial consent to the renovation of the state upon a more equitable
+basis. He must be a man of large capacity, great attainments, thorough
+sincerity, earnest devotion, generous and self-sacrificing patriotism.
+He must have ability to conceive a high ideal, steadily contemplate it,
+and nevertheless consider the materials on which and the conditions
+under which he must do his work, maintain the sober judgment which
+discriminates between the ideal and the practicable, and exercise the
+rigid self-control which calmly renounces the best conceivable and
+resolutely attempts the best attainable. He must have regard to the
+ideas, sentiments, associations, sacred traditions, and immemorial
+customs of the several races and classes of the people. He must be
+prudently conservative and keenly cautious in shaping and applying new
+measures and methods. He must study and comprehend the inevitable
+oppositions of interests, and conceive modes of action which involve
+reasonable concessions accompanied by manifest compensations. He must
+ally himself with no party and yet command the confidence of all
+parties. Whatever prior advantage he may have had in the matters of
+birth, rank, and association, he must use to conciliate those who would
+be asked to make the largest apparent sacrifices, and so turn it to
+account for the benefit of those who might otherwise suspect and
+distrust him and fall away from his influence. He must be able to
+explain and commend the system he might devise, convince the several
+parties of its wisdom, persuade them to yield their preferences and
+accept the needful compromises, and move them to make a fair and full
+experiment of its provisions. Such a man was Lycurgus, if we may trust
+the persistent tradition that he was the framer of the new constitution
+and the second founder of the Dorian state of Sparta. From time to time
+the question has been raised, was the work of Lycurgus original or an
+imitation, shaped perhaps by his observations among the Dorian folk on
+the island of Crete? It does not matter what the answer shall be. The
+statesman who fitly adapts may be as wise and skilful as he who invents
+and creates. The man who loves his people, plans and labors for their
+good, will not peril their welfare by his experiments, disdaining the
+help of those who have wrought before him, and the guidance of his
+contemporaries in examples, the benign results of which he may have had
+opportunity to witness. The truth appears to be that Lycurgus had
+respect to the reverence of the people for the ancient ways, and
+retained as far as he was able the suitable elements of the primitive
+polity of the Homeric age. This was based on the Council of Chiefs or
+Elders and occasional meetings of an assembly of the people to listen
+and learn, to assent and give heed. From whatsoever sources he drew, he
+adapted the materials of his knowledge to the conditions under which his
+structure must be shaped, the circumstances under which it must get on
+its base and stand secure. Those who affirm the exemplary influence of
+the Cretan polity, hold fast to the tradition that Lycurgus visited the
+island and could not have failed to observe the features of society
+there, and could not have expelled from his mind the similarity of
+conditions among the two peoples and the expedients which the lawgiver
+of Crete had employed to meet and resolve the difficulties he
+encountered and secure the results he attained. It must, however, be
+remembered that similar peoples with common traditions and customs,
+under like circumstances may independently work out for themselves
+systems of society analogous in many particulars and varying only by
+adaptation to special conditions. If Lycurgus perceived what was
+suitable to the exigency, wrought it into a plan, moved the people to
+accept it, brought harmony out of discord, order out of confusion,
+contentment out of unrest, prosperity out of impending calamity, and
+rescued the commonwealth for the time, he deserved abundant honor and
+still deserves a permanent rank among the notable statesmen of the
+world.
+
+The constitution was unwritten. Its provisions were expressed in forms
+known as Rhætra. The kings were retained. Their power was a guaranty of
+unity. They maintained the continuity of civic life. Each was a check
+upon the other. They were held under restraint by the senate. Its
+composition and functions were now fixed. It met not only to deliberate
+and advise, but to perform judicial offices. In case of capital offences
+the kings sat with the elders, each having, with every other member, but
+a single vote. The members were thirty in number, one for each of the
+ten clans of each of the three tribes, the kings representing their
+clans and sitting as equals with equals, though presiding at the
+sessions. The elders must be of the age of sixty and upward, and were
+appointed for life. The ancient division of the people was preserved;
+the households were grouped in thirties, the thirties in clans, the
+clans in tribes. Their capital was Sparta. It was not a compact walled
+town. It stretched into the open country and Dorians lived along the
+entire valley of the Eurotas. Not only those dwelling at the ford of the
+river, but all were acknowledged as Spartans. The kings were required to
+summon the heads of the families in the assembly once every month. The
+place was designated. The session was brief. To encourage brevity there
+was no provision for seats, but the freemen stood. Elders and other
+public officers were chosen. Official persons made known new laws,
+declarations of war and peace and treaties. The people simply voted aye
+or nay. The decision was according to the volume of sound. The session
+closed with a military review.
+
+The army: The Dorians had entered the land and held their place in it by
+force of arms. To maintain their power it was necessary to develop a
+military system and maintain a body of vigorous and able soldiers. All
+citizens were constituted guardians of the nation. To all their rights
+was attached the duty of military service. They composed a standing
+army. The valley became a camp. The men left their estates under the
+management of the women. The wife cared for the home, reared the young
+children, and superintended the laborers in the business of the farm.
+The soldier could not leave the valley or enter it without announcement.
+The older men visited their homes on "leave of absence," the younger by
+stealth at night. Emigration was desertion punishable by death. To have
+gold and silver was to risk the same penalty. The heavy iron money only
+could be held, and this was without value in foreign parts. The soldier
+was part of an animated machine. His simple duty was to obey. Speech was
+repressed. It became abrupt, brief, pithy. Relief was found at the
+Lesche, near the training-ground, where talk was often free and even
+merry. The whole aim of the discipline was to form the soldier. Marriage
+was delayed for the sake of vigorous offspring. The girls were trained
+for motherhood. They were subject to a system of athletic exercises, and
+engaged in contests of running, wrestling, and boxing. The boys were put
+under training at the age of eight years. They became accustomed to
+severe exercise, and were inured to patient and painful endurance. They
+were compelled to suffer hunger, thirst, cold, heat, and fatigue, and to
+bear torture without flinching or show of emotion. Their food was kept
+almost within the limits of war rations. To increase the amount and
+variety they were allowed to steal. But they were careful not to be
+detected, lest they should be severely punished. Likely this was a
+device for training them to stealthy and cautious movements. After the
+time of their maturity they continued gymnastic culture. They hunted the
+goats, boars, stags, and bears on the rugged heights of the Taygetus
+range. There was no system of liberal education; mental growth and
+development were not sought as ends. They were rather feared. Poetry and
+music were used to a limited degree, so far as they might be made
+conducive to forming the traits of the soldier.
+
+While the Spartans were solely occupied in preparation for the art of
+war, it is evident there must have been a population as wholly given to
+the pursuit of the practical arts, or the community could not have
+existed. There were two classes of laborers. The Perioeci dwelt in the
+rural townships. They were mainly of the mixed population of the lands,
+but there were Dorians among them. They were freemen; they held lands,
+and enjoyed certain rights of local government, voting for their
+magistrates in their townships. More and more they were trained for
+military service and entered the ranks as heavy-armed infantry. Some of
+them were shepherds and herdsmen. From them came all the skilled
+workmen, who wrought in the quarries and mines, provided building
+materials, shaped iron implements, made woollen stuff and leathern
+wares. Their number was three times as great as that of the citizens of
+the capital city. But over all their townships the Spartans held sway
+through the kings, the senate, and the assembly. These facts exhibit the
+civil polity which became so common during Greek and Roman times, and
+obtained again in Italy after the fall of the empire and the barbarian
+invasions, up to the time of the Renaissance.
+
+The Helots were a rural people dwelling on the lands of the Spartans
+which lay about the capital or in the Laconian towns. Some of them were
+in the country as villagers and rustics when the Dorians came. They
+remained upon their lands as they were before, but were forced to pay a
+part of the annual produce of barley, oil, and wine. Some of them were
+people made captive in the border wars. They were serfs. They were,
+however, wards of the state. No one could treat them as personal
+property. They could not be sold or given away. They belonged to the
+inventory of the farm. Their taxes were defined by law. More could not
+be exacted. They could not be harmed in person. They were of value to
+the state and therefore protected. More and more they were needed in the
+army, where they were respected and honored for energy and bravery.
+Grote says they were as happy as the peasantry of the most civilized and
+humane modern nations. They lived in their villages, enjoyed their homes
+and the companionship of their wives and children, and the common
+fellowship of their neighbors, with ample supply for their needs and
+comfort from the surplus product of their labor and apart from the eye
+of their masters. Still the Helot had in him the common sentiments of
+our nature. His state was servile and mean. It was not to be expected he
+would always remain content in his subjection to his superiors in social
+and civil life. More and more his discontent would menace the stability
+of the community. Especially when the exigencies of war should compel
+his rulers to place arms in his hands and enlist him for defence against
+the foreign foe, it would become necessary to keep close watch upon him
+and to use strong measures for the repression of his impulse toward
+freedom.
+
+Judged by the highest standards, Lycurgus certainly did not form the
+Laconians into an ideal nationality. He set up a military sovereignty in
+the land, and this demanded that the citizens should be soldiers, live
+in the camp, and devote themselves solely to the art of war. It is
+likely he perceived the imperfections of the system, anticipated its
+reflex effect upon the character and manners of the Spartans, and
+foreknew its weakness and the consequent perils of the people when it
+should inevitably be put to stress and strain by the aspirations of the
+subject classes after freedom and social equality. Could he speak for
+himself, he would doubtless say, with Solon, that he had not done the
+best he knew but the best he could, that his constitution was
+provisional and suited to the time, and that it was designed to serve as
+a bridge over which his countrymen could cross a torrent and reach
+safely the solid ground on which they might securely stand to rearrange
+their polity and form themselves on a more equitable and generous basis
+into a real and happy commonwealth.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+THEMISTOCLES
+
+(514-449 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Themistocles. [TN]]
+
+
+Themistocles, who raised Athens from a subordinate position to her proud
+rank as leader of the Grecian States, was born about the year B.C., 514.
+He was the son of Nicocles, an Athenian of moderate fortune, who,
+however, was connected with the priestly house of the Lycomedæ; his
+mother, Abrotonon, or, according to others Euterpe, was not an Athenian
+citizen; and according to most authorities, not even a Greek, but either
+a native of Caria or of Thrace. The education which he received was like
+that of all Athenians of rank at the time, but Themistocles had no taste
+for the elegant arts which then began to form a prominent part in the
+education of Athenian youths; he applied himself with much more zeal to
+the pursuit of practical and useful knowledge. This, as well as the
+numerous anecdotes about his youthful wilfulness and waywardness,
+together with the sleepless nights which he is said to have passed in
+meditating on the trophies of Miltiades, are more or less clear symptoms
+of the character which he subsequently displayed as a general and a
+statesman. His mind was early bent upon great things, and was incapable
+of being diverted from them by reverses, scruples, or difficulties. The
+great object of his life appears to have been to make Athens great. The
+powers with which nature had endowed him were quickness of perception,
+an accurate judgment of the course which was to be taken on sudden and
+extraordinary emergencies, and sagacity in calculating the consequences
+of his own actions; and these were the qualities which Athens during her
+wars with Persia stood most in need of. His ambition was unbounded, but
+he was at the same time persuaded that it could not reach its end unless
+Athens was the first among the Grecian States; and as he was not very
+scrupulous about the means that he employed for these ends, he came into
+frequent conflict with Aristides the Just, who had nothing at heart but
+the welfare of his country and no desire for personal aggrandizement.
+
+In the year 483 B.C., when Aristides was sent into exile by ostracism,
+Themistocles, who had for several years taken an active part in public
+affairs, and was one of the chief authors of the banishment of his
+rival, remained in the almost undivided possession of the popular favor,
+and the year after, B.C. 482, he was elected archon eponymus of Athens.
+The city was at that time involved in a war with Ægina, which then
+possessed the strongest navy in Greece, and with which Athens was unable
+to cope. It was in this year that Themistocles conceived and partly
+carried into effect the plans by which he intended to raise the power of
+Athens. His first object was to increase the navy of Athens; and this he
+did ostensibly to enable Athens to contend with Ægina, but his real
+intention was to put his country in a position to meet the danger of a
+second Persian invasion, with which Greece was threatened. The manner in
+which he raised the naval power was this. Hitherto the people of Athens
+had been accustomed to divide among themselves the yearly revenues of
+the silver-mines of Laurion. In the year of his archonship these
+revenues were unusually large, and he persuaded his countrymen to forego
+their personal advantage, and to apply these revenues to the enlargement
+of their fleet. His advice was followed, and the fleet was raised to the
+number of two hundred sail. It was probably at the same time that he
+induced the Athenians to pass a decree that for the purpose of keeping
+up their navy, twenty new ships should be built every year. Athens soon
+after made peace with Ægina, as Xerxes was at Sardis making preparations
+for invading Greece with all the forces he could muster. At the same
+time Themistocles was actively engaged in allaying the disputes and
+hostile feelings which existed among the several states of Greece. He
+acted, however, with great severity toward those who espoused the cause
+of the Persians, and a Greek interpreter, who accompanied the envoys of
+Xerxes that came to Athens to demand earth and water as a sign of
+submission, was put to death for having made use of the Greek tongue in
+the service of the common enemy.
+
+After affairs among the Greeks were tolerably settled, a detachment of
+the allied troops of the Greeks was sent out to take possession of
+Tempe, under the command of Themistocles, of Athens, and Euænetus, of
+Sparta; but on finding that there they would be overwhelmed by the host
+of the barbarians, they returned to the Corinthian isthmus. When Xerxes
+arrived in Pieria, the Greek fleet took its post near Artemisium on the
+north coast of Euboea, under the command of the Spartan admiral
+Eurybiades, under whom Themistocles condescended to serve in order not
+to cause new dissensions among the Greeks, although Athens alone
+furnished one hundred and twenty-seven ships, and supplied the
+Chalcidians with twenty others; while the Spartan contingent was
+incomparably smaller. When the Persian fleet, notwithstanding the severe
+losses which it had sustained by a storm, determined to sail round the
+eastern and southern coasts of Euboea, and then up the Euripus, in order
+to cut off the Greek fleet at Artemisium, the Greeks were so surprised
+and alarmed that Themistocles had great difficulty in inducing them to
+remain and maintain their station. The Euboeans, who perceived the
+advantages of the plan of Themistocles, rewarded him with the sum of
+fifty talents, part of which he gave to the Spartan Eurybiades and the
+Corinthian Adimantus to induce them to remain at Artemisium. In the
+battle which then took place, the Greeks gained considerable advantage,
+though the victory was not decisive. A storm and a second engagement
+near Artemisium, severely injured the fleet of the Persians, but the
+Greeks also sustained great losses, as half of their ships were partly
+destroyed and partly rendered unfit for further service. When at the
+same time they received intelligence of the defeat of Leonidas, at
+Thermopylæ, the Greeks resolved to retreat from Artemisium, and sailed
+to the Saronic gulf.
+
+Xerxes was now advancing from Thermopylæ, and Athens trembled for her
+existence, while the Peloponnesians were bent upon seeking shelter and
+safety in their peninsula, and upon fortifying themselves by a wall
+across the Corinthian isthmus. On the approach of the danger the
+Athenians had sent to Delphi to consult the oracle about the means they
+should employ for their safety, and the god had commanded Athens to
+defend herself behind wooden walls. This oracle, which probably had been
+given at the suggestion of Themistocles, was now also interpreted by him
+as referring to the fleet, and his advice to seek safety in the fleet
+was followed. He then further moved that the Athenians should abandon
+the city to the care of its tutelary deity, that the women, children,
+and infirm should be removed to Salamis, Ægina, or Troezen, and that the
+men should embark in the ships. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting of
+three hundred and eighty ships, assembled at Salamis, still under the
+supreme command of Eurybiades. When the Persians had made themselves
+masters of Attica, and Athens was seen in flames at a distance, some of
+the commanders of the fleet, under the influence of fear, began to make
+preparation for an immediate retreat. Themistocles saw the disastrous
+results of such a course, and exerted all his powers of persuasion to
+induce the commanders of the fleet to maintain their post; when all
+attempts proved ineffectual, Themistocles had recourse to threats, and
+thus induced Eurybiades to stay. The example of the admiral was followed
+by the other commanders also. In the meantime the Persian fleet arrived
+in the Saronic gulf, and the fears of the Peloponnesians were revived
+and doubled, and nothing seemed to be able to keep them together. At
+this last and critical moment Themistocles devised a plan to compel them
+to remain and face the enemy. He sent a message to the Persian admiral,
+informing him that the Greeks were on the point of dispersing, and that
+if the Persians would attack them while they were assembled, they would
+easily conquer them all at once, whereas it would be otherwise necessary
+to defeat them one after another.
+
+This apparently well-meant advice was eagerly taken up by the enemy, who
+now hastened, as he thought, to destroy the fleet of the Greeks. But the
+event proved the wisdom of Themistocles. The unwieldy armament of the
+Persians was unable to perform any movements in the narrow straits
+between the island of Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks gained a most
+complete and brilliant victory, for they only lost forty ships, while
+the enemy lost two hundred, or according to Ctesias, even five hundred.
+Very soon after the victory was decided, Xerxes with the remains of the
+fleet left the Attic coast and sailed toward the Hellespont. The battles
+of Artemisium and Salamis occurred in the same year, B.C. 480.
+
+When the Greeks were informed of the departure of Xerxes, they pursued
+him as far as Andros, without gaining sight of his fleet, and
+Themistocles proposed to continue the chase. But he gave way to the
+opposition that was made to this plan, and consented not to drive the
+vanquished enemy to despair. The Greek fleet therefore only stayed some
+time among the Cyclades, to chastise those islanders who had been
+unfaithful to the national cause. Themistocles, in the meantime, in
+order to get completely rid of the king and his fleet, sent a message to
+him, exhorting him to hasten back to Asia as speedily as possible, for
+otherwise he would be in danger of having his retreat cut off.
+Themistocles availed himself of the stay of the Greek fleet among the
+Cyclades for the purpose of enriching himself at the cost of the
+islanders, partly by extorting money from them by way of punishment, and
+partly by accepting bribes for securing them impunity for their conduct.
+He was now, however, the greatest man in Greece, his fame spread
+everywhere, and all acknowledged that the country had been saved through
+his wisdom and resolution. But the confederate Greeks, actuated by
+jealousy, awarded to him only the second prize; at Sparta, whither he
+went, as Herodotus says, to be honored, he received a chaplet of
+olive-leaves--a reward which they had bestowed upon their own admiral
+Eurybiades--and the best chariot that the city possessed, and on his
+return three hundred knights escorted him as far as Tegea in Arcadia.
+
+When the Persian army had been again defeated at Platæa and Mycale in
+B.C. 479, and when the Athenians had rebuilt their private dwellings, it
+was also resolved, on the advice of Themistocles, to restore the
+fortifications of Athens, but on a larger scale than they had been
+before, and more in accordance with the proud position which the city
+now occupied in Greece. This plan excited the fear and jealousy of the
+rival states, and especially of Sparta, which sent an embassy to Athens,
+and under the veil of friendship, which ill concealed its selfish
+policy, endeavored to persuade the Athenians not to fortify the city.
+Themistocles, who saw through their designs, undertook the task of
+defeating them with their own weapons. He advised his countrymen to
+dismiss the Spartan ambassadors, and to promise that Athenian envoys
+should be sent to Sparta to treat with them there respecting the
+fortifications. He himself offered to go as one of the envoys, but he
+directed the Athenians not to let his colleagues follow him until the
+walls, on which all hands should be employed during his absence, should
+be raised to such a height as to afford sufficient protection against
+any attack that might be made upon them. His advice was followed, and
+Themistocles, after his arrival at Sparta, took no steps toward opening
+the negotiations, but pretended that he was obliged to wait for the
+arrival of his colleagues. When he was informed that the walls had
+reached a sufficient height, and when he could drop the mask with
+safety, he gave the Spartans a well-deserved rebuke, returned home, and
+the walls were completed without any hindrance. He then proceeded to
+carry into effect the chief thing which remained to be done to make
+Athens the first maritime power of Greece. He induced the Athenians to
+fortify the three ports of Phalerum, Munychia, and Piræus by a double
+range of walls.
+
+[Illustration: The victors of Salamis.]
+
+When Athens was thus raised to the station on which it had been the
+ambition of Themistocles to place it, his star began to sink, though he
+still continued for some time to enjoy the fruits of his memorable
+deeds. He was conscious of the services he had done his country, and
+never scrupled to show that he knew his own value. His extortion and
+avarice, which made him ready to do anything, and by which he
+accumulated extraordinary wealth, could not fail to raise enemies
+against him. But what perhaps contributed more to his downfall was his
+constant watchfulness in maintaining and promoting the interests of
+Athens against the encroachments of Sparta, which in its turn was ever
+looking out for an opportunity to crush him. The great men who had grown
+up by his side at Athens, such as Cimon, and who were no less indebted
+to him for their greatness in the eyes of Greece than to their own
+talents, were his natural rivals, and succeeded in gradually supplanting
+him in the favor of the people. They also endeavored to represent him as
+a man of too much power, and as dangerous to the public. The consequence
+of all this was that in B.C. 472, he was banished from Athens by the
+ostracism. He took up his residence at Argos, where he was still
+residing when, in the same year, B.C. 472, Pausanias was put to death at
+Sparta for his ambitious and treacherous designs, and his fate involved
+that of Themistocles. The Spartans, in their search to discover more
+traces of the plot of Pausanias, found a letter of Themistocles from
+which it was evident that he had been acquainted with his plans. This
+was sufficient for the Spartans to ground upon it the charge that
+Themistocles had been an accomplice in his crime, and ambassadors were
+forthwith sent to Athens to demand that he should suffer the same
+punishment as Pausanias.
+
+This charge was no less welcome to his enemies at Athens than the
+discovery of his letter had been to the Spartans. Orders were
+consequently issued to arrest and convey him to Athens; and foreseeing
+that his destruction would be unavoidable if he should fall into the
+hands of his enemies, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to the opposite
+coast of Epirus, where he took refuge at the court of Admetus, king of
+the Molossians. On his arrival the king was absent, but his Queen Phthia
+received him kindly, and pointed out to him in what manner he might win
+the sympathy of Admetus. When the king returned home, Themistocles,
+seated on the hearth and holding the child of Admetus in his arms,
+implored the king not to deliver him up to his persecutors, who traced
+him to the court of the Molossians. It is stated that Themistocles was
+here joined by his wife and children. The king not only granted his
+request, but provided him with the means of reaching the coast of the
+Ægean, whence he intended to proceed to Asia and seek refuge at the
+court of the king of Persia. From Pydna he sailed in a merchant ship to
+the coast of Asia Minor. At Ephesus he received such part of his
+property as his friends had been able to wrest from the hands of his
+enemies at Athens, together with that which he had left at Argos.
+
+A few months after his arrival in Asia, Xerxes was assassinated (B.C.
+465), and was after a short interval succeeded by Artaxerxes. Various
+adventures are told of Themistocles before he reached the residence of
+the Persian king. On his arrival he sent him a letter, in which he
+acknowledged the evils he had inflicted upon his predecessor; but at the
+same time claimed the merit of having saved him from destruction by his
+timely advice. He added that his present exile was only the consequence
+of his great zeal for the interests of the king of Persia. He did not
+ask for an immediate interview with the king, as he was yet unacquainted
+with the language and the manners of the Persians, to acquire which he
+requested a year's time. During this period he applied himself so
+zealously and with such success to these studies that at the close of
+the year, when he was presented to the king, he is said to have excited
+the jealousy of the courtiers, and was most kindly received by the king,
+to whom he held out prospects of conquering Greece by his assistance.
+The king became so attached to him, that Themistocles was always in his
+company.
+
+But death overtook him at the age of sixty-five, before any of his plans
+were carried into effect. Most of the ancient writers state that he put
+an end to his life by poison, or according to another strange story, by
+drinking the blood of a bull, because he despaired of being able to
+fulfil his promises to the king. The motive for his suicide is very
+questionable. Reflection on his past life and upon the glory of his
+former rivals at Athens, are much more likely to have rendered him
+dissatisfied with life. Before he took the poison he is said to have
+requested his friends to convey his remains secretly to Attica, and in
+later times a tomb which was believed to contain them existed in Piræus.
+In the market-place of Magnesia a splendid monument was erected to his
+memory, and his descendants in that place continued to be distinguished
+by certain privileges down to the time of Plutarch.
+
+
+
+
+PERICLES
+
+(499-429 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Pericles. [TN]]
+
+
+Pericles, the greatest statesman of ancient Greece, was born of
+distinguished parentage in the early part of the fifth century B.C. His
+father was that Xanthippus who won the victory over the Persians at
+Mycale, 479 B.C.; and by his mother, Agariste, the niece of the great
+Athenian reformer, Cleisthenes, he was connected with the princely line
+of Sicyon and the great house of the Alcmæonidæ. He received an
+elaborate education, but of all his teachers the one whom he most
+reverenced was the serene and humane philosopher, Anaxagoras. Pericles
+was conspicuous all through his career for the singular dignity of his
+manners, the Olympian grandeur of his eloquence, his "majestic
+intelligence" in Plato's phrase, his sagacity, probity, and profound
+Athenian patriotism. Both in voice and in appearance he was so like
+Pisistratus, who had once overturned the Athenian republic and ruled as
+a king, that for some time he was afraid to come forward in political
+life. When he entered on public life Aristides had only recently died,
+Themistocles was an exile, and Cimon was fighting the battles of his
+country abroad. Although the family to which he belonged was good, it
+did not rank among the first in either wealth or influence, yet so
+transcendent were the abilities of Pericles that he rapidly rose to the
+highest power in the state as the leader of the dominant democracy. The
+sincerity of his attachment to the popular party has been questioned,
+but without a shadow of evidence. At any rate, the measures which,
+either personally or through his adherents, he brought forward and
+caused to be passed, were always in favor of extending the privileges of
+the poorer class of the citizens, and, if he diminished the spirit of
+reverence for the ancient institutions of public life, he enlisted an
+immense body of citizens on the side of law. He extended enormously, if
+he did not originate, the practice of distributing gratuities among the
+citizens for military service, for acting as dicast and in the Ecclesia
+and the like, as well as for admission to the theatre--then really a
+great school for manners and instruction. Pericles seems to have grasped
+very clearly, and to have held as firmly, the modern radical idea, that
+as the state is supported by the taxation of the body of the citizens,
+it must govern with a view to general interests rather than to those of
+a caste alone. About 463, Pericles, through the agency of his follower,
+Ephialtes, struck a great blow at the influence of the oligarchy, by
+causing the decree to be passed which deprived the Areopagus of its most
+important political powers. Shortly after the democracy obtained another
+triumph in the ostracism of Cimon (461). During the next few years the
+political course pursued by Pericles is less clearly intelligible to us,
+but it is safe to say that in general his attitude was hostile to the
+desire for foreign conquest or territorial aggrandizement, so prevalent
+among his ambitious fellow-citizens. Shortly after the battle of Tanagra
+(457), in which he showed conspicuous courage, Pericles magnanimously
+carried the measure for the recall of Cimon. His successful expeditions
+to the Thracian Chersonese, and to Sinope on the Black Sea, together
+with his colonies planted at Naxos, Andros, Oreus in Euboea, Brea in
+Macedonia, and Ægina, as well as Thurii in Italy, and Amphipolis on the
+Strymon, did much to extend and confirm the naval supremacy of Athens,
+and afford a means of subsistence for her poorer citizens. But his
+greatest project was to form, in concert with the other Hellenic states,
+a grand Hellenic confederation in order to put an end to the mutually
+destructive wars of kindred peoples, and to make Greece one mighty
+nation, fit to front the outlying world. The idea was not less sagacious
+than it was grand. Had it been accomplished, the semi-barbarous
+Macedonians would have menaced the civilized Greeks in vain, and even
+Rome at a later period, might perhaps have found the Adriatic, and not
+the Euphrates, the limit of her empire. But the Spartan aristocrats were
+utterly incapable of appreciating such exalted patriotism, or of
+understanding the political necessity for it, and by their secret
+intrigues the well-planned scheme was brought to nothing. Athens and
+Sparta were already in that mood toward each other which rendered the
+disaster of the Peloponnesian war inevitable. When the Spartans, in 448,
+restored to the Delphians the guardianship of the temple and treasures
+of Delphi, of which they had been deprived by the Phocians, the
+Athenians immediately after marched an army thither and reinstated the
+latter. Three years later an insurrection broke out in the tributary
+Megara and Euboea, and the Spartans again appeared in the field as the
+allies of the insurgents. The position of Athens was critical. Pericles
+wisely declined to fight against all his enemies at once. A bribe of ten
+talents sent the Spartans home, and the insurgents were then thoroughly
+subdued. The thirty years' peace with Sparta (445) left him free to
+carry out his schemes for the internal prosperity of Athens.
+
+Cimon was now dead and was succeeded in the leadership of the
+aristocratic party by Thucydides, son of Melesias, who in 444 B.C. made
+a strong effort to overthrow the supremacy of Pericles by attacking him
+in the popular assembly for squandering the public money on buildings
+and in festivals and amusements. Thucydides made an effective speech;
+but Pericles immediately rose and offered to execute the buildings at
+his own expense, if the citizens would allow him to put his own name
+upon them instead of theirs. The sarcasm was successful. Thucydides was
+ostracized, and to the end of his life, Pericles reigned the undisputed
+master of the public policy of Athens. During the rest of his career
+"there was," says the historian Thucydides, "in name a democracy, but in
+reality a government in the hands of the first man." And the Athens of
+his day was the home of Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Anaxagoras,
+Zeno, Protagoras, Socrates, as well as Myron and Phidias; while there
+flourished at the same time, but elsewhere in Greece, Herodotus,
+Hippocrates, Pindar, Empedocles, and Democritus. The centre of this
+splendid group was Pericles, of whom the truthful pen of Thucydides
+records that he never did anything unworthy of his high position, that
+he did not flatter the people or oppress his adversaries, and that with
+all his unlimited command of the public purse, he was personally
+incorruptible.
+
+Soon after this the Samian war broke out, in which Pericles gained high
+renown as a naval commander. This war originated in a quarrel between
+Miletus and the island of Samos, in which Athens was led to take part
+with the former. The Samians, after an obstinate struggle, were beaten,
+and a peace was concluded (439). The position in which Athens then stood
+toward many of the Greek states was peculiar. Since the time of the
+Persian invasion, she had been the leader of the confederacy formed to
+resist the attacks of the powerful enemy, and the guardian of the
+confederate treasury kept in the isle of Delos. Pericles caused the
+treasury to be removed to Athens, and commuting the contingents of the
+allies for money, enormously increased the contributions to the
+patriotic fund, Athens herself undertaking to protect the confederacy.
+The grand charge against Pericles is that he applied the money thus
+obtained to other purposes than those for which it was designed; that,
+in short, he adorned and enriched Athens with the spoils of the allied
+states. To his mind Hellas was subordinate to Athens, and he confounded
+the splendor of the dominant city with the splendor of Greece, in a
+manner possible to a man of poetic imagination, hardly to a man of the
+highest honor. His enemies, who dared not attack himself, struck at him
+in the persons of his friends. Phidias was flung into prison for the
+impiety of introducing portraits of himself and Pericles into the battle
+of the Amazons depicted on the shield of the goddess Athena in the
+Parthenon; the brilliant Aspasia, the famous mistress of Pericles, was
+arraigned on a charge of impiety, and only acquitted through the
+eloquence of Pericles on her behalf; while the aged Anaxagoras was
+driven from the city.
+
+It is unnecessary to give a detailed account of all that Pericles did to
+make his native city the most glorious in the ancient world. Greek
+architecture and sculpture under his patronage reached perfection. To
+him Athens owed the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, left unfinished at his
+death, the Propylæa, the Odeum, and numberless other public and sacred
+edifices; he also liberally encouraged music and the drama; and during
+his life, industry and commerce were in so flourishing a condition that
+prosperity was universal in Attica.
+
+At length, in 431, the long foreseen and inevitable Peloponnesian war
+broke out between Athens and Sparta. The plan of Pericles was for Athens
+to adopt a defensive attitude, to defend the city itself, leaving Attica
+to be ravaged by the enemy, but to cripple the power of Sparta by
+harassing its coasts. The story of the war must be told elsewhere; here
+it is enough to say that the result was unfavorable to Athens for
+reasons for which Pericles was only in small part to blame. He trusted
+in the ultimate success of Athens, both from her superior wealth and
+from her possessing the command of the sea, but he had not calculated
+upon the deterioration in her citizens' spirit, nor upon the robust
+courage of the Boeotian and Spartan infantry. Nor was his advice to keep
+behind the city walls rather than face the enemy in the field, best
+calculated to arouse the Athenians' courage. The plague ravaged the city
+in 430, and in the autumn of the following year, Pericles died after a
+lingering fever. His two sons had been carried off by the plague, he had
+been harassed by a charge of peculation brought by Cleon, and the actual
+infliction of a fine by the dicastery, while he had been without office
+from July, 430, to July, 429, but before the last he recovered his hold
+over the Ecclesia, and was gratified in the closing days of his life by
+its legitimation of his and Aspasia's son.
+
+As a statesman his greatest fault was a failure to foresee that personal
+government is ultimately ruinous to a nation. He taught the people to
+follow a leader, but he could not perpetuate a descent of leaders like
+himself. Hence we cannot wonder, when days of trouble broke over Athens,
+how that men spoke bitterly of Pericles and all his glory. Yet he was a
+lofty-minded statesman, inspired by noble aspirations, and his heart
+was full of a noble love for the city and her citizens. Plutarch tells
+the story that, as he lay dying and apparently unconscious, his friends
+around his bed were passing in review the great achievements of his
+life, and the nine trophies which he had erected at different times for
+so many victories. The dying patriot quietly interrupted with the
+characteristic sentence: "What you praise in my life belongs partly to
+good fortune, and is, at best, common to me with many generals. But that
+of which I am proudest, you have left unnoticed--no Athenian has ever
+put on mourning through any act of mine."
+
+
+
+
+SOCRATES
+
+From the French of FÉNELON
+
+(468-399 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Socrates. [TN]]
+
+
+Socrates, who, by the consent of all antiquity, has been considered as
+the most virtuous and enlightened of Pagan philosophers, was a citizen
+of Athens, and belonged to the town of Alopecé.
+
+He was born in the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad. His father,
+Sophroniscus, was a sculptor; and his mother, Phanaretè, a midwife.
+
+He first studied philosophy under Anaxagoras, and next under Archelaus,
+the natural philosopher. But finding that all these vain speculations
+concerning natural objects served no useful purpose, and had no
+influence in rendering the philosopher a better man, he devoted himself
+to the study of ethics; and (as Cicero, in the third book of his
+Tusculan Questions, observes) may be said to be the founder of moral
+philosophy among the Greeks. In the first book, speaking of him still
+more particularly and more extensively, he expresses himself thus: "It
+is my opinion (and it is an opinion in which all are agreed) that
+Socrates was the first who, calling off the attention of philosophy from
+the investigation of secrets which nature has concealed (but to which
+alone all preceding philosophers had attached themselves), engaged her
+in those things which concern the duties of common life; his object was
+to investigate the nature of virtue and vice; and to point out the
+characteristics of good and evil; saying, that the investigation of
+celestial phenomena was a subject far above the reach of our powers;
+and that even were they more within the reach of our faculties, it could
+have no influence in regulating our conduct."
+
+That part of philosophy, then, whose province is the cultivation of
+morals, and which embraces every age and condition of life, he made his
+only study. This new mode of philosophizing was the better received on
+this account, that he who was the founder of it, fulfilling with the
+most scrupulous care all the duties of a good citizen, whether in peace
+or in war, enforced by example the precepts which he taught.
+
+Of all the philosophers who have acquired celebrity, he (as Lucian in
+his dialogue of the Parasite remarks) was the only one that ever
+subjected himself to the hardships of war. He served two campaigns, in
+both of which, though unsuccessful, he served in person and exhibited a
+manly courage. In the one, he saved the life of Xenophon, who when
+retreating, had fallen from his horse and would have been killed by the
+enemy, had not Socrates taking him upon his shoulders, removed him from
+the danger and carried him several furlongs, till his horse, which had
+run off, was brought back. This fact is related by Strabo.
+
+In his other campaign, the Athenians having been entirely defeated and
+put to flight, Socrates was the last to retreat, and showed such a stern
+aspect that the pursuers of those who fled, seeing him every moment
+ready to turn upon them, never had the boldness to attack him. This
+testimony is given him by Athenæus.
+
+After these two expeditions, Socrates never set a foot out of Athens. In
+this, his conduct was very different from that of the other
+philosophers, who all devoted a part of their life to travelling, that
+by intercourse with the learned of other countries they might acquire
+new knowledge. But as that kind of philosophy to which Socrates limited
+himself led a man to use every effort to know himself rather than to
+burden his mind with knowledge which has no influence on moral conduct,
+he thought it his duty to dispense with tedious travelling, in which
+nothing was to be learned which he might not learn at Athens among his
+countrymen, for whose reformation, besides, he thought his labors ought
+to be devoted, rather than to that of strangers. And as moral philosophy
+is a science which is taught better by example than by precept, he laid
+it down as a rule to himself, to follow and practise all that right
+reason and the most rigid virtue could demand.
+
+It was in compliance with this maxim that, when elected one of the
+senators of the city, and having taken the oath to give his opinion
+"according to the laws," he peremptorily refused to subscribe to the
+sentence by which the people, in opposition to the laws, had condemned
+to death nine officers; and though the people took offence at it, and
+some of the most powerful even threw out severe menaces against him, he
+always firmly adhered to his resolution; thinking it inconsistent with
+the principles of a man of virtue or honor, to act contrary to his oath
+merely to please the people. Except on this single occasion, we know not
+whether he ever acted in a civil capacity; but insulated as the occasion
+was, he acquired such reputation by it at Athens, for probity and the
+other virtues, that he was more respected there than the magistrates
+themselves.
+
+He was very careful of his person, and blamed those who paid no
+attention to themselves, or who affected exterior negligence. He was
+always neat, dressed in a decent, becoming manner; observing a just
+medium between what might seem gross and rustic, and what savored of
+pride and effeminacy.
+
+Though furnished with few of the blessings of fortune, he always
+maintained perfect disinterestedness by receiving no remuneration from
+those who attended on his instructions. By such conduct he condemned the
+practice of the other philosophers, whose custom it was to sell their
+lessons, and to tax their scholars higher or lower, according to the
+degree of reputation they had acquired.
+
+Thus Socrates, as Xenophon relates, used to say that he could not
+conceive how a man, whose object it was to teach virtue, should think of
+turning it to gain; as if to form a man of virtue, and to make of his
+pupil a good friend, were not the richest advantages and the most solid
+profit with which his cares could be rewarded.
+
+It must further be remarked that Socrates kept no class, as did the
+other philosophers, who had a fixed place where their scholars
+assembled, and where lectures were delivered to them at stated hours.
+Socrates' manner of philosophizing consisted simply in conversing with
+those who chanced to be where he was, without any regard to time or
+place.
+
+He was always poor; but in his poverty so contented, that though to be
+rich was within the reach of a wish, by receiving the presents which his
+friends and scholars often urged him to accept, he always returned them;
+to the great displeasure of his wife, who had no relish for carrying
+philosophy to such a height. In regard to food and clothes, so hardy was
+his manner of life that Antiphon, the Sophist, sometimes reproached him,
+by saying that he had not a slave so miserable as would be contented
+with it: "For," said he, "your food is disgustingly mean; besides, not
+only are you always very poorly dressed, but winter or summer you have
+the same robe; and never anything above it: with this, you on all
+occasions, go barefoot."
+
+But Socrates proved to him that he was greatly mistaken if he thought
+that happiness depended on wealth or finery; and that, poor as he might
+seem to him, he was in fact happier than he. "I consider," said he,
+"that as to want nothing is the exclusive prerogative of the gods, so
+the fewer wants a man has, the nearer he approaches to the condition of
+the gods."
+
+It was impossible that virtue so pure as that of Socrates should have no
+effect in exciting admiration, especially in a city such as Athens,
+where that example must have appeared very extraordinary. For those very
+persons who have not the happiness to follow virtue themselves, cannot
+refrain from doing justice to those who do follow it. This soon gained
+Socrates the universal esteem of his fellow-citizens, and attracted to
+him many scholars of every age; by whom the advantages of listening to
+his instructions, and engaging in conversation with him, were preferred
+to the most fascinating pleasure and the most agreeable amusements.
+
+What rendered the manner of Socrates peculiarly engaging was, that
+though in his own practice he maintained the most rigid severity, yet to
+others he was in the highest degree gentle and complaisant. The first
+principle with which he wished to inspire his youthful auditors was
+piety and reverence for the gods; he then allured them as much as
+possible to observe temperance, and to avoid voluptuousness;
+representing to them how the latter deprives a man of liberty, the
+richest treasure of which he is possessed.
+
+His manner of treating the science of morals was the more insinuating,
+as he always conducted his subject in the way of conversation and
+without any apparent method. For without proposing any point for
+discussion, he kept by that which chance first presented. Like one who
+himself wished information, he first put a question, and then, profiting
+by the concessions of his respondent, brought him to a proposition
+subversive of that which in the beginning of the debate had been
+considered as a first principle. He spent one part of the day in
+conferences of this kind, on _morals_. To these everyone was welcome,
+and according to the testimony of Xenophon, none departed from them
+without becoming _a better man_.
+
+Though Socrates has left us nothing in writing, yet by what we find in
+the works of Plato and Xenophon, it is easy to judge both of the
+principles of his ethical knowledge and of the manner in which he
+communicated them. The uniformity observable (especially in his manner
+of disputing), as transmitted by these two scholars of Socrates, is a
+certain proof of the method which he followed.
+
+It will be difficult to conceive how a person who exhorted all men to
+honor the gods, and who preached, so to speak, to the young to avoid and
+abandon every vice, should himself be condemned to death for impiety
+against the gods received at Athens, and as a corrupter of youth. This
+infamously unjust proceeding took place in a time of disorder and under
+the seditious government of the thirty tyrants. The occasion of it was
+as follows:
+
+Critias, the most powerful of these thirty tyrants, had formerly, as
+well as Alcibiades, been a disciple of Socrates. But both of them being
+weary of a philosophy the maxims of which would not yield to their
+ambition and intemperance, they, at length, totally abandoned it.
+Critias, though formerly a scholar of Socrates, became his most
+inveterate enemy. This we are to trace to that firmness with which
+Socrates reproached him for a certain shameful vice; and to those means
+by which he endeavored to thwart his indulging in it. Hence it was that
+Critias, having become one of the thirty tyrants, had nothing more at
+heart than the destruction of Socrates, who, besides, not being able to
+brook their tyranny, was wont to speak against them with much freedom.
+For, seeing that they were always putting to death citizens and powerful
+men, he could not refrain from observing, in a company where he was,
+that if he to whom the care of cattle was committed, exhibited them
+every day leaner and fewer in number, it would be very strange if he
+would not himself confess that he was a bad cow-herd.
+
+Critias and Charicles, two of the most powerful of the thirty tyrants,
+feeling the weight of the allusion fall upon themselves, first enacted
+that no one should teach in Athens the art of reasoning. Although
+Socrates never had professed that art, yet it was easy to discover that
+he was aimed at; and that it was intended thus to deprive him of the
+liberty of conversing as usual, on moral subjects, with those who
+resorted to him.
+
+That he might have a precise explanation of this law, he went to the two
+authors of it; but as he embarrassed them by the subtlety of his
+questions, they plainly told him that they prohibited him from entering
+into conversation with young people.
+
+But, seeing Socrates' reputation was so great that to attack him and
+serve him with an indictment would have drawn upon them public odium, it
+was thought necessary to begin by discrediting him in the view of the
+public. This was attempted by the comedy of Aristophanes entitled "The
+Clouds," in which Socrates was represented as teaching the art of making
+that which is just appear unjust.
+
+The comedy having had its effect, by the ridicule which it threw upon
+Socrates, Melitus brought a capital accusation against him, in which he
+alleged; first, that he did not honor those as gods, who were
+acknowledged such at Athens, and that he was introducing new ones;
+secondly, that he corrupted the youth; that is to say, that he taught
+them not to respect their parents, or the magistrates. The accuser
+required that for these two crimes he should be condemned to death.
+
+Enraged as the tyrants were (and especially Critias and Charicles)
+against Socrates, it is certain that they would have been very reluctant
+to condemn him, had he availed himself in the least of the favorable
+circumstances in his case. But the intrepidity and resolution with which
+he heard the accusation, refusing even to pay any fine, as that would
+have been to avow himself in some degree culpable; and especially the
+firmness with which he addressed the judges when called upon to state
+the punishment which he thought he deserved, enraged them against him.
+For, with confidence in his integrity, he answered them, "That he
+thought he deserved to be maintained at the public expense during the
+rest of his life." This whetted afresh the resentment of the thirty
+tyrants, who caused him now to be condemned to death.
+
+Lysias, a very eloquent philosopher, had composed an apologetical
+oration that Socrates might avail himself of it, and pronounce it before
+the judges, when called to appear before them. Socrates having heard it,
+acknowledged it to be a very good one, but returned it, saying that it
+did not suit him. "But why," replied Lysias, "will it not suit you,
+since you think it a good one?"
+
+"Oh, my friend!" returned Socrates, "may there not be shoes and
+different articles of dress very good in themselves, and yet not
+suitable for me?"
+
+The fact is, though the oration was very fine and energetic, yet the
+manner in which it was conducted, did not suit the uprightness and
+candor of Socrates.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Socrates.]
+
+Now condemned to death, Socrates was put into prison, where some days
+after, he died by drinking the poison hemlock. For this was the
+instrument of death, then used by the Athenians, in the case of those
+who were condemned for capital crimes.
+
+According to Diogenes Laërtius, Socrates was twice married, but of the
+two wives he has given him, we know nothing except of the famous
+Xantippè, by whom he had a son named Tamprocles; Xantippè rendered
+herself celebrated by her ill-humor, and by the exercise which she
+afforded to the patience of Socrates. He had married her, he said, from
+a persuasion that if he were able to bear with her bad temper, there
+could be nothing which he might not support.
+
+He died in the first year of the 95th Olympiad, aged seventy.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES
+
+From the French of FÉNELON
+
+(412-323 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Diogenes. [TN]]
+
+
+Diogenes the Cynic, son of Icesius a banker, was born about the 91st
+Olympiad, in Sinope, a city of Paphlagonia. He was accused of having
+forged money, in concert with his father. Icesius was arrested, and died
+in prison. Alarmed at the fate of his father, Diogenes fled to Athens.
+When he had arrived at that city, he inquired for Antisthenes; but the
+latter, having resolved never to take a scholar, repulsed him and beat
+him off with his stick. Diogenes was by no means discouraged by this
+treatment. "Strike--fear not," said he to him, bowing his head; "you
+shall never find a stick hard enough to make me run off, so long as you
+continue to speak." Overcome by the importunity of Diogenes, Antisthenes
+yielded, and permitted him to become his scholar.
+
+Banished from his native country and without any resource, Diogenes was
+reduced to great indigence. He perceived one day, a mouse running
+briskly up and down, without any fear of being surprised by the approach
+of night, without any anxiety about a lodging-place, and even without
+thinking of food. This reconciled him to his misery. He resolved to live
+at his ease, without constraint, and to dispense with everything which
+was not absolutely necessary for the preservation of life. He doubled
+his cloak, that by rolling himself up in it, it might serve the purposes
+both of a bed and of a coverlet. His movables consisted of a bag, a jug,
+and a staff; and wherever he went he always carried his furniture along
+with him. His stick, however, he used only when he went to the country,
+or on some emergency. Persons really lame were, he said, neither the
+deaf nor the blind, but those who had no bag.
+
+He always went barefoot, nor did he wear sandals even when the ground
+was covered with snow. He endeavored also to accustom himself to eat raw
+flesh, but this was a point of perfection to which he never could
+arrive. He entreated a person of his acquaintance to afford him some
+little hole in his lodging, to which he might occasionally retire. But
+as he was dilatory in giving him a positive answer he took possession of
+an earthen tub, which he always carried about with him, and which was
+the only house he ever had. In the heat of summer when the fields were
+scorched by the sun, he used to roll among the burning sands, and in
+winter to embrace statues covered with snow, that he might accustom
+himself to endure without pain the inclemencies of heat and cold.
+
+He treated everyone with contempt. He accused Plato and his scholars of
+dissipation, and of the crime of loving good cheer. All the orators he
+styled "the slaves of the people." Crowns were, he said, as brittle
+marks of glory as bubbles of water, which burst in the formation; that
+theatrical representations were the wonder of fools only. In a word,
+nothing escaped his satiric humor.
+
+He ate, he spoke, he slept, without discrimination, wherever chance
+placed him. Pointing to Jupiter's porticos on one occasion, he
+exclaimed: "How excellent a dining-room the Athenians have built for me
+there!"
+
+He frequently said: "When I consider the rulers, the physicians, and the
+philosophers whom the world contains, I am tempted to think man
+considerably elevated by his wisdom above the brutes; but when, on the
+other hand, I behold augurs, interpreters of dreams, and people who can
+be inflated with pride on account of their riches or honors, I cannot
+help thinking him the most foolish of all animals."
+
+When taking a walk one day, he observed a child drinking from the hollow
+of his hand. He felt greatly affronted at the sight. "What!" exclaimed
+Diogenes, "do children know better than I do with what things a man
+ought to be contented?" Upon which he took his jug out of his bag, and
+instantly broke it, as a superfluous movable.
+
+The province in philosophy to which Diogenes attached himself, was that
+of morals. He did not, however, entirely neglect the other sciences. He
+was possessed of lively parts, and easily anticipated objections.
+
+[Illustration: Diogenes in his tub.]
+
+As he was one day discoursing on a very serious and important subject
+everyone passed by without giving himself the least concern about what
+Diogenes was saying. Upon this, he began to sing. The people crowded
+about him. He immediately seized the opportunity of giving them a severe
+reprimand for flocking about him and attending with eagerness to a
+mere trifle, while they would not so much as listen to things of the
+greatest importance.
+
+Walking out once at noon, with a lighted torch in his hand, he was asked
+what he was in quest of. "I am searching for a _man_," said he. On
+another occasion he called out in the middle of a street: "Ho!
+_men_--_men_." A great many people assembling around him, Diogenes beat
+them away with his stick, saying "I was calling for men."
+
+Alexander passing through Corinth on one occasion, had the curiosity to
+see Diogenes, who happened to be there at that time. He found him
+basking in the sun in the grove Craneum, where he was cementing his tub.
+"I am," said he to him, "the great king Alexander." "And I," replied the
+philosopher, "am the dog Diogenes." "Are you not afraid of me?"
+continued Alexander. "Are you good or bad?" returned Diogenes. "I am
+good," rejoined Alexander. "And who would be afraid of one who is good?"
+replied Diogenes.
+
+Alexander admired the penetration and free manners of Diogenes. After
+some conversation, he said to him: "I see, Diogenes, that you are in
+want of many things; and I shall be happy to have an opportunity of
+assisting you: ask of me what you will." "Retire a little to one side
+then," replied Diogenes; "you are depriving me of the rays of the sun."
+
+It is no wonder that Alexander stood astonished at seeing a man so
+completely above every human concern. "Which of the two is richest?"
+continued Diogenes: "he who is content with his cloak and his bag, or he
+for whom a whole kingdom is not sufficient, but who is daily exposing
+himself to a thousand dangers in order to extend its limits?"
+Alexander's courtiers felt indignant that so great a king should do so
+much honor to such a dog as Diogenes, who did not even rise from his
+place. Alexander perceived it, and turning about to them said: "Were I
+not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes."
+
+As Diogenes was one day going to Egina, he was taken by pirates, who
+brought him to Crete, and exposed him to sale. He did not appear to be
+in the least disconcerted, nor to feel the least uneasiness on account
+of his misfortune. Seeing one Xeniades, corpulent and well-dressed, "I
+must be sold to that person," said he, "for I perceive he needs a
+master. Come, child," said he to Xeniades, as he was coming up to
+purchase him, "come, child, buy a man." Being asked what he could do, he
+said he had the talent of commanding men. "Crier," said he, "call out in
+the market, _If anyone needs a master, let him come here and purchase
+one_."
+
+Xeniades charged him with the instruction of his children, a task which
+Diogenes performed with great fidelity. He made them commit to memory
+the finest passages of the poets, with an abridgment of his own
+philosophy, which he composed on purpose for them. He made them exercise
+themselves in running, wrestling, hunting, horsemanship, and in using
+the bow and the sling. He accustomed them to very plain fare, and in
+their ordinary meals to drink nothing but water. He ordered them to be
+shaven to the skin. He brought them with him into the streets very
+carelessly dressed, and frequently without sandals and tunics. These
+children had a great affection for Diogenes, and took particular care to
+recommend him to their parents.
+
+When Diogenes was in slavery, some of his friends used their interest to
+procure him his liberty. "Fools!" said he, "you are jesting. Do you not
+know that the lion is not the slave of them who feed him? They who feed
+him are his slaves."
+
+Diogenes one day heard a herald publish that Dioxippus had conquered men
+at the Olympic games. "Say slaves and wretches," said he to them. "It is
+I who have conquered men."
+
+When it was said to him, "You are old, you must take your ease," he
+said, "What? must I slacken my pace at the end of my course? Would it
+not be fitter that I should redouble my efforts?"
+
+When walking in the streets, he observed a man let fall some bread which
+he was ashamed to lift. In order to show him that a man ought never to
+blush when he is desirous to save anything, Diogenes collected the
+fragments of a broken bottle and carried them through the town. "I am
+like good musicians," said he, "who leave the true sound that others may
+catch it." To one who came to him to be his disciple, he gave a gammon
+of bacon to carry and desired him to follow him. Ashamed to carry it
+through the streets, the man threw it down and made off. Diogenes
+meeting him a few days after, said to him, "What? has a gammon of bacon
+broken our friendship?"
+
+After reflecting on his life, Diogenes smiling said: "That all the
+imprecations generally uttered in tragedies had fallen upon him; that he
+had neither house, nor city, nor country; and that, in a state of
+indigence he lived from day to day; but that to fortune he opposed
+firmness; to custom, nature; and reason to the disorders of the soul."
+
+Diogenes was greatly beloved and highly esteemed by the Athenians. They
+publicly scourged one who had broken his tub, and gave the philosopher
+another.
+
+He was one day asked where he chose to be buried after his death? He
+replied: "In an open field." "How!" said one, "are you not afraid of
+becoming food for birds of prey and wild beasts?" "Then I must have my
+stick beside me," said Diogenes, "to drive them away when they come."
+"But," resumed the other, "you will be devoid of all sensation." "If
+that be the case," replied he, "it is no matter whether they eat me or
+not, seeing I shall not be sensible to it."
+
+Some say that having arrived at the age of ninety, he ate a neat's-foot
+raw, which caused indigestion to such a degree that he burst. It is said
+by others that feeling himself burdened with age, he retained his
+breath, and was thus the cause of his own death. His friends coming next
+day, found him muffled up in his cloak. Upon first discovering him they
+doubted whether he were not asleep (which with him, was very unusual);
+they were soon convinced that he was dead. There was a great dispute
+among them about who should bury him; but when on the eve of breaking
+out into open violence, the magistrates and old men of Corinth
+opportunely arrived to appease the disturbance.
+
+Diogenes was buried beside the gate lying toward the isthmus. There was
+erected, beside his tomb, a dog of Parian marble. The death of this
+philosopher happened in the first year of the 114th Olympiad, on the
+same day that Alexander died at Babylon.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOSTHENES[6]
+
+By E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS, PRES'T OF BROWN UNIVERSITY.
+
+(385-322 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 6: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Demosthenes. [TN]]
+
+
+Demosthenes, the foremost orator of all history, was born in Athens
+about July in the year 385 B.C. His father, also named Demosthenes, a
+manufacturer of swords, was a gentleman widely and justly esteemed. His
+mother was Cleobule, the daughter of Gylon by a Scythian lady. The
+father died when the son was about seven years of age, leaving an estate
+of fourteen or fifteen talents, equal to some $200,000 now. The
+guardians partly embezzled, partly wasted the property, and the young
+orator's first law business, occupying several years, was the
+prosecution of these criminals to recover what he might. His success was
+but partial, yet his patrimony, with what he earned, always kept him in
+relative affluence, spite of his expensive tastes and great public and
+private munificence. As a boy he was weak, and did not avail himself of
+the physical training then usual among Greek youth of good families. He,
+however, employed the best teachers in his studies and his mental
+education was thorough. To Thucydides and the old rhetoricians he was
+ardently devoted, and these, with personal instruction by the orator
+Isæus, did most to form his style.
+
+The early years of Demosthenes's manhood were spent in preparing
+speeches for sale, in instructing pupils in rhetoric, and in the severe
+and painstaking education of himself as a public speaker. His resolution
+in overcoming obstacles is much dwelt upon by ancient writers. He at
+first lisped and stammered and had a weak voice. To cure these faults he
+enunciated with pebbles in his mouth and declaimed while walking uphill
+and by the roaring breakers of the sea-shore. He shut himself in an
+underground study, which he constructed for the purpose, and practised
+going through long trains of thought there alone. "When he went out
+upon a visit or received one," says Plutarch, "he would take something
+that passed in conversation, some business or fact that was reported to
+him, for a subject to exercise himself upon. As soon as he had parted
+from his friends, he went to his study, where he repeated the matter in
+order as it passed, together with the arguments for and against it. The
+substance of the speeches which he heard he committed to memory, and
+afterward reduced them to regular sentences and periods, meditating a
+variety of corrections and new forms of expression, both for what others
+had said to him and he had addressed to them. Hence it was concluded
+that he was not a man of much genius, and that all his eloquence was the
+effect of labor. A strong proof of this seemed to be that he was seldom
+heard to speak anything extempore, and though the people often called
+upon him by name as he sat in the assembly, to speak to the point
+debated, he would not do it unless he came prepared." It is related that
+when in speaking he happened to be thrown into confusion by any
+occurrence in the assembly, the orator Demades, the foremost extempore
+speaker of the age, often arose and supported him in an extempore
+address, but that he never did this for Demades. Demosthenes was not,
+however, the slave of manuscript or memory. He declared that "he neither
+wrote the whole of his orations nor spoke without first committing part
+to writing." There was said to be greater spirit and boldness in his
+impromptu speeches than in those which he had elaborately prepared.
+People thought that sometimes when he spoke out thus on a sudden, his
+eloquence was inspired from above, as when once he uttered, in regular
+though unpremeditated verse, the forceful oath:
+
+  "By earth, by all her fountains, streams, and floods."
+
+Demosthenes's first speeches were harsh and obscure. The sentences were
+too long, the metaphors violent and inapt. On the occasion of his first
+set address before a public assembly he even broke down. He was,
+however, indomitable in his determination and efforts to speak well, and
+persevered until at last the most critical heard him with delight.
+Notwithstanding certain defects which nice critics very early remarked,
+such as undue vehemence, argumentation and intensity too long sustained,
+and, in general, lack of variety and relief, Demosthenes's oratory is
+worthy the exalted regard which the best readers have in all ages
+accorded to it. His thought is always lucid and weighty, his argument
+fair and convincing, his diction manly and solid. He never uses a
+superfluous or a far-fetched word, never indulges in flowers,
+word-painting, or rhetorical trickery of any kind. He shows no trace of
+affectation, no effort to surprise or to be witty He depends for effect
+upon truth logically and earnestly presented. If such a style,
+everywhere perfectly kept up, was in any degree artificial, how
+matchless the art which concealed the art! So plain and straightforward
+are many of the speeches, that one is tempted to refer their wonderful
+power when spoken to some richness of elocution not appreciable now.
+Says Hume, treating of Demosthenes' manner, "Could it be copied, its
+success would be infallible over a modern assembly. It is rapid harmony
+exactly adjusted to the sense. It is vehement reasoning without any
+appearance of art; it is disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in
+a continued stream of argument; and, of all human productions, the
+orations of Demosthenes present to us the models which approach nearest
+to perfection." ("Essay of Eloquence." Comp. Lord Brougham's Works,
+vii., 59 foll.)
+
+[Illustration: Demosthenes practising oratory.]
+
+Demosthenes was between twenty-five and thirty when Philip of Macedon
+began his astonishing career of conquest. It was soon clear that he was
+to be the rival of Athens for the headship of Greece. Demosthenes became
+the champion of the Athenian cause, and henceforth, so long as he lived,
+used all his powers against Macedonian aggressions. Most of his best
+speeches relate to this issue. His eloquence, argument, and personal
+influence won nearly all the Grecian states to a coalition that, for a
+time, successfully forbade Philip to set foot in Greece proper. Only
+Thebes and Sparta stood out, and when Philip, daring them all, ventured
+south and conquered Phocis, even the Thebans yielded to Demosthenes's
+pleas and joined the league. In vain, however. At the decisive battle of
+Chæronea, B.C. 338, Philip was entirely victorious. The allies fled,
+Demosthenes himself among them, leaving Philip to become at his leisure
+the master of every city so far south at least as the northern confines
+of Sparta. He might have realized his wish at once but for his excesses.
+He drank himself drunk, dancing over his slain foes, and beating time in
+maudlin song to the caption of the Athenian decree which Demosthenes had
+procured against him. But it is said that when sober again he trembled
+to remember "the prodigious power of that orator who had obliged him to
+put both empire and life on the cast of a day." Two years after the
+battle of Chæronea Philip is stricken down by the assassin Pausanias.
+Alexander mounts the throne, a youth of twenty. Greece flies to arms
+against him, not dreaming that a greater than Philip is here. Marching
+quickly against the Thracians and the Illyrians, who at once succumb, he
+volts to smite rebellious Thebes and Athens, whom Demosthenes's
+incessant appeals have again induced to take the field. In spite of him,
+the Athenians now basely desert the Thebans, leaving them to stand the
+entire fury of the war alone. Greece is thus soon quieted again, and the
+boy warrior, leaving Antipater behind with a sufficient home guard,
+crosses to Asia never to return. Once, later, when Harpalus, Alexander's
+renegade treasurer, came to Athens with his bags of Asiatic gold, and
+again after Alexander's death, it for a moment seemed possible to throw
+off Macedonia's yoke. Each time the orator led in an attempt to do this,
+but failed. Fined fifty talents for taking some of Harpalus' gold, he
+fled from Athens, living for a time in Troezen and Ægina. The new hope
+for the former Greek régime evoked by Alexander's death was brief.
+Athens recalled Demosthenes and he made a successful tour of the cities
+to rally them against Antipater. Antipater, however, was too strong, and
+his victory at Cranon, B.C. 322, fully restored Macedonia's supremacy.
+Pursued to Calaurea by Antipater's emissaries, Demosthenes fled for
+refuge to the temple of Neptune there, took poison, which he had long
+carried with him for that purpose, and died, aged sixty-two.
+
+It is clear that both the Macedonian conquerors deemed Demosthenes their
+most powerful foe. Drunk or sober, Philip thought constantly of him as
+the great force to be reckoned with. When he with nine other deputies
+visited Philip's court, it was Demosthenes's speech to which Philip felt
+called to give special reply, treating him with argument, while
+bestowing his choicest hospitality upon the others. Æschines and
+Philocrates accordingly came home full of praise for Philip. He was
+eloquent, they said, handsome, and could drink more liquor than any
+other man. Demosthenes, showing for the nonce some wit, ridiculed these
+traits, the first as that of a sophist, the second as that of a woman,
+the third as that of a sponge. "The fame of Demosthenes reached the
+Persian court; and the king wrote letters to his lieutenants commanding
+them to supply him with money and to attend to him more than to any
+other man in Greece; because he best knew how to make a diversion in his
+favor by raising fresh troubles and finding employment for the
+Macedonian arms nearer home. This Alexander afterward discovered by
+letters of Demosthenes which he found at Sardis, and the papers of the
+Persian government expressing the sums which had been given him."
+(Plutarch.)
+
+The moral character of Demosthenes was fiercely assailed during his
+life, the chief charges being vacillation, unchastity, cowardice, and
+the receipt of bribes. In weighing these accusations we must remember
+that they were inspired by personal hatred, and that public life in
+Demosthenes's day was characterized by almost inconceivable strife and
+bitterness. There was probably considerable ground for all the
+allegations, except, perhaps, that of infirmity in purpose. Plutarch
+believes that the orator was "vindictive in his nature and implacable in
+his resentments." But the same author wonders how Theopompus could say
+that he was a man of no steadiness, since it appeared that "he abode by
+the party and the measures which he first adopted, and was so far from
+quitting them during his life that he forfeited his life rather than
+forsake them." "He was never a time-server either in his words or in his
+actions. The key of politics which he first touched he kept to without
+variation." But he certainly lacked physical courage. At Chæronea, a
+battle which he himself had brought on, he fled ignominiously, throwing
+away his arms. His cowardice was recognized in the inscription upon the
+pedestal of the bronze statue which the Athenians erected to him.
+
+  "Divine in speech, in judgment, too, divine,
+   Had valor's wreath, Demosthenes, been thine,
+   Fair Greece had still her freedom's ensign borne,
+   And held the scourge of Macedon in scorn."
+
+It is equally certain that he loved gold too well, and sometimes took it
+when it should have burnt his hands.
+
+For all this, Demosthenes's character was rather a noble one for that
+age. Among the distinguished Athenians of the day, only Phocion's
+outshone it. Nearly all that Demosthenes's foes cite to his discredit
+seems weak considering the known vices of the period, while much of it,
+as when they taunt him with always drinking water instead of wine,
+implies on his part a creditable strength of will, which is further
+attested by his self-discipline in mastering his chosen art. What, after
+all, speaks the most strongly for the orator's character is the serious
+moral tone of his orations. This cannot have been simulated, and hence
+cannot have proceeded from a man with a vicious nature.
+
+The esteem in which Demosthenes was held at Athens is seen in what
+occurred soon after the battle of Chæronea, an event which led to
+Demosthenes' greatest oratorical effort. One Ctesiphon had proposed that
+the people reward Demosthenes' public services by the gift of a golden
+crown, and the senate had passed a bill to this effect, for submission
+to the vote of the assembly. Æschines denied that the orator's conduct
+gave him any right to be thus honored, and prosecuted Ctesiphon for
+bringing forward an unconstitutional measure. After years of delay, the
+trial came on in B.C. 330, Æschines delivering his famous address
+against Ctesiphon, really an adverse critical review of Demosthenes's
+public and private life to that time, to which Demosthenes replied by
+his immortal Oration on the Crown. Demosthenes gained a surprising
+victory. Although the judges were nearly all of the Macedonian party,
+Æschines did not secure for his cause a fifth part of their votes, a
+fact which, according to Athenian law, subjected him to a fine of a
+thousand drachmas for provoking the litigation. He at once left Athens
+and never returned.
+
+The most recent judgment of Demosthenes as a statesman differs much from
+that in which nearly all the standard English and American authorities
+since Grote agree. Till lately it has been common to think of Athens as
+a real democracy, favorable to freedom, the bulwark of liberty then for
+Greece and the world. Philip has been deemed a mere barbarian, whose
+victory was certain to be, and was, the death of Grecian liberty. This
+being so, Demosthenes, in opposing Philip and his son Alexander, was not
+only a sincere patriot but a wise one. This is the view of Greek
+politics then which one gets from Demosthenes himself. Readers of his
+masterly orations insensibly adopt it, without due reflection upon the
+evidence now available to substantiate a different one. Demosthenes is
+understood to argue for a constitutional form of government, which, to
+all lovers of such, is an additional reason for siding with him. Grote's
+history urges the same view in a most enthusiastic and unhesitating way,
+and has had enormous influence in disseminating it. Thucydides, the
+original Greek historian most read in our time, makes the fate of
+everything good in Greece turn upon that of Athens. This great author so
+trains us in his manner of thought as to disqualify us from coolly
+considering the question whether the fortunes of Greece might not have
+risen or fallen in some other way.
+
+The present writer believes the above theory to be almost entirely an
+error. Doubtless Demosthenes was honest, but he was mistaken in his
+views of what was best for Greece and even for Athens. Philip and
+Alexander, however selfish, were neither in purpose nor in fact so
+hostile to Greek freedom as the mighty orator makes out. Inordinate
+ambition possessed both. In this they are to be ranked with Napoleon and
+Julius Cæsar rather than with Washington. They, however, clearly saw the
+vanity of the old Greek _régime_, the total uselessness of trying to
+unify Greece or to make her independent of Persia through any of the
+devices paraded by the politicians. Therefore, with patriotism and
+philanthropy enough to give their cause a certain moral glow in their
+minds, they set out by force of arms--the only possible way to
+succeed--first, to unify Greece, and next, to make her eternally
+independent of Persia. Since Gustav Droysen, in his "Alexander the
+Great," led off with this theory, the best writers upon Greek history
+have gradually adopted it, deserting Grote more and more. Droysen went
+too far. With him Alexander was the veritable demigod whom he sottishly
+decreed that his subjects should see in him. Droysen, of course, has too
+little respect for Demosthenes's policy. Victor Duruy is the only late
+writer of note who still blows the trumpet for our old orator as a
+statesman. He says that "the result of the Macedonian dominion was the
+death of European Greece," and he calls it the immortal glory of
+Demosthenes to have perceived this; yet even he admits that "the
+civilization of the world gained" by the Macedonian conquest, and hence,
+after all, places himself, "from the point of view of the world's
+history, on the side of Philip and his son." The tendency of writers
+upon this period is thus to exalt the man with a great national policy
+in his head though with a sword in his hand, at the expense of him who,
+never so honestly, dinned the populace with his high-sounding pleas for
+an obstructive course.
+
+We are learning that republicanism or democracy, whichever one pleases
+to call it, was in ancient times a very different thing from aught that
+now exists under either name. The various republics of Greece and the
+republic of Rome were nothing but oligarchies, often atrociously
+tyrannical. Even at their best estate the rights of individuals in them,
+of their citizens even, were far less perfectly guarded than in some
+pretty absolute monarchies of later times.
+
+"The Athenian imperial democracy was no popular government. In the first
+place there was no such thing as representation in their constitution.
+Those only had votes who could come and give them at the general
+assembly, and they did so at once upon the conclusion of the debate.
+There was no Second Chamber or Higher Council to revise or delay their
+decisions, no crown; no High Court of Appeal to settle claims against
+the state. The body of Athenian citizens formed the assembly. Sections
+of this body formed the jury to try cases of violation of the
+constitution either in act or in the proposal of new laws.
+
+"The result was that all outlying provinces, even had they obtained
+votes, were without a voice in the government. But as a matter of fact
+they had no votes, for the states which became subject to Athens were
+merely tributary; and nothing was further from the ideas of the
+Athenians than to make them members of their Imperial Republic, in the
+sense that a new State is made a member of the American Republic.
+
+"This it was which ruined even the great Roman republic, without any
+military reverses, and when its domination of the world was unshaken.
+Owing to the absence of representation, the empire of the Roman republic
+was in the hands of the city population, who were perfectly incompetent,
+even had they been in real earnest, to manage the government of the vast
+kingdoms their troops had conquered. In both cases the outsiders were
+governed wholly for the benefit of the city crowd.
+
+"The mistakes and the injustices which resulted in the Roman executive
+were such that any able adventurer could take advantage of the
+world-wide discontent, and could play off one city faction against the
+other. It is not conceivable that any other general course of events
+would have taken place at Athens, had she become the ruler of the
+Hellenic world. Her demos regarded itself as a sovran, ruling subjects
+for its own glory and benefit; there can therefore be no doubt that the
+external pressure of that wide discontent, which was the primary cause
+of the Peloponnesian war, would have co-operated with politicians
+within, if there were no enemies without, and that ambitious military
+chiefs, as at Rome, would have wrested the power from the sovran people
+either by force or by fraud." (Mahaffy, "Problems in Greek History," 98
+foll.)
+
+In other words, however distressing the ills which might happen to
+Athens through Philip's success, they could not be worse than those
+which were sure to beset her in any event; while for Greece as a whole,
+Philip's victory would mean unity and peace such as could have been
+secured in no other way.
+
+This splendid possibility, which must have impressed the minds of
+Phocion and Philip, is obscured to our thought by the untimely death of
+both the great Macedonian generals, before their plans had any time to
+bear fruit. Desperate chaos follows Alexander's death of course; and
+when, little by little, order is evolved, it is a new order, not the old
+one. Never again does Athens sit there as a queen looking out upon her
+Ægean, but her day of political glory is ended forever.
+
+It is natural to trace all this wild disorder, involving the decline of
+Athens, the wars of Alexander's successors, small and great, and also
+the Roman conquest at last, to Philip's victory at Chæronea. As we read
+the tangled and bloody record, we say to ourselves: Oh, how much better
+all would have been had the Athenians roused at the cry of Demosthenes,
+and beaten Philip instead of being beaten! We assume that had this
+happened Greece would have kept on its old splendid way, able to have
+conquered Rome herself when Rome came. Philip ruined Greece; the advice
+of Demosthenes, had it been followed, would have saved her.
+
+Superficially considered, all this seems clever reasoning; but it is in
+fact a stupendous fallacy. _Post hoc ergo propter hoc._ Philip conquered
+and subsequently things went ill with Greece. A man looked at Mars and
+subsequently had the cholera.
+
+Let us no longer argue so childishly. The evils that befell Hellas were
+not at all those which Demosthenes prophesied. They are no proof of his
+foresight. From the point of view of his wishes they were entirely
+accidental. To see this we need only inquire what would in all
+probability have come to pass had Alexander lived. One may heavily
+discount Droysen's adoration of the young conqueror, and yet, from what
+he achieved while alive and the way in which he achieved it, believe
+that immeasurable blessings to Greece and to humanity would have
+resulted from a lengthening of his days. I cannot think it rash to
+affirm that ten or twenty years added to Alexander's career would
+probably have changed subsequent history in at least three colossal
+particulars:
+
+1. Probably Greece would have been more happily, perfectly, and
+permanently cemented together than was the case, or could in any other
+way have been the case.
+
+2. Probably Greece would not only have been at last forever free from
+Asia but would also have become Asia's lord, and this in a manner truly
+beneficial to both lands.
+
+3. Probably Greece would have ruled Rome instead of being ruled by Rome,
+and this, too, in such wise as to have benefited both, and the world as
+well.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+ARISTOTLE
+
+From the French of FÉNELON
+
+(384-322 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Two men sitting face to face. [TN]]
+
+
+Of all the philosophers of antiquity, Aristotle was one of the most
+celebrated; and in every seat of learning, his name, even at this day,
+is held in esteem.
+
+He was son of Nicomachus, a physician, and friend of Amyntas, king of
+Macedonia, and was descended from Machaon, son of Æsculapius. He was
+born at Stagira, a city of Macedonia, in the first year of the 99th
+Olympiad. He lost his father and mother in his infancy, and was very
+much neglected by those who had the charge of his education.
+
+In his early years he dissipated almost all his patrimony in libertinism
+and debauchery. At first he became a soldier; but the profession of arms
+not suiting his turn of mind, he went to Delphi to consult the Oracle,
+and fix his determination. By the response of the Oracle, he was
+directed to go to Athens and pursue the study of philosophy. He was
+then in his eighteenth year. For twenty years he studied in the academy
+under Plato, and as he had spent all his inheritance, he was induced, in
+order to procure a subsistence, to vend medicines at Athens.
+
+Aristotle ate little and slept less. So strong was his passion for
+study, that in order to resist the oppression of sleep, he kept at his
+bedside a brazen basin, over which when in bed, he stretched one of his
+hands in which he held an iron ball, that if he should fall asleep, the
+noise of the ball dropping into the basin might awake him instantly.
+
+According to Laërtius his voice was shrill and squeaking, his eyes
+small, his legs slender, and he dressed magnificently.
+
+Aristotle was a man of acute parts, and one who easily comprehended the
+most difficult questions. He soon became master of the doctrines of
+Plato, and distinguished himself among the other academicians. No
+question was decided in the academy without the opinion of Aristotle,
+though it was often subversive of that of Plato. By all his
+fellow-students he was considered as a prodigy of genius, and his
+opinions were often followed, in opposition to those of his master.
+Aristotle left the academy. This excited the resentment of Plato. He
+could not refrain from treating him as a rebel, comparing him to the
+chick which pecks its dam.
+
+The Athenians appointed him ambassador to Philip, king of Macedonia,
+father of Alexander the Great. Aristotle, having spent some time in
+Macedonia in settling the affairs of the Athenians, found, upon his
+return, that Xenocrates had been chosen master of the academy. Seeing
+that place thus filled he said, "It would be a shame for me to be
+silent, when Xenocrates speaks." He accordingly established a new sect,
+and taught doctrines different from those of his master Plato.
+
+The celebrity of Aristotle, who now surpassed all his contemporaries in
+every kind of science, especially in the departments of philosophy and
+politics, induced Philip, king of Macedonia, to offer him the care of
+the education of his son Alexander, then fourteen years of age.
+Aristotle accepted. He continued Alexander's preceptor for eight years;
+and according to the testimony of Plutarch, taught him some secret
+doctrines which he communicated to none other.
+
+The study of philosophy did not render the manners of Aristotle austere.
+He applied to business, and took an interest in everything that passed
+at the court of Macedonia. From respect to this philosopher, Philip
+rebuilt Stagira, his native city, which had been destroyed during the
+wars, and restored to their possessions all the inhabitants, of whom
+some had fled and others had been reduced to slavery.
+
+When Alexander's education was finished, Aristotle returned to Athens,
+where he was well received on account of the mildness with which, for
+his sake, that city had been treated by Philip. He fixed upon a place in
+the Lyceum highly beautified with avenues of trees, where he established
+his school. He used to walk about when teaching and from this
+circumstance his sect was called _Peripatetic_. The Lyceum was soon
+thronged by a concourse of students whom Aristotle's reputation had
+drawn together from every quarter of Greece.
+
+Alexander recommended to him to attend particularly to experiments in
+physical science. To facilitate his observations he sent him, besides
+800 talents to defray expenses, a great number of huntsmen and fishermen
+to supply him from every quarter with subjects for experiment.
+
+At that time Aristotle published his books of physics and metaphysics.
+Of this, Alexander who was now in Asia, got information. That ambitious
+prince, desirous of being in everything the first man in the world, was
+dissatisfied that the learning of his master should become common.
+
+He showed his resentment by the following letter: "You have not done
+well in publishing your books on speculative science. If what you taught
+me be taught to men of all ranks, I shall then have nothing but in
+common with others. But I would have you consider that I had rather be
+superior to other men in abstract and secret knowledge, than to surpass
+them in power."
+
+To appease this prince Aristotle sent him for answer, that he had
+published his books, but in such a way that in fact they were not
+published. By this he apparently meant, that his doctrines were laid
+down in a manner so embarrassed that it was impossible for any one ever
+to understand them.
+
+Aristotle carefully investigated that question, the great object of
+moral philosophy, how men might be rendered happy in the present world.
+In the first place, he refutes the opinion of the voluptuous, who make
+happiness to consist in corporal pleasures. "Not only," said he, "are
+these pleasures fleeting, they are also succeeded by disgust; and while
+they enfeeble the body they debase the mind."
+
+He next rejects the opinion of the ambitious, who place happiness in
+honors, and, with this object in view, pay no regard to the maxims of
+equity or the restraints of law. "Honor," he said, "exists in him who
+honors." "The ambitious," he adds, "desire to be honored in consequence
+of some virtue of which they wish themselves supposed to be possessed;
+that consequently, happiness consists in virtue, rather than in honors,
+especially as these are external and do not depend upon ourselves."
+
+In the last place, he refutes the system of the avaricious, who
+constitute riches the supreme good. "Riches," he said, "are not
+desirable on their own account; they render him who possesses them
+unhappy, because he is afraid to use them. In order to render them
+really useful it is necessary to use and to distribute them, and not to
+place happiness in what is in itself detestable and not worth the
+having."
+
+The opinion of Aristotle is, that happiness consists in the most perfect
+exercise of the understanding and the practice of the virtues. The most
+noble exercise of the understanding, he considered to be speculation
+concerning natural objects; the heavens, the stars, nature, and chiefly
+the First Being. He observed, however, that without a competency of the
+good things of fortune suited to a man's situation in life, it was
+impossible to be perfectly happy, because without this we could neither
+have time to pursue speculation, nor opportunity to practise the
+virtues. Thus, for example, one could not please his friends; and to do
+good to those whom we love is always one of the highest enjoyments of
+life.
+
+"Happiness depends therefore," he said, "on three things: the goods of
+mind, as wisdom and prudence; the goods of the body, as beauty, health,
+strength; and the goods of fortune, as riches and nobility." Virtue he
+maintained, is not sufficient to render men happy; the goods of the body
+and of fortune are absolutely necessary; and a wise man would be unhappy
+were he to want riches or if his share of them were insufficient.
+
+He affirmed, on the other hand: "Vice is sufficient to render men
+unhappy. Though in the greatest affluence and enjoying every other
+advantage, it is impossible for a man ever to be happy while the slave
+of vice. The wise man is not wholly exempted from the ills of life, but
+his share of them is small." "The virtues and vices," he said, "are not
+incompatible, for the same man, though intemperate, may be just and
+prudent."
+
+He mentions three kinds of friendship; one of relationship, another of
+inclination, and a third of hospitality.
+
+Elegant literature, he thinks, contributes greatly to produce a love of
+virtue; and the cultivation of letters he affirms to be the greatest
+consolation of age.
+
+Like Plato, he admitted the existence of a Supreme Being, to whom he
+attributed providence.
+
+In his politics, he maintains that the monarchical form of government is
+the most perfect, because in other forms there are more rulers than one.
+An army under the conduct of one able commander, succeeds better than
+one conducted by several leaders; and while deputies, or chief men, are
+employed in assembling and deliberating, a monarch has already finished
+an expedition and executed his designs. The rulers of a republic do not
+care though they should ruin the state, provided they enrich themselves.
+Jealousies are engendered, divisions arise, and the republic is in
+danger of being finally destroyed and overthrown. In a monarchy, on the
+other hand, the interests of the prince are those of the state; and the
+state of course must flourish.
+
+Aristotle was one day asked, "What does a man gain by telling a lie?"
+"Not to be believed," said he, "even when he tells the truth."
+
+Having been blamed for giving alms to a bad man, he said: "It is not
+because he is bad, but because he is a man, that I have compassion for
+him."
+
+To his friends and scholars he used to say, that knowledge is to the
+soul what light is to the eyes; and that mellowness of the fruit makes
+up for the bitterness of the root. When irritated against the Athenians,
+he reproached them with neglecting their _laws_, and using their _corn_;
+though possessed of the former, as well as the latter.
+
+He was one day asked, "What it is that is soonest effaced?" "Gratitude,"
+replied he. "What is hope?" "A waking man's dream."
+
+Diogenes presented Aristotle with a fig. Aristotle very well knew that
+were he to refuse it, Diogenes would level his wit against him. He took
+the fig, therefore, and with a smile said, "Diogenes has at once lost
+his fig and the use he intended to make of it."
+
+He said there were three things very necessary to children: Genius,
+exercise, and instruction. When asked the difference between the learned
+and the ignorant, he replied: "The same as between the living and the
+dead." "Knowledge," he said, "is an ornament in prosperity, and in
+adversity a refuge. Those who give children a good education, are much
+more their fathers than those who have begotten them; the latter
+communicate mere life to them; the former put it in their power to spend
+it comfortably." "Beauty," said he, "is a recommendation infinitely
+stronger than any kind of learning."
+
+He was one day asked, What pupils should do to turn their instructions
+to the greatest advantage? "They must," said he, "always keep in view
+those before them, and never look back to those behind them."
+
+A certain person was one day boasting of being the citizen of an
+illustrious state. "Do not value yourself upon that," said Aristotle;
+"rather ask yourself whether you deserve to be so?"
+
+Reflecting on human life, he sometimes said: "There are some who amass
+riches with as much avidity as if they were to live forever; others are
+as careless about their possessions as if they were to die to-morrow."
+
+When asked, what is a friend? he replied, "One soul animating two
+bodies." "How," said one to him, "ought we to act to our friends?" "As
+we would have them to act toward us," replied Aristotle. He used
+frequently to exclaim, "Ah! my friends, there is not a friend in the
+world!"
+
+He was one day asked, "How it comes that we prefer beautiful women to
+those who are ugly?" "You now ask a blind man's question," returned
+Aristotle.
+
+He was asked what advantage he had derived from philosophy? "To do
+voluntarily," replied he, "what others do through fear of the laws."
+
+It is said that during his stay at Athens he was intimate with an able
+Jew, by whom he was accurately instructed in the science and religion of
+the Egyptians, for the acquisition of which everyone at that time used
+to go to Egypt itself.
+
+Having taught in the Lyceum for thirteen years with great reputation,
+Aristotle was accused of impiety by Eurimedon, priest of Ceres. He was
+so overwhelmed with the recollection of what Socrates had suffered that
+he hastily left Athens and retired to Chalcis in Euboea. It is said by
+some that he there died of vexation because he could not discover the
+cause of the flux and reflux of the Euripus. By others it is added that
+he threw himself into that sea, and when falling said, "Let the Euripus
+receive me since I cannot comprehend it." And lastly, it is affirmed by
+others that he died of a colic in the sixty-third year of his age, two
+years after the death of his pupil, Alexander the Great.
+
+By the Stagirites, altars were erected to him as a god.
+
+Aristotle made a will, of which Antipater was appointed the executor. He
+left a son called Nicomachus, and a daughter who was married to a
+grandson of Demaratus, king of Lacedæmonia.
+
+
+
+
+ARCHIMEDES
+
+By JOHN TIMBS, F.S.A.
+
+(287-212 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: A boat. [TN]]
+
+
+It is scarcely possible to view the vast steamships of our day without
+reflecting that to a great master of mechanics, upward of two thousand
+years since, we in part owe the invention of the machine by which these
+mighty vessels are propelled upon the wide world of waters. This power
+is an application of "the Screw of Archimedes," the most celebrated of
+the Greek geometricians. He was born in Sicily, in the Corinthian colony
+of Syracuse, in the year 287 B.C., and when a very young man, was
+fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of his relative Hiero, the
+reigning prince of Syracuse.
+
+The ancients attribute to Archimedes more than forty mechanical
+inventions--among which are the endless screw; the combination of
+pulleys; an hydraulic organ, according to Tertullian; a machine called
+the HELIX, or screw, for launching ships; and a machine called
+_loculus_, which appears to have consisted of forty pieces, by the
+putting together of which various objects could be framed, and which
+were used by boys as a sort of artificial memory.
+
+Archimedes is said to have obtained the friendship and confidence of
+Hiero by the following incident. The king had delivered a certain weight
+of gold to a workman, to be made into a crown. When the crown was made
+and sent to the king, a suspicion arose in the royal mind that the gold
+had been adulterated by the alloy of a baser metal, and he applied to
+Archimedes for his assistance in detecting the imposture; the difficulty
+was to measure the bulk of the crown without melting it into a regular
+figure; for silver being, weight for weight, of greater bulk than gold,
+any alloy of the former in place of an equal weight of the latter would
+necessarily increase the bulk of the crown; and at that time there was
+no known means of testing the purity of metal. Archimedes, after many
+unsuccessful attempts, was about to abandon the subject altogether, when
+the following circumstance suggested to his discerning and prepared mind
+a train of thought which led to the solution of the difficulty. Stepping
+into his bath one day, as was his custom, his mind doubtless fixed on
+the object of his research, he chanced to observe that, the bath being
+full, a quantity of water of the same bulk as his body must flow over
+before he could immerse himself. He probably perceived that any other
+body of the same bulk would have raised the water equally; but that
+another body of the same weight, but less bulky, would not have produced
+so great an effect. In the words of Vitruvius, "as soon as he had hit
+upon this method of detection, he did not wait a moment, but jumped
+joyfully out of the bath, and running forthwith toward his own house,
+called out with a loud voice that he had found what he sought. For as he
+ran he called out, in Greek, 'Eureka! Eureka!--I have found it! I have
+found it!'" When his emotion had sobered down, he proceeded to
+investigate the subject calmly. He procured two masses of metal, each of
+equal weight with the crown--one of gold and the other of silver--and
+having filled a vessel very accurately with water, he plunged into it
+the silver, and marked the exact quantity of water that overflowed. He
+then treated the gold in the same manner, and observed that a less
+quantity of water overflowed than before. He next plunged the crown into
+the same vessel full of water, and observed that it displaced more of
+the fluid than the gold had done, and less than the silver; by which he
+inferred that the crown was neither pure gold nor pure silver, but a
+mixture of both. Hiero was so gratified with this result as to declare
+that from that moment he could never refuse to believe anything
+Archimedes told him.
+
+Travelling in Egypt, and observing the necessity of raising the water of
+the Nile to points which the river did not reach, as well as the
+difficulty of clearing the land from the periodical overflowings of the
+Nile, Archimedes invented for this purpose the screw which bears his
+name. It was likewise used as a pump to clear water from the holds of
+vessels; and the name of Archimedes was held in great veneration by
+seamen on this account. The screw may be briefly described as a long
+spiral with its lower extremity immersed in the water, which, rising
+along the channels by the revolution of the machine on its axis, is
+discharged at the upper extremity. When applied to the propulsion of
+steam-vessels the screw is horizontal; and being put in motion by a
+steam-engine, drives the water backward, when its reaction, or return,
+propels the vessel.
+
+The mechanical ingenuity of Archimedes was next displayed in the various
+machines which he constructed for the defence of Syracuse during a three
+years' siege by the Romans. Among these inventions were catapults for
+throwing arrows, and ballistæ for throwing masses of stone; and iron
+hands or hooks attached to chains, thrown to catch the prows of the
+enemy's vessels, and then overturn them. He is likewise stated to have
+set their vessels on fire by burning-glasses; this, however, rests upon
+modern authority, and Archimedes is rather believed to have set the
+ships on fire by machines for throwing lighted materials.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Archimedes.]
+
+After the storming of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed by a Roman
+soldier, who did not know who he was. The soldier inquired, but the
+philosopher, being intent upon a problem, begged that his diagram might
+not be disturbed; upon which the soldier put him to death. At his own
+request, expressed during his life, a sphere inscribed in a cylinder was
+sculptured on his tomb, in memory of his discovery that the solid
+contents of a sphere is exactly two-thirds of that of the circumscribing
+cylinder; and by this means the memorial was afterward identified. One
+hundred and fifty years after the death of Archimedes, when Cicero was
+residing in Sicily, he paid homage to his forgotten tomb. "During my
+quæstorship," says this illustrious Roman, "I diligently sought to
+discover the sepulchre of Archimedes, which the Syracusans had
+totally neglected, and suffered to be grown over with thorns and briars.
+Recollecting some verses, said to be inscribed on the tomb, which
+mentioned that on the top was placed a sphere with a cylinder, I looked
+round me upon every object at the Agragentine Gate, the common
+receptacle of the dead. At last I observed a little column which just
+rose above the thorns, upon which was placed the figure of a sphere and
+cylinder. This, said I to the Syracusan nobles who were with me, this
+must, I think, be what I am seeking. Several persons were immediately
+employed to clear away the weeds and lay open the spot. As soon as a
+passage was opened, we drew near, and found on the opposite base the
+inscription, with nearly half the latter part of the verses worn away.
+Thus would this most famous, and formerly most learned, city of Greece
+have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of its most ingenious
+citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of Arpinum."
+
+To Archimedes is attributed the apophthegm: "Give me a lever long
+enough, and a prop strong enough, and with my own weight I will move the
+world." This arose from his knowledge of the possible effects of
+machinery; but however it might astonish a Greek of his day, it would
+now be admitted to be as theoretically possible as it is practically
+impossible. Archimedes would have required to move with the velocity of
+a cannon-ball for millions of ages to alter the position of the earth by
+the smallest part of an inch. In mathematical truth, however, the feat
+is performed by every man who leaps from the ground; for he kicks the
+world away when he rises, and attracts it again when he falls back.
+
+Under the superintendence of Archimedes was also built the renowned
+galley for Hiero. It was constructed to half its height, by three
+hundred master workmen and their servants, in six months. Hiero then
+directed that the vessel should be perfected afloat; but how to get the
+vast pile into the water the builders knew not, till Archimedes invented
+his engine called the helix, by which, with the assistance of very few
+hands he drew the ship into the sea, where it was completed in six
+months. The ship consumed wood enough to build sixty large galleys; it
+had twenty tiers of bars and three decks; the middle deck had on each
+side fifteen dining apartments besides other chambers, luxuriously
+furnished, and floors paved with mosaics of the story of the "Iliad." On
+the upper deck were gardens with arbors of ivy and vines; and here was a
+temple of Venus, paved with agates, and roofed with Cyprus-wood; it was
+richly adorned with pictures and statues, and furnished with couches and
+drinking-vessels. Adjoining was an apartment of box-wood, with a clock
+in the ceiling, in imitation of the great dial of Syracuse; and here was
+a huge bath set with gems called Tauromenites. There were also on each
+side of this deck, cabins for the marine soldiers, and twenty stables
+for horses; in the forecastle was a fresh-water cistern which held 253
+hogsheads; and near it was a large tank of sea-water, in which fish were
+kept. From the ship's sides projected ovens, kitchens, mills, and other
+offices, built upon beams, each supported by a carved image nine feet
+high. Around the deck were eight wooden towers, from each of which was
+raised a breastwork full of loopholes, whence an enemy might be annoyed
+with stones each tower being guarded by four armed soldiers and two
+archers. On this upper deck was also placed the machine invented by
+Archimedes to fling stones of 300 pounds weight and darts eighteen feet
+long, to the distance of 120 paces; while each of the three masts had
+two engines for throwing stones. The ship was furnished with four
+anchors of wood and eight of iron; and "the water-screw" of Archimedes,
+already mentioned, was used instead of a pump for the vast ship; "by the
+help of which one man might easily and speedily drain out the water,
+though it were very deep." The whole ship's company consisted of an
+immense multitude, there being in the forecastle alone 600 seamen. There
+were placed on board her 60,000 bushels of corn, 10,000 barrels of salt
+fish, and 20,000 barrels of flesh, besides the provisions for her
+company. She was first called the Syracuse, but afterward the
+Alexandria. The builder was Archias, the Corinthian shipwright. The
+vessel appears to have been armed for war and sumptuously fitted for a
+pleasure-yacht, yet was ultimately used to carry corn. The timber for
+the main mast, after being in vain sought for in Italy, was brought from
+England. The dimensions are not recorded, but they must have exceeded
+those of any ship of the present day; indeed, Hiero, finding that none
+of the surrounding harbors sufficed to receive his vast ship, loaded it
+with corn and presented the vessel with its cargo to Ptolemy, King of
+Egypt, and on arriving at Alexandria it was hauled ashore, and nothing
+more is recorded respecting it. A most elaborate description of this
+vast ship has been preserved to us by Athenæus, and translated into
+English by Burchett, in his "Naval Transactions."
+
+Archimedes has been styled the Homer of geometry; yet it must not be
+concealed that he fell into the prevailing error of the ancient
+philosophers--that geometry was degraded by being employed to produce
+anything useful. "It was with difficulty," says Lord Macaulay, "that he
+was induced to stoop from speculation to practice. He was half ashamed
+of those inventions which were the wonder of hostile nations, and always
+spoke of them slightingly, as mere amusements, as trifles in which a
+mathematician might be suffered to relax his mind after intense
+application to the higher parts of his science."
+
+
+
+
+MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO
+
+By REV. W. J. BRODRIBB
+
+(106-43 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Cicero. [TN]]
+
+
+Marcus Tullius Cicero, the foremost orator of ancient Rome, one of her
+leading statesmen, and the most brilliant and accomplished of her men of
+letters, lived in those stirring later days of the Roman republic, that
+age of revolution and civil wars, in which an old and decaying order of
+things was passing away. It was the age of great and daring spirits, of
+Catiline, Cæsar, Pompey, Antony, with whose history Cicero's life is so
+closely intertwined.
+
+Born 106 B.C., at an old Italian town, Arpinum in Latium, of a good
+family, and inheriting from his father, who was a man of considerable
+culture, a moderate estate, he went as a boy to Rome, and there, under
+the best teachers and professors, he learned law and oratory, Greek
+philosophy, and Greek literature, acquiring in fact the universal
+knowledge which he himself says in his essay "On the Orator" (De
+Oratore), an orator ought to possess. An orator in the ancient world, we
+should bear in mind, was first and chiefly a pleader of causes, causes
+both legal and political--speaker alike, as we should say, at the bar
+and in parliament. Hence the necessity for knowledge and information of
+every kind. Cicero's first important speech, in his twenty-sixth year,
+was the successful defence in a criminal trial of a client against one
+of the favorites of the all-powerful Sulla, then dictator. After a visit
+to Athens, and a tour in Asia Minor, where he profited by the society of
+eminent professors of rhetoric and men of letters, he returned to Rome,
+and at thirty years of age he was in the highest repute at the Roman
+bar.
+
+In 76 B.C., having been elected quæstor (a financial secretary, as we
+may say) by a unanimous popular vote, he held an appointment in Sicily,
+where he won the good opinion of two highly important interests, apt at
+times to conflict, the traders and the revenue collectors. To this he
+owed the glory of his successful impeachment of the infamous Verres, in
+70 B.C., which he undertook at the request of the Sicilian provincials.
+The bad man who had so hideously misgoverned them, felt himself crushed
+by Cicero's opening speech, and went into voluntary exile. Cicero was
+now a power in the state, and his rise up the official ladder was sure
+and rapid; in 66 B.C. he was prætor, and supported in a great political
+speech (Pro Lege Manilia) the appointment of Pompey to the conduct of
+the war with Mithridates, which in fact carried with it the supreme
+control of Asia and of the East. In 63 B.C., at the age of forty-four,
+he was consul, the highest dignity attainable to a Roman; in that
+memorable year he foiled by a bold promptitude, the revolutionary plot
+of Catiline, in which many distinguished Romans--Cæsar it was even said
+among them--were implicated. He was now at the height of his fame;
+"father of his country" he was actually called, for a brief space he was
+with all classes the great man of the day. But the tide soon turned;
+Cicero might have saved the country, but in saving it, it was said he
+had violated the constitution, according to which a Roman citizen could
+not be capitally punished but by the sentence of the people in regular
+assembly. As it was, Roman citizens guilty of complicity with Catiline
+had, at Cicero's instigation, been put to death simply by an order of
+the senate; this, it was said, was a dangerous precedent and Cicero must
+be held responsible for it. His bitter enemy, Clodius, now tribune,
+pressed the charge against him in inflammatory speeches specially
+addressed to the lowest class of citizens, and Cicero in despair left
+Rome in 58 B.C., and took refuge at Thessalonica. That same year saw the
+"father of his country" condemned to exile by a vote of the Roman
+people, and his house at Rome and his country houses at Formiæ and
+Tusculum plundered and ruined.
+
+But in those revolutionary days the events of one year were reversed by
+those of the next; in 57 B.C., with new counsels and new tribunes, the
+people almost unanimously voted the recall of the exile, and Cicero was
+welcomed back to Rome amid an outburst of popular enthusiasm. But he was
+no longer a power in the world of politics; he could not see his way
+clearly; and he was so nervously sensitive to the fluctuations of public
+opinion that he could not decide between Pompey and the aristocracy on
+the one hand, and Cæsar and the new democracy on the other. His leanings
+had hitherto been toward Pompey and the senate and the old republic; but
+as time went on, he felt that Pompey was a half-hearted man, who could
+not be trusted, and that he would have ultimately to succumb to his far
+abler and more far-sighted rival, Cæsar. The result was that he lost the
+esteem of both parties, and came to be regarded as a mere trimmer and
+time-server. There was all that political indecision about him which may
+be often observed in eminent lawyers and men of letters. The age wanted
+strong men such as Cæsar; this Cicero certainly was not. He was gentle,
+amiable, very clever, and highly cultivated, but the last man in the
+world to succeed in politics. The later years of his life were spent
+chiefly in pleading at the bar and writing essays. In 52 B.C. he
+composed one of his finest speeches in defence of Milo, who had killed
+Clodius in a riot, and was then standing for the consulship; in this he
+was acting quite against the wishes of Pompey. In the following years
+(51-50 B.C.) he was in Asia, as governor of the province of Cilicia, and
+here the best side of his character showed itself in his just and
+sympathetic treatment of the provincials. In 49-48 B.C. he was with
+Pompey's army in Greece to fight for the old cause, of which, however,
+he well-nigh despaired, and after the decisive battle of Pharsalia, at
+which he was not present, he threw himself on the conqueror's mercy.
+Cæsar, who had certainly nothing to fear from him, received him kindly,
+and was a great friend to him from that day; but Cicero was not a happy
+man now that he could no longer make speeches in the senate or in the
+courts; to all this Cæsar's victory had for the time at least put at
+end. In the years 46, 45, 44 B.C., he wrote most of his chief works on
+rhetoric and philosophy, living in retirement and brooding mournfully
+over his griefs and disappointments. In 43 B.C., the year after Cæsar's
+death, he had once again the delight of having his eloquence applauded
+by the senate. In that year his famous speeches against
+Antony--Philippics, as he called them after the title of Demosthenes's
+orations against Philip of Macedon--were delivered. These cost him his
+life. As soon as Antony, Octavius (afterward the Emperor Augustus), and
+Lepidus had leagued themselves together in the so-called triumvirate for
+the settlement of the state, they followed the precedent of former
+revolutions, a proscription-list of their political enemies. All such
+were outlawed and given up to destruction. Cicero's name was in the
+fatal list. Old and feeble, he fled to his villa at Formiæ, pursued by
+the soldiers of Antony, and was overtaken by them as he was being
+carried in a litter down to the shore, where it had been his intention
+to embark. With a calm courage (which, to quote Macaulay's words) "has
+half redeemed his fame," he put his head out of the litter and bade his
+murderers strike. He died in the December of 43 B.C., in the sixty-third
+year of his age.
+
+As an orator and a pleader Cicero undoubtedly stands in the first rank.
+Many of his speeches have come down to us. Of these the most famous, and
+perhaps the finest, are his speeches against Verres and against
+Catiline. Eloquence in those days of furious faction and revolution was
+a greater force than it is with us. As a politician he failed because he
+did not distinctly realize to himself that the old republic, the
+government of the senate and of the nobles, had been tried and had been
+found wanting. He had not the courage to face the great changes which he
+felt were impending. Pompey, the champion of the old order, was not a
+leader to whom he could look up with confidence. And so he wavered, and
+half acquiesced in Cæsar's triumph, even though he suspected that with
+that triumph the Rome which he had known and loved would pass away. To
+us it is as an essayist and as the writer of a multitude of letters to
+friends, full of miscellaneous information, that Cicero is particularly
+attractive; there is a gracefulness and refinement and elevation of tone
+about his writings which cannot fail to incline the reader to say with
+Erasmus, "I feel a better man for reading Cicero." His essays on "Old
+Age" and "on Friendship," his De Officiis or "Whole Duty of Man," as we
+may paraphrase it, are good and pleasant reading such as we can all
+enjoy. There is no fairer picture in literature than of him sitting in
+the garden of his villa at Tusculum, surrounded by admiring friends, and
+engaged upon his "Tusculan disputations;" while his treatises on the
+"Nature of the Gods," and on the "True Ends of Human Life" (De Finibus),
+if they do not show any very deep and original thought, at least give us
+an insight into the teachings of the various philosophical schools.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS CÆSAR
+
+(63 B.C.-14 A.D.)
+
+[Illustration: Augustus Cæsar. [TN]]
+
+
+Caius Julius Cæsar Octavianus Augustus, son of Caius Octavius and Atia
+(Julius Cæsar's niece), was born in 63 B.C. He was the first and
+greatest of the Roman emperors, in his way perhaps fully as great as his
+adoptive father, Julius Cæsar. The Octavian family came originally from
+Velitræ, in the country of the Volsci; and the branch to which Augustus
+belonged was rich and honorable. His father had risen to the rank of
+senator and prætor, but died in the prime of life, when Augustus was
+only four years old. Augustus was carefully educated in Rome under the
+guardianship of his mother and his step-father; and his talents
+recommended him to his great-uncle, Julius Cæsar, who adopted him as his
+son and heir. At the time of Cæsar's assassination (44 B.C.), Augustus
+was a student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus, at Apollonia in
+Illyricum, whither, however, he had been sent chiefly to gain practical
+instruction in military affairs. He returned to Italy, and now first
+learning that he was his uncle's heir, assumed the name of Julius Cæsar
+Octavianus. The soldiers at Brundusium saluted him as Cæsar, but he
+declined their offers, and entered Rome almost alone. The city was at
+this time divided between the republicans and the friends of Mark
+Antony, but the latter, by adroit manoeuvres, had gained the ascendency,
+and enjoyed almost absolute power. At first, Augustus was haughtily
+treated by Antony, who refused to surrender Cæsar's property; but after
+some fighting, in which Antony was worsted and forced to flee across the
+Alps, Augustus, who had made himself a favorite with the people and the
+army, obtained the consulship and carried out Cæsar's will. He found an
+able advocate in Cicero, who at first had regarded him with contempt. To
+himself the great orator seemed to be laboring in behalf of the
+republic, whereas he really was only an instrument for raising Augustus
+to supreme power. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, Augustus
+threw off the republican mask, and joined them in establishing a
+triumvirate. He obtained Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily; Antony, Gaul; and
+Lepidus, Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the massacre of
+those unfriendly to them in Italy, and by the victory at Philippi over
+the republicans under Brutus and Cassius. The Perusian war, excited
+by Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to lead to a contest between
+Augustus and his rival; but was ended by Fulvia's death, and the
+subsequent marriage of Antony with Octavia, sister of Augustus. Shortly
+afterward the Roman world was divided anew, Augustus taking the western
+half, and Antony the eastern. The contest for supremacy commenced. While
+Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the court of Cleopatra,
+Augustus was industriously striving to gain the love and confidence of
+the Roman people, and to damage his rival in public estimation. War was
+at length declared against the Egyptian queen, and at the naval battle
+of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus was victorious, and became sole ruler of
+the whole Roman world. Antony soon afterward ended his life by suicide;
+and Cleopatra, learning of his death and believing that Augustus
+intended carrying her in chains to Rome, also killed herself, so that
+Augustus triumphed only over her dead body, which he found awaiting him.
+Antony's son by Fulvia, and Cæsarion, son of Cæsar and Cleopatra, were
+put to death; and in 29 B.C., after regulating affairs in Egypt, Greece,
+Syria, and Asia Minor, Augustus returned to Rome in triumph, and,
+closing the temple of Janus, proclaimed universal peace.
+
+[Illustration: Augustus Cæsar and Cleopatra.]
+
+His subsequent measures were mild and prudent. To insure popular favor,
+he abolished the laws of the triumvirate, and reformed many abuses.
+Hitherto, since Cæsar's death, he had been named Octavian; but now the
+title of Augustus ("sacred" or "consecrated") was conferred on him. In
+his eleventh consulship (23 B.C.), the tribunician power was granted him
+for life by the senate. Republican names and forms still remained, but
+they were mere shadows; and Augustus, in all but name, was absolute
+monarch. In 21 B.C., on the death of Lepidus, he had the high title of
+Pontifex Maximus bestowed on him. The nation surrendered to him all the
+power and honor that it had to give.
+
+After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Gaul,
+etc., Augustus (9 B.C.) suffered the one crushing defeat of his long
+rule, in the person of Quintilius Varus, whose army was annihilated by
+the Germans under Hermann. The loss so afflicted Augustus that for some
+time he allowed his beard and hair to grow, as a sign of deep mourning,
+and often exclaimed, "O Varus, Varus, give me back my legions!"
+Thenceforth he confined himself to plans of domestic improvements and
+reform, and so beautified Rome that it was said, "Augustus found the
+city built of brick, and left it built of marble." He also built cities
+in several parts of the empire; and altars were raised by the grateful
+people to commemorate his beneficence; while by a decree of the senate
+the name Augustus was given to the month Sextilis.
+
+Though thus surrounded with honor and prosperity, Augustus was not free
+from domestic trouble. The abandoned conduct of his daughter Julia was
+the cause of sore vexation to him. He had no son, and his nephew
+Marcellus, and Caius and Lucius, his daughter's sons, whom he had
+appointed as his successors and heirs, as well as his favorite stepson,
+Drusus, all died early; while his stepson, Tiberius, was an unamiable
+character whom he could not love. Age, sorrow, and failing health warned
+him to seek repose; and, to recruit his strength, he undertook a
+journey to Campania; but his infirmity increased, and he died at Nola
+(14 A.D.), in the seventy-seventh year of his age. According to
+tradition, shortly before his death, he called for a mirror, arranged
+his hair neatly, and said to his attendants: "Did I play my part well?
+If so, applaud me!" Augustus had consummate tact and address as a ruler
+and politician, and made use of the passions and talents of others to
+forward his own designs. The good and great measures which marked his
+reign were originated mostly by himself. He encouraged agriculture,
+patronized the arts and literature, and was himself an author; though
+only a few fragments of his writings have been preserved. Horace,
+Virgil, Ovid, Propertius, Tibullus, and Livy--greatest of Latin poets
+and scholars--belonged to the Augustan Age, a name since applied in
+France to the reign of Louis XIV., in England to that of Queen Anne.
+
+
+
+
+ST. AMBROSE[7]
+
+By REV. A. A. LAMBING, LL.D.
+
+(340-397)
+
+         [Footnote 7: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Ambrose. [TN]]
+
+
+Biographical history presents few characters more interesting either to
+the statesman or the churchman than that of St. Ambrose. As a
+statesman--though but a small part of his life was devoted to the
+affairs of civil government--he showed great prudence, was sincerely
+devoted to the interests of his imperial master, and yet he was at the
+same time an uncompromising advocate and defender of the rights of the
+people. As a churchman he united a high degree of personal sanctity and
+a fatherly care of those intrusted to his pastoral vigilance--especially
+the poor--to an extraordinary firmness in maintaining the rights of the
+Church against imperial usurpation, and the purity of doctrine against
+the inroads of heresy.
+
+St. Ambrose was born about the year 340, of a Roman of the same name who
+was at that time prefect of the pretorium in Gaul, a province which then
+embraced a large portion of western and southwestern Europe. Arles,
+Lyons, and Trèves contend for the honor of being his birthplace, but it
+is most probable that it was in the latter he first saw the light.
+Legends, too, are not wanting of extraordinary occurrences which took
+place during his infancy, that seemed to presage his future greatness.
+Be these as they may, his life and works, which are before the world,
+stand in need of no such embellishments, now that they have become
+matters of history. His father died in his infancy, and his mother
+returned to Rome, where her wealth and social position enabled her to
+give her children the best education possible; and none of them profited
+more by his opportunities than Ambrose. His attainments were numerous
+and varied, embracing, among other things, a thorough knowledge of the
+Greek language and literature, oratory of a high order, unusual skill in
+poetic composition, and a thorough acquaintance with music.
+
+Having completed his education, he went to Milan to enter upon his
+public career. Here his learning, ability, and integrity were soon
+recognized, and preferments crowded thick upon him. But under all
+circumstances he remained true to himself; and, although then only a
+catechumen--or one undergoing instruction before embracing
+Christianity--he yet made the maxims of the Gospel the rule of his life
+and conduct. In a short time he was made governor of the provinces of
+Liguria and Æmelia, which embraced the greater part of Northern Italy.
+When setting out to assume the duties of that exalted position, he was
+told by one of those highest in authority, to "go and rule more as a
+bishop than a judge." Although but thirty years of age at the time of
+his appointment, he strove by his vigilance, mildness, and probity, to
+act upon that advice which seemed almost prophetic; for he was soon
+after called to the bishopric of Milan, as we shall presently have
+occasion to remark. The Arian heresy was then at the zenith of its
+power, and was at least secretly, and often openly, favored by the
+imperial authority. In few places was it more openly defiant than at
+Milan. Auxentius, the Arian bishop of that see, died in the year 374,
+and a serious tumult was raised during the election of his
+successor--the Arians and the orthodox Christians each contending for
+the mastery. In the discharge of his duties as governor, Ambrose entered
+the assembly, where by his firmness, prudence, and moderation he
+succeeded in restoring order. Tradition states that in a moment of
+tranquillity a child cried out: "Ambrose is bishop;" but, be that as it
+may, and it matters little, so great was the public appreciation of his
+merits, and so high was the esteem in which he was held, that he was
+immediately elected by acclamation. Alarmed at this determination of the
+people, he endeavored to escape the honor and remain in concealment till
+another election should take place; but the vigilance of the people
+prevented it. He then had recourse to another means of escape, urging
+that he was only a catechumen and could not lawfully be elected a
+bishop. But this, too, was overruled, when he insisted that being in the
+service of the emperor his permission was necessary. So far, however,
+from this availing, it had the opposite effect, for the Emperor
+Valentinian readily gave his consent, adding the flattering remark that
+he was very much pleased to know that the civil governors whom he had
+selected to rule the provinces of the Empire, were fit to be made
+bishops to rule the Church of God. Seeing the will of heaven so clearly
+manifested, Ambrose feared longer to refuse his acquiescence, and at the
+age of thirty-four he passed through the various ecclesiastical orders
+and was consecrated Bishop of Milan on December 7, 374.
+
+Solicitude for the portion of the Church now entrusted to his pastoral
+care was thenceforth his only thought; and to his other numerous and
+profound acquirements he added that of a careful study of the
+scriptures. In those unhappy times storms were raging on all sides
+between the orthodox Christians and the Arians; and while he and the
+church of Milan were congratulated from all sides on the choice of so
+able a chief pastor, he clearly saw that his future life must be one of
+constant struggle with the civil power for the rights of the Church, and
+with the Arians for the purity of doctrine. But his extraordinary
+combination of gentleness and charity with firmness and courage never
+failed him, and in the end it proved equal to the task imposed upon him;
+and it has handed down his name as one of the noblest on the pages of
+the world's history. The better to free himself from unnecessary
+trammels, he at once disposed of his immense wealth to the poor, except
+so much of it as was necessary for the becoming maintenance of his
+household; and the administration of even this he committed to others.
+
+The turbulent times through which the Church had passed and was still
+passing, had necessarily given rise to numerous abuses; and to the
+correction of these the newly consecrated bishop unsparingly devoted
+himself. But though this was destined to be a life-work, and though he
+met with a great measure of success, "it must needs be that scandals
+come," and no one can hope to eradicate entirely every abuse. Never was
+the Arian heresy so successfully dealt with as by him, and if he did not
+succeed in entirely destroying it, he did succeed in breaking its power
+and restoring greater tranquillity to the Church than it had enjoyed for
+a long term of years. Many elements combined to produce these consoling
+results, and since we are treating of an eminent churchman, it is
+necessary to attach due importance to his own personal sanctity, which
+was at once a rebuke to disregard of ecclesiastical discipline, a living
+illustration of what the true Christian should be, and an evidence of
+the purity of his motives and the sincerity of his conduct. This
+holiness had its effect too before the Throne of Grace, for the
+scriptures assure us that the prayers of the just man avail much. So
+long as we entertain the belief that Christ has established a church on
+earth, we must from necessity hold that He takes a lively interest in
+it, and blesses the labors of those who devote themselves to its
+extension. His eloquence, too, in the pulpit not only advanced the
+interests of religion, but also stimulated the zeal and guided the
+efforts of others of less ability. His numerous controversial works
+refuted the errors and sophistries of the enemies of religion, on the
+one hand, and on the other, explained and defended its tenets. Those who
+wished to tread the higher walks of the spiritual life, found in his
+several treatises on certain of the Christian virtues, a sure light to
+guide them in the way of perfection. Devoting his attention to the
+liturgy of divine worship, he added greatly to the attractiveness of the
+ceremonial, especially by a thorough revision of the church music that
+had previously been in use. But in the march of the human mind nothing
+now remains of the Ambrosian chant in its purity, save the "Exultet," as
+it is called, which is a hymn sung in the Latin Church during the
+blessing of the Paschal candle on Holy Saturday. Large numbers of his
+poetic compositions still remain, and are found for the most part in the
+Roman breviary. It may be said that his pen was never idle nor his voice
+hushed when the interests of religion could be promoted, and many of his
+writings remain to our day, a proof of his learning, an evidence of his
+zeal, and a monument to his courage. Among his successes in advancing
+the cause of religion must be mentioned his conversion, in 387, of St.
+Augustine, the greatest light of the Western Church. But he is better
+known to the world at large by his firmness in withstanding the
+usurpation of the secular power, and bringing those in high places to
+confess and repent of their faults. In doing this he had ever the best
+interests of mankind at heart.
+
+Soon after his consecration as a bishop he wrote to the emperor,
+complaining of the corruption of some imperial governors; to whom
+Valentinian replied: "I have long since been acquainted with your
+freedom of speech, which did not deter me from consenting to your
+consecration. Continue to apply to our sins the remedies prescribed by
+the divine law." Even in our own day, not a few salutary laws are due to
+his humane influence. He prevailed on the Emperor Gratian to pass a law,
+among others, that no criminal should be executed within less than
+thirty days after sentence had been passed. He also succeeded, but with
+great difficulty, in having the pagan statues removed from the senate.
+He had also a law passed forbidding the Arians to rebuild or repair
+their churches. When the Empress Justina sent to him asking the use of
+certain churches for the celebration of Easter, he refused; and when
+threats were made he answered in language worthy of a Christian prelate:
+"Should you ask what is mine, as my land or my money, I would not refuse
+you, though all that I possess belongs to the poor; but you have no
+right to that which belongs to God." A year later, the Easter of 386,
+the same request was made, when the intrepid bishop answered: "Naboth
+would not give up the inheritance of his ancestors, and shall I give up
+that of Jesus Christ?" It may perhaps be difficult for many in our day,
+when so little importance is attached to Christian unity, to appreciate
+the fearless action of this heroic person; but his biography would be
+imperfect in a very important particular if these points were passed
+over in silence; and before passing judgment on him we must bear in mind
+the rule of the historian and biographer, so frequently lost sight of,
+that persons and things must be judged by the times and circumstances in
+which they were placed. The times change and we change in them.
+
+Perhaps the most remarkable event in the life of St. Ambrose, so far as
+the world at large will judge him, was his rebuke of the Emperor
+Theodosius. Instances like this are not rare, it is true, in the history
+of the Christian Church; but this one stands forth with more than
+ordinary prominence. The circumstances are briefly these: A sedition
+broke out in the city of Thessalonica, in which a number of officers and
+the commander of the imperial forces were slain. Theodosius, at the
+instigation of Rufinus, a military officer of prominence, sent a warrant
+to the commander of Illyricum to let the soldiers loose upon the city; a
+command that was carried out with great cruelty, and by which more than
+seven thousand persons, the innocent as well as the guilty, were
+massacred in the most inhuman manner. The grief of Ambrose on hearing
+this was extreme; and, in order to afford the emperor time to reflect,
+he withdrew from Milan, and addressed him a very touching letter
+exhorting him to repentance, assuring him at the same time that he, as
+bishop, would not receive his offerings nor perform the services of
+religion in his presence till he had done so. The prelate soon after
+returned to his episcopal city; and when the emperor appeared at the
+doors of the church to attend divine services, he forbade him to enter
+till he had done penance for his crime. Excuses and palliations were of
+no avail, and when the emperor urged that King David had sinned, he was
+told that as he had imitated David in his sin, he should also imitate
+him in his repentance; and the doors of the church were closed against
+him. The emperor returned to his palace, where for eight months he did
+penance for his fault; and he was not admitted to full communion till he
+had perfectly complied with the requirements of the bishop.
+
+While to the general reader there may appear an unwonted severity, and
+even a tyrannical vindictiveness in this firmness of the holy prelate,
+his companions and those who knew his character best find in it an
+evidence of his zeal for the cause of religion, and his desire for the
+true conversion of the sinner; and the man of the world will find in him
+the champion of the poor and oppressed against the tyranny of power. It
+is a well-known fact of history that he did not cease, during all this
+time, to beseech heaven with prayers and tears for the emperor, whom he
+sincerely loved. But his character in this, as in all else, has
+withstood the test of time, and shines with undiminished lustre down the
+vista of ages.
+
+St. Ambrose died about midnight before Holy Saturday, April 4, 397; and
+his body reposes in a vault under the high altar of the basilica of
+Milan--the church that he had served so long and so well. His feast is
+kept in the Latin Church on December 7th, and he is justly regarded as
+one of the most illustrious doctors of the Church.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+[Illustration: Ambrose rebukes Theodosius.]
+
+
+
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO[8]
+
+By HIS EMINENCE JAMES, CARDINAL GIBBONS
+
+(354-430)
+
+         [Footnote 8: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Augustine. [TN]]
+
+
+Among the few great names which have most signally emblazoned the pages
+of history, and whose fame and influence have not been limited to their
+own age, country, or people, that of Augustine, saint and bishop, stands
+out pre-eminently as worthy of all the encomiums bestowed upon him by
+serious students of men and their times. He has been and is regarded as
+the greatest and most celebrated of theologians, the father and master
+of preachers of the Divine Word, the peer of the rarest and most
+enlightened minds, whose soaring is above all time. He has been given a
+place with Plato and Bossuet, with Cicero and St. Thomas, in the
+universal acclaim. Great in faith, great in thought, great in virtue,
+great in genius, he lived in the century of great men, towering above
+all. Athanasius was Patriarch of Alexandria and Cyril of Jerusalem;
+Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Basil the Great, formed a
+triumvirate of holy, eloquent, and erudite defenders of truth and
+justice; Ambrose was by his faith and piety illumining the See of Milan;
+the Christian Cicero, Chrysostom, was pouring forth at Constantinople
+streams of golden eloquence; Jerome, the hermit of Bethlehem, was giving
+his masterly expositions of Scripture. And Augustine arose in this
+galaxy of greatness and genius to shed glory on the land and church of
+Africa, which had seen its Tertullian and been adorned by its Cyprian.
+Contact with such men were an honor; drinking at their feet deep and
+wholesome draughts of purest wisdom were glory: but to have the notes of
+one's song arise above theirs as did Augustine's, were solid genius and
+lasting fame.
+
+St. Augustine was born on November 13, A.D. 354, at the little town of
+Tagasta, in ancient Numidia, which is now Algeria. His father was an
+unassuming and honorable soul, though of humble and modest origin. His
+mother was the sainted Monica, who is so justly venerated on Christian
+altars. The early education of Augustine was received in his native
+village, with slender means and amidst meagre advantages. As a boy he
+manifested very little of those studious habits which were afterward to
+distinguish and elevate him to universal honor. At great sacrifice on
+his father's part, and with the princely generosity of a noted
+inhabitant of Tagasta, named Romanian, he was sent to the better
+equipped schools of the neighboring Madaura and later to Carthage. The
+schools of Carthage, though not so renowned and exceptional as those of
+Alexandria and Antioch, were yet among the most prominent of the Roman
+World. He was sixteen years of age when he was taken to this city, and
+after four years he had risen to the first place in the schools of
+rhetoric and had mastered all the branches of the liberal arts then
+taught. None could equal his penetration, none surpass him in the
+readiness of his answers or in the clearness of his expositions. The
+subtle distinctions and divisions of Aristotle were plain to him. And in
+the arena of philosophical disputation he knew no superior. He was
+particularly attracted to the study of eloquence; and the perusal of
+Cicero's "Hortensius" (which unfortunately has been lost in the
+vicissitudes of time) stirred his soul to higher flights and begot a
+noble enthusiasm for the imperishable beauty of wisdom, made him
+impatient of the evanescent hopes of men, and carried him onward to
+further quest of truth.
+
+When his studies were completed, he returned in 370 to Tagasta and
+lodged with his wealthy patron and benefactor; for his father had died
+the year after his arrival in Carthage. Though here he began to teach
+grammar and kindred branches, he did not long remain at home; he soon
+departed again for Carthage, where his successes as a master surpassed
+those he had gained as a disciple. Led by his former fame and by the
+daily increasing applause which greeted the youthful professor of
+rhetoric, many gathered around him. He was then only twenty-three years
+of age. Among his pupils he numbered Licentius and Alypius--two names
+indissolubly bound up with the story of Augustine's life. His place
+among the learned and first men of that ancient city was made doubly
+secure when, at a public contest in poetry, he was awarded the prize,
+and was crowned with the laurel by the Proconsul, Vindician, before the
+assembled people and most celebrated minds of the city.
+
+But while he was thus advancing in favor with men, while thirst for
+truth was burning him, he yielded to the seductions of the wealthy youth
+of his time; though he had been early trained by his pious mother in the
+love of virtue and the hatred of iniquity, yet the apparent austerity of
+virtue seemed now to affright him, and the pleasures of life and the
+allurements of vice captivated his ardent disposition; and while he
+never seems to have plunged into the extravagances and disorders common
+to so many of his companions, nor to have been guilty of crimes which
+spring from a cruel nature or very depraved instincts, he indulged in
+some pursuits which formed the prolific source of future profound grief.
+He loved ease, and was averse to self-denial and hardship--hence his
+indiscretions and follies. But the most distinguishing trait of his
+character was his honesty, and this feature redeemed and palliated his
+few irregularities.
+
+[Illustration: St. Augustine and his mother, St. Monica.]
+
+The scholars of Carthage were anything but sober, industrious, modest,
+and orderly youths. They were indocile and turbulent; not only
+disturbing by their wild pranks the peace of the city, but interrupting
+by their noisy behavior and inattention the master's discourses and
+lectures. It was next to impossible to preserve any semblance of
+discipline in the classes. So Augustine left in disgust and set out for
+Rome, the ancient mistress of the world. He had been enamoured by her
+imperishable traditions and magnificent monuments of grandeur and art,
+by her memories of numerous great men, their genius and their works, by
+her history ever rich in majesty and glory. Induced by the consideration
+that he would find there the absence of unfavorable circumstances and
+the presence of stronger incentives to enthusiasm and high inspiration,
+he left his country and his mother, and in 383, with Alypius, his friend
+and pupil, he departed for this metropolis. But again he was doomed to
+disappointment. Though disciples were not wanting, and his chair was
+surrounded by a throng of earnest and strong students, he did not find
+the all-absorbing passion for wisdom and truth, for the sublime and
+beautiful, that he had fondly anticipated. There was not, indeed, the
+same degree of turbulence and disorder as at Carthage, but the
+magnificence and ostentation of the Roman family and life, their
+splendid palaces and festive orgies, could not but prove very injurious
+to habits of study. The youth had imbibed the venal corruption
+everywhere prevalent. Hence it not seldom happened that Roman scholars
+conspired to rob their master of his salary and desert his class in a
+body. Roman vileness and baseness disgusted Augustine even more than
+Punic insubordination. He therefore took advantage of a request made by
+the citizens of Milan of Symmachus who was then Prefect of Rome, that he
+would procure for them a professor of rhetoric. He accepted the
+proposal; and toward the close of the year 384 he was teaching at Milan.
+
+Up to this time the soul of Augustine was not influenced by higher
+inspiration than pleasure, nor his mind by anything which did not
+correspond to his preconceived notions of philosophic accuracy. Nor was
+he yet a Christian by baptism, as it was the custom of the age to
+postpone the reception of this sacrament till later in life, both that
+it might be received with better dispositions and more fruit, and
+because sins and faults committed by the baptized possessed in their
+eyes and before God deeper malice and blacker ingratitude; they wished
+to avoid this evil. When a child, Augustine was so ill that his life was
+despaired of; the waters of regeneration were about to be poured over
+him; but he soon recovered and again the baptism was deferred. In Milan
+he was attracted by St. Ambrose's eloquent discourses on the Christian
+religion; and their simple and earnest character, their strong and
+convincing argument, their fervid and impassioned vein appealed to the
+young man's mind. His heart was touched by the manifest holiness of the
+good bishop's life and conduct, especially when he contrasted them with
+those of the Manicheans with whom he had so long been associated. The
+study of Platonic philosophy urged him on to celestial heights and made
+him gaze on the infinite nature of God. The Epistles of St. Paul riveted
+his attention in his search after purest truth, and joined to the pious
+prayers of the Sainted Monica, who thus drew down abundant grace divine,
+completed the miracle of his conversion. The wayward Augustine wept for
+his sins, the learned philosopher bowed his head in faith and humility
+before the Gospel of Jesus Christ and the truth of God as revealed by
+Him. After a period of seclusion which he spent from August (386) to the
+Easter solemnity of the next year, with Monica, Alypius, Licentius, and
+several others, at Cassiciacum in the suburbs of Milan, he was baptized
+by St. Ambrose on April 24th or 25th, A.D. 387.
+
+Once a Christian, Augustine thought of returning to his native country.
+He desired to perfect himself in the Christian science and spirit, and
+to teach and defend among his own people Catholic doctrines and
+interests--henceforth to be the sole aim of his life. In August or
+September therefore of that same year he set out with his mother and
+friends for Africa. But the death of Monica at Ostia in Italy changed
+his plans. And after paying all the duties of religion and filial
+tenderness to this devoted mother, he went to Rome. But in the spring of
+the year 388 he finally set foot on his native shores. He betook himself
+immediately to the environs of Tagasta and found an asylum for study,
+contemplation, and prayer.
+
+It happened that, prompted by zeal and affection, he went on one
+occasion in 391 to Hippo, which was on the Mediterranean Sea five
+leagues from Carthage, and the site of the present Bona, for the purpose
+of inducing a certain friend to join him in his solitude. While here he
+entered the church where the holy bishop, Valerius, was preaching to the
+people and complaining of his sad need of a priest to aid him in his
+duties, and especially to exercise the office of preaching, since an
+impediment in his speech rendered that duty very difficult and extremely
+painful for him. Preaching was the exclusive function of the bishop. And
+when Augustine as a priest assumed the duty, he was the first in
+priest's orders who had ever preached in presence of a bishop. And it
+was in that capacity that he arose in the Council of Hippo (393) and
+delivered his famous discourse on "Faith and its Creed." As Augustine
+entered the church while the bishop was making the above complaint, the
+congregation, who recognized him (for his fame had spread over all
+Africa), immediately, as if by divine inspiration, proposed him for the
+office of priest. Valerius was of course overjoyed; and after a short
+time which the saint requested for preparation, he was ordained and
+attached to the church of Hippo. The esteem in which the new priest was
+held, his apostolic labors, his eloquence, his piety, soon impelled the
+aged bishop to raise his sacerdotal co-laborer to the episcopal dignity
+and associate him still more closely with himself in the government of
+the See of Hippo. He was accordingly consecrated a little before
+Christmas of the year 395. And the subsequent thirty-five years were the
+busiest, the most arduous, and the most fruitful of his long and
+eventful career. His energy was indefatigable and extended in every
+direction. The religious movements of his time brought into play all the
+resources of his mind and heart. He combated heresies and reclaimed
+heretics. His correspondence embraced a multitude of subjects and was
+carried on with various parts of the Church. His zeal in preaching never
+knew rest, and his efforts in instructing the ignorant were ceaseless.
+He established centres of religious life for men and women, and composed
+for them a rule of life and spirit and principles that have not yet
+died. He was alive to the necessity of a zealous and energetic clergy
+whom he wished trained in the spirit and teachings of the Gospel maxims
+and counsels, and therefore formed the nucleus of a monastic clergy. He
+had begun the realization of this idea in the community which he
+established at Hippo just after his ordination as priest, and he
+perfected it when he was made bishop. Ten of those whom he trained in
+this his first monastery, became bishops of the various sees of Africa,
+including Alypius, who was sent to Tagasta, Possidius, his first
+biographer, and Fortunatus, who was his successor in the See of Hippo.
+During all this time he continued to wear the long black robe and hood
+and leathern girdle peculiar to the cenobites of the East, which he had
+donned at Milan shortly after his baptism when he laid aside the dress
+of his native Africa. Not only his vesture but also his daily life and
+practices were the same as those which are the privilege and glory of
+monks, nuns, and hermits. None surpassed him in austerities and
+self-denial, as none had surpassed him in philosophic lore at Carthage,
+and at Milan and Rome.
+
+The magnificent effects of his extraordinary gifts, fertile ingenuity,
+and deep learning and broad mind; the influence of his genius on the
+thoughts and ideas of his own and succeeding ages, may be best gleaned
+from a brief survey of his writings. Augustine's early aim was to seek
+truth. He was perplexed with many doubts; he could not conceive the
+existence of anything real outside of physical bodies; and nothing
+around him completely and satisfactorily gave him answer. The
+Manicheans, who had occupied themselves with questions on the nature of
+God, the creation of the world, and the origin of evil, seemed to have
+attained on these points some tangible conclusions. For want of better
+Augustine defended their doctrines without participating in the excesses
+which distinguished those sectaries. But he felt himself alienated from
+them, partly because of the lack of the prestige of great men among
+them, and because he found Faustus, a Manichean bishop and the Goliath
+of their forces, ignorant of many simple subjects, and unable to give
+but vague and shallow responses to the questions that agitated his soul.
+He afterward had a famous controversy with this Faustus, and wrote
+against him thirty-three books. The results of Augustine's studies were
+that he was able to refute their attacks on Holy Scripture which they
+said had undergone serious changes, and to see the falsehood of their
+main postulate that good proceeds from a good principle and evil from an
+evil principle; and also to recognize the futility of their objection
+that the Christians spoke of a human form in God. Against this sect his
+principal writings are "On the Manners and Customs of the Catholic
+Church and those of the Manicheans;" "The Utility of Faith," "The Two
+Souls," and a book against Adimantes, the disciple of Manes, in which he
+reconciles the contradictions alleged to exist between the Old and the
+New Testament.
+
+From the Manicheans Augustine turned to the Academicians, who were a
+philosophical sect, and pretended that it was impossible for man to come
+to the possession of truth. Augustine had many conferences on this
+subject with his friends in his retreat at Cassiciacum: and the outcome
+was two books "On Order," and one on "The Blessed Life." These works
+discussed the matter thoroughly and left the philosophers no loophole of
+escape.
+
+A more dangerous error, though purely local in its immediate
+surroundings, was the denial of the validity of Baptism when conferred
+by heretics. This contention had occasioned a schism in the church of
+Africa since the beginning of the fourth century. It received the name
+of Donatism from Donatus, schismatic Bishop of Carthage, who had been
+aided by another Donatus of Casæ Nigræ. In St. Augustine's time it had
+spread over the whole country. The Saint put forward the true idea of
+the Church and showed that the minister of a sacrament does not
+communicate to the recipient his own character of holiness or of guilt,
+that it is Christ Himself who baptizes and absolves and gives efficacy
+to sacramental signs. The cogency of his words, the clearness of his
+explanations, and his grace of manner led many of the Donatists to
+desire union with the Church, which he showed them, as Christ's Body, is
+one and indivisible. His chief works in this controversy are a letter to
+Maximinus, a Donatist bishop whom he brought back to Catholic Unity, the
+"Christian Combat," the "One Baptism," three books against Parmeian,
+letter to Glorius and three others, and a conference with Bishop
+Fortunatus, at Turbusum.
+
+As if by divine inspiration he had laid down in a work on "Free Will,"
+which he had begun at Rome, enlarged at Tagasta, and completed in 395,
+principles which afford sufficient answer to the errors of Pelagianism.
+This heresy broached novel teachings on man, the fall, and the state in
+which that fall had left the human race. St. Augustine, who had not been
+able to take part in the council of Carthage, where Pelagius was first
+condemned, brought out in clear light the true doctrine and nature and
+action of supernatural grace, and the effects of original sin on man's
+will and heart. His treatises on "Merit" and the "Remission of Sins,"
+explained all the weakness of fallen nature, the need of divine grace to
+perform actions that conduce to eternal life, and the necessity and
+place of human effort in the work of justification and faith. As it was
+asserted that children should not be baptized because the sin of Adam
+was not transmitted to them, he wrote a book on the "Baptism of
+Children." In "Nature and Grace" and "Faith and its Works," "On the
+Grace of Jesus Christ" and "Original Sin," still further explanation and
+argument are given to establish Catholic truth.
+
+Still another heresy was beginning to poison religious thought:
+Arianism, or the denial of the divinity of Jesus Christ, was invading
+the church of Africa. And the writings of St. Augustine against this
+movement are among his most luminous and brilliant works. He wrote three
+letters and fifteen books on the Trinity--these he commenced in 400 and
+completed in 416. Perhaps the clearest and plainest are the one hundred
+and twenty-four treatises (so called) on the Gospel of St. John, and ten
+on the First Epistle of the same Apostle. They were sermons or
+catechetical instructions and homilies, delivered during the year 416 to
+his flock, on the prevalent heresies but especially on the Arian. And
+his response to the five questions of Honorius, a citizen of Carthage,
+contains lucid expositions of some difficult portions of Scripture.
+
+On Scripture matters, besides the works just mentioned, St. Augustine's
+enlightened views are found in twelve books on the "Literal Sense of
+Genesis;" in these he seems to have divined all modern objections and
+theories about this work of Moses. On the seven first books of the
+Bible, he has left us seven treatises. "An Explanation of the Psalms," a
+correspondence with St. Jerome on the Epistle to the Galatians, four
+books on the agreement of the Evangelists, two on Gospel questions, and
+a book on "Things That are not Seen," should not be unknown to Biblical
+students.
+
+Nor was the Pagan attitude toward Catholic Truth forgotten. He had
+passed through the phase, and knew the Pagan mind. He put down their
+difficulties, reasoned away their doubts, threw light on their darkness,
+led them on in truth, in "The True Religion," "Eighty-three Questions,"
+"The Christian Doctrine," and an early treatise on the "Immortality of
+the Soul."
+
+But by far his greatest and most enduring works are his "Confessions"
+and "The City of God." The former, at once a poem, a history, and a
+treatise of philosophy, beautifully expresses the trials and efforts of
+a human soul striving for truth and happiness away from God, and the
+ecstatic sentiments of the same soul on the attainment of both truth and
+happiness in the faith and virtues of Jesus Christ and in His Gospel.
+The other, in eloquent and philosophical vein, discourses on the Church
+of God on earth and in heaven; shows the hollowness of all opinions,
+thoughts, and efforts contrary to the eternal order which is God; is, as
+it were, an encyclopedia of all that he had written before, an
+exhaustless summary of refutation against heresy and paganism, and an
+analysis of the glories and benefits of Christianity. St. Augustine in
+its composition occupied all the time from 413 to 426--the period of his
+momentous struggle against Pelagianism.
+
+The lines of intellectual and religious thought which called forth the
+just mentioned and other productions of St. Augustine's brilliant
+genius, have continued all along the centuries even till now. The same
+movements exist; the same tendencies, though more intense in their
+working, actuate men toward truth; and the same obstacles impede their
+progress; objections, in other forms perhaps, yet substantially the
+same, are urged against the very points against which the sainted
+pontiff wrote and struggled--God, Creation, the Bible, Christ, human
+infirmity or human strength, man's power to attain truth unaided, and
+his freedom from any supernatural dependence. No wonder that Augustine,
+who had passed through all these phases of action, should have always
+been called upon for effective weapons in the warfare, and that he
+should have been the supreme authority in such questions for many an age
+in the Latin or Western Church. His sounds are as clear to-day, and his
+arguments are as convincing and potent. The student and the dialectician
+and the theologian can ill afford to be unfamiliar with the great
+doctor's thoughts.
+
+All these writings everywhere evidence the beauty of his character, as
+his actions were ever in accord with evangelical perfection. There is
+wonderful power of mercy, compassion, and love, in all. He had been weak
+himself, hence he treated weakness with gentleness. Two things rendered
+him indulgent; a sad experience of the infirmities of human nature, and
+a profound knowledge of the depth of those infirmities. His virtues of
+humility, compassion, moderation, and generosity, all sprung from that,
+just as his deep faith and strong convictions of Christian truth were
+begotten of his fierce struggle with doubt and error and his long and
+ardent search for truth.
+
+He died in honor on August 28th, A.D. 430. But men have not ceased to
+admire his genius, appreciate his labors, love his character; and
+thousands imitate his piety and are governed by his mandates of
+spiritual life.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+ST. PATRICK
+
+By REV. G. F. MACLEAR, B.D.
+
+(ABOUT 372-466)
+
+[Illustration: A book. [TN]]
+
+
+The original name of St. Patrick was _Succat_, which is said to signify
+"strong in war." Patricius appears to have been his Roman name. He was
+born of Christian parents at some period between A.D. 372 and A.D. 415.
+His father, Calphurnius, was a deacon, his grandfather, Potitus, a
+priest Though an ecclesiastic, Calphurnius would seem to have held the
+rank of decurion, and may therefore have been of Roman or provincial
+British extraction. His birthplace was a spot which he himself calls
+Bonavem Taberniæ, and which in all probability may be identified with
+the modern Kirkpatrick, between Dumbarton and Glasgow.
+
+The parents of Succat, as has been already said, were Christians, and it
+would seem that the Gospel had been preached to some extent in the
+neighborhood of his father's home. Whatever amount, however, of
+instruction he may have received was rudely interrupted, when he was
+about sixteen years of age.
+
+The coasts of Scotland were at this time exposed to the frequent
+incursions of Irish chieftains, who landed from their swift barks,
+ravaged the country, and having carried off as many of the inhabitants
+as they could, consigned them to slavery. In one of these expeditions
+the house of Calphurnius was attacked, and Succat, with two of his
+sisters and many of his countrymen, was carried away and conveyed to the
+north of Ireland.
+
+Here he was purchased as a slave by Michul or Milchu, a chief of North
+Dalaradia, who dwelt in the valley of the Braid, near Mount Slemish, in
+the country of Antrim. The work assigned him was that of attending his
+master's flocks and herds, and in his "Confession," which he wrote
+toward the close of his life, he describes how he wandered over the
+bleak mountains, often drenched with the rains, and numbed with the
+frosts. His period of servitude lasted six years; and during this time
+he would seem to have made himself acquainted with the language of the
+native tribes, and to have learned their habits and modes of life. At
+length he succeeded in effecting his escape to the seaside, where he
+took ship, and, after a tempestuous passage, regained his father's
+house. His stay, however, was destined to be very short. In a predatory
+excursion he was a second time taken captive, and again, after a brief
+interval, succeeded in making his escape.
+
+Had he listened to his parents, he would now have remained with them,
+but he was bent on a very different occupation. "The Divine Voice," he
+says, "frequently admonished me to consider whence I derived the wisdom
+which was in me, who once knew neither the number of my days nor was
+acquainted with God; and whence I obtained afterward so great and
+salutary a gift as to know and to love God." During the weary hours,
+moreover, of his captivity, he had often reflected how blessed a thing
+it would be if he, to whom it had been given to know the true God and
+his Son Jesus Christ, could carry the glad tidings to his master's
+people and the land of his exile.
+
+One night, he tells us, he had a dream, in which he thought he saw a man
+coming from Ireland with a number of letters. One of these he gave him
+to read, and in the beginning occurred the words, "The voice of the
+Irish." While he was reading it, he thought he heard a voice calling to
+him across the Western Sea, "We entreat thee, holy youth, to come and
+walk among us."
+
+Obedient, therefore, to what he deemed to be a plain leading from
+heaven, and resisting the arguments and entreaties of relatives and
+friends, who mocked at his enthusiastic resolve, he set out for the
+monasteries in Southern France, there to prepare himself for the work of
+preaching the gospel in the land of his captivity. Amidst the
+conflicting legends which now follow him at every step, it seems
+probable that he repaired to the monastic schools of Tours, Auxerre, and
+Lerins, where he studied and was employed for some little time in
+pastoral duties, having been ordained successively deacon and priest.
+
+There, too, he would seem to have been elevated to the episcopate, and
+thence with a band of fellow-laborers he set sail for Ireland, about the
+middle of the fifth century. Landing on one of the islands off the coast
+of Dublin, he and his companions tried unsuccessfully to obtain
+provisions, which they greatly needed. Thence sailing northward they put
+in at a strait called Brene, and after landing at the southwestern
+extremity of Strangford Lough, advanced some considerable way into the
+interior.
+
+They had not gone far before they encountered a native chief named
+Dichu, at the head of a band of men. Mistaking St. Patrick for the
+leader of one of the many pirate crews which at that time often
+appeared upon the coast, he was on the point of putting him to death.
+But struck by the missionary's appearance, and seeing that both he and
+his companions were unarmed, he hospitably received them into his house.
+In frequent interviews he now heard the doctrines of the faith, and
+after a time was baptized, with all his family. According to some
+authorities he also bestowed upon his instructor the ground whereon his
+barn was built; and here arose the celebrated church called _Sabhall
+Patraic_, "The Barn of Patrick," which still retains the name of Sabhal,
+or Saul, and is situated about two miles northeast of Downpatrick.
+
+Leaving Saul, the missionaries proceeded to northern Dalaradia, and the
+residence of St. Patrick's old master, Milchu. But nothing would induce
+the old chief to receive one who had once been his slave, or to forsake
+the paganism of his forefathers. His journey thus ineffectual, St.
+Patrick returned to the district where Dichu resided, and made the
+neighborhood for sometime his headquarters. Thence proceeding southward,
+he determined to visit the central parts of the island, and especially
+the famous hill of Tara, where King Laoghaire was about to hold a great
+religious festival in the presence of all of his tributary chieftains,
+druids, and bards. In this stronghold of druidism he resolved to
+celebrate the approaching festival of Easter, and preach the word to the
+assembled chiefs. It was Easter eve, we are told, when he reached the
+neighborhood of Tara, and having erected a tent, he made preparations
+for spending the night with his companions, and kindled a fire for the
+purpose of preparing food. As the smoke curled upward in the evening
+air, it was observed by the druids in the king's tents and caused the
+greatest consternation. To kindle any fire during the solemn assembly of
+the chiefs, before the king had lighted the sacred flame in the palace
+of Tara, was a sin of the greatest enormity, and the druids did not
+scruple to warn the king that if the fire of the stranger was not
+extinguished that night, unto him, whose fire it was, would belong the
+sovereignty of Ireland forever.
+
+Messengers were accordingly sent to discover the authors of the
+sacrilege, and to order them to appear before Laoghaire. The
+missionaries went, and their fearlessness when in the presence of the
+monarch and his nobles won for them a respectful hearing. On the
+following day St. Patrick again addressed the chiefs, doubtless in their
+own language, and proclaimed to them the doctrines of the faith.
+Laoghaire himself, indeed, did not profess to be a convert, but he gave
+permission to the man of God to preach the word, on condition that he
+did not disturb the peace of the kingdom. During the ensuing week,
+therefore, when the great public games were celebrated at Tailten, the
+missionary and his companions addressed themselves to the youngest
+brother of the king, and were so favorably received that he professed
+himself a believer, submitted to baptism, and is said to have given the
+site of a church called afterward "The Great Church of Patrick."
+
+[Illustration: St. Patrick journeying to Tara.]
+
+The impression thus made upon the chiefs was soon shared by their
+subjects, and though the pagan party made frequent attempts to put the
+missionaries to death, from which they narrowly escaped, they were
+heartily received in Westmeath, Connaught, Mayo, and Ulster, and
+before long found themselves strong enough to destroy the great idol
+Crom-cruach, on the plain of Magh Slecht, in the county of Cavan; and,
+in the district of the clan Amalgaidh, admitted to baptism the seven
+sons of the king and many of their people.
+
+To the worshippers of the powers of nature, and especially the sun and
+other heavenly bodies, St. Patrick proclaimed that the great luminary
+which ruled the day had no self-originated existence, but was created by
+One whom he taught them to call God the Father. "Besides him," said he,
+"there is no other god, nor ever was, nor will be. He was in the
+beginning before all things, and from him all things are derived,
+visible and invisible." He told them next of "his only begotten Son
+Jesus Christ, who had become man, had conquered death and ascended into
+heaven, where he sat far above all principalities and powers, and whence
+he would hereafter come to judge both the quick and the dead, and reward
+every man according to his deeds." "Those," he declared, "who believed
+in him, would rise again in the glory of the true Sun, that is, in the
+glory of Jesus Christ, being by redemption sons of God and joint-heirs
+of the Christ, of whom, and by whom, and to whom, are all things; for
+the true Sun, Jesus Christ, will never wane nor set, nor will any perish
+who do his will, but they shall live forever, even as he liveth forever
+with God the Father Almighty, and the Holy Spirit, world without end."
+
+Such, as it would seem from his "Confession," was the Gospel he
+proclaimed, and his words, confirmed and illustrated by his own intrepid
+zeal, ardent love, and sincere and devoted life, made a deep impression
+on the minds of the Celtic chiefs. With the religious enthusiasm deeply
+seated in the primitive Celtic character, which many years before won
+for St. Paul so warm a reception in Galatia, their hearts were touched
+and they welcomed the missionary, and believed the word which he
+preached.
+
+As time went on, the labors of St. Patrick were lightened by the arrival
+of the bishops Secundinus, Auxilius, and Isserninus, whom he had sent
+either to France or Britain to receive consecration. Their coming
+enabled him to extend the sphere of his operations, and he undertook
+missionary tours in Meath, Leinster, Ossory, and Munster. These
+continued for several years, during which he was occupied in preaching
+the word, baptizing new converts, and erecting churches. Knowing well
+how much his own acquaintance with the native language had contributed
+to his success, he labored diligently to establish a native ministry
+wherever he went. Cautiously selecting from the higher classes those
+whose piety and intelligence seemed to fit them for the work of the
+ministry, he established seminaries and monastic schools, where they
+were trained and educated; and to these schools the young of both sexes
+flocked with extraordinary eagerness.
+
+While he was laboring in the southeastern part of Munster, a petty
+prince of Cardiganshire, named Coroticus, though apparently professing
+Christianity, set out from Wales, and descending on the Irish coast with
+a band of armed followers, murdered several of the people, and carried
+off a large number with the intention of disposing of them as slaves.
+This outrage, perpetrated in one of the districts where St. Patrick was
+baptizing, roused his keenest indignation, and he wrote a letter, which
+he sent by one of his companions, calling upon Coroticus to restore the
+captives, many of whom had been baptized. But his request being treated
+with contempt and scorn, he composed another circular epistle, in which
+he inveighed in the strongest terms against the cruelty of the marauding
+tribe and its chief. He contrasted his conduct with that of the
+Christians of the Continent, who were in the habit of sending large sums
+of money to ransom captives, and concluded by threatening him and his
+followers with excommunication, unless he desisted in future from his
+piratical habits. What was the result of the epistle is not known, but
+it is to be feared that the attempt to recover the captives was not
+successful. Slavery and the trade in slaves was almost more difficult to
+root out than paganism, and the inhuman traffic was in full activity as
+late as the tenth century between England and Ireland, and the port of
+Bristol was one of its principal centres.
+
+Meanwhile, after a somewhat lengthened sojourn in the district of Lowth
+and parts of Ulster, St. Patrick reached the district of Macha,
+containing the royal city of Emania, the residence of the kings of
+Ulster, the remains of which, under the name of the Navan, still exist
+about two miles west of Armagh. Here he was cordially received by Daire,
+a wealthy chief, who made over to him a pleasant piece of ground on an
+eminence, _Druim-sailch_, or "Hill of the Willows." The spot pleased St.
+Patrick, and here he determined to erect a church. The foundations were
+accordingly laid, and around it rose by degrees the city of Armagh, the
+ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland; and here its founder spent the
+remainder of his life, only leaving it now and then to visit his
+favorite retreat at Saul, round which clustered so many associations of
+his earliest labors, and of his first convert Dichu.
+
+Here, too, having called to his aid the bishops Secundinus, Isserninus,
+and Auxilius, who next to himself were best qualified by long experience
+for the work, he proceeded to hold synods, and to make regulations for
+the general government of the churches he had founded. Again and again
+he was solicited to revisit his friends and relatives in Scotland, but
+nothing could induce him to leave his post. In his "Confession," written
+when far advanced in years, he touchingly describes how often he had
+been requested to come among his kinsmen once more, but how a deep sense
+of the spiritual love between himself and his flock ever retained him in
+Ireland.
+
+It was while he was staying at Saul that the apostle of Ireland was
+seized with his last illness. He had lived to a good old age, and the
+sunset of his life was calm and peaceful. Perceiving that his end drew
+nigh, and desirous, as we are told, that Armagh should be the
+resting-place of his remains, he set out thither, but was unable to
+continue the journey. Increasing weakness, and, as it seemed to him the
+voice of an angel, bade him return to the church of his first convert;
+and there he closed his eyes in death, probably in the year A.D. 466,
+leaving behind him the visible memorials of a noble work nobly done. He
+and his fellow-laborers had made for themselves, by the labors of their
+own hands, civilized dwellings amid the tangled forest and the dreary
+morass. At a time when clan-feuds and bloodshed were rife, and princes
+rose and fell, and all was stormy and changeful, they had covered the
+islands with monastic schools, where the Scriptures were studied,
+ancient books collected and read, and native missionaries trained for
+their own country, and for the remotest parts of the European continent.
+
+
+
+
+JUSTINIAN THE GREAT
+
+(483-565)
+
+[Illustration: Justinian. [TN]]
+
+
+Flavius Anicius Justinianus, nephew on the mother's side of the Emperor
+Justin, was born in 482 or 483 A.D., in the village of Tauresium, in
+Illyria. His original name was Upranda. Although of obscure parentage,
+and indeed slave-born, he shared the success of his maternal uncle,
+Justin, being invited at an early age to Constantinople, where he
+received an early education. When his uncle assumed the purple, in 518,
+he appointed Justinian commander-in-chief of the army of Asia. His
+tastes, however, inclining him rather to civic pursuits, he declined
+this appointment, and remained attached to the court of Constantinople.
+In 521, he was named consul, and during the remaining years of the reign
+of his uncle he continued to exercise great influence. In 527 the
+Emperor Justin, by the advice of the senate, proclaimed him his partner
+in the empire. Justin survived this step but four months, and in the
+same year Justinian was proclaimed sole emperor, and crowned along with
+his wife, the famous Theodora, whom, despite her more than dubious
+antecedents as an actress, he had raised to the position as his wife.
+Justinian on his accession was in his forty-fifth year. His reign, which
+extends over thirty-eight years, is the most brilliant in the history of
+the late empire. Although himself without the taste or the capacity for
+military command, he had the good fortune or the skill to select the
+ablest generals of the last days of Roman military ascendency. Under the
+direction of his generals, and especially of the celebrated Narses and
+Belisarius, his reign may be said to have restored the Roman Empire, at
+least in outward appearance, to its ancient limits, and to have reunited
+the East and the West under a single rule. In his first war--that with
+Persia--he concluded a treaty by which the crisis that had so long
+threatened, was at least warded off; but the rejoicings which celebrated
+its termination had, owing to a domestic revolution, almost proved fatal
+to the authority of Justinian himself. A conflict of the so-called Blue
+and Green factions in the circus, in 532, was but an outburst of
+political discontent, which went so far as to elect a rival emperor,
+Hypatius. Justinian himself was struck with dismay, and had made
+preparations for flight; but the vigor and determination of Theodora
+arrested the revolt. Narses, with a relentless hand, repressed the
+tumults, 30,000 victims having, it is said, fallen in a single day. By
+the arms of Belisarius, the Vandal kingdom of Africa was re-annexed to
+the Empire; and the same general, conjointly with Narses, restored the
+imperial authority in Rome, in Northern Italy, and in a large portion of
+Spain. One of the most extraordinary, though in the end ineffective
+works of the reign of Justinian, was the vast line of fortification
+which he constructed, or renewed and strengthened, along the eastern and
+southeastern frontier of his empire. These works of defence, and the
+construction of many public buildings both in his capital and in other
+cities of the Empire, involved an enormous expenditure, and the fiscal
+administration of Justinian, in consequence, pressed heavily on the
+public resource.
+
+It is, however, as a legislator that Justinian has gained his most
+enduring renown. His good fortune in obtaining the services of able
+generals was not greater than that which attended him in the field of
+law and legislation. Brilliant as were the triumphs of Narses and
+Belisarius, they were indeed short-lived in comparison with the work
+done by the celebrated Tribonian and his coadjutors in the way of
+reforming and codifying the law. Immediately on his accession Justinian
+set himself to collect and codify the principal imperial constitutions
+or statutes enacted prior to, and in force at, the date of his
+accession. In this respect he followed the example set by his
+predecessor, Theodosian. The code in which these constitutions were
+collected was published in 528-29, and it contained a general provision
+by which all previous imperial enactments were repealed. But Justinian's
+ambition in the matter of consolidating the laws went much further.
+Imperial constitutions made up but a comparatively small part of the
+body of the law. The bulk of it (what might be called the common law)
+was contained in the writings of the jurists, that is, of text-writers
+and commentators. Of these writers there were at this time many hundreds
+of volumes in existence, and, owing to want of agreement in the opinion
+of the various writers, the law was in a state of great uncertainty, not
+to say confusion.
+
+To remedy this evil, Justinian resolved upon the publication of a single
+treatise in which the commentaries and other writings of the jurists
+might be digested and harmonized. The preparation of this great work was
+intrusted to Tribonian, with the assistance of Theophilus, a celebrated
+professor of law at Berytus (modern Beyrout), and two other professors,
+and it was completed in the almost incredibly short period of four
+years. It was published in fifty books, under the title Digesta or
+Pandectæ. While the Digest was in course of preparation Justinian
+resolved on the composition of a third work--viz., a systematic and
+elementary treatise on the law which might serve as a text-book for the
+use of students, and as an introduction to the larger work. The
+preparation of this was also intrusted to Tribonian and his colleagues,
+and having been completed a few days before the Digest, was published in
+four books on the same day (December 31, 534), under the title of
+Institutiones. It is based upon the Institutes of Gaius, and is familiar
+to all modern lawyers under the name of "Justinian's Institutes."
+Meantime, while both the Digest and the Institutes were being prepared,
+the Code of 529 above mentioned was withdrawn from circulation and
+republished in 534 with some alterations, and especially with the
+addition of fifty new constitutions (known as the Quinquaginta
+Decisiones) which had in the interim been pronounced by Justinian. This
+new edition, in twelve books, is known as the Codex Repetitiæ
+Proelectionis, and is the one which has come down to us, no copy of the
+earlier codex being extant. All these works (Code, Digest, Institutes)
+were written originally in Latin, and all of them were prepared with
+care and skill, and testify to the great ability of Tribonian and his
+co-editors. Upon the publication of the "Digest" Justinian declared by a
+constitution that all previous law-books and decisions were to be held
+as superseded and it was forbidden to refer to them in the practice of
+the courts. During the subsequent years of his reign Justinian
+pronounced from time to time several new constitutions or laws, some of
+them making very important changes in certain departments of the law.
+These (mostly in Greek) were collected and published under the title of
+"Novellæ" (_i.e._, "The Novels" or "New Works"). There were, so far as
+can be ascertained, about one hundred and seventy of these Novels. The
+Institutes, Digest, Code, and Novels together make up what is known as
+the Corpus Juris Civilis.
+
+The character of Justinian has been much canvassed, and opinions are not
+agreed about it. Procopius, in two separate works, has painted him in
+very different lights. Making allowance, however, for much exaggeration
+of his abilities by contemporary writers, it may be said that he
+contrasts favorably with most of the emperors, whether of the earlier or
+of the later Empire. If his personal virtues be open to doubt (and
+certainly vanity, avarice, and inconstancy were in no small degree
+characteristic of him), he, on the other hand, displayed undoubted
+ability as a ruler, and, in the main, just and upright intentions. He
+was easy of access, patient of hearing, courteous and affable in
+discourse, and perfect master of his temper. In the conspiracies against
+his authority and person he often showed both justice and clemency. He
+excelled in the private virtues of chastity and temperance; his meals
+were short and frugal; on solemn fasts he contented himself with water
+and vegetables, and he frequently passed two days and as many nights
+without tasting any food. He allowed himself little time for sleep, and
+was always up before the morning light. His restless application to
+business and to study, as well as the extent of his learning, have been
+attested even by his enemies. He was, or professed to be, a poet and
+philosopher, a lawyer and theologian, a musician and an architect; but
+the brightest ornament of his reign is the compilation of Roman law
+which has immortalized his name. He died on November 14, 565, at the age
+of eighty-three, and in the thirty-eighth year of his reign.
+
+A few words must be said about the legislative reforms carried through
+by Justinian. He was not only a collector and a codifier of the laws; he
+also introduced in many directions the most fundamental changes into the
+substantive law itself. The following were the most important changes.
+(1) He ameliorated the condition of slaves--depriving their masters of
+the power of putting them to death. He declared that any one who put a
+slave to death by his own hand should be guilty of homicide. (2) He
+greatly revolutionized the law of intestate succession by giving to
+cognati (relatives on the mother's side) an equal share with agnati
+(relatives on the father's side) of the same degree. These two changes
+in the law were probably in a large measure induced by the circumstances
+of his birth. (3) He made considerable changes in the law of divorce,
+and as to the property of spouses. (4) He reformed civil procedure in
+the way of making it uniform, and introducing a system of small-debt
+courts.
+
+
+
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY[9]
+
+By RT. REV. HENRY CODMAN POTTER, BISHOP OF NEW YORK
+
+(DIED, 604)
+
+         [Footnote 9: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Augustine. [TN]]
+
+
+A complete biography of St. Augustine of Canterbury it is impossible to
+write: almost all that is known of him is his work as a missionary to
+the English, and almost the only source of our knowledge of that
+missionary work is the "Ecclesiastical History" of Bæda. But the mission
+of St. Augustine was one of the great crises, not only of the history of
+the Christian Church, but of the history of human civilization. The
+difference between a number of Celtic churches, with bishops largely
+subordinate to the abbots of monasteries, included (as it seems) in none
+of the great Catholic patriarchates, cut off from all communication with
+the great centres of human thought and life--and a Church of England
+taking her place, at once independent and subordinate, in the swift
+development of human progress, both conservative and creative--this
+difference is quite incalculable. And the mission of St. Augustine made
+the difference.
+
+The triumph of Christianity depended--apart from its divine
+authority--upon the thorough organization of the Christian communities;
+and that organization had for its centre the Episcopacy. But as separate
+congregations without a bishop could never have escaped disintegration,
+so the united congregations, with their presbyters and bishop, would
+have been powerless without some further organization, uniting the
+bishops, with well-defined regulations, under some recognized hierarchy
+of authority. Thus arose metropolitan sees, and the great patriarchates
+of the Catholic Church--Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria,
+Constantinople. This centralization was rendered necessary by the course
+of events; but it had otherwise no divine authority and might be
+modified just as validly as it was created. When the Roman Empire was
+submerged under the deluge of barbarian races, a yet closer
+centralization became necessary, at least in the West; and the ark in
+which floated over that terrible deluge not only the Christian religion,
+but the remains of ancient civilization, both Greek and Roman, was the
+patriarchate of Rome. The man who not only clearly perceived, but was
+absolutely compelled to assume, his awful responsibility in the West,
+the Saviour at once of the Church and the world, was the splendid
+pontiff, Gregory the Great; the great pontiff who sent St. Augustine and
+his companions to preach the gospel to the English conquerors of
+Britain. If we would clearly understand the work of St. Augustine we
+must free our minds from the illusion produced by familiar names. One of
+these is the name Britain. In the time of Gregory the Great the island
+called by that name was, of course, the same as that on which Julius
+Cæsar had landed. The barbarians whom Cæsar encountered had been subdued
+by his successors, and a Roman province had been formed. Roman
+civilization had been introduced and, one might almost say, had
+flourished. The Christian religion had found its way thither; there had
+been Christian congregations and bishops, and even a heresiarch. But
+Rome, in the struggle for her own existence, had been compelled to
+withdraw her legions from the province of Britain; and to leave the
+people not only to their internal dissensions, but to the attacks of the
+"Scots" and "Picts," from Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Then
+followed the conquest of Britain by the English, as the Teutonic
+invaders began soon to be called. The Celtic people were largely driven
+out, including the Celtic Christians. The English were heathens, and the
+Celtic Christians seem to have made no effort whatever for their
+conversion. The English, again, were by no means consolidated into an
+English nation. It was to one division of these English heathens that
+Gregory the Great sent Augustine.
+
+Even the term "the British Church" is somewhat misleading. There is not
+the slightest trustworthy evidence, either as to the time when, or the
+person by whom, Christianity was introduced into Britain. There, of
+course, as everywhere else, the Church was under the rule of bishops;
+but, excepting for the purpose of ordaining, the authority of the
+British bishops seems to have been entirely overshadowed by the
+authority of the abbots of monasteries. There seems, as we have said, no
+evidence of anything resembling the patriarchal system among them; nor
+of any close or frequent communication between the British churches and
+the rest of Christendom. This is proved, among other things, by their
+curious reckoning of Easter; which (as Gieseler shows, "Eccle. Hist.,"
+ii., 164, English translation) was by no means identical with that of
+the Quarto-decimans. It was simply the survival of the use of an old
+cycle which had been elsewhere superseded by one more accurate and
+convenient.
+
+The ascertainable biography of St. Augustine begins with his mission, by
+command of Gregory, to the heathen English; and especially to the
+subjects of Ethelbert, King of Kent, who had married a Christian lady.
+There is not the slightest reason for discrediting the story related by
+Bæda, of the incident which first excited Gregory's interest in the
+heathen English. The relations between Britain and Rome having come to
+an end, it is not in the least surprising that even a person so
+exceptionally well informed should have known nothing about the Teutonic
+peoples--Angles, Jutes, Saxons--which had driven out the British. That
+he should have played upon words so suggestive as Angli, Deira, and
+Ælla, is exactly what might be expected from the author of the "Magna
+Moralia." The familiar story--he calls it "opinio quæ de beato Gregorio
+traditione majorum ad nos usque perlata est"--as told by Bæda, is as
+follows ("Hist. Eccl.," ii., 1):--
+
+It is reported that some merchants, having just arrived at Rome on a
+certain day, exposed many things for sale in the market-place, and
+abundance of people resorted thither to buy; Gregory himself went with
+the rest, and, among other things, some boys were set to sale, their
+bodies white, their countenances beautiful, and their hair very fine.
+Having viewed them, he asked, as is said, from what country or nation
+they were brought? and was told, from the island of Britain, whose
+inhabitants were of such personal appearance. He again inquired whether
+those islanders were Christians, or still involved in the errors of
+paganism? and was informed that they were pagans. Then, fetching a deep
+sigh from the bottom of his heart, "Alas! what pity," said he, "that the
+author of darkness is possessed of men of such fair countenances; and
+that being remarkable for such graceful aspects, their minds should be
+void of inward grace." He therefore again asked, what was the name of
+that nation? and was answered that they were called Angles. "Right,"
+said he, "for they have an angelic face, and it becomes such to be
+co-heirs with the angels in heaven. What is the name," proceeded he, "of
+the province from which they are brought?" It was replied, that the
+natives of that place were called Deiri. "Truly are they De ira," said
+he, "withdrawn from wrath, and called to the mercy of Christ. How is the
+king of that province called?" They told him his name was Ælla; and he,
+alluding to the name, said, "Hallelujah, the praise of God the Creator
+must be sung in those parts."
+
+Gregory was eager to go at once on a mission to the home of these
+beautiful children, and the then pope gave his consent; but the Roman
+people could not bear the loss of one already so useful and
+distinguished, and almost before he had started he was recalled. When,
+during his own pontificate, Gregory carried out his purpose, it was
+probably due to a request of Queen Bertha, speaking, most likely, in
+behalf of some of the Kentish people, made to the Frankish bishops for
+missionaries. "It has come to our knowledge," writes Gregory, "that,
+through the mercy of God, the people of the Angli are eagerly desiring
+to be converted to the Christian faith, but that the priests of their
+own neighborhood neglect them." When Bertha married Ethelbert it was on
+condition that she should retain her own religion; and she was
+accompanied to Kent by a French bishop, named Luidhard, who must have
+acted chiefly as her private chaplain. Ethelbert nobly kept his word,
+and thus the piety of Bertha, and her religion, may easily and deeply
+have impressed the Kentish heathen. That the Celtic bishops and
+clergy--"sacerdotes e vicinio"--did nothing for the conversion of the
+heathen English can scarcely be matter of surprise, though possibly of
+regret. For they were not only Christians, but belonged to the conquered
+race; whom, apart from their religion, it was the policy of the
+conquerors to drive out of the country, and who were compelled to take
+refuge in the remotest districts of the land. The Frankish bishops seem
+to have done little or nothing in response to Queen Bertha's
+solicitations; and Gregory ordered Candidus, administrator of the
+Patrimony of St. Peter in Gaul, to bring up English youths, and have
+them trained in monasteries, and fitted to be made missionaries to their
+own land. At length, in the sixth year of his pontificate, he determined
+to undertake the work himself; and sent from his own monastery of St.
+Andrew, on the Cælian Hill, in Rome, a company of forty monks, headed by
+their prior, Augustine.
+
+Their progress at first was rapid. Starting in the summer of A.D. 596,
+they soon arrived in the neighborhood of Aix, in Provence. But the
+nearer they came to what should have been their journey's end, the less
+inclined they were for the work to which they had been appointed. The
+heathen English were represented as barbarians of unusual ferocity; and
+the companions of Augustine were as frightened as the companions of
+Caleb and Joshua. They induced their prior to return to Gregory and seek
+a release from their perilous task. But Gregory was not a man to be
+frightened himself, or to have much sympathy with cowards. He wrote,
+however, with great gentleness: "For as much as it had been better not
+to begin a good work than to think of desisting from that which has been
+begun, it behoves you, my beloved sons, to fulfil the good work which,
+by the help of the Lord, you have undertaken. Let not, therefore, the
+toil of the journey, nor the tongues of evil-speaking men, deter you:
+but with all possible earnestness and zeal, perform that which by God's
+direction you have undertaken." He furnished them with letters to the
+bishops of Tours, Marseilles, Vienne, and Autun, and also to the
+metropolitan of Arles. After the lapse of a year they slowly continued
+their journey, and landed at last at Ebbe's Fleet, in the Isle of
+Thanet.
+
+As soon as they had landed Augustine sent the interpreters, whom he had
+obtained from "the nation of the Franks," to tell Ethelbert of his
+arrival. Ethelbert seems to have been a really noble-hearted man, and
+had doubtless been attracted by the piety of his wife Bertha. The
+missionaries told him that they had come from Rome, the great capital of
+the West, and "had brought a joyful message which most undoubtedly
+assured to all that took advantage of it, everlasting joys in heaven,
+and a kingdom that would never end, with the living and true God." The
+king ordered them to remain in the island where they had landed, and
+promised that they should be furnished with all necessaries till he
+should consider what he would do with them. Soon after he came to the
+island, and conferred with Augustine and his companions in the open air;
+fearing the possibility of magic enchantments if he met them under any
+roof. He was much impressed by their ceremonial, their bearing, and
+their teaching. "Your words and promises," he said, "are very fair, but
+as they are new to us, and of uncertain import, I cannot approve of them
+so far as to forsake that which I have so long followed with the whole
+English nation ["cum omni Anglorum gente:" this by no means implies, it
+is scarcely necessary to say, an English nation in the modern sense of
+those words]. But because you are come from far into my kingdom, and, as
+I conceive, are desirous to impart to us those things which you believe
+to be true and most beneficial, we will not molest you, but give you
+favorable entertainment, and take care to supply you with your necessary
+sustenance; nor do we forbid you to preach, and gain as many as you can
+to your religion."
+
+By the king's invitation they crossed from Thanet and took their abode
+in the then rude town of Canterbury, and before long were allowed to
+worship in St. Martin's Church, with the queen. Their influence
+gradually increased, and a considerable number of the English were
+converted. At last Ethelbert himself received baptism (Whitsunday, A.D.
+597); and following his example, it is said that on December 25th
+following--mid-winter!--upward of ten thousand were baptized in the
+waters of the Swale. Of course, it cannot be supposed that in these
+mediæval "conversions" of whole tribes or "nations," there was any
+rational acceptance of the complete theology of the Church. The
+conversion was rather the acceptance of a discipline, a mode of life;
+founded indeed on Christian doctrine and in all kinds of subtle ways
+symbolizing it; but primarily an imitation of a sweeter and purer life,
+and a more spiritual and suggestive worship. The words of Bæda (i., 26)
+are worthy of note as indicating the temper both of Gregory and
+Augustine: "Their conversion the king so far encouraged, as that he
+compelled none to embrace Christianity, but only showed more affection
+to the believers, as to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly kingdom. For
+he had learnt from his instructors and leaders to salvation, that the
+service of Christ ought to be voluntary, not by compulsion."
+
+[Illustration: Conversion of Ethelbert by Augustine.]
+
+Having so far succeeded in his mission, Augustine went to Arles and was
+consecrated archbishop of the English by the Metropolitan Virgilius.
+[Bæda says (i., 27): "Archiepiscopus genti Anglorum ordinatus est," the
+actual see probably being then undetermined.] On his return he
+despatched Lawrence and Peter to Rome to tell Gregory that the Angli had
+been converted to the faith, and that he himself (Augustine) had been
+made a bishop. They were also to bring back the Pope's answers to sundry
+questions respecting the conduct of the mission which Augustine proposed
+to him. Both the questions and the answers are highly suggestive. The
+first question was as to the division of the offerings of the faithful.
+The second as to differences of "Use" in the celebration of Mass and
+other divine offices. The answer of Gregory is almost classical, and may
+well be repeated here: "You know, my brother," he says, "the custom of
+the Roman Church.... But it pleases me that if you have found anything,
+whether in the Roman Church, or the church of the Gauls
+["Galliarum"], or any church whatever, which may be more pleasing to
+Almighty God, you carefully make choice of the same and diligently teach
+the church of the English, which as yet is new in the faith ... whatever
+you have been able to collect from many churches. For things are not to
+be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of good
+things." The fourth and fifth questions of Augustine refer to prohibited
+degrees of marriage, and Gregory replies, as to the marriage of
+first-cousins, among other objections, "we have learned by experience
+that no offspring can come of such marriage." To Augustine's inquiry as
+to his relations with the bishops of Gaul and Britain ["Galliarum
+Brittaniarumque,"] Gregory replies that Augustine has no authority
+whatever within the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Arles; but he
+adds: "As for all the bishops of Britain ["Brittaniarum"], we commit
+them to your care, that the unlearned may be taught, the weak
+strengthened by persuasion, and the perverse corrected by authority."
+Considering the context--Augustine had been asking whether, under the
+circumstances, he could consecrate bishops without the presence of any
+other bishops; and, moreover, he had not as yet come into any kind of
+contact with the Celtic bishops--it seems probable that "the bishops of
+Britain" here placed under Augustine's jurisdiction were the bishops to
+be afterward consecrated by himself, with or without the presence and
+witness of Gallic or other bishops. Gregory's advice to Augustine,
+conveyed through the Abbot Mellitus, may well be pondered by the
+managers of modern missions. He says: "The temples of the idols in that
+nation [the English] ought not to be destroyed; but let the idols that
+are in them be destroyed; let holy water be made and sprinkled in the
+said temples, let altars be erected, and relics placed. For if those
+temples are well built it is requisite that they be converted from the
+worship of devils to the service of the true God; that the nation ...
+adoring the true God, may the more familiarly resort to the places to
+which they have been accustomed." He even suggests that their
+sacrifices--which were largely festivals, as much social as
+religious--should be discontinued, indeed, as sacrifices, but changed
+into banquets and associated with the day of the dedication of a church,
+or the "nativity" of a holy martyr. And all this on the perfectly sound
+principle, too often forgotten, that "he who strives to reach the
+highest place raises himself by steps and degrees, and not by leaps
+[gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus elevatus]."
+
+At last Augustine was brought into contact with the Celtic bishops. It
+was clear that their assistance would be very valuable in the endeavor
+to convert the English, and also that their peculiar usages would convey
+the impression of far greater diversity of doctrine than actually
+existed. Augustine was willing to make much concession. There were three
+conditions of union which seemed to him indispensable: agreement as to
+the time of keeping Easter; agreement as to the mode of administering
+baptism; and hearty co-operation in mission work among the heathen. We
+may leave out of consideration alleged miracles; also the curious, or
+even the ludicrous, test of a divine mission suggested by "the aged
+hermit" of the story. The Celtic bishops refused any sort of
+co-operation, and Augustine left them, not without a solemn warning:
+"If they would not have peace with their brethren, they would have to
+accept war from their enemies; if they would not preach the way of life
+to the nation of the Angli, they would have to suffer at their hands the
+vengeance of death." It is scarcely credible--though in religious
+controversy almost anything is credible--that a warning so obviously
+wise, and even charitable, should have been interpreted as a mere
+threat, and as evidence that Augustine himself was the author of the
+calamities that afterward befell the Celtic Church.
+
+Such is the simple story of the mission and the life--for we read
+nothing about his life but his mission--of Augustine, the first
+archbishop of Canterbury. He was not able to carry out the whole scheme
+of Gregory. He was not the first to introduce Christianity into Britain.
+But, apart from Queen Bertha's private chaplain, he was the first to
+introduce Christianity to the English--those Teutonic tribes which were
+the ancestors of the English of to-day. Who first brought the gospel to
+the Roman province of Britain no one knows; nor is it of the slightest
+importance that anyone should know. But that there should have been two
+Christian religions in England when the nation was being consolidated,
+would have been fatal both to nation and church. We conclude this brief
+notice by a passage from two historians, neither of whom could possibly
+be suspected of any undue subservience to the modern Church of Rome. The
+first is from Mr. Green's "The Making of England" (pp. 314, 315); he is
+speaking of the results of the Synod of Whitby (A.D. 664).
+
+"It is possible that lesser political motives may have partly swayed
+Oswin in his decision, for the revival of Mercia had left him but the
+alliance of Kent in the south, and this victory of the Kentish Church
+would draw tighter the bonds which linked together the two powers. But
+we may fairly credit him with a larger statesmanship. Trivial in fact as
+were the actual points of difference which parted the Roman Church from
+the Irish, the question to which communion Northumbria should belong
+was, as we have seen, of immense moment to the after-fortunes of
+England. It was not merely that, as Wilfrid said, to fight against Rome
+was to fight against the world. Had England, indeed, clung to the Irish
+Church, it must have remained spiritually isolated from the bulk of
+Western Christendom. Fallen as Rome might be from its older greatness,
+it preserved the traditions of civilization, of letters, and art and
+law. Its faith still served as a bond which held together the nations
+that sprang from the wreck of the Empire. To repulse Rome was to condemn
+England to isolation. But grave as such considerations were, they were
+of little weight beside the influence which Oswin's decision had on the
+very unity of the English race. The issue of the Synod not only gave
+England a share in the religious unity of Western Christendom; it gave
+her a religious unity at home. However dimly such thoughts may have
+presented themselves to Oswin's mind, it was the instinct of a statesman
+that led him to set aside the love and gratitude of his youth, and to
+secure the religious oneness of England in the Synod of Whitby."
+
+The other is from Milman's "History of Latin Christianity" (ii., 198,
+199, Amer. Edition): "The effect of Christianity on Anglo-Saxon England
+was at once to re-establish a connection both between the remoter parts
+of the island with each other, and of England with the rest of the
+Christian world. They ceased to dwell apart, a race of warlike,
+unapproachable barbarians, in constant warfare with the bordering
+tribes, or occupied in their own petty feuds or inroads, rarely, as in
+the case of Ethelbert, connected by intermarriage with some neighboring
+Teutonic state. Though the Britons were still secluded in the mountains,
+or at extremities of the land, by animosities which even Christianity
+could not allay, yet the Picts and Scots, and the parts of Ireland which
+were occupied by Christian monasteries, were now brought into peaceful
+communication, first with the kingdom of Northumbria, and through
+Northumbria with the rest of England. The intercourse with Europe was of
+far higher importance, and tended much more rapidly to introduce the
+arts and habits of civilization into the land. There was a constant flow
+of missionaries across the British Channel, who possessed all the
+knowledge which still remained in Europe. All the earlier metropolitans
+of Canterbury and the bishops of most of the southern sees, were
+foreigners; they were commissioned at Rome, if not consecrated there;
+they travelled backward and forward in person, or were in constant
+communication with that great city, in which were found all the culture,
+the letters, the arts, and sciences which had survived the general
+wreck."
+
+Nobody need disparage the Celtic Church; but it is not too much to say
+that the Celtic Church could never have preserved Christianity in
+Britain against the victorious Saxon or English heathen. But from the
+very beginning the Church of England has retained the traces of her
+early origin, when Gregory the Great was Pope, when the claim to be
+universal bishop was deemed untenable, when even the ritual of the Mass
+was still in unessential details flexible.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+MAHOMET
+
+(571-632)
+
+
+The Arabian "Prophet" was born at the city of Mecca, some time during
+the sixth century, but the precise year has, after much discussion,
+still been left in doubt. Hottinger says, A.D. 571, Reiske, A.D. 572,
+and Gagnier, A.D. 578. His lineage has also been the subject of great
+altercation, one party exalting him above most of his countrymen, while
+the other degraded him to the lowest rank--particularly contemporary
+Christian writers, who were desirous of rendering him an object of
+contempt; and in the same degree that the Christians felt themselves
+called upon to degrade the Arabian prophet, so did the Mahometans think
+themselves compelled to exalt him. Mahomet successfully vindicated for
+himself a high lineage among his countrymen; the tribe of Koreish, to
+which he belonged, laying claim to Ishmael as their progenitor, and this
+claim, arising from the vanity of the tribe, was eagerly laid hold of
+and supported by his votaries.
+
+[Illustration: Two camel ridders. [TN]]
+
+Abdallah, the father of Mahomet, was the youngest son of Abd al
+Motâlleb, the son of Hashem. "Hashem," say the authors of the "Modern
+Universal History," "succeeded his father Abd al Menaf in the
+principality of the Koreish, and consequently in the government of
+Mecca, and the custody of the Caaba." So far the genealogy of the
+prophet is supported by authentic history--that he was descended from
+the princes of his people cannot be denied. This descent from Ishmael,
+Gibbon, after Sale, thus disproves: "Abulfeda and Gagnier describe the
+popular and approved genealogy of the prophet. At Mecca I would not
+dispute its authenticity; at Lausanne, I will venture to observe, 1st,
+That, from Ishmael to Mahomet, a period of two thousand five hundred
+years, they reckon thirty instead of seventy-five generations. 2d. That
+the modern Bedoweens are ignorant of their history, and careless of
+their pedigree."
+
+Abdallah, though of high lineage, was possessed of little wealth; and as
+he died while his son was yet an infant, we may easily suppose that
+little to have been diminished by the rapacity of his kindred. At the
+early age of six years Mahomet lost his mother, Amina; and two years
+after, his grandfather, Abd al Motâlleb, who when dying, earnestly
+confided the helpless orphan to the care of Abu Taleb, the eldest of his
+sons, and the successor to his authority. From him, though treated with
+kindness, Mahomet received a scanty education; but whether that
+education was equal or inferior to that of his countrymen, it is not
+easy to discover. Tradition states that at the time of Mahomet's first
+declaration concerning his mission, only one man in Mecca could write.
+If so, it is nothing wonderful that Mahomet, like the rest of his
+kindred, should also he unable to write. At thirteen years of age, he is
+said to have made a journey to Syria, in the caravan of his uncle, and,
+some years after, to have performed the same journey in the capacity of
+factor to his mistress, Cadijah.
+
+The next remarkable event in the life of Mahomet, is his appearance in
+the character of a soldier. At the early age of fourteen, he served
+under his uncle, who commanded the troops of his tribe, the Koreish, in
+their wars against the rival tribes of Kenan and Hawazan. The
+circumstance is worthy of remark, as illustrative of the perfect
+compatibility between the business of a merchant and that of a soldier,
+among the Arabian people, and upon the constant and rapid transition
+from one to the other.
+
+By the assistance of his uncle he became soon after the factor of a rich
+trading widow in his native city. The animosity of his enemies has
+degraded the confidential agent into a driver of camels. It has been
+confidently and constantly asserted that he was a menial servant in the
+household of his mistress, Cadijah; while, in truth, he was employed to
+carry on her mercantile transactions, and to superintend her affairs. In
+this situation of factor, his conduct and integrity gained him the
+affections of his mistress. Cadijah was not, in the eyes of her people,
+degraded by an alliance with the grandson of their prince; and in her
+own estimation, by bestowing her hand and fortune upon Mahomet, she
+gained a young, handsome, and affectionate husband. Twenty years of
+constancy, of kind and respectful attention, on the part of Mahomet,
+fully justified her choice. It may, indeed, be imagined, and we confess
+the supposition bears the appearance of some plausibility, that the
+affection of Cadijah was not uninfluenced by the handsome person and
+insinuating eloquence of her youthful suitor. And we cannot refuse our
+applause to the conduct of Mahomet, who, whatever might have been her
+motives, never afterward forgot the benefits he had received from his
+benefactress, never made her repent having so bestowed her affection, or
+grieve at having placed her fortune and her person at his absolute
+disposal. Cadijah, at the time of her marriage, was forty; Mahomet,
+twenty-five years of age. Till the age of sixty-four years, when she
+died, did Cadijah enjoy the undivided affection of her husband; "in a
+country where polygamy was allowed, the pride or tenderness of the
+venerable matron was never insulted by the society of a rival. After her
+death he placed her in the rank of the four perfect women: with the
+sister of Moses, the mother of Jesus, and Fatima, the best beloved of
+his daughters. 'Was she not old?' said Ayesha, with the insolence of a
+blooming beauty; 'has not Allah given you a better in her place?' 'No,
+by Allah!' said Mahomet, with an effusion of honest gratitude, 'there
+never can be a better! She believed in me, when men despised me: she
+relieved my wants when I was poor and persecuted by the world.'"
+
+Commerce now occupied his attention, and till the age of forty nothing
+remarkable happened in the life of the future prophet. His marriage with
+Cadijah raised him to an equality with the first citizens of Mecca, gave
+an importance to his opinions, and, combined with the power of his
+family, probably rendered it impossible to punish or interrupt the first
+steps he made toward the propagation of his new religion. When relieved
+from the pressure of indigence, his mind seems almost immediately to
+have been turned toward religious meditation. The result of this
+meditation was an opinion exceedingly unfavorable to the religion of his
+countrymen. The first statement of this conviction was met rather by
+ridicule than anger, being considered the fantasy of a dreaming
+enthusiast, who was little to be dreaded, and unworthy of opposition. We
+are told that he retired to a cave in Mount Hara, near Mecca, where, as
+he assured his first proselyte, his wife, he regularly received the
+visits of the angel Gabriel. This tale his wife believed, or affected to
+believe. The next on the list of true believers were Zeid, the servant
+of the prophet, and Ali, the son of his uncle, Abu Taleb. The impetuous
+youth, disdaining his two predecessors in the true faith, proudly styled
+himself the first of believers. The next and most important convert was
+Abu Bekr, a powerful citizen of Mecca, by whose influence a number of
+persons possessing great authority were induced to profess the religion
+of Islam. Three years were spent in the arduous task of converting six
+of these men. They were afterward his chief companions, and with a few
+others, were the only proselytes to the new religion before it became
+publicly known.
+
+The apostle, who was at first derided, came at length to be feared. The
+people flocked to hear his doctrines, and as they retired, wondering and
+believing, general consternation reigned among the governors of Mecca.
+Frightened by his growing influence, they imprudently endeavored to
+arrest the evil by punishing the offender. For some time, however, the
+power of Abu Taleb, the prophet's uncle, defended him against these
+hostile attacks, which served, by manifesting the alarm and hatred of
+the nobles, to increase Mahomet's fame and importance. Persecution gave
+him strength by bringing him before the public. Once known, he gained
+sympathizing listeners among the benevolent, because a persecuted man;
+and blindly believing votaries among the ignorant and fearful, because a
+bold and vehement declaimer against wickedness, as well as an eloquent
+describer of the horrible torments attached to unbelief. In the seventh
+year of his mission, the heads of the tribe of Koreish made a solemn
+league one with another, engaging themselves to have no commerce or
+connection with the families of Hashem and Al Motâlleb. While Abu Taleb
+lived the league was of no avail; the power of the uncle defended the
+nephew against the designs of his enemies. At length, at the end of the
+seventh year, Abu Taleb died; and a few days after his death Mahomet was
+left a widower, by the decease of Cadijah. In his affliction he termed
+this fatal year the year of mourning.
+
+The unprotected prophet was now completely exposed to the attacks of his
+enemies. His only safety was in flight, and had not the city of Medina
+been friendly to his cause, the religion of Islam would have been
+crushed in the bud. The fame of Mahomet, however, had extended far
+beyond the walls of his native town. Distance, by shrouding him in
+mystery, increased his influence. While he was scorned and derided at
+Mecca, he was worshipped at Medina. A secret deputation from the city of
+Medina waited on the apostle, and an alliance was entered into "during
+two secret and nocturnal interviews, on a hill in the suburbs of Mecca."
+Seventy-three men and two women having professed the faith of Islam, as
+well as some yet unbelievers, met the prophet and proffered him
+assistance. "What recompense," said they, "have we to expect, should we
+fall in your defence?" "Paradise," exclaimed the confident apostle. They
+promised him fidelity and allegiance.
+
+From a fugitive Mahomet became a monarch; no sooner had he arrived at
+Medina than he found himself at the head of an army devoted to his
+person, obedient to his will, and blind believers in his holy office.
+The _fugitives_ from Mecca and the _auxiliaries_ of Medina (the two
+parties into which Mahomet's followers were now divided) gathered round
+their chief, and with friendly emulation vied with each other in
+obedience and in valor. To prevent all jealousy between the brethren,
+Mahomet wisely gave each one a friend and companion from the rival band;
+each _fugitive_ had for his brother one of the _auxiliaries_. Their
+fraternity was continued in peace and in war, and during the life of the
+prophet their union was undisturbed by the voice of discord.
+
+The commands of the prophet were followed to the letter. The first
+warlike attempt of the believers was, nevertheless, unsuccessful.
+Mahomet having learned that a caravan, the property of the hostile
+Koreish, was on its way from Syria to Mecca, despatched his uncle Hamza,
+with a party of thirty horse, to capture it. Hamza, however, discovering
+the caravan to be guarded by 300 men, desisted from his hostile
+enterprise, and returned without the expected booty. On the plain of
+Beder, Mahomet, at the head of his troops, effaced the shame of this
+failure. A rich caravan, proceeding to Mecca, and guarded by Abu Sofian,
+with between thirty and forty men, occasioned the contest. The spies of
+Mahomet informed him that this rich and apparently easy prey was within
+his grasp. He advanced with a few followers in pursuit of it; but before
+he could overtake the unprotected band, Abu Sofian had sent for a
+reinforcement from Mecca. A troop consisting of 950 men, among whom were
+the chief persons of that city, instantly obeyed the summons. Mahomet
+was posted between the caravan and the coming succor, being able to
+oppose to this formidable force no more than 313 soldiers, mounted for
+the most part on camels; some few (according to some authors, not more
+than two) being mounted on horses.
+
+Undismayed by this disparity of force, Mahomet determined to try the
+event of a battle, and risk his fortune and perhaps his life upon the
+contest. The troops were persuaded to engage the superior forces of the
+enemy, and for the present to abandon the tempting prize of Abu Sofian's
+rich caravan. Mahomet animated them by his prayers, and in the name of
+the Most High promised them certain victory. However assured he might
+have been of divine assistance, he was careful to let slip no human
+means of securing success. An entrenchment was made to cover the flanks
+of his troop, and a rivulet flowed past the spot he had chosen for his
+encampment, and furnished his army with a constant supply of water. When
+the enemy appeared, descending from the hills, Mahomet ordered his
+soldiers to the attack; but before the armies could engage, three
+combatants, Ali, Al Hareth, and Hamza, on the side of the Moslems, and
+three of the Koreish, joined in single conflict. The Moslem warriors
+were victorious, and thus gave to both armies a presage of the coming
+engagement. The prophet, with Abu Bekr, at the commencement of the
+battle, mounted a pulpit, fervently demanding of God the assistance of
+Gabriel and three thousand angels; but when his army appeared to waver,
+he started from his place of prayer, mounted a horse, and flinging a
+handful of dust into the air, exclaiming, "May their faces be
+confounded!" rushed upon the enemy. Fanaticism rendered his followers
+invincible; the numerous forces of the Koreish were unable to break the
+ranks or resist the furious attacks of his confiding soldiers. They
+fled, leaving seventy of their principal officers dead upon the field,
+and seventy prisoners in the hands of the enemy. Of the Moslems, only
+fourteen were slain. The names of the slaughtered warriors have been
+handed down to posterity, and enrolled among the list of pious martyrs
+whom the faithful Mussulman is taught to worship.
+
+Space will not permit us to enumerate the various battles fought by
+Mahomet; according, however, to the computation of some authors, no less
+than twenty-seven expeditions were undertaken, in which he personally
+commanded, and in which nine pitched battles were fought. During the
+same period, he was besieged in Medina, by the implacable Koreish; but,
+by his own skill, and the bravery of his troops, he repelled all their
+attacks. In the sixth year of the Hegira, with 1,400 men, he meditated
+what he asserted to be a peaceful pilgrimage to the holy temple of
+Mecca. Entrance into the city being refused by the people, the prophet,
+in his anger, determined to force his way. At this critical juncture an
+ambassador was despatched from Mecca to demand a peace. The policy of
+Mahomet induced him to lay aside his determination of assaulting his
+native city, and to accept the peaceful offers of his countrymen. A
+truce of ten years was consequently concluded between the prophet and
+the Koreish.
+
+Two years had hardly elapsed when Mahomet accused the people of Mecca of
+a breach of their engagement. When a man is really desirous of
+quarrelling, a pretext is never wanting. He was now strong, and his
+enemies were weak. His superstitious reverence for the city of his
+nativity, and for the temple it contained, served also to influence his
+determination for war. The time since the concluding of the truce had
+been skilfully employed in seducing the adherents of the Koreish, and
+converting to his religion the chief citizens of Mecca. With an army of
+10,000 men he marched to besiege it, and no sooner did he appear before
+the walls than the city surrendered at discretion.
+
+[Illustration: The Muezzin.]
+
+The religion of Mahomet may be considered now to have been permanently
+settled. The conquest of Mecca and of the Koreish was the signal for the
+submission of the rest of Arabia. The events of the prophet's after-life
+cease, therefore, to possess an interest for a Western reader. They
+were, for the most part, merely expeditions undertaken for the purpose
+of reducing the petty tribes who still resisted his authority, and were
+all of them eventually successful. The influence and religion of Mahomet
+continued rapidly to extend; his difficulties were over; and the hour of
+his prosperity has nothing to instruct or to amuse the general reader.
+Between the taking of Mecca and the period of his death, not more than
+three years elapsed. In that short period he had destroyed the idols of
+Arabia; had extended his conquests to the borders of the Greek and
+Persian empires; had rendered his name formidable to those once mighty
+kingdoms; had tried his arms against the undisciplined troops of the
+former, and defeated them in a desperate encounter at Muta. His throne
+was now firmly established, and an impetus given to the Arabian nations
+that in a few years induced them to invade, and enabled them to subdue,
+a great portion of the globe. India, Persia, the Greek Empire, the whole
+of Asia Minor, Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, were reduced by their
+victorious arms. The Muezzin[10] was heard throughout an empire greater
+than Alexander's; and though the temporal power of his successors has
+now faded to a shadow, the religion which he founded still holds sway
+throughout all that empire, and is even endeavoring to extend itself.
+Although Mahomet did not live to see such mighty conquests, he laid the
+first foundations of this wide-spreading dominion, and established over
+the whole of Arabia, and some part of Syria, the religion he had
+proclaimed.
+
+         [Footnote 10: The Muezzin is the Mahometan official who
+         announces to the faithful the hour of prayer. Three times in
+         the day and twice at night he goes up to the balcony of one of
+         the minarets of the mosque, and chants the call. It is a simple
+         but solemn melody, which floats down from the height of his
+         turret upon the sleeping or bustling city with vast
+         impressiveness, and receives immediate and universal
+         obedience.]
+
+
+
+
+ALFRED THE GREAT
+
+By SIR J. BERNARD BURKE, LL.D.
+
+(849-901)
+
+[Illustration: Family scene. [TN]]
+
+
+No name in English history is so popular, and so justly popular, as that
+of Alfred the Great. That he taught his people to defend themselves and
+defeat their enemies, is the least of his many claims to our grateful
+admiration; he did much more than this; he gave the first impulse to the
+spirit of civilization, and taught a horde of wild barbarians that there
+were other and worthier pursuits than war or the pleasures of the table.
+In fact, he was one of those highly gifted men that would seem to be
+raised up especially by Providence to meet certain emergencies, or to
+advance the career of nations. Such was the hero, so beautifully
+recorded by the pen of Edmund Burke, and of whose history we now purpose
+to give a slight sketch for the amusement of those who might turn in
+weariness from a more ample record.
+
+Alfred the Great was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in the year 849, one
+of the most dreary and calamitous periods of English chronicle. He was
+the youngest son of Ethelwulph, a mild and virtuous prince, but full of
+a timid piety which utterly disqualified him for the circumstances in
+which he was placed. According to the historian Asser, young Alfred,
+being of a more comely person and sweeter disposition than his elder
+brothers, became the favorite of both his parents, and was sent by them
+to Rome, while yet a child, in order that he might be anointed king by
+the Pope himself. But though the feeble piety of Ethelwulph showed this
+especial instance of regard for his son, he altogether neglected his
+education, and the young prince in his twelfth year had not yet learned
+to read or write. Fortunately for himself, and still more so for the
+kingdom he was afterward to govern, he possessed a mind too active to be
+entirely subdued by the most unfavorable circumstances. If he could not
+read for himself, he nevertheless loved to listen to the rude but
+inspiring strains of Saxon poetry when recited by others, and had he not
+been a hero and a statesman, he might probably have been a poet. At
+length, as the old chronicler tells us--"on a certain day, his mother
+was shewing him and his brothers a Saxon book of poetry, which she held
+in her hand, and said, 'Whichever of you shall the soonest learn this
+volume, shall have it for his own.'" Thus stimulated, Alfred bent
+himself to the task with all that steady ardor which so strongly
+characterized him in after-life, and easily won the prize from his tardy
+competitors. This gave a fresh impulse to his natural appetite for
+learning; even his passion for the chase could not divert him from
+earnest study; nor was he to be deterred by what might have been a
+better excuse for indolence, the incessant tortures of the secret malady
+which had attacked him while yet a child, and which never left him but
+with life. What this _secret_ disease was, the old chroniclers have
+forgotten, or for some reasons omitted, to explain.
+
+In 871, Alfred succeeded his brother in the sovereignty of Wessex, at a
+period when the whole country was suffering under the ravages of the
+Danes, who burnt, plundered, and destroyed without the least distinction
+of age, sex, or profession. Being still pagans, the convent was no more
+sacred to them than the palace or the cottage. They waged war upon all
+alike, and the general misery was yet farther increased by a raging
+pestilence, and the internal dissensions of the people.
+
+Alfred now for the first time took the field against these brave, but
+ruthless, invaders. He was defeated; yet such was his skill and courage,
+that he was able to maintain the struggle till at length a peace, or
+rather a truce, was concluded between the combatants, for these
+intervals of calm seldom lasted beyond a year. Neither was this the
+worst of the evils that beset the Saxon prince. Any compact he might
+make with one party of the Danes was considered binding only upon _that_
+party, and had no influence whatever upon others of their countrymen,
+who had different leaders and different interests. Thus, upon the
+present occasion, Alfred had no sooner made terms with one piratical
+horde than he was invaded by a fresh body of them under Rollo; and when
+he had compelled these to abandon Wessex, and seek for an easier
+conquest on the shores of Normandy, he was attacked by fresh bodies of
+Danes already settled in the other parts of England. So long, however,
+as they ventured to meet him in the open field, his skill secured him
+the victory; till, taught by repeated defeats, they had recourse to
+another system of tactics. "They used," says Burke, "suddenly to land
+and ravage a part of the country; when a force opposed them they retired
+to their ships and passed to some other part, which in a like manner
+they ravaged, and then retired as before, until the country, entirely
+harassed, pillaged, and wasted by their incursions, was no longer able
+to resist them. Then they ventured safely to enter a desolated and
+disheartened country and to establish themselves in it."
+
+To meet this system of warfare it was necessary to create a navy at a
+time when the Saxons knew not how to build ships, or to manage them when
+built. But the genius of Alfred triumphed over every obstacle. He
+brought shipwrights from the Continent, himself assisted the workmen in
+their labors, and engaged Frisian seamen, the neighbors of the Danes,
+and, like them, pirates.
+
+The new armament being completed, Alfred fell upon a Danish fleet which
+was bringing round a large force from Wareham to the relief of their
+friends, besieged in Exeter. These he defeated at all points, taking or
+destroying no less than one hundred and twenty, already damaged by a
+previous storm, and perhaps, on that account, less capable of defence.
+The Danes, whom he held cooped up in Exeter, found themselves in
+consequence compelled to surrender, and, giving hostages not to trouble
+Wessex any longer, they settled themselves in Mercia, after the example
+of so many of their countrymen, and became occupants of the land they
+had before ravaged. Thus Alfred, in the seventh year of his reign, had
+lost nothing by the war waged under so many difficulties and
+disadvantages, enough to have overwhelmed a man of less energy and
+genius; he still retained that portion of the kingdom which lies south
+of the Thames, the only part ever belonging to him in separate
+sovereignty, while the Danes possessed all the country on the northern
+side of the river. The rest of the land was thus divided: Halfdane
+reigned in Northumberland; his brother in East Anglia; and Guthrum,
+Osketel, and Amund, governed with their subordinate king, Ceowulph, in
+Mercia.
+
+There now occurs a difficulty in the life of Alfred, unexplained by the
+most industrious of his historians from any satisfactory record. We have
+just seen him triumphant, and at peace with his defeated enemies.
+Suddenly, without the notice of any lost battle, we find him seeking
+refuge in the cottage of a herdsman in the _Isle of Ethelingeye_, or
+_Island of Nobles_, now called Athelney. This spot, scarcely comprising
+two acres of ground, was surrounded on all sides by marshes, so that it
+could be approached only in a boat, and in it flourished a considerable
+grove of alders, in which were stags, goats, and other animals. Here it
+is that the romantic incident of the burnt cake is supposed to have
+occurred; a story told by many of the old writers, but nowhere so fully
+as in the Latin life of St. Neot. There we read that "Alfred, a
+fugitive, and exiled from his people, came by chance and entered the
+house of a poor herdsman, and there remained some days in poverty,
+concealed and unknown.
+
+"Now it happened that on the Sabbath day, the herdsman, as usual, led
+his cattle to their accustomed pastures, and the king remained alone
+with the man's wife. She, as necessity required, placed a few loaves,
+which some call _loudas_, on a pan, with fire underneath, to be baked
+for her husband's repast on his return, as well as for her own.
+
+"While she was of need busied, peasant-like, upon other affairs, she
+went anxious to the fire, and found the bread burning on the other side.
+She immediately assailed the king with reproaches. 'Why, man, do you sit
+thinking there, and are too proud to turn the bread? Whatever be your
+family, with such manners and sloth, what trust can be put in you
+hereafter? If you were a nobleman, you will be glad to eat the bread
+which you neglect to attend to.' The king, though stung by her
+upbraidings, yet heard her with patience and mildness, and roused by her
+scolding, took care to bake her bread as she wished."
+
+This fable has been variously narrated; some accounts making the
+disguised prince busy in forming for himself a bow with arrows and other
+instruments of war, while the woman gives vent to her indignation in
+rhyme:
+
+  "To turn the burning cakes you have forgot,
+   Prompt as you are to eat them when they're hot."
+
+In a short time the king's retreat became known to his adherents, who
+flocking to him in numbers, he soon found himself enabled to carry on a
+sort of guerilla warfare upon the nearest Danes. Growing bolder from the
+general success of these sallies, he at length determined upon more
+decisive measures; but before making the attempt, it was expedient to
+learn the actual condition of his enemy. With this view he assumed the
+costume of a Saxon minstrel, and ventured into the Danish camp at
+Chippenham, about thirty miles distant from his stronghold among the
+marshes. In this disguise he went from tent to tent, and, as some of the
+chroniclers tell us, was admitted into the tent of Guthrum himself, the
+Danish leader, his quality of gleeman assuring safety even to a Saxon.
+Having obtained the necessary information, he returned to Athelney,
+which he finally left on the seventh week after Easter, and rode to
+_Egbert's Stone_, in the eastern part of _Selwood_, or the _Great Wood_.
+Here he was met by all the neighboring folk of Somersetshire, Wiltshire,
+and Hampshire, who had not, for fear of the pagans, fled beyond the sea.
+Once more he encountered his enemies, and with a success almost as
+marvellous as the vision of St. Neot, which announced it, he routed the
+Danes at Ethendune with so much slaughter that they were glad to obtain
+peace on such terms as he chose to dictate. Guthrum embraced
+Christianity, and became the adopted son of Alfred.
+
+The king's next care was to endeavor at amalgamating the Danes, who had
+settled in the country, with the victorious Saxons; a wise policy, and
+as wisely carried out. The result of it was, that when new hordes of
+invaders poured down upon England, they met with no encouragement from
+their countrymen already established in the island, and for want of this
+support were easily put to flight. Nor was it by land only that Alfred
+proved his superiority, being no less successful by sea against the
+Danes of East Anglia. These he defeated off their adopted coast, and
+captured thirteen of their ships, with all the treasure in them.
+
+[Illustration: King Alfred visiting a monastery school.]
+
+Fearful as were the ravages committed by the Danes, they were yet, like
+many others of the evils of life, productive in the end of good.
+Before their invasion of the country, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, and
+Northumberland existed as four independent kingdoms. The last three they
+subdued in a little time to their own power, but being in turn defeated
+by Alfred, the conquered states fell to him, and this led the way to
+their final consolidation into a single kingdom. It was, however, a work
+of time, for the turbulent spirit of the Northmen required long and
+judicious treatment to make them lay down the sword, and take up the
+spade and sickle.
+
+Peace being at length restored, Alfred, who was a full century in
+advance of his people, commenced in earnest the arduous task of
+civilization. He called about him from all parts the most learned men of
+the day, and, setting the example in his own person, did more in a few
+years for the general advancement than had been previously effected in
+as many ages. Deficient himself in cultivation, but a giant in
+intellect, he devoted himself to study amid care, toil, and disease,
+mastered the Latin tongue, and--if we may believe William of
+Malmsbury--translated almost all that was known of Roman literature into
+Saxon. His clear and capacious mind was pious without bigotry, and while
+he reverenced the Pope as universal vicar, according to the doctrines of
+his age, he had yet none of the religious weakness of his father, but
+governed his kingdom in absolute independence of the Roman see. At the
+same time, no prince was more earnest in advancing the general interests
+of religion, which he considered, truly enough, essential to the
+well-being of the country. He rebuilt the ruined monasteries, added
+largely to the endowments of those that had escaped the barbarous
+invaders, and gave every encouragement to the ecclesiastics who came
+recommended to his favor by ability or virtue.
+
+While thus employed in the arts of peace, Alfred did not for an instant
+neglect the military defences of his kingdom, without which, indeed, he
+would have been like an improvident husbandman, who should carefully
+cultivate his land, but leave it unhedged and unprotected. One of his
+most efficient measures for this purpose, was the building of a new kind
+of galleys, which "were twice as long, twice as high, sailed more
+quickly, and were less unsteady than those of the Danes; some of these
+ships had sixty oars, some more." In addition to these naval
+improvements, his genius, which seemed to adapt itself alike to all
+arts, suggested a complete revolution in the existing state of military
+tactics, both in the field and in fortifications. He was, however,
+feebly seconded by his people; they had not yet arrived at that degree
+of practical wisdom which teaches men to endure a present pain for the
+sake of a future benefit, and could with difficulty be brought to make
+preparations against dangers which were still remote from them.
+
+Had Alfred done no more than what has been already mentioned, he would
+have deserved the lasting gratitude of his countrymen. But, in addition
+to all this, his services as a legislator must be taken into the
+account. If we judge of the system established by him, with reference to
+the age in which, and for which, it was produced, we shall find that in
+this respect also, the great Alfred stands without a rival. He had no
+help from the accumulated wisdom of ages; his enactments were to a great
+extent the result of his own mind and genius; or, at least, we may say
+of him, that he was the most original of legislators.
+
+Peace had lasted for what in those days must be held a very considerable
+period. But now the storm burst forth again as violently as ever. In the
+year 893 a famine visited the coast of France, and of so sweeping a
+kind, that the Danes, who had settled there under Hastings, determined
+to relieve themselves by a piratical attack upon Kent. Having landed
+without opposition, for Hastings had taken the English by surprise, he
+formed two encampments, the one at Appledore, the other at Milton, only
+twenty miles apart; there they were joined by many of their countrymen,
+who poured in from the north and east, notwithstanding their oaths, and
+that they had given hostages for their good conduct to the king of
+Wessex. Incredible as it may now seem, the invaders were allowed for a
+whole year to retain possession of the land thus acquired, without any
+attempt being made to dislodge them. The chroniclers of the time,
+however, tell us that this delay was occasioned by the necessity of
+providing against the faithlessness of their brethren, who, although
+they had not yet revolted, were hardly to be trusted without some
+farther security for their loyal adherence to the pledges already given.
+Having taken the necessary measures, Alfred then attacked Hastings,
+compelled him to sue for peace, and next turned his arms against a body
+of these pirates who had established themselves at Farnham. With them,
+too, he was no less successful; but while he was thus occupied, the
+East-Anglian and Northumbrian Danes seized the opportunity of revolt,
+and sailed in two fleets for the coast of Devonshire. These also he
+defeated, though even then it required no less than three years to drive
+these new invaders from the country.
+
+And now, in the year 901, having fulfilled his earthly mission as the
+defender and civilizer of his people, the great and good King Alfred
+expired, on October 26th, six days before the Mass of All Saints--not
+less beloved by his contemporaries than admired by after-ages.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN HUSS
+
+By REV. DR. TWEEDIE
+
+(1373-1415)
+
+[Illustration: John Huss. [TN]]
+
+
+John Huss, a reformer before the Reformation, and the martyr of
+Constance, was born about the year 1373. His birthplace was Hussinetz, a
+village of Bohemia. His parentage was humble, and his early toils and
+privations formed the school in which he was trained for future
+hardships and sufferings. He studied at the university of Prague; and
+some of his teachers were men somewhat in advance of their age. In the
+year 1396 Huss received his master's degree, and began to lecture in
+his university in 1398. In 1400 he was appointed confessor to the Queen
+of Bohemia; and in 1401 he became president of the philosophical faculty
+of Prague. The corruptions of his day, especially among the Romish
+priesthood, early suggested deep thoughts to this ardent man, and he
+found a few who were like-minded with himself among those who resided at
+Prague. Some of these entered into an arrangement for spreading truth as
+purely as it was then known; Huss was chosen their preacher, and there,
+in a place appropriately called "Bethlehem," or the House of Bread, he
+"refreshed the common people with the bread of holy preaching." The
+impression which he produced was profound. A fervent love, a holy life,
+glowing appeals, and a gentle manner, all helped to make him a master in
+grace, but soon brought him into collision with dark, mediæval minds.
+
+Here, then, is another decided and heroic man who has entered the ranks
+of the friends of truth. He will have much to do and much to endure--his
+patron will become his persecutor, and his friends will cast him out--if
+he is to assail the corruptions of the year 1400. But Huss was not the
+man to be damped by danger. His only inquiry was, What is duty?--he will
+do it at all hazards, and let us consider how; for in considering it, we
+see another example of the need of heroic decision in a world like ours,
+if man would really benefit his brother man. As early as the year 1391,
+the Bohemian reformer was studying the works of the great Englishman of
+that age; and all these things helped to urge him forward in the path in
+which he resolved to move. An archbishop might thwart him, and try to
+put him down. A whole university might oppose some of his measures.
+Wickliff's books might be burned, and loud remonstrances be heard. As a
+result, students, variously estimated at from 5,000 to 44,000 might
+forsake the university of Prague. But unmoved by such commotions, Huss
+went boldly forward.
+
+But, intrepid as he was, Huss needed all his intrepidity. One of his
+friends was first thrown into prison, and then banished for his
+boldness; and Huss had to appeal to the archbishop, the chief agent in
+the persecution. "What is this," he cried "that men stained with
+innocent blood--men guilty of every crime--shall be found walking abroad
+with impunity, while humble priests, who spend all their efforts to
+destroy sin ... are cast into dungeons as heretics, and must suffer
+banishment for preaching the gospel?"
+
+Matters soon reached a crisis. Huss was summoned to Italy to defend his
+doctrines, and all Bohemia was roused by that step. The future martyr
+was not permitted to go--it would have been to sacrifice his life.
+Meanwhile Queen Sophia used her influence on his behalf. The king wrote
+to the Pope and the cardinal in his favor. He demanded liberty for Huss
+to preach, and insisted that all actions against him should cease, so
+that for a while the persecution was stayed. But at last Huss was
+pronounced a heretic; and now he is one stage nearer to Constance and
+the funeral pile. On the way, however, he could exclaim, "Where I see
+anything at variance with the doctrines of Christ, I will not obey,
+though the stakes were staring me in the face." That was his maxim all
+through life; and in such an age such heroism in such a cause was the
+harbinger of death.
+
+At one stage of these life and death struggles, Huss had to do battle
+against a whole theological faculty; and that and similar contests
+trained him to a boldness and decision which was constantly growing. But
+he had now to separate, for the truth's sake, from friends whom he had
+prized through life. His pathway, indeed, is gradually becoming more
+narrow, as well as more rough--he is one of those who must often walk
+alone.
+
+Indulgences were now attacked by him in public disputations. About this
+period some of his friends were condemned to death because they objected
+to indulgences, and Huss took up their cause. He hastened to the Senate
+House, and pleaded for the three condemned men. He made their danger his
+own, and declared that he, the teacher, not they, the disciples, should
+die. In spite of his efforts, and in violation of promises given that no
+blood should be shed, his three friends were hurried to execution; and
+what could be the result of that step, but a more intense antagonism, a
+more resolute decision? On a subsequent occasion, accordingly, Huss
+appeared before the king and his council, to defend what he reckoned the
+right. He offered, with characteristic ardor, to be bound to die at the
+stake if he did not make good his views, provided his eight opponents
+would do the same. But all other struggles were soon merged in the great
+conflict with Rome itself. The Pope had determined to put down Huss, and
+he was excommunicated with the most terrible of papal forms. If he did
+not submit in twenty days, the ban was to be proclaimed against him in
+all churches; all who harbored him were to be laid under an interdict,
+and Huss himself was to be burned according to law.
+
+The King of Bohemia had urged Huss to leave Prague for a time, in the
+hope that peace might thus be restored. He complied, and, like Luther in
+the Wartburg, in the Castle of Kozi-hradek wrote some of his most
+important works. Never was more determined courage displayed by any man
+in similar circumstances than by Huss in that castle.
+
+From his hiding-place Huss often went abroad and preached to the crowds
+who flocked to hear him; but the Council of Constance is now at hand,
+for we are referring to the year 1414, and he is to proceed thither
+under a safe-conduct from Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, with the
+assurance that if he could not submit to the decision of the Council,
+the emperor would send him back unharmed to Bohemia. This was an
+opportunity for which Huss had longed. He would now, he thought, deliver
+his message and uphold the truth before assembled potentates, and
+proceeded to Prague to prepare for the council.[11] He there publicly
+challenged all his opponents to convict him of error if they could, and
+proved that he was valiant for the truth as long as he was free.
+
+         [Footnote 11: It should be carefully observed here, that the
+         emperor guaranteed to Huss a safe journey both to Constance and
+         from it. The words of the document are: "Ut ei transire, stare,
+         morari, redire libere permittatis."]
+
+Huss set out for Constance on October 11, 1414, with two faithful
+knights to protect him by the way. Even in Germany he was cordially
+welcomed by many. He courted opportunities of making known his views,
+and at Nuremberg, in particular, he enjoyed such an opportunity to the
+full. He reached Constance on November 3d, where his enemies were busily
+employed, and he was speedily posted as a vile heretic; indeed, it was
+soon made plain that if he was a bold, intrepid man, he needed to be so.
+Officials from the Pope, who was then at Constance, desired him, as an
+interdicted priest, to abstain from the Church services; but he declined
+to comply. Had he chosen even to equivocate, he might have escaped; but
+Huss was not the man to trim. Such a course was formally proposed to
+him; but though he was far from being buoyed up by false hopes, he
+resolutely and without hesitation declined all underhand suggestions: he
+would uphold the truth, but that was all that he would do. "I fear
+nothing," he said; "for I hope that, after a great conflict, will ensue
+a great victory, and after the victory a still greater reward to me, and
+a still greater discomfiture to my enemies."
+
+Huss was not kept long in suspense. He sought various opportunities of
+proclaiming his views: but these were all denied him, and moreover, on
+November 28th, he was made a close prisoner. He was removed in chains to
+the castle of Gottleben. By night and day he was kept chained there, and
+all was done that was likely to bow down, or to break, the undaunted
+man. But though one form of disease after another assailed him, no
+wavering thought was harbored, no wavering word escaped; all his sorrows
+only led him deeper and deeper into the truth which he prized so well,
+and, in the face of crowding dangers, his resolution actually became
+more and more fixed and heroic.
+
+The cruel mockery of justice at Constance was carried on by tribunal
+after tribunal; but the victim was steadfast and unmovable. Now, gleams
+of hope broke forth for him and his friends, and then darkness gathered
+round them once more; but Huss found one thing unchanging, the word of
+his God--and when the council met in the Franciscan convent, which had
+become the martyr's prison, formally to try his case, they cruelly
+attempted to prejudge the matter without hearing him at all. But the
+emperor interfered, and Huss appeared before them, ready to retract
+whatever was contrary to Scripture: but whenever he attempted to plead,
+a savage outcry arose around, till the voice of truth was drowned in the
+din. On June 7th, he stood forth the second time before the council; but
+it was a wrangle rather than a solemn trial, for Huss would not abate
+one jot of his convictions, except as the Scriptures condemned them.
+
+On June 8th, his third examination took place. Huss was told, at the
+close, that if he would suppliantly submit and retract opinions which he
+declared he never held, his judges would be lenient--otherwise, his
+danger was obvious. He was thus asked to confess his errors, to swear
+that he would never more preach them, and publicly recant; but he
+constantly refused such terms, unless he were convicted by the word of
+God. Even the emperor pleaded with him to yield; the judges also urged
+him, and professed a desire for his escape; but he was not to be moved,
+and must therefore hasten back to his cell, an outcast heretic in
+chains. If he would recant, he would be permitted to live--but little
+more, for imprisonment for life was to be his lot. But little did those
+judges know either the man whom they held in their grasp, or the
+principles and the power which bore him up. He could die, but he could
+not be anything but a true man. An emperor's safe-conduct was found to
+be a worthless thing, and "Trust not in princes" was a portion of the
+word of God which Huss learned thoroughly to understand.
+
+[Illustration: Huss' execution. [TN]]
+
+It was with unruffled self-possession that Huss gave himself to
+martyrdom. As he had never abandoned the Romish Church, he calmly
+engaged in its functions preparatory to his death. Indeed, some touching
+scenes were witnessed in his prison--he unshaken--his friends, his very
+enemies weeping like womanhood beside him. Deputation after deputation
+visited him--one of them from the emperor himself--and recantation was
+constantly the burden of their pleading. But Huss would not recant
+except upon conviction; and on July 6, 1415, he appeared once more
+before the council, where the emperor was present on his throne. Many of
+the judges were Huss's bitter personal enemies, for as he had assailed
+the measureless corruptions of their order, that was an unpardonable
+sin. Besides, history is careful to tell that bribery was largely
+employed to make sure of his destruction--and now the last act of the
+dark tragedy has arrived. No further defence was permitted to Huss, yet
+he uttered one solemn appeal. Once and again he prayed for his enemies.
+Being clothed in his priestly robes, he was stripped of them by seven
+bishops, while he still persisted in holding fast his convictions,
+except as the truth of God could be shown to condemn them. The mark of
+his tonsure was next removed, and that with great cruelty. A cap daubed
+over with the figures of demons was then placed on his head, and thus
+the heroic martyr of Bohemia was led forth to be burned in the name of
+religion.
+
+[Illustration: Execution of Huss.]
+
+At the place of execution Huss prayed, and often repeated the words,
+"Into thy hands, Lord, I commit my spirit." When compelled to rise from
+his knees, he still appealed to the Saviour, and prayed for "a strong
+and steadfast soul" to endure that shameful death. Even after he was
+placed at the stake, and had actually been surrounded by fagots, he
+declared that he willingly wore his chains for Christ, who wore yet
+heavier bonds. With his last breath he repelled a temptation to recant,
+and when the fire was kindled he began to sing with a loud voice,
+"Jesus, son of the living God, have mercy upon me." When he was
+repeating the words for the third time, his voice failed; he was stifled
+by the flames, and soon reduced to ashes. These ashes were cast into the
+Rhine.
+
+Thus perished one of the noblest men who ever walked our world. His
+death led to the Hussite war. In his native Bohemia he was so loved that
+the peasants rose in great bodies, crying for vengeance. Many of the
+nobles joined them, and for fifteen years battle and bloodshed avenged
+his execution.
+
+
+
+
+LOUIS XI. OF FRANCE
+
+By E. SPENCER BEESLY, M.A.
+
+(1423-1483.)
+
+[Illustration: A group of men. [TN]]
+
+
+During the Middle Ages there was a constant struggle in the West between
+the two elements of the temporal power--the central, or national, and
+the local, or that of the great vassals. Gradually the local governments
+all merged in large aggregates, in each of which a single national
+government gathered to itself all military, civil, and judicial
+functions. This movement was already in progress before the end of the
+thirteenth century. By the end of the fifteenth the struggle was
+substantially decided, though it did not come completely to an end till
+the latter part of the seventeenth century.
+
+In France, as in most countries, the agent in this organizing and
+nationalizing movement was the crown. Almost every French monarch did
+something toward enforcing recognition of the royal authority in all
+parts of that country which by geographical conditions, as well as by
+its history, was fitted for political unity. But, either because they
+did not see their way to undertaking the direct government of so large
+an area, or because they were themselves under the dominion of feudal
+ideas, they did not always avail themselves of their frequent
+opportunities for extinguishing the local governments of the fiefs
+which fell into their hands. The Valois kings granted many of them as
+appanages to their younger sons, and so created a new set of great
+vassals, who revived the struggle for feudal independence. The most
+dangerous of these, the Duke of Burgundy, openly aided the English
+invaders. This prince, besides his French fiefs, possessed the yet more
+important territories now known as Belgium and the Netherlands. Charles
+VII., the father of Louis XI., having expelled the English, established
+a permanent force of nine thousand cavalry--the first standing army in
+modern times.
+
+During the life of his father, Louis was not a dutiful subject. His
+masterful spirit could brook no superior. He even conspired with the
+rebel vassals. But as king (1461-1483) he pursued the policy of his
+greatest predecessors with undaunted courage, patient perseverance, and
+political genius of the highest order. At first he was too much in a
+hurry. He tried to clip the wings of all his vassals at once. He
+irritated the industrial classes by severe taxation. He drove into exile
+or rebellion his father's ablest generals and councillors. This brought
+upon him the so-called "League of Public Welfare," headed by Charles the
+Bold, heir of Burgundy, which aimed at a virtual dismemberment of
+France. Persevering as Louis was, he had none of the weak obstinacy
+which cannot distinguish between means and ends. Finding himself
+overmatched, though he had cut his way through the hosts of rebels at
+Montlhéry, he conceded to them everything they demanded. By the treaty
+of Conflans (1465) he might seem to have flung up the game in despair,
+and to have signed the ruin of France. But his high Court of Justice
+(Parlement), by refusing to register the treaty, gave him an excuse for
+evading its performance, and by negotiating with the princes separately
+he broke up their coalition. The peaceful and industrious classes stood
+by him, and he studiously cared for their interests; mixing familiarly
+with the citizens of Paris, dining at their houses, standing godfather
+to their children, putting aside all state and ceremony, and even
+dressing in humble attire. The precautions of his residence at Plessis
+belong only to the last months of his life, when he was old and
+paralytic. Never ashamed to own a mistake and to retrace false steps, he
+won back the most valuable of his father's servants, whom he had at
+first driven away. His designs against feudalism were not for a moment
+suspended. But instead of attacking all his vassals at once he took them
+in detail; while one was being crushed, others were humored till their
+turn came.
+
+[Illustration: Louis XI. and Olivier Le Dain.]
+
+As a young man he had shown warlike tastes and brilliant personal valor;
+but as king he always preferred negotiation and policy. It was a too
+daring confidence in his mastery of these weapons which led him to risk
+his famous visit to Charles the Bold, at Péronne (1468), so vividly
+painted by Scott in "Quentin Durward," who, however, omits to mention
+the safe-conduct which Charles basely violated. At such critical moments
+Louis's nerve became steadiest and his intellect most acute. The
+concessions extorted from him at Péronne seemed to undo the work of
+years; but when once he was free he found means to remedy all the
+mischief that had been done. "Never," says his Minister Comines, "was
+there a man so sagacious in adversity; when he drew back it was to make
+a longer spring." In another war with Burgundy, Edward IV., of England,
+landed with a large army (1475). To warlike nobles it seemed very base
+that Louis bought off the invaders instead of rushing upon another Crécy
+or Agincourt; but he thoroughly despised such criticism. He had an army,
+and a good one; but if a round sum of money would effect his purpose
+more cheaply, surely, and speedily, why should he expose his subjects to
+the horrors and losses of war? Two years later Charles fell at Nancy,
+fighting against the Swiss, who were in the pay of Louis. It was the
+death-blow of feudalism. Louis promptly seized the duchy of Burgundy and
+some other territories of the deceased duke. Altogether, during his
+reign, he brought eleven provinces under the direct government of the
+crown--Brittany being the only great fief which at his death remained
+independent. He had thus assured the unity of France and her
+preponderance in Europe.
+
+Hardly less important services to his country were his establishment of
+order and good administration, his financial and judicial reforms, his
+encouragement of industry and commerce. "He effected," says Lavallée,
+"attempted, or projected, all the innovations of modern France."
+Diplomacy, the modern makeshift for the international office of the
+mediæval papacy, dates from him. Historians have dwelt on his cruelty,
+perfidy, and superstition.[12] Turbulent nobles, like St. Pol and
+Armagnac, were brought to the block; treacherous ministers, like
+Cardinal La Balue, were kept for years in iron cages; vulgar criminals
+swung from gibbets on every highroad. But this severity toward ruffians
+of high and low degree, who had preyed on the country for the best part
+of the century, wrought peace and prosperity for the law-abiding and
+industrious. In the decay of feudal manners and Catholic discipline, the
+sentiment of honor had almost vanished from public life. But, judged
+relatively to his times, Louis is not to be branded as perfidious. He
+did not scruple to break treaties contrary to the interests of his
+country, which had been extorted from him by force; but he was more
+straightforward than his principal contemporaries. Twice, when he could
+have got rid of Charles the Bold by acts of treachery, which in those
+days no one would have blamed, he chose the honorable course. To
+reproach a man of the fifteenth century with superstition, because he
+thought there might be some efficacy in images and relics, is an abuse
+of language. If he clung to life it was because he felt that so much of
+his projected work remained unfinished. He met death with remarkable
+fortitude, his thoughts and efforts being to the last moment occupied
+with the affairs, not of his soul, but of his country. His minister and
+intimate friend, Comines, has left a faithful and judicious account of
+his life. Two great poets have dealt unfairly with him: Scott could not
+forgive the foe of feudalism; Hugo was blinded by democratic prejudices.
+
+         [Footnote 12: It is said that Louis was a firm believer in
+         astrology, that he wore a cap set round with leaden images of
+         the saints to which he prayed, but told them falsehoods even in
+         his prayers. His choice of a confidential adviser was perhaps
+         his greatest offence in the eyes of the nobility, for he
+         selected his barber, Olivier le Dain, or Oliver the Devil. This
+         man mocked his master even while he served him. Our engraving,
+         after the painting of Hermann Kaulbach, represents both in
+         characteristic positions.]
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA OF CASTILE[13]
+
+By SARAH H. KILLIKELLY
+
+(1451-1504)
+
+         [Footnote 13: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Isabella. [TN]]
+
+
+Isabella, the only daughter of John II., of Castile, and Isabella, of
+Portugal, his second wife, was born in Madrigal, Spain, in 1451. Upon
+the death of her father her elder half-brother succeeded to the throne
+in 1454, as Henry IV. The queen dowager retired from court life with her
+infant son Alfonso, and her daughter Isabella, then in her fourth year.
+The royal children were reared by a wise mother in the seclusion of the
+little town of Arevalo, until Isabella was twelve years old. How
+carefully the seeds of character were sown in these early years is shown
+by the after-fruits. Her fervent piety and unwavering faith, her strict
+integrity and self-abnegation, disarmed the enemies of her crown, as
+they disarm the unprejudiced historian of to-day. The verdict of four
+hundred years is still: "Her faults were the faults of her age, her
+virtues were her own." The quiet home life at Arevalo came suddenly to
+an end in 1463, when King Henry arbitrarily ordered the infantas, as all
+royal children are called in Spain, to repair to the palace as members
+of his court. Thus at the early age of twelve years Isabella entered
+upon her public career, and from thenceforth the eyes of the civilized
+world were turned upon her. Shortly after, a revolution deposed Henry
+and placed Alfonso upon the throne. Both kings had their followers, and
+the boy-king, eleven years old, rode on horseback at the head of his
+troops beside his appointed regent. But the crown was too heavy for the
+young victim, and Alfonso was one morning found dead in his bed. To
+Isabella, a beautiful girl of sixteen, the fallen crown was offered and
+urged; but in spite of the fact that the old standard had already been
+unfurled in her honor, and unmoved by the eloquence of the primate and
+the arguments of the first nobles of the land, Isabella, with a wisdom
+beyond her years, resolutely refused to take the throne. Her reasons
+baffled her advisers: "So long as King Henry lives none other has the
+right to wear the crown." She advised his reinstatement and promised to
+help redress the wrongs of which the nation had the unquestioned right
+to complain. An amnesty was declared and a reconciliation was effected;
+but not until Henry had consented to divorce his queen and to
+acknowledge Isabella as the heir-apparent to the throne in place of his
+reputed daughter, Joanna. The cortes, or parliament, was assembled to
+ratify the treaty, and at the same time, passed a resolution that the
+infanta was not to be coerced in her matrimonial alliance. In 1468,
+with great pomp and ceremony, Isabella was solemnly proclaimed Princess
+of Asturias, heir-apparent to the throne of Castile and Leon. She is
+described as of medium height, of fair complexion, regular features,
+auburn hair, clear blue eyes, and with a sweet but serious expression
+that told both sides of her character. She inherited from her father a
+desire for knowledge and a love of literature, and was herself a fine
+linguist. These graces of mind and person, added to her nearness to the
+throne, soon brought many ardent suppliants from the principal thrones
+of Europe for the honor of her hand. Her cousin, Prince Ferdinand of
+Aragon, was her wise choice, and to him she was married, notwithstanding
+her brother's opposition, in 1469. The brilliant wedding at Valladolid,
+in the presence of the nobility and about two thousand persons, closes
+the second period of her life. Five years intervened before the Princess
+of Asturias became Queen of Leon and Castile. Stormy years, for the
+angry brother instituted a fresh rebellion against her succession, and
+Isabella was again the peace-maker; years of poverty, also, for the
+heirs-apparent of Castile and Aragon had scarcely a competency for their
+daily needs. Isabella was residing in Segovia at the time of her
+brother's death; hence, in Segovia, with more than the usual solemnities
+which accompany the accession of a new sovereign even in Spain, she took
+the vows and was crowned Queen of Castile and Leon in 1474. During the
+first four years and a half of her reign civil war desolated her
+kingdom, for Joanna, the reputed daughter of Henry IV., again contested
+her right to the crown, supported by the King of Portugal, to whom she
+was affianced. But the same people who had said "Isabella shall be the
+heir-apparent," said now "Isabella shall rule over us," and conquered.
+The reign of Isabella, therefore, dates from 1479, when she was left in
+undisputed possession of her throne, rather than from 1474, when she
+wore her crown for the first time in Segovia. The same year that brought
+peace to the Queen of Castile elevated Ferdinand to the throne of
+Aragon.
+
+No more important epoch marks the history of Spain than the union of the
+crowns of Castile and Aragon; it meant the end of petty principalities
+and powers, it meant united Spain. But the crowns were only linked
+together, for Isabella, even in her marriage contract, had maintained
+the independence of the crown of Castile and her individual right to
+rule over it. It was this loyalty to her inherited crown that won the
+love and confidence of her people and made them ready, when the need
+came, to die for Isabella of Castile. And it was this independence of
+her crown that enabled her to say at last to Columbus: "I will assume
+the enterprise for mine own crown of Castile," and "to the crown of
+Castile" belonged the first discovered territories in the New World.
+
+Had the reign of Isabella been less distinguished for events of such
+momentous magnitude as to involve the future interests of the world, her
+personal life would yet furnish data for a series of volumes, so replete
+was it with stirring incidents and with heart-breaking sorrows. But the
+same mental strength and moral courage that made her eminent as a queen,
+made her remarkable also as a friend and mother. Prescott says: "Her
+heart overflowed with affectionate sensibilities to her family and
+friends. She watched over the declining years of her aged mother and
+ministered to her sad infirmities with filial tenderness; we have
+abundant proofs of how fondly and faithfully she loved her husband to
+the last; while for her children she lived more than for herself, and
+for them too she died; for it was their loss and their afflictions which
+froze the current of her blood before age had had time to chill it."
+
+Five children, four daughters and one son, grew to maturity under her
+guiding influence. Isabella, the first born, and ever the favorite child
+of the sovereigns, was born in 1470. She was twice married, first to
+Alfonso, Prince of Portugal, who was killed by a fall from his horse
+within five months after their marriage. Seven years later she married
+his brother, Emanuel, King of Portugal. To the intense grief of her
+husband, her parents, and her kingdom, she died in 1498, just one hour
+after the birth of her son, the first and only heir to the kingdoms of
+Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. The little Prince Miguel did not live to
+fulfil the hopes that were centred in him, for he died, to the great
+grief of the nation, before he had completed his second year.
+
+The only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, Juan, Prince of Asturias, was
+born in 1478. In his twentieth year he married the Princess Margaret,
+daughter of the Emperor Maximilian; but before the elaborate nuptial
+rejoicings had ended the young bridegroom died suddenly of a malignant
+fever.
+
+The Infanta Joanna, born 1479, married Philip I., son of the German
+emperor, and became the mother of the great Emperor Charles V. of
+Germany, Charles I. of Spain. Her mental derangement, tending to
+permanent insanity, was a sore grief to the great queen, who
+nevertheless made her the heir to her crown, with Ferdinand as regent.
+
+The Infanta Maria, born in 1482, married Emanuel, the King of Portugal,
+in 1600. Her daughter Isabella married her cousin, Charles V., and was
+the mother of Philip II.
+
+The fifth and last child of Ferdinand and Isabella, Catalina, was born
+in 1485. She married, when scarcely sixteen, Arthur, Prince of Wales,
+son of Henry VII., but was left a widow within a year. By special
+dispensation from the Pope she married her brother-in-law in 1509, and
+is better known in history as Catharine of Aragon, first wife of Henry
+VIII., of England, mother of Mary I., or "bloody Mary." Knowing her
+Spanish parentage, we can better understand why she was such an ardent
+Roman Catholic. Strange that one so loyal to the forms of her religion
+should have been the innocent cause of the English Reformation! The
+injured queen, divorced, remained in England, a religious recluse, until
+her death in 1536.
+
+This brief outline of family life, with its joys, disappointments, and
+heart-breaking sorrows, brings into clearer relief the mental strength
+and moral courage of Isabella, who, while carrying this burden on her
+heart never relaxed for a moment her vigilant, vigorous rule over a
+mighty empire; and this brings us at last to the
+
+                    GREAT HISTORIC QUEEN.
+
+From the very beginning of the reconquest of Spain from the Arab-Moors
+in 718, when the brave band of refugees who had not bowed to the Saracen
+yoke issued from the mountains of Asturias in the extreme northwest
+corner of Spain, under Pelayo, with vows resting upon them "to rid the
+land of its infidel invaders and to advance the standard of the cross
+until it was everywhere victorious over the crescent," the "Expulsion of
+the Moors" had been the hereditary appanage of the crown of Castile and
+Leon, the first fruits of the reconquest.
+
+The crown was heavy and the burden was great that descended to Isabella
+in 1474, for although she came to the throne through Gothic ancestry and
+in conformity with Gothic law, her father's heir and the chosen of the
+people, yet the nation had already poured out its blood in defence of
+her "succession" and the war of her "accession" was pending. No wonder
+that Isabella never forgot that it was through the people and for the
+people, and in defence of the cross, that she wore the crown and sat
+upon the throne of Leon and Castile.
+
+During the preceding reigns the laws of the country had been so
+constantly defied that they had become of no effect. The one law of
+barbarism seemed the only law that governed,
+
+  "He can take who has the power,
+   And he may keep who can."
+
+The country was infested with lawless banditti, and even the cities were
+powerless to protect individuals or property. The prisons were
+overcrowded with suspected criminals who had never been brought to
+trial; the immorality of the court had spread like a deadly poison
+through the lower grades of social life; even the priests had become
+tainted with the general demoralization. The coin of Castile had been
+debased until the most necessary articles of life were enhanced from
+three to six times their value; the late civil wars had exhausted the
+treasury, and the country seemed on the verge of bankruptcy. The Moors
+had even ceased to pay tribute and were making frequent forays into the
+surrounding country, taking men, women, and children into Mussulman
+captivity with the hope of exacting a ransom. Public confidence was
+dead. No wonder that Isabella felt her crown heavy and the burden of her
+kingdom great.
+
+But the brave, resolute woman, making choice of wise and able
+counsellors, entered at once upon a vigorous crusade of reform. The
+first measure proposed to the cortes, in 1476, was the re-establishment
+of the celebrated Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood, which was carried into
+effect the same year. The new institution differed from the ancient,
+inasmuch as its power proceeded from the crown and was disbanded by it
+in 1498. The Hermandad in our day would be called a mounted police, but
+in the days of Isabella every organization came under the sanction of
+the Church. The duties of the Holy Brotherhood were to arrest offenders
+throughout the kingdom and to enforce the law. Every one hundred
+householders throughout the kingdom maintained one Hermandad. Upon the
+flight of a criminal tocsins were sounded, and the officers of the
+Brotherhood stationed within hearing took up a pursuit that left little
+hope for escape. Thus a body of cavalry, two thousand in number, fully
+equipped and supported, was at the disposal of the crown to enforce the
+law and to suppress insurrections. In a few years the country was
+cleared of banditti and the blessing of personal security under the
+government was restored.
+
+Isabella revived also another ancient custom of her forefathers, that of
+presiding in person over courts of justice. From city to city she
+travelled on horseback, making the circuit of her kingdom, regardless of
+personal fatigue. Side by side with Ferdinand, when he had leisure from
+foreign complications to accompany her, she sat (not unmindful of the
+dignity belonging to the crown) with her courtiers around her, to listen
+with interest, that she might redress wrongs, punish the wrongdoers, and
+administer justice even to the lowliest of her subjects. Her personal
+address, and the unbounded respect which her integrity inspired; her
+proclamation throughout the kingdom that the interests of her people
+were her interests, re-established such public confidence that, says a
+writer of that age, "Those who had long despaired of public justice
+blessed God for their deliverance, as it were, from deplorable
+captivity." Nor did the sovereigns relax their personal efforts for the
+restoration of law and order until the cortes had passed measures for
+the permanent administration of justice. Thus in a few years, from a
+state of anarchy and misrule, Castile entered upon her "Golden Age of
+Justice."
+
+The golden age of literature, developed in the next century, has been
+justly ascribed to the impetus given by Isabella to liberal education,
+classical and scientific. Under her patronage schools were established
+in every city, presided over by learned men. The printing press, lately
+invented, was introduced; foreign books were imported free of duty,
+while such precedence was given to native literature as led on to the
+brilliant achievements of the sixteenth century. In social reform
+precept was enforced by example. In all that was pure, in all that was
+true, in all that was noble and magnanimous, Isabella, in private life,
+was a witness unto her people. No calumny of any kind, even in a
+depraved age, was ever cast upon Isabella of Castile or upon any one of
+her royal children. But the strongest characteristic of Isabella, that
+which colored her whole life and gave force to every public action, was
+her fervent piety and her unfaltering [perhaps blind] faith in the
+divine authority of the Roman Catholic Church. For all the evils that
+grew out of the latter she is still branded, even among the
+liberal-minded of to-day, regardless of her illiberal age, with that
+worst of all brands, "a religious bigot." This side of her character we
+will not discuss, but refer our readers to the history of Christianity
+during the fifteenth century, when the great flood-tide of religious
+intolerance reached its height.
+
+It was in the fulness of this tide that the great historic events of her
+reign occurred, viz., the conquest of Granada, the expulsion of the
+Jews, the Inquisition, and the discovery of America. After each of
+these, for honor or dishonor, we interline the name of Isabella. Yet the
+conquest of Granada, or the reconquest of every foot of land which the
+Moors had taken from the Goths, was foreordained in Castilian councils
+centuries before Isabella was born. The expulsion of the Jews, the
+so-called "enemies of Christ," was but a part of the same effort "to rid
+the land of unbelieving invaders." The Inquisition, with all its
+horrors, was re-established by the Church during that age of
+intolerance to which the reign of Isabella belongs. Yet these are still
+named to the dishonor of Isabella.
+
+But the discovery of America, with all its lasting benefits to mankind,
+is the immortal crown which the world has woven out of her proffered
+"Jewels;" and with this crown it has crowned Isabella of Castile.
+
+In the marriage contract of the youthful prince and princess it was
+agreed that Ferdinand should lead the armies of Castile against the
+Moors as soon as the affairs of the kingdom would permit. The
+opportunity and the provocation came after twelve years, when the
+sovereigns sent to demand of the Moors the long unpaid tribute, and
+received only the defiant answer, "Tell your masters that the Moors who
+paid tribute to Castile are dead. Our mints no longer coin gold, but
+steel!" And to prove the efficacy of their steel they sallied forth and
+took Zahara, one of the strongholds which the father of Ferdinand had
+taken from the Moors. The chivalry of Spain sprang quickly into
+well-girt saddles, and the ten years' siege of Granada, "the last
+stronghold of the Moors in Spain," began in 1481. The Iliad of the
+reconquest of Spain from the Arab-Moors has yet to be written; the Homer
+of its Iliad has yet to appear. But the closing year of the struggle
+between Christian knight and turbaned Moor would furnish as stirring
+incidents, and immortalize the names of its heroes as successfully, as
+has the Greek Homer the Trojan war.
+
+Those of us who have read the story of the Arab-Moors in Spain, the
+quick-witted, light-footed, brave-hearted Moors, who coveted the land
+"flowing with milk and honey" that lay across a narrow strait; who
+conquered it, redeemed its barren wastes, and made them to blossom as
+the rose; who, in their quick flight from the Arabian deserts through
+civilized lands, gathered seeds of knowledge and planted them so freely
+in the land of their adoption that their planting overspread the earth;
+who, like the Goths, became enervated when they became stationary, and
+were no longer able to resist the powerful foe who had from their
+entrance into Spain sworn their expulsion or their extermination, will
+be ready to weep when the final retribution comes. Yet come it did, when
+Ferdinand and Isabella pitched their tents and planted their banners of
+Castile and Aragon upon the verdant vega, or plain, around Granada.
+
+And yet we as readily accept the inevitable. We have known that it was
+impossible for Isabella to allow any portion of her dominions to be
+possessed by a people alien in race, language, customs, and religion; to
+see the Crescent triumphant over any site that had been hallowed by the
+Cross. To the Spanish Christian the fall of Granada was only the final
+victory of a righteous war. It was the triumph of his race, his nation,
+and his creed. And, looking back over the long march from Asturias to
+Granada, he claimed to have invaded no man's right; every victory but
+won back what was his own: every step retraced by the Moors but left him
+in possession of another portion of his inheritance from his
+forefathers.
+
+The Arab-Moors claimed also hereditary rights. For nearly eight hundred
+years the Moors had held possession of that strip of land between the
+"Snow Mountains" and the blue sea, in Southern Spain. One cannot but
+feel respect for the brave Moorish king of Granada, who said, when
+threatened with invasion, "Our mint no longer coins gold, but steel!" In
+this last great chivalrous war, a war for race and creed and country,
+all honor is due to the vanquished, who poured out their blood like
+water for their homes and their religion. The details of this heroic
+death-struggle belong to history rather than to biography. Yet Isabella
+was the great animating spirit of the war. Her tent was side by side
+with that of Ferdinand, and her counsel was ever wise and practical.
+
+And near the royal tents were others which she erected, where the
+wounded in the fray might have medical aid and tender nursing. Thus our
+"Warrior Queen," with a woman's heart, provided the first Army Hospital
+on record. The tents were burned down, but a substantial city arose, as
+if by magic, to take their place. The knights would have called it
+"Isabella," but she named it "Santa Fé," the city of Holy Faith. And
+this city helped to bring the war to a close. The Moors knew by it that
+Isabella had come to stay until she had added Granada to the crown of
+Castile.
+
+Another form rises before us as we look back four hundred years across
+the vega of Granada to the city of Sante Fé. We forget for a time the
+Christians and the Moors, we see only the great queen and the great
+discoverer. The man of science, Christoforo Colombo, had been lately
+dismissed from the court at Sante Fé. The sovereigns had no time for
+adventurers seeking aid to discover unknown lands when the reconquest of
+their own was just within their grasp. Cast down, but not discouraged,
+Columbus, all alone, was retracing his steps across the vega, en route
+for a port from whence to sail for England, when the queen sent a royal
+summons for him to return, and he reached Sante Fé just in time to be
+present at the surrender of Granada. Let me add that while the Moors as
+a nation fell with Granada, they were not as individuals banished from
+Spain until the reign of Philip II., the great-grandson of Isabella.
+
+[Illustration: Ferdinand and Isabella. The surrender of Granada.]
+
+We all know the story of Columbus. At this time he was but a penniless
+mendicant travelling on foot from court to court, seeking patronage to
+enable him to prove the truth which his great mind had grasped, the
+rotundity of the earth. The subject had given him no rest for eighteen
+years. He had discussed it before wise men in council assembled; he had
+pleaded with royalty in vain; at the court of Isabella, for the first
+time, he laid his plans and discussed his projects before a woman. The
+world to-day pays its tribute of four hundred years to Columbus, the
+World-finder. All honor to the brave man who, firm of faith and fearless
+of fate, unfurled his sails upon an unknown sea, and planted the cross
+and the banner of Castile upon an unknown land. All honor, too, to Queen
+Isabella of Spain, who, with "faith in things unseen," had the courage
+to say, "I will undertake the enterprise for mine own crown of Castile,"
+and from whose presence Columbus went forth to discover a land he never
+dreamed of, and to open a gate for the exodus of nations across the
+pathless sea. The same pen that signed the capitulation of the Moors and
+the contract with Columbus, signed also an edict for the expulsion of
+all unbaptized Jews from Spain between March and July of 1492. This
+edict condemned to perpetual exile from one to eight hundred thousand
+of Spain's most wealthy subjects. The coast was lined with vessels of
+every kind, and size, busy with the transportation of these unhappy
+victims, when Columbus was seeking for vessels and men to cross the "Sea
+of Darkness." And now we are beginning to understand the momentous
+events that culminated in the reign of Isabella. We find that religious
+enthusiasm, inspired during the long wars with the "Infidel Moors,"
+developed into religious bigotry. In the Jews, Spain expelled the most
+wealthy portion of her subjects; in the Moors, the most industrious; the
+wealth and industry of the nation were sacrificed for race and creed.
+And then within its own race and creed arose a new foe to combat; with
+equal energy and blind zeal Spain crushed Protestantism within her
+borders through the terrors of the Inquisition.
+
+But let us not lay the whole blame of such intolerant Christianity upon
+the unfortunate woman who fell heir to the crown of Castile during the
+period when the Church of Rome had the power to bind the consciences of
+men. Let us remember that as a woman Isabella was an honor to her sex;
+as a Christian she lived devoutly; as a queen she ruled wisely for the
+uplifting of her nation, and that the only censure the world casts upon
+her is the fortitude with which she said "Infidelity must be banished
+from the land."
+
+"Bury me in Granada, the brightest jewel in my crown," she said, when
+dying, in far-off Castile, November 26, 1504. The way was long and the
+December winds were cold as the royal cortége, with knightly escort,
+wended its way across the barren heights of Central Spain into the
+beautiful valley of Andalusia, across the lovely vega, past Santa Fé, up
+the rugged slope of the acropolis of Granada into the Chapel Isabella,
+near the unrivalled Alhambra. Here in the very heart of the last Moorish
+capital, while the whole nation mourned, they laid all that was mortal
+of the great queen, whom Lord Bacon has named "the corner-stone of the
+greatness of Spain."
+
+Twelve years later, January 23, 1516, they laid King Ferdinand beside
+her, "the wisest king that ever ruled in Spain." (Prescott.) Their
+grandson, Charles V., now summoned the finest artists in the world to
+prepare royal mausoleums for Ferdinand and Isabella and for his parents,
+Joanna of Castile and Philip of Burgundy. The cathedral of Granada is
+the Spanish temple of victory. It covers the site of an ancient Moorish
+mosque. Within its royal chapel one may read, in bas-relief, the whole
+story of the reconquest of Spain. On either side of its high altar kneel
+the life-size statues of the final conquerors; while in solemn, stately
+magnificence, the royal mausoleums of purest Carrara marble, with their
+reclining portrait figures of Ferdinand and Isabella in soft,
+time-tinted alabaster, tell us that here the nation, "redeemed from
+bondage," laid their deliverers to rest. And here, at the close of
+nearly four hundred years, a hand from across the sea lays this tribute,
+with a garland of white roses and a wreath of olive leaves and
+immortelles, upon the tomb of ISABELLA OF CASTILE.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+NICHOLAS COPERNICUS
+
+By JOHN STOUGHTON, D.D.
+
+(1473-1543)
+
+[Illustration: Copernicus. [TN]]
+
+
+The life of Nicholas Copernicus furnishes a signal example of the
+accordance between profound religious sentiment and the utmost
+inquisitiveness respecting the secrets of nature and the laws of the
+universe.
+
+The birthplace of genius is sometimes found nestled amid the fairest
+scenes, and the opening years of life are favored with appeals to
+curiosity and imagination, such as stimulate the exercise of the
+intellect; but the lot of Copernicus, as a boy, was cast in one of the
+flattest, tamest, and most uninteresting parts of Germany. Not far from
+the banks of the Vistula, on the way to the free city of Dantzic, lies a
+fortified town named Thorn, where the river is crossed by a wooden
+bridge, and the place is adorned by a bronze statue of our
+philosopher--for there he was born. His father was a merchant, and in
+the municipal records his father's name appears as a freeman admitted to
+the franchise in 1462. In 1472 or 1473 a son was added to the family,
+and the parents had a horoscope taken of the child, who appeared at
+thirty-eight minutes past four on January 19, 1472, according to some;
+at forty-eight minutes past four in the afternoon of February 19, 1473,
+according to others; the exact instant of the nativity being an
+important point in astrological calculations, which, in those days,
+inspired in fathers and mothers the deepest concern. At all events,
+Copernicus was deemed to have entered the world under a lucky planet,
+and it was augured that he would turn out a man of distinguished talent.
+About ten years before Martin Luther studied at Mansfield, and then at
+Eisenach, and rambled about the quaint streets, singing Christmas carols
+in the town where he was born, Nicholas Copernicus passed through a
+similar course of education. He did so under some old-fashioned
+pedagogue, who no more dreamed of the scientific fame of his pupil than
+did Trebonius of the approaching celebrity of young Master Martin.
+Copernicus would there learn to read, to write, to construe Latin, and
+to commit to memory hymns, prayers, and catechisms. Whether as a lad he
+studied Greek is uncertain; but, as his parents seem to have been
+wealthy, he would enjoy greater advantages than his still more
+illustrious contemporary; hence at an early period he was sent to
+Cracow, where he studied philosophy, mathematics, and medicine.
+Mathematics formed his favorite pursuit, and by the thorough acquisition
+of its principles and modes of reasoning he laid the basis of his
+subsequent eminence. But he took a degree as doctor of medicine; and
+according to the comprehensive methods of culture which obtained in
+those days, he paid attention to painting, and made some proficiency as
+an artist. Scholars were at that period accustomed to travel, and
+Copernicus proceeded from Cracow to Bologna; and in that city of feudal
+palaces and towers he would find a school of painting to cultivate his
+artistic taste, as well as a university where he could study astronomy.
+There he entered upon divers calculations connected with the position of
+the earth and the plan of the heavenly bodies. Then proceeding to Rome,
+he became there a mathematical professor, and won vast renown. Soon
+after the commencement of the sixteenth century he returned to the banks
+of the Vistula, and having been ordained to the priesthood, had a
+canonry at Frauenburg, on the Frische-Häff, bestowed upon him by his
+uncle. The cathedral is described as a handsome building of brick,
+erected in 1342, in an elevated part of the town, overlooking the flat
+sandbanks of the Elbing, as it flows on its way to the Baltic. In
+connection with his canonry, Copernicus had some contention about his
+official rights, the nature of which does not appear. All we know is
+that he settled down in that quiet, out-of-the-way corner of the world,
+heedless of worldly ambition and indifferent to ecclesiastical honors
+and emoluments. He was no sceptic, no free-thinker, nor do we find him
+taking a part in the theological controversies of his age. No mention is
+made of what he thought and did in relation to the grand quarrel between
+Luther and Leo, or the Diet of Worms, or the burning of the bull at the
+gates of Wittenberg, or the other stirring events of the Reformation;
+only we know he remained a Catholic, a quiet, self-contained,
+thoughtful, devout man, childlike in his religion, trustful in his
+piety, and exemplary in the discharge of clerical duties. We can picture
+him going through the usual routine of canonical services in Frauenburg
+Cathedral, full of faith and prayer. With this vocation he coupled
+medical practice. He turned to good charitable account that proficiency
+in the healing art which he had acquired at Cracow, and visited the sick
+and the poor, bringing upon himself the blessing of those who were ready
+to perish. But the nature of his intellect, sharpened by studies at
+Bologna and Rome, gave him special advantages in the pursuit of
+astronomical knowledge; and as he had a decided taste in that direction,
+what time he could spare from the cathedral and the treatment of the
+sick he devoted to the study of the heavens. "He went very little into
+the world; he considered all conversation as fruitless except that of a
+serious and learned cast, so that he formed no intimacies except with
+grave and learned men." Alone at midnight he would watch the stars; in
+his study with his books he would inquire of the ancients; and then the
+profound thoughts passing through his mind he would exchange with the
+"grave and reverend seigniors" of his acquaintance.
+
+The Ptolemaic hypothesis of the universe was then in fashion. It was
+supposed that the earth was the centre of celestial motions, that the
+sun, the moon, and the stars revolved around the world which we
+inhabit. Not that the Pythagorean hypothesis was totally forgotten.
+There were those who believed that the sun, not the earth, is the centre
+of the great circle in which the heavenly bodies perform their
+evolutions; but the Ptolemaic hypothesis had the ascendency beyond all
+doubt; and with this hypothesis Copernicus could not rest satisfied. It
+appeared to him beset with insuperable difficulties. True enough, the
+rotation of the heavens around the earth seemed to be what the human eye
+beheld, as anyone watched sunrise and sunset. But what the senses thus
+presented, reason, in its ponderings, was led to contradict. For the
+notion of a huge mechanism like the celestial sphere, spinning round the
+terraqueous globe as its pivot looked unreasonable. To explain it in any
+way on mathematical principles needed a most complicated array of cycles
+and epicycles. Symmetry and simplicity were wanting in the theory. _A
+priori_ objections started up against it. If the senses pointed to the
+earth as a centre, reason pointed to a centre elsewhere. Copernicus
+studied the works of ancient philosophers on the question. He examined
+mathematical traditions and criticised the opinions of learned
+professors. He found accounts of those who had asserted the motion of
+the earth. "Though," he says, "it appeared an absurd opinion, yet, since
+I knew that in former times liberty had been permitted to others to
+figure as they pleased certain circles for the purpose of demonstrating
+the phenomena of the stars, I considered that to me also it might be
+easily allowed to try whether, by a supposition of the earth's motion, a
+better explanation might be found of the revolution of the celestial
+orbs. Having assumed," he goes on to say, "the motions of the earth, by
+laborious and long observation I at length found that if the motions of
+the other planets be compared with the revolution of the earth, not only
+these phenomena follow from the suppositions, but also that the several
+orbs and the whole system are so connected in order and magnitude, that
+no one part can be transposed without disturbing the rest and
+introducing confusion into the whole universe." What Copernicus was in
+search of was some simple and symmetrical theory of the appearances of
+the heavens which would relieve him of the complexity and confusion
+attendant on the Ptolemaic system so popular in the schools. He started
+from an _a priori_ point of reasoning--the only one thought of in his
+day--but he came to certain conclusions which _a posteriori_ examination
+in after times abundantly confirmed.
+
+[Illustration: Copernicus.]
+
+He believed that the earth is spherical; that the earth and the sea
+constitute a wonderful globe; that the motions of the heavenly bodies
+are circular and uniform, or compounded of circular and uniform motions;
+that the earth revolves on its own axis, and also performs a journey
+along its own orbit round the sun; that the sphere of the fixed stars is
+immensely distant, and that it is impossible to explain the motion of
+the planets upon the supposition of the earth being their centre. And he
+distinctly remarks: "It does not shame us to confess that the whole
+space in which the moon revolves, together with the earth, moves along a
+great orbit among the planets, round the sun every year; that the sun
+remains permanent and immovable, whatever may be its apparent motion."
+It must be kept in mind throughout any careful study of his theory,
+that it was an _hypothesis_ framed to remove difficulties connected with
+older systems; that he sought to bring conceptions of the universe into
+harmony with reason, instead of giving way to impressions made by the
+senses, or to the authority of world-honored teachers, either in other
+days or in his own; nor can we omit adding that, while he found fault
+with the Ptolemaic cycles and epicycles, he constructed similar devices
+of his own.
+
+"As the real motions, both of the earth and the planets, are unequable,
+it was requisite to have some mode of representing their inequalities;
+and accordingly the ancient theory of excentrics and epicycles was
+retained so far as was requisite for this purpose." In the case of
+Mercury's orbit he makes suppositions which are extremely complex,
+although they manifest his apprehension of the difficulties attendant on
+the common theory of his own time; but he verified many of his views by
+astronomical observations; and his approximations to modern science, and
+the light he threw on preceding discoveries, establish the fame of
+Nicholas Copernicus.
+
+On a review of the life of Copernicus, and the conclusions he reached,
+the mental and moral qualities of the man come out with conspicuous and
+extraordinary lustre.
+
+He was a mathematician, thus walking in the footsteps of Roger Bacon.
+This science, since the days of Euclid, had been pursued with untiring
+ardor, and many who neglected to study, or who, by their own
+imagination, distorted the actual phenomena of nature, addicted
+themselves to the investigation of the abstract properties of magnitude
+and number. Copernicus, in his knowledge of mathematical principles, and
+in his skilful application of them to astronomical inquiries, probably
+surpassed all his contemporaries. And, at the same time, he had that
+inventive genius which is fruitful in suggestions, such as become
+pioneers in the path of scientific demonstration. His independence of
+mind, his real originality, and his boldness in the pursuit of truth are
+quite as remarkable as the qualities just noticed; indeed, they are
+involved in or they led to the latter of these. "I beg you," says one of
+his admiring disciples, "to have this opinion concerning that learned
+man, my preceptor, that he was an ardent admirer and follower of
+Ptolemy; but when he was compelled by phenomena and demonstration, he
+thought he did well to aim at the same mark at which Ptolemy had aimed,
+though with a bow and shaft very different from his." We must recollect
+that Ptolemy says 'He who is to follow philosophy must be a freeman in
+mind.' Copernicus knew very well that there were many prepared to
+challenge his conclusions, and perhaps to bring theological objections
+to the principles of science which he had been constrained to adopt.
+"If, perchance," it is said in the preface to his book on astronomy,
+"there be vain babblers who, knowing nothing of mathematics, yet assume
+the right of judging, on account of some place of Scripture, perversely
+wrested to their purpose, and who blame and attack my undertaking, I
+heed them not, and look upon their judgments as rash and contemptible."
+
+Copernicus had a profound reverence for Scripture. He regarded it as the
+Word of God, able to make us wise unto salvation; and none of his
+discoveries pertaining to the laws of nature shook for one moment his
+confidence in the revelation of the gospel. Copernicus delayed for years
+the publication of his discoveries to the world. That delay had been
+thought to have proceeded from something like fear, or, at least,
+caution, lest views in some respects so novel should rouse
+ecclesiastical antagonism and expose him to serious persecution. But the
+words used in the dedication of his astronomical work seem to point in
+another direction. It is there said that he had kept it four times the
+nine years recommended by Horace, and published it at last in compliance
+with the entreaties of his friend, Cardinal Schomberg. "Though I know,"
+it is added, "that the thoughts of a philosopher do not depend on the
+judgment of the many, his study being to seek out truth in all things as
+far as that is permitted by God to human reason, yet when I considered
+how absurd that doctrine would appear, I long hesitated whether I should
+publish my book, or whether it were not better to follow the example of
+the Pythagoreans and others, who delivered their doctrines only by
+tradition and to friends." From this passage we should infer that he
+apprehended controversy rather than persecution, that for the former he
+had no desire, that he was without ambition, and felt no wish to found a
+new school, but would rather leave truths he had learned quietly to make
+their way through the world.
+
+The fame of Copernicus is now wide as the world. He painted a portrait
+of himself which fell into the hands of Tycho Brahe; and he wrote an
+epigram upon the subject, to the effect that the whole earth could not
+contain the whole of the man who whirled it along the ocean of ether.
+Less extravagant was the grateful enthusiasm of Rhiticus, a disciple of
+Copernicus, when he wrote, "God has given to my excellent preceptor a
+reign without end, which may He vouchsafe to guide, govern, and
+increase, to the restoration of astronomical truth. Amen!"
+
+"The Copernican system" is the name now generally given to the almost
+universal scientific belief that the earth and the planets revolve
+around the sun, though the system carried out and perfected by Kepler,
+Newton, Halley, Laplace, and others is by no means perfectly identical
+with the theory of the German astronomer. But the inextricable
+interweaving of his name with opinions sanctioned by the entire
+scientific world, is one of the noblest conceivable tributes to the
+magnitude and lustre of his renown.
+
+His death was in harmony with his life. Shortly before he expired he
+repeated these words:
+
+  "Non parem Paulo gratiam requiro,
+   Veniam Petri neque posco; sed quam
+   In crucis ligno dederat latroni
+         Sedulus oro."
+
+He had lived a life of Christian virtue--imitating his master, who went
+about doing good, healing the sick and preaching the gospel to the
+poor--yet, so far from having anything whereof to boast before God, he
+said himself that he felt his need of infinite mercy, and in seeking
+the pardon of his sins he would not place himself on a level with Paul
+or Peter, but rather choose a point of self-humiliation by the side of
+the penitent thief.
+
+His work on the revolution of the celestial bodies was passing through
+the press at the time of his fatal illness in 1543, when he had
+completed his seventieth year and was brought to him just before he
+breathed his last; and thus, as has been beautifully expressed, he was
+"made to touch the first printed copy of his book when the sense of
+touch was gone, seeing it only as a dim object through the deepening
+dusk."
+
+He is buried under a flat stone in one of the side aisles of his own
+cathedral at Frauenburg. On his monument is painted a half-length
+portrait, pale, thin, aged, but with an expression of countenance
+intelligent and pleasant. His hair and eyes are black; he is habited as
+a priest; his hands are joined in prayer; before him is a crucifix, at
+his feet a skull, and behind him are a globe and a pair of compasses.
+His devotion, his deadness to the world, and his love of science are
+thus aptly symbolized.
+
+
+
+
+MARTIN LUTHER
+
+(1483-1546)
+
+[Illustration: Luther and a group of men. [TN]]
+
+
+Martin Luther, the greatest of the Protestant Reformers of the sixteenth
+century, was born at Eisleben on November 10, 1483. His father was a
+miner in humble circumstances; his mother, as Melancthon records, was a
+woman of exemplary virtue, and particularly esteemed in her walk of
+life. Shortly after Martin's birth his parents removed to Mansfeld,
+where their circumstances ere long improved by industry and
+perseverance. Their son was sent to school; and both at home and in
+school his training was severe. His father sometimes whipped him, he
+says, "for a mere trifle till the blood came," and he was subjected to
+the scholastic rod fifteen times in one day! Luther's schooling was
+completed at Magdeburg and Eisenach, and at the latter place he
+attracted by his singing the notice of a good lady of the name of Cotta,
+who welcomed the lad into her family and provided him with a comfortable
+home during his stay there. Here under Trebonius he made good progress
+in Latin. In 1501, when he had reached his eighteenth year, he entered
+the university of Erfurt, with the view of qualifying himself for the
+legal profession. He went through the usual studies in the classics and
+the schoolmen, and took his degree of doctor of philosophy, or master of
+arts, in 1505, when he was twenty-one years of age.
+
+Previous to this, however, a profound change of feeling had begun in
+him. The death of a friend, and the terror of a thunder-storm, deeply
+impressed him. Chancing one day to examine the Vulgate in the university
+library, he saw with astonishment that there were more gospels and
+epistles than in the lectionaries. He was arrested by the contents of
+his newly found treasure. His heart was deeply touched, and he resolved
+to devote himself to a spiritual life. He separated himself from his
+friends and fellow-students, and withdrew into the Augustinian convent
+at Erfurt. Here he spent the next three years of his life--years of
+peculiar interest and significance; for it was during this time that he
+laid, in the study of the Bible and of Augustine, and with the
+assistance of his life-long friend Staupitz, the foundation of those
+doctrinal convictions which were afterward to rouse and strengthen him
+in his life-long struggle. He describes very vividly the spiritual
+crisis through which he passed, the burden of sin which so long lay upon
+him, "too heavy to be borne," and the relief that he at length found in
+the clear apprehension of the doctrine of the "forgiveness of sins,"
+through the grace of Christ.
+
+In the year 1507 Luther was ordained a priest, and in the following year
+he removed to Wittenberg, destined to derive its chief celebrity from
+his name. He became a teacher in the new university founded there by the
+Elector Frederick of Saxony. At first he lectured on dialectics and
+physics, but his heart was already given to theology, and in 1509 he
+became a bachelor of theology, and commenced lecturing on the Holy
+Scriptures. His lectures made a great impression, and the novelty of his
+views already began to excite attention. "This monk," said the rector of
+the university, "will puzzle our doctors and bring in a new doctrine."
+Besides lecturing, he began to preach, and his sermons reached a wider
+audience, and produced a still more powerful influence. They were
+printed and widely circulated in Germany, France, and England, so that
+his doctrines were diffused throughout Europe. His words, as Melancthon
+says, were "born not on his lips, but in his soul," and they moved
+profoundly the souls of all who heard them. In 1511 he was sent on a
+mission to Rome, and he has described very vividly what he saw and heard
+there. His devout and unquestioning reverence--for he was yet in his own
+subsequent view "a most insane papist"--appears in strange conflict with
+his awakened thoughtfulness and the moral indignation at the abuses of
+the papacy beginning to stir him.
+
+[Illustration: Luther introduced to the home of Frau Cotta.]
+
+On Luther's return from Rome he was made a doctor of the Holy
+Scriptures, and his career as a reformer may be said to have commenced.
+The system of indulgences had reached a scandalous height. The idea that
+it was in the power of the Church to forgive sin had gradually grown
+into the notion that the Pope could issue pardons of his own free will,
+which, being dispensed to the faithful, exonerated them from the
+consequences of their transgressions. The sale of these pardons had
+become an organized part of the papal system. Money was largely needed
+at Rome, and its numerous emissaries sought everywhere to raise funds by
+the sale of "indulgences;" the principal of these was John Tetzel, a
+Dominican friar, who had established himself at Jüterberg (1517).
+Luther's indignation at the shameless traffic which this man carried on,
+finally became irrepressible. "God willing," he exclaimed, "I will beat
+a hole in his drum." He drew out ninety-five theses on the doctrine of
+indulgences, which on October 31st he nailed up on the door of the
+church at Wittenberg, and which he offered to maintain in the university
+against all impugners. The general purport of these theses was to deny
+to the Pope all right to forgive sins. This sudden and bold step of
+Luther was all that was necessary to awaken a wide-spread excitement.
+Tetzel was forced to retreat from the borders of Saxony to
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he drew out and published a set of
+counter-theses and publicly committed those of Luther to the flames. The
+students at Wittenberg retaliated by burning Tetzel's theses. The
+elector refused to interfere, and the excitement increased as new
+combatants--Hochstratten, Prierias, and Eck--entered the field. Eck was
+an able man, and an old friend of Luther's, and the argument between him
+and the reformer was especially vehement. In 1518 the latter was joined
+by Melancthon, who became one of his dearest and most trusted friends.
+
+At first the Pope, Leo X., took little heed of the disturbance; he is
+reported even to have said, when he heard of it, that "Friar Martin was
+a man of genius, and that he did not wish to have him molested." Some of
+the cardinals, however, saw the real character of the movement, which
+gradually assumed a seriousness evident even to the Pope; and Luther
+received a summons to appear at Rome, and answer for his theses (1518).
+Once again in Rome, it is unlikely he would ever have been allowed to
+return. His university and the elector interfered, and a legate was sent
+to Germany to hear and determine the case. Cardinal Cajetan was the
+legate, and he was but little fitted to deal with Luther. He would enter
+into no argument with him, but merely called upon him to retract. Luther
+refused, and fled from Augsburg, whither he had gone to meet the papal
+representative. The task of negotiation was then undertaken by Miltitz,
+a German, who was envoy of the Pope to the Saxon court, and by his
+greater address, a temporary peace was obtained. This did not last long.
+The reformer was too deeply moved to keep silent. "God hurries and
+drives me," he said; "I am not master of myself; I wish to be quiet, and
+am hurried into the midst of tumults." Dr. Eck and he held a memorable
+disputation at Leipsic (1519), in which the subject of argument was no
+longer merely the question of indulgences, but the general power of the
+Pope. The disputation, of course, came to no practical result; each
+controversialist claimed the victory, and Luther in the meantime made
+progress in freedom of opinion, and attacked the papal system as a whole
+more boldly. Erasmus and Hutten joined in the conflict, which waxed more
+loud and threatening.
+
+In 1520 the reformer published his famous address to the "Christian
+Nobles of Germany." This was followed in the same year by a treatise "On
+the Babylonish Captivity of the Church." In these works, both of which
+circulated widely and powerfully influenced many minds, Luther took
+firmer and broader ground; he attacked not only the abuses of the papacy
+and its pretensions to supremacy, but also the doctrinal system of the
+Church of Rome. "These works," Ranke says, "contain the kernel of the
+whole Reformation." The papal bull containing forty-one theses was
+issued against him; the dread document, with other papal books, was
+burned before an assembled multitude of doctors, students, and citizens,
+at the Elster Gate of Wittenberg. Germany was convulsed with excitement.
+Eck (who had been the chief agent in obtaining the bull) fled from place
+to place, glad to escape with his life, and Luther was everywhere the
+hero of the hour.
+
+Charles V. had at this time succeeded to the empire, and he convened his
+first diet of the sovereigns and states at Worms. The diet met in the
+beginning of 1521; an order was issued for the destruction of Luther's
+books, and he himself was summoned to appear before the diet. This was
+above all what he desired--to confess the truth before the assembled
+powers of Germany. He resolved--having received a safe-conduct--to obey
+the summons, come what would. All Germany was moved by his heroism; his
+journey resembled a triumph; the threats of enemies and the anxieties of
+friends alike failed to move him. "I am resolved to enter Worms," he
+said, "although as many devils should set at me as there are tiles on
+the housetops." His appearance and demeanor before the diet, and the
+firmness with which he held his ground and refused to retract, all make
+a striking picture. He was not allowed to defend his opinions. "Unless I
+be convinced," he said, "by Scripture and reason, I neither can nor dare
+retract anything, for my conscience is a captive to God's word, and it
+is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. There I take my
+stand. I can do no otherwise. So help me God. Amen."
+
+On his return from Worms he was seized, at the instigation of his
+friend, the Elector of Saxony, and safely lodged in the old castle of
+the Wartburg. The affair was made to assume an aspect of violence, but
+in reality it was designed to secure him from the destruction which his
+conduct at Worms would certainly have provoked, he having been placed
+under the ban of the empire. He remained in this shelter for about a
+year, concealed in the guise of a knight. His chief employment was his
+translation of the Scriptures into his native language. He composed
+various treatises besides, and injured his health by sedentary habits
+and hard study. His imagination became morbidly excited, and he thought
+he saw and heard the Evil One mocking him while engaged in his literary
+tasks; the blot from the inkstand that he hurled at him is still shown
+on the wall of his chamber. The subject of the personality and presence
+of Satan was a familiar one with Luther, and he has many things about it
+in his Table-talk.
+
+[Illustration: Martin Luther before the Council of Worms.]
+
+The disorders which sprang up in the progress of the Reformation
+recalled Luther to Wittenberg. He felt that his presence was
+necessary to restrain Carlstadt and others, and, defying any danger to
+which he might still be exposed, he returned in 1522 to the old scene of
+his labors, rebuked the unruly spirits who had acquired power in his
+absence, and resumed with renewed energy his interrupted work. He strove
+to arrest the excesses of the Zwickau fanatics, and counselled peace and
+order to the inflamed peasants; while he warned the princes and nobles
+of the unchristian cruelty of many of their doings, which had driven the
+people to exasperation and frenzy. At no period of his life is he
+greater than now, in the stand which he made against lawlessness on the
+one hand and tyranny on the other. He vindicated his claim to be a
+reformer in the highest sense by the wise and manly part which he acted
+in this great social crisis in the history of Germany. In this year also
+he published his acrimonious reply to Henry VIII. on the seven
+sacraments. Although he had been at first united in a common cause with
+Erasmus, estrangement had gradually sprung up between the scholar of
+Rotterdam and the enthusiastic reformer of Wittenberg. This estrangement
+came to an open breach in the year 1525, when Erasmus published his
+treatise "De Libero Arbitrio." Luther immediately followed with his
+counter-treatise "De Servo Arbitrio." The controversy raged loudly
+between them; and in the vehemence of his hostility to the doctrine of
+Erasmus, Luther was led into various assertions of a very questionable
+kind, besides indulging in the wild abuse of his opponent's character.
+The quarrel was an unhappy one on both sides; and it must be confessed
+there is especially a want of generosity in the manner in which Luther
+continued to cherish the dislike which sprang out of it.
+
+In the course of the same year Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of
+nine nuns who, under the influence of his teaching, had emancipated
+themselves from their religious vows. The step rejoiced his enemies and
+even alarmed some of his friends, like Melancthon. But it greatly
+contributed to his happiness, while it served to enrich and strengthen
+his character. All the most interesting and touching glimpses we get of
+him henceforth are in connection with his wife and children.
+
+Two years after his marriage he fell into a dangerous sickness and
+depression of spirits, from which he was only aroused by the dangers
+besetting Christendom from the advance of the Turks. Two years later, in
+1529, he engaged in his famous conference at Marburg with Zwingli and
+other Swiss divines. The following year finds him at Coburg, while the
+diet sat at Augsburg. It was deemed prudent to intrust the interests of
+the Protestant cause to Melancthon, who attended the diet, but Luther
+removed to Coburg to be at hand for consultation. The drawing up of the
+Augsburg Confession marks the culmination of the German Reformation
+(1530); and the life of Luther from henceforth possesses comparatively
+little interest. He survived sixteen years longer, but they are years
+marked by few incidents of importance. He died at Eisleben on February
+18, 1546, and was buried at Wittenberg.
+
+Luther's character presents an imposing combination of great qualities.
+Endowed with broad human sympathies, massive energy, manly and
+affectionate simplicity, and rich, if sometimes coarse humor, he is at
+the same time a spiritual genius. His intuitions of divine truth were
+bold, vivid, and penetrating, if not comprehensive; and he possessed the
+art which God alone gives to the finer and abler spirits that He calls
+to do special work in this world, of kindling other souls with the fire
+of his own convictions, and awakening them to a higher consciousness of
+religion and duty. He was a leader of men, therefore, and a Reformer in
+the highest sense. His powers were fitted to his appointed task; it was
+a task of Titanic magnitude, and he was a Titan in intellectual
+robustness and moral strength and courage. It was only the divine energy
+which swayed him, and of which he recognized himself the organ, that
+could have accomplished what he did.
+
+View him as a mere theologian, and there are others who take higher
+rank. There is a lack of patient thoughtfulness and philosophical temper
+in his doctrinal discussions; but the absence of these very qualities
+gave vigor to his bold, if sometimes crude, conceptions, and enabled him
+to triumph in the struggle for life and death in which he was engaged.
+To initiate the religious movement which was destined to renew the face
+of Europe, required a gigantic will, which, instead of being crushed by
+opposition, or frightened by hatred, should only gather strength from
+the fierceness of the conflict before it. To clear the air thoroughly,
+as he himself said, thunder and lightning are necessary. Upon the whole,
+it may be said that history presents few greater characters--few that
+excite at once more love and admiration, and in which we see tenderness,
+humor, and a certain picturesque grace and poetic sensibility more
+happily combined with a lofty and magnanimous, if sometimes rugged,
+sublimity.
+
+Luther's works are very voluminous, partly in Latin, and partly in
+German. Among those of more general interest are his Table-Talk, his
+letters, and sermons. His Commentaries on Galatians and the Psalms are
+still read; and he was one of the great leaders of sacred song, his
+hymns, rugged but intense and expressive, having an enduring power.
+
+As an example of his more tender writing, take his letter to his little
+son Hans:
+
+"Grace and peace in Christ. My dear little son, I am glad to hear that
+thou learnest well and prayest diligently. Do this, my son, and continue
+it; when I return home I will bring thee a fine fairing.
+
+"I know a beautiful, cheerful garden, in which many children walk about.
+They have golden coats on, and gather beautiful apples under the trees,
+and pears, and cherries, and plums; they sing and jump about, and are
+merry; they have also fine little horses with golden bridles and silver
+saddles. And I asked the man, 'Whose children are they?' He replied,
+'These are the children who like to pray and learn and are pious.' Then
+I said, 'My good man, I have a son; his name is Hans Luther; may he not
+also come to this garden to eat such nice apples and pears, and ride
+such fine little horses, and play with these children?' And the man
+said, 'If he likes to pray and learn, and is pious, he shall come to
+this garden with Lippus and Just; and when they all come together, they
+shall have pipes and cymbals, lutes, and other musical instruments; and
+dance and shoot with little cross-bows.'
+
+"And he showed me a fine meadow in the garden, prepared for dancing:
+there being nothing but golden pipes, cymbals, and beautiful silver
+cross-bows. But it was yet early, and the children had not dined.
+Therefore I could not wait for the dancing, and said to the man, 'My
+good master, I will go quickly and write all this to my dear little son
+Hans, that he may pray diligently, learn well, and be pious, that he
+also may be admitted into this garden; but he hath an aunt Lena whom he
+must bring with him.' The man answered, 'So be it; go and write this to
+him.'
+
+"Therefore, my dear little son Hans, learn and pray with all confidence;
+and tell this to Lippus and Just, that they also may learn and pray; and
+ye will all meet in this beautiful garden. Herewith I commend thee to
+Almighty God. Give greetings to Aunt Lena, and also a kiss from me,
+
+  "Thy loving father,
+
+                                   "MARTIN LUTHER."
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. OF GERMANY
+
+(1500-1558)
+
+[Illustration: Charles V. [TN]]
+
+
+Charles V., who ruled over more kingdoms than any other European monarch
+before or since, who was the most powerful ruler of his century, and
+who, on the whole, used his great power wisely and well, was born at
+Ghent, February 24, 1500. His parents were the Archduke Philip, son of
+the Emperor Maximilian, and Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and
+Isabella of Castile. To those united kingdoms Charles succeeded on the
+death of his grandfather Ferdinand, in 1516. The early part of his reign
+was stormy; a Flemish regency and Flemish ministers became hateful to
+the Spaniards, and their discontent broke out into civil war. The
+Castilian rebels assumed the name of The Holy League, and seemed
+animated by a spirit not unlike that of the English Commons under the
+Stuarts. Spain was harassed by these internal contests until 1522, when
+they were calmed by the presence of Charles, whose prudence and, we may
+hope, his humanity, put an end to the rebellion. He made some examples,
+but soon held his hand, with the declaration, that "too much blood had
+been spilt." An amnesty was more effectual than severities, and the
+royal authority was strengthened, as it will seldom fail to be, by
+clemency. Some of his courtiers informed him of the place where one of
+the ring leaders was concealed. His answer is worthy of everlasting
+remembrance: "You ought to warn him that I am here, rather than acquaint
+me where he is."
+
+Spain, the Two Sicilies, the Low Countries, and Franche Comté, belonged
+to Charles V. by inheritance; and by his grandfather Maximilian's
+intervention he was elected king of the Romans; nor had he to wait long
+before that prince's death, in 1519, cleared his path to the empire. But
+Francis I. of France was also a candidate for the imperial crown, with
+the advantage of being six years senior to Charles, and of having
+already given proof of military talent. The Germans, however, were
+jealous of their liberties; and not unreasonably dreading the power of
+each competitor, rejected both. Their choice fell on Frederic, Elector
+of Saxony, surnamed the Wise, celebrated as the protector of Luther; but
+that prince declined the splendid boon, and recommended Charles, on the
+plea that a powerful emperor was required to stop the rapid progress of
+the Turkish arms.
+
+The political jealousy, embittered by personal emulation, which existed
+between the Emperor and the King of France, broke out into war in 1521.
+France, Navarre, and the Low Countries were at times the seat of the
+long contest which ensued; but chiefly Italy. The duchy of Milan had
+been conquered by Francis in 1515. It was again wrested from the French
+by the emperor in 1522. In 1523, a strong confederacy was formed against
+France, by the Pope, the Emperor, the King of England, the Archduke
+Ferdinand, to whom his brother Charles had ceded the German dominions of
+the House of Austria, the states of Milan, Venice, and Genoa; all united
+against a single power. And in addition, the celebrated Constable of
+Bourbon became a traitor to France to gratify his revenge; brought his
+brilliant military talents to the emperor's service, and was invested
+with the command of the Imperial troops in Italy. To this formidable
+enemy Francis opposed his weak and presumptuous favorite, the Admiral
+Bonnivet, who was driven out of Italy in 1524, the year in which the
+gallant Bayard lost his life in striving to redeem his commander's
+errors.
+
+The confidence of Francis seemed to increase with his dangers, and his
+faults with his confidence. He again entered the Milanese in 1525, and
+retook the capital. But Bonnivet was his only counsellor; and under such
+guidance the siege of Pavia was prosecuted with inconceivable rashness,
+and the battle of Pavia fought without a chance of gaining it. Francis
+was taken prisoner, and wrote thus to his mother, the Duchess of
+Angoulême: "Everything is lost, except our honor." This Spartan spirit
+has been much admired; but whether justly, may be a question. From a
+Bayard, nothing could have been better; but the honor of a king is not
+confined to fighting a battle; and this specimen, like the conduct of
+Francis in general, proves him to have been the mirror of knighthood,
+rather than of royalty.
+
+Charles, notwithstanding his victory at Pavia, did not invade France,
+but, as the price of freedom, he prescribed the harshest conditions to
+the captive king. At first they were rejected, but his haughty spirit
+and conscience were at length both reconciled to the casuistry that the
+fulfilment of forced promises may be eluded. Francis, therefore,
+consented to the treaty of Madrid, made in 1526, by which it was
+stipulated that he should give up his claims in Italy and the Low
+Countries; surrender the Duchy of Burgundy to Spain; and return into
+captivity if these conditions were not fulfilled in six weeks. When once
+at large, instead of executing the treaty, he formed a league with the
+Pope, the King of England, and the Venetians, to maintain the liberty of
+Italy. The Pope absolved him from his oaths, and he refused to return
+into Spain. The passions of the rival monarchs were now much excited,
+and challenges and the lie were exchanged between them. No duel was
+fought, nor probably intended; but the notoriety of the challenge went
+far to establish a false point of punctilio, we will not call it honor,
+among gentlemen, and single combats became more frequent than in the
+ages of barbarism.
+
+In 1529, the course of these calamities was suspended by the treaty of
+Cambray, negotiated in person by two women. The Duchess of Angoulême and
+Margaret of Austria, governess of the Low Countries, met in that city,
+and settled the terms of pacification between the rival monarchs.
+
+For Charles's honorable conduct on Luther's appearance before the diet
+of Worms, the reader may refer to the life of the reformer in the
+present volume. The cause of Lutheranism gained ground at the diet of
+Nuremberg; and if Charles had declared in favor of the Lutherans, all
+Germany would probably have changed its religion. As it was, the
+Reformation made progress during the war between the emperor and Clement
+VII. All that Charles acquired from the diet of Spire, in 1526, was to
+wait patiently for a general council, without encouraging novelties. In
+1530, he assisted in person at the diet of Augsburg, when the
+Protestants (a name bestowed on the reformers in consequence of the
+protest entered by the Elector of Saxony and others at the second diet
+of Spire) presented their confession, drawn up by Melancthon, the most
+moderate of Luther's disciples. About this time Charles procured the
+election of his brother Ferdinand as king of the Romans, on the plea
+that, in his absence, the empire required a powerful chief to make head
+against the Turks. This might be only a pretence for family
+aggrandizement; but the emperor became seriously apprehensive lest the
+Lutherans, if provoked, should abandon the cause of Christendom, and
+policy therefore conceded what zeal would have refused. By a treaty
+concluded with the Protestants at Nuremberg, and ratified at Ratisbon in
+1531, Charles granted them liberty of conscience till a council should
+be held, and annulled all sentences passed against them by the imperial
+chamber; on this they engaged to give him powerful assistance against
+the Turks.
+
+In 1535, Muley Hassan, the exiled king of Tunis, implored Charles's aid
+against the pirate Barbarossa, who had usurped his throne. The emperor
+eagerly seized the opportunity of acquiring fame by the destruction of
+that pest of Spain and Italy. He carried a large army into Africa,
+defeated Barbarossa, and marched to Tunis. The city surrendered, being
+in no condition to resist, and while the conqueror was deliberating what
+terms to grant, the soldiery sacked it, committed the most atrocious
+violence, and are said to have massacred more than thirty thousand
+persons. This outrage tarnished the glory of the expedition, which was
+entirely successful. Muley Hassan was restored to his throne.
+
+In 1536 a fresh dispute for the possession of the Milanese broke out
+between the King of France and the Emperor. It began with negotiation,
+artfully protracted by Charles, who promised the investiture, sometimes
+to the second, sometimes to the youngest, son of his formerly impetuous
+rival, whom he thus amused, while he took measures to crush him by the
+weight of his arms. But if misfortune had made the King of France too
+cautious, prosperity had inspired Charles with a haughty presumption,
+which gave the semblance of stability to every chimerical vision of
+pride. In 1536 he attempted the conquest of France by invading Provence;
+but his designs were frustrated by a conduct so opposite to the national
+genius of the French that it induced them to murmur against their
+general. Charles, however, felt by experience the prudence of those
+measures which sacrificed individual interests to the general good by
+making a desert of the whole country. Francis marked his impotent hatred
+by summoning the emperor before parliament by the simple name of Charles
+of Austria, as his vassal for the counties of Artois and Flanders. The
+charge was the infraction of the treaty of Cambray, the offence was laid
+as felony, to abide the judgment of the court of peers. On the
+expiration of the legal term, two fiefs were decreed to be confiscated.
+A fresh source of hostility broke out on the death of the young Dauphin
+of France, who was said to have been poisoned, and the king accused
+Charles V. of the crime. But there is neither proof nor probability to
+support the charge; and the accused could have no interest to commit the
+act imputed to him, since there were two surviving sons still left to
+Francis.
+
+But the resources even of Charles were exhausted by his great exertions;
+arrears were due to his troops, who mutinied everywhere from his
+inability to pay them. He therefore assembled the Cortes, or
+states-general, of Castile, at Toledo, in 1539, stated his wants, and
+demanded subsidies. The clergy and nobility pleaded their own exemption
+and refused to impose new taxes on the other orders. Charles, in anger,
+dissolved the Cortes, and declared the nobles and prelates forever
+excluded from that body, on the ground that men who pay no taxes have no
+right to a voice in the national assemblies. But the people of Ghent
+made a more serious resistance to authority, on account of a tax which
+infringed their privileges. They offered to transfer their allegiance to
+Francis, who did not avail himself of the proposal, not from either
+conscientious or chivalrous scruples, but because his views were all
+centred in Milan; he therefore betrayed his Flemish clients to the
+emperor, in hopes of obtaining the investiture of the Italian duchy. By
+holding out the expectation of this boon, Charles obtained a
+safe-conduct for his passage through France into Flanders, whither he
+was anxious to repair without loss of time. His presence soon reduced
+the insurgents. The inhabitants of Ghent opened their gates to him on
+his fortieth birthday, in 1540; and he entered his native city, in his
+own words, "as their sovereign and their judge, with the sceptre and the
+sword." He punished twenty-nine of the principal citizens with death,
+the town with the forfeiture of its privileges, and the people by a
+heavy fine for the building of a citadel to coerce them. He broke his
+word with Francis by bestowing the Milanese on his own son, afterward
+Philip II.
+
+Our limits will not allow of our detailing the circumstances of the
+emperor's calamitous expedition against Algiers; but his courage,
+constancy, and humanity in distress and danger, claim a sympathy for his
+misfortunes which is withheld from the selfish and wily career of his
+prosperity.
+
+Francis devised new grounds for war, and allied himself with Sweden,
+Denmark, and the Sultan Soliman. This is the first instance of a
+confederacy with the North. But he had alienated the Protestants of
+Germany by his severe measures against the Lutherans, and Henry VIII. by
+crossing the marriage of his son Edward with Mary of Scotland, yet in
+her cradle. Henry therefore leagued with the emperor, who found it
+convenient to bury the injuries of Catherine of Aragon in her grave. The
+war was continued during the two following years with varying success:
+the most remarkable events were the capture of Boulogne by the English,
+and the great victory won by the French over the Imperialists at
+Cerisolles, Piedmont, in 1544. In the autumn of that year a treaty was
+concluded at Crespi, between Charles and Francis, involving the ordinary
+conditions of marriage and mutual renunciations, with the curious clause
+that both should make joint war against the Turks. In the same year the
+embarrassments created by the war, and the imminent danger of Hungary,
+increased the boldness of the German Protestants belonging to the league
+of Smalkald, and the emperor, while presiding at the diet of Spire, won
+them over by consenting to the free exercise of their religion.
+
+The Catholics had always demanded a council, which was convened at Trent
+in 1545. The Protestants refused to acknowledge its authority, and the
+emperor no longer affected fairness toward them. In 1546 he joined Pope
+Paul III. in a league against them, by a treaty in terms contradictory
+to his own public protestations. Paul himself was so imprudent as to
+reveal the secret, and it enabled the Protestants to raise a formidable
+army in defence of their religion and liberties. But the Electors of
+Cologne and Brandenburg, and the Elector Palatine, resolved to remain
+neuter. Notwithstanding this secession, the war might have been ended at
+once, had the confederates attacked Charles while he lay at Ratisbon
+with very few troops, instead of wasting time by writing a manifesto,
+which he answered by putting the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of
+Hesse under the ban of the empire. He foresaw those divisions which soon
+came to pass by Maurice of Saxony's seizure of his cousin's electorate.
+
+Delivered by the death of Francis in 1547, in which year Henry VIII.
+also died, from the watchful supervision of a jealous and powerful
+rival, and relieved from the fear of the Turks by a five years' truce,
+Charles was at liberty to bend his whole strength against the revolted
+princes of Germany. He marched against the Elector Frederick of Saxony,
+who was defeated at Mulhausen, taken prisoner, and condemned to death
+by a court-martial composed of Italians and Spaniards, in contempt of
+the laws of the empire. The sentence was communicated to the prisoner
+while playing at chess; his firmness was not shaken, and he tranquilly
+said, "I shall die without reluctance, if my death will save the honor
+of my family and the inheritance of my children." He then finished his
+game. But his wife and family could not look at his death so calmly; at
+their entreaty he surrendered his electorate into the emperor's hands.
+The other chief of the Protestant league, the Landgrave of Hesse, was
+also forced to submit, and detained in captivity, contrary to the
+pledged word of the emperor; who, fearless of any further resistance to
+his supreme authority, convoked a diet at Augsburg in 1548. At that
+assembly Maurice was invested with Saxony, and the emperor, in the vain
+hope of enforcing a uniformity of religious practice, published by his
+own authority a body of doctrine called the "Interim," to be in force
+till a general council should be assembled. This necessarily was
+unsatisfactory to both parties, but its observance was enforced by a
+master with whom terror was the engine of obedience.
+
+These measures, however, did not preserve tranquillity long in Germany.
+Maurice of Saxony and the Elector of Brandenburg urged the deliverance
+of the Landgrave of Hesse, as having made themselves sureties against
+violence to his person. Charles answered by absolving them from their
+pledges. The Protestants, of course, charged him as arrogating the same
+spiritual authority with the popes. And Maurice, offended at the slight
+put upon him, directed his artful policy to the humiliation of Charles.
+He had compelled his subjects to conform to the Interim by the help of
+the timid Melancthon, who was no longer supported by the firmness of
+Luther. On the other hand, he had silenced the clamors of the more
+sturdy by a public avowal of his zeal for the Reformation. In the
+meantime the diet of Augsburg, completely at the emperor's devotion, had
+named him general of the war against Magdeburg, which had been placed
+under the ban of the empire for opposition to the Interim. He took that
+Lutheran city, but by private assurances regained the good-will of the
+inhabitants. He also engaged in a league with France, but still wore the
+mask. He even deceived the able Granville, Bishop of Arras, afterward
+cardinal, who boasted that "a drunken German could never impose on him;"
+yet was he of all others most imposed on. At last, in 1552, Maurice
+declared himself; and Henry II. of France published a manifesto,
+assuming the title of "Protector of the liberties of Germany and its
+captive princes." He began with the conquest of the three bishoprics of
+Toul, Baden, and Metz. In conjunction with Maurice he had lain a plan
+for surprising Charles at Innspruck, and getting possession of his
+person, and the daring attempt had almost succeeded. Charles was forced
+to escape by night during a storm, in a paroxysm of gout, and was
+carried across the Alps in a litter. These disputes were adjusted in
+1555, at the diet of Augsburg, by the solemn grant of entire freedom of
+worship to the Protestants. The King of France was abandoned by his
+allies, and scarcely named in the treaty.
+
+[Illustration: Charles V. on his way to the convent.]
+
+Henry resolved to defend his acquisition of the three bishoprics, and
+Charles to employ his whole force for their recovery. The Duke of
+Guise made adequate preparations for the defence of Metz, the siege of
+which the emperor was compelled to raise after sixty-five days spent in
+fruitless efforts, with the loss of 30,000 men by skirmishes and
+battles, and by diseases incident to the severity of the season. "I
+perceive," said he, "that Fortune, like other females, forsakes old men,
+to lavish her favors on the young." This sentiment probably sunk deeper
+into his reflections than might be inferred from the sarcastic terms in
+which it was clothed: for in the year 1556, after various events of war,
+alternately calamitous to the subjects of both nations, he astonished
+Europe by his abdication in favor of his son. In an assembly of the
+states at Brussels, he addressed Philip in a speech which melted the
+audience into tears. The concluding passage, as given by Robertson, is
+worth transcribing. "Preserve an inviolable regard for religion;
+maintain the Catholic faith in its purity; let the laws of your country
+be sacred in your eyes; encroach not on the rights and privileges of
+your people; and if the time should ever come when you shall wish to
+enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a son endowed with
+such qualities that you can resign your sceptre to him with as much
+satisfaction as I give up mine to you!" Charles retired into a
+monastery, where he died after more than two years passed in deep
+melancholy, and in practices of devotion inconsistent with sound health,
+when only between fifty-eight and fifty-nine years of age. His activity
+and talents had been the theme of universal admiration, the ardor of his
+ambitious policy had been extreme, and his knowledge of mankind
+profound; but he should have followed up the objects of his high
+aspirations by a straighter road. His glory would have been truly
+enviable had he devoted his efforts to the happiness of his subjects,
+instead of harassing their minds by dissensions, and mowing down their
+lives by hundreds of thousands in war.
+
+To the statesman or the politician the history of this period is an
+inexhaustible fund of instruction and interest, and to the general
+reader it is rendered more than usually attractive by the almost
+dramatic contrast of character among the principal actors in the scene.
+Francis seems to have been the representative of the expiring school of
+chivalry; Charles was not the representative, but the founder of the
+modern system of state policy; Henry was the representative of
+ostentation, violence, and selfishness, to be found in all ages.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN CALVIN
+
+(1509-1564)
+
+[Illustration: Calvin. [TN]]
+
+
+John Calvin was born at Noyon, in Picardy, on July 10, 1509. His father,
+Gerard Caulvin or Cauvin, was procureur-fiscal of the district of Noyon,
+and secretary of the diocese. He was one of six children--four sons and
+two daughters. All the three sons who survived were ecclesiastics; and
+the reformer himself, while still only twelve years of age, was
+appointed to a chaplaincy in the cathedral church of Noyon. Calvin was
+educated in circumstances of ease and even affluence. The noble family
+of De Mortmar, in the neighborhood, invited him to share in the studies
+of their children; he was in some measure adopted by them; and when the
+family went to Paris, in his fourteenth year, he accompanied them. He
+was entered as a pupil in the College de la Marche, under the regency of
+Mathurin Cordier, better remembered, perhaps, by his Latin name of
+Corderius. It was under this distinguished master that Calvin laid the
+foundation of his own wonderful mastery of the Latin language. During
+this early period he was so distinguished by the great activity of his
+mental powers and the grave severity of his manners that his companions,
+it is said, surnamed him "The Accusative."
+
+For a while his attention was directed to the study of law, and his
+father sent him to the university of Orleans, then adorned by Pierre de
+l'Étoile, one of the most famous jurists of his day. At Orleans he
+continued the same life of rigorous temperance and earnest studiousness
+for which he was already noted. It was while a law-student in Orleans
+that he became acquainted with the Scriptures, and received his first
+impulse to the theological studies which have made his name so
+distinguished. A relative of his own, Pierre Robert Olivetan, was there
+engaged in a translation of the Scriptures; and this had the effect of
+drawing Calvin's attention, and awakening within him the religious
+instinct which was soon to prove the master-principle of his life. The
+seeds of the new faith were now beyond doubt sown in his heart, and from
+this time, although he still continued for a while longer to pursue his
+legal studies, his main interests appear to have been religious and
+theological. From Orleans he went to Bourges, where he acquired the
+knowledge of Greek, under the tuition of a learned German, Melchior
+Wolmar. He began here to preach the reformed doctrines, and passed over
+into the ranks of Protestantism, under the slow but sure growth of his
+new convictions rather than under the agitation of any violent feeling.
+Here, as everywhere, his life presents a marked contrast to that of
+Luther.
+
+He proceeded to Paris in 1533, which at this date had become a centre of
+the "new learning," under the teaching of Lefèvre and Farel, and the
+influence of the Queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I. The Sorbonne
+itself had not escaped the infection. There was a growing religious
+excitement in the university, in the court, and even among the bishops.
+This, however, was not to last. The king was soon stirred up to take
+active measures to quell this rising spirit, and the result was that
+Calvin and others were obliged to flee for their lives. After this he
+repaired for a short time to his native place, resigned the preferment
+he held in the Roman Catholic Church, and for a year or two led a
+wandering life, sheltered in various places. We find him at Saintorge;
+at Nerac, the residence of the Queen of Navarre; at Angoulême, with his
+friend Louis du Tillet; then for a brief while at Paris again.
+Persecutions against the Protestants at this time raged so hotly that
+Calvin was no longer safe in France, and he betook himself to Basel,
+whence he issued, in the year 1536, the first edition of his "Christianæ
+Religionis Institutio," with the famous preface addressed to Francis I.
+The concentrated vigor and intensity of feeling of this address, rising
+into indignant remonstrance, and at times into pathetic and powerful
+influence, make it one of the most memorable documents in connection
+with the Reformation. After completing this great service to the cause
+of Protestantism, he made a short visit to Italy, to Renée, the Duchess
+of Ferrara. Finally, he revisited his native town, sold the paternal
+estate, which had devolved to him on the death of his eldest brother,
+and, bidding Noyon adieu, set out, in company with his younger brother
+and sister, on his way to Strasbourg. The direct road being rendered
+dangerous by the armies of Charles V., which had penetrated into France,
+he sought a circuitous route through Savoy and Geneva.
+
+The result of this journey was memorable for the cause of the
+Reformation. Arrived in Geneva, in the autumn of 1536, he met there his
+friend, Louis du Tillet, who communicated the fact of his arrival to
+Farel, then in the very midst of his struggle to promote the
+Reformation. Farel hastened to see him, and urge upon him the duty of
+remaining where he was, and undertaking his share of the work of God.
+Calvin did not at first respond to the call. He was given, he himself
+says, to his "own intense thoughts and private studies." He wished to
+devote himself to the service of the reformed churches generally, rather
+than to the care of any particular church. By some strange insight,
+however, Farel penetrated to the higher fitness of the young stranger
+who stood before him, and he ventured to lay the curse of God upon him
+and his studies if he refused his aid to the church of Geneva in her
+time of need. "It was," Calvin said, "as if God had seized me by his
+awful hand from heaven." He abandoned his intention of pursuing his
+journey, and joined eagerly with Farel in the work of reformation.
+
+Having entered upon his task, he soon infused an energy into it which
+crowned the struggling efforts of Farel with success. The hierarchical
+authority was already overturned before his arrival; the citizens had
+asserted their independence against the Duke of Savoy. The magistrates
+and people eagerly joined with the reformers in the first heat of their
+freedom and their zeal. A Protestant Confession of Faith was drawn out,
+approved of by the Council of Two Hundred, and then proclaimed in the
+cathedral church of St. Peter. Great and marvellous changes were wrought
+in a short time upon the manners of the people; where license and
+frivolity had reigned, a strict moral severity began to characterize the
+whole aspect of society. The strain, however, was too sudden and too
+extreme. A spirit of rebellion against the rule of Calvin and Farel
+broke forth; but they refused to yield to the wishes of a party animated
+by a more easy and liberal spirit than themselves, and known in the
+history of Geneva under the nickname of Libertines; and the consequence
+was that they were both expelled from the city after less than two
+years' residence.
+
+[Illustration: A procession. [TN]]
+
+Calvin retreated to Strasbourg, and devoted himself to theological
+study, especially to his critical labors on the New Testament. Here, in
+October, 1539, he married the widow of a converted Anabaptist.
+
+The Genevans found, after a short time, that they could not well get on
+without Calvin. His rule might be rigid; but an authority even such as
+his was better than no settled authority at all; and the Libertine party
+seem to have been unable to construct any efficient and beneficent form
+of government. Accordingly, they invited Calvin to return; and, after
+some delay on his part, in order to test the spirit in which they were
+acting, he acceded to their invitation, and in the autumn of 1541, after
+three years' absence, once more made his entry into Geneva.
+
+Now, at length, he succeeded in establishing his plan of
+church-government. By his College of Pastors and Doctors, and his
+Consistorial Court of Discipline, he founded a theocracy, which aimed
+virtually to direct all the affairs of the city, and to control and
+modify both the social and individual life of the citizens. The
+Libertines still remained a strong party, which was even augmented after
+Calvin's return, by men such as Ami Perrin, who had strongly concurred
+in the invitation to Calvin, but who were afterward alienated from him
+by the high hand with which he pursued his designs, as well as by their
+own schemes of ambition. The struggle with this party lasted, with
+varying fortune, for no less a period than fifteen years, and was only
+terminated in 1555, after a somewhat ridiculous _émeute_ in the streets.
+Perrin and others, driven from the city, were executed in effigy; and
+the reformer's authority from this date was confirmed into an absolute
+supremacy. During the long struggle with the Libertines occurred also
+Calvin's controversies with Sebastian Castellio, Jerome Bolsec, and
+above all, Michael Servetus.
+
+After the execution of Servetus, and the expulsion of the Libertines two
+years later, Calvin's power in Geneva was firmly established, and he
+used it vigorously and beneficently for the defence of Protestantism
+throughout Europe. By the mediation of Beza he made his influence felt
+in France in the great struggle that was there going on between the
+hierarchical party, with the Guises at its head, and the Protestants,
+led by Condé and Coligny. In 1561 his energies began to fail. He had
+been long suffering from bad health, though his strength of will and
+buoyancy of intellect sustained him; but his health grew very much
+worse, and although he survived for more than two years, he never
+regained any vigor. He died on May 27, 1564.
+
+Very different estimates have been formed of Calvin's character. None,
+however, can dispute his intellectual greatness or the powerful services
+which he rendered to the cause of Protestantism. Stern in spirit and
+unyielding in will, he is never selfish or petty in his motives. Nowhere
+amiable, he is everywhere strong. Arbitrary and cruel when it suits him,
+he is yet heroic in his aims, and beneficent in the scope of his
+ambition. His moral purpose is always clear and definite: to live a life
+of duty, to shape circumstances to such divine ends as he apprehended,
+and in whatever sphere he might be placed, to work out the glory of God.
+
+He rendered a double service to Protestantism, which, apart from
+anything else, would have made his name illustrious: he systematized its
+doctrine, and he organized its ecclesiastical discipline. He was at once
+the great theologian of the Reformation, and the founder of a new church
+polity which did more than all other influences together to consolidate
+the scattered forces of the Reformation and give them an enduring
+strength. As a religious teacher, as a social legislator, and as a
+writer, especially of the French language, whose modern prose style was
+then in process of formation, his fame is second to none in his age, and
+must always conspicuously adorn the history of civilization.
+
+His famous "Institutio" entitles Calvin to the foremost place among the
+dogmatic theologians of the Reformed Church. This masterpiece of
+luminous argument presents a complete system of Christian faith, based
+on the Protestant principle that the Scriptures are the source of
+Christian truth. "Two things there are," says Hooker, in the preface to
+the "Ecclesiastical Polity," "which have deservedly procured him honor
+throughout the world--the one, his exceeding pains in composing the
+'Institutions of the Christian Religion;' the other, his no less
+industrious travails for exposition of Holy Scripture." His Commentaries
+embrace the greater part of the Old Testament and the whole of the New,
+except the Revelation, and place him in the front rank of expositors of
+Scripture.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN KNOX
+
+By P. HUME BROWN
+
+(1505-1572)
+
+[Illustration: John Knox. [TN]]
+
+
+John Knox, the great Scottish Reformer, was born at Giffordgate, a
+suburb of the town of Haddington, in 1505, the year preceding the birth
+of his famous countryman, George Buchanan. Knox has himself told us in a
+single sentence all that is definitely known of his family connections:
+"My lord," he represents himself as saying to the notorious Earl of
+Bothwell, "my grandfather, grandsire (maternal grandfather), and father
+have served under your lordship's predecessors, and some of them have
+died under their standards." He received the elements of his education
+in the grammar school of his native town, and in 1522 was sent to the
+University of Glasgow. St. Andrews was nearer his home, and possessed
+the more famous university; but he was probably drawn to Glasgow by the
+fame of the most distinguished literary Scotchman of his
+generation--John Major, the schoolman. For this reason, at least,
+Buchanan was sent to St. Andrews, though Glasgow was nearer his native
+place, when Major had migrated to the former university. At Glasgow,
+under Major, Knox could have been subjected to none of the influences of
+the great intellectual revolution which substituted for the studies and
+methods of mediævalism the ideas of the Revival of Letters. Like all his
+educated contemporaries, he learned to speak and write Latin with
+perfect fluency; but it was always with an idiom that showed he had none
+of the humanist's scruples regarding purity of language. What he learned
+from Major was the art for which that scholar was renowned throughout
+Europe--the art of logical exercitation; and Knox's writings everywhere
+show that all through life he had a natural delight in the play of
+dialectic. He left the university without taking the degree of master of
+arts, thus by the conditions of all the mediæval universities precluding
+himself from the career of an academic teacher.
+
+During the eighteen years that follow his leaving the university, Knox
+passes completely out of sight. All that is known of him during this
+period is that, from 1540 to 1543, he acted as notary in his native town
+of Haddington. As in the documents that establish this fact his name
+appears with the addition of "Sir," the title of priests who were not
+Masters of Arts, Knox must have been in orders in the Church of Rome
+till as late as 1543. In 1544 we find him acting as tutor to the sons of
+Douglas of Lorgniddry and Cockburn of Ormiston--families, it is to be
+noted, both favorably disposed to the new opinions in religion now
+making their way in Scotland. Through these families he was brought into
+contact with George Wishart, who had lately returned from travelling in
+Germany and England, with the burning zeal to gain his country to the
+Lutheran reformation. From this period the future direction of Knox's
+life was decided, and thenceforward, with an intensity and self-devotion
+never surpassed, he is the apostle of the cause with which his name is
+forever identified--the establishment in Scotland of what he deemed the
+only true conception of the primitive church as based on the teaching of
+Christ and the apostles. We have reason to believe that, even before
+this date, his sympathies were on the side of reform in religion, but
+the teaching and example of Wishart seem first to have brought to him
+the clear consciousness of his mission. Knox identified himself with
+Wishart with all the impetuosity of his character, and was in the habit,
+he tells us, of carrying a two-handed sword before the preacher. When
+Wishart was seized by the emissaries of Cardinal Beaton, Knox would
+willingly have attended him to the last; but Wishart, who knew the fate
+in store for him, rejected the offer. "Return to your bairns" (meaning
+Knox's pupils), he said, "and God bless you. One is sufficient for one
+sacrifice."
+
+Wishart was burned in St. Andrews in March, 1546, and in May of the same
+year Cardinal Beaton was murdered. The cardinal's murderers held
+possession of the castle of St. Andrews; and, as Knox was known to be
+the enemy of Beaton (though he had no share in his assassination), he
+was forced (1547) for his own safety to join them with his pupils. Here
+his zeal and theological attainments made him so conspicuous that, at
+the instance of the leaders of the reforming party (Sir David Lyndsay
+among the rest), he was formally called to the ministry, and preached
+with much acceptance in the castle and parish church of St. Andrews. A
+few months later the castle surrendered to the French; and, in the teeth
+of the express terms of capitulation, the more prominent of the besieged
+party were sent as prisoners on board the French galleys. For eighteen
+months Knox remained a captive, his first winter being spent in a galley
+on the Loire, the second in prison in Rouen. His constitution was not
+naturally robust, and his hard experience during these two years
+seriously impaired his health for the rest of his life. The breach of
+faith on the part of the French, and the ignominy to which he was
+subjected, were never forgotten by Knox, and must in part explain and
+justify his life-long conviction that no good thing could come of French
+policy or French religion.
+
+In February, 1549, on the express intercession of Edward VI., Knox
+regained his liberty. As it was still unsafe for him to return to
+Scotland, for the next four years, till the death of Edward VI., he made
+his home in England. From all that is known of him during these years,
+it is clear that he made himself a person to be reckoned with by those
+at the centre of authority in the country. By his preaching at Berwick
+he gave such offence to the Bishop of Durham that he was removed to
+Newcastle, where it was supposed his influence would be less
+mischievous. In 1551 he was appointed one of six chaplains to Edward
+VI., and in 1552, at the suggestion of the Duke of Northumberland, he
+was offered the bishopric of Rochester. As the duke's object in
+suggesting the appointment was simply to check, as far as he could, what
+he deemed the dangerous activity of Knox, the offer was unhesitatingly
+rejected. Knox's importance in England is still further proved by the
+fact that, along with five others, he was consulted by Archbishop
+Cranmer regarding his forty-five (afterward forty-two) articles of
+religion.
+
+On Mary's accession, Knox, like the majority of the Reformed ministers,
+had to seek refuge on the continent. That he might be within call,
+should circumstances permit his return either to Scotland or England, he
+took up his abode at Dieppe till the beginning of the following year
+(1554), when he proceeded to Geneva. In July of this year he was again
+in Dieppe, "to learn the estate of England;" but with Mary of Lorraine
+as regent in Scotland, and Mary Tudor as Queen of England, he was
+convinced that for the present both these countries were closed against
+him. He accordingly accepted a call from the English congregation at
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, where, however, on account of a dispute regarding
+the use of the Book of Common Prayer, he remained only a few months. At
+Geneva he found a congregation of his own way of thinking; but, eager to
+be an apostle in his own country, he once more returned to Dieppe
+(August, 1555), whence he ventured into Scotland in September. He
+remained in Scotland till July of the next year, residing chiefly in
+Edinburgh, but making preaching journeys into various parts of the
+country. The new doctrines were steadily spreading in Scotland, but as
+yet their supporters were not strong enough to present a confident front
+against the government. It was at his own risk, therefore, that Knox
+remained in the country; and at the prayer of the congregation in
+Geneva, he returned to that town in July, 1556. It was probably during
+this visit to Scotland that he married his first wife, Marjory Bowes, to
+whom he seems to have been engaged during his sojourn in Newcastle. For
+the next two years he remained in Geneva, ministering to his
+congregation, and seeing much of Calvin, whose influence on Knox
+regarding all the great questions of the time was afterward to bear
+fruit in the ordering of affairs in Scotland. To this period also belong
+several of his minor writings, and notably his "First Blast of the
+Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women," the publication of
+which he must afterward have regretted in the interest of the cause he
+had most at heart.
+
+Meanwhile, in Scotland the ground was being prepared for the great work
+in store for Knox. Under Mary of Lorraine as regent, the French
+influence had come to be regarded as a danger to the independence of the
+country, and a sense of this danger threw many into the party of reform.
+The unworthy lives of the old clergy, and the cupidity of many of the
+nobles, worked in the same direction. In 1557 the advocates of reform
+bound themselves, by what is known as the First Covenant, to do all in
+their power to effect a religious revolution, and by 1558 they felt
+themselves strong enough to summon Knox to their aid in the work he
+deemed the mission of his life.
+
+In May, 1559, Knox found himself again in Scotland, which he never again
+left for a prolonged period. He at once became the life and soul of his
+party. At the moment of his arrival the Lords of the Congregation, as
+the Protestant nobility termed themselves, were in open revolt against
+the regent. By his preaching at Perth and St. Andrews Knox gained these
+important towns to his cause, and by his labors in Edinburgh, of which
+he was appointed minister, he also won a strong party against the
+government. But the reformers, of their own resources, could not hold
+their ground against the regent, subsidized by France with money and
+soldiers. Mainly, therefore, through the efforts of Knox, who all
+through his public career was deep in the politics of the time, the
+assistance of England was obtained against what was now deemed the
+French invasion. The help of England proved effective, and by the treaty
+of Leith (1560), and the death of the regent the same year, the
+insurgent party became masters of the country. The estates of Parliament
+having met on August 1st, the ministers were ordered to draw up a
+Confession of Faith which should embody the new teaching, and on August
+17th Protestantism was formally established as the religion of the
+country. Having gained thus much, the ministers, desirous of practical
+results from their victory, drew up the first Book of Discipline--a
+document ever memorable in the history of Scotland, and admirable in
+itself for its wise and liberal suggestions for the religious and
+educational organization of the country. These suggestions, however,
+were little to the mind of the majority of the Protestant nobles, who,
+"perceiving their carnal liberty and worldly commodity to be impaired
+thereby," sneeringly spoke of them as "devote imaginationis." In the
+revolution that had been accomplished Knox had been the leading spirit;
+but he saw that the victory was as yet only half gained, and that the
+deadliest struggle had still to be decided.
+
+The return of the young queen to Scotland (August, 1561) revived all the
+old dissensions, and introduced new elements into the strife of parties.
+By every opinion she held on religion, on the relations of prince and
+subject, on the fundamental principles of life, Mary was separated as by
+an abyss from the party represented by Knox. If we may judge from the
+language which each used of the other, Knox and she failed to find one
+point on which genial intercourse was possible. As the minister of St.
+Giles (then the only Reformed church in Edinburgh), Knox believed that
+Mary was his special charge. Her personal conduct, therefore, no less
+than her public policy, were made the subject of his most stringent
+criticism; and during the six years of her reign his attitude toward her
+was that of uncompromising insistence. The celebration of mass in
+Holyrood Chapel, in defiance of the late religious settlement, first
+roused his wrath; and a sermon delivered by him in St. Giles led to the
+first of those famous interviews with Mary, the record of which makes
+such a remarkable portion of his "History of the Reformation." The
+division of ecclesiastical property, by which those in actual possession
+received two-thirds, the reformed ministers one-third, was a further
+ground of quarrel with the new government. The delay of Mary to confirm
+the late religious settlement also gave rise to the greatest anxiety on
+the part of Knox and his brother ministers. In view of the precarious
+interests of the great cause, Knox spoke out with such frankness as to
+alienate the most powerful noble in the country, and the one whom he
+respected most--Lord James Stuart, afterward the Regent Moray. The
+marriage of Mary with Darnley (1565), again, however, led them to common
+counsels, as both saw in this marriage the most serious menace against
+the new religion. In the subsequent revolt, headed by Moray and the
+other Protestant nobles, Knox nevertheless took no part, and remained at
+his charge in Edinburgh. But after the murder of Rizzio, he deemed it
+wise, considering Mary's disposition toward him, to withdraw to Kyle, in
+Ayrshire, where he appears to have written the greater part of his
+history.
+
+The events of the next two years--the murder of Darnley, Mary's marriage
+with Bothwell, and her subsequent flight into England--again threw the
+management of affairs into the hands of the Protestant party; and under
+Moray as regent the acts of 1560, in favor of the reformed religion,
+were duly ratified by the estates of the realm. As in the former
+revolution, Knox was still the same formidable force the nobles had to
+reckon with; and at Stirling, at the coronation of James VI. (1567), he
+preached in that strain which gave his sermons the character and
+importance of public manifestoes. The assassination of Moray, in 1570,
+and the consequent formation of a strong party in favor of Mary, once
+more endangered the cause to which he had devoted his life, and the
+possession of the castle of Edinburgh by the queen's supporters forced
+him to remove to St. Andrews for safety. He had already had a stroke of
+apoplexy, and he was now but the wreck of his former self, but his
+spirit was as indomitable as ever. The description of him at this
+period, by James Melville, can never be omitted in any account of Knox.
+"Being in St. Andrews, he was very weak. I saw him every day of his
+doctrine go hulie and fear with a furring of martricks about his neck, a
+staff in the one hand, and good, godly Richart Ballanden, his servant,
+holding up the other, oxter from the abbey to the parish church; and be
+the said Richart and another servant lifted up to the pulpit where he
+behooved to loan, at his first entry, but or he had done with his
+sermon, he was so active and vigorous that he was like to ding that
+pulpit in blads, and fly out of it."
+
+It was the desire of his congregation of St. Giles to hear him once more
+before he died. Accordingly, by short stages, he made his way to
+Edinburgh, and on November 9, 1572, at the induction of his successor in
+office, he made his last public appearance. He died the same month, at
+the age of sixty-seven, and was buried in the churchyard then attached
+to St. Giles, behind which church a small square stone in the pavement
+of Parliament Square, marked "J. K., 1572," now indicates the spot where
+he is supposed to lie. The saying of Regent Morton at his grave, "Here
+lieth a man who in his life never feared the face of man" (Calderwood),
+was the most memorable panegyric that could have been pronounced to his
+memory.
+
+Knox was twice married. His first wife, Marjory Bowes, died in 1560,
+leaving him two sons. By his second wife, Margaret Stewart, daughter of
+Lord Ochiltree, whom (little more than a girl) he married in 1564, he
+had three daughters. His widow and all his family survived him.
+
+In their broader features the character of Knox and of the work he
+achieved cannot be misread. In himself he stands as the pre-eminent type
+of the religious reformer--dominated by his one transcendent idea,
+indifferent or hostile to every interest of life that did not subserve
+its realization. He is sometimes spoken of as a fanatic; but the term is
+hardly applicable to one who combined in such a degree as Knox, the
+shrewdest worldly sense with an ever-ready wit and a native humor that
+declares itself in his most serious moments and in the treatment of the
+loftiest subjects. To blame him for intolerance or harshness is but to
+pass judgment on his age and on the type to which he belongs. It is his
+unquestionable tribute, that the work he accomplished was the fashioning
+anew of his country's destinies. It has to be added that by his "History
+of the Reformation in Scotland," Knox holds a place of his own in the
+history of literature. His narrative, as was to be expected, is that of
+one who saw only a single aspect of the events he chronicles; but the
+impress of the writer's individuality, stamped on every page, renders
+his work possibly unique in English literature.
+
+
+
+
+ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND
+
+By SAMUEL L. KNAPP
+
+(1533-1603)
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth I. [TN]]
+
+
+If the question respecting the equality of the sexes was to be
+determined by an appeal to the characters of sovereign princes, the
+comparison is, in proportion, manifestly in favor of woman, and that
+without having recourse to the trite and flippant observation, proved to
+have been ill-founded, of male and female influence. Elizabeth of
+England affords a glorious example in truth of this position.
+
+Daughter of Henry VIII., a capricious tyrant, and of the imprudent and
+unfortunate Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was born at Greenwich, on the banks
+of the Thames, September 7, 1533. Her infancy was unfortunate through
+the unhappy fate of her mother, but she was nevertheless educated with
+care and attention; in her yet infant faculties her father had the
+discernment to perceive uncommon strength and promise. Lady Champernoun,
+an accomplished and excellent woman, was appointed by Henry governess
+to the young princess. It appears to have been the custom of the times
+to instruct young women in the learned languages, an admirable
+substitute for fashionable and frivolous acquisitions; habits of real
+study and application have a tendency to strengthen the faculties and
+discipline the imagination. Mr. William Grindal was Elizabeth's first
+classical tutor; with him she made a rapid progress. From other masters
+she received the rudiments of modern languages; at eleven years of age
+she translated out of French verse into English prose "The Mirror of the
+Sinful Soul," which she dedicated to Catherine Parr, sixth wife to Henry
+VIII. At twelve years of age she translated from the English into Latin,
+French, and Italian, prayers and meditations, etc., collected from
+different authors by Catherine, Queen of England. These she dedicated to
+her father, December 30, 1545; MS. in the royal library at Westminster.
+She also, about the same period, translated from the French "The
+Meditations of Margaret, Queen of Navarre, etc.," published by Bale,
+1548.
+
+Mr. Ascham thus speaks of Elizabeth in a letter to Sir John Cheke: "It
+can scarcely be credited to what degree of skill in the Latin and Greek
+she might arrive, if she should proceed in that course of study wherein
+she hath begun by the guidance of Grindal." In 1548 she had the
+misfortune to lose her tutor, who died of the plague. At this time, it
+is observed by Camden, that she was versed in the Latin, French,
+Spanish, and Italian tongues, had some knowledge of the Greek, was well
+skilled in music, and both sung and played with art and sweetness.
+
+After the death of her father, her brother, King Edward, who tenderly
+loved her, encouraged her in her studies and literary pursuits, while,
+without imposition or restraint, he left her to choose her own
+principles and preceptors. To supply the loss of her tutor she addressed
+herself to the celebrated Roger Ascham, who, at her solicitation, left
+Cambridge and consented to become her instructor. Under him she read the
+orations of Æschines, and Demosthenes' "On the Crown," in Greek, and
+understood at first sight not only the force and propriety of the
+language and the meaning of the orator, but the whole scheme of the
+laws, customs, and manners of the Athenians. By Doctor Grindal,
+professor of theology, she was initiated into the subtleties of polemic
+divinity, to which she gave assiduous application. Such, during the
+short reign of her brother, was the laudable and tranquil time of her
+life, and by these occupations and pursuits she was prepared for the
+great part she was to act on the theatre of Europe.
+
+In July, 1553, Mary, after the death of Edward, succeeded to the throne;
+and having received from her sister many favors and testimonies of
+esteem, she treated her at first with a form of regard; but Elizabeth
+was afterward imprisoned and harshly treated, even to the hazard of her
+life. Her sufferings were, however, mitigated by the interposition of
+Philip, the husband of Mary, for which she was ever grateful.
+
+The reign, the bigotry, and the butchery of Mary, who, _to do God
+service_, amused herself by burning and torturing her people, lasted
+five years and four months. She died, fortunately for the nation,
+November 17, 1558. A parliament had been assembled a few days previous
+to her death, to which the chancellor notified the event. "God save
+Queen Elizabeth," resounded in joyful acclamations through both houses,
+while by the people a transport still more general and fervent was
+expressed.
+
+The commencement of her reign was not less auspicious than its duration
+was prosperous to the country and glorious to herself. It is observed by
+Bayle that to say only that no woman reigned with more glory would be
+saying little. "It must be added that there have been but few great
+kings whose reigns are comparable to hers, it being the most beautiful
+period of English history."
+
+Elizabeth when informed of the death of her sister, was at Hatfield,
+whence, after a few days, she proceeded to London, through crowds of
+people, who contended with each other in testimonies of joy and
+attachment. On entering the Tower she was affected with the comparison
+of her past and present situation; once a captive, exposed to the
+bigotry and malignity of her enemies, now a sovereign, triumphant over
+her adversaries, and the hope and joy of the nation. Falling on her
+knees she expressed her gratitude to heaven for the deliverance she had
+experienced from her persecutors, a deliverance, she declared, not less
+miraculous than that of Daniel from the den of lions. With a magnanimity
+that did her honor, and a prudence that evinced her judgment, she threw
+a veil over every offence that had been committed against her, and
+received graciously and with affability the most virulent of her
+enemies.
+
+On the death of her sister, Elizabeth had, by her ambassador, signified
+her accession to the Pope, whose precipitate temper, insolent
+reflections, and extravagant demands, determined her to persevere in the
+plan she had already secretly embraced. While, to conciliate the
+Catholics she retained in her cabinet eleven of her sister's
+counsellors, she took care to balance their power by adding to their
+number eight partisans of the Protestant faith; among whom were Sir
+Nicholas Bacon, whom she created lord keeper, and Sir William Cecil,
+made Secretary of State.
+
+Cecil assured her that the greater part of the nation, since the reign
+of her father, inclined to the reformation, though constrained to
+conceal their principles by the cruelties practised under the late
+reign. These arguments, to which other considerations and reasonings
+were added, founded on policy and on a knowledge of mankind, had their
+just weight with Elizabeth, and determined her to adopt the party which
+education and political wisdom equally inclined to her favor. Yet she
+wisely resolved to proceed gradually by safe and progressive steps. As
+symptoms of her future intentions, and with a view of encouraging the
+Protestants, whom persecution had discouraged and depressed, she
+recalled all the exiles, and gave liberty to those who had, on account
+of their religion, been confined in prison. She also altered the
+religious service, and gave orders that the Lord's prayer, the litany,
+the creed, and the gospels, should be read in the churches in the vulgar
+tongue; and she forbade the elevation of the host in her presence.
+
+The bishops, foreseeing in these measures the impending change, refused
+to officiate at her coronation; and it was not without difficulty that
+the Bishop of Carlisle was at length prevailed upon to perform the
+ceremony. Amid the joyful acclamations of her subjects, as she was
+conducted through London, a boy, personating Truth, let down from a
+triumphal arch, presented to her a copy of the Bible. She received the
+present graciously, placed it near her heart, and declared that of all
+the costly testimonies of attachment given to her that day by the city,
+this was the most precious and acceptable. Elizabeth insinuated herself
+into the affections of the people by the most laudable art; frank in her
+address, and on all public occasions affable, conciliating, and easy of
+access, she appeared delighted with the concourse that crowded around
+her; entered, without forgetting her dignity, into the pleasures and
+amusements of her subjects, and acquired a popularity unknown to her
+predecessors. Her youth, her graces, her prudence, her fortitude, and
+her talents, attracted the admiration of one sex and afforded to the
+other a subject of pride and triumph. Individuals were captivated by her
+complacency, the public won by her services, while her authority,
+chastened by religion and law, appeared to be derived from its
+legitimate source, the choice and affections of the people.
+
+The Commons entreated her, with all humility, that she would make choice
+of a husband to share with her the weight of government, a request which
+they hoped, from her sex and age, would not be displeasing or offensive.
+To this Elizabeth replied, that as their application was expressed in
+general terms, merely recommending marriage, without pretending to
+direct her choice, she could not be offended or regard their wishes
+otherwise than as a new instance of their attachment toward her; but
+that any farther interposition respecting this subject, on their part,
+it would ill become them as subjects to make, or her, as an independent
+princess, to endure. England was the husband which she had betrothed to
+her; Englishmen were her children; while employed in rearing and
+governing such a family, she could not deem herself sterile or her life
+useless. She desired, for her own part, no higher character, nor fairer
+remembrance of her to be transmitted to posterity, than to have this
+inscription, when she should pay the debt of nature, engraven on her
+tomb: "Here lies Queen Elizabeth, who lived and died a maiden queen."
+
+Misfortune threw the Queen of Scots into the power of Elizabeth, and she
+was denied those services to which the unfortunate are entitled. Driven
+beyond endurance, she openly and bitterly defied her more fortunate
+rival, who viewed her with jealousy as heir to the crown, and was
+fearful that her beauty and influence might supplant her own popularity.
+Mary was kept in prison eighteen years and then executed on the
+scaffold. This transaction will ever remain a foul blot on the character
+of Elizabeth.
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth defied by Mary Stuart.]
+
+Neither the cares of government nor the infirmities of approaching age
+weaned her from the love of letters, which at every interval of leisure
+were her great delight. When nearly sixty years of age, in 1592, she
+made a second visit to Oxford, where, having been entertained with
+orations, disputations, etc., she pronounced on her departure, a Latin
+oration to the vice-chancellors and doctors, when she took her last
+farewell of the university. In the ensuing year she translated from
+Latin into English, Boethius's "De Consolatione Philosophæ." In 1598,
+when the disturbances in Ireland occupied a considerable share of her
+attention, she translated Sallust's "De bello Jugurthino," also the
+greater part of Horace's "De Arte Poetica," and Plutarch's book, "De
+Curiositate," all of which were written in her own hand.
+
+But Elizabeth no longer took an interest in public concerns; her sun was
+setting, overshadowed by a dark cloud. Prosperity and glory palled upon
+her sense; an incurable melancholy had fixed itself on her heart. The
+anxiety of her mind made swift ravages upon her feeble frame; the period
+of her life visibly approached. The Archbishop of Canterbury advised her
+to fix her thoughts on God. She did so, she replied, nor did her mind in
+the least wander from Him. Her voice and her senses soon after failing,
+she fell into a lethargic slumber, which having continued some hours,
+she expired gently, without a struggle, March 24, 1603, in the
+seventieth year of her age and the forty-fifth of her reign.
+
+The character of Elizabeth appears to have been exalted by her friends
+and depreciated by her enemies, in nearly equal proportions. As a
+monarch, her activity and force of mind, her magnanimity, sagacity,
+prudence, vigilance, and address, have scarcely been surpassed in royal
+annals, and are worthy of the highest admiration. Pope Sixtus V. spoke
+of her on all occasions as "a woman with a strong head," and gave her a
+place among the three persons who only, in his opinion, deserved to
+reign; the remaining two were himself and Henry IV. of France. "Your
+queen," said he once to an Englishman, "is born fortunate; she governs
+her kingdom with great happiness; she wants only to be married to me to
+give the world a second Alexander."
+
+Her temper and her talents equally fitted her for government. Capable of
+self-command, and of controlling her own passions, she acquired an
+unlimited ascendency over those of her people. She possessed courage
+without temerity; spirit, resource, and activity in war, with the love
+of peace and tranquillity. Her frugality was exempt from avarice, it was
+the result rather of her love of independence than a passion for
+accumulation. She never amassed any treasures. Her friendships were
+uniform and steady, yet she was never governed by her favorites--a
+criterion of a strong mind. Her choice in her ministers gave proof of
+her sagacity, as her constancy in supporting them did of her firmness.
+If a conduct less rigorous, less imperious, and more indulgent would
+have thrown greater lustre over her character, let it be remembered that
+some good qualities appear to be incompatible with others; nor let the
+seductive and corrupting nature of power be left out in the account. Her
+insincerity was perhaps the greatest blot in her character and the
+fruitful source of all the vexatious incidents of her reign. Though
+unacquainted with philosophical toleration, the only method of disarming
+the turbulence of religious factions, she yet preserved her people, by
+her prudence and good sense, from those theological disputes which
+desolated the neighboring nations.
+
+Beset with enemies, both at home and abroad, among the most powerful
+princes in Europe, the most enterprising and the least scrupulous, the
+vigor of her administration enabled her to defeat all their purposes,
+to annoy and plunder them in their own dominions, and to preserve her
+own dignity untouched and unimpaired. Few monarchs have succeeded to a
+throne in more difficult circumstances, nor have any ever reigned with
+more uniform success and prosperity.
+
+If, as a woman, cut off by the peculiarities of her situation from the
+sympathies of nature and the charm of equal affections, Elizabeth, at
+times suffered under these privations, which even gave to her
+sensibility additional force and acuteness, the strength of her reason
+still triumphed over her passions, and the struggle which her victories
+cost her served but to display the firmness of her resolution and the
+loftiness of her mind.
+
+The praises which have by some been bestowed upon Elizabeth for her
+regard for the constitution and tender concern for the liberties of the
+people, are wholly without foundation. Few princes have exerted with
+more arbitrary power the regal prerogatives which had been transmitted
+to her by her immediate predecessors; yet no censure belongs to her for
+this conduct, in the principles of which she had been trained and of the
+justice of which she was persuaded. What potentate, what man, has
+voluntarily resigned the power in which those beneath him quietly
+acquiesced? Compared with the reigns of her father and sister, that of
+Elizabeth might be termed a golden age.
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIS BACON[14]
+
+By HON. IGNATIUS DONNELLY
+
+(1561-1626)
+
+         [Footnote 14: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+
+Francis Bacon was born in York House, London, on January 22, 1561. Of
+this building only the ancient water-gate, fronting the Thames, survives
+the waste of time. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was for twenty years
+Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under Elizabeth--a famous statesman,
+orator, and wit. His mother, Lady Ann Bacon, was the second daughter of
+the celebrated Sir Anthony Cooke, formerly tutor of King Edward VI.,
+Henry VIII.'s short-lived son. She was a woman of great learning and
+many accomplishments, and of a strong, earnest, passionate,
+affectionate, and religious nature.
+
+Francis was the youngest of eight children, six of whom were by the
+first wife of Sir Nicholas. He belonged to the aristocracy of England,
+but not to that ancient, warlike race of battle-crowned warriors, whose
+pedigree dated back beyond the Crusades. His father was a lawyer. Both
+his father's family and his mother's seem to have risen from the ranks
+on the great wave of the Reformation; they belonged to the intellectual
+new age, then dawning; rather than to the rude, fighting age which was
+about to pass away. Francis was no accident. We can see in him the two
+natures of his father and his mother--the commingling of the powerful,
+practical, sagacious politician and man of affairs, with the studious,
+contemplative, imaginative, affectionate, religious enthusiast.
+
+His birthplace was a palace; the country seat of Gorhamsbury, near Saint
+Albans' village, is in the midst of the most charming rural scenery in
+England, or in the world. There a great part of his youth and early
+manhood was passed.
+
+[Illustration: Francis Bacon. [TN]]
+
+He came into this breathing world when the human race were upon the
+threshold of the tremendous development which now surrounds us. He was
+born sixty-nine years after Columbus had re-opened the long-closed
+pathway from the eastern to the western shores of the Atlantic Ocean;
+twenty-seven years after the French took possession of Canada; twelve
+years after the Portuguese settled in Brazil; and forty-six years before
+the first English colonists landed at Jamestown, Va. The degree of
+advancement of the mind of the age will be understood when it is
+remembered that it was only one hundred and twenty-five years, at the
+date of Bacon's birth, since Guttenberg had invented movable types, in
+Germany; and but eighty-seven years since Caxton set up his printing
+press at Westminster. No man has ever lived who did more than Bacon to
+change the opinions and condition of those who came after him.
+
+It was a "day of little things." England contained less than five
+million inhabitants, and of these probably not one-tenth spoke a
+language which could be understood to-day by the English-using people of
+the world. The mass of the populace were steeped to the lips in
+brutality and ignorance. The houses of the peasants were built of
+"sticks and dirt;" many of them "without chimneys or glazed windows;"
+the habits of the people were "inconceivably filthy;" "scurvy and
+leprosy were endemic;" the schools did not, as a rule, teach English;
+the amusements of the populace were bear-baitings and dancing naked in
+barns; the people of one county could not understand the speech of the
+inhabitants of the next county; "the disputes about tithes and
+boundaries were usually settled by bands of armed men, and the records
+of the Star-Chamber swarm with such cases." Education was at a low ebb.
+"In one year, 1570 (Bacon was then nine years of age), the scholars of
+Trinity College, Cambridge, consumed 2,250 barrels of beer." Many of the
+graduates became beggars; and so extensive was this evil that
+Parliament, by an act of 14th Elizabeth, declared that "all scholars of
+the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge that go about begging, not being
+authorized under the seal of the said universities," are declared
+"vagabonds" and punished as such. But even this was an improvement on
+Henry VIII.'s time when three hundred men were hanged in London for
+soliciting alms.
+
+The only illuminated spot in all this darkness was the Court in London.
+Here they talked something which we would to-day call English; here they
+caught, through France and Italy, a reflected light from the dying
+glories of the ancient Roman civilization; here the travelled wealthy,
+"the picked men of countries," brought home some of the culture of more
+refined races. Bacon says:
+
+  "Courts are but only superficial schools
+     To dandle fools;
+   The rural parts are turned into a den
+     Of savage men;
+   And where's the city, from foul vice so free,
+     But may be termed the worst of all the three?"
+
+In this curious, primitive, rude, ensmalled age, grew up the great man
+who was to do so much to change it all.
+
+From his early years he manifested that vastly active intellect "which
+knew no rest save in motion." He studied, as a child, the nature of
+echoes in a tunnel. At fifteen years of age (so his chaplain Rawley and
+his biographer Spedding assure us), he had realized the shallowness of
+the Aristotelian philosophy and had thought out those principles which
+have since revolutionized human society. There are reasons to believe
+that he was the child of fifteen, referred to by the Rosicrucians, who
+planned the foundation of their society, and, at that early age, wrote
+the "Chymical Marriage of Christian Rosencreutz," first published in
+1616.
+
+At about twelve years of age he went to Cambridge--to Trinity
+College--rooming with his brother Anthony, who was two years his senior.
+In June, 1576, he left the university and became an _ancient_ of the
+Gray's Inn law-society. On September 25, 1576, he accompanied Sir Amias
+Paulet, the English ambassador, to France. Here he witnessed the sixth
+civil war of the French people. He followed the court through several of
+the French provinces; he resided for three months at Poitiers. About
+February 17, 1579, he dreamed that his father's house in the country was
+all covered over with black mortar. At the same time his father was
+taken sick and died in three days thereafter. He returned home on March
+20, 1579, to find himself poor. As he said, he could not "live to
+study," but had "to study to live." He became a practising lawyer, but
+he did not like the profession. He feared "the bar would be his bier;"
+it absorbed time which he thought should be dedicated to better ends. We
+think we find the expression of his heart in the lines of the so-called
+Shakespeare Sonnet:
+
+  "O, for my sake, do thou with fortune chide,
+   The guilty goddess of my harmful deeds,
+   That did not better for my life provide,
+   Than public means, which public manners breeds."
+
+His pecuniary embarrassments were numerous, and continuous. Falstaff
+doubtless expresses a thought which often recurred to him: "I can get no
+remedy against this consumption of the purse; borrowing only lingers and
+lingers it out, but the disease is incurable." More than once he was
+thrown into a "sponging-house" for debt. His brother Anthony loaned him
+money repeatedly. In 1592 a "hard Jew or Lombard" put him in confinement
+for a debt on a bond. Anthony mortgaged his property to pay his debts.
+In 1594 Malone believes the play of "The Merchant of Venice" was in
+existence, in which Bassanio, being in debt to a hard Jew, his friend,
+Antonius, mortgages his own flesh to help him out of his troubles; and
+the Jew money-lender is sent down through all the ages the terrible type
+and exemplar of the merciless usurer. Bacon continues a "briefless
+barrister," with much time at his disposal. He helps in the composition
+of the play called "The Misfortunes of Arthur." He writes a Sonnet to
+the Queen. About this time, 1592, the Shakespeare plays begin to appear.
+Bacon assists in the preparation of several "masks" and "revels," gotten
+up by Gray's Inn. "The Comedy of Errors" first appears in the hall of
+that society, which still stands in London. The "Venus and Adonis" and
+"Lucrece" appear, dedicated to Bacon's intimate friend, Lord
+Southampton; and that nobleman in 1594 contributes a large sum to the
+construction of the _Globe_ play-house, Bacon having observed that the
+stage is a powerful instrumentality to "play on the minds" of the
+people; and on this stage a series of historical plays are put forth,
+everyone of which represents kings as monsters or imbeciles.
+
+The Shakespeare plays continue to be poured forth, and Bacon suffers
+from a siege of "Jews and duns." He describes himself "as poor and sick,
+working for bread." "I am purposed," he says, "not to follow the
+practice of the law." "It is easier," says Mr. Spedding, Bacon's
+biographer, "to understand why Bacon was resolved not to devote his life
+to the ordinary practice of a lawyer, than what plan he had to clear
+himself of the difficulties which were now accumulating upon him, and to
+obtain the means of living and working. What course he betook himself to
+at the crisis at which we have now arrived, I cannot possibly say." We
+have here the time, the opportunity, the incentive, and the necessity
+for the composition of the Shakespeare plays; part of the fruits of the
+representation of which made Shakespeare very wealthy.
+
+In January, 1597, the first acknowledged work of Bacon--his
+"Essays"--was published. They were ten in number. Bacon said of them he
+hoped they would be "like the late new half-pence, which, though the
+pieces are small, the silver is good."
+
+Until he was forty-four years of age, Bacon was kept poor and out of
+office by his uncle Burleigh, and his cousin Cecil; during the life-time
+of Queen Elizabeth he was steadily passed over and suppressed; and even
+during the first years of the reign of King James I., the influence of
+Cecil, then the Earl of Salisbury, was sufficient to keep him out of
+office. In 1605, Bacon published his first great philosophical work,
+"The Advancement of Learning;" in 1607, he became Solicitor-General; and
+in 1612, Attorney-General, and member of the Privy Council. He was then
+fifty-one years of age, and Shakespeare forty-eight. After the
+appointment of Bacon as Attorney-General, no more of the Shakespeare
+plays appeared; the "Tempest," which is evidently the last of the
+series, for in it Prospero declares--
+
+                   "I'll break my staff,
+  Bury it certain fathoms in the earth,
+  And deeper than did ever plummet sound,
+  I'll drown my book;"
+
+is set down by the commentators, as written between 1609 and 1611. At
+that time Shakespeare was forty-five or forty-seven years of age, and
+lived for five or seven years thereafter in utter intellectual idleness,
+in Stratford.
+
+In 1609 Bacon published "The Wisdom of the Ancients," a prose work of
+great poetical beauty. His professional practice was large and his
+income princely. In 1617 he succeeded Ellesmere, the Lord Chancellor,
+with the title of lord-keeper. In January, 1618, he was created lord
+high chancellor, and the same year was raised to the peerage as Baron of
+Verulam; and in 1621 he was made Viscount St. Albans. The "Novum
+Organum," his great life-work, was printed in October, 1620. His
+extraordinary industry is revealed in the fact that it had been copied
+and revised twelve times before it took its present shape. The new
+philosophy meant the study of nature and the acquisition of the
+knowledge of things. In this search the "most common," "base, illiberal
+and filthy matters," are not to be overlooked. We find in the plays the
+same novel philosophy:
+
+               "Some kinds of baseness
+  Are nobly undergone; and most poor matters
+  Point to rich ends." (Tempest, iii. 1.)
+
+"Bacon's leading thought was the good of humanity. He held that study,
+instead of employing itself in wearisome and sterile speculations,
+should be engaged in mastering the secrets of nature and life, and in
+applying them to human use. His method, in the attainment of this end,
+was rigid and pure observation, aided by experiment and fructified by
+induction.... He clearly invented a thermometer; he instituted ingenious
+experiments on the compressibility of bodies, and on the density and
+weight of air; he suggested chemical processes; he suggested the law of
+universal gravitation, afterward demonstrated by Newton; he foresaw the
+true explication of the tides, and the cause of colors." ["American
+Cyclopedia." Vol. II., p. 204.]
+
+This great work, the "Novum Organum," as often happens, was received by
+the majority of readers of his time with laughter and ridicule. Coke
+wrote on the title-page of a presentation copy:
+
+  "It deserveth not to be read in schools,
+   But to be freighted in the ship of fools."
+
+The ill-fortune which had so shrouded Bacon's struggling youth, and
+which had given way to such a magnificent sun-burst of splendid
+prosperity, was again massing its clouds and determined to cover his
+old age with shame, gloom and sorrow. He had been Lord Chancellor but
+three years, when, on March 15, 1621, a committee of the House of
+Commons reported two cases of bribery or corruption against him.
+Twenty-two other cases were also soon after presented. The House of
+Lords proceeded to investigate these charges, and Bacon defended
+himself. It was shown that fourteen of the twenty-four cases were
+presents given long after the suits were terminated; three more were
+sums of money loaned in the ordinary course of business; another case
+was an arbitration where compensation was due him; in another case the
+gift was sent back; another present, a piece of furniture, had never
+been accepted; another case was a New Year's gift, and in other cases
+the money was openly paid to the officers of his court. "Thus," says
+Hepworth Dixon, "after the most rigid scrutiny into his official acts,
+and into the official acts of his servants, not a single fee or
+remembrance, traced to the chancellor, can, by any fair construction, be
+called a bribe. Not one appears to have been given on a promise; not one
+appears to have been given in secret; not one is alleged to have
+corrupted justice."
+
+It must be remembered that the salaries of all the high officers of the
+government were at that time paid in gifts and fees. Thus the king gave
+the lord chancellor but £81 6_s._ 8_d._ a year, while the place was
+worth £10,000 to £15,000; worth in our money to-day $125,000. "The
+judges had enough to buy their gloves and robes, not more." The lord
+chancellor had to maintain a huge retinue: "his court, his household,
+and his followers, gentlemen of quality, sons of peers and prelates;
+magistrates, deputy lieutenants of counties, knights of the shire, have
+all to live on fees and presents." It is still true that in England the
+law will not help a barrister or a physician to recover a fee; their
+compensation is, in theory, at least, supposed to be a gratuity for
+those they serve.
+
+But it may be urged that Bacon plead guilty to corruption and bribery.
+He did nothing of the kind. He acknowledged that he "partook of the
+abuses of the times," and that the existing customs should be reformed;
+but he solemnly declared to Buckingham, May 31, 1621: "I have been a
+trusty and honest and Christ-loving friend to your lordship and the
+justest chancellor that hath been in the five charges since my father's
+time." Again, he said: "I had no bribe or reward in my eye or thought
+when I pronounced any sentence or order.... I take myself to be as
+innocent as any babe born on St. Innocent's day in my heart." All
+attempts to subsequently reverse his decrees failed, although his
+enemies were in possession of power. But King James urged him to make no
+defence, "to trust his honor and his safety to the crown.... He pleads
+guilty to carelessness, not to crime." He desired to live to finish up
+his philosophical works. To resist the king's wishes was to leave
+himself at the mercy of his life-long enemy, Coke; he yielded. The king
+remitted his fine of £40,000 and released him from the Tower. Bacon goes
+back to his books and writes in cipher: "I was the justest judge that
+was in England these fifty years; but it was the justest censure that
+was in Parliament these two hundred years." He meant thereby, that while
+personally innocent of corruption, the sentence would end gift-giving
+to judges. His formal confession to Parliament is a justification of
+every act complained of, for he relieves it, while acknowledging it, of
+those details which imply bribery.
+
+He devoted the last five years of his life to putting forth the greatest
+works ever published by man; including the first complete edition of the
+so-called Shakespeare plays. Fortunate is it for the world that he was
+driven from the task of settling petty squabbles about the trash of the
+time, listening to "weary lawyers with endless tongues;" adjudicating
+questions of pounds, shillings, and pence between litigants whose very
+names have disappeared; and was shipwrecked by the stress of the great
+storm that struck him, like _Prospero_, on an island of solicitude, with
+books that "he prized above his dukedom," to perform labors in which all
+mankind will be interested even to the consummation of civilization on
+earth.
+
+His patience, his gentleness, his forbearance were saint-like; still in
+his right hand he carried "gentle peace to silence envious tongues." His
+appearance, we are told, struck all men who beheld him with a great
+sense of awe. Those who were most closely associated with him loved him
+most dearly. His purposes were Godlike. They were "the glory of the
+Creator and the relief of man's estate." Macaulay says of Bacon's
+experimental philosophy:
+
+"It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; it has extinguished
+diseases; it has increased the fertility of the soil; it has given new
+securities to the mariner; it has furnished new arms to the warrior; it
+has spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown to
+our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to
+earth; it has lighted up the night with the splendor of the day; it has
+extended the range of the human vision; it has multiplied the power of
+human muscle; it has accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it
+has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all
+despatch of business; it has enabled men to descend to the depths of the
+sea; to soar into the air; to penetrate securely into the noxious
+recesses of the earth; to traverse the land with cars which whirl along
+without horses; and the ocean with ships which sail against the wind."
+
+In other words, the brain of this tremendous, this incomprehensible,
+this complex man, lies at the base of all our literature and of all our
+modern progress and civilization. The world is hardly big enough for his
+fame, and the praises of mankind cannot fill the measure of his
+greatness.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+GALILEO-GALILEI
+
+(1564-1642)
+
+[Illustration: Galileo-Galilei. [TN]]
+
+
+The great Tuscan astronomer is best known as the first telescopic
+observer, the fortunate discoverer of the Medicean stars (so Jupiter's
+satellites were first named); and what discovery more fitted to
+immortalize its author than one which revealed new worlds and thus gave
+additional force to the lesson, that the universe, of which we form so
+small a part, was not created only for our use or pleasure? Those,
+however, who consider Galileo only as a fortunate observer, form a very
+inadequate estimate of one of the most meritorious and successful of
+those great men who have bestowed their time for the advantage of
+mankind in tracing out the hidden things of nature. Galileo-Galilei was
+born at Pisa, February 15, 1564. In childhood he displayed considerable
+mechanical ingenuity, with a decided taste for the accomplishments of
+music and painting. His father formed a just estimate of his talents,
+and at some inconvenience entered him, when nineteen years old, at the
+university of his native town, intending that he should pursue the
+medical profession. Galileo was then entirely ignorant of mathematics;
+and he was led to the study of geometry by a desire thoroughly to
+understand the principles of his favorite arts. This new pursuit proved
+so congenial to his taste, that from thenceforward his medical books
+were entirely neglected. The elder Galilei, a man of liberal
+acquirements and enlarged mind, did not require the devotion of his
+son's life to a distasteful pursuit. Fortunately the young man's talents
+attracted notice, and in 1589 he was appointed mathematical lecturer in
+the University of Pisa. There is reason to believe that, at an early
+period of his studentship, he embraced, upon inquiry and conviction, the
+doctrines of Copernicus, of which through life he was an ardent
+supporter.
+
+Galileo and his colleagues did not long remain on good terms. The latter
+were content with the superstructure which _à priori_ reasoners had
+raised upon Aristotle, and were by no means desirous of the trouble of
+learning more. Galileo chose to investigate physical truths for himself;
+he engaged in experiments to determine the truth of some of Aristotle's
+positions, and when he found him in the wrong, he said so, and so taught
+his pupils. This made the "paper philosophers," as he calls them, very
+angry. He repeated his experiments in their presence, but they set
+aside the evidence of their senses and quoted Aristotle as much as
+before. The enmity arising from these disputes rendered his situation so
+unpleasant, that in 1592, at the invitation of the Venetian
+commonwealth, he gladly accepted the professorship of mathematics at
+Padua. The period of his appointment being only six years, he was
+re-elected in 1598, and again in 1606, each time with an increase of
+salary; a strong proof of the esteem in which he was held, even before
+those astronomical discoveries which have immortalized his name. His
+lectures at this period were so fully attended that he was sometimes
+obliged to adjourn them to the open air. In 1609 he received an
+invitation to return to his original situation at Pisa. This produced a
+letter, still extant, from which we quote a catalogue of the
+undertakings on which he was already employed. "The works which I have
+to finish are principally two books on the 'System or Structure of the
+Universe,' an immense work, full of philosophy, astronomy, and geometry;
+three books on 'Local Motion,' a science entirely new, no one, either
+ancient or modern, having discovered any of the very many admirable
+accidents which I demonstrate in natural and violent motions, so that I
+may, with very great reason, call it a new science, and invented by me
+from its very first principles; three books of mechanics, two on the
+demonstration of principles and one of problems; and although others
+have treated this same matter, yet all that has been hitherto written,
+neither in quantity nor otherwise, is the quarter of what I am writing
+on it. I have also different treatises on natural subjects--on Sound and
+Speech, on Light and Colors, on the Tides, on the Composition of
+Continuous Quantity, on the Motions of Animals, and others besides. I
+have also an idea of writing some books relating to the military art,
+giving not only a model of a soldier, but teaching with very exact rules
+everything which it is his duty to know, that depends upon mathematics,
+as the knowledge of castrametation, drawing up of battalions,
+fortification, assaults, planning, surveying, the knowledge of
+artillery, the use of instruments, etc." Out of this comprehensive list,
+the treatises on the universe, on motion and mechanics, on tides, on
+fortification, or other works upon the same subjects, have been made
+known to the world. Many, however, of Galileo's manuscripts, through
+fear of the Inquisition, were destroyed, or concealed and lost, after
+the author's death.
+
+In the same year, 1609, Galileo heard the report that a spectacle-maker
+of Middleburg, in Holland, had made an instrument by which distant
+objects appeared nearer. He tasked his ingenuity to discover the
+construction, and soon succeeded in manufacturing a telescope. His
+telescope, however, seems to have been made on a different construction
+from that of the Dutch optician. It consisted of a convex and concave
+glass, distant from each other by the difference of their focal lengths,
+like a modern opera-glass; while there is reason to believe that the
+other was made up of two convex lenses, distant by the sum of their
+focal lengths, the common construction of the astronomical telescope.
+Galileo's attention naturally was first turned to the moon. He
+discovered that her surface, instead of being smooth and perfectly
+spherical, was rough with mountains and apparently varied like the
+earth, by land and water. He next applied to Jupiter, and was struck by
+the appearance of three small stars, almost in a straight line and close
+to him. At first he did not suspect the nature of these bodies; but
+careful observation soon convinced him that these three, together with a
+fourth, which was at first invisible, were in reality four moons
+revolving round their primary planet. These he named the Medicean stars.
+They have long ceased to be known by that name; but so highly prized was
+the distinction thus conferred upon the ducal house of Florence, that
+Galileo received an intimation that he would "do a thing just and proper
+in itself, and at the same time render himself and his family rich and
+powerful forever," if he "named the next star which he should discover
+after the name of the great star of France, as well as the most
+brilliant of all the earth," Henry IV. These discoveries were made known
+in 1610, in a work entitled "Nuncius Sidereus," the Newsman of the
+Stars; in which Galileo further announced that he had seen many stars
+invisible to the naked eye, and ascertained that the nebulæ scattered
+through the heavens consist of assemblages of innumerable small stars.
+The ignorant and unprejudiced were struck with admiration; indeed,
+curiosity had been raised so high before the publication of this book,
+as materially to interfere with the convenience of those who possessed
+telescopes. Galileo was employed a month in exhibiting his own to the
+principal persons in Venice; and our unfortunate astronomer was
+surrounded by a crowd who kept him in durance for several hours, while
+they passed his glass from one to another. He left Venice the next
+morning, to pursue his inquiries in some less inquisitive place. But the
+great bulk of the philosophers of the day were far from joining in the
+general feeling. They raised an outcry against the impudent fictions of
+Galileo, and one, a professor of Padua, refused repeatedly to look
+through the telescope, lest he should be compelled to admit that which
+he had pre-determined to deny.
+
+It was not long before Galileo had new and equally important matter to
+announce. He observed a remarkable appearance in Saturn, as if it were
+composed of three stars touching each other; his telescope was not
+sufficiently powerful to resolve them into Saturn and his ring. Within a
+month he ascertained that Venus exhibits phases like those of the
+moon--a discovery of great importance in confirming the Copernican
+system. The same phenomenon he afterward detected in Mars. We close the
+list with the discovery of the revolution of the sun round his axis, in
+the space of about a lunar month, derived from careful observation of
+the spots on his surface.
+
+About this time (1610-1611) Galileo took up his abode in Tuscany, upon
+the invitation of the grand duke, who offered to him his original
+situation at Pisa, with a liberal salary, exemption from the necessity
+of residence, and complete leisure to pursue his studies. In 1612 he
+published a discourse on "Floating Bodies," in which he investigates the
+theory of buoyancy, and refutes, by a series of beautiful and conclusive
+experiments, the opinion that the floating or sinking of bodies depends
+on their shape.
+
+Neither Copernicus nor his immediate followers suffered inconvenience or
+restraint on account of their astronomical doctrines; nor had Galileo,
+until this period of his life, incurred ecclesiastical censure for
+anything which he had said or written. But the Inquisition now took up
+the matter as heretical and contrary to the express words of Scripture;
+and in 1616, Copernicus's work, "De Revolutionibus," Kepler's "Epitome,"
+and some of Galileo's own letters, were placed on the list of prohibited
+books; and he himself, being then in Rome, received formal notice not to
+teach that the earth revolves round the sun. He returned to Florence
+full of indignation; and considering his hasty temper, love of truth,
+and full belief of the condemned theory, it is rather wonderful that he
+kept silence so long, than that he incurred at last the censures of the
+hierarchy. He did, however, restrain himself from any open advocacy of
+the heretical doctrines, even in composing his great work, the "Dialogue
+on the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems." This was completed in 1630,
+but not printed till 1632, under license from officers of the church,
+both at Rome and Florence. It is a dialogue between Simplicio, an
+Aristotelian, Salviati, who represents the author, and Sagredo, a half
+convert to Salviati's opinions. It professes "indeterminately to propose
+the philosophical arguments, as well on one side as on the other;" but
+the neutrality is but ill kept up, and was probably assumed, not with
+any hope that the court of Rome would be blinded as to the real tendency
+of the book, but merely that it would accept this nominal submission as
+a sufficient homage to its authority. If this were so, the author was
+disappointed; the Inquisition took cognizance of the matter, and
+summoned him to Rome to undergo a personal examination. Age and
+infirmity were in vain pleaded as excuses; still, through the urgent and
+indignant remonstrances of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, he was treated
+with a consideration rarely shown by that stern tribunal. He was allowed
+to remain at the Florentine ambassador's palace, with the exception of a
+short period, from his arrival in February, until the passing of
+sentence, June 21, 1633. He was then condemned, in the presence of the
+Inquisitors, to curse and abjure the "false doctrines," which his life
+had been spent in proving, to be confined in the prison of the Holy
+Office during pleasure, and to recite the seven penitential psalms once
+a week during three years. The sentence and the abjuration are given at
+full length in the "Life of Galileo," in the "Library of Useful
+Knowledge." "It is said," continues the biographer, "that Galileo, as he
+rose from his knees, stamped on the ground, and whispered to one of his
+friends, '_e pur si muove_,' it does move though."
+
+[Illustration: Galileo before the Inquisition.]
+
+Galileo's imprisonment was not long or rigorous, for after four days he
+was reconducted to the Florentine ambassador's palace; but he was still
+kept under strict surveillance. In July he was sent to Sienna, where he
+remained five months in strict seclusion. He obtained permission in
+December to return to his villa at Arcetri, near Florence: but there, as
+at Sienna, he was confined to his own premises, and strictly forbidden
+to receive his friends. It is painful to contemplate the variety of
+evils which overcast the evening of this great man's life. In addition
+to a distressing chronic complaint, contracted in youth, he was now
+suffering under a painful infirmity which by some is said to have been
+produced by torture, applied in the prisons of the Inquisition to
+extort a recantation. But the arguments brought forward to show that the
+Inquisitors did resort to this extremity do not amount to anything like
+direct proof. In April, 1634, Galileo's afflictions were increased by
+the death of a favorite, intelligent, and attached daughter. He consoled
+his solitude, and lightened the hours of sickness, by continuing the
+observations which he was now forbidden to publish to the world; and the
+last of his long train of discoveries was the phenomenon known by the
+name of the moon's libration. In the course of 1636-37 he lost
+successively the sight of both his eyes. He mentions this calamity in a
+tone of pious submission, mingled with a not unpleasing pride. "Alas,
+your dear friend and servant Galileo has become totally and irreparably
+blind; so that this heaven, this earth, this universe, which with
+wonderful observations I had enlarged a hundred thousand times beyond
+the belief of by-gone ages, henceforward for me is shrunk into the
+narrow space which I myself fill in it. So it pleases God: it shall
+therefore please me also." In 1638 he obtained leave to visit Florence,
+still under the same restrictions as to society; but at the end of a few
+months he was remanded to Arcetri, which he never again quitted. From
+that time, however, the strictness of his confinement was relaxed, and
+he was allowed to receive the friends who crowded round him, as well as
+the many distinguished foreigners who eagerly visited him. Among these
+we must not forget Milton, whose poems contain several allusions to the
+celestial wonders observed and published by the Tuscan astronomer.
+Though blind and nearly deaf, Galileo retained to the last his
+intellectual powers; and his friend and pupil, the celebrated
+Torricelli, was employed in arranging his thoughts on the nature of
+percussion, when he was attacked by his last illness. He died January 8,
+1642, aged seventy-eight.
+
+It was disputed whether, as a prisoner of the Inquisition, Galileo had a
+right to burial in consecrated ground. The point was conceded; but Pope
+Urban VIII. himself interfered to prevent the erection of a monument to
+him in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence, for which a large sum had
+been subscribed. A splendid monument now covers the spot in which his
+remains repose with those of his friend and pupil, the eminent
+mathematician Viviani.
+
+For an account of Galileo's application of the pendulum to the
+mensuration of time; his invention of the thermometer, though in an
+inaccurate and inconvenient form; his methods of discovering the
+longitude, and a variety of other points well worth attention, we must
+refer to the Life of Galileo already quoted. The numerous extracts from
+Galileo's works convey a lively notion of the author's character, and
+are distinguished by a peculiar tone of quaint humor. In conclusion, we
+quote the estimate of Galileo's character, from the same masterly
+memoir. "The numberless inventions of his acute industry; the use of the
+telescope, and the brilliant discoveries to which it led; the patient
+investigation of the laws of weight and motion, must all be looked upon
+as forming but a part of his real merits, as merely particular
+demonstrations of the spirit in which he everywhere withstood the
+despotism of ignorance, and appealed boldly from traditional opinions to
+the judgment of reason and common sense. He claimed and bequeathed to
+us the right of exercising our faculties in examining the beautiful
+creation which surrounds us. Idolized by his friends, he deserved their
+affection by numberless acts of kindness; by his good humor, his
+affability, and by the benevolent generosity with which he devoted
+himself, and a great part of his limited income, to advance their
+talents and fortunes. If an intense desire of being useful is everywhere
+worthy of honor; if its value is immeasurably increased when united to
+genius of the highest order; if we feel for one, who, notwithstanding
+such titles to regard, is harassed by cruel persecution, then none
+deserve our sympathy, our admiration, and our gratitude, more than
+Galileo."
+
+
+
+
+CARDINAL RICHELIEU
+
+(1585-1642)
+
+[Illustration: Richelieu. [TN]]
+
+
+Armand Jean Du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu, the future cardinal, was the
+third son of François Du Plessis, Grand Provost of the French Court, and
+was born on September 5, 1585, at Paris, say his biographers, Aubery and
+Leclerc; while tradition claims this honor for the family château in
+Poitou. He received the elements of education at home from the Prior of
+St. Florent, but soon quitted the paternal mansion, first for the
+College of Navarre, subsequently for that of Lisieux. From thence he
+removed to a military academy, being intended for the profession of
+arms. But on his brother, who was Bishop of Luçon, resolving to quit the
+world for the cloister, young Armand was advised to abandon the sword
+for the gown, in order that he might succeed to his brother's bishopric.
+
+He adopted the advice, entered with zeal into the study of theology, and
+soon qualified himself to pass creditably through the exercises
+necessary to obtain the degree of doctor in theology. He already wore
+the insignia of his bishopric, but the Pope's sanction was still
+wanting, and was withheld on account of the extreme youth of the
+expectant. Resolved to overcome this difficulty, he set off to Rome,
+addressed the pontiff in a Latin oration, and gave such proofs of talent
+and acquirements above his age, that he was consecrated at Rome on the
+Easter of 1607, being as yet but twenty-two years of age.
+
+This position attained, Richelieu endeavored to make the utmost
+advantage of it. He acquired the good-will of his diocese by rigid
+attention to the affairs that fell under his jurisdiction; while in
+frequent visits to the capital, he sought to acquire reputation by
+preaching. In the Estates General of 1614, he was chosen deputy by his
+diocese, and was afterward selected by the clergy of the States to
+present their _cahier_ or vote of grievances to the monarch. It was an
+opportunity not to be thrown away by the ambition of Richelieu, who
+instantly put himself forward as the champion of the queen-mother
+against the cabal of the high noblesse. He at the same time pointed out
+where she might find auxiliaries, by complaining that ecclesiastics had
+no longer a place in the public administration, and were thus degraded
+from their ancient and legitimate share of influence. Richelieu was
+rewarded with the place of almoner to the queen; and he was soon
+admitted to her confidence as well as to that of her favorite, the
+Maréchal D'Ancre.
+
+In 1616 he was appointed secretary of state; but aware by what slender
+tenure the office was held, he refused to give up his bishopric. This
+excited not only the animadversions of the public, but the anger of the
+favorite. Richelieu offered to give up his secretaryship, but the queen
+could not dispense with his talents. The assassination of the favorite,
+however, soon overthrew the influence of the queen herself. Still
+Richelieu remained attached to her, and followed her to Blois; but the
+triumphant party, dreading his talents for intrigue, ordered him to quit
+the queen and repair to one of his priories in Anjou. He was
+subsequently commanded to retire to his bishopric, and at last exiled to
+Avignon. Here he sought to avert suspicion by affecting to devote
+himself once more to theological pursuits. During this period he
+published one or two polemical tracts, the mediocrity of which proves
+either that his genius lay not in this path, or, as is probable, that
+his interest and thoughts were elsewhere.
+
+The escape of the queen-mother from her place of confinement, excited
+the fears of her enemies and the hopes of Richelieu. He wrote instantly
+to court, to proffer his services toward bringing about an
+accommodation. In the difficulty of the moment, the king and his
+favorite accepted the offer. Richelieu was released from exile, and
+allowed to join the queen at Angoulême, where he certainly labored to
+bring about a reconciliation. There were long and bitter struggles, but
+an agreement was finally concluded, and it was found that Richelieu, the
+negotiator, had himself reaped all the benefits. He received the
+cardinal's hat from the king's hand at Lyons, toward the close of the
+year 1622.
+
+Not content with this advancement of her counsellor, Mary de Medici
+continued to press the king to admit Richelieu to his cabinet. Louis
+long resisted her solicitations, such was his instinctive dread of the
+man destined to rule him. Nor was it until 1624, after the lapse of
+sixteen months, and when embarrassed with difficult state questions,
+which no one then in office was capable of managing, that the royal will
+was declared admitting Richelieu to the council. Even this grace was
+accompanied by the drawback that the cardinal was allowed to give merely
+his opinion, not his vote.
+
+Once, however, seated at the council table, the colleagues of the
+cardinal shrunk before him into ciphers. He boldly avowed his
+determination to adopt the policy and resume the scheme of Henry IV.,
+for the humiliation of the House of Austria. His anchor of safety was in
+the confidence reposed in him by Louis XIII. This prince, although of
+most feeble will, was not without the just pride of a monarch; he could
+not but perceive that his former ministers or favorites were but the
+instruments or slaves of the noblesse, who consulted but their own
+interests, and provided but for the difficulties of the moment.
+Richelieu, on the contrary, though eager for power, sought it as an
+instrument to great ends, to the consolidation of the monarchy, and to
+its ascendancy in Europe. He was in the habit of unfolding these high
+views to Louis, who, though himself incapable of putting them into
+effect, nevertheless had the spirit to admire and approve them.
+Richelieu proposed to render his reign illustrious abroad, and at home
+to convert the chief of a turbulent aristocracy into a real monarch. It
+forms indeed the noblest part of this great statesman's character, that
+he won upon the royal mind, not by vulgar flattery, but by exciting
+within it a love of glory and of greatness to which, at the same time,
+he pointed the way.
+
+Accordingly, through all the plots formed against him, Louis XIII.
+remained firmly attached to Richelieu, sacrificing to this minister's
+pre-eminence his nobility, his brother Gaston, Duke of Orleans, his
+queen, and finally the queen-mother herself, when she too became jealous
+of the man whom she had raised.
+
+If Richelieu thus imprudently indulged his passion or his pique, he
+redeemed the error by activity and exertion unusual to the age. He at
+once formed the project of attacking the Huguenots in their chief
+stronghold of La Rochelle. Buckingham, the English minister, could not
+fail to attempt the relief of this sea-port, and the cardinal
+anticipated the triumph of personally defeating a rival. He accordingly
+himself proceeded to preside over the operations of the siege. To render
+the blockade effectual, it was requisite to stop up the port. The
+military officers whom he employed could suggest no means of doing this.
+Richelieu took counsel of his classic reading, and having learned from
+Quintus Curtius how Alexander the Great reduced Tyre, by carrying out a
+mole against it through the sea, he was encouraged to undertake a
+similar work. The great mound was accordingly commenced, and well-nigh
+finished, when a storm arose and destroyed it in a single night. But
+Richelieu was only rendered more obstinate: he recommenced the mole, and
+was seen with the volume of Alexander's History in his hand, encouraging
+the workmen and overruling the objections of the tacticians of the army.
+The second attempt succeeded, the harbor was blocked up, and the
+promised aid of England rendered fruitless. The cardinal triumphed, for
+La Rochelle surrendered. In his treatment of the vanquished, Richelieu
+showed a moderation seldom observable in his conduct. He was lenient,
+and even tolerant, toward the Huguenots, content with having humbled the
+pride of his rival, Buckingham.
+
+La Rochelle was no sooner taken, and Richelieu rewarded by the title of
+prime minister than he resumed those projects of humbling the House of
+Austria, in which he had previously been interrupted. A quarrel about
+the succession to Mantua afforded him a pretext to interfere; and he did
+so, after his fashion, not by mere negotiations, but by an army. This
+expedition proved a source of quarrel between him and the queen-mother,
+Mary de Medici, who hitherto had been his firm and efficient friend.
+
+The voice of the conqueror of La Rochelle triumphed in council, and his
+project in the field. The French were victorious in Italy, and the
+minister equally so over the mind of the monarch.
+
+But Mary de Medici could not forgive, and she now openly showed her
+hatred of Richelieu, and exerted herself to the utmost to injure him
+with the king. Though daily defeating her intrigues, the cardinal
+dreaded her perseverance, and resolved to drag the king with him to
+another Italian campaign. Louis obeyed, and the court set out for the
+south, the queen-mother herself accompanying it. Richelieu, however, did
+not tarry for the slow motions of the monarch. He flew to the army, took
+upon him the command, and displayed all the abilities of a great general
+in out-manoeuvring and worsting the generals and armies of Savoy. In the
+meantime Louis fell dangerously ill at Lyons. His mother, an
+affectionate attendant on his sick-couch, resumed her former empire over
+him. At one moment his imminent death seemed to threaten the cardinal
+with ruin. Louis recovered, however, and his first act was to compel a
+reconciliation, in form at least, between the cardinal and the
+queen-mother.
+
+The king's illness, although not so immediately fatal to Richelieu as
+his enemies had hoped, was still attended with serious consequences to
+him. The French army met with ill success through the treachery of the
+general, Marillac, who was secretly attached to the queen's party, and
+the failure was attributed to Richelieu.
+
+Mary de Medici renewed her solicitations to her son, that he would
+dismiss his minister. Louis, it appears, made a promise to that effect;
+a reluctant promise, given to get rid of her importunity. Mary
+calculated too securely upon his keeping it; she broke forth in bitter
+contumely against Richelieu; deprived him of his superintendence over
+her household, and treated Madame de Combalet, the cardinal's niece, who
+had sunk on her knees to entreat her to moderate her anger almost with
+insult. The king was present, and seemed to sanction her violence so
+that Richelieu withdrew to make his preparations for exile. Louis,
+dissatisfied and irresolute, retired to Versailles; while Mary remained
+triumphant at the Luxembourg, receiving the congratulations of her
+party. Richelieu, in the meantime, ere taking his departure, repaired to
+Versailles, and, once there, resumed the ascendant over the monarch. The
+tidings of this was a thunder-stroke to Mary and her party, who became
+instantly the victims of the cardinal's revenge. Marillac was beheaded,
+and Mary de Medici, herself at length completely vanquished by her
+rival, was driven out of France to spend the rest of her days in exile.
+
+The trial of Marillac had roused the spirit and indignation even of
+those nobles who had previously respected, and bowed to, the minister of
+the royal choice. Richelieu not only threatened their order with the
+scaffold, but his measures of administration were directed to deprive
+them of their ancient privileges, and means of wealth and domination.
+One of these was the right of governors of provinces to raise the
+revenue within their jurisdiction, and to employ or divert no small
+portion of it to their use. Richelieu, to remedy this, transferred the
+office of collecting the revenue to new officers, called the _Elect_. He
+tried this in Languedoc, then governed by the Duc de Montmorenci, a
+noble of the first rank, whose example, consequently, would have weight,
+and who had always proved himself obedient and loyal. Moved, however, by
+his private wrongs, as well as that of his order, he now joined the
+party of the nobles and the king's brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans.
+That weak prince, after forming an alliance with the Duke of Lorraine,
+had raised an army. Richelieu lost not a moment in despatching a force
+which reduced Lorraine, and humbled its hitherto independent duke almost
+to the rank of a subject. Gaston then marched his army to Languedoc and
+joined Montmorenci. The Maréchal de Brezé, Richelieu's brother-in-law,
+led the loyal troops against them, defeated Gaston at Castelnaudari, and
+took Montmorenci prisoner. This noble had been the friend and supporter
+of Richelieu, who even called him his son; yet the cardinal's cruel
+policy determined that he should die. There was difficulty in proving
+before the judges that he had actually borne arms against the king. "The
+smoke and dust," said St. Reuil, the witness, "rendered it impossible to
+recognize any combatant distinctly. But when I saw one advance alone,
+and cut his way through five ranks of gens-d'armes, I knew that it must
+be Montmorenci."
+
+This gallant descendant of five constables of France perished on the
+scaffold at Toulouse. Richelieu deemed the example necessary to strike
+terror into the nobility. And he immediately took advantage of that
+terror, by removing all the governors of provinces, and replacing them
+throughout with officers personally attached to his interests.
+
+Having thus made, as it were, a clear stage for the fulfilment of his
+great political schemes, Richelieu turned his exertions to his original
+plan of humbling the House of Austria, and extending the territories of
+France at its expense. He formed an alliance with the great Gustavus
+Adolphus, who then victoriously supported the cause of religious liberty
+in Germany. Richelieu drew more advantage from the death than from the
+victories of his ally; since, as the price of his renewing his alliance
+with the Swedes, he acquired the possession of Philipsburg, and opened
+the way toward completing that darling project of France and every
+French statesman, the acquisition of the Rhine as a frontier.
+
+The French having manifested their design to get possession of Trèves,
+the Spaniards anticipated them; and open war ensued betwixt the two
+monarchies. Richelieu in his wars was one of those scientific combatants
+who seek to weary out an enemy, and who husband their strength in order
+not to crush at once, but to ruin in the end. Such, at least, were the
+tactics by which he came triumphant out of the struggle with Spain. He
+made no conquests at first, gained no striking victories; but he
+compensated for his apparent want of success by perseverance, by taking
+advantage of defeat to improve the army, and by laboring to transfer to
+the crown the financial and other resources which had been previously
+absorbed by the aristocracy. Thus the war, though little brilliant at
+first, produced at last these very important results. Arras in the
+north, Turin in the south, Alsace in the east, fell into the hands of
+the French; Roussillon was annexed to the monarchy; and Catalonia
+revolted from Spain. Richelieu might boast that he had achieved the
+great purposes of Henry IV., not so gloriously indeed as that heroic
+prince might have done, but no less effectually. This was effected not
+so much by arms as by administration. The foundation was laid for that
+martial pre-eminence which Louis XIV. long enjoyed; and which he might
+have retained, had the virtue of moderation been known to him.
+
+It was not without incurring great personal perils, with proportionate
+address and good fortune, that Cardinal Richelieu arrived at such great
+results. Constant plots were formed against him, the most remarkable of
+which was that of Cinq-Mars, a young nobleman selected to be the king's
+favorite, on account of his presumed frivolity. But he was capable of
+deep thoughts and passions; and wearied by the solitude in which the
+monarch lived, and to which he was reduced by the minister's monopoly of
+all power, he dared to plot the cardinal's overthrow. This bold attempt
+was sanctioned by the king himself, who at intervals complained of the
+yoke put upon him.
+
+Great interests were at stake, for Richelieu, reckoning upon the
+monarch's weak health, meditated procuring the regency for himself. The
+Queen, Anne of Austria, aware of this intention, approved of the project
+of Cinq-Mars, which, of course, implied the assassination of the
+cardinal. No other mode of defying his power and talent could have been
+contemplated. But Richelieu was on the watch. The court was then in the
+south of France, engaged in the conquest of Roussillon, a situation
+favorable for the relation of the conspirators with Spain. The minister
+surprised one of the emissaries, had the fortune to seize a treaty
+concluded between them and the enemies of France; and with this flagrant
+proof of their treason, he repaired to Louis, and forced from him an
+order for their arrest. It was tantamount to their condemnation.
+Cinq-Mars and his friends perished on the scaffold; Anne of Austria was
+again humbled; and every enemy of the cardinal shrunk in awe and
+submission before his ascendancy. Among them was the king himself, whom
+Richelieu looked upon as an equal in dignity, an inferior in mind and in
+power. The guards of the cardinal were as numerous as the monarch's, and
+independent of any authority save that of their immediate master. A
+treaty was even drawn up between king and minister, as between two
+potentates. But the power and the pride of Richelieu reached at once
+their height and their termination. A mortal illness seized him in the
+latter days of 1642, a few months after the execution of Cinq-Mars. No
+abatement of his pride marked his last moments. He summoned the monarch
+like a servant to his couch, instructed him what policy to follow and
+appointed the minister who was to be his own successor.
+
+Such was the career of this supereminent statesman, who, although in the
+position of Damocles all his life, with the sword of the assassin
+suspended over his head, surrounded with enemies, and with insecure and
+treacherous support even from the monarch whom he served, still not
+only maintained his own station, but possessed time and zeal to frame
+and execute gigantic projects for the advancement of his country and of
+his age. It makes no small part of Henry IV.'s glory that he conceived a
+plan for diminishing the power of the House of Austria. Richelieu,
+without either the security or the advantages of the king and the
+warrior, achieved it. Not only this, but he dared to enter upon the war
+at the very same time when he was humbling that aristocracy which had
+hitherto composed the martial force of the country.
+
+The effects of his domestic policy were indeed more durable than those
+of what he most prided himself upon, his foreign policy. He it was, in
+fact, who founded the French monarchy, such as it existed until near the
+end of the eighteenth century--a grand, indeed, rather than a happy
+result. He was a man of penetrating and commanding intellect, who
+visibly influenced the fortunes of Europe to an extent which few princes
+or ministers have equalled. Unscrupulous in his purposes, he was no less
+so in the means by which he effected them. But so long as men are
+honored, not for their moral excellences, but for the great things which
+they have done for themselves, or their country, the name of Richelieu
+will be recollected with respect, as that of one of the most successful
+statesmen that ever lived.
+
+As a patron of letters and of the arts, Richelieu has acquired a
+reputation almost rivalling that of his statesmanship. His first and
+earliest success in life had been as a scholar supporting his theses;
+and, as it is continually observed that great men form very erroneous
+judgments of their own excellences, he ever prided himself especially in
+his powers as a penman.
+
+[Illustration: A Concert At Richelieu's Palace.]
+
+
+
+
+WILLIAM BRADFORD[15]
+
+By ELBRIDGE S. BROOKS
+
+(1589-1657)
+
+         [Footnote 15: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Massachusetts. [TN]]
+
+
+Greatness is not allied to rank alone, nor is heroism to blood. The
+noblest of the Pilgrims of Plymouth was sprung from the people. For
+generations the little farming village of Austerfield, a royal manor of
+the West Riding of Yorkshire close to the Nottingham line, had known the
+family of Bradfurth or Bradford as a race of tenant-yeomen who, besides
+tilling the lands of the Mortons, possessed also a freehold of their
+own. But no man or woman of the Bradford name had given it prominence or
+worth until, on March 19, 1589, William Bradford was born in that
+low-roofed farm-house on the great plain of York. Puritan writers speak
+of Austerfield as a "profane and irreligious" village in which was to
+be found "no bible and a careless priest." Whatever the facts, the
+environments, undoubtedly, were not such as would suggest the making of
+a leader or the development of a religious nature. But we are assured
+that, before the age of twelve, the boy William Bradford, brought up in
+that Austerfield farm-house "in the innocent trade of husbandry,"
+displayed alike a thoughtful temperament and "a pious mind." At sixteen
+he fell, in some unknown way, under the influence of one of the
+much-maligned Puritan preachers of Scrooby, a Nottinghamshire village
+but a few miles from Austerfield. As a result he gave up his
+farming-life, left his Austerfield home, and in the face of bitter
+opposition, distrust, censure, and persecution, joined the Puritan
+church and settlement at Scrooby, established there by William Brewster,
+the postmaster of Scrooby and a prominent leader in the new sect of
+dissenters from the English church, known first as separatists and,
+later, because of their frequent changes and wanderings, as Pilgrims.
+
+From his earliest association with this feeble and despised communion,
+William Bradford was zealous in his readiness to stand boldly for his
+faith, whatever the risk involved. He was one of the first to appreciate
+the real meaning of the struggle; he saw that dissent implied not alone
+a religious opposition, but a political defiance as well, and that its
+followers, braving the will of England's royal bigot, James Stuart, and
+denying his assumption of the divine right of kings, would ere long do
+open battle in the cause of the people against despotism, and stand for
+that deeper question of liberty which the Pilgrims of Scrooby and Leyden
+first fully grasped.
+
+Bradford was one of that venturesome company which, in 1607, embarking
+at Boston, in Lincolnshire, sought to flee from English tyranny, and
+find a home in Holland. They were betrayed, turned back, and imprisoned.
+The next year this young eighteen-year old enthusiast escaped from his
+jailers, and made his way to Amsterdam. Here he apprenticed himself to a
+silk-weaver, and became an efficient member of the association of
+English exiles in Holland.
+
+Upon his coming of age in 1610, he sold off the Austerfield lands that
+had descended to him upon the death of his father, and entered upon an
+unsuccessful business investment in Amsterdam. This failing, he joined
+himself to the Pilgrim colony that Brewster and Robinson, the Pilgrim
+preachers, had established at Leyden.
+
+When those far-seeing reformers awoke to the fact that an
+English-speaking community in Holland must, in time, become Dutch in
+manners, speech, and life, and looked across the western ocean with the
+dream of founding a religious republic of English-speaking folk in the
+New World, Bradford was one of the most earnest in adopting and carrying
+out their views, and was one of that famous company which, on September
+16, 1620, sailed from Plymouth in England, to cast anchor, three months
+later, in the harbor of the new Plymouth in New England.
+
+It has been said that if William Brewster was the Aaron of the Plymouth
+enterprise, William Bradford was its Moses. Certainly he was, almost
+from its inception, its leader and deliverer. It was his brain that
+conceived and his hand that executed that memorable compact which the
+forty-one earnest men signed in the cabin of the Mayflower, as she rode
+at anchor in Provincetown harbor--"the first instrument of civil
+government ever subscribed as the act of the whole people." It was into
+his hands, when Carver, the first governor, died of sunstroke in the
+spring of 1621, that the colonists gave the guidance of their affairs,
+electing him governor of the Plymouth colony on April 21, 1621--"the
+first American citizen of English race who bore rule by the free choice
+of his brethren." More than this, we may look upon William Bradford, so
+says Mr. Doyle, the English historian of the Puritan colonies, "as
+heading that bead-roll of worthies that, from his day, America has never
+wanted--men who, with no early training in political life, and lacking
+much that the Old World has deemed needful in her rulers, have yet, by
+inborn strength of mind and lofty public spirit, shown themselves in all
+things worthy of high office."
+
+Certainly William Bradford showed himself worthy the trust and
+confidence of his fellows. For nearly forty years he filled the office
+of governor of the Plymouth colony. His hand guided it through the
+perils of its early years, his brain planned that systematic development
+of its slender resources that made it the one successful episode in
+America's beginnings. His treatment of the Indians was always firm but
+friendly; his dealings with the grasping "London adventurers," whose
+greed would have seriously crippled the colony had it not been for his
+restraining hand, were courteous but convincing; it was Bradford who led
+the colony from the unsatisfactory communism of its first years to the
+system of individual property that, from 1623, held sway, and turned an
+uncertain venture into a career of industrial prosperity. Always
+tolerant, never injudicious, and alike pure-minded, liberty-loving,
+courageous, and wise, no hand could have better guided than did his, or
+have more systematically shaped, the destinies of the infant State. The
+testimony of contemporaries and the judgment of historians unite in
+crediting to William Bradford that rare combination of intelligence and
+industry, of judicial and executive ability, by which a small and
+obscure band of persecuted fugitives laid in an unexplored wilderness
+the foundations of a great and prosperous commonwealth.
+
+His methods were as simple as was his own noble nature. Each advance was
+the outgrowth of his own observation and the colony's necessities, and
+while the corner-stone of the community was religion, he stood himself
+for religious liberty, and never permitted the zeal of his associates to
+degenerate into intolerance and persecution. While other of the early
+American colonies were narrow, bigoted, and vindictive, it is to the
+credit of the Pilgrim colony of Plymouth that the cargo of the Mayflower
+contained no seeds of persecution, and throughout the long
+administration of Governor William Bradford the colony he guided had, in
+his time at least, a clear comprehension of the meaning of religious and
+political freedom, and did not descend into the harrying of so-called
+heretics, the scourging of Quakers, nor the burning of witches. Whatever
+intolerance of this sort may, at a later day, have stained the records
+of the colony, was of foreign growth and contrary to the heritage of
+charity left by William Bradford.
+
+[Illustration: A Puritan Christmas.]
+
+This willingness to serve, to spend and be spent, is apparent throughout
+the whole story of Bradford's life. It displayed itself in the boyish
+spirit of renunciation that led him to join the Scrooby society, and
+held him loyal to his association even through imprisonment and
+persecution, through exile, flight, and emigration. Again and again
+through his long service as governor of the Plymouth colony, he wished
+to lay aside the burden, but always yielded to the wishes of his
+comrades. Elected by the suffrages of his associates, he himself
+restricted his own authority by the formation, in 1624, of the
+governor's council of five members, increased in 1633 to seven, in which
+the only privilege held by the governor was a double vote. In 1624 he
+with seven of his associates assumed, what was for that day and the
+uncertainties involved, a great risk, and bought out the "London
+Adventurers" who had so feebly backed the colonists. In 1629 he obtained
+a patent that conferred upon himself, his associates, and assigns the
+title to the whole Plymouth tract, and in 1640 he conveyed this valuable
+title to the colony, reserving only his personal proportion as a
+settler.
+
+It was this unselfishness of disposition, this loyalty to
+duty--accepting honors as trusts and burdens as obligations--this union
+of justice and faith that made William Bradford great and kept him
+noble.
+
+"With malice toward none, with charity for all," even as had that great
+American of two centuries later, Bradford could keep the even tenor of
+his way in the midst of obstacles and discouragements. Unmoved by the
+ingratitude of Weston, the insolence of Morton, the treachery of Oldham
+and Lyford, and the selfishness of Allerton; calm amid the controversies
+brought about by the arrogance of the greater colony of Massachusetts
+Bay, the encroachments of the French in Maine, and of the Dutch on the
+Connecticut, he could yet, when occasion demanded, display that stern
+justice that meted out the extreme penalty of the law to offenders, and
+condemned to death Billington, the first murderer in the colony, and
+Peach, the assassin of a defenceless Indian.
+
+William Bradford is one of the most interesting figures in the history
+of New England. He is the noblest of the Puritans--a type of their best
+element, an exponent of their highest effort, a pioneer in their
+struggle for liberty for justice, and for law. The boy who could brave
+opposition and contumely for conscience's sake, could also be of
+gentlest manners and serenest mood when called to lead and govern those
+who put their trust in him; the same native courage and independence
+that held him loyal to his convictions in his early years made him, when
+responsibilities multiplied and burdens were laid upon him, the very
+staff and hope of the Pilgrim colony of Plymouth.
+
+He combined with executive ability other notable gifts. Though bred to
+the soil in an age when the farmer was a drudge and had no ambition
+beyond his crops, he yet, when opportunity offered, applied himself to
+study with such good results that he was learned in Latin, Greek, and
+Hebrew, and conversed in French and Dutch. He was acquainted with the
+history and philosophy of his day, was deeply versed in theology, and
+even attempted poetry. He wrote much and well. His most important
+production was his "History of the Plymouth Plantations"--a detailed
+chronicle of the history of the Pilgrims from 1608 to 1646. Carried away
+from the old South Church by British soldiers, it was completely lost,
+until almost providentially discovered, though partially destroyed, in
+the shop of a Halifax grocer, and to-day it tells us almost all that we
+know of the Plymouth settlers, from the day when they left Lincolnshire
+till they became a prosperous commonwealth in America.
+
+Of this important contribution to American history, Mr. Doyle, the
+English historian, says: "Gratitude is quickened when we compare the
+simple, vigorous, and picturesque chronicle set before us by Bradford,
+with the tedious and pedantic writings from which so much of the later
+history of New England has to be extracted.... His work is in the true
+sense scholarly. The language is like the language of Bunyan, that of a
+man who trained himself not merely to speak but to think in the words of
+Scripture. Every expression is simple and effective, never far-fetched,
+never mean nor common. The substance is worthy of the style. Faults no
+doubt there are ... yet with all its defects Bradford's writings still
+remain the worthy first-fruits of Puritan literature in its new home.
+They are the work of a wise and good man, who tells with a right
+understanding the great things that he and his brethren have done."
+
+The wise governor was loyal to his colony to the last. He resisted the
+ambition to take larger holdings of land and become great estate owners
+that influenced Standish and Brewster, Alden and Winslow, and other of
+his Mayflower companions, drawing them away from Plymouth to the broader
+acres at Duxbury and Scituate and Marshfield. The governor deplored this
+withdrawal as a desertion on the part of his old friends, and a menace
+to the welfare of the colony. He lived on in Plymouth, where his home on
+Leyden Street, still standing, gradually outgrew its early primitive
+dimensions as became the house of the governor of Plymouth. Here he died
+on May 9, 1657, "lamented by all the colonists of New England as a
+common blessing and father to them all," and the only special memorial
+that tangibly recalls his fame is the unpretentious obelisk on Burial
+Hill.
+
+As Miles Standish and John Alden had a romance in their lives that has
+made them historic, so this Puritan governor of Plymouth had his. His
+first wife, gentle Dorothy May, was drowned in Cape Cod harbor while her
+husband was away exploring the new-found coast. He had married her in
+Leyden in 1613 and less than three years after her death, on August 14,
+1623, he married Mistress Alice Carpenter Southworth, who in earlier
+days, it is alleged, had been young William Bradford's "dearest love."
+She came across the sea--at his call--a widow, to marry the widowed
+governor of Plymouth and thus complete the unwritten romance begun in
+his earlier years.
+
+A self-made man, a scholar of repute, a writer of renown, an upright and
+fearless magistrate, a model citizen, a courageous leader, gentle, just
+and generous, practical and wise, William Bradford stands in history as
+the essence and exponent of what was best in the Puritanism of his day,
+the architect and builder of a God-fearing, independent, and progressive
+community that, throughout the ages, remains the most notable because
+the most typical of the foundation-stones that underlie the mighty
+structure of the Republic of the United States of America.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND
+
+By F. HINDES GROOME
+
+(1600-1649)
+
+[Illustration: Charles I. [TN]]
+
+
+Charles I. was born at Dunfermline, November 19, 1600, was a sickly
+child, unable to speak till his fifth year, and so weak in the ankles
+that till his seventh he had to crawl upon his hands and knees. Except
+for a stammer, he outgrew both defects, and became a skilled tilter and
+marksman, as well as an accomplished scholar and a diligent student of
+theology. He was created Duke of Albany at his baptism, Duke of York in
+1605, and Prince of Wales in 1616, four years after the death of his
+dear brother, Prince Henry, had left him heir to the crown of three
+kingdoms. A Spanish match had been mooted as early as 1614; but it was
+not till February 17, 1623, that, with Buckingham, his inseparable
+friend, Charles started on the romantic incognito journey to Madrid, its
+objects to win the hand of the Infanta, and to procure the restitution
+of the Palatinate to his brother-in-law, Frederick. Both he and his
+father swore to all possible concessions to the Catholics, but nothing
+short of his own conversion would have satisfied the Spanish and papal
+courts; and on October 5th he landed again in England, eager for rupture
+with Spain.
+
+The nation's joy was speedily dashed by his betrothal to the French
+princess, Henrietta Maria (1609-69); for the marriage articles pledged
+him, in violation of solemn engagements to Parliament, to permit her and
+all her domestics the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and to
+give her the up-bringing of their children till the age of thirteen.
+
+On March 27, 1625, Charles succeeded his father, James I.; on June 13th
+he welcomed his little bright-eyed queen at Dover, having married her by
+proxy six weeks earlier. Barely a twelvemonth was over when he packed
+off her troublesome retinue to France--a bishop and 29 priests, with 410
+more male and female attendants. Thenceforth their domestic life was a
+happy one; and during the twelve years following the murder of
+Buckingham (1592-1628), in whose hands he had been a mere tool, Charles
+gradually came to yield himself up to her unwise influence--not wholly
+indeed, but more than to that of Stafford even, or Laud. Little
+meddlesome Laud, made archbishop in 1633, proceeded to war against the
+dominant Puritanism, to preach passive obedience, and uphold the divine
+right of kings; while great Stafford, from championing the Petition of
+Right (1628), passed over to the king's service, and entered on that
+policy of "Thorough" whose aim was to make his master absolute. Three
+Parliaments were summoned and dissolved in the first four years of the
+reign; then for eleven years Charles ruled with but one, in its stead,
+with subservient judges, and the courts of Star Chamber and High
+Commission. In 1627 he had blundered into an inglorious French war; but
+with France he concluded peace in 1629, with Spain in 1630. Peace,
+economy, and arbitrary taxation were to solve the great problem of his
+policy, how to get money, yet not account for it. Not that Charles cared
+for money in itself, or had far-reaching projects of tyranny (he failed
+to enter into Stafford's scheme); but he had inherited a boundless
+egoism, and content with his own petty self, had little sympathy with
+the dead heroism of the Tudor age, none at all with the nascent ardor of
+democracy. The extension of the ship-tax to the inland counties was met
+by Hampden's passive resistance (1637); Laud's attempt to Anglicize the
+Scottish Church, by the active resistance of the whole northern nation.
+Once more Charles had to call a Parliament; two met in 1640--the Short
+Parliament, which lasted but three weeks, and the Long, which outlasted
+Charles.
+
+It met to pronounce Stafford's doom; and his plot with the army
+detected, Charles basely sacrificed his loyal servitor, his own kingly
+word, to fears for the queen's safety; no act weighed heavier on him
+afterward. The same signature that sent Stafford to the block gave
+assent to a second bill, by which the existing Parliament might not be
+dissolved without its own consent. That pledge, as extorted by force,
+Charles purposed to disregard; and during his visit to Edinburgh, in the
+autumn of 1641, he trusted by lavish concessions to bring over the Scots
+to his side. Instead, he got entangled in dark suspicions of plotting
+the murder of the covenanting lords, of connivance even in the Ulster
+massacre. Still, his return to London was welcomed with some enthusiasm,
+and a party was forming in the Commons itself, of men who revolted from
+the sweeping changes that menaced both church and state. Pym's "Grand
+Remonstrance" justified their fears, and Charles seemed to justify the
+"Grand Remonstrance" by his attempt to arrest the five members (January
+4, 1642); but that ill-stricken blow was dictated by the knowledge of an
+impending impeachment of the queen herself. On August 22d he raised the
+royal standard at Nottingham; and the four years civil war commenced, in
+which, as at Naseby, he showed no lack of physical courage, and which
+resulted at Naseby in the utter annihilation of his cause (June 14,
+1645).
+
+No need here to track him through plot and counterplot with Catholics,
+Presbyterians, and Sectaries, with the Scots and the Irish, with the
+Parliament and the Army; enough that, quitting his last refuge, Oxford,
+he surrendered himself on May 5, 1646, to the Scots at Newark, and by
+them, in the following January, was handed over to the Parliament. His
+four months captivity at Holmby House, near Northampton; his seizure on
+June 3d by Cornet Joyce; the three months at Hampton Court; the fight on
+November 11th; the fresh captivity at Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle of
+Wight--these lead up to the trial at Westminster of the tyrant, traitor,
+and murderer, Charles Stuart. He had drawn the sword, and by the sword
+he perished, for it was the Army, not Parliament, that stood at the back
+of the judges. Charles faced them bravely and with dignity. Thrice he
+refused to plead, denying the competence of such a court: and his
+refusal being treated as a confession, on the third day fifty-five out
+of seventy-one judges--sixty-four more never were present--affixed their
+names and seals to his death-warrant; four days later, sentence was
+pronounced.
+
+No need here to tell the well-known story of his meekness toward his
+persecutors, of the pathetic parting from two of his younger children,
+of his preparation for a holy death; or how, on the morning of January
+30, 1649, he passed to that death on the scaffold in front of Whitehall,
+with a courage worthy of a very martyr. On the snowy 7th of February
+they bore the "white king" to his grave at Windsor in Henry VIII.'s
+vault; in 1813 the Prince Regent had his leaden coffin opened. Six
+children survived him--Charles and James, his successors; Mary, Princess
+of Orange (1631-60); Elizabeth (1635-50); Henry, Duke of Gloucester
+(1639-60); and Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans (1644-70), the last born
+ten weeks after Charles's final parting from his queen. At the
+Restoration Charles II. appointed, on his sole authority, a form of
+prayer, with fasting, for the day of the martyrdom of the Blessed King
+Charles I., to be annexed to the Common Prayer Book, with the other
+state services; it kept its place there till 1859.
+
+A far stronger man than Charles might scarcely have extricated himself
+from the difficulties that beset him; true, those difficulties were
+largely of his own creating. But was he right in abandoning Stafford?
+should he also have sacrificed wife, faith, and crown? If yes, then was
+he wholly in the wrong; if no, he was partly--for once at least--in the
+right. Vices, other than duplicity, he had none, as we use the word. He
+was vague, vacillating, obstinate, unable to lead or to be led;
+superstitious, heedful of omens; unsympathetic and reserved where he did
+not love; intolerant of opposition to his will. But he was a good
+husband, a good father, a good churchman--no man so good was ever so
+bad a king; no man so fallible believed so honestly in his
+infallibility. For Charles was honest to his own convictions. His very
+duplicity was due sometimes to schooling in "kingcraft," but oftener to
+inability to see two sides of a question. Now he saw one, and now the
+other, but never both sides at once; and, just as he saw, so he spoke.
+Milton's charges against him of "all manner of lewdness" rank with
+Milton's charge that he poisoned his father. Indeed, as a pattern of
+culture and purity, few princes are worthy to be named beside him.
+
+His children all loved and respected him. His little daughter Elizabeth,
+held as a prisoner by his foes, wrote of him with such womanly sympathy
+and admiration as even now brings tears to our eyes. His last letter of
+advice to his son Charles is a model hardly to be improved on. Parts of
+it read as follows:
+
+"I had rather you should be Charles _le bon_, than _le grand_, good,
+than great; I hope God hath designed you to be both; having so early put
+you into that exercise of His graces and gifts bestowed upon you, which
+may best weed out all vicious inclinations, and dispose you to those
+princely endowments and employments which will most gain the love, and
+intend the welfare of those over whom God shall place you.
+
+"With God, I would have you begin and end, who is King of kings, the
+sovereign disposer of the kingdoms of the world, who pulleth down one
+and setteth up another.
+
+"The best government and highest sovereignty you can attain to, is to be
+subject to Him, that the sceptre of His word and spirit may rule in your
+heart.
+
+"The true glory of princes consists in advancing God's glory, in the
+maintenance of true religion and the church's good; also in the
+dispensation of civil power with justice and honor to the public peace.
+
+"Piety will make you prosperous, at least it will keep you from becoming
+miserable; nor is he much a loser that loseth all, yet saveth his own
+soul at last.
+
+"To which centre of true happiness, God (I trust) hath and will
+graciously direct all these black lines of affliction which He hath been
+pleased to draw on me, and by which He hath (I hope) drawn me nearer to
+Himself. You have already tasted of that cup whereof I have liberally
+drunk; which I look upon as God's physic, having that in healthfulness
+which it wants in pleasure.
+
+"Take heed that outward circumstances and formalities of religion devour
+not all, or the best, encouragements of learning, industry, and piety;
+but with an equal eye and impartial hand distribute favors and rewards
+to all men, as you find them for their real goodness both in abilities
+and fidelity, worthy and capable of them.
+
+"And if neither I nor you be ever restored to our right, but God, in His
+severest justice, will punish my subjects with continuance in their sin,
+and suffer them to be deluded with the prosperity of their wickedness, I
+hope God will give me and you that grace which will teach and enable us
+to want, as well as to wear, a crown, which is not worth taking up or
+enjoying upon sordid, dishonorable and irreligious terms.
+
+"Keep you to true principles of piety, virtue, and honor; you shall
+never want a kingdom.
+
+"A principal point of your honor will consist in your deferring all
+respect, love, and protection to your mother, my wife, who hath many
+ways deserved well of me, and chiefly in this, that having been a means
+to bless me with so many hopeful children (all which, with their mother,
+I recommend to your love and care), she hath been content with
+incomparable magnanimity and patience to suffer both for and with me and
+you.
+
+"Farewell, till we meet, if not on earth, yet in heaven."
+
+[Illustration: Princess Elizabeth in Prison.]
+
+But Charles was predestined to sorrow. "A tragic face!" said the
+sculptor Bernini, as he looked on the triple portrait by Vandyke.
+Already the shadow of a violent death overclouded those fine, weak
+features.
+
+
+
+
+OLIVER CROMWELL
+
+Extracts from "The History of England," by THOMAS B. MACAULAY
+
+(1599-1658)
+
+[Illustration: An arrest. [TN]]
+
+
+And now a new and alarming class of symptoms began to appear in the
+distempered body politic. There had been, from the first, in the
+Parliamentary party, some men whose minds were set on objects from which
+the majority of that party would have shrunk with horror. These men
+were, in religion, Independents. They conceived that every Christian
+congregation had, under Christ, supreme jurisdiction in things
+spiritual; that appeals to provincial and national synods were scarcely
+less unscriptural than appeals to the Court of Arches or to the Vatican;
+and that popery, prelacy, and Presbyterianism were merely three forms of
+one great apostasy. In politics they were, to use the phrase of their
+time, Root and Branch men, or, to use the kindred phrase of our own
+time, Radicals. Not content with limiting the power of the monarch, they
+were desirous to erect a commonwealth on the ruins of the old English
+polity. At first they had been inconsiderable both in numbers and in
+weight; but, before the war had lasted two years, they became, not
+indeed the largest, but the most powerful faction in the country. Some
+of the old Parliamentary leaders had been removed by death, and others
+had forfeited the public confidence. Pym had been borne, with princely
+honors, to a grave among the Plantagenets. Hampden had fallen, as became
+him, while vainly endeavoring, by his heroic example, to inspire his
+followers with courage to face the fiery cavalry of Rupert. Bedford had
+been untrue to the cause. Northumberland was known to be lukewarm. Essex
+and his lieutenants had shown little vigor and ability in the conduct of
+military operations. At such a conjuncture it was, that the Independent
+party, ardent, resolute, and uncompromising, began to raise its head
+both in the camp and in the Parliament.
+
+The soul of that party was Oliver Cromwell. Bred to peaceful
+occupations, he had, at more than forty years of age, accepted a
+commission in the Parliamentary army. No sooner had he become a soldier,
+than he discerned, with the keen glance of genius, what Essex and men
+like Essex, with all their experience, were unable to perceive. He saw
+precisely where the strength of the Royalists lay, and by what means
+alone that strength could be overpowered. He saw that it was necessary
+to reconstruct the army of the Parliament. He saw, also, that there were
+abundant and excellent materials for the purpose; materials less showy,
+indeed, but more solid, than those of which the gallant squadrons of the
+king were composed. It was necessary to look for recruits who were not
+mere mercenaries; for recruits of decent station and grave character,
+fearing God and zealous for public liberty. With such men he filled his
+own regiment, and, while he subjected them to a discipline more rigid
+than had ever before been known in England, he administered to their
+intellectual and moral nature stimulants of fearful potency.
+
+The events of the year 1644 fully proved the superiority of his
+abilities. In the south, where Essex held the command, the Parliamentary
+forces underwent a succession of shameful disasters, but in the north
+the victory of Marston Moor fully compensated for all that had been lost
+elsewhere. That victory was not a more serious blow to the Royalists
+than to the party which had hitherto been dominant at Westminster; for
+it was notorious that the day, disgracefully lost by the Presbyterians,
+had been retrieved by the energy of Cromwell, and by the steady valor of
+the warriors whom he had trained.
+
+These events produced the Self-denying Ordinance and the new model of
+the army. Under decorous pretexts, and with every mark of respect, Essex
+and most of those who had held high posts under him were removed, and
+the conduct of the war was intrusted to very different hands. Fairfax, a
+brave soldier, but of mean understanding and irresolute temper, was the
+nominal lord-general of the forces, but Cromwell was their real head.
+
+Cromwell made haste to organize the whole army on the same principles on
+which he had organized his own regiment. As soon as this process was
+complete, the event of the war was decided. The Cavaliers had now to
+encounter natural courage equal to their own, enthusiasm stronger than
+their own, and discipline such as was utterly wanting to them. It soon
+became a proverb that the soldiers of Fairfax and Cromwell were men of a
+different breed from the soldiers of Essex. At Naseby took place the
+first great encounter between the Royalists and the remodelled army of
+the Houses. The victory of the Roundheads was complete and decisive. It
+was followed by other triumphs in rapid succession. In a few months the
+authority of the Parliament was fully established over the whole
+kingdom. Charles fled to the Scots, and was by them, in a manner which
+did not much exalt their national character, delivered up to his English
+subjects.
+
+But while the Houses were employing their authority thus, it suddenly
+passed out of their hands. It had been obtained by calling into
+existence a power which could not be controlled. In the summer of 1647,
+about twelve months after the last fortress of the Cavaliers had
+submitted to the Parliament, the Parliament was compelled to submit to
+its own soldiers.
+
+Thirteen years followed, during which England was, under various names
+and forms, really governed by the sword. Never before that time, or
+since that time, was the civil power in our country subjected to
+military dictation.
+
+To keep down the English people was no light task even for that army. No
+sooner was the first pressure of military tyranny felt, than the nation,
+unbroken to such servitude, began to struggle fiercely. Insurrections
+broke out even in those counties which, during the recent war, had been
+the most submissive to the Parliament. Indeed, the Parliament itself
+abhorred its old defenders more than its old enemies, and was desirous
+to come to terms of accommodation with Charles at the expense of the
+troops. In Scotland, at the same time, a coalition was formed between
+the Royalists and a large body of Presbyterians, who regarded the
+doctrines of the Independents with detestation. At length the storm
+burst. There were risings in Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Wales. The
+fleet in the Thames suddenly hoisted the royal colors, stood out to sea,
+and menaced the southern coast. A great Scottish force crossed the
+frontier and advanced into Lancashire. It might well be suspected that
+these movements were contemplated with secret complacency by a majority
+both of the Lords and of the Commons.
+
+But the yoke of the army was not to be so shaken off. While Fairfax
+suppressed the risings in the neighborhood of the capital, Oliver routed
+the Welsh insurgents, and, leaving their castles in ruins, marched
+against the Scots. His troops were few when compared with the invaders;
+but he was little in the habit of counting his enemies. The Scottish
+army was utterly destroyed. A change in the Scottish government
+followed. An administration, hostile to the king, was formed at
+Edinburgh; and Cromwell, more than ever the darling of his soldiers,
+returned in triumph to London.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+England had already ceased to struggle; but the two other kingdoms which
+had been governed by the Stuarts were hostile to the new republic. The
+Independent party was equally odious to the Roman Catholics of Ireland
+and to the Presbyterians of Scotland. Both these countries, lately in
+rebellion against Charles I., now acknowledged the authority of Charles
+II.
+
+But everything yielded to the vigor and ability of Cromwell. In a few
+months he subjugated Ireland as Ireland had never been subjugated
+during the five centuries of slaughter which had elapsed since the
+landing of the first Norman settlers. He resolved to put an end to that
+conflict of races and religions which had so long distracted the island,
+by making the English and Protestant population decidedly predominant.
+For this end he gave the rein to the fierce enthusiasm of his followers,
+waged war resembling that which Israel waged on the Canaanites, smote
+the idolaters with the edge of the sword, so that great cities were left
+without inhabitants, drove many thousands to the Continent, shipped off
+many thousands to the West Indies, and supplied the void thus made, by
+pouring in numerous colonists of the Anglo-Saxon blood and of the
+Calvinistic faith. Strange to say, under that iron rule the conquered
+country began to wear an outward face of prosperity. Districts which had
+recently been as wild as those where the first white settlers of
+Connecticut were contending with the red men, were in a few years
+transformed into the likeness of Kent and Norfolk. New buildings, roads,
+and plantations were everywhere seen. The rent of estates rose fast; and
+soon the English land-owners began to complain that they were met in
+every market by the products of Ireland, and to clamor for protecting
+laws.
+
+From Ireland the victorious chief, who was now in name, as he had long
+been in reality, lord-general of the armies of the commonwealth, turned
+to Scotland. The young king was there. He had consented to profess
+himself a Presbyterian, and to subscribe the Covenant; and, in return
+for these concessions, the austere Puritans who bore sway at Edinburgh
+had permitted him to hold, under their inspection and control, a solemn
+and melancholy court in the long-deserted halls of Holyrood. This mock
+royalty was of short duration. In two great battles Cromwell annihilated
+the military force of Scotland. Charles fled for his life, and, with
+extreme difficulty, escaped the fate of his father. The ancient kingdom
+of the Stuarts was reduced, for the first time, to profound submission.
+Of that independence, so manfully defended against the mightiest and
+ablest of the Plantagenets, no vestige was left. The English Parliament
+made laws for Scotland. The English judges held assizes in Scotland.
+Even that stubborn Church, which has held its own against so many
+governments, scarce dared to utter an audible murmur.
+
+Thus far there had been at least the semblance of harmony between the
+warriors who subjugated Ireland and Scotland, and the politicians who
+sat at Westminster; but the alliance which had been cemented by danger
+was dissolved by victory. The Parliament forgot that it was but the
+creature of the Army. The Army was less disposed than ever to submit to
+the dictation of the Parliament. Indeed, the few members who made up
+what was contemptuously called the Rump of the House of Commons, had no
+more claim than the military chiefs to be esteemed the representatives
+of the nation. The dispute was soon brought to a decisive issue.
+Cromwell filled the house with armed men. The speaker was pulled out of
+his chair, the mace taken from the table, the room cleared, and the door
+locked. The nation, which loved neither of the contending parties, but
+which was forced, in its own despite, to respect the capacity and
+resolution of the general, looked on with patience, if not with
+complacency.
+
+King, Lords, and Commons had now, in turn, been vanquished and
+destroyed, and Cromwell seemed to be left the sole heir of the powers of
+all three. Yet were certain limitations still imposed on him by the very
+army to which he owed his immense authority. That singular body of men
+was, for the most part, composed of zealous republicans. In the act of
+enslaving their country, they had deceived themselves into the belief
+that they were emancipating her. The book which they most venerated
+furnished them with a precedent which was frequently in their mouths. It
+was true that the ignorant and ungrateful nation murmured against its
+deliverers; even so had another chosen nation murmured against the
+leader who brought it, by painful and dreary paths, from the house of
+bondage to the land flowing with milk and honey. Yet had that leader
+rescued his brethren in spite of themselves; nor had he shrunk from
+making terrible examples of those who contemned the proffered freedom,
+and pined for the flesh-pots, the task-masters, and the idolatries of
+Egypt. The object of the warlike saints who surrounded Cromwell was the
+settlement of a free and pious commonwealth. For that end they were
+ready to employ, without scruple, any means, however violent and
+lawless. It was not impossible, therefore, to establish by their aid a
+monarchy absolute in effect; but it was probable that their aid would be
+at once withdrawn from a ruler who, even under strict constitutional
+restraints, should venture to assume the regal name and dignity.
+
+The sentiments of Cromwell were widely different. He was not what he had
+been; nor would it be just to consider the change which his views had
+undergone as the effect merely of selfish ambition. When he came up to
+the Long Parliament, he brought with him from his rural retreat little
+knowledge of books, no experience of great affairs, and a temper galled
+by the long tyranny of the government and of the hierarchy. He had,
+during the thirteen years which followed, gone through a political
+education of no common kind. He had been a chief actor in a succession
+of revolutions. He had been long the soul, and at last the head, of a
+party. He had commanded armies, won battles, negotiated treaties,
+subdued, pacified, and regulated kingdoms. It would have been strange
+indeed if his notions had been still the same as in the days when his
+mind was principally occupied by his fields and his religion, and when
+the greatest events which diversified the course of his life were a
+cattle-fair, or a prayer-meeting at Huntingdon. He saw that some schemes
+of innovation for which he had once been zealous, whether good or bad in
+themselves, were opposed to the general feeling of the country, and
+that, if he persevered in those schemes, he had nothing before him but
+constant troubles, which must be suppressed by the constant use of the
+sword. He therefore wished to restore, in all essentials, that ancient
+constitution which the majority of the people had always loved, and for
+which they now pined. The course afterward taken by Monk was not taken
+by Cromwell. The memory of one terrible day separated the great regicide
+forever from the house of Stuart. What remained was that he should mount
+the ancient English throne, and reign according to the ancient English
+polity. If he could effect this, he might hope that the wounds of the
+lacerated state would heal fast. Great numbers of honest and quiet men
+would speedily rally round him. Those Royalists, whose attachment was
+rather to institutions than to persons, to the kingly office than to
+King Charles I. or King Charles II., would soon kiss the hand of King
+Oliver. The peers, who now remained sullenly at their country houses,
+and refused to take any part in public affairs, would, when summoned to
+their House by the writ of a king in possession, gladly resume their
+ancient functions. Northumberland and Bedford, Manchester and Pembroke,
+would be proud to bear the crown and the spurs, the sceptre and the
+globe, before the restorer of aristocracy. A sentiment of loyalty would
+gradually bind the people to the new dynasty, the royal dignity might
+descend with general acquiescence to his posterity.
+
+The ablest Royalists were of opinion that these views were correct, and
+that, if Cromwell had been permitted to follow his own judgment, the
+exiled line would never have been restored. But his plan was directly
+opposed to the feelings of the only class which he dared not offend. The
+name of king was hateful to the soldiers. Some of them were, indeed,
+unwilling to see the administration in the hands of any single person.
+The great majority, however, were disposed to support their general, as
+elective first magistrate of a commonwealth, against all factions which
+might resist his authority; but they would not consent that he should
+assume the regal title, or that the dignity, which was the just reward
+of his personal merit, should be declared hereditary in his family.[16]
+All that was left to him was to give to the new republic a constitution
+as like the constitution of the old monarchy as the army would bear.
+That his elevation to power might not seem to be his own mere act, he
+convoked a council, composed partly of persons on whose support he could
+depend, and partly of persons whose opposition he might safely defy.
+This assembly, which he called a Parliament, and which the populace
+nicknamed, from one of the most conspicuous members, Barebones's
+Parliament, after exposing itself during a short time to the public
+contempt, surrendered back to the general the powers which it had
+received from him, and left him at liberty to frame a plan of
+government.
+
+         [Footnote 16: It is said that it was largely by the warnings
+         and entreaties of his daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, whom he
+         tenderly loved, that Cromwell was persuaded not to claim the
+         crown.]
+
+How Oliver's Parliaments were constituted, however, was practically of
+little moment; for he possessed the means of conducting the
+administration without their support, and in defiance of their
+opposition. His wish seems to have been to govern constitutionally, and
+to substitute the empire of the laws for that of the sword; but he soon
+found that, hated as he was both by Royalists and Presbyterians, he
+could be safe only by being absolute. The first House of Commons which
+the people elected by his command questioned his authority, and was
+dissolved without having passed a single act. His second House of
+Commons, though it recognized him as Protector, and would gladly have
+made him king, obstinately refused to acknowledge his new lords. He had
+no course left but to dissolve the Parliament. "God," he exclaimed,
+at parting, "be judge between you and me!"
+
+[Illustration: Cromwell's daughter entreats him to refuse the crown.]
+
+Yet was the energy of the Protector's administration in nowise relaxed
+by these dissensions. Those soldiers who would not suffer him to assume
+the kingly title stood by him when he ventured on acts of power as high
+as any English king has ever attempted. The government, therefore,
+though in form a republic, was in truth a despotism, moderated only by
+the wisdom, the sober-mindedness, and the magnanimity of the despot. The
+country was divided into military districts; these districts were placed
+under the command of major-generals. Every insurrectionary movement was
+promptly put down and punished. The fear inspired by the power of the
+sword in so strong, steady, and expert a hand, quelled the spirit both
+of Cavaliers and Levellers. The loyal gentry declared that they were
+still as ready as ever to risk their lives for the old government and
+the old dynasty, if there were the slightest hope of success; but to
+rush at the head of their serving-men and tenants on the pikes of
+brigades victorious in a hundred battles and sieges, would be a frantic
+waste of innocent and honorable blood. Both Royalists and Republicans,
+having no hope in open resistance, began to revolve dark schemes of
+assassination; but the Protector's intelligence was good; his vigilance
+was unremitting; and, whenever he moved beyond the walls of his palace,
+the drawn swords and cuirasses of his trusty body-guards encompassed him
+thick on every side.
+
+Had he been a cruel, licentious, and rapacious prince, the nation might
+have found courage in despair, and might have made a convulsive effort
+to free itself from military domination; but the grievances which the
+country suffered, though such as excited serious discontent, were by no
+means such as impel great masses of men to stake their lives, their
+fortunes, and the welfare of their families against fearful odds. The
+taxation, though heavier than it had been under the Stuarts, was not
+heavy when compared with that of the neighboring states and with the
+resources of England. Property was secure. Even the Cavalier, who
+refrained from giving disturbance to the new settlement, enjoyed in
+peace whatever the civil troubles had left him. The laws were violated
+only in cases where the safety of the Protector's person and government
+were concerned. Justice was administered between man and man with an
+exactness and purity not before known. Under no English government since
+the Reformation had there been so little religious persecution. The
+unfortunate Roman Catholics, indeed, were held to be scarcely within the
+pale of Christian charity; but the clergy of the fallen Anglican Church
+were suffered to celebrate their worship on condition that they would
+abstain from preaching about politics. Even the Jews, whose public
+worship had, ever since the thirteenth century, been interdicted, were,
+in spite of the strong opposition of jealous traders and fanatical
+theologians, permitted to build a synagogue in London.
+
+The Protector's foreign policy at the same time extorted the ungracious
+approbation of those who most detested him. The Cavaliers could scarcely
+refrain from wishing that one who had done so much to raise the fame of
+the nation had been a legitimate king; and the Republicans were forced
+to own that the tyrant suffered none but himself to wrong his country,
+and that, if he had robbed her of liberty, he had at least given her
+glory in exchange. After half a century, during which England had been
+of scarcely more weight in European politics than Venice or Saxony, she
+at once became the most formidable power in the world, dictated terms of
+peace to the United Provinces, avenged the common injuries of
+Christendom on the pirates of Barbary, vanquished the Spaniards by land
+and sea, seized one of the finest West India islands, and acquired on
+the Flemish coast a fortress which consoled the national pride for the
+loss of Calais. She was supreme on the ocean. She was the head of the
+Protestant interest. All the Reformed churches scattered over Roman
+Catholic kingdoms acknowledged Cromwell as their guardian. The Huguenots
+of Languedoc, the shepherds who, in the hamlets of the Alps, professed a
+Protestantism older than that of Augsburg, were secured from oppression
+by the mere terror of that great name. The Pope himself was forced to
+preach humanity and moderation to popish princes; for a voice which
+seldom threatened in vain had declared that, unless favor were shown to
+the people of God, the English guns should be heard in the Castle of St.
+Angelo. In truth, there was nothing which Cromwell had, for his own sake
+and that of his family, so much reason to desire as a general religious
+war in Europe. In such a war he must have been the captain of the
+Protestant armies. The heart of England would have been with him. His
+victories would have been hailed with a unanimous enthusiasm unknown in
+the country since the rout of the Armada, and would have effaced the
+stain which one act, condemned by the general voice of the nation, has
+left on his splendid fame. Unhappily for him, he had no opportunity of
+displaying his admirable military talents except against the inhabitants
+of the British Isles.
+
+While he lived his power stood firm, an object of mingled aversion,
+admiration, and dread to his subjects. Few indeed loved his government;
+but those who hated it most, hated it less than they feared it. Had it
+been a worse government, it might, perhaps, have been overthrown in
+spite of all its strength. Had it been a weaker government, it would
+certainly have been overthrown in spite of all its merits. But it had
+moderation enough to abstain from those oppressions which drive men mad;
+and it had a force and energy which none but men driven mad by
+oppression would venture to encounter.
+
+It has often been affirmed, but apparently with little reason, that
+Oliver died at a time fortunate for his renown, and that, if his life
+had been prolonged, it would probably have closed amid disgraces and
+disasters. It is certain that he was, to the last, honored by his
+soldiers, obeyed by the whole population of the British Islands, and
+dreaded by all foreign powers; that he was laid among the ancient
+sovereigns of England with funeral pomp such as London had never before
+seen, and that he was succeeded by his son Richard as quietly as any
+king had ever been succeeded by any Prince of Wales.
+
+
+
+
+FREDERICK, THE GREAT ELECTOR
+
+(1620-1688)
+
+[Illustration: Frederick. [TN]]
+
+
+Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg surnamed the Great Elector,
+was the son of the Elector George William. In the distracted state of
+Germany, during the Thirty Years' War, and the necessary absence of his
+father with the army, the young prince saw but little of the splendor
+and indulgences of a court, passing the first years of his life in
+retirement with his tutors, who were men of learning and experience, and
+with his mother, first at the castle of Litzlingen, in the forests of
+the Altmark, and afterward at Custrin. The adventures and the singular
+fortunes of the family of his mother (who was sister of Frederick, King
+of Bohemia, husband of the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of
+England), the cruel and barbarous manner in which the war was carried
+on, and the dangers to which he and his family were exposed, necessarily
+made a deep impression on his mind. At the age of fifteen he was sent to
+the University at Leyden, where he especially devoted himself to the
+classics and to history. Of modern languages he was a proficient in
+French, Dutch, and Polish. He was afterward in the camp of Frederick
+Henry, Prince of Orange, during the siege of Breda, and was much noticed
+by the prince for his amiable manners and exemplary conduct, as well as
+for his sound understanding. About this time a widely known society of
+young persons of both sexes (called Media Nocte) endeavored to draw the
+prince into its circle at The Hague; but his friend and tutor, the Baron
+Schulenberg, making him aware of the immoral nature of the society, the
+prince abruptly left one of their convivial meetings, and resolved
+immediately to quit The Hague. The Prince of Orange was much surprised
+at this self-command, and when the prince arrived in the camp before
+Breda, said to him, "Cousin, your flight is a greater proof of heroism
+than if I took Breda; he who so early knows how to command himself will
+always succeed in great deeds." These words, as he himself owned, made a
+deep impression on him.
+
+His father dying in 1640, the young prince found his dominions reduced
+to a most deplorable condition by war and bad government. The exactions
+of Wallenstein in Altmark alone were estimated at twenty millions of
+gold florins; and in a memorial of the magistrate of Prenzlau, it is
+stated that the inhabitants are reduced to such dreadful extremities
+that they not only eat dogs, cats, and even carrion, but that, both in
+the town and country, they attack and kill each other for food. He
+commenced his government with a degree of prudence and wisdom rarely
+found in so young a sovereign. His first care was to correct many crying
+abuses and to restore order in the finances. His attention was then
+directed to foreign affairs. In 1642 he received the investiture of
+Prussia from the King of Poland; in 1643 he concluded a peace with the
+Swedes, on condition of their evacuating the greater part of his
+dominions. At the peace of Munster he was not able to enforce his claims
+to Pomerania and Silesia, but obtained Magdeburg, Wallenstadt, Minden,
+and part of Pomerania.
+
+It is highly to his credit that it was chiefly owing to him, that the
+principle of equal rights and privileges for the two great divisions of
+the Protestant Church was admitted in that famous treaty. Charles
+Gustavus, King of Sweden, appearing emulous of rivalling Gustavus
+Adolphus, the elector concluded an alliance with Holland, and sought the
+friendship of Cromwell and Louis XIV. He was, however, obliged to make
+in 1655 a treaty with the Swedes, in consequence of which he joined in
+the invasion of Poland, and greatly contributed to the victory at
+Warsaw. Austria, Holland, and Poland vehemently protested against this
+alliance with Sweden. Cromwell, however, who believed the Protestant
+cause to be in danger from the King of Poland, sent William Jepson as
+his ambassador to the elector, whom in letters he compliments in the
+highest terms for his service to the Protestant religion. But Russia and
+Austria declaring in favor of Poland, he, by the mediation of Austria,
+concluded a convention with Poland at Wehlau, by one of the stipulations
+of which he obtained the entire sovereignty of Prussia, and in 1678
+completed the conquest of all Pomerania by the taking of Griefswald and
+Stralsund. The death of Charles Gustavus freed him from an adversary who
+would probably have endeavored to prevent the execution of this treaty,
+which was confirmed by the treaty of Oliva. Frederick, now at peace with
+his neighbors, directed all his attention to promote the welfare of his
+subjects by favoring all internal improvements; the ruined towns and
+villages were rebuilt, new roads made, waste lands cultivated, commerce
+encouraged, and many useful establishments founded.
+
+[Illustration: The Great Elector withdraws from the association of the
+Dutch nobility.]
+
+In 1672, however, Holland being threatened by Louis XIV., he concluded a
+treaty with the republic, engaging to furnish 20,000 men for its
+defence. He also contributed to induce the emperor: Denmark, Hesse
+Cassel, and several German princes to join him against France. But
+though his advance into Westphalia induced the French to quit Holland,
+the campaign was rendered unsuccessful by the slowness of the Austrian
+general, and he was forced to abandon Westphalia to the enemy. The
+Austrians leaving him, and the Dutch neglecting to send him subsidies,
+he was obliged to make a convention with France in 1673. The French were
+to evacuate Westphalia and pay him 800,000 livres, he promising to
+withdraw from his alliance with Holland, and not to support the enemies
+of France; yet he reserved to himself the right of assisting the German
+emperor in case of attack. This happened in 1674, when he invaded Alsace
+with 16,000 men, and joined the Imperial army; but the Austrian general,
+Bournonville, avoided a battle, contrary to the advice of Frederick, and
+Turenne receiving reinforcements obliged the Germans to quit Alsace.
+In order to free themselves from Frederick, the French instigated the
+Swedes to invade Pomerania and Altmark, which they attacked in December,
+1674, with 16,000 men. Frederick hastened to his dominions, and
+proceeding with great rapidity and secrecy at the head of only 5,000
+men, he totally defeated 11,000 Swedes at Fehrbellin in 1675, and freed
+his dominions from the enemy. Following up his successes, he took
+Stettin. In January, 1679, he crossed the Frische Haff and the Gulf of
+Courland with his army on sledges over the ice, and surprising the
+Swedes in their winter quarters, compelled them to quit Prussia. He did
+not reap any real advantage from his success, for Louis XIV. insisted
+that he should make peace with Sweden and give up all his conquests; and
+on his refusal, sent an army of 30,000 men to lay waste the duchy of
+Cleves, and city of Minden, so that he was forced to conclude the treaty
+of St. Germain, by which he restored all his conquests to Sweden; the
+French withdrew from his Westphalian dominions, and paid him 300,000
+crowns.
+
+After this, we do not find Frederick again in the field. He was indeed
+engaged in various negotiations; was involved in disputes with France on
+account of its seizure of Strasbourg and Luxembourg; and in consequence
+of his reception of 20,000 French Protestants, who left their country on
+the repeal of the edict of Nantes. Frederick, who had previously
+obtained from his ambassador, von Spanheim, notice of the intended
+measure, had made preparations to receive the fugitives, and sent funds
+to his agents at Frankfort, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, for their
+assistance. In like manner he protected the proscribed Waldenses. Having
+in vain interceded for them in a very affecting letter to the Duke of
+Savoy, he offered to receive 2,000 of them into his dominions. He sent
+8,000 men, in 1686, to assist the emperor against the Turks; having in
+the year preceding renewed his alliance with Holland, when Prince
+William of Orange was preparing for his expedition to England, Frederick
+assisted him with several regiments and Marshal von Schomberg, who
+became so great a favorite with William, and was eventually killed at
+the battle of the Boyne. As another proof of Frederick's enterprising
+spirit, it deserves to be noticed that Spain neglecting to pay him the
+arrears of a subsidy promised him for his co-operation against France,
+he resolved to commence a war by sea against that power; he fitted out
+eight frigates which had been employed against Sweden, and sent them in
+1680 to capture Spanish ships, and they actually took some rich
+merchantmen.
+
+We have not space, nor is it necessary, to detail the proceedings of
+this great prince in consolidating the prosperity of his dominions and
+the welfare of his subjects. He died in April, 1688, leaving to his son
+a much enlarged and highly cultivated territory, a well-filled treasury,
+and an army of 30,000 excellent troops. He was twice married: first, in
+1647, to Louisa Henrietta, Princess of Orange, an amiable and
+accomplished person, author of the celebrated German hymn "Jesus meine
+Zuversicht." She died in 1667. In the following year Frederick married
+Dorothea, Duchess Dowager of Brunswick Lüneberg; but though an excellent
+and virtuous princess, she was not liked by the people, chiefly because
+she was on ill terms with her step-children, especially the
+crown-prince. The character of Frederick, both in public and private
+life, has always been highly esteemed. He was kind, generous, fond of
+society, and, though rather quick in his temper, extremely placable. He
+was the real founder of the Prussian monarchy; and as a sovereign he
+appears to have justly merited the surname of the Great Elector.
+
+
+
+
+LOUIS XIV.[17]
+
+By OLIVER OPTIC
+
+(1638-1715)
+
+         [Footnote 17: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Louis XIV. [TN]]
+
+
+On September 16, 1638, Paris was in a state of intense excitement and
+rejoicing. The booming of cannon resounded through the city, the people
+gave thanks in their churches, all the palaces of the nobility were
+illuminated, and so brilliant were the bonfires and torches in the
+evening that one could see to read on both sides of the Seine. The poor
+were feasted as never before, and there was no limit to the enthusiasm.
+
+The occasion of this unbounded rejoicing was the birth of an heir to the
+throne of France. Louis XIII., the son of Henry IV., the first of the
+Bourbons, was king. He had married the daughter of Philip III. of Spain,
+who was called Anne of Austria, after her mother. She was one of the
+most beautiful women of her time; but for twenty-two years she had lived
+nearly in a state of separation from her husband, and no living heir to
+the throne had been born. The king and the queen were not harmonious;
+and after the lapse of this long period, the birth of a son was regarded
+as an extraordinary, if not a miraculous event, especially by the devout
+people of the nation, who called the child the "God-given."
+
+Louis XIII. was personally a brave man, and had some good qualities; but
+as a ruler he was weak and incapable of governing his kingdom. He
+admitted Cardinal Richelieu to his cabinet, and the astute politician
+became his prime-minister, and was the actual ruler of France. The king
+fully appreciated the vast abilities of his great minister, even while
+he feared, if he did not hate him, and became but a pliant tool in the
+hands of the greatest statesman of his time.
+
+It is said that Richelieu was fascinated by the beauty and grace of Anne
+of Austria, and that she made a bitter enemy of the minister by
+repelling his courtesies. Be this as it may, they were never friends,
+except so far as the relations of state compelled them to be such. He
+died in 1642, naming Cardinal Mazarin as his successor. Before his death
+he had built up the power of France, and won for her an influential
+position among the governments of Europe. But he had repressed
+constitutional liberty, and severely burdened the people with taxation
+to carry on the wars he advocated.
+
+Two years after the birth of the Dauphin, as the heir to the throne was
+then called, another son was born to the king, the Duke of Anjou, who
+afterward became the Duke of Orleans. The brother of the king is called
+"Monsieur" in France, by courtesy; and he is so designated in various
+works of the time. Louis XIII. died when his two sons were respectively
+five and three years old, naming the queen as regent during the minority
+of the young king. Richelieu had died the year before, and Mazarin had
+been installed in his place.
+
+The Palais-Royal, which claims the attention of every visitor in Paris
+at the present time, was built by Richelieu for his own residence, and
+was called the Palais-Cardinal. At his death he bequeathed it to the
+king, and it became the residence of Anne of Austria and her two
+children. The official in charge of the palaces represented that it was
+not proper for the king to live in the mansion of a subject, and the
+inscription bearing the former name was removed, and that of the present
+day was substituted for it; which seemed to many to be an act of
+ingratitude to the statesman who had presented it to the crown. The
+chamber which had been occupied by Richelieu was given to Louis, then
+only five years old. It was a small apartment, for the cardinal built
+more for effect upon the world than for his own personal comfort; but it
+was conveniently located for the proper care of the young king, for
+whose sake alone the name of the palace had been changed.
+
+The Palais-Royal, as enlarged and beautified from time to time by its
+first occupant, who was ambitious to be more magnificently lodged than
+the nominal sovereign at the Louvre, was the most splendid royal
+residence of the time. Corneille, the greatest tragic poet of France,
+said of it in one of his poems, that "the entire universe cannot present
+the equal of the magnificent exterior of the Palais-Cardinal;" though,
+as the stranger looks upon it to-day, the praise of the French
+Shakespeare seems to be extravagant.
+
+The apartments of the queen-regent were vastly more extensive and
+elegant than those of his little majesty, and she caused a great deal of
+money and good taste to be expended in their further ornamentation.
+Cardinal Mazarin also went to reside with the royal family in this
+luxurious palace, and his rooms looked out upon the Rue des Bons Enfants
+(the street of the Good Children), though the name was hardly applicable
+to those who dwelt in the place. Louis was provided with the
+surroundings of royalty on a small scale, such as valets, and young
+nobles as children of honor, even while the young king was pinched in
+his personal comforts and luxuries. Until he was seven years old Louis
+was mostly in the hands of the feminine portion of the household, like
+other children. At this age the governor appointed to take charge of
+him, the sub-governor, the preceptor, and the valets, entered upon their
+special functions; the king was practically emancipated from the
+nursery.
+
+Laporte, a valet who had long been on duty in the royal family, and had
+served a term in the Bastille for his fidelity, desired to read to the
+king, when he went to bed, something besides fairy tales; if his
+juvenile majesty went to sleep the reading would be lost; if not,
+something instructive would be retained in his memory. He read the
+history of France, and his charge was interested in it. Permission had
+been obtained of the preceptor, but Mazarin did not approve of the
+reading. One evening, to escape from the crowd, the cardinal passed
+through the room during the reading. Louis closed his eyes and pretended
+to be asleep. He had already taken a strong aversion to the minister,
+like the greater portion of the people in general.
+
+On one occasion he called the cardinal "the Grand Turk," and the remark
+was reported to his mother, who sent for him and scolded him severely
+for it. The queen-regent did not share the general dislike of the
+minister, for they were on the most intimate terms of friendship. It was
+not a matter of record, but it was believed by many, that Mazarin had
+been privately married to Anne of Austria. The minister had brought his
+relatives to Paris, where he was in a situation to advance their
+fortunes. One of his youngest nephews had been appointed an _enfant
+d'honneur_ of the king, who did not confine his dislike to the minister,
+but extended it to his family. Two of these were designated to remain
+with his majesty when he went to bed, and Laporte had been instructed by
+the queen to give each of them a stand with two candles in it, as an
+emblem of office and a token of honor. The king had the selection, and
+he forbade Laporte to give it to the young Mazarin.
+
+The minister was one of the most adroit and cunning diplomats of his
+time, or any time. He was an Italian by birth, and had been in the
+military and diplomatic service of the Pope, in which capacity he had
+been recognized as a man of transcendent abilities by Richelieu, who had
+retained him in France, where he became a naturalized Frenchman. He was
+the most obsequious of courtiers, and he made himself indispensable to
+the queen, who nominally wielded the executive power of the government.
+He filled one of the most difficult political positions imaginable, and
+did it with consummate skill, though he very nearly sacrificed himself
+to the indignation of the people and the nobility in the accomplishment
+of his purposes.
+
+Richelieu had deprived the representatives of the people of many of
+their powers and liberties, and the Parliament had attempted to recover
+them under Mazarin. He caused their leaders to be arrested, which
+initiated the war of the Fronde, consisting more of a series of riots
+than of organized warfare. This disturbance compelled the court to
+retire to St. Germain, where Louis was born. The young king was conveyed
+there under the protection of the Royal Guard, which forms an exciting
+scene in the series of Dumas, Père, "Les Trois Mousquetaires." Though
+humiliated and banished, Mazarin triumphed in the end. He had the
+hardihood to arrest the Great Condé, who had made the rebellion a
+success at one time. The minister was driven from the seat of his power
+into exile; but diplomacy accomplished what soldiers could not, and
+after an absence of a year he returned, and established himself so
+securely that he held his office to the day of his death.
+
+Under Mazarin's direction and skilful intriguing at home and abroad, the
+influence of France was largely increased beyond her own borders, and
+the way was paved for triumphs to be achieved after he had himself
+passed away. In the family, as it were, of such a statesman and such an
+intriguer, were passed the earliest years of the life of Louis XIV. As
+the skilful diplomat had overcome the people and the nobility, changing
+them from the bitterest foes to at least the semblance of friends, so
+the hatred of the young king was buried under his respect for the vast
+ability of the minister.
+
+Louis was brought up in the midst of political storms and in the turmoil
+of civil war. Mazarin was avaricious, and carried his economical notions
+in household matters to a ridiculous extent, limiting the young king's
+wardrobe, furniture, garments for underwear and bed use, so that some of
+the latter did not half cover the limbs of the growing boy, and he was
+compelled to sleep on a bed covered with ragged sheets. He was a bright
+boy, and being a king, he realized that he was not supported in the
+style that became his exalted condition. He was inclined to military
+recreations and to athletic exercises. He came very early to an
+understanding of what was necessary to support his character as the
+ruler of a great nation, and as a boy he cultivated the graces of social
+life, and was always a gentleman. He was a good horseman, and delighted
+in this exercise.
+
+The civil war had "hunted him from pillar to post," and it was not till
+he was a dozen years old that he was permanently settled down in Paris.
+All these events of his early life had left a powerful impression upon
+his mind. It was the custom for the children of honor and the king to
+exchange little presents among themselves. One of these gifts to the
+juvenile monarch was a golden cannon drawn by a flea, which seemed to
+indicate a knowledge of his tastes. Another present was a case of
+surgical instruments, containing all the implements, but weighing only a
+few grains; and doubtless it suggested the horrors of the battle-field.
+Another present was a miniature sword of agate, ornamented with gold and
+rubies. These were all given to him by the same young noble; in return
+for them Louis was willing to lend the giver the cross-bow of which he
+made use himself.
+
+"Kings give what they lend, sire," interposed a governess; and then
+Louis presented it to him, wishing it was something more valuable; for
+his pocket-money evidently did not permit him to indulge in such
+expensive gifts as those he had received; but such as they were, he gave
+them with his whole heart. The recipient of the gift kept it, and
+regarded it as vastly more valuable than if it had been covered with
+gold and diamonds from another.
+
+September 7, 1651, was a memorable day in the annals of France, and if
+it was not marked by the popular rejoicings which had greeted the birth
+of the king, it was because the people were worn out by the war of the
+Frondeurs. The grand master of ceremonies had notified the Parliament
+that Louis XIV. would take the "seat of justice," the place of the
+monarch in this body on solemn and important occasions, on that day, for
+the purpose of declaring his majority, and assuming the government.
+There was a great deal of simple fiction in the formalities, for his
+majesty was only a boy of fourteen, with far less education than is
+usually obtained by one of that age at the present time, and was
+incapable of ruling over a great nation.
+
+There was even some fiction in regard to his age, for though he had
+entered his fourteenth year, he was hardly thirteen years old. If a boy
+of that age were transferred from his place in school to the presidency
+of the United States to-day, the cases would be parallel. The education
+of the juvenile king had been neglected, perhaps intentionally, by
+Mazarin for his cunning purposes, and though he had been instructed in
+all the forms and ceremonials of the court, he was deficient in his
+knowledge of the solid branches of learning, even for one in his sphere
+at that age. But the government, so far as he was concerned, was all a
+fiction. It was to be carried on in his name in the future as it had
+been in the name of his mother, the queen-regent, before, though neither
+of them was the actual ruler. Mazarin was more than "the power behind
+the throne;" he was practically the throne itself.
+
+At seven o'clock in the morning, six heralds, clothed in crimson velvet
+covered with _fleurs de lis_, the royal emblem of France, mounted on
+elegantly caparisoned horses, led the court to the palace where the
+Parliament assembled. The king's trumpeters came next to the heralds,
+and they were followed by the governors of provinces, two hundred of the
+nobility, and the officers of the royal household, escorted and flanked
+by several companies of light horsemen. Pages and valets had been
+dressed in new liveries, and the spectacle was as magnificent as the
+occasion required.
+
+Then came the boy-king, as a chronicler of the period describes him,
+"with his august countenance beaming with a gentle dignity truly royal,
+and with his natural politeness, calling forth from the assembled
+multitude that lined the streets redoubled good wishes for his health
+and prosperity." The youth who played the principal part in this great
+ceremonial was dressed in elegant garments, so covered with gold
+embroideries that the color and material could hardly be discerned. He
+was mounted on a beautiful and high-spirited horse, which pranced and
+curvetted as if aware that he bore a king; and Louis managed him so
+skilfully and gracefully that he won the admiration of the spectators.
+
+The king was received at the entrance of the palace chapel, where the
+court attended divine service, by the Bishop of Bayeux, who made an
+address to him, to which he listened, apparently in a thoughtful mood,
+and then ushered him into the chapel, where he heard low mass. Then he
+took his place in the hall of parliament. The minutest particulars of
+the scene that surrounded him when he took his seat are given in the
+memoirs of some who were present. Seated, and with his head covered,
+which was alone his privilege, the young king addressed the assembled
+representatives of the people:
+
+"Gentlemen, I have come before my Parliament to inform you that, in
+obedience to the law of my kingdom, I desire to take upon myself the
+government of my country; and with the blessing of God, I trust that it
+will be conducted with justice and piety. My chancellor will state to
+you more particularly my intentions."
+
+The official indicated returned to his place and eloquently enlarged
+upon the address of his majesty in a long discourse. The queen-mother
+then spoke to him, telling him that she had taken charge of his
+education and of the government in accordance with the expressed wish of
+the late king, her honored lord, and in obedience to the law she passed
+over to him the government of the kingdom, and hoped that the grace of
+God, with his own power and prudence, would render his reign a happy
+one. The king thanked her for the care she had given to his education
+and the government of the kingdom, and begged her to continue to give
+him her good counsels, saying that she should be his chief adviser.
+
+His brother, the Duke of Anjou, then approached him, kneeled, kissed his
+hand, and protested his fidelity. The Duke of Orleans then followed the
+example of his nephew, as did a multitude of princes, dukes, marshals,
+ecclesiastics, and all the officers of state. The royal party returned
+to the Palais-Royal amidst the unanimous acclamations of the multitude,
+and the cries of "Vive le roi" continued all night, with bonfires and
+illuminations. The boy of fourteen was now actually the king, so far as
+forms could make him so, though he was to remain not much more than a
+cipher for several years to come.
+
+The war of the Fronde lasted about eight years, and was carried on in
+the interest of the people against the court, which had overburdened
+them with taxes. The word "_fronde_" means a sling, and was applied to
+those who criticised the government then and in later years. The
+Parliament refused to impose the taxes required by the regent, which
+meant Mazarin, and some of its members were arrested and imprisoned.
+Some of the most distinguished nobles in France were implicated with the
+opposition, including the great Condé, the king's uncle. Mazarin's
+politic yielding, which alone saved him from destruction, assisted in
+restoring peace. Condé was in arms against the government, but he was
+defeated by Turenne. The people and the nobles were tired of the strife,
+and a general amnesty was proclaimed in 1653.
+
+Though Louis was well instructed in his religious duties, was entirely
+familiar with court etiquette, and knew enough about military affairs to
+enable him to review his troops, he knew little or nothing about the
+politics of his kingdom, for he had been purposely kept in ignorance of
+affairs of state. But he manifested a sound judgment and considerable
+discernment even at this early age. He accompanied Turenne in a campaign
+against Condé, and was present at the siege of Arras, which put an end
+to the Fronde contests. Some of the Frondeurs had injudiciously called
+in the aid of Spain to their cause, and that brought on war between the
+two nations. Peace was made in 1659, and one of the articles of the
+treaty stipulated the marriage of Louis XIV. and Marie Therese,
+daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, and they were married a year later.
+This princess was good-natured and beautiful, but this was about all
+that could be said of her, for she was rather weak in intellect, and was
+not such a queen as "Louis the Great" needed. His majesty was not
+attached to her, though he invariably treated her with the most
+ceremonious respect, and extended to her the utmost kindness and
+consideration.
+
+Though the king had a certain respect for the proprieties of his
+position, he lived in a period of the greatest immorality and license,
+while he attended strictly to his formal religious duties. Judged by any
+standard of the morals of more modern times, the verdict of average
+citizens would be against him. He was surrounded by dissolute men, and
+some, who ought to have protected him from the assaults of vice, placed
+him in its way. He was no worse in this respect than even Richelieu and
+Mazarin, not to mention his mother and many of the most noted men of his
+time. This is not the place to detail the king's gallantries, for they
+would fill a volume.
+
+When Louis was twenty-three years of age, Cardinal Mazarin died, having
+ruled the nation for eighteen years; but ten of them were after the king
+had come to his majority, and the minister had discovered that he had a
+will of his own, incompetent as he then was to hold the reins of
+government. Louis went to see him in his final hours, and asked him for
+his last counsels. "Sire," replied the dying cardinal, "see that you
+respect yourself, and others will respect you; never have another first
+minister; employ Colbert in all things in which you need the services of
+an intelligent and devoted man." And the king followed this advice, and
+perhaps Mazarin gave it because he understood so well the inclination of
+Louis.
+
+Mazarin died possessed of an immense fortune, which was not generally
+believed to have been honestly acquired. He was a usurer, though he
+could be very liberal when his policy demanded. On his death-bed his
+confessor warned him that he was eternally lost if he did not restore
+whatever wealth he had fraudulently accumulated; but the dying cardinal
+declared that he had nothing which had not been bestowed upon him by the
+bounty of the king. His fortune was estimated at fifty millions of
+francs, or about ten millions of dollars, a vast sum for that time. He
+gave the bulk of it to his nieces and nephews, with presents to members
+of the royal family, and eighteen large diamonds to the crown, called
+"the Mazarins."
+
+Like Richelieu, he had built a palace on the Seine, which he gave to the
+State, and the Palais Mazarin is now occupied by the French Academy.
+This act and the creation of a dukedom were to perpetuate his name. He
+was the owner of one of the original twenty-five Bibles printed by
+Gutenberg, which is called by Mazarin's name, and was once sold for
+about twenty thousand dollars.
+
+[Illustration: Molière at breakfast with Louis XIV.]
+
+After the death of the great minister, officials of the government
+desired to know to whom they were to apply for instructions, and the
+king promptly replied that they were to address themselves to him. Louis
+had hitherto devoted himself almost wholly to the pleasures of his
+dissolute age, and he astonished his people and the nations of Europe by
+assuming in reality the entire control of the affairs of state, which he
+retained to the end of his life. He proceeded at once to examine into
+the finances of the nation, and appointed Colbert, as Mazarin had
+advised, minister of this department. He succeeded Fouquet, a brilliant
+man who had amassed enormous wealth by robbing the treasury. Louis was
+firm and resolute in carrying out his will, and he caused the arrest of
+the peculating minister immediately after a magnificent fête he had
+given in honor of his sovereign. He was convicted and sentenced to
+imprisonment for life.
+
+Colbert did not disappoint the king, and the measures recommended by him
+at once improved the finances, stimulated the commerce of the country,
+established extensive manufactures, and filled the treasury. France was
+in the highest degree prosperous as a nation. Louis was arbitrary and
+absolute. His most notable saying, "_L'état c'est moi_" (I am the
+State), was fully realized in his administration. He made war and made
+peace at his own pleasure, and, as monarchs are measured, he was
+entitled to the appellation of Louis le Grand, chiselled on the
+triumphal arches of Paris to perpetuate his glory. In the later years of
+his reign his wars made serious inroads upon the treasury, and they were
+not always successful. The building of the immense and extravagant
+palace of Versailles, with its surroundings, costing a billion francs,
+was an act of folly often condemned, and was one of the burdens which
+broke down the treasury of the nation. Colbert was dead, and the king,
+with Louvois, his over-liberal minister, dissipated the resources he had
+collected.
+
+Marie Therese, the queen, died in 1683. He afterward married Madame de
+Maintenon, then the widow of the lame and deformed poet Scarron, who had
+rescued her from poverty. She had a powerful influence over the king,
+which was unfortunate for him, for she was a bigot, though a better
+woman than most of those who had been his intimates. Throughout his
+reign Louis maintained the most severe system of court etiquette. He
+regarded himself as the absolute owner of his realm, and the arbiter of
+the existence of all his subjects. His habits were methodical. He rose
+at eight, and was dressed by his valets in the presence of many
+courtiers, after he had performed his devotions. He breakfasted at ten,
+and dined alone at one, waited upon by the highest officers of the
+court. His presence awed those who came before him.
+
+He patronized and encouraged poets, authors, and artists; and Molière,
+both author and actor, was a great favorite with him, and appears to
+have been the only man of his profession who was ever admitted to the
+honor of dining with the king. Though Louis was not known to make a joke
+himself, he greatly enjoyed the witty conversation of Molière, who is
+commemorated in Paris by a fountain and street named after him.
+
+The last years of the reign of Louis XIV. are in strong contrast with
+the glorious period of the zenith of his prosperity. Several bloody
+defeats of his armies darkened the military splendor of his reign, the
+treasury was well-nigh bankrupt, and his court for the speedy trial and
+punishment of offenders, political or otherwise, had estranged the
+people; but he remained arbitrary and absolute to the end. At the age of
+seventy-seven he died, after intense suffering, in 1715. He died a great
+king, but not a great man.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+WILLIAM PENN
+
+(1644-1718)
+
+[Illustration: William Penn. [TN]]
+
+
+William Penn was born in London, October 14, 1644. He was the son of a
+naval officer of the same name, who served with distinction both in the
+Protectorate and after the Restoration, and who was much esteemed by
+Charles II. and the Duke of York. At the age of fifteen he was entered
+as a gentleman-commoner at Christchurch, Oxford. He had not been long in
+residence, when he received, from the preaching of Thomas Loe, his first
+bias toward the doctrines of the Quakers; and in conjunction with some
+fellow-students he began to withdraw from attendance on the Established
+Church, and to hold private prayer-meetings. For this conduct Penn and
+his friends were fined by the college for non-conformity: and the former
+was soon involved in more serious censure by his ill-governed zeal, in
+consequence of an order from the king that the ancient custom of wearing
+surplices should be revived. This seemed to Penn an infringement of the
+simplicity of Christian worship; whereupon he, with some friends, tore
+the surplices from the backs of those students who appeared in them. For
+this act of violence, totally inconsistent, it is to be observed, with
+the principles of toleration which regulated his conduct in after life,
+he and they were very justly expelled.
+
+Admiral Penn, who, like most sailors, possessed a quick temper and high
+notions of discipline and obedience, was little pleased with this event,
+and still less satisfied with his son's grave demeanor, and avoidance of
+the manners and ceremonies of polite life. Arguments failing, he had
+recourse to blows, and as a last resource, he turned his son out of
+doors; but soon relented so far as to equip him, in 1662, for a journey
+to France, in hope that the gayety of that country would expel his
+new-fashioned and, as he regarded them, fanatical notions. Paris,
+however, soon became wearisome to William Penn, and he spent a
+considerable time at Saumur, for the sake of the instruction and company
+of Moses Amyrault, an eminent Protestant divine. Here he confirmed and
+improved his religious impressions, and at the same time acquired, from
+the insensible influence of those who surrounded him, an increased
+polish and courtliness of demeanor, which greatly gratified the admiral
+on his return home in 1664.
+
+Admiral Penn went to sea in 1664, and remained two years on service.
+During this time the external effects of his son's residence in France
+had worn away, and he had returned to those grave habits, and that rule
+of associating only with religious people, which had before given his
+father so much displeasure. To try the effect of absence and change of
+associates, Admiral Penn sent William to manage his estates in Ireland,
+a duty which the latter performed with satisfaction both to himself and
+his employer. But it chanced that, on a visit to Cork, he again attended
+the preaching of Thomas Loe, by whose exhortations he was deeply
+impressed. From this time he began to frequent the Quakers' meetings;
+and in September, 1667, he was imprisoned, with others, under the
+persecuting laws which then disgraced the statute-book. Upon application
+to the higher authorities, he was soon released. Soon after the admiral
+again turned him out of doors.
+
+In 1668, he began to preach, and in the same year he published his first
+work, "Truth Exalted, etc." We cannot here notice his very numerous
+works, of which the titles run, for the most part, to an extraordinary
+length; but "The Sandy Foundation Shaken," published in the same year,
+claims notice as having led to his first public persecution. He was
+detained in prison for seven months, and treated with much severity. In
+1669 he had the satisfaction of being reconciled to his father. He was
+one of the first sufferers by the passing of the Conventicle Act, in
+1670. He was imprisoned in Newgate, and tried for preaching to a
+seditious and riotous assembly in Gracechurch Street; and this trial is
+remarkable and celebrated in criminal jurisprudence for the firmness
+with which he defended himself, and still more for the admirable courage
+and constancy with which the jury maintained the verdict of acquittal
+which they pronounced.
+
+In the same year died Sir William Penn, in perfect harmony with his son,
+toward whom he in the end felt the most cordial regard and esteem, and
+to whom he bequeathed an estate computed at £1,500 a year--a large sum
+in that age. Toward the end of the year he was again imprisoned in
+Newgate for six months, the statutable penalty for refusing to take the
+oath of allegiance, which was maliciously tendered to him by a
+magistrate. This appears to have been the last absolute persecution for
+religion's sake which he endured. Though his poor brethren continued to
+suffer imprisonment in the stocks, fines, and whipping, as the penalty
+of their peaceable meetings for divine worship, the wealthy proprietor,
+though he travelled largely, both in England and abroad, and labored
+both in writing and in preaching, as the missionary of his sect, both
+escaped injury, and acquired reputation and esteem by his
+self-devotion. To the favor of the king and the Duke of York he had a
+hereditary claim, which appears always to have been cheerfully
+acknowledged; and an instance of the rising consideration in which he
+was held appears in his being admitted to plead, before a committee of
+the House of Commons, the request of the Quakers that their solemn
+affirmation should be admitted in the place of an oath.
+
+Penn married in 1672, and took up his abode at Rickmansworth, in
+Hertfordshire. In 1677 we find him removed to Worminghurst, in Sussex,
+which long continued to be his place of residence. His first engagement
+in the plantation of America was in 1676, in consequence of being chosen
+arbitrator in a dispute between two quakers who had become jointly
+concerned in the colony of New Jersey.
+
+In these transactions he had the opportunity of contemplating the
+glorious results which might be hoped for from a colony founded with no
+interested views, but on the principles of universal peace, toleration,
+and liberty; and he felt an earnest desire to be the instrument in so
+great a work, more especially as it held out a prospect of deliverance
+to his persecuted Quaker brethren in England, by giving them a free and
+happy asylum in a foreign land. Circumstances favored his wish. The
+crown was indebted to him £16,000 for money advanced by the late admiral
+for the naval service. Accordingly, Penn received, in 1681, a grant by
+charter of that extensive province, named Pennsylvania by Charles
+himself, in honor of the admiral.
+
+He immediately drew up and published "Some Account of Pennsylvania,
+etc.;" and then "Certain Conditions or Concessions, etc.," to be agreed
+on between himself and those who wished to purchase land in the
+province. These having been accepted by many persons, he proceeded to
+frame the rough sketch of a constitution, on which he proposed to base
+the charter of the province. The price fixed on land was forty
+shillings, with the annual quit-rent of one shilling, for one hundred
+acres; and it was provided that no one should, in word or deed, affront
+or wrong any Indian without incurring the same penalty as if the offence
+had been committed against a fellow-planter; that strict precautions
+should be taken against fraud in the quality of goods sold to them; and
+that all differences between the two nations should be adjudged by
+twelve men, six of each. And he declares his intention "to leave myself
+and my successors no power of doing mischief; that the will of one man
+may not hinder the good of a whole country." It was this constitution,
+substantially, which Burke, in his "Account of the European Settlements
+in America," describes as "that noble charter of privileges, by which he
+made them as free as any people in the world, and which has since drawn
+such vast numbers of so many different persuasions and such various
+countries to put themselves under the protection of his laws. He made
+the most perfect freedom, both religious and civil, the basis of his
+establishment; and this has done more toward the settling of the
+province, and toward the settling of it in a strong and permanent
+manner, than the wisest regulations could have done on any other plan."
+
+In 1682 a number of settlers, principally Quakers, having been already
+sent out, Penn himself embarked for Pennsylvania, leaving his wife and
+children in England. On occasion of this parting, he addressed to them a
+long and affectionate letter, which presents a very beautiful picture of
+his domestic character, and affords a curious insight into the minute
+regularity of his daily habits. He landed on the banks of the Delaware
+in October, and forthwith summoned an assembly of the freemen of the
+province, by whom the frame of government, as it had been promulgated in
+England, was accepted. Penn's principles did not suffer him to consider
+his title to the land as valid without the consent of the natural owners
+of the soil. He had instructed persons to negotiate a treaty of sale
+with the Indian nations before his own departure from England; and one
+of his first acts was to hold that memorable assembly, to which the
+history of the world offers none alike, at which this bargain was
+ratified, and a strict league of amity established. We do not find
+specified the exact date of this meeting, which took place under an
+enormous elm-tree, near the site of Philadelphia, and of which a few
+particulars only have been preserved by the uncertain record of
+tradition. Well and faithfully was that treaty of friendship kept by the
+wild denizens of the woods; "a friendship," says Proud, the historian of
+Pennsylvania, "which for the space of more than seventy years was never
+interrupted, or so long as the Quakers retained power in the
+government."
+
+Penn remained in America until the middle of 1684. During this time much
+was done toward bringing the colony into prosperity and order. Twenty
+townships were established, containing upward of seven thousand
+Europeans; magistrates were appointed; representatives, as prescribed by
+the constitution, were chosen, and the necessary public business
+transacted. In 1683 Penn undertook a journey of discovery into the
+interior: and he has given an interesting account of the country in its
+wild state, in a letter written home to the Society of Free Traders to
+Pennsylvania. He held frequent conferences with the Indians, and
+contracted treaties of friendship with nineteen distinct tribes. His
+reasons for returning to England appear to have been twofold; partly the
+desire to settle a dispute between himself and Lord Baltimore,
+concerning the boundary of their provinces, but chiefly the hope of
+being able, by his personal influence, to lighten the sufferings and
+ameliorate the treatment of the Quakers in England. He reached England
+in October, 1684. Charles II. died in February, 1685. But this was
+rather favorable to Penn's credit at court; for beside that James
+appears to have felt a sincere regard for him, he required for his own
+church that toleration which Penn wished to see extended to all alike.
+The same credit, and the natural and laudable affection and gratitude
+toward the Stuart family which he never dissembled, caused much trouble
+to him after the Revolution. He was continually suspected of plotting to
+restore the exiled dynasty; was four times arrested, and as often
+discharged in the total absence of all evidence against him. During the
+years 1691, 1692, and part of 1693, he remained in London, living, to
+avoid offence, in great seclusion; in the latter year he was heard in
+his own defence before the king and council, and informed that he need
+apprehend no molestation or injury.
+
+The affairs of Pennsylvania fell into some confusion during Penn's long
+absence. Even in the peaceable sect of Quakers there were ambitious,
+bustling, and selfish men; and Penn was not satisfied with the conduct
+either of the representative Assembly, or of those to whom he had
+delegated his own powers. He changed the latter two or three times,
+without effecting the restoration of harmony; and these troubles gave a
+pretext for depriving him of his powers as governor, in 1693. The real
+cause was probably the suspicion entertained of his treasonable
+correspondence with James II. But he was reinstated in August, 1694, by
+a royal order, in which it was complimentarily expressed that the
+disorders complained of were produced entirely by his absence. Anxious
+as he was to return, he did not find an opportunity till 1699; the
+interval was chiefly employed in religious travel through England and
+Ireland, and in the labor of controversial writing, from which he seldom
+had a long respite. His course as a philanthropist on his return to
+America is honorably marked by an endeavor to ameliorate the condition
+of Negro slaves. The society of Quakers in Pennsylvania had already come
+to a resolution, that the buying, selling, and holding men in slavery
+was inconsistent with the tenets of the Christian religion; and
+following up this honorable declaration, Penn had no difficulty in
+obtaining for the negroes free admission into the regular meetings for
+religious worship, and in procuring that other meetings should be holden
+for their particular benefit. The Quakers, therefore, merit our respect
+as the earliest, as well as some of the most zealous, emancipators.
+
+The governor returned to England in 1701, to oppose a scheme agitated in
+Parliament for abolishing the proprietary governments and placing the
+colonies immediately under royal control; the bill, however, was dropped
+before he arrived. He enjoyed Anne's favor, as he had that of her father
+and uncle, and resided much in the neighborhood of the court, at
+Kensington and Knightsbridge. In his religious labors he continued
+constant, as heretofore. He was much harassed by a lawsuit, the result
+of too much confidence in a dishonest steward; which being decided
+against him, he was obliged for a time to reside within the Rules of the
+Fleet Prison. This, and the expenses in which he had been involved by
+Pennsylvania, reduced him to distress, and in 1709 he mortgaged the
+province for £6,600. In 1712 he agreed to sell his rights to the
+government for £12,000, but was rendered unable to complete the
+transaction by three apoplectic fits, which followed each other in quick
+succession. He survived, however, in a tranquil and happy state, though
+with his bodily and mental vigor much broken, until July 30, 1718, on
+which day he died at his seat at Rushcomb, in Berkshire, where he had
+resided for some years.
+
+His first wife died in 1693. He married a second time in 1696; and left
+a family of children by both wives, to whom he bequeathed his landed
+property in Europe and America. His rights of government he left in
+trust to the Earls of Oxford and Powlett, to be disposed of; but no sale
+being ever made, the government, with the title of Proprietaries,
+devolved on the surviving sons of the second family.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8, by Various
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of Great Men and Famous Women, Vol. 3. Editor: Charles F. Horne.</title>
+
+
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8
+       A series of pen and pencil sketches of the lives of more
+              than 200 of the most prominent personages in History
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Charles F. Horne
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26423]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT MEN, FAMOUS WOMEN, VOL. 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine P. Travers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="tn">Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.</p>
+
+<a id="img001" name="img001"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="600" height="331" alt="" title="">
+<p>Justinian and his council.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN</h1>
+
+<p class="noindent center italic">A Series of Pen and Pencil Sketches of</p>
+
+<p class="center noindent">THE LIVES OF MORE THAN 200 OF THE MOST PROMINENT PERSONAGES IN HISTORY</p>
+
+<p class="center noindent">Vol. III.</p>
+
+<a id="img002" name="img002"></a>
+<div class="p2 figcenter">
+<img src="images/img002.jpg" width="400" height="481" alt="Frontpage." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 noindent center"><span class="smaller">Copyright, 1894, BY SELMAR HESS</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">edited by Charles F. Horne</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center noindent smaller"><span class="smcap">New-York: Selmar Hess Publisher</span><br>
+Copyright, 1894, by <span class="smcap">Selmar Hess</span>.</p>
+
+<a id="toc" name="toc"></a>
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiii" name="pageiii"></a>(p. iii)</span> CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.</h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>SUBJECT
+<span class="ralign85">AUTHOR</span> <span class="ralign95">PAGE</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>ALFRED THE GREAT,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Sir J. Bernard Burke, LL.D.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page101">101</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ST. AMBROSE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rev. A. Lambing, LL.D.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page068">68</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ARCHIMEDES,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">John Timbs, F.S.A.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page059">59</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ARISTOTLE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Fénelon,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page054">54</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ST. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rt. Rev. Henry Codman Potter,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page088">88</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">James, Cardinal Gibbons,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page073">73</a></span></li>
+
+<li>FRANCIS BACON,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Hon. Ignatius Donnelly,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page154">154</a></span></li>
+
+<li>WILLIAM BRADFORD,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Elbridge S. Brooks,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page172">172</a></span></li>
+
+<li>AUGUSTUS CÆSAR,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page066">66</a></span></li>
+
+<li>JOHN CALVIN,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page140">140</a></span></li>
+
+<li>CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">F. Hindes Groome,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page177">177</a></span></li>
+
+<li><span class="italic">Letter written on the eve of his
+execution by Charles I. to his son</span>,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page180">180</a></span></li>
+
+<li>CHARLES V. OF GERMANY,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page133">133</a></span></li>
+
+<li>MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rev. W. J. Brodribb,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page063">63</a></span></li>
+
+<li>NICHOLAS COPERNICUS,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">John Stoughton, D.D.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page122">122</a></span></li>
+
+<li>OLIVER CROMWELL,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Lord Macaulay,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page181">181</a></span></li>
+
+<li>DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Margaret E. Sangster,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page010">10</a></span></li>
+
+<li>DEMOSTHENES,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">E. Benjamin Andrews,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page047">47</a></span></li>
+
+<li>DIOGENES,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Fénelon,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page054">54</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Samuel L. Knapp,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page149">149</a></span></li>
+
+<li>FREDERICK, THE GREAT ELECTOR,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page189">189</a></span></li>
+
+<li>GALILEO GALILEI,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page161">161</a></span></li>
+
+<li>JOHN HUSS,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rev. Dr. Tweedy,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page106">106</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ISABELLA OF CASTILE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Sarah H. Killikelly,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page114">114</a></span></li>
+
+<li>JUSTINIAN THE GREAT,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page085">85</a></span></li>
+
+<li>JOHN KNOX,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">P. Hume Brown,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page144">144</a></span></li>
+
+<li>LOUIS XI. OF FRANCE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">E. Spencer Biesly, M.A.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page111">111</a></span></li>
+
+<li>LOUIS XIV.,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Oliver Optic,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page192">192</a></span></li>
+
+<li>MARTIN LUTHER,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page127">127</a></span></li>
+
+<li><span class="italic">Letter of affection from Luther to his little son Hans</span>,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page132">132</a></span></li>
+
+<li>LYCURGUS,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rev. Joseph T. Duryea,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page022">22</a></span></li>
+
+<li>MAHOMET,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page095">95</a></span></li>
+
+<li>MOSES,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Henry George,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page001">1</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ST. PATRICK,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rev. G. F. Maclear, B.D.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page080">80</a></span></li>
+
+<li>WILLIAM PENN,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page200">200</a></span></li>
+
+<li>PERICLES,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page034">34</a></span></li>
+
+<li>CARDINAL RICHELIEU,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page166">166</a></span></li>
+
+<li>SOCRATES,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Fénelon,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page038">38</a></span></li>
+
+<li>SOLOMON,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Rev. Charles F. Deems,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page016">16</a></span></li>
+
+<li>THEMISTOCLES,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page029">29</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagev" name="pagev"></a>(p. v)</span> LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<p class="center noindent">VOLUME III.</p>
+<p class="p2 noindent center">PHOTOGRAVURES</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Illustration list">
+<colgroup>
+    <col width="60%">
+    <col width="30%">
+    <col width="10%">
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td>ILLUSTRATION</td>
+<td class="right">ARTIST</td>
+<td class="right">To face<br>page<td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>JUSTINIAN AND HIS COUNCIL,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Benjamin Constant</td>
+<td class="italic right"><a href="#img001">Frontispiece</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>MOSES IN THE BULRUSHES,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Paul Delaroche</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img004">2</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>THE VICTORS OF SALAMIS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Fernand Cormon</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img011">32</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>DEMOSTHENES PRACTISING ORATORY,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Jules Jean Lecomte-du-Nouy</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img018">48</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>AUGUSTUS CÆSAR AND CLEOPATRA,</td>
+<td class="italic right">August von Heckel</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img024">66</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>LOUIS XI. AND OLIVIER LE DAIN,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Hermann Kaulbach</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img042">112</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>MARTIN LUTHER BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF WORMS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">E. Delperte</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img049">130</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>CHARLES V. ON HIS WAY TO THE CONVENT,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Hermann Schneider</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img051">138</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>MOLIERE AT BREAKFAST WITH LOUIS XIV.,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Jean Lêon Gérôme</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img071">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="p2 noindent center">WOOD-ENGRAVINGS AND TYPOGRAVURES</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Illustration list">
+<colgroup>
+    <col width="60%">
+    <col width="30%">
+    <col width="10%">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td>DAVID CALMING THE WRATH OF SAUL,</td>
+<td class="italic right">J. J. Lefebvre</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img006">12</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>JUDGMENT OF SOLOMON,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Jos. Führich</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img008">18</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>DEATH OF SOCRATES,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Louis David</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img014">42</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>DIOGENES IN HIS TUB,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Jean Lêon Gérôme</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img016">44</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>DEATH OF ARCHIMEDES,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Gustave Courtois</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img021">60</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>AMBROSE REBUKES THEODOSIUS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Peter Paul Rubens</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img026">72</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>ST. AUGUSTINE AND HIS MOTHER, ST. MONICA,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Ary Scheffer</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img028">74</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>ST. PATRICK JOURNEYING TO TARA,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img030">82</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>CONVERSION OF ETHELBERT BY AUGUSTINE,</td>
+<td class="italic right">H. Tresham</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img033">92</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>THE MUEZZIN,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Jean Lêon Gérôme</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img035">100</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>KING ALFRED VISITING A MONASTERY SCHOOL,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Benziger</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img037">104</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>EXECUTION OF HUSS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">C. G. Hellquist</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img040">110</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>FERDINAND AND ISABELLA&mdash;THE SURRENDER OF GRANADA,</td>
+<td class="italic right">F. de Pradilla</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img044">120</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>COPERNICUS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">O. Brausewetter</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img046">124</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>LUTHER INTRODUCED TO THE HOME OF FRAU COTTA,</td>
+<td class="italic right">G. Spangenberg</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img048">128</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>ELIZABETH AND MARY STUART,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Hermann Kaulbach</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img056">152</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>GALILEO BEFORE THE INQUISITION,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img059">164</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>A CONCERT AT RICHELIEU'S PALACE,</td>
+<td class="italic right">J. Leisten</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img061">172</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>A PURITAN CHRISTMAS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Hyde</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img063">174</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>PRINCESS ELIZABETH IN PRISON,</td>
+<td class="italic right">J. Everett Millais</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img065">180</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>CROMWELL'S DAUGHTER ENTREATS HIM TO REFUSE THE CROWN</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img067">186</a></td>
+
+<tr>
+<td>THE GREAT ELECTOR WITHDRAWS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF THE DUTCH NOBILITY,</td>
+<td class="italic right">F. Neuhaus</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img069">190</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page001" name="page001"></a>(p. 001)</span> STATESMEN AND SAGES</h2>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  Lives of great men all remind us,<br>
+<span class="add2em">We can make our lives sublime,</span><br>
+  And departing, leave behind us<br>
+<span class="add2em">Footprints on the sands of time.<span class="jump smcap">&mdash;LONGFELLOW</span></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>MOSES<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1" title="Go to footnote 1"><span class="smaller">[1]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Henry George</span><br>
+(1571-1451 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img003" name="img003"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="300" height="370" alt="Moses." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Three great religions place the leader of the Exodus upon the highest
+plane they allot to man. To Christendom and to Islam, as well as to
+Judaism, Moses is the mouthpiece of the Most High; the medium, clothed
+with supernatural powers, through which the Divine Will has spoken.
+Yet this very exaltation, by raising him above comparison, may prevent
+the real grandeur of the man from being seen. It is amid his brethren
+that Saul stands taller and fairer.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the latest school of Biblical criticism asserts
+that the books and legislation attributed to Moses are really the
+product of an age subsequent to that of the prophets. Yet to this
+Moses, looming vague and dim, of whom they can tell us almost nothing,
+they, too, attribute the beginning of that growth which flowered
+centuries after in the humanities of Jewish law, and again, higher
+still and fairer, gleamed forth in that star of spiritual light which
+rested over the stable of Bethlehem, in Judea.</p>
+
+<p>But whether wont to look on Moses in this way or in that, it may be
+sometimes <span class="pagenum"><a id="page002" name="page002"></a>(p. 002)</span> worth our while to take the point of view in which
+all shades of belief may find common ground, and accepting the main
+features of Hebrew record,<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2" title="Go to footnote 2"><span class="smaller">[2]</span></a> consider them in the light of history,
+and of human nature as it shows itself to-day. Here is a case in which
+sacred history may be treated as we would treat profane history
+without any shock to religious feeling. The keenest criticism cannot
+resolve Moses into a myth. The fact of the Exodus presupposes such a
+leader.</p>
+
+<p>To lead into freedom a people long crushed by tyranny; to discipline
+and order such a mighty host; to harden them into fighting men, before
+whom warlike tribes quailed and walled cities went down; to repress
+discontent and jealousy and mutiny; to combat reactions and
+reversions; to turn the quick, fierce flame of enthusiasm to the
+service of a steady purpose, require some towering character&mdash;a
+character blending in highest expression the qualities of politician,
+patriot, philosopher, and statesman.</p>
+
+<p>Such a character in rough but strong outline the tradition shows
+us&mdash;the union of the wisdom of the Egyptians with the unselfish
+devotion of the meekest of men. From first to last, in every glimpse
+we get, this character is consistent with itself, and with the mighty
+work which is its monument. It is the character of a great mind,
+hemmed in by conditions and limitations, and working with such forces
+and materials as were at hand&mdash;accomplishing, yet failing. Behind
+grand deed, a grander thought. Behind high performance, the still
+nobler ideal.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt was the mould of the Hebrew nation&mdash;the matrix in which a single
+family, or, at most, a small tribe, grew to a people as numerous as
+the American people at the time of the Declaration of Independence.
+For four centuries, according to the Hebrew tradition&mdash;a period as
+long as America has been known to Europe&mdash;this growing people, coming
+a patriarchal family from a roving, pastoral life, had been placed
+under the dominance of a highly developed and ancient civilization&mdash;a
+civilization symbolized by monuments that rival in endurance the
+everlasting hills; a civilization so ancient that the Pyramids, as we
+now know, were hoary with centuries ere Abraham looked on them.</p>
+
+<a id="img004" name="img004"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="400" height="625" alt="" title="">
+<p>Moses in the bulrushes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>No matter how clearly the descendants of the kinsmen who came into
+Egypt at the invitation of the boy-slave become prime minister,
+maintained the distinction of race, and the traditions of a freer
+life, they must have been powerfully affected by such a civilization;
+and just as the Hebrews of to-day are Polish in Poland, German in
+Germany, and American in the United States, so, but far more clearly
+and strongly, the Hebrews of the Exodus must have been Egyptian.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page003" name="page003"></a>(p. 003)</span> It is not remarkable, therefore, that the ancient Hebrew
+institutions show in so many points the influence of Egyptian ideas
+and customs. What is remarkable is the dissimilarity. To the
+unreflecting nothing may seem more natural than that a people, in
+turning their back upon a land where they had been long oppressed,
+should discard its ideas and institutions. But the student of history,
+the observer of politics, know that nothing is more <span class="italic">un</span>natural. For
+"institutions make men." And when amid a people used to institutions
+of one kind, we see suddenly arise institutions of an opposite kind,
+we know that behind them must be that active, that initiative
+force&mdash;the "men who in the beginnings make institutions."</p>
+
+<p>This is what occurs in the Exodus. The striking differences between
+Egyptian and Hebrew policy are not of form but of essence. The
+tendency of the one is to subordination and oppression; of the other,
+to individual freedom. Strangest of recorded births! from out the
+strongest and most splendid despotism of antiquity comes the freest
+republic. From between the paws of the rock-hewn Sphinx rises the
+genius of human liberty, and the trumpets of the Exodus throb with the
+defiant proclamation of the rights of man.</p>
+
+<p>Consider what Egypt was. The very grandeur of her monuments testify to
+the enslavement of the people&mdash;are the enduring witnesses of a social
+organization that rested on the masses an immovable weight. That
+narrow Nile Valley, the cradle of the arts and sciences, the scene,
+perhaps, of the greatest triumphs of the human mind, is also the scene
+of its most abject enslavement. In the long centuries of its splendor
+its lord, secure in the possession of irresistible temporal power, and
+securer still in the awful sanctions of a mystical religion, was as a
+god on earth, to cover whose poor carcass with a tomb befitting his
+state hundreds of thousands toiled away their lives. For the classes
+who came next to him were all the sensuous delights of a most
+luxurious civilization, and high intellectual pleasures which the
+mysteries of the temple hid from vulgar profanation. But for the
+millions who constituted the base of the social pyramid there was but
+the lash to stimulate their toil, and the worship of beasts to satisfy
+the yearnings of the soul. From time immemorial to the present day the
+lot of the Egyptian peasant has been to work and to starve, that those
+above him might live daintily. He has never rebelled. The spirit for
+that was long ago crushed out of him by institutions which made him
+what he is. He knows but to suffer and to die.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page004" name="page004"></a>(p. 004)</span> Imagine what opportune circumstances we may, yet to organize
+and carry on a movement resulting in the release of a great people
+from such a soul-subduing tyranny, backed by an army of half a million
+highly trained soldiers, requires a leadership of most commanding and
+consummate genius. But this task, surpassingly great though it is, is
+not the measure of the greatness of the leader of the Exodus. It is
+not in the deliverance from Egypt, it is in the constructive
+statesmanship that laid the foundations of the Hebrew commonwealth
+that the superlative grandeur of that leadership looms up. As we
+cannot imagine the Exodus without the great leader, neither can we
+account for the Hebrew polity without the great statesman. Not merely
+intellectually great, but morally great&mdash;a statesman aglow with the
+unselfish patriotism that refuses to grasp a sceptre or found a
+dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>It matters not when or by whom were compiled the books popularly
+attributed to Moses; it matters not how much of the code there given
+may be the survivals of more ancient usage or the amplifications of a
+later age; its great features bear the stamp of a mind far in advance
+of people and time, of a mind that beneath effects sought for causes,
+of a mind that drifted not with the tide of events, but aimed at a
+definite purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The outlines that the record gives us of the character of Moses&mdash;the
+brief relations that wherever the Hebrew scriptures are read have hung
+the chambers of the imagination with vivid pictures&mdash;are in every way
+consistent with this idea. What we know of the life illustrates what
+we know of the work. What we know of the work illumines the life.</p>
+
+<p>It was not an empire such as had reached full development in Egypt or
+existed in rudimentary patriarchal form in the tribes around, that
+Moses aimed to found. Nor was it a republic where the freedom of the
+citizen rested on the servitude of the helot, and the individual was
+sacrificed to the state. It was a commonwealth based upon the
+individual; a commonwealth whose ideal it was that every man should
+sit under his own vine and fig-tree, with none to vex him or make him
+afraid; a commonwealth in which none should be condemned to ceaseless
+toil; in which, for even the bond slave, there should be hope; in
+which, for even the beast of burden, there should be rest. A
+commonwealth in which, in the absence of deep poverty, the manly
+virtues that spring from personal independence should harden into a
+national character; a commonwealth in which the family affections
+might knit their tendrils around each member, binding with links
+stronger than steel the various parts into the living whole.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the protection of property, but the protection of humanity,
+that is the aim of the Mosaic code. Its sanctions are not directed to
+securing the strong in heaping up wealth, so much as to preventing the
+weak from being crowded to the wall. At every point it interposes its
+barriers to the selfish greed that, if left unchecked, will surely
+differentiate men into landlord and serf, capitalist and workman,
+millionaire and tramp, ruler and ruled. Its Sabbath day and Sabbath
+year secure, even to the lowliest, rest and leisure. With the blast of
+the Jubilee trumpets the slave goes free, the debt that cannot be paid
+is cancelled, and a re-division of the land secures again to the
+poorest his fair share in the bounty of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page005" name="page005"></a>(p. 005)</span> common Creator.
+The reaper must leave something for the gleaner; even the ox cannot be
+muzzled as he treadeth out the corn. Everywhere, in everything, the
+dominant idea is that of our homely phrase&mdash;"Live and let live!"</p>
+
+<p>And the religion with which this civil policy is so closely
+intertwined exhibits kindred features&mdash;from the idea of the
+brotherhood of man springs the idea of the fatherhood of God. Though
+the forms may resemble those of Egypt, the spirit is that which Egypt
+had lost; though a hereditary priesthood is retained, the law in its
+fulness is announced to all the people. Though the Egyptian rite of
+circumcision is preserved, and the Egyptian symbols reappear in all
+the externals of worship, the tendency to take the type for the
+reality is sternly repressed. It is only when we think of the bulls
+and the hawks, of the deified cats and sacred ichneumons of Egypt,
+that we realize the full meaning of the command&mdash;"Thou shalt not make
+to thyself any graven image!"</p>
+
+<p>And if we seek, beneath form and symbol and command, the thought of
+which they are but the expression, we find that the distinctive
+feature of the Hebrew religion, that which separates it by such a wide
+gulf from the religions amid which it grew up, is its utilitarianism,
+its recognition of divine law in human life. It asserts, not a God
+whose domain is confined to the far-off beginning or the vague future,
+who is over and above and beyond men, but a God who in His inexorable
+laws is here and now; a God of the living as well as of the dead; a
+God of the market-place as well as of the temple; a God whose
+judgments wait not another world for execution, but whose immutable
+decrees will, in this life, give happiness to the people that heed
+them and bring misery upon the people that forget them.</p>
+
+<p>The absence in the Mosaic books of any reference to a future life is
+only intelligible by the prominence into which this truth is brought.
+Nothing could have been more familiar to the Hebrews of the Exodus
+than the doctrine of immortality. The continued existence of the soul,
+the judgment after death, the rewards and punishments of the future
+state, were the constant subjects of Egyptian thought and art. But a
+truth may be hidden or thrown into the background by the intensity
+with which another truth is grasped. And the truth that Moses brought
+so prominently forward, the truth his gaze was concentrated upon, is a
+truth that has often been thrust aside by the doctrine of immortality,
+and that may perhaps, at times, react on it in the same way. This is
+the truth that the actions of men bear fruit in this world, that
+though on the petty scale of individual life wickedness may seem to go
+unpunished and wrong to be rewarded, there is yet a Nemesis that with
+tireless feet and pitiless arm follows every national crime, and
+smites the children for the father's transgression; the truth that
+each individual must act upon and be acted upon by the society of
+which he is a part; that all must in some degree suffer for the sin of
+each, and the life of each be dominated by the conditions imposed by
+all.</p>
+
+<p>It is the intense appreciation of this truth that gives the Mosaic
+institutions so practical and utilitarian a character. Their genius,
+if I may so speak, leaves the abstract speculations where thought so
+easily loses and wastes itself, or finds <span class="pagenum"><a id="page006" name="page006"></a>(p. 006)</span> expression only in
+symbols that become finally but the basis of superstition, in order
+that it may concentrate attention upon laws that determine the
+happiness or misery of men upon this earth. Its lessons have never
+tended to the essential selfishness of asceticism, which is so
+prominent a feature in Brahmanism and Buddhism, and from which
+Christianity and Islamism have not been exempt. Its injunction has
+never been, "Leave the world to itself that you may save your own
+soul," but rather, "Do your duty in the world that you may be happier
+and the world be better." It has disdained no sanitary regulation that
+might secure the health of the body. Its promise has been of peace and
+plenty and length of days, of stalwart sons and comely daughters.</p>
+
+<p>It may be that the feeling of Moses in regard to a future life was
+that expressed in the language of the Stoic, "It is the business of
+Jupiter, not mine;" or it may be that it partook of the same revulsion
+that shows itself in modern times, when a spirit essentially religious
+has been turned against the forms and expressions of religion, because
+these forms and expressions have been made the props and bulwarks of
+tyranny, and even the name and teachings of the Carpenter's Son
+perverted into supports of social injustice&mdash;used to guard the pomp of
+Cæsar and justify the greed of Dives.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, however such feelings influenced Moses, I cannot think that such
+a soul as his, living such a life as his&mdash;feeling the exaltation of
+great thoughts, feeling the burden of great cares, feeling the
+bitterness of great disappointments&mdash;did not stretch forward to the
+hope beyond; did not rest and strengthen and ground itself in the
+confident belief that the death of the body is but the emancipation of
+the soul; did not feel the assurance that there is a power in the
+universe upon which it might confidently rely, through wreck of matter
+and crash of worlds. But the great concern of Moses was with the duty
+that lay plainly before him: the effort to lay foundations of a social
+state in which deep poverty and degrading want should be
+unknown&mdash;where men, released from the meaner struggles that waste
+human energy, should have opportunity for intellectual and moral
+development.</p>
+
+<p>Here stands out the greatness of the man. What was the wisdom and
+stretch of the forethought that in the desert sought to guard in
+advance against the dangers of a settled state, let the present speak.</p>
+
+<p>In the full blaze of the nineteenth century, when every child in our
+schools may know as common truths things of which the Egyptian sages
+never dreamed; when the earth has been mapped, and the stars have been
+weighed; when steam and electricity have been pressed into our
+service, and science is wresting from nature secret after secret&mdash;it
+is but natural to look back upon the wisdom of three thousand years
+ago as the man looks back upon the learning of the child.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, for all this wonderful increase of knowledge, for all this
+enormous gain of productive power, where is the country in the
+civilized world in which to-day there is not want and suffering&mdash;where
+the masses are not condemned to toil that gives no leisure, and all
+classes are not pursued by a greed of gain that makes life an ignoble
+struggle to get and to keep? Three thousand years of advance,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page007" name="page007"></a>(p. 007)</span> and still the moan goes up, "They have made our lives bitter
+with hard bondage, in mortar and in brick, and in all manner of
+service!" Three thousand years of advance! Yet the piteous voices of
+little children are in the moan.</p>
+
+<p>We progress and we progress; we girdle continents with iron roads and
+knit cities together with the mesh of telegraph wires; each day brings
+some new invention; each year marks a fresh advance&mdash;the power of
+production increased, and the avenues of exchange cleared and
+broadened. Yet the complaint of "hard times" is louder and louder:
+everywhere are men harassed by care, and haunted by the fear of want.
+With swift, steady strides and prodigious leaps, the power of human
+hands to satisfy human wants advances and advances, is multiplied and
+multiplied. Yet the struggle for mere existence is more and more
+intense, and labor is cheapest of commodities. Beside glutted
+warehouses human beings grow faint with hunger and shiver with cold;
+under the shadow of churches festers the vice that is born of want.</p>
+
+<p>Trace to their root the causes that are thus producing want in the
+midst of plenty, ignorance in the midst of intelligence, aristocracy
+in democracy, weakness in strength&mdash;that are giving to our
+civilization a one-sided and unstable development; and you will find
+it something which this Hebrew statesman three thousand years ago
+perceived and guarded against. Moses saw that the real cause of the
+enslavement of the masses of Egypt was, what has everywhere produced
+enslavement, the possession by a class of the land upon which and from
+which the whole people must live. He saw that to permit in land the
+same unqualified private ownership that by natural right attaches to
+the things produced by labor, would be inevitably to separate the
+people into the very rich and the very poor, inevitably to enslave
+labor&mdash;to make the few the masters of the many, no matter what the
+political forms, to bring vice and degradation no matter what the
+religion.</p>
+
+<p>And with the foresight of the philosophic statesman he sought, in ways
+suited to his times and conditions, to guard against this error.</p>
+
+<p>Everywhere in the Mosaic institutions is the land treated as the gift
+of the Creator to His common creatures, which no one has the right to
+monopolize. Everywhere it is, not your estate, or your property; not
+the land which you bought, or the land which you conquered, but "the
+land which the Lord thy God giveth thee"&mdash;"the land which the Lord
+lendeth thee." And by practical legislation, by regulations to which
+he gave the highest sanctions, he tried to guard against the wrong
+that converted ancient civilizations into despotisms&mdash;the wrong that
+in after centuries ate out the heart of Rome, and produced the
+imbruting serfdom of Poland and the gaunt misery of Ireland, the wrong
+that is to-day crowding families into single rooms and filling our new
+States with tramps. He not only provided for the fair division of the
+land among the people, and for making it fallow and common every
+seventh year, but by the institution of the jubilee he provided for a
+redistribution of the land every fifty years and made monopoly
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>I do not say that these institutions were, for their ultimate purpose,
+the best that might even then have been devised, for Moses had to
+work, as all great constructive <span class="pagenum"><a id="page008" name="page008"></a>(p. 008)</span> statesmen have to work, with
+the tools that came to his hand, and upon materials as he found them.
+Still less do I mean to say that forms suitable for that time and
+people are suitable for every time and people. I ask, not veneration
+of the form, but recognition of the spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Yet how common it is to venerate the form and to deny the spirit!
+There are many who believe that the Mosaic institutions were literally
+dictated by the Almighty, yet who would denounce as irreligious and
+"communistic" any application of their spirit to the present day. And
+yet to-day how much we owe to these institutions! This very day, the
+only thing that stands between our working classes and ceaseless toil
+is one of these Mosaic institutions. Let the mistakes of those who
+think that man was made for the Sabbath, rather than the Sabbath for
+man, be what they may; that there is one day in the week on which
+hammer is silent and loom stands idle, is due, through Christianity,
+to Judaism&mdash;to the code promulgated in the Sinaitic wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>It is in these characteristics of the Mosaic institutions that, as in
+the fragments of a Colossus, we may read the greatness of the mind
+whose impress they bear&mdash;of a mind in advance of its surroundings, in
+advance of its age; of one of those star souls that dwindle not with
+distance, but, glowing with the radiance of essential truth, hold
+their light while institutions and languages and creeds change and
+pass.</p>
+
+<p>That the thought was greater than the permanent expression it found,
+who can doubt? Yet from that day to this that expression has been in
+the world a living power.</p>
+
+<p>From the free spirit of the Mosaic law sprang that intensity of family
+life that amid all dispersions and persecutions has preserved the
+individuality of the Hebrew race; that love of independence that under
+the most adverse circumstances has characterized the Jew; that burning
+patriotism that flamed up in the Maccabees and bared the breasts of
+Jewish peasants to the serried steel of Grecian phalanx and the
+resistless onset of Roman legion; that stubborn courage that in exile
+and in torture has held the Jew to his faith. It kindled that fire
+that has made the strains of Hebrew seers and poets phrase for us the
+highest exaltations of thought; that intellectual vigor that has over
+and over again made the dry staff bud and blossom. And passing outward
+from one narrow race it has exerted its power wherever the influence
+of the Hebrew scriptures has been felt. It has toppled thrones and
+cast down hierarchies. It strengthened the Scottish Covenanter in the
+hour of trial, and the Puritan amid the snows of a strange land. It
+charged with the Ironsides at Naseby; it stood behind the low redoubt
+on Bunker Hill.</p>
+
+<p>But it is in example as in deed that such lives are helpful. It is
+thus that they dignify human nature and glorify human effort, and
+bring to those who struggle hope and trust. The life of Moses, like
+the institutions of Moses, is a protest against that blasphemous
+doctrine, current now as it was three thousand years ago; that
+blasphemous doctrine preached ofttimes even from Christian pulpits:
+that the want and suffering of the masses of mankind flow from a
+mysterious dispensation of Providence, which we may lament, but can
+neither quarrel with nor alter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page009" name="page009"></a>(p. 009)</span> Adopted into the immediate family of the supreme monarch and
+earthly god; standing almost at the apex of the social pyramid which
+had for its base those toiling millions; priest and prince in a land
+where prince and priest might revel in all delights&mdash;everything that
+life could offer to gratify the senses or engage the intellect was
+open to him.</p>
+
+<p>What to him the wail of them who beneath the fierce sun toiled under
+the whips of relentless masters? Heard from granite colonnade or
+beneath cool linen awning, it was mellowed by distance, to monotonous
+music. Why should <span class="italic">he</span> question the Sphinx of Fate, or quarrel with
+destinies the high gods had decreed? So had it always been, for ages
+and ages; so must it ever be. The beetle rends the insect, and the
+hawk preys on the beetle; order on order, life rises from death and
+carnage, and higher pleasures from lower agonies. Shall the man be
+better than nature? Soothing and restful flows the Nile, though
+underneath its placid surface finny tribes wage cruel war, and the
+stronger eat the weaker. Shall the gazer who would read the secrets of
+the stars turn because under his feet a worm may writhe?</p>
+
+<p>Theirs to make bricks without straw; his a high place in the glorious
+procession that with gorgeous banners and glittering emblems, with
+clash of music and solemn chant, winds its shining way to dedicate the
+immortal edifice their toil has reared. Theirs the leek and the
+garlic; his to sit at the sumptuous feast. Why should he dwell on the
+irksomeness of bondage, he for whom the chariots waited, who might at
+will bestride the swift coursers of the Delta, or be borne on the
+bosom of the river with oars that beat time to songs? Did he long for
+the excitement of action?&mdash;there was the desert hunt, with steeds
+fleeter than the antelope and lions trained like dogs. Did he crave
+rest and ease?&mdash;there was for him the soft swell of languorous music
+and the wreathed movements of dancing girls. Did he feel the stir of
+intellectual life?&mdash;in the arcana of the temples he was free to the
+lore of ages; an initiate in the society where were discussed the most
+engrossing problems; a sharer in that intellectual pride that
+centuries after compared Greek philosophy to the babblings of
+children.</p>
+
+<p>It was no sudden ebullition of passion that caused Moses to turn his
+back on all this, and to bring the strength and knowledge acquired in
+a dominant caste to the life-long service of the oppressed. The
+forgetfulness of self manifested in the smiting of the Egyptian shines
+through the whole life. In institutions that moulded the character of
+a people, in institutions that to this day make easier the lot of
+toiling millions, we may read the stately purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Through all that tradition has given us of that life runs the same
+grand passion&mdash;the unselfish desire to make humanity better, happier,
+nobler. And the death is worthy of the life. Subordinating to the good
+of his people the natural disposition to found a dynasty, which in his
+case would have been so easy, he discards the claims of blood and
+calls to his place of leader the fittest man. Coming from a land where
+the rites of sepulture were regarded as all-important, and the
+preservation of the body after death was the passion of life; among a
+people who were even then carrying the remains of their great
+ancestor, Joseph, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page010" name="page010"></a>(p. 010)</span> to rest with his fathers, he yet conquered
+the last natural yearning and withdrew from the sight and sympathy of
+men to die alone and unattended, lest the idolatrous feeling, always
+ready to break forth, should in death accord him the superstitious
+reverence he had refused in life.</p>
+
+<p>"No man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day." But while the
+despoiled tombs of the Pharaohs mock the vanity that reared them, the
+name of the Hebrew who, revolting from their tyranny, strove for the
+elevation of his fellow-men, is yet a beacon light to the world.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig001" name="sig001"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig001.jpg" width="200" height="44" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3" title="Go to footnote 3"><span class="smaller">[3]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Margaret E. Sangster</span><br>
+(1074-1001 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+<a id="img005" name="img005"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="250" height="318" alt="David Rex." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>More than a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era,
+in a little farmstead in Palestine, there was rejoicing at the birth
+of a son. Not the first-born, whose coming was a fit occasion for
+gifts and feasting, not the second, the third, nor even the seventh.
+David was the eighth son of Jesse the Bethlehemite. Jesse would seem
+to have been a landholder, as his fathers had been before him, a man
+of substance, with fields and flocks and herds. We first meet David, a
+ruddy, fair-haired lad, tough of sinew and keen of eye and aim,
+keeping the sheep among the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years before David's day, a fair woman of Moab had brought
+a new infusion of strength, a new type, into the princely line of
+Judah. The blood of the daring children of the wilderness flowed in
+the veins of those who descended from Boaz. Just as in modern times
+and in royal houses a single feature, as a set of the jaw, a curve of
+the lips, a fulness of the brow or the eye, is stamped upon a race by
+some marriage of its heir with a strong woman of another race, so, it
+has always seemed to me, that the poetry, the romance, the fire and
+the passion, came with Ruth of Moab into the household of Boaz. For
+they were strong and beautiful, these sons of Jesse, who had Ruth as
+their not remote ancestress, and the mother-qualities live long and
+tell through many generations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page011" name="page011"></a>(p. 011)</span> Of Jesse's many sons, David was the youngest. His early life
+was spent as was that of other boys belonging to his class and period.
+He must have added to his natural abilities and quickness, rare
+talents for attaining such knowledge as was possible, knowledge of all
+woodcraft and of nature, knowledge of musical instruments, and
+acquaintance with arms. Clean of limb and sure of foot, ready of
+repartee, fearless and alert, he was, even as a boy, something of what
+he was to become in maturity, one of the greatest men of his own or
+any age. Unique in some capacities, versatile and varied in arts and
+accomplishments, at once vindictive and forgiving, impetuous and
+politic, shrewd and impulsive, heroic and mean, of long memory for
+wrongs committed, of decisive act and incisive speech, relentless and
+magnanimous, strong and weak. A man whose influence has never died out
+among men, and who is to-day a vital force in the world of religion,
+of philanthropy, and of letters.</p>
+
+<p>The short and ill-starred reign of Saul, the first king of the Jews,
+chosen when the people had wearied of the theocratic style of
+government, came to a speedy end. While yet the crown was on his head,
+the favor of the Lord departed from Saul, and Samuel, the Lord's
+prophet, was sent, 1064 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, to anoint his successor. The monarch was
+virtually deposed, though still in power. Saul was like a man under
+sentence of death who is still ignorant of his coming fate, and
+Samuel, who entertained a strong regard for him, evidently cared
+little to carry out the command received from God to discover the new
+king. Almost under protest, the old prophet sought Jesse the
+Bethlehemite, great-grandson of Boaz and the beautiful Ruth, and
+father of the sturdy set of stalwart sons who passed in review before
+him.</p>
+
+<p>The youngest of these, a lad herding sheep in the fields, ruddy and
+goodly to look upon, bearing in his eyes the fearlessness of her who
+left her father's house to follow Naomi's desolate fortunes, came from
+the fields when he was sent for. Peaceful as was his shepherd's life
+in general, it was not without its occasional spice of danger, as when
+a lion and a bear, famished and furious and ravening for their prey,
+came out of the wintry woods to devour the sheep. Then, as the sacred
+chronicler tersely and with Homeric brevity tells us, the shepherd
+"slew both the lion and the bear."</p>
+
+<p>That strange possession, the Spirit of the Lord, came upon David from
+the day of his anointing by Samuel, though it is improbable that he
+understood then, or for long afterward, precisely what was the
+function to which he had been consecrated. David was far older, and
+had dipped deep into many cups, before he spoke or thought of himself
+as "The Lord's Anointed."</p>
+
+<p>The steps toward the throne were not smoothed for the boy's feet,
+though his upward path was in a comparatively straight line. First,
+quite naturally, it came about that he was sent for by King Saul, who
+was afflicted with periods of melancholia which were charmed away only
+by the sweetness of melody. David's harp, on which he played
+skilfully, was the instrument of relief to Saul, and Saul looking on
+the young man loved him, desired to attach him to his person, and
+speedily made him his armor-bearer. Jonathan, Saul's son, grew so
+deeply <span class="pagenum"><a id="page012" name="page012"></a>(p. 012)</span> attached to David, that their souls were knit
+together in that strong friendship which strikes its fibres into the
+soil underlying passion, and godlike in its endurance. The friendship
+of the two young men passed into a proverb, a proverb which is the
+crystallization of history. As David and Jonathan, is friendship's
+strongest simile.</p>
+
+<p>Of the episodes of this portion of David's life, the conflict with
+Goliath is familiar to every reader. The youth, armed with a pebble
+and a sling, slays the boastful champion, storming about in helmet and
+greaves and brazen target, and the victorious hosts of Israel pursue
+the defeated and flying Philistines hour after hour, till the sun goes
+down. Saul, apparently forgetful of his former favorite and
+armor-bearer, inquires whose son the stripling is, led proudly into
+his presence by Abner, the captain of the host.</p>
+
+<p>"I am the son of thy servant, Jesse, the Bethlehemite," is the modest
+answer.</p>
+
+<p>Again, this time aroused by jealousy, Saul's moody fit returns and his
+insanity is once more dispelled by David's harp. David becomes the
+king's son-in-law, and Michal, the king's daughter, loves her husband
+so dearly that she sets her woman's wits at work to save him when her
+father's hot displeasure, in the summary fashion known to Eastern
+kings, sends messengers to seek his life. Poor Michal, whose love was
+never half returned!</p>
+
+<p>The next chapter in David's history is a curious one. Anointed king
+over Israel, he wanders an outlaw captain, hiding in crannies of the
+mountains, gathering to himself a band of young and daring spirits,
+reckless of peril, and willing to accept service under a leader who
+fears nothing, and whose incursions into the adjacent countries
+dispose people to hold him in wholesome terror. Again and again, in
+this precarious Robin Hood life of his, David has the opportunity to
+revenge himself upon Saul, but with splendid generosity puts the
+temptation aside.</p>
+
+<p>"The Lord judge between me and thee," he exclaims; "the Lord avenge me
+of thee, but mine hand shall not be upon thee."</p>
+
+<p>An interesting side-light is thrown upon this portion of David's
+career, by the incident of his meeting with Abigail, a woman fair and
+discreet, married to a sordid churl named Nabal. David and his band
+had protected Nabal's fields from other rovers, and had been, so to
+speak, a wall of fire between the churl's estate and the hand of
+depredation. But at the time of the sheep-shearing the surly ingrate
+refuses food and drink to the band of David, though the favor is most
+courteously asked. When the rough answer is brought back, one sees the
+quick temper of the soldier, in the flashing repartee, and the hand
+flying to the sword. Little had been left to Nabal of barn or byre, if
+sweet-voiced and stately Abigail, wiser than her lord, had not herself
+brought a present in her hand, and with a gentle tongue soothed the
+angry warrior.</p>
+
+<p>In days to come, Abigail was to be wife to David, after the custom of
+the period, which attached a numerous harem to the entourage of a
+chieftain or a king.</p>
+
+<a id="img006" name="img006"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="" title="">
+<p>David calming the wrath of Saul.</p></div>
+
+<p>In judging of David, of his relations with women, and of his dealings
+with his enemies, it is not fair to measure him by the standards of
+our own time. His was a day of the high hand, and of lax morality. The
+kings of neighboring <span class="pagenum"><a id="page013" name="page013"></a>(p. 013)</span> countries knew no gentleness, no law
+but of self-interest and of self-pleasing in their marriages, and in
+their quarrels. Many of the alliances made by David were distinctly in
+the line of political arrangements, bargains by which he strengthened
+his boundary lines, and attracted to his own purposes the resources or
+the kindly interest of other nations.</p>
+
+<p>Reading of David's dashing forays, when he and his valiant two hundred
+fought the Amalekites, chased the Philistines, took prisoners and
+spoil, yet with rare wisdom ordained that, in the division of the
+spoils, those who tarried at home by the stuff, the guard of wives and
+children, should share equally with those who took upon them the
+pleasanter, if more perilous, tasks of the battle, we are transported
+into the morning of the world. These were days when the trumpets blew
+and the flags fluttered, days of riotous health and the joy of life.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Saul and of Jonathan his son, David succeeded to
+the throne. This story is very dramatic. The conquering Philistines
+affixed the bodies of the dead heroes to their temple walls, and hung
+their armor as a trophy in the house of Ashtaroth. But the valiant men
+of Jabesh-Gilead came by night, took down the bodies and burned them,
+then buried the bones, and wept over them for seven days. David
+himself ordered to execution the messenger who brought him Saul's
+crown and bracelet, confessing that his own hand had given the king
+the <span class="italic">coup de grâce</span>. His lamentation over Saul and Jonathan rises to
+the height of the sublime. Never laureate sang in strains more solemn
+and tender.</p>
+
+<p>But from this moment on the tenor of David's life was boisterous and
+broken. He was constantly at war, now war that was defensive only,
+again war that was fiercely aggressive. He had to face internal
+dissensions. As his sons grew up, children of different mothers and of
+different trainings, there came to the heart of the father, always
+most passionately loving, such bitterness as none but great souls
+know.</p>
+
+<p>Between David's house and that of Saul there was long and fierce
+dispute, and never any real peace. Treachery, assassination, jealousy,
+marked the course of these two houses, though David, to his lasting
+honor, be it said, showed only kindness and rendered only protection
+to the kindred of Saul. He could not control the cupidity or
+fierceness of his retainers, but he gave the crippled Mephibosheth the
+household and the income befitting a prince.</p>
+
+<p>David was thirty years old when he began his reign. His first capital
+was Hebron, where he was publicly anointed, after the custom of the
+period. His reign lasted forty years, seven years and six months of
+which he spent in Hebron. Observing the natural advantages of
+Jerusalem as a stronghold, he took it after a sharp contest, and set
+up the throne there, remaining there for thirty-three years.</p>
+
+<p>In nothing did David display great abilities in a more marked manner
+than in the choice of his generals and counsellors. Joab, Abishai, and
+Zeruiah, Hushai and Ahithophel were all men of great administrative or
+executive powers. They were not invariably faithful to David's
+interests, but in the main they served him well, and to his "mighty
+men of valor" he owed the debt for success <span class="pagenum"><a id="page014" name="page014"></a>(p. 014)</span> that all great
+captains owe to those who surround their persons, further their plans,
+and aid their enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>In the Second Book of Chronicles the honor-roll of David's heroes is
+starred with undying lustre. Thirty captains are mentioned, among them
+three mightiest, and the record of these valiant men is like the
+record written of Thor and his followers in the legendry of the stormy
+Norsemen. There was one who slew an Egyptian, a giant five cubits
+high, with a spear like a weaver's beam, and the champion went down to
+the combat armed with a staff only, disarmed the Egyptian, and slew
+him with his own spear. Another slew "a lion in a pit in a snowy day."
+One sees the picture, the yellow-maned, fierce-eyed lion, the white
+drift of the blinding flakes, the hole of the pit, deep-walled and
+narrow, a fit lair for the wild beast. The incident of the well of
+Bethlehem belongs here. The king was spent and athirst, and he longed
+for a drink from the old well by the gate. But when three mighty men
+cut their way sword in hand through the enemy's host, and brought the
+precious water, the king would not drink it, but poured it out before
+the Lord in libation. "God forbid," he exclaimed, "that I should drink
+the blood of these men, that have put their lives in jeopardy!"</p>
+
+<p>If David had always been as noble! But men have the defects of their
+qualities. These mighty men of earth have often, on one side or
+another, a special liability to temptation. In the seduction of
+Bathsheba and the cowardly murder of Uriah, her husband, David
+committed a sin for which he was punished not only in the denunciation
+of Nathan the prophet and the loss of Bathsheba's first child, but by
+the stings of a deep remorse, which expresses itself in a psalm which
+is a miserere. Yet Bathsheba became the mother of Solomon, and Solomon
+was the heir chosen by the Lord to preserve the kingly line of David,
+and to maintain the kingdom in great glory and splendor.</p>
+
+<p>In the quaint language of the sacred scribes, we find David's frequent
+battles graphically described. Rapid and pitiless as Attila or
+Napoleon, he "smote" the Amalekites, and the Ammonites, and the
+neighboring warlike peoples, and compelled them to pay tribute. He was
+not more rapacious than France has recently shown herself to Siam, or
+than England to India, and he was emphatically the "battle-axe of
+God." It was enlightenment against savagery, the true religion against
+the idolatries and witchcrafts of a false worship. In every way David
+displayed statesmanship, not carrying on war for the mere pleasure of
+it, but strengthening his national lines, and laying deep the
+foundations on which his successor was to carry forward a kingdom of
+peace.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until Hiram, king of Tyre, sent cedar from Lebanon, on
+floats down the Mediterranean, that David built him a house. The hardy
+soldier had often slept with the sky for his roof, and the grass for
+his bed, but as he grew rich and strong he needed a palace. With the
+pleasure and security of the palace, the ceiled house, came the wish
+of the devout soul to erect a temple to God. Never was sacrifice
+greater nor pain more intense than that which the great king
+experienced when told that not for him was to be this crowning joy,
+this felicity which would have made his cup overflow. His hands had
+shed too much <span class="pagenum"><a id="page015" name="page015"></a>(p. 015)</span> blood. He had been a man of war from his
+youth. The temple on Mount Zion, a glittering mass of gold and gems,
+shining like a heap of snowflakes on the pilgrims going up to the
+annual passover, was to be the great trophy not of David's, but of
+Solomon's time. David acquiesced in the divine ordering, though with a
+sore heart. But he occupied himself with the accumulation of rich
+materials, so that when Solomon came to the throne he might find much
+and valuable preparation made.</p>
+
+<p>The troubles of David's reign, gathering around him thickly, as the
+almond blossoms of age grew white upon his head, were chiefly brought
+upon him through dissensions in his family. Did so loving a father
+spoil his sons in their early youth, or were they, as is probable,
+influenced by the spites, the malignities, and the weaknesses of the
+beautiful foreign princesses who were their mothers? In the rebellion
+of Absalom, the king tasted the deepest draught of sorrow ever pressed
+to mortal lips, and the whole tragic tale is as vivid in its
+depiction, and as intensely real in its appeal to-day, as when fresh
+from the pen of the writer.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of Absalom, whose beauty and vanity were equalled by his
+ambition and his ingratitude, has made him forever infamous. He
+omitted no act that could convict him of shameless infidelity to all
+that was worthy a prince, and with an armed host he set his battle in
+array against his father. One charge, reiterated again and again,
+showed the depth of that father's heart&mdash;a heart like that of the
+Father in Heaven for its yearning over ingrates and rebels:</p>
+
+<p>"Beware that none touch the young man Absalom!"</p>
+
+<p>Joab, of all men in the realm, least afraid of David and most
+relentless when any one stood in his way, himself became Absalom's
+executioner, when, David's people being victors, Absalom hung caught
+by his hair in the boughs of an oak, unable to escape. Then it was a
+question who should tell the king these tidings, which dashed the
+hearts of the conquerors with a sudden pang. Finally a swift runner
+reached the watch-tower, whence the old king looked forth, awaiting
+news of the day.</p>
+
+<p>"Is the young man Absalom safe?" he asked</p>
+
+<p>And Cushi answered, "The enemies of my lord the king, and all that
+rise against thee to do thee hurt, be as that young man is."</p>
+
+<p>"And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the
+gate, and wept; and as he went, thus he said 'O my son Absalom, my
+son, my son Absalom! Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom my son,
+my son!'"</p>
+
+<p>Long, long ago, these battles and sieges, these truces and victories,
+were over forever on this earth. Egypt and Assyria, contemporary with
+Israel in greatness, have perished from the memories of men, save as a
+few marbles remain to tell their tale. The vitality of David is
+imperishable, but not because he was a shrewd statesman, a doughty
+warrior, or a captain of conquering armies. David the shepherd, David
+the king, are of the past. David the musician, David the psalmist, is
+as alive to-day as he ever was, the music of his harp still vibrating
+in temples and cathedrals and in human souls. Those matchless hymns
+antedating our modern era by so many shifting centuries, are lisped by
+children at their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page016" name="page016"></a>(p. 016)</span> mother's knee, form part of every
+religious ritual of which the one God is the centre, and voice the
+love and prayer and praise of every heart that seeks the Creator. With
+the intense adoration and trust of the Hebrew, we too exclaim, "The
+Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want," and "God is our refuge and
+strength, a very present help in time of trouble."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig002" name="sig002"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig002.jpg" width="300" height="71" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3>SOLOMON<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4" title="Go to footnote 4"><span class="smaller">[4]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rev. Charles F. Deems</span><br>
+(1033-975 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+<a id="img007" name="img007"></a>
+<div class="floatleft-b">
+<img src="images/img007a.jpg" width="500" height="323" alt="A town." title=""></div>
+<div class="floatleft-t">
+<img src="images/img007b.jpg" width="249" height="314" alt="A town." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Looking down the vista of the past ages we see standing conspicuous
+among men David, the father of Solomon. In David's case it is as if
+the all-wise God had constructed in one human being an organ with all
+the keys and stops possible to humanity, and as if the Holy Ghost had
+on that organ with those keys and stops played every tune of every
+song that all humanity may need to sing in life or death, or carry in
+memory from earth to heaven. When we remember who Solomon's father was
+we are helped to grasp the significance of the life and character of
+the son, who, narrower indeed than his father, was yet more brilliant
+and more intense.</p>
+
+<p>In 1033 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, shortly after the death of David's first child by
+Bathsheba, which was begotten in sin, a second child was born, whom
+David called "Solomon," or "peaceful," probably with reference to the
+peace between God and David brought about by the latter's deep
+penitence for his sin against Uriah. But the Prophet Nathan, to whose
+wise and tender care he was early committed, called him "Jedediah,"
+or, "The beloved of the Lord." If, as the best authorities are agreed,
+Solomon wrote the thirty-first chapter of Proverbs, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page017" name="page017"></a>(p. 017)</span> he had
+still another name, "Lemuel," which means, "to God," or "dedicated to
+God."</p>
+
+<p>The great number and variety of traditions about Solomon extant in
+Persia, Arabia, Abyssinia, and among the Jews and other peoples, is a
+proof of the profound impression which he made on his age, and an
+evidence of his greatness; for only the great among men beget many
+traditions. Before taking up the authentic and credible history of
+Solomon a few specimens of these traditions may well receive our
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>The Abyssinians claim that a son given to the Queen of Sheba by
+Solomon was the founder of their imperial dynasty! In Persian
+literature Solomon is a favorite character. With nothing to say of
+David, it has countless stories of his gifted son. One alone, called
+"Solomon-Nameh," fills eighty books. Arabia also claims Solomon as the
+Father of her kings, and to this day, under the eastern sky dusky
+Arabs sit around the lonely tent-fire and tell weird and wonderful
+tales of the wit, wisdom, and wealth of Solomon. Legends of which he
+is the hero are also preserved not only in Asia and Africa, but also
+in the remotest corners of Europe. According to these stories he could
+interpret the language of birds and beasts, was acquainted with the
+mysterious virtues of herbs and gems, knew spells for casting out
+demons and charms for curing diseases, possessed a ring which revealed
+to him the past, present, and future, was acquainted with the arts of
+magic and by them made evil spirits his slaves, who helped him with
+his vast buildings and other great enterprises. It was with the
+assistance of demons called Jinns that he built the gorgeous city of
+Persepolis; while other evil spirits, rebelling, he conquered after a
+long and fierce struggle and immured in dark depths and caves of the
+sea. But let us return to sober history. The only trustworthy account
+of the wise king available, is that which is written in the Bible and
+in the crumbling ruins of his great buildings and public and private
+works in the East, especially in and around Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>He was ten years of age when the rebellion of his older brother,
+Absalom, fell almost like a death-blow upon the brow and heart of his
+aged father David, with whom he shared the perils of flight and a
+brief exile. Not many years later Adonijah, another brother, with the
+connivance of Joab, David's rugged old general, and Abiathar, the
+elder high priest, attempting to steal the throne, Zadok the high
+priest, Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah, the most famous and heroic of
+Israel's captains after Joab, together with Bathsheba, the beautiful
+and ambitious mother of Solomon, succeeded in thwarting Adonijah's
+base designs and roused in David for a short time his old-time energy.
+Whereupon he placed Solomon upon the throne while yet a young man only
+fifteen or twenty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Upon taking up his sceptre Solomon first of all, removed his father's
+enemies and the heads of the conspiracies which had been made against
+the throne, not even hesitating to cut off Joab, whose deeds of
+prowess had added a marvellous lustre to the military fame of Israel.
+Solomon now sat secure upon his throne, the undisputed monarch of the
+wide territory secured by the conquests of his great father. About
+this time, in order to strengthen his kingdom, he married a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page018" name="page018"></a>(p. 018)</span>
+daughter of the Pharaoh of Northern Egypt, an alliance which pleased
+the people, for it showed that their king was a king among kings. The
+end of this political alliance, however, was not as brilliant as its
+beginning promised; because, although Egypt was at that time the most
+mighty nation of the world, because the most wealthy and civilized,
+yet it was divided into two kingdoms, and after the lapse of years,
+the Pharaoh of the united kingdom did not hesitate to become Solomon's
+foe because one of his wives had been an Egyptian princess.</p>
+
+<p>After removing the enemies of the throne, and marrying the daughter of
+Pharaoh, Solomon repaired to the heights of Gibeon, six miles north of
+Jerusalem, a spot far-famed as the home of the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, which was the original Tent of the wanderings. On the
+brazen altar in front of the Tabernacle the young king offered to
+Jehovah a holocaust of a thousand victims.</p>
+
+<p>It was on the night after this magnificent sacrifice that the Lord
+offered to Solomon, dreaming, his heart's chief desire. The wise and
+as yet pious young king asking for wisdom, the Lord was so pleased
+that He promised him not only wisdom, but also wealth, honor, and long
+life. He had already been endowed with extreme personal beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately following this vision the wisdom of the king was tested in
+a way which showed that his God was a faithful promiser. Into the
+royal presence two women of bad character were ushered by the
+authorities, bringing two babes, the one living and the other cold in
+death. In the night the latter's mother had by accident smothered it,
+whereupon she had stolen the living babe from its mother's side. In
+the morning a bitter conflict was waged by the two women over the
+living child, each wildly claiming it as her own. When the officers of
+the law were appealed to they brought the case before their king,
+whose wisdom and fitness to judge a great kingdom were now to be
+tried. As the spectators of the dramatic scene looked on, it was with
+anxious curiosity, which in a moment was turned into horror as Solomon
+ordered a stalwart attendant to take a keen sword and cut the living
+little one into two parts and give to each mother a half. One of the
+women appeared stolidly satisfied with this arrangement, but the other
+sprang between the babe and its executioner, and, weeping, pleaded
+that its life might be spared and her rival be permitted to have the
+whole child. In this pity and tenderness Solomon discovered the true
+mother heart, and to her gave the babe, while the news of the
+marvellous wisdom of the new king spread like wild-fire through
+Jerusalem and all Israel.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon had now secured an assured place in the hearts of his
+subjects, and was firmly seated on a throne from which for forty years
+he governed Israel with a rule whose wisdom was surpassed only by its
+magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>As it is impossible at this date to get at the exact chronological
+order of the events of his life from the time that he ascended the
+throne, and as it was remarkable for the fruits of peace rather than
+war, we may best study it by considering his government, household,
+buildings, riches, and writings.</p>
+
+
+<a id="img008" name="img008"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" title="">
+<p>Judgment of Solomon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Solomon's rule extended over a wide territory and over many peoples,
+for it had been the glory of David that he fought successfully with
+and subdued the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page019" name="page019"></a>(p. 019)</span> enemies of Israel on every side. From the
+Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates, and from the Red Sea to the
+northern bounds of Syria, the great son of David held sway, and thus
+was God's ancient promise to Abraham fulfilled. (Gen. xv. 18.)</p>
+
+<p>Solomon's government was Asiatic, that is it was an absolutism, marked
+by luxury, display, and taxation so heavy as to amount almost to
+oppression. Its luxuriousness and display are illustrated by his
+seraglio, which included seven hundred wives (1 Kings xi. 3); and its
+despotic nature is seen in such acts as his summary and severe
+punishment of Adonijah, Joab, and Abiathar.</p>
+
+<p>For the first time in the history of Israel, alliances were entered
+into with other nations. We have already seen how Solomon had married
+an Egyptian princess. Then he made a treaty with his neighbor on the
+Mediterranean coast, Hiram, king of Tyre, who in exchange for corn
+agreed to supply Solomon with timber for building the Temple and his
+own magnificent palace. The timber was floated down from Tyre to Joppa
+whence it was transported to Jerusalem or wherever needed.</p>
+
+<p>At peace with surrounding nations, and with a thoroughly systematized
+and centralized government, Solomon sat on his throne of ivory and
+gold and looked around on his people, to see an astonishing increase
+of population and a tremendous growth in business and wealth,
+especially during the first half of his reign.</p>
+
+<p>Entering his court and his household, one saw all things in keeping
+with his Asiatic government: magnificent palaces, surrounded by
+beautiful gardens; multitudes of slaves, each one having his work and
+doing it with swiftness and precision; troops of courtiers, and a
+harem of seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines. Around his
+gorgeous throne stood his officers and attendants, in his stables were
+forty thousand horses, and chariots in proportion. Whenever he went
+forth before his people it was to dazzle them with his splendor. But,
+fond as he was of display and of women, he nevertheless did not
+neglect the business of his kingdom, a large part of each day being
+spent either in his throne-room with his officials, or superintending
+his great public and private works. Besides this no inconsiderable
+part of his time in his home was given to study, meditation, and
+writing.</p>
+
+<p>The king was one of the greatest builders of the ages. Among the
+structures erected by him, easily first in splendor was the Temple. In
+Solomon's Temple lies Solomon's true greatness and glory rather than
+in his songs, his proverbs, his riches, and his outward splendor. It
+was the bud whose blooming was in Christ and Christianity. Around it
+was to be preserved the people chosen to save the true knowledge of
+their God for the human race and produce the human nature of Jesus
+Christ, humanity's incarnate God and Saviour.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of a fitting, permanent, earthly abode for Jehovah, and
+for the ark and the sacred symbols therein, was David's. He it was who
+took the ark to Jerusalem and placed it in a temporary tabernacle or
+tent while he collected money and materials for a great shrine. To aid
+him in his great work David had already secured the friendship of
+Hiram, king of Tyre, with whom, as <span class="pagenum"><a id="page020" name="page020"></a>(p. 020)</span> we have seen, Solomon
+made a treaty, and from whom he procured both workmen and materials
+for his great enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>The Temple was begun four hundred and eighty years after the exodus
+from Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign, or 1012 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and
+was completed in the twelfth year of his reign. Its site was Mount
+Moriah at the point where Araunah's threshing-floor had been, and
+where the angel met David at the time the plague was stayed.</p>
+
+<p>The house of the Lord finished, Solomon built his gorgeous palaces.
+And thirteen years after the completion of the Temple (991 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) the
+people of Israel assembled on the occasion of its dedication. This
+occurred at the time of the Feast of Tabernacles, when a magnificent
+festival of two weeks' duration was held. The priests bore the ark
+into the "Holy of Holies" and deposited it under the wings of the
+cherubim. When they had retired the cloud of glory filled the whole
+edifice, and thus proclaimed the approving presence of Jehovah.
+Thereupon Solomon stood upon the brazen platform which had been built
+for him and made his memorable prayer. He thanked God for helping him
+to build the Temple; and prayed that He would hear the prayers that
+should there be made. Scarcely was his prayer ended when fire came
+down from heaven and consumed the sacrifice which had been laid on the
+altar, and the awe-stricken multitude bowed with their faces to the
+ground upon the pavement and worshipped and adored the Lord, saying,
+"For He is good; for His mercy endureth forever." (2 Chron. vii. 3.)</p>
+
+<p>In keeping with the Temple were the gorgeous palaces on which for
+thirteen years Solomon lavished time and toil and money. In the "Tower
+of the House of David," as one of these was called, hung a thousand
+golden bucklers; while in the great judgment-hall stood the far-famed
+throne of the great king. (1 Kings x. 18-20.) Solomon's other
+buildings were beautiful gardens and pools, and aqueducts and a
+luxurious summer resort. He moreover, either established or built many
+important towns or fortresses, among others being Tadmor in the
+wilderness, afterward celebrated in history as Palmyra. Countless
+workmen and inestimable wealth were involved in the building
+enterprises of the great king, which included at the last, to his
+shame, rival temples to Moloch, and the other false gods of his
+heathen wives.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, Solomon's government, household, and buildings, as we have
+considered them, involved the accumulation and expenditure of vast
+sums of money. But the king's ambition, energy, industry, and business
+talent rose to the height of these demands. From two sources he drew
+his vast wealth, namely, taxation and commerce. He received large
+revenues in the way of tributes from subject peoples, in addition to
+the increasingly heavy taxes which he imposed on the people of Israel.
+Besides taxation, the king increased his wealth by means of his great
+commercial operations in the desert, which was the highway between the
+Orient and the Occident, and by means of his two fleets, one on the
+Mediterranean and the other on the eastern arm of the Red Sea, which
+provided a waterway to both Southern Asia and Western Africa. So rich
+did Solomon <span class="pagenum"><a id="page021" name="page021"></a>(p. 021)</span> become from these sources that it is said that
+he "made silver and gold at Jerusalem as plentiful as stones." (2
+Chron. i. 15.) There was, however, one fatal fault in Solomon's
+commercial policy: all the gain went to the palace and the government.
+Herein lay one of the secrets of the division and fall of the nation
+immediately upon the close of his career.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, Solomon's commercial greatness, together with the pomp and
+splendor of his court and government, carried his fame to all parts of
+the earth. But that for which he received the greatest respect from
+surrounding nations was his wisdom, manifested in many ways but
+chiefly in his writings. One of the marked effects of David's long and
+vigorous reign was to stimulate mental activity in the Hebrew mind.
+The great foreign wars with the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the
+Sabeans, and the surrounding nations, who were more or less advanced
+in a knowledge of the arts and sciences, had the effect of widening
+the range of knowledge of Israel as a nation, and of stirring her up
+to an ambition to excel her neighbors in affairs of peace as well as
+in those of war. Solomon's peaceful and wise reign, characterized as
+it was by commercial prosperity, gave the people both the time and
+means for cultivating the arts. In study and in wisdom the king was
+the leader of his day and generation. He was learned in political
+economy, a great king. He was learned in music and poetry, having
+composed some of the most beautiful of the Psalms, such as the second.
+But in cultivating the fine arts he did not neglect the physical
+sciences, for he was a botanist, writing of all kinds of trees and
+plants; and he was a natural historian, writing works on beasts,
+birds, reptiles, and fishes. It would be most interesting to see these
+science primers prepared by Solomon, and compare them with what we see
+on the same subjects in our own day. But the Bible has not preserved
+them, and they have long centuries ago passed into oblivion. Solomon's
+knowledge was not of that shallow sort which is limited to the sphere
+of earthly material, "seen things;" for he was wise with that deeper
+knowledge which has for its object God and the human soul, and their
+natures and movements in their natural relations. This wisdom is
+illustrated and handed down to us in his Proverbs of which we are told
+he spoke three thousand. A portion of these is in the Book of
+Proverbs, the others are lost to us.</p>
+
+<p>In his poetry also was crystallized much of his wisdom. This consisted
+of one thousand and five songs, all of which have gone down in the
+flood of years, with the exception of the Song of Solomon, which is an
+epithalamium, in which pure wedded love is incarnated. It is a sort of
+poetry of the family relations, and, therefore, worthy a place in the
+sacred canon. Taken literally and read with a pure heart, it is
+eminently fitted to spiritualize the family relations. This theory of
+this much discussed portion of Solomon's writings by no means shuts
+out the more spiritual use of the book, wherein we see in it the
+Church represented by the bride and God by the bridegroom.</p>
+
+<p>In Ecclesiastes we have the latest conclusions of Solomon's moral
+wisdom. Read in the light of its general scope rather than the dim
+light of detached portions, it appears as the confessions of a
+humbled, penitent, believing, godly man, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page022" name="page022"></a>(p. 022)</span> who, after piety
+followed by apostasy, comes back to piety with the conclusion that
+after all, "the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom."</p>
+
+<p>Through his writings and sayings Solomon's genius flashed from
+Jerusalem into the surrounding darkness of the heathen nations, and
+lighted by its rays, as mariners by the beacon in the light-house
+tower, there came of all people to hear the wisdom of Solomon, from
+all kings of the earth, which had heard of his wisdom, (1 Kings x.
+1-10.) The celebrated visit of the Queen of Sheba is a deeply
+interesting illustration of these royal visits to the court of
+Israel's splendid king.</p>
+
+<p>Such was King Solomon the magnificent, and such the life of one of
+earth's most famous men. But, after all, he is a striking illustration
+of Plato's saying, that "Princes are never without flatterers to
+seduce them, ambition to deprave them, and desires to corrupt them."
+So, forgetting that as a king he was God's vicegerent, he lived more
+and more to gratify his lusts and ambitions, and to please his
+flatterers, especially his heathen wives. These finally seduced him
+into permitting temples to be built to Moloch and their other false
+gods. This ended in Solomon's becoming idolatrous himself. Then his
+wealth gradually melted away, his allies plotted against him, and, in
+the midst of life, being about fifty-eight years old, he died in the
+year 975 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, leaving a terrible legacy to his sons: a corrupted
+religion, a depleted treasury, and a discontented and broken people.</p>
+
+<p>Although there is every reason to believe that Solomon died a penitent
+man, yet his sins and the consequent wretchedness of soul, and the
+ruin of his kingdom, teach most emphatically the weakness of human
+nature, even when accompanied by the greatest genius, the perils of
+material prosperity, and the real insufficiency of all possible
+earthly good to satisfy the wants of the soul of man.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig003" name="sig003"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig003.jpg" width="250" height="72" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3>LYCURGUS<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5" title="Go to footnote 5"><span class="smaller">[5]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rev. Joseph T. Duryea</span><br>
+(About 884-820 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+
+<p>Scholars generally agree in the judgment that Lycurgus was a real
+person. It is probable that he was born in the ninth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and
+that, in the later part of the same century (850-820), he was an
+important, if not the principal, agent in the reconstruction of the
+Dorian state of Sparta, in the Peloponnesus. According to Herodotus,
+he was the uncle of King Labotas, of the royal line of Eurysthenes.
+Others, whom Plutarch follows, describe him as the uncle and guardian
+of King <span class="pagenum"><a id="page023" name="page023"></a>(p. 023)</span> Charilaus, and therefore in the line of Procles.
+Either way his mythical lineage would be traced to Hercules. We are
+able to find no trustworthy records of the circumstances of his birth,
+and of the incidents of his childhood and youth. Plutarch, with all
+his diligence, found nothing. Nor could he sift and blend the varying
+stories of his later life and so construct a consistent and credible
+narrative, O. Müller says: "We have absolutely no account of him as an
+individual person."</p>
+
+<a id="img009" name="img009"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="300" height="416" alt="Lycurgus." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Accordingly Lycurgus appears already in his maturity. We know what he
+was only from what he did. He has this imperishable honor, that he did
+something, and did it in such a manner and with such effect that the
+memory of him and his deeds has lasted until this late time, and bids
+fair to last throughout all time.</p>
+
+<p>The following traditions concerning Lycurgus are commonly repeated.
+Polydectes, his brother, was king in Sparta. After the king's death a
+son was born to the widow. Lycurgus became his guardian and presented
+him to the magistrates as their future king. He was suspected by the
+queen's brother of a design to take the crown, and even of a purpose
+to destroy his infant nephew. Accordingly he went into exile. He
+remained some time in Crete, studying the institutions of the Dorian
+people of that island. He travelled extensively in Asia and was
+especially careful to observe the manners and customs of the Ionians.
+He found the poems of Homer, transcribed and arranged them, and caused
+them to be more generally known. The Egyptians claimed that he visited
+their country and derived much of his wisdom from them. Meanwhile the
+affairs of Sparta were in a critical condition and the king and the
+people alike desired his presence and his aid in restoring peace and
+renewing the prosperity of the community and the people of Laconia.
+Immediately upon his return he entered upon the work of framing a
+constitution and reconstructing the state. Notwithstanding much
+opposition and complaint from the classes obliged to make concessions
+and sacrifices for the common good, he secured the assent of the
+people to his legislation. Having seen the system in working order, he
+announced his purpose to leave the country for a period, and moved the
+citizens to take an oath that they would observe the laws until he
+should return. He departed to remain away to the end of his life, but
+first repaired to Delphi and obtained an oracle promising <span class="pagenum"><a id="page024" name="page024"></a>(p. 024)</span>
+prosperity to the Spartans, so long as they should maintain faithfully
+the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>Laconia was the southeastern portion of the peninsula. The soil was
+mainly mountain land and meagrely productive under toilsome and
+careful tillage. So much of it as was naturally fertile lay in the
+centre, shut in from the sea by the mountains. At the time of the
+Dorian immigration, it was occupied in part by the descendants of the
+old Pelasgian population and in part by a mixed people which had come
+in at different times and from various sources. Because of the limited
+area there was already considerable pressure between the several
+elements. Accordingly the Dorians and their Achæan and Æolian allies
+met with a stout resistance, and established themselves after an
+obstinate and long-continued struggle. They descended from the sources
+of the Eurotas and forced their way into the plains in the midst of
+the land. They seized the heights on the right bank of the river at a
+point where its channel is split by an island and it was most easy to
+cross the stream. The hill of Athene became the centre of the
+settlement. Their establishment in the land was a slow process. It is
+said Laconia was divided into six districts, with six capital cities,
+each ruled by a king. The immigrants were distributed among the
+inhabitants and lands were allotted to them, in return for which they
+recognized the authority of the kings and engaged to support them in
+power. They seem to have been adopted by the kings, as their kindred
+were in Crete, as the military guardians of their prerogatives. The
+result was inevitable. They who are intrusted to maintain power become
+conscious that it is really their own, take formal possession of it,
+and exercise it for their own ends.</p>
+
+<p>Two leading families drew to themselves the central body of the
+Dorians, rallied the rest, gathered them all at one point, and made it
+the centre of the district and the seat of government. They were
+supported by families of common descent and recognized by the people
+of the land, who suffered no change in the circumstances of their
+life. These gave them homage, paid to them taxes, and united with
+their kindred in celebrating funeral rites at their tombs. Sparta
+became the capital of the whole country, while the former capitals
+became country towns.</p>
+
+<p>But there were difficulties in the way of the new régime. There were
+conflicting claims between the two royal families. Both of them were
+in collision with families in all respects their equals as to lineage
+and rank. The older and newer elements of the mass of the population
+were mingled but not yet combined. Everywhere there was friction, with
+occasions enough for irritation and confusion. The descendants of the
+primitive races were attached to their ancient ways. The Dorians were
+not less, but more tenacious of their traditional customs. And they
+were conscious of their vantage and knew they were able to insist on
+their preferences. As the props of the royal houses they could hope to
+make terms with them, or withdraw and let them fall, or turn to cast
+them down. The kings were compelled, on the one hand, to exert
+themselves to hold in control a subject people, and, on the other, to
+check the headstrong Dorian warriors. There was danger of the
+disruption of the kingdom, a lapse into anarchy, the rise of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page025" name="page025"></a>(p. 025)</span>
+opposing factions, and a conflict destructive alike and equally of the
+welfare of all classes of the people.</p>
+
+<p>There was need of a statesman who could comprehend the problem, find a
+solution, commend it to the judgment of all classes, and gain their
+cordial consent to the renovation of the state upon a more equitable
+basis. He must be a man of large capacity, great attainments, thorough
+sincerity, earnest devotion, generous and self-sacrificing patriotism.
+He must have ability to conceive a high ideal, steadily contemplate
+it, and nevertheless consider the materials on which and the
+conditions under which he must do his work, maintain the sober
+judgment which discriminates between the ideal and the practicable,
+and exercise the rigid self-control which calmly renounces the best
+conceivable and resolutely attempts the best attainable. He must have
+regard to the ideas, sentiments, associations, sacred traditions, and
+immemorial customs of the several races and classes of the people. He
+must be prudently conservative and keenly cautious in shaping and
+applying new measures and methods. He must study and comprehend the
+inevitable oppositions of interests, and conceive modes of action
+which involve reasonable concessions accompanied by manifest
+compensations. He must ally himself with no party and yet command the
+confidence of all parties. Whatever prior advantage he may have had in
+the matters of birth, rank, and association, he must use to conciliate
+those who would be asked to make the largest apparent sacrifices, and
+so turn it to account for the benefit of those who might otherwise
+suspect and distrust him and fall away from his influence. He must be
+able to explain and commend the system he might devise, convince the
+several parties of its wisdom, persuade them to yield their
+preferences and accept the needful compromises, and move them to make
+a fair and full experiment of its provisions. Such a man was Lycurgus,
+if we may trust the persistent tradition that he was the framer of the
+new constitution and the second founder of the Dorian state of Sparta.
+From time to time the question has been raised, was the work of
+Lycurgus original or an imitation, shaped perhaps by his observations
+among the Dorian folk on the island of Crete? It does not matter what
+the answer shall be. The statesman who fitly adapts may be as wise and
+skilful as he who invents and creates. The man who loves his people,
+plans and labors for their good, will not peril their welfare by his
+experiments, disdaining the help of those who have wrought before him,
+and the guidance of his contemporaries in examples, the benign results
+of which he may have had opportunity to witness. The truth appears to
+be that Lycurgus had respect to the reverence of the people for the
+ancient ways, and retained as far as he was able the suitable elements
+of the primitive polity of the Homeric age. This was based on the
+Council of Chiefs or Elders and occasional meetings of an assembly of
+the people to listen and learn, to assent and give heed. From
+whatsoever sources he drew, he adapted the materials of his knowledge
+to the conditions under which his structure must be shaped, the
+circumstances under which it must get on its base and stand secure.
+Those who affirm the exemplary influence of the Cretan polity, hold
+fast to the tradition that Lycurgus visited the island and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page026" name="page026"></a>(p. 026)</span>
+could not have failed to observe the features of society there, and
+could not have expelled from his mind the similarity of conditions
+among the two peoples and the expedients which the lawgiver of Crete
+had employed to meet and resolve the difficulties he encountered and
+secure the results he attained. It must, however, be remembered that
+similar peoples with common traditions and customs, under like
+circumstances may independently work out for themselves systems of
+society analogous in many particulars and varying only by adaptation
+to special conditions. If Lycurgus perceived what was suitable to the
+exigency, wrought it into a plan, moved the people to accept it,
+brought harmony out of discord, order out of confusion, contentment
+out of unrest, prosperity out of impending calamity, and rescued the
+commonwealth for the time, he deserved abundant honor and still
+deserves a permanent rank among the notable statesmen of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution was unwritten. Its provisions were expressed in forms
+known as Rhætra. The kings were retained. Their power was a guaranty
+of unity. They maintained the continuity of civic life. Each was a
+check upon the other. They were held under restraint by the senate.
+Its composition and functions were now fixed. It met not only to
+deliberate and advise, but to perform judicial offices. In case of
+capital offences the kings sat with the elders, each having, with
+every other member, but a single vote. The members were thirty in
+number, one for each of the ten clans of each of the three tribes, the
+kings representing their clans and sitting as equals with equals,
+though presiding at the sessions. The elders must be of the age of
+sixty and upward, and were appointed for life. The ancient division of
+the people was preserved; the households were grouped in thirties, the
+thirties in clans, the clans in tribes. Their capital was Sparta. It
+was not a compact walled town. It stretched into the open country and
+Dorians lived along the entire valley of the Eurotas. Not only those
+dwelling at the ford of the river, but all were acknowledged as
+Spartans. The kings were required to summon the heads of the families
+in the assembly once every month. The place was designated. The
+session was brief. To encourage brevity there was no provision for
+seats, but the freemen stood. Elders and other public officers were
+chosen. Official persons made known new laws, declarations of war and
+peace and treaties. The people simply voted aye or nay. The decision
+was according to the volume of sound. The session closed with a
+military review.</p>
+
+<p>The army: The Dorians had entered the land and held their place in it
+by force of arms. To maintain their power it was necessary to develop
+a military system and maintain a body of vigorous and able soldiers.
+All citizens were constituted guardians of the nation. To all their
+rights was attached the duty of military service. They composed a
+standing army. The valley became a camp. The men left their estates
+under the management of the women. The wife cared for the home, reared
+the young children, and superintended the laborers in the business of
+the farm. The soldier could not leave the valley or enter it without
+announcement. The older men visited their homes on "leave of absence,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page027" name="page027"></a>(p. 027)</span> the younger by stealth at night. Emigration was desertion
+punishable by death. To have gold and silver was to risk the same
+penalty. The heavy iron money only could be held, and this was without
+value in foreign parts. The soldier was part of an animated machine.
+His simple duty was to obey. Speech was repressed. It became abrupt,
+brief, pithy. Relief was found at the Lesche, near the
+training-ground, where talk was often free and even merry. The whole
+aim of the discipline was to form the soldier. Marriage was delayed
+for the sake of vigorous offspring. The girls were trained for
+motherhood. They were subject to a system of athletic exercises, and
+engaged in contests of running, wrestling, and boxing. The boys were
+put under training at the age of eight years. They became accustomed
+to severe exercise, and were inured to patient and painful endurance.
+They were compelled to suffer hunger, thirst, cold, heat, and fatigue,
+and to bear torture without flinching or show of emotion. Their food
+was kept almost within the limits of war rations. To increase the
+amount and variety they were allowed to steal. But they were careful
+not to be detected, lest they should be severely punished. Likely this
+was a device for training them to stealthy and cautious movements.
+After the time of their maturity they continued gymnastic culture.
+They hunted the goats, boars, stags, and bears on the rugged heights
+of the Taygetus range. There was no system of liberal education;
+mental growth and development were not sought as ends. They were
+rather feared. Poetry and music were used to a limited degree, so far
+as they might be made conducive to forming the traits of the soldier.</p>
+
+<p>While the Spartans were solely occupied in preparation for the art of
+war, it is evident there must have been a population as wholly given
+to the pursuit of the practical arts, or the community could not have
+existed. There were two classes of laborers. The Peri&oelig;ci dwelt in
+the rural townships. They were mainly of the mixed population of the
+lands, but there were Dorians among them. They were freemen; they held
+lands, and enjoyed certain rights of local government, voting for
+their magistrates in their townships. More and more they were trained
+for military service and entered the ranks as heavy-armed infantry.
+Some of them were shepherds and herdsmen. From them came all the
+skilled workmen, who wrought in the quarries and mines, provided
+building materials, shaped iron implements, made woollen stuff and
+leathern wares. Their number was three times as great as that of the
+citizens of the capital city. But over all their townships the
+Spartans held sway through the kings, the senate, and the assembly.
+These facts exhibit the civil polity which became so common during
+Greek and Roman times, and obtained again in Italy after the fall of
+the empire and the barbarian invasions, up to the time of the
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>The Helots were a rural people dwelling on the lands of the Spartans
+which lay about the capital or in the Laconian towns. Some of them
+were in the country as villagers and rustics when the Dorians came.
+They remained upon their lands as they were before, but were forced to
+pay a part of the annual produce of barley, oil, and wine. Some of
+them were people made captive in the border wars. They were serfs.
+They were, however, wards of the state. No <span class="pagenum"><a id="page028" name="page028"></a>(p. 028)</span> one could treat
+them as personal property. They could not be sold or given away. They
+belonged to the inventory of the farm. Their taxes were defined by
+law. More could not be exacted. They could not be harmed in person.
+They were of value to the state and therefore protected. More and more
+they were needed in the army, where they were respected and honored
+for energy and bravery. Grote says they were as happy as the peasantry
+of the most civilized and humane modern nations. They lived in their
+villages, enjoyed their homes and the companionship of their wives and
+children, and the common fellowship of their neighbors, with ample
+supply for their needs and comfort from the surplus product of their
+labor and apart from the eye of their masters. Still the Helot had in
+him the common sentiments of our nature. His state was servile and
+mean. It was not to be expected he would always remain content in his
+subjection to his superiors in social and civil life. More and more
+his discontent would menace the stability of the community. Especially
+when the exigencies of war should compel his rulers to place arms in
+his hands and enlist him for defence against the foreign foe, it would
+become necessary to keep close watch upon him and to use strong
+measures for the repression of his impulse toward freedom.</p>
+
+<p>Judged by the highest standards, Lycurgus certainly did not form the
+Laconians into an ideal nationality. He set up a military sovereignty
+in the land, and this demanded that the citizens should be soldiers,
+live in the camp, and devote themselves solely to the art of war. It
+is likely he perceived the imperfections of the system, anticipated
+its reflex effect upon the character and manners of the Spartans, and
+foreknew its weakness and the consequent perils of the people when it
+should inevitably be put to stress and strain by the aspirations of
+the subject classes after freedom and social equality. Could he speak
+for himself, he would doubtless say, with Solon, that he had not done
+the best he knew but the best he could, that his constitution was
+provisional and suited to the time, and that it was designed to serve
+as a bridge over which his countrymen could cross a torrent and reach
+safely the solid ground on which they might securely stand to
+rearrange their polity and form themselves on a more equitable and
+generous basis into a real and happy commonwealth.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig004" name="sig004"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig004.jpg" width="250" height="39" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page029" name="page029"></a>(p. 029)</span> THEMISTOCLES<br>
+(514-449 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+<a id="img010" name="img010"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img010.jpg" width="250" height="344" alt="Themistocles." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Themistocles, who raised Athens from a subordinate position to her
+proud rank as leader of the Grecian States, was born about the year
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, 514. He was the son of Nicocles, an Athenian of moderate
+fortune, who, however, was connected with the priestly house of the
+Lycomedæ; his mother, Abrotonon, or, according to others Euterpe, was
+not an Athenian citizen; and according to most authorities, not even a
+Greek, but either a native of Caria or of Thrace. The education which
+he received was like that of all Athenians of rank at the time, but
+Themistocles had no taste for the elegant arts which then began to
+form a prominent part in the education of Athenian youths; he applied
+himself with much more zeal to the pursuit of practical and useful
+knowledge. This, as well as the numerous anecdotes about his youthful
+wilfulness and waywardness, together with the sleepless nights which
+he is said to have passed in meditating on the trophies of Miltiades,
+are more or less clear symptoms of the character which he subsequently
+displayed as a general and a statesman. His mind was early bent upon
+great things, and was incapable of being diverted from them by
+reverses, scruples, or difficulties. The great object of his life
+appears to have been to make Athens great. The powers with which
+nature had endowed him were quickness of perception, an accurate
+judgment of the course which was to be taken on sudden and
+extraordinary emergencies, and sagacity in calculating the
+consequences of his own actions; and these were the qualities which
+Athens during her wars with Persia stood most in need of. His ambition
+was unbounded, but he was at the same time persuaded that it could not
+reach its end unless Athens was the first among the Grecian States;
+and as he was not very scrupulous about the means that he employed for
+these ends, he came into frequent conflict with Aristides the Just,
+who had nothing at heart but the welfare of his country and no desire
+for personal aggrandizement.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 483 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, when Aristides was sent into exile by ostracism,
+Themistocles, who had for several years taken an active part in public
+affairs, and was one of the chief authors of the banishment of his
+rival, remained in the almost undivided possession of the popular
+favor, and the year after, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 482, he was elected archon eponymus of
+Athens. The city was at that time involved in a war with Ægina, which
+then possessed the strongest navy in Greece, and with which Athens was
+unable to cope. It was in this year that Themistocles conceived
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page030" name="page030"></a>(p. 030)</span> and partly carried into effect the plans by which he
+intended to raise the power of Athens. His first object was to
+increase the navy of Athens; and this he did ostensibly to enable
+Athens to contend with Ægina, but his real intention was to put his
+country in a position to meet the danger of a second Persian invasion,
+with which Greece was threatened. The manner in which he raised the
+naval power was this. Hitherto the people of Athens had been
+accustomed to divide among themselves the yearly revenues of the
+silver-mines of Laurion. In the year of his archonship these revenues
+were unusually large, and he persuaded his countrymen to forego their
+personal advantage, and to apply these revenues to the enlargement of
+their fleet. His advice was followed, and the fleet was raised to the
+number of two hundred sail. It was probably at the same time that he
+induced the Athenians to pass a decree that for the purpose of keeping
+up their navy, twenty new ships should be built every year. Athens
+soon after made peace with Ægina, as Xerxes was at Sardis making
+preparations for invading Greece with all the forces he could muster.
+At the same time Themistocles was actively engaged in allaying the
+disputes and hostile feelings which existed among the several states
+of Greece. He acted, however, with great severity toward those who
+espoused the cause of the Persians, and a Greek interpreter, who
+accompanied the envoys of Xerxes that came to Athens to demand earth
+and water as a sign of submission, was put to death for having made
+use of the Greek tongue in the service of the common enemy.</p>
+
+<p>After affairs among the Greeks were tolerably settled, a detachment of
+the allied troops of the Greeks was sent out to take possession of
+Tempe, under the command of Themistocles, of Athens, and Euænetus, of
+Sparta; but on finding that there they would be overwhelmed by the
+host of the barbarians, they returned to the Corinthian isthmus. When
+Xerxes arrived in Pieria, the Greek fleet took its post near
+Artemisium on the north coast of Eub&oelig;a, under the command of the
+Spartan admiral Eurybiades, under whom Themistocles condescended to
+serve in order not to cause new dissensions among the Greeks, although
+Athens alone furnished one hundred and twenty-seven ships, and
+supplied the Chalcidians with twenty others; while the Spartan
+contingent was incomparably smaller. When the Persian fleet,
+notwithstanding the severe losses which it had sustained by a storm,
+determined to sail round the eastern and southern coasts of Eub&oelig;a,
+and then up the Euripus, in order to cut off the Greek fleet at
+Artemisium, the Greeks were so surprised and alarmed that Themistocles
+had great difficulty in inducing them to remain and maintain their
+station. The Eub&oelig;ans, who perceived the advantages of the plan of
+Themistocles, rewarded him with the sum of fifty talents, part of
+which he gave to the Spartan Eurybiades and the Corinthian Adimantus
+to induce them to remain at Artemisium. In the battle which then took
+place, the Greeks gained considerable advantage, though the victory
+was not decisive. A storm and a second engagement near Artemisium,
+severely injured the fleet of the Persians, but the Greeks also
+sustained great losses, as half of their ships were partly destroyed
+and partly rendered unfit for further service. When at the same time
+they <span class="pagenum"><a id="page031" name="page031"></a>(p. 031)</span> received intelligence of the defeat of Leonidas, at
+Thermopylæ, the Greeks resolved to retreat from Artemisium, and sailed
+to the Saronic gulf.</p>
+
+<p>Xerxes was now advancing from Thermopylæ, and Athens trembled for her
+existence, while the Peloponnesians were bent upon seeking shelter and
+safety in their peninsula, and upon fortifying themselves by a wall
+across the Corinthian isthmus. On the approach of the danger the
+Athenians had sent to Delphi to consult the oracle about the means
+they should employ for their safety, and the god had commanded Athens
+to defend herself behind wooden walls. This oracle, which probably had
+been given at the suggestion of Themistocles, was now also interpreted
+by him as referring to the fleet, and his advice to seek safety in the
+fleet was followed. He then further moved that the Athenians should
+abandon the city to the care of its tutelary deity, that the women,
+children, and infirm should be removed to Salamis, Ægina, or
+Tr&oelig;zen, and that the men should embark in the ships. The fleet of
+the Greeks, consisting of three hundred and eighty ships, assembled at
+Salamis, still under the supreme command of Eurybiades. When the
+Persians had made themselves masters of Attica, and Athens was seen in
+flames at a distance, some of the commanders of the fleet, under the
+influence of fear, began to make preparation for an immediate retreat.
+Themistocles saw the disastrous results of such a course, and exerted
+all his powers of persuasion to induce the commanders of the fleet to
+maintain their post; when all attempts proved ineffectual,
+Themistocles had recourse to threats, and thus induced Eurybiades to
+stay. The example of the admiral was followed by the other commanders
+also. In the meantime the Persian fleet arrived in the Saronic gulf,
+and the fears of the Peloponnesians were revived and doubled, and
+nothing seemed to be able to keep them together. At this last and
+critical moment Themistocles devised a plan to compel them to remain
+and face the enemy. He sent a message to the Persian admiral,
+informing him that the Greeks were on the point of dispersing, and
+that if the Persians would attack them while they were assembled, they
+would easily conquer them all at once, whereas it would be otherwise
+necessary to defeat them one after another.</p>
+
+<p>This apparently well-meant advice was eagerly taken up by the enemy,
+who now hastened, as he thought, to destroy the fleet of the Greeks.
+But the event proved the wisdom of Themistocles. The unwieldy armament
+of the Persians was unable to perform any movements in the narrow
+straits between the island of Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks
+gained a most complete and brilliant victory, for they only lost forty
+ships, while the enemy lost two hundred, or according to Ctesias, even
+five hundred. Very soon after the victory was decided, Xerxes with the
+remains of the fleet left the Attic coast and sailed toward the
+Hellespont. The battles of Artemisium and Salamis occurred in the same
+year, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 480.</p>
+
+<p>When the Greeks were informed of the departure of Xerxes, they pursued
+him as far as Andros, without gaining sight of his fleet, and
+Themistocles proposed to continue the chase. But he gave way to the
+opposition that was made <span class="pagenum"><a id="page032" name="page032"></a>(p. 032)</span> to this plan, and consented not to
+drive the vanquished enemy to despair. The Greek fleet therefore only
+stayed some time among the Cyclades, to chastise those islanders who
+had been unfaithful to the national cause. Themistocles, in the
+meantime, in order to get completely rid of the king and his fleet,
+sent a message to him, exhorting him to hasten back to Asia as
+speedily as possible, for otherwise he would be in danger of having
+his retreat cut off. Themistocles availed himself of the stay of the
+Greek fleet among the Cyclades for the purpose of enriching himself at
+the cost of the islanders, partly by extorting money from them by way
+of punishment, and partly by accepting bribes for securing them
+impunity for their conduct. He was now, however, the greatest man in
+Greece, his fame spread everywhere, and all acknowledged that the
+country had been saved through his wisdom and resolution. But the
+confederate Greeks, actuated by jealousy, awarded to him only the
+second prize; at Sparta, whither he went, as Herodotus says, to be
+honored, he received a chaplet of olive-leaves&mdash;a reward which they
+had bestowed upon their own admiral Eurybiades&mdash;and the best chariot
+that the city possessed, and on his return three hundred knights
+escorted him as far as Tegea in Arcadia.</p>
+
+<p>When the Persian army had been again defeated at Platæa and Mycale in
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 479, and when the Athenians had rebuilt their private dwellings,
+it was also resolved, on the advice of Themistocles, to restore the
+fortifications of Athens, but on a larger scale than they had been
+before, and more in accordance with the proud position which the city
+now occupied in Greece. This plan excited the fear and jealousy of the
+rival states, and especially of Sparta, which sent an embassy to
+Athens, and under the veil of friendship, which ill concealed its
+selfish policy, endeavored to persuade the Athenians not to fortify
+the city. Themistocles, who saw through their designs, undertook the
+task of defeating them with their own weapons. He advised his
+countrymen to dismiss the Spartan ambassadors, and to promise that
+Athenian envoys should be sent to Sparta to treat with them there
+respecting the fortifications. He himself offered to go as one of the
+envoys, but he directed the Athenians not to let his colleagues follow
+him until the walls, on which all hands should be employed during his
+absence, should be raised to such a height as to afford sufficient
+protection against any attack that might be made upon them. His advice
+was followed, and Themistocles, after his arrival at Sparta, took no
+steps toward opening the negotiations, but pretended that he was
+obliged to wait for the arrival of his colleagues. When he was
+informed that the walls had reached a sufficient height, and when he
+could drop the mask with safety, he gave the Spartans a well-deserved
+rebuke, returned home, and the walls were completed without any
+hindrance. He then proceeded to carry into effect the chief thing
+which remained to be done to make Athens the first maritime power of
+Greece. He induced the Athenians to fortify the three ports of
+Phalerum, Munychia, and Piræus by a double range of walls.</p>
+
+<a id="img011" name="img011"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img011.jpg" width="600" height="355" alt="" title="">
+<p>The victors of Salamis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Athens was thus raised to the station on which it had been the
+ambition of Themistocles to place it, his star began to sink, though
+he still continued for some time to enjoy the fruits of his memorable
+deeds. He was conscious <span class="pagenum"><a id="page033" name="page033"></a>(p. 033)</span> of the services he had done his
+country, and never scrupled to show that he knew his own value. His
+extortion and avarice, which made him ready to do anything, and by
+which he accumulated extraordinary wealth, could not fail to raise
+enemies against him. But what perhaps contributed more to his downfall
+was his constant watchfulness in maintaining and promoting the
+interests of Athens against the encroachments of Sparta, which in its
+turn was ever looking out for an opportunity to crush him. The great
+men who had grown up by his side at Athens, such as Cimon, and who
+were no less indebted to him for their greatness in the eyes of Greece
+than to their own talents, were his natural rivals, and succeeded in
+gradually supplanting him in the favor of the people. They also
+endeavored to represent him as a man of too much power, and as
+dangerous to the public. The consequence of all this was that in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+472, he was banished from Athens by the ostracism. He took up his
+residence at Argos, where he was still residing when, in the same
+year, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 472, Pausanias was put to death at Sparta for his ambitious
+and treacherous designs, and his fate involved that of Themistocles.
+The Spartans, in their search to discover more traces of the plot of
+Pausanias, found a letter of Themistocles from which it was evident
+that he had been acquainted with his plans. This was sufficient for
+the Spartans to ground upon it the charge that Themistocles had been
+an accomplice in his crime, and ambassadors were forthwith sent to
+Athens to demand that he should suffer the same punishment as
+Pausanias.</p>
+
+<p>This charge was no less welcome to his enemies at Athens than the
+discovery of his letter had been to the Spartans. Orders were
+consequently issued to arrest and convey him to Athens; and foreseeing
+that his destruction would be unavoidable if he should fall into the
+hands of his enemies, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to the opposite
+coast of Epirus, where he took refuge at the court of Admetus, king of
+the Molossians. On his arrival the king was absent, but his Queen
+Phthia received him kindly, and pointed out to him in what manner he
+might win the sympathy of Admetus. When the king returned home,
+Themistocles, seated on the hearth and holding the child of Admetus in
+his arms, implored the king not to deliver him up to his persecutors,
+who traced him to the court of the Molossians. It is stated that
+Themistocles was here joined by his wife and children. The king not
+only granted his request, but provided him with the means of reaching
+the coast of the Ægean, whence he intended to proceed to Asia and seek
+refuge at the court of the king of Persia. From Pydna he sailed in a
+merchant ship to the coast of Asia Minor. At Ephesus he received such
+part of his property as his friends had been able to wrest from the
+hands of his enemies at Athens, together with that which he had left
+at Argos.</p>
+
+<p>A few months after his arrival in Asia, Xerxes was assassinated (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+465), and was after a short interval succeeded by Artaxerxes. Various
+adventures are told of Themistocles before he reached the residence of
+the Persian king. On his arrival he sent him a letter, in which he
+acknowledged the evils he had inflicted upon his predecessor; but at
+the same time claimed the merit of having saved him from destruction
+by his timely advice. He added that his present exile was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page034" name="page034"></a>(p. 034)</span>
+only the consequence of his great zeal for the interests of the king
+of Persia. He did not ask for an immediate interview with the king, as
+he was yet unacquainted with the language and the manners of the
+Persians, to acquire which he requested a year's time. During this
+period he applied himself so zealously and with such success to these
+studies that at the close of the year, when he was presented to the
+king, he is said to have excited the jealousy of the courtiers, and
+was most kindly received by the king, to whom he held out prospects of
+conquering Greece by his assistance. The king became so attached to
+him, that Themistocles was always in his company.</p>
+
+<p>But death overtook him at the age of sixty-five, before any of his
+plans were carried into effect. Most of the ancient writers state that
+he put an end to his life by poison, or according to another strange
+story, by drinking the blood of a bull, because he despaired of being
+able to fulfil his promises to the king. The motive for his suicide is
+very questionable. Reflection on his past life and upon the glory of
+his former rivals at Athens, are much more likely to have rendered him
+dissatisfied with life. Before he took the poison he is said to have
+requested his friends to convey his remains secretly to Attica, and in
+later times a tomb which was believed to contain them existed in
+Piræus. In the market-place of Magnesia a splendid monument was
+erected to his memory, and his descendants in that place continued to
+be distinguished by certain privileges down to the time of Plutarch.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>PERICLES<br>
+(499-429 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+<a id="img012" name="img012"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="250" height="372" alt="Pericles." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Pericles, the greatest statesman of ancient Greece, was born of
+distinguished parentage in the early part of the fifth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+His father was that Xanthippus who won the victory over the Persians
+at Mycale, 479 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>; and by his mother, Agariste, the niece of the
+great Athenian reformer, Cleisthenes, he was connected with the
+princely line of Sicyon and the great house of the Alcmæonidæ. He
+received an elaborate education, but of all his teachers the one whom
+he most reverenced was the serene and humane philosopher, Anaxagoras.
+Pericles was conspicuous all through his career for the singular
+dignity of his manners, the Olympian grandeur of his eloquence, his
+"majestic intelligence" in Plato's phrase, his sagacity, probity, and
+profound Athenian patriotism. Both in voice and in appearance he was
+so like Pisistratus, who had once overturned the Athenian republic and
+ruled as a king, that for some time he was afraid to come forward in
+political life. When he entered on public life Aristides had only
+recently died, Themistocles was an exile, and Cimon was fighting the
+battles of his country abroad. Although the family to which he
+belonged was good, it did not rank among the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page035" name="page035"></a>(p. 035)</span> first in either
+wealth or influence, yet so transcendent were the abilities of
+Pericles that he rapidly rose to the highest power in the state as the
+leader of the dominant democracy. The sincerity of his attachment to
+the popular party has been questioned, but without a shadow of
+evidence. At any rate, the measures which, either personally or
+through his adherents, he brought forward and caused to be passed,
+were always in favor of extending the privileges of the poorer class
+of the citizens, and, if he diminished the spirit of reverence for the
+ancient institutions of public life, he enlisted an immense body of
+citizens on the side of law. He extended enormously, if he did not
+originate, the practice of distributing gratuities among the citizens
+for military service, for acting as dicast and in the Ecclesia and the
+like, as well as for admission to the theatre&mdash;then really a great
+school for manners and instruction. Pericles seems to have grasped
+very clearly, and to have held as firmly, the modern radical idea,
+that as the state is supported by the taxation of the body of the
+citizens, it must govern with a view to general interests rather than
+to those of a caste alone. About 463, Pericles, through the agency of
+his follower, Ephialtes, struck a great blow at the influence of the
+oligarchy, by causing the decree to be passed which deprived the
+Areopagus of its most important political powers. Shortly after the
+democracy obtained another triumph in the ostracism of Cimon (461).
+During the next few years the political course pursued by Pericles is
+less clearly intelligible to us, but it is safe to say that in general
+his attitude was hostile to the desire for foreign conquest or
+territorial aggrandizement, so prevalent among his ambitious
+fellow-citizens. Shortly after the battle of Tanagra (457), in which
+he showed conspicuous courage, Pericles magnanimously carried the
+measure for the recall of Cimon. His successful expeditions to the
+Thracian Chersonese, and to Sinope on the Black Sea, together with his
+colonies planted at Naxos, Andros, Oreus in Eub&oelig;a, Brea in
+Macedonia, and Ægina, as well as Thurii in Italy, and Amphipolis on
+the Strymon, did much to extend and confirm the naval supremacy of
+Athens, and afford a means of subsistence for her poorer citizens. But
+his greatest project was to form, in concert with the other Hellenic
+states, a grand Hellenic confederation in order to put an end to the
+mutually destructive wars of kindred peoples, and to make Greece one
+mighty nation, fit to front the outlying world. The idea was not less
+sagacious than it was grand. Had it been accomplished, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page036" name="page036"></a>(p. 036)</span> the
+semi-barbarous Macedonians would have menaced the civilized Greeks in
+vain, and even Rome at a later period, might perhaps have found the
+Adriatic, and not the Euphrates, the limit of her empire. But the
+Spartan aristocrats were utterly incapable of appreciating such
+exalted patriotism, or of understanding the political necessity for
+it, and by their secret intrigues the well-planned scheme was brought
+to nothing. Athens and Sparta were already in that mood toward each
+other which rendered the disaster of the Peloponnesian war inevitable.
+When the Spartans, in 448, restored to the Delphians the guardianship
+of the temple and treasures of Delphi, of which they had been deprived
+by the Phocians, the Athenians immediately after marched an army
+thither and reinstated the latter. Three years later an insurrection
+broke out in the tributary Megara and Eub&oelig;a, and the Spartans again
+appeared in the field as the allies of the insurgents. The position of
+Athens was critical. Pericles wisely declined to fight against all his
+enemies at once. A bribe of ten talents sent the Spartans home, and
+the insurgents were then thoroughly subdued. The thirty years' peace
+with Sparta (445) left him free to carry out his schemes for the
+internal prosperity of Athens.</p>
+
+<p>Cimon was now dead and was succeeded in the leadership of the
+aristocratic party by Thucydides, son of Melesias, who in 444 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+made a strong effort to overthrow the supremacy of Pericles by
+attacking him in the popular assembly for squandering the public money
+on buildings and in festivals and amusements. Thucydides made an
+effective speech; but Pericles immediately rose and offered to execute
+the buildings at his own expense, if the citizens would allow him to
+put his own name upon them instead of theirs. The sarcasm was
+successful. Thucydides was ostracized, and to the end of his life,
+Pericles reigned the undisputed master of the public policy of Athens.
+During the rest of his career "there was," says the historian
+Thucydides, "in name a democracy, but in reality a government in the
+hands of the first man." And the Athens of his day was the home of
+Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Anaxagoras, Zeno, Protagoras,
+Socrates, as well as Myron and Phidias; while there flourished at the
+same time, but elsewhere in Greece, Herodotus, Hippocrates, Pindar,
+Empedocles, and Democritus. The centre of this splendid group was
+Pericles, of whom the truthful pen of Thucydides records that he never
+did anything unworthy of his high position, that he did not flatter
+the people or oppress his adversaries, and that with all his unlimited
+command of the public purse, he was personally incorruptible.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after this the Samian war broke out, in which Pericles gained
+high renown as a naval commander. This war originated in a quarrel
+between Miletus and the island of Samos, in which Athens was led to
+take part with the former. The Samians, after an obstinate struggle,
+were beaten, and a peace was concluded (439). The position in which
+Athens then stood toward many of the Greek states was peculiar. Since
+the time of the Persian invasion, she had been the leader of the
+confederacy formed to resist the attacks of the powerful enemy, and
+the guardian of the confederate treasury kept in the isle of Delos.
+Pericles caused the treasury to be removed to Athens, and commuting
+the contingents of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page037" name="page037"></a>(p. 037)</span> the allies for money, enormously
+increased the contributions to the patriotic fund, Athens herself
+undertaking to protect the confederacy. The grand charge against
+Pericles is that he applied the money thus obtained to other purposes
+than those for which it was designed; that, in short, he adorned and
+enriched Athens with the spoils of the allied states. To his mind
+Hellas was subordinate to Athens, and he confounded the splendor of
+the dominant city with the splendor of Greece, in a manner possible to
+a man of poetic imagination, hardly to a man of the highest honor. His
+enemies, who dared not attack himself, struck at him in the persons of
+his friends. Phidias was flung into prison for the impiety of
+introducing portraits of himself and Pericles into the battle of the
+Amazons depicted on the shield of the goddess Athena in the Parthenon;
+the brilliant Aspasia, the famous mistress of Pericles, was arraigned
+on a charge of impiety, and only acquitted through the eloquence of
+Pericles on her behalf; while the aged Anaxagoras was driven from the
+city.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to give a detailed account of all that Pericles did
+to make his native city the most glorious in the ancient world. Greek
+architecture and sculpture under his patronage reached perfection. To
+him Athens owed the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, left unfinished at his
+death, the Propylæa, the Odeum, and numberless other public and sacred
+edifices; he also liberally encouraged music and the drama; and during
+his life, industry and commerce were in so flourishing a condition
+that prosperity was universal in Attica.</p>
+
+<p>At length, in 431, the long foreseen and inevitable Peloponnesian war
+broke out between Athens and Sparta. The plan of Pericles was for
+Athens to adopt a defensive attitude, to defend the city itself,
+leaving Attica to be ravaged by the enemy, but to cripple the power of
+Sparta by harassing its coasts. The story of the war must be told
+elsewhere; here it is enough to say that the result was unfavorable to
+Athens for reasons for which Pericles was only in small part to blame.
+He trusted in the ultimate success of Athens, both from her superior
+wealth and from her possessing the command of the sea, but he had not
+calculated upon the deterioration in her citizens' spirit, nor upon
+the robust courage of the B&oelig;otian and Spartan infantry. Nor was his
+advice to keep behind the city walls rather than face the enemy in the
+field, best calculated to arouse the Athenians' courage. The plague
+ravaged the city in 430, and in the autumn of the following year,
+Pericles died after a lingering fever. His two sons had been carried
+off by the plague, he had been harassed by a charge of peculation
+brought by Cleon, and the actual infliction of a fine by the
+dicastery, while he had been without office from July, 430, to July,
+429, but before the last he recovered his hold over the Ecclesia, and
+was gratified in the closing days of his life by its legitimation of
+his and Aspasia's son.</p>
+
+<p>As a statesman his greatest fault was a failure to foresee that
+personal government is ultimately ruinous to a nation. He taught the
+people to follow a leader, but he could not perpetuate a descent of
+leaders like himself. Hence we cannot wonder, when days of trouble
+broke over Athens, how that men spoke bitterly of Pericles and all his
+glory. Yet he was a lofty-minded statesman, inspired by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page038" name="page038"></a>(p. 038)</span>
+noble aspirations, and his heart was full of a noble love for the city
+and her citizens. Plutarch tells the story that, as he lay dying and
+apparently unconscious, his friends around his bed were passing in
+review the great achievements of his life, and the nine trophies which
+he had erected at different times for so many victories. The dying
+patriot quietly interrupted with the characteristic sentence: "What
+you praise in my life belongs partly to good fortune, and is, at best,
+common to me with many generals. But that of which I am proudest, you
+have left unnoticed&mdash;no Athenian has ever put on mourning through any
+act of mine."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>SOCRATES<br>
+From the French of <span class="smcap">Fénelon</span><br>
+(468-399 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+<a id="img013" name="img013"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="250" height="347" alt="Socrates." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Socrates, who, by the consent of all antiquity, has been considered as
+the most virtuous and enlightened of Pagan philosophers, was a citizen
+of Athens, and belonged to the town of Alopecé.</p>
+
+<p>He was born in the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad. His father,
+Sophroniscus, was a sculptor; and his mother, Phanaretè, a midwife.</p>
+
+<p>He first studied philosophy under Anaxagoras, and next under
+Archelaus, the natural philosopher. But finding that all these vain
+speculations concerning natural objects served no useful purpose, and
+had no influence in rendering the philosopher a better man, he devoted
+himself to the study of ethics; and (as Cicero, in the third book of
+his Tusculan Questions, observes) may be said to be the founder of
+moral philosophy among the Greeks. In the first book, speaking of him
+still more particularly and more extensively, he expresses himself
+thus: "It is my opinion (and it is an opinion in which all are agreed)
+that Socrates was the first who, calling off the attention of
+philosophy from the investigation of secrets which nature has
+concealed (but to which alone all preceding philosophers had attached
+themselves), engaged her in those things which concern the duties of
+common life; his object was to investigate the nature of virtue and
+vice; and to point out the characteristics of good and evil; saying,
+that the investigation of celestial <span class="pagenum"><a id="page039" name="page039"></a>(p. 039)</span> phenomena was a subject
+far above the reach of our powers; and that even were they more within
+the reach of our faculties, it could have no influence in regulating
+our conduct."</p>
+
+<p>That part of philosophy, then, whose province is the cultivation of
+morals, and which embraces every age and condition of life, he made
+his only study. This new mode of philosophizing was the better
+received on this account, that he who was the founder of it,
+fulfilling with the most scrupulous care all the duties of a good
+citizen, whether in peace or in war, enforced by example the precepts
+which he taught.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the philosophers who have acquired celebrity, he (as Lucian in
+his dialogue of the Parasite remarks) was the only one that ever
+subjected himself to the hardships of war. He served two campaigns, in
+both of which, though unsuccessful, he served in person and exhibited
+a manly courage. In the one, he saved the life of Xenophon, who when
+retreating, had fallen from his horse and would have been killed by
+the enemy, had not Socrates taking him upon his shoulders, removed him
+from the danger and carried him several furlongs, till his horse,
+which had run off, was brought back. This fact is related by Strabo.</p>
+
+<p>In his other campaign, the Athenians having been entirely defeated and
+put to flight, Socrates was the last to retreat, and showed such a
+stern aspect that the pursuers of those who fled, seeing him every
+moment ready to turn upon them, never had the boldness to attack him.
+This testimony is given him by Athenæus.</p>
+
+<p>After these two expeditions, Socrates never set a foot out of Athens.
+In this, his conduct was very different from that of the other
+philosophers, who all devoted a part of their life to travelling, that
+by intercourse with the learned of other countries they might acquire
+new knowledge. But as that kind of philosophy to which Socrates
+limited himself led a man to use every effort to know himself rather
+than to burden his mind with knowledge which has no influence on moral
+conduct, he thought it his duty to dispense with tedious travelling,
+in which nothing was to be learned which he might not learn at Athens
+among his countrymen, for whose reformation, besides, he thought his
+labors ought to be devoted, rather than to that of strangers. And as
+moral philosophy is a science which is taught better by example than
+by precept, he laid it down as a rule to himself, to follow and
+practise all that right reason and the most rigid virtue could demand.</p>
+
+<p>It was in compliance with this maxim that, when elected one of the
+senators of the city, and having taken the oath to give his opinion
+"according to the laws," he peremptorily refused to subscribe to the
+sentence by which the people, in opposition to the laws, had condemned
+to death nine officers; and though the people took offence at it, and
+some of the most powerful even threw out severe menaces against him,
+he always firmly adhered to his resolution; thinking it inconsistent
+with the principles of a man of virtue or honor, to act contrary to
+his oath merely to please the people. Except on this single occasion,
+we know not whether he ever acted in a civil capacity; but insulated
+as the occasion was, he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page040" name="page040"></a>(p. 040)</span> acquired such reputation by it at
+Athens, for probity and the other virtues, that he was more respected
+there than the magistrates themselves.</p>
+
+<p>He was very careful of his person, and blamed those who paid no
+attention to themselves, or who affected exterior negligence. He was
+always neat, dressed in a decent, becoming manner; observing a just
+medium between what might seem gross and rustic, and what savored of
+pride and effeminacy.</p>
+
+<p>Though furnished with few of the blessings of fortune, he always
+maintained perfect disinterestedness by receiving no remuneration from
+those who attended on his instructions. By such conduct he condemned
+the practice of the other philosophers, whose custom it was to sell
+their lessons, and to tax their scholars higher or lower, according to
+the degree of reputation they had acquired.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Socrates, as Xenophon relates, used to say that he could not
+conceive how a man, whose object it was to teach virtue, should think
+of turning it to gain; as if to form a man of virtue, and to make of
+his pupil a good friend, were not the richest advantages and the most
+solid profit with which his cares could be rewarded.</p>
+
+<p>It must further be remarked that Socrates kept no class, as did the
+other philosophers, who had a fixed place where their scholars
+assembled, and where lectures were delivered to them at stated hours.
+Socrates' manner of philosophizing consisted simply in conversing with
+those who chanced to be where he was, without any regard to time or
+place.</p>
+
+<p>He was always poor; but in his poverty so contented, that though to be
+rich was within the reach of a wish, by receiving the presents which
+his friends and scholars often urged him to accept, he always returned
+them; to the great displeasure of his wife, who had no relish for
+carrying philosophy to such a height. In regard to food and clothes,
+so hardy was his manner of life that Antiphon, the Sophist, sometimes
+reproached him, by saying that he had not a slave so miserable as
+would be contented with it: "For," said he, "your food is disgustingly
+mean; besides, not only are you always very poorly dressed, but winter
+or summer you have the same robe; and never anything above it: with
+this, you on all occasions, go barefoot."</p>
+
+<p>But Socrates proved to him that he was greatly mistaken if he thought
+that happiness depended on wealth or finery; and that, poor as he
+might seem to him, he was in fact happier than he. "I consider," said
+he, "that as to want nothing is the exclusive prerogative of the gods,
+so the fewer wants a man has, the nearer he approaches to the
+condition of the gods."</p>
+
+<p>It was impossible that virtue so pure as that of Socrates should have
+no effect in exciting admiration, especially in a city such as Athens,
+where that example must have appeared very extraordinary. For those
+very persons who have not the happiness to follow virtue themselves,
+cannot refrain from doing justice to those who do follow it. This soon
+gained Socrates the universal esteem of his fellow-citizens, and
+attracted to him many scholars of every age; by whom the advantages of
+listening to his instructions, and engaging in conversation with him,
+were preferred to the most fascinating pleasure and the most agreeable
+amusements.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page041" name="page041"></a>(p. 041)</span> What rendered the manner of Socrates peculiarly engaging was,
+that though in his own practice he maintained the most rigid severity,
+yet to others he was in the highest degree gentle and complaisant. The
+first principle with which he wished to inspire his youthful auditors
+was piety and reverence for the gods; he then allured them as much as
+possible to observe temperance, and to avoid voluptuousness;
+representing to them how the latter deprives a man of liberty, the
+richest treasure of which he is possessed.</p>
+
+<p>His manner of treating the science of morals was the more insinuating,
+as he always conducted his subject in the way of conversation and
+without any apparent method. For without proposing any point for
+discussion, he kept by that which chance first presented. Like one who
+himself wished information, he first put a question, and then,
+profiting by the concessions of his respondent, brought him to a
+proposition subversive of that which in the beginning of the debate
+had been considered as a first principle. He spent one part of the day
+in conferences of this kind, on <span class="italic">morals</span>. To these everyone was
+welcome, and according to the testimony of Xenophon, none departed
+from them without becoming <span class="italic">a better man</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Though Socrates has left us nothing in writing, yet by what we find in
+the works of Plato and Xenophon, it is easy to judge both of the
+principles of his ethical knowledge and of the manner in which he
+communicated them. The uniformity observable (especially in his manner
+of disputing), as transmitted by these two scholars of Socrates, is a
+certain proof of the method which he followed.</p>
+
+<p>It will be difficult to conceive how a person who exhorted all men to
+honor the gods, and who preached, so to speak, to the young to avoid
+and abandon every vice, should himself be condemned to death for
+impiety against the gods received at Athens, and as a corrupter of
+youth. This infamously unjust proceeding took place in a time of
+disorder and under the seditious government of the thirty tyrants. The
+occasion of it was as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Critias, the most powerful of these thirty tyrants, had formerly, as
+well as Alcibiades, been a disciple of Socrates. But both of them
+being weary of a philosophy the maxims of which would not yield to
+their ambition and intemperance, they, at length, totally abandoned
+it. Critias, though formerly a scholar of Socrates, became his most
+inveterate enemy. This we are to trace to that firmness with which
+Socrates reproached him for a certain shameful vice; and to those
+means by which he endeavored to thwart his indulging in it. Hence it
+was that Critias, having become one of the thirty tyrants, had nothing
+more at heart than the destruction of Socrates, who, besides, not
+being able to brook their tyranny, was wont to speak against them with
+much freedom. For, seeing that they were always putting to death
+citizens and powerful men, he could not refrain from observing, in a
+company where he was, that if he to whom the care of cattle was
+committed, exhibited them every day leaner and fewer in number, it
+would be very strange if he would not himself confess that he was a
+bad cow-herd.</p>
+
+<p>Critias and Charicles, two of the most powerful of the thirty tyrants,
+feeling <span class="pagenum"><a id="page042" name="page042"></a>(p. 042)</span> the weight of the allusion fall upon themselves,
+first enacted that no one should teach in Athens the art of reasoning.
+Although Socrates never had professed that art, yet it was easy to
+discover that he was aimed at; and that it was intended thus to
+deprive him of the liberty of conversing as usual, on moral subjects,
+with those who resorted to him.</p>
+
+<p>That he might have a precise explanation of this law, he went to the
+two authors of it; but as he embarrassed them by the subtlety of his
+questions, they plainly told him that they prohibited him from
+entering into conversation with young people.</p>
+
+<p>But, seeing Socrates' reputation was so great that to attack him and
+serve him with an indictment would have drawn upon them public odium,
+it was thought necessary to begin by discrediting him in the view of
+the public. This was attempted by the comedy of Aristophanes entitled
+"The Clouds," in which Socrates was represented as teaching the art of
+making that which is just appear unjust.</p>
+
+<p>The comedy having had its effect, by the ridicule which it threw upon
+Socrates, Melitus brought a capital accusation against him, in which
+he alleged; first, that he did not honor those as gods, who were
+acknowledged such at Athens, and that he was introducing new ones;
+secondly, that he corrupted the youth; that is to say, that he taught
+them not to respect their parents, or the magistrates. The accuser
+required that for these two crimes he should be condemned to death.</p>
+
+<p>Enraged as the tyrants were (and especially Critias and Charicles)
+against Socrates, it is certain that they would have been very
+reluctant to condemn him, had he availed himself in the least of the
+favorable circumstances in his case. But the intrepidity and
+resolution with which he heard the accusation, refusing even to pay
+any fine, as that would have been to avow himself in some degree
+culpable; and especially the firmness with which he addressed the
+judges when called upon to state the punishment which he thought he
+deserved, enraged them against him. For, with confidence in his
+integrity, he answered them, "That he thought he deserved to be
+maintained at the public expense during the rest of his life." This
+whetted afresh the resentment of the thirty tyrants, who caused him
+now to be condemned to death.</p>
+
+<p>Lysias, a very eloquent philosopher, had composed an apologetical
+oration that Socrates might avail himself of it, and pronounce it
+before the judges, when called to appear before them. Socrates having
+heard it, acknowledged it to be a very good one, but returned it,
+saying that it did not suit him. "But why," replied Lysias, "will it
+not suit you, since you think it a good one?"</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, my friend!" returned Socrates, "may there not be shoes and
+different articles of dress very good in themselves, and yet not
+suitable for me?"</p>
+
+<p>The fact is, though the oration was very fine and energetic, yet the
+manner in which it was conducted, did not suit the uprightness and
+candor of Socrates.</p>
+
+<a id="img014" name="img014"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="600" height="410" alt="" title="">
+<p>Death of Socrates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now condemned to death, Socrates was put into prison, where some days
+after, he died by drinking the poison hemlock. For this was the
+instrument of death, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page043" name="page043"></a>(p. 043)</span> then used by the Athenians, in the
+case of those who were condemned for capital crimes.</p>
+
+<p>According to Diogenes Laërtius, Socrates was twice married, but of the
+two wives he has given him, we know nothing except of the famous
+Xantippè, by whom he had a son named Tamprocles; Xantippè rendered
+herself celebrated by her ill-humor, and by the exercise which she
+afforded to the patience of Socrates. He had married her, he said,
+from a persuasion that if he were able to bear with her bad temper,
+there could be nothing which he might not support.</p>
+
+<p>He died in the first year of the 95th Olympiad, aged seventy.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>DIOGENES<br>
+From the French of <span class="smcap">Fénelon</span><br>
+(412-323 <span class="italic">B.C.</span>)</h3>
+
+<a id="img015" name="img015"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img015.jpg" width="250" height="254" alt="Diogenes." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Diogenes the Cynic, son of Icesius a banker, was born about the 91st
+Olympiad, in Sinope, a city of Paphlagonia. He was accused of having
+forged money, in concert with his father. Icesius was arrested, and
+died in prison. Alarmed at the fate of his father, Diogenes fled to
+Athens. When he had arrived at that city, he inquired for Antisthenes;
+but the latter, having resolved never to take a scholar, repulsed him
+and beat him off with his stick. Diogenes was by no means discouraged
+by this treatment. "Strike&mdash;fear not," said he to him, bowing his
+head; "you shall never find a stick hard enough to make me run off, so
+long as you continue to speak." Overcome by the importunity of
+Diogenes, Antisthenes yielded, and permitted him to become his
+scholar.</p>
+
+<p>Banished from his native country and without any resource, Diogenes
+was reduced to great indigence. He perceived one day, a mouse running
+briskly up and down, without any fear of being surprised by the
+approach of night, without any anxiety about a lodging-place, and even
+without thinking of food. This reconciled him to his misery. He
+resolved to live at his ease, without constraint, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page044" name="page044"></a>(p. 044)</span> and to
+dispense with everything which was not absolutely necessary for the
+preservation of life. He doubled his cloak, that by rolling himself up
+in it, it might serve the purposes both of a bed and of a coverlet.
+His movables consisted of a bag, a jug, and a staff; and wherever he
+went he always carried his furniture along with him. His stick,
+however, he used only when he went to the country, or on some
+emergency. Persons really lame were, he said, neither the deaf nor the
+blind, but those who had no bag.</p>
+
+<p>He always went barefoot, nor did he wear sandals even when the ground
+was covered with snow. He endeavored also to accustom himself to eat
+raw flesh, but this was a point of perfection to which he never could
+arrive. He entreated a person of his acquaintance to afford him some
+little hole in his lodging, to which he might occasionally retire. But
+as he was dilatory in giving him a positive answer he took possession
+of an earthen tub, which he always carried about with him, and which
+was the only house he ever had. In the heat of summer when the fields
+were scorched by the sun, he used to roll among the burning sands, and
+in winter to embrace statues covered with snow, that he might accustom
+himself to endure without pain the inclemencies of heat and cold.</p>
+
+<p>He treated everyone with contempt. He accused Plato and his scholars
+of dissipation, and of the crime of loving good cheer. All the orators
+he styled "the slaves of the people." Crowns were, he said, as brittle
+marks of glory as bubbles of water, which burst in the formation; that
+theatrical representations were the wonder of fools only. In a word,
+nothing escaped his satiric humor.</p>
+
+<p>He ate, he spoke, he slept, without discrimination, wherever chance
+placed him. Pointing to Jupiter's porticos on one occasion, he
+exclaimed: "How excellent a dining-room the Athenians have built for
+me there!"</p>
+
+<p>He frequently said: "When I consider the rulers, the physicians, and
+the philosophers whom the world contains, I am tempted to think man
+considerably elevated by his wisdom above the brutes; but when, on the
+other hand, I behold augurs, interpreters of dreams, and people who
+can be inflated with pride on account of their riches or honors, I
+cannot help thinking him the most foolish of all animals."</p>
+
+<p>When taking a walk one day, he observed a child drinking from the
+hollow of his hand. He felt greatly affronted at the sight. "What!"
+exclaimed Diogenes, "do children know better than I do with what
+things a man ought to be contented?" Upon which he took his jug out of
+his bag, and instantly broke it, as a superfluous movable.</p>
+
+<p>The province in philosophy to which Diogenes attached himself, was
+that of morals. He did not, however, entirely neglect the other
+sciences. He was possessed of lively parts, and easily anticipated
+objections.</p>
+
+<a id="img016" name="img016"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img016.jpg" width="600" height="429" alt="" title="">
+<p>Diogenes in his tub.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As he was one day discoursing on a very serious and important subject
+everyone passed by without giving himself the least concern about what
+Diogenes was saying. Upon this, he began to sing. The people crowded
+about him. He immediately seized the opportunity of giving them a
+severe reprimand <span class="pagenum"><a id="page045" name="page045"></a>(p. 045)</span> for flocking about him and attending with
+eagerness to a mere trifle, while they would not so much as listen to
+things of the greatest importance.</p>
+
+<p>Walking out once at noon, with a lighted torch in his hand, he was
+asked what he was in quest of. "I am searching for a <span class="italic">man</span>," said he.
+On another occasion he called out in the middle of a street: "Ho!
+<span class="italic">men</span>&mdash;<span class="italic">men</span>." A great many people assembling around him, Diogenes
+beat them away with his stick, saying "I was calling for men."</p>
+
+<p>Alexander passing through Corinth on one occasion, had the curiosity
+to see Diogenes, who happened to be there at that time. He found him
+basking in the sun in the grove Craneum, where he was cementing his
+tub. "I am," said he to him, "the great king Alexander." "And I,"
+replied the philosopher, "am the dog Diogenes." "Are you not afraid of
+me?" continued Alexander. "Are you good or bad?" returned Diogenes. "I
+am good," rejoined Alexander. "And who would be afraid of one who is
+good?" replied Diogenes.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander admired the penetration and free manners of Diogenes. After
+some conversation, he said to him: "I see, Diogenes, that you are in
+want of many things; and I shall be happy to have an opportunity of
+assisting you: ask of me what you will." "Retire a little to one side
+then," replied Diogenes; "you are depriving me of the rays of the
+sun."</p>
+
+<p>It is no wonder that Alexander stood astonished at seeing a man so
+completely above every human concern. "Which of the two is richest?"
+continued Diogenes: "he who is content with his cloak and his bag, or
+he for whom a whole kingdom is not sufficient, but who is daily
+exposing himself to a thousand dangers in order to extend its limits?"
+Alexander's courtiers felt indignant that so great a king should do so
+much honor to such a dog as Diogenes, who did not even rise from his
+place. Alexander perceived it, and turning about to them said: "Were I
+not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes."</p>
+
+<p>As Diogenes was one day going to Egina, he was taken by pirates, who
+brought him to Crete, and exposed him to sale. He did not appear to be
+in the least disconcerted, nor to feel the least uneasiness on account
+of his misfortune. Seeing one Xeniades, corpulent and well-dressed, "I
+must be sold to that person," said he, "for I perceive he needs a
+master. Come, child," said he to Xeniades, as he was coming up to
+purchase him, "come, child, buy a man." Being asked what he could do,
+he said he had the talent of commanding men. "Crier," said he, "call
+out in the market, <span class="italic">If anyone needs a master, let him come here and
+purchase one</span>."</p>
+
+<p>Xeniades charged him with the instruction of his children, a task
+which Diogenes performed with great fidelity. He made them commit to
+memory the finest passages of the poets, with an abridgment of his own
+philosophy, which he composed on purpose for them. He made them
+exercise themselves in running, wrestling, hunting, horsemanship, and
+in using the bow and the sling. He accustomed them to very plain fare,
+and in their ordinary meals to drink nothing but water. He ordered
+them to be shaven to the skin. He brought them with him into the
+streets very carelessly dressed, and frequently without sandals and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page046" name="page046"></a>(p. 046)</span> tunics. These children had a great affection for Diogenes,
+and took particular care to recommend him to their parents.</p>
+
+<p>When Diogenes was in slavery, some of his friends used their interest
+to procure him his liberty. "Fools!" said he, "you are jesting. Do you
+not know that the lion is not the slave of them who feed him? They who
+feed him are his slaves."</p>
+
+<p>Diogenes one day heard a herald publish that Dioxippus had conquered
+men at the Olympic games. "Say slaves and wretches," said he to them.
+"It is I who have conquered men."</p>
+
+<p>When it was said to him, "You are old, you must take your ease," he
+said, "What? must I slacken my pace at the end of my course? Would it
+not be fitter that I should redouble my efforts?"</p>
+
+<p>When walking in the streets, he observed a man let fall some bread
+which he was ashamed to lift. In order to show him that a man ought
+never to blush when he is desirous to save anything, Diogenes
+collected the fragments of a broken bottle and carried them through
+the town. "I am like good musicians," said he, "who leave the true
+sound that others may catch it." To one who came to him to be his
+disciple, he gave a gammon of bacon to carry and desired him to follow
+him. Ashamed to carry it through the streets, the man threw it down
+and made off. Diogenes meeting him a few days after, said to him,
+"What? has a gammon of bacon broken our friendship?"</p>
+
+<p>After reflecting on his life, Diogenes smiling said: "That all the
+imprecations generally uttered in tragedies had fallen upon him; that
+he had neither house, nor city, nor country; and that, in a state of
+indigence he lived from day to day; but that to fortune he opposed
+firmness; to custom, nature; and reason to the disorders of the soul."</p>
+
+<p>Diogenes was greatly beloved and highly esteemed by the Athenians.
+They publicly scourged one who had broken his tub, and gave the
+philosopher another.</p>
+
+<p>He was one day asked where he chose to be buried after his death? He
+replied: "In an open field." "How!" said one, "are you not afraid of
+becoming food for birds of prey and wild beasts?" "Then I must have my
+stick beside me," said Diogenes, "to drive them away when they come."
+"But," resumed the other, "you will be devoid of all sensation." "If
+that be the case," replied he, "it is no matter whether they eat me or
+not, seeing I shall not be sensible to it."</p>
+
+<p>Some say that having arrived at the age of ninety, he ate a
+neat's-foot raw, which caused indigestion to such a degree that he
+burst. It is said by others that feeling himself burdened with age, he
+retained his breath, and was thus the cause of his own death. His
+friends coming next day, found him muffled up in his cloak. Upon first
+discovering him they doubted whether he were not asleep (which with
+him, was very unusual); they were soon convinced that he was dead.
+There was a great dispute among them about who should bury him; but
+when on the eve of breaking out into open violence, the magistrates
+and old men of Corinth opportunely arrived to appease the disturbance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page047" name="page047"></a>(p. 047)</span> Diogenes was buried beside the gate lying toward the isthmus.
+There was erected, beside his tomb, a dog of Parian marble. The death
+of this philosopher happened in the first year of the 114th Olympiad,
+on the same day that Alexander died at Babylon.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>DEMOSTHENES<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6" title="Go to footnote 6"><span class="smaller">[6]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">E. Benjamin Andrews, Pres't of Brown University</span>.<br>
+(385-322 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img017" name="img017"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img017.jpg" width="250" height="347" alt="Demosthenes." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Demosthenes, the foremost orator of all history, was born in Athens
+about July in the year 385 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>. His father, also named Demosthenes, a
+manufacturer of swords, was a gentleman widely and justly esteemed.
+His mother was Cleobule, the daughter of Gylon by a Scythian lady. The
+father died when the son was about seven years of age, leaving an
+estate of fourteen or fifteen talents, equal to some $200,000 now. The
+guardians partly embezzled, partly wasted the property, and the young
+orator's first law business, occupying several years, was the
+prosecution of these criminals to recover what he might. His success
+was but partial, yet his patrimony, with what he earned, always kept
+him in relative affluence, spite of his expensive tastes and great
+public and private munificence. As a boy he was weak, and did not
+avail himself of the physical training then usual among Greek youth of
+good families. He, however, employed the best teachers in his studies
+and his mental education was thorough. To Thucydides and the old
+rhetoricians he was ardently devoted, and these, with personal
+instruction by the orator Isæus, did most to form his style.</p>
+
+<p>The early years of Demosthenes's manhood were spent in preparing
+speeches for sale, in instructing pupils in rhetoric, and in the
+severe and painstaking education of himself as a public speaker. His
+resolution in overcoming obstacles is much dwelt upon by ancient
+writers. He at first lisped and stammered and had a weak voice. To
+cure these faults he enunciated with pebbles in his mouth and
+declaimed while walking uphill and by the roaring breakers of the
+sea-shore. He shut himself in an underground study, which he
+constructed for the purpose, and practised going through long trains
+of thought there alone. "When he went <span class="pagenum"><a id="page048" name="page048"></a>(p. 048)</span> out upon a visit or
+received one," says Plutarch, "he would take something that passed in
+conversation, some business or fact that was reported to him, for a
+subject to exercise himself upon. As soon as he had parted from his
+friends, he went to his study, where he repeated the matter in order
+as it passed, together with the arguments for and against it. The
+substance of the speeches which he heard he committed to memory, and
+afterward reduced them to regular sentences and periods, meditating a
+variety of corrections and new forms of expression, both for what
+others had said to him and he had addressed to them. Hence it was
+concluded that he was not a man of much genius, and that all his
+eloquence was the effect of labor. A strong proof of this seemed to be
+that he was seldom heard to speak anything extempore, and though the
+people often called upon him by name as he sat in the assembly, to
+speak to the point debated, he would not do it unless he came
+prepared." It is related that when in speaking he happened to be
+thrown into confusion by any occurrence in the assembly, the orator
+Demades, the foremost extempore speaker of the age, often arose and
+supported him in an extempore address, but that he never did this for
+Demades. Demosthenes was not, however, the slave of manuscript or
+memory. He declared that "he neither wrote the whole of his orations
+nor spoke without first committing part to writing." There was said to
+be greater spirit and boldness in his impromptu speeches than in those
+which he had elaborately prepared. People thought that sometimes when
+he spoke out thus on a sudden, his eloquence was inspired from above,
+as when once he uttered, in regular though unpremeditated verse, the
+forceful oath:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+  "By earth, by all her fountains, streams, and floods."</p>
+
+<p>Demosthenes's first speeches were harsh and obscure. The sentences
+were too long, the metaphors violent and inapt. On the occasion of his
+first set address before a public assembly he even broke down. He was,
+however, indomitable in his determination and efforts to speak well,
+and persevered until at last the most critical heard him with delight.
+Notwithstanding certain defects which nice critics very early
+remarked, such as undue vehemence, argumentation and intensity too
+long sustained, and, in general, lack of variety and relief,
+Demosthenes's oratory is worthy the exalted regard which the best
+readers have in all ages accorded to it. His thought is always lucid
+and weighty, his argument fair and convincing, his diction manly and
+solid. He never uses a superfluous or a far-fetched word, never
+indulges in flowers, word-painting, or rhetorical trickery of any
+kind. He shows no trace of affectation, no effort to surprise or to be
+witty He depends for effect upon truth logically and earnestly
+presented. If such a style, everywhere perfectly kept up, was in any
+degree artificial, how matchless the art which concealed the art! So
+plain and straightforward are many of the speeches, that one is
+tempted to refer their wonderful power when spoken to some richness of
+elocution not appreciable now. Says Hume, treating of Demosthenes'
+manner, "Could it be copied, its success would be infallible over a
+modern assembly. It is rapid harmony exactly adjusted to the sense. It
+is vehement <span class="pagenum"><a id="page049" name="page049"></a>(p. 049)</span> reasoning without any appearance of art; it is
+disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a continued stream of
+argument; and, of all human productions, the orations of Demosthenes
+present to us the models which approach nearest to perfection."
+("Essay of Eloquence." Comp. Lord Brougham's Works, vii., 59 foll.)</p>
+
+<a id="img018" name="img018"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img018.jpg" width="400" height="512" alt="" title="">
+<p>Demosthenes practising oratory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Demosthenes was between twenty-five and thirty when Philip of Macedon
+began his astonishing career of conquest. It was soon clear that he
+was to be the rival of Athens for the headship of Greece. Demosthenes
+became the champion of the Athenian cause, and henceforth, so long as
+he lived, used all his powers against Macedonian aggressions. Most of
+his best speeches relate to this issue. His eloquence, argument, and
+personal influence won nearly all the Grecian states to a coalition
+that, for a time, successfully forbade Philip to set foot in Greece
+proper. Only Thebes and Sparta stood out, and when Philip, daring them
+all, ventured south and conquered Phocis, even the Thebans yielded to
+Demosthenes's pleas and joined the league. In vain, however. At the
+decisive battle of Chæronea, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 338, Philip was entirely victorious.
+The allies fled, Demosthenes himself among them, leaving Philip to
+become at his leisure the master of every city so far south at least
+as the northern confines of Sparta. He might have realized his wish at
+once but for his excesses. He drank himself drunk, dancing over his
+slain foes, and beating time in maudlin song to the caption of the
+Athenian decree which Demosthenes had procured against him. But it is
+said that when sober again he trembled to remember "the prodigious
+power of that orator who had obliged him to put both empire and life
+on the cast of a day." Two years after the battle of Chæronea Philip
+is stricken down by the assassin Pausanias. Alexander mounts the
+throne, a youth of twenty. Greece flies to arms against him, not
+dreaming that a greater than Philip is here. Marching quickly against
+the Thracians and the Illyrians, who at once succumb, he volts to
+smite rebellious Thebes and Athens, whom Demosthenes's incessant
+appeals have again induced to take the field. In spite of him, the
+Athenians now basely desert the Thebans, leaving them to stand the
+entire fury of the war alone. Greece is thus soon quieted again, and
+the boy warrior, leaving Antipater behind with a sufficient home
+guard, crosses to Asia never to return. Once, later, when Harpalus,
+Alexander's renegade treasurer, came to Athens with his bags of
+Asiatic gold, and again after Alexander's death, it for a moment
+seemed possible to throw off Macedonia's yoke. Each time the orator
+led in an attempt to do this, but failed. Fined fifty talents for
+taking some of Harpalus' gold, he fled from Athens, living for a time
+in Tr&oelig;zen and Ægina. The new hope for the former Greek régime
+evoked by Alexander's death was brief. Athens recalled Demosthenes and
+he made a successful tour of the cities to rally them against
+Antipater. Antipater, however, was too strong, and his victory at
+Cranon, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 322, fully restored Macedonia's supremacy. Pursued to
+Calaurea by Antipater's emissaries, Demosthenes fled for refuge to the
+temple of Neptune there, took poison, which he had long carried with
+him for that purpose, and died, aged sixty-two.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that both the Macedonian conquerors deemed Demosthenes
+their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page050" name="page050"></a>(p. 050)</span> most powerful foe. Drunk or sober, Philip thought
+constantly of him as the great force to be reckoned with. When he with
+nine other deputies visited Philip's court, it was Demosthenes's
+speech to which Philip felt called to give special reply, treating him
+with argument, while bestowing his choicest hospitality upon the
+others. Æschines and Philocrates accordingly came home full of praise
+for Philip. He was eloquent, they said, handsome, and could drink more
+liquor than any other man. Demosthenes, showing for the nonce some
+wit, ridiculed these traits, the first as that of a sophist, the
+second as that of a woman, the third as that of a sponge. "The fame of
+Demosthenes reached the Persian court; and the king wrote letters to
+his lieutenants commanding them to supply him with money and to attend
+to him more than to any other man in Greece; because he best knew how
+to make a diversion in his favor by raising fresh troubles and finding
+employment for the Macedonian arms nearer home. This Alexander
+afterward discovered by letters of Demosthenes which he found at
+Sardis, and the papers of the Persian government expressing the sums
+which had been given him." (Plutarch.)</p>
+
+<p>The moral character of Demosthenes was fiercely assailed during his
+life, the chief charges being vacillation, unchastity, cowardice, and
+the receipt of bribes. In weighing these accusations we must remember
+that they were inspired by personal hatred, and that public life in
+Demosthenes's day was characterized by almost inconceivable strife and
+bitterness. There was probably considerable ground for all the
+allegations, except, perhaps, that of infirmity in purpose. Plutarch
+believes that the orator was "vindictive in his nature and implacable
+in his resentments." But the same author wonders how Theopompus could
+say that he was a man of no steadiness, since it appeared that "he
+abode by the party and the measures which he first adopted, and was so
+far from quitting them during his life that he forfeited his life
+rather than forsake them." "He was never a time-server either in his
+words or in his actions. The key of politics which he first touched he
+kept to without variation." But he certainly lacked physical courage.
+At Chæronea, a battle which he himself had brought on, he fled
+ignominiously, throwing away his arms. His cowardice was recognized in
+the inscription upon the pedestal of the bronze statue which the
+Athenians erected to him.</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "Divine in speech, in judgment, too, divine,<br>
+  Had valor's wreath, Demosthenes, been thine,<br>
+  Fair Greece had still her freedom's ensign borne,<br>
+  And held the scourge of Macedon in scorn."</p>
+
+<p>It is equally certain that he loved gold too well, and sometimes took
+it when it should have burnt his hands.</p>
+
+<p>For all this, Demosthenes's character was rather a noble one for that
+age. Among the distinguished Athenians of the day, only Phocion's
+outshone it. Nearly all that Demosthenes's foes cite to his discredit
+seems weak considering the known vices of the period, while much of
+it, as when they taunt him with always drinking water instead of wine,
+implies on his part a creditable strength of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page051" name="page051"></a>(p. 051)</span> will, which is
+further attested by his self-discipline in mastering his chosen art.
+What, after all, speaks the most strongly for the orator's character
+is the serious moral tone of his orations. This cannot have been
+simulated, and hence cannot have proceeded from a man with a vicious
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>The esteem in which Demosthenes was held at Athens is seen in what
+occurred soon after the battle of Chæronea, an event which led to
+Demosthenes' greatest oratorical effort. One Ctesiphon had proposed
+that the people reward Demosthenes' public services by the gift of a
+golden crown, and the senate had passed a bill to this effect, for
+submission to the vote of the assembly. Æschines denied that the
+orator's conduct gave him any right to be thus honored, and prosecuted
+Ctesiphon for bringing forward an unconstitutional measure. After
+years of delay, the trial came on in <span class="smcap">B.C</span>. 330, Æschines delivering his
+famous address against Ctesiphon, really an adverse critical review of
+Demosthenes's public and private life to that time, to which
+Demosthenes replied by his immortal Oration on the Crown. Demosthenes
+gained a surprising victory. Although the judges were nearly all of
+the Macedonian party, Æschines did not secure for his cause a fifth
+part of their votes, a fact which, according to Athenian law,
+subjected him to a fine of a thousand drachmas for provoking the
+litigation. He at once left Athens and never returned.</p>
+
+<p>The most recent judgment of Demosthenes as a statesman differs much
+from that in which nearly all the standard English and American
+authorities since Grote agree. Till lately it has been common to think
+of Athens as a real democracy, favorable to freedom, the bulwark of
+liberty then for Greece and the world. Philip has been deemed a mere
+barbarian, whose victory was certain to be, and was, the death of
+Grecian liberty. This being so, Demosthenes, in opposing Philip and
+his son Alexander, was not only a sincere patriot but a wise one. This
+is the view of Greek politics then which one gets from Demosthenes
+himself. Readers of his masterly orations insensibly adopt it, without
+due reflection upon the evidence now available to substantiate a
+different one. Demosthenes is understood to argue for a constitutional
+form of government, which, to all lovers of such, is an additional
+reason for siding with him. Grote's history urges the same view in a
+most enthusiastic and unhesitating way, and has had enormous influence
+in disseminating it. Thucydides, the original Greek historian most
+read in our time, makes the fate of everything good in Greece turn
+upon that of Athens. This great author so trains us in his manner of
+thought as to disqualify us from coolly considering the question
+whether the fortunes of Greece might not have risen or fallen in some
+other way.</p>
+
+<p>The present writer believes the above theory to be almost entirely an
+error. Doubtless Demosthenes was honest, but he was mistaken in his
+views of what was best for Greece and even for Athens. Philip and
+Alexander, however selfish, were neither in purpose nor in fact so
+hostile to Greek freedom as the mighty orator makes out. Inordinate
+ambition possessed both. In this they are to be ranked with Napoleon
+and Julius Cæsar rather than with Washington. They, however, clearly
+saw the vanity of the old Greek <span class="italic">régime</span>, the total uselessness
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page052" name="page052"></a>(p. 052)</span> of trying to unify Greece or to make her independent of
+Persia through any of the devices paraded by the politicians.
+Therefore, with patriotism and philanthropy enough to give their cause
+a certain moral glow in their minds, they set out by force of
+arms&mdash;the only possible way to succeed&mdash;first, to unify Greece, and
+next, to make her eternally independent of Persia. Since Gustav
+Droysen, in his "Alexander the Great," led off with this theory, the
+best writers upon Greek history have gradually adopted it, deserting
+Grote more and more. Droysen went too far. With him Alexander was the
+veritable demigod whom he sottishly decreed that his subjects should
+see in him. Droysen, of course, has too little respect for
+Demosthenes's policy. Victor Duruy is the only late writer of note who
+still blows the trumpet for our old orator as a statesman. He says
+that "the result of the Macedonian dominion was the death of European
+Greece," and he calls it the immortal glory of Demosthenes to have
+perceived this; yet even he admits that "the civilization of the world
+gained" by the Macedonian conquest, and hence, after all, places
+himself, "from the point of view of the world's history, on the side
+of Philip and his son." The tendency of writers upon this period is
+thus to exalt the man with a great national policy in his head though
+with a sword in his hand, at the expense of him who, never so
+honestly, dinned the populace with his high-sounding pleas for an
+obstructive course.</p>
+
+<p>We are learning that republicanism or democracy, whichever one pleases
+to call it, was in ancient times a very different thing from aught
+that now exists under either name. The various republics of Greece and
+the republic of Rome were nothing but oligarchies, often atrociously
+tyrannical. Even at their best estate the rights of individuals in
+them, of their citizens even, were far less perfectly guarded than in
+some pretty absolute monarchies of later times.</p>
+
+<p>"The Athenian imperial democracy was no popular government. In the
+first place there was no such thing as representation in their
+constitution. Those only had votes who could come and give them at the
+general assembly, and they did so at once upon the conclusion of the
+debate. There was no Second Chamber or Higher Council to revise or
+delay their decisions, no crown; no High Court of Appeal to settle
+claims against the state. The body of Athenian citizens formed the
+assembly. Sections of this body formed the jury to try cases of
+violation of the constitution either in act or in the proposal of new
+laws.</p>
+
+<p>"The result was that all outlying provinces, even had they obtained
+votes, were without a voice in the government. But as a matter of fact
+they had no votes, for the states which became subject to Athens were
+merely tributary; and nothing was further from the ideas of the
+Athenians than to make them members of their Imperial Republic, in the
+sense that a new State is made a member of the American Republic.</p>
+
+<p>"This it was which ruined even the great Roman republic, without any
+military reverses, and when its domination of the world was unshaken.
+Owing to the absence of representation, the empire of the Roman
+republic was in the hands of the city population, who were perfectly
+incompetent, even had they been in real earnest, to manage the
+government of the vast kingdoms their troops had <span class="pagenum"><a id="page053" name="page053"></a>(p. 053)</span> conquered.
+In both cases the outsiders were governed wholly for the benefit of
+the city crowd.</p>
+
+<p>"The mistakes and the injustices which resulted in the Roman executive
+were such that any able adventurer could take advantage of the
+world-wide discontent, and could play off one city faction against the
+other. It is not conceivable that any other general course of events
+would have taken place at Athens, had she become the ruler of the
+Hellenic world. Her demos regarded itself as a sovran, ruling subjects
+for its own glory and benefit; there can therefore be no doubt that
+the external pressure of that wide discontent, which was the primary
+cause of the Peloponnesian war, would have co-operated with
+politicians within, if there were no enemies without, and that
+ambitious military chiefs, as at Rome, would have wrested the power
+from the sovran people either by force or by fraud." (Mahaffy,
+"Problems in Greek History," 98 foll.)</p>
+
+<p>In other words, however distressing the ills which might happen to
+Athens through Philip's success, they could not be worse than those
+which were sure to beset her in any event; while for Greece as a
+whole, Philip's victory would mean unity and peace such as could have
+been secured in no other way.</p>
+
+<p>This splendid possibility, which must have impressed the minds of
+Phocion and Philip, is obscured to our thought by the untimely death
+of both the great Macedonian generals, before their plans had any time
+to bear fruit. Desperate chaos follows Alexander's death of course;
+and when, little by little, order is evolved, it is a new order, not
+the old one. Never again does Athens sit there as a queen looking out
+upon her Ægean, but her day of political glory is ended forever.</p>
+
+<p>It is natural to trace all this wild disorder, involving the decline
+of Athens, the wars of Alexander's successors, small and great, and
+also the Roman conquest at last, to Philip's victory at Chæronea. As
+we read the tangled and bloody record, we say to ourselves: Oh, how
+much better all would have been had the Athenians roused at the cry of
+Demosthenes, and beaten Philip instead of being beaten! We assume that
+had this happened Greece would have kept on its old splendid way, able
+to have conquered Rome herself when Rome came. Philip ruined Greece;
+the advice of Demosthenes, had it been followed, would have saved her.</p>
+
+<p>Superficially considered, all this seems clever reasoning; but it is
+in fact a stupendous fallacy. <span class="italic">Post hoc ergo propter hoc.</span> Philip
+conquered and subsequently things went ill with Greece. A man looked
+at Mars and subsequently had the cholera.</p>
+
+<p>Let us no longer argue so childishly. The evils that befell Hellas
+were not at all those which Demosthenes prophesied. They are no proof
+of his foresight. From the point of view of his wishes they were
+entirely accidental. To see this we need only inquire what would in
+all probability have come to pass had Alexander lived. One may heavily
+discount Droysen's adoration of the young conqueror, and yet, from
+what he achieved while alive and the way in which he achieved it,
+believe that immeasurable blessings to Greece and to humanity would
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page054" name="page054"></a>(p. 054)</span> have resulted from a lengthening of his days. I cannot think
+it rash to affirm that ten or twenty years added to Alexander's career
+would probably have changed subsequent history in at least three
+colossal particulars:</p>
+
+<p>1. Probably Greece would have been more happily, perfectly, and
+permanently cemented together than was the case, or could in any other
+way have been the case.</p>
+
+<p>2. Probably Greece would not only have been at last forever free from
+Asia but would also have become Asia's lord, and this in a manner
+truly beneficial to both lands.</p>
+
+<p>3. Probably Greece would have ruled Rome instead of being ruled by
+Rome, and this, too, in such wise as to have benefited both, and the
+world as well.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig005" name="sig005"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig005.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>ARISTOTLE<br>
+From the French of <span class="smcap">Fénelon</span><br>
+(384-322 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img019" name="img019"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="300" height="247" alt="Two men sitting face to face." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Of all the philosophers of antiquity, Aristotle was one of the most
+celebrated; and in every seat of learning, his name, even at this day,
+is held in esteem.</p>
+
+<p>He was son of Nicomachus, a physician, and friend of Amyntas, king of
+Macedonia, and was descended from Machaon, son of Æsculapius. He was
+born at Stagira, a city of Macedonia, in the first year of the 99th
+Olympiad. He lost his father and mother in his infancy, and was very
+much neglected by those who had the charge of his education.</p>
+
+<p>In his early years he dissipated almost all his patrimony in
+libertinism and debauchery. At first he became a soldier; but the
+profession of arms not suiting his turn of mind, he went to Delphi to
+consult the Oracle, and fix his determination. By the response of the
+Oracle, he was directed to go to Athens and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page055" name="page055"></a>(p. 055)</span> pursue the study
+of philosophy. He was then in his eighteenth year. For twenty years he
+studied in the academy under Plato, and as he had spent all his
+inheritance, he was induced, in order to procure a subsistence, to
+vend medicines at Athens.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle ate little and slept less. So strong was his passion for
+study, that in order to resist the oppression of sleep, he kept at his
+bedside a brazen basin, over which when in bed, he stretched one of
+his hands in which he held an iron ball, that if he should fall
+asleep, the noise of the ball dropping into the basin might awake him
+instantly.</p>
+
+<p>According to Laërtius his voice was shrill and squeaking, his eyes
+small, his legs slender, and he dressed magnificently.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle was a man of acute parts, and one who easily comprehended
+the most difficult questions. He soon became master of the doctrines
+of Plato, and distinguished himself among the other academicians. No
+question was decided in the academy without the opinion of Aristotle,
+though it was often subversive of that of Plato. By all his
+fellow-students he was considered as a prodigy of genius, and his
+opinions were often followed, in opposition to those of his master.
+Aristotle left the academy. This excited the resentment of Plato. He
+could not refrain from treating him as a rebel, comparing him to the
+chick which pecks its dam.</p>
+
+<p>The Athenians appointed him ambassador to Philip, king of Macedonia,
+father of Alexander the Great. Aristotle, having spent some time in
+Macedonia in settling the affairs of the Athenians, found, upon his
+return, that Xenocrates had been chosen master of the academy. Seeing
+that place thus filled he said, "It would be a shame for me to be
+silent, when Xenocrates speaks." He accordingly established a new
+sect, and taught doctrines different from those of his master Plato.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrity of Aristotle, who now surpassed all his contemporaries
+in every kind of science, especially in the departments of philosophy
+and politics, induced Philip, king of Macedonia, to offer him the care
+of the education of his son Alexander, then fourteen years of age.
+Aristotle accepted. He continued Alexander's preceptor for eight
+years; and according to the testimony of Plutarch, taught him some
+secret doctrines which he communicated to none other.</p>
+
+<p>The study of philosophy did not render the manners of Aristotle
+austere. He applied to business, and took an interest in everything
+that passed at the court of Macedonia. From respect to this
+philosopher, Philip rebuilt Stagira, his native city, which had been
+destroyed during the wars, and restored to their possessions all the
+inhabitants, of whom some had fled and others had been reduced to
+slavery.</p>
+
+<p>When Alexander's education was finished, Aristotle returned to Athens,
+where he was well received on account of the mildness with which, for
+his sake, that city had been treated by Philip. He fixed upon a place
+in the Lyceum highly beautified with avenues of trees, where he
+established his school. He used to walk about when teaching and from
+this circumstance his sect was called <span class="pagenum"><a id="page056" name="page056"></a>(p. 056)</span> <span class="italic">Peripatetic</span>. The
+Lyceum was soon thronged by a concourse of students whom Aristotle's
+reputation had drawn together from every quarter of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander recommended to him to attend particularly to experiments in
+physical science. To facilitate his observations he sent him, besides
+800 talents to defray expenses, a great number of huntsmen and
+fishermen to supply him from every quarter with subjects for
+experiment.</p>
+
+<p>At that time Aristotle published his books of physics and metaphysics.
+Of this, Alexander who was now in Asia, got information. That
+ambitious prince, desirous of being in everything the first man in the
+world, was dissatisfied that the learning of his master should become
+common.</p>
+
+<p>He showed his resentment by the following letter: "You have not done
+well in publishing your books on speculative science. If what you
+taught me be taught to men of all ranks, I shall then have nothing but
+in common with others. But I would have you consider that I had rather
+be superior to other men in abstract and secret knowledge, than to
+surpass them in power."</p>
+
+<p>To appease this prince Aristotle sent him for answer, that he had
+published his books, but in such a way that in fact they were not
+published. By this he apparently meant, that his doctrines were laid
+down in a manner so embarrassed that it was impossible for any one
+ever to understand them.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle carefully investigated that question, the great object of
+moral philosophy, how men might be rendered happy in the present
+world. In the first place, he refutes the opinion of the voluptuous,
+who make happiness to consist in corporal pleasures. "Not only," said
+he, "are these pleasures fleeting, they are also succeeded by disgust;
+and while they enfeeble the body they debase the mind."</p>
+
+<p>He next rejects the opinion of the ambitious, who place happiness in
+honors, and, with this object in view, pay no regard to the maxims of
+equity or the restraints of law. "Honor," he said, "exists in him who
+honors." "The ambitious," he adds, "desire to be honored in
+consequence of some virtue of which they wish themselves supposed to
+be possessed; that consequently, happiness consists in virtue, rather
+than in honors, especially as these are external and do not depend
+upon ourselves."</p>
+
+<p>In the last place, he refutes the system of the avaricious, who
+constitute riches the supreme good. "Riches," he said, "are not
+desirable on their own account; they render him who possesses them
+unhappy, because he is afraid to use them. In order to render them
+really useful it is necessary to use and to distribute them, and not
+to place happiness in what is in itself detestable and not worth the
+having."</p>
+
+<p>The opinion of Aristotle is, that happiness consists in the most
+perfect exercise of the understanding and the practice of the virtues.
+The most noble exercise of the understanding, he considered to be
+speculation concerning natural objects; the heavens, the stars,
+nature, and chiefly the First Being. He observed, however, that
+without a competency of the good things of fortune suited to a man's
+situation in life, it was impossible to be perfectly happy, because
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page057" name="page057"></a>(p. 057)</span> without this we could neither have time to pursue
+speculation, nor opportunity to practise the virtues. Thus, for
+example, one could not please his friends; and to do good to those
+whom we love is always one of the highest enjoyments of life.</p>
+
+<p>"Happiness depends therefore," he said, "on three things: the goods of
+mind, as wisdom and prudence; the goods of the body, as beauty,
+health, strength; and the goods of fortune, as riches and nobility."
+Virtue he maintained, is not sufficient to render men happy; the goods
+of the body and of fortune are absolutely necessary; and a wise man
+would be unhappy were he to want riches or if his share of them were
+insufficient.</p>
+
+<p>He affirmed, on the other hand: "Vice is sufficient to render men
+unhappy. Though in the greatest affluence and enjoying every other
+advantage, it is impossible for a man ever to be happy while the slave
+of vice. The wise man is not wholly exempted from the ills of life,
+but his share of them is small." "The virtues and vices," he said,
+"are not incompatible, for the same man, though intemperate, may be
+just and prudent."</p>
+
+<p>He mentions three kinds of friendship; one of relationship, another of
+inclination, and a third of hospitality.</p>
+
+<p>Elegant literature, he thinks, contributes greatly to produce a love
+of virtue; and the cultivation of letters he affirms to be the
+greatest consolation of age.</p>
+
+<p>Like Plato, he admitted the existence of a Supreme Being, to whom he
+attributed providence.</p>
+
+<p>In his politics, he maintains that the monarchical form of government
+is the most perfect, because in other forms there are more rulers than
+one. An army under the conduct of one able commander, succeeds better
+than one conducted by several leaders; and while deputies, or chief
+men, are employed in assembling and deliberating, a monarch has
+already finished an expedition and executed his designs. The rulers of
+a republic do not care though they should ruin the state, provided
+they enrich themselves. Jealousies are engendered, divisions arise,
+and the republic is in danger of being finally destroyed and
+overthrown. In a monarchy, on the other hand, the interests of the
+prince are those of the state; and the state of course must flourish.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle was one day asked, "What does a man gain by telling a lie?"
+"Not to be believed," said he, "even when he tells the truth."</p>
+
+<p>Having been blamed for giving alms to a bad man, he said: "It is not
+because he is bad, but because he is a man, that I have compassion for
+him."</p>
+
+<p>To his friends and scholars he used to say, that knowledge is to the
+soul what light is to the eyes; and that mellowness of the fruit makes
+up for the bitterness of the root. When irritated against the
+Athenians, he reproached them with neglecting their <span class="italic">laws</span>, and using
+their <span class="italic">corn</span>; though possessed of the former, as well as the latter.</p>
+
+<p>He was one day asked, "What it is that is soonest effaced?"
+"Gratitude," replied he. "What is hope?" "A waking man's dream."</p>
+
+<p>Diogenes presented Aristotle with a fig. Aristotle very well knew that
+were <span class="pagenum"><a id="page058" name="page058"></a>(p. 058)</span> he to refuse it, Diogenes would level his wit against
+him. He took the fig, therefore, and with a smile said, "Diogenes has
+at once lost his fig and the use he intended to make of it."</p>
+
+<p>He said there were three things very necessary to children: Genius,
+exercise, and instruction. When asked the difference between the
+learned and the ignorant, he replied: "The same as between the living
+and the dead." "Knowledge," he said, "is an ornament in prosperity,
+and in adversity a refuge. Those who give children a good education,
+are much more their fathers than those who have begotten them; the
+latter communicate mere life to them; the former put it in their power
+to spend it comfortably." "Beauty," said he, "is a recommendation
+infinitely stronger than any kind of learning."</p>
+
+<p>He was one day asked, What pupils should do to turn their instructions
+to the greatest advantage? "They must," said he, "always keep in view
+those before them, and never look back to those behind them."</p>
+
+<p>A certain person was one day boasting of being the citizen of an
+illustrious state. "Do not value yourself upon that," said Aristotle;
+"rather ask yourself whether you deserve to be so?"</p>
+
+<p>Reflecting on human life, he sometimes said: "There are some who amass
+riches with as much avidity as if they were to live forever; others
+are as careless about their possessions as if they were to die
+to-morrow."</p>
+
+<p>When asked, what is a friend? he replied, "One soul animating two
+bodies." "How," said one to him, "ought we to act to our friends?" "As
+we would have them to act toward us," replied Aristotle. He used
+frequently to exclaim, "Ah! my friends, there is not a friend in the
+world!"</p>
+
+<p>He was one day asked, "How it comes that we prefer beautiful women to
+those who are ugly?" "You now ask a blind man's question," returned
+Aristotle.</p>
+
+<p>He was asked what advantage he had derived from philosophy? "To do
+voluntarily," replied he, "what others do through fear of the laws."</p>
+
+<p>It is said that during his stay at Athens he was intimate with an able
+Jew, by whom he was accurately instructed in the science and religion
+of the Egyptians, for the acquisition of which everyone at that time
+used to go to Egypt itself.</p>
+
+<p>Having taught in the Lyceum for thirteen years with great reputation,
+Aristotle was accused of impiety by Eurimedon, priest of Ceres. He was
+so overwhelmed with the recollection of what Socrates had suffered
+that he hastily left Athens and retired to Chalcis in Eub&oelig;a. It is
+said by some that he there died of vexation because he could not
+discover the cause of the flux and reflux of the Euripus. By others it
+is added that he threw himself into that sea, and when falling said,
+"Let the Euripus receive me since I cannot comprehend it." And lastly,
+it is affirmed by others that he died of a colic in the sixty-third
+year of his age, two years after the death of his pupil, Alexander the
+Great.</p>
+
+<p>By the Stagirites, altars were erected to him as a god.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle made a will, of which Antipater was appointed the executor.
+He left a son called Nicomachus, and a daughter who was married to a
+grandson of Demaratus, king of Lacedæmonia.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page059" name="page059"></a>(p. 059)</span> ARCHIMEDES<br>
+By <span class="smcap">John Timbs, F.S.A.</span><br>
+(287-212 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img020" name="img020"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="250" height="133" alt="A boat." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>It is scarcely possible to view the vast steamships of our day without
+reflecting that to a great master of mechanics, upward of two thousand
+years since, we in part owe the invention of the machine by which
+these mighty vessels are propelled upon the wide world of waters. This
+power is an application of "the Screw of Archimedes," the most
+celebrated of the Greek geometricians. He was born in Sicily, in the
+Corinthian colony of Syracuse, in the year 287 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>., and when a very
+young man, was fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of his relative
+Hiero, the reigning prince of Syracuse.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients attribute to Archimedes more than forty mechanical
+inventions&mdash;among which are the endless screw; the combination of
+pulleys; an hydraulic organ, according to Tertullian; a machine called
+the <span class="smcap">helix</span>, or screw, for launching ships; and a machine called
+<span class="italic">loculus</span>, which appears to have consisted of forty pieces, by the
+putting together of which various objects could be framed, and which
+were used by boys as a sort of artificial memory.</p>
+
+<p>Archimedes is said to have obtained the friendship and confidence of
+Hiero by the following incident. The king had delivered a certain
+weight of gold to a workman, to be made into a crown. When the crown
+was made and sent to the king, a suspicion arose in the royal mind
+that the gold had been adulterated by the alloy of a baser metal, and
+he applied to Archimedes for his assistance in detecting the
+imposture; the difficulty was to measure the bulk of the crown without
+melting it into a regular figure; for silver being, weight for weight,
+of greater bulk than gold, any alloy of the former in place of an
+equal weight of the latter would necessarily increase the bulk of the
+crown; and at that time there was no known means of testing the purity
+of metal. Archimedes, after many unsuccessful attempts, was about to
+abandon the subject altogether, when the following circumstance
+suggested to his discerning and prepared mind a train of thought which
+led to the solution of the difficulty. Stepping into his bath one day,
+as was his custom, his mind doubtless fixed on the object of his
+research, he chanced to observe that, the bath being full, a quantity
+of water of the same bulk as his body must flow over before he could
+immerse himself. He probably perceived that any other body of the same
+bulk would have raised the water equally; but that another body of the
+same weight, but less bulky, would not have produced so great an
+effect. In the words of Vitruvius, "as soon as he had hit <span class="pagenum"><a id="page060" name="page060"></a>(p. 060)</span>
+upon this method of detection, he did not wait a moment, but jumped
+joyfully out of the bath, and running forthwith toward his own house,
+called out with a loud voice that he had found what he sought. For as
+he ran he called out, in Greek, 'Eureka! Eureka!&mdash;I have found it! I
+have found it!'" When his emotion had sobered down, he proceeded to
+investigate the subject calmly. He procured two masses of metal, each
+of equal weight with the crown&mdash;one of gold and the other of
+silver&mdash;and having filled a vessel very accurately with water, he
+plunged into it the silver, and marked the exact quantity of water
+that overflowed. He then treated the gold in the same manner, and
+observed that a less quantity of water overflowed than before. He next
+plunged the crown into the same vessel full of water, and observed
+that it displaced more of the fluid than the gold had done, and less
+than the silver; by which he inferred that the crown was neither pure
+gold nor pure silver, but a mixture of both. Hiero was so gratified
+with this result as to declare that from that moment he could never
+refuse to believe anything Archimedes told him.</p>
+
+<p>Travelling in Egypt, and observing the necessity of raising the water
+of the Nile to points which the river did not reach, as well as the
+difficulty of clearing the land from the periodical overflowings of
+the Nile, Archimedes invented for this purpose the screw which bears
+his name. It was likewise used as a pump to clear water from the holds
+of vessels; and the name of Archimedes was held in great veneration by
+seamen on this account. The screw may be briefly described as a long
+spiral with its lower extremity immersed in the water, which, rising
+along the channels by the revolution of the machine on its axis, is
+discharged at the upper extremity. When applied to the propulsion of
+steam-vessels the screw is horizontal; and being put in motion by a
+steam-engine, drives the water backward, when its reaction, or return,
+propels the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical ingenuity of Archimedes was next displayed in the
+various machines which he constructed for the defence of Syracuse
+during a three years' siege by the Romans. Among these inventions were
+catapults for throwing arrows, and ballistæ for throwing masses of
+stone; and iron hands or hooks attached to chains, thrown to catch the
+prows of the enemy's vessels, and then overturn them. He is likewise
+stated to have set their vessels on fire by burning-glasses; this,
+however, rests upon modern authority, and Archimedes is rather
+believed to have set the ships on fire by machines for throwing
+lighted materials.</p>
+
+<a id="img021" name="img021"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="500" height="391" alt="" title="">
+<p>Death of Archimedes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the storming of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed by a Roman
+soldier, who did not know who he was. The soldier inquired, but the
+philosopher, being intent upon a problem, begged that his diagram
+might not be disturbed; upon which the soldier put him to death. At
+his own request, expressed during his life, a sphere inscribed in a
+cylinder was sculptured on his tomb, in memory of his discovery that
+the solid contents of a sphere is exactly two-thirds of that of the
+circumscribing cylinder; and by this means the memorial was afterward
+identified. One hundred and fifty years after the death of Archimedes,
+when Cicero was residing in Sicily, he paid homage to his forgotten
+tomb. "During my quæstorship," says this illustrious Roman, "I
+diligently sought to discover the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page061" name="page061"></a>(p. 061)</span> sepulchre of Archimedes,
+which the Syracusans had totally neglected, and suffered to be grown
+over with thorns and briars. Recollecting some verses, said to be
+inscribed on the tomb, which mentioned that on the top was placed a
+sphere with a cylinder, I looked round me upon every object at the
+Agragentine Gate, the common receptacle of the dead. At last I
+observed a little column which just rose above the thorns, upon which
+was placed the figure of a sphere and cylinder. This, said I to the
+Syracusan nobles who were with me, this must, I think, be what I am
+seeking. Several persons were immediately employed to clear away the
+weeds and lay open the spot. As soon as a passage was opened, we drew
+near, and found on the opposite base the inscription, with nearly half
+the latter part of the verses worn away. Thus would this most famous,
+and formerly most learned, city of Greece have remained a stranger to
+the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been
+discovered by a man of Arpinum."</p>
+
+<p>To Archimedes is attributed the apophthegm: "Give me a lever long
+enough, and a prop strong enough, and with my own weight I will move
+the world." This arose from his knowledge of the possible effects of
+machinery; but however it might astonish a Greek of his day, it would
+now be admitted to be as theoretically possible as it is practically
+impossible. Archimedes would have required to move with the velocity
+of a cannon-ball for millions of ages to alter the position of the
+earth by the smallest part of an inch. In mathematical truth, however,
+the feat is performed by every man who leaps from the ground; for he
+kicks the world away when he rises, and attracts it again when he
+falls back.</p>
+
+<p>Under the superintendence of Archimedes was also built the renowned
+galley for Hiero. It was constructed to half its height, by three
+hundred master workmen and their servants, in six months. Hiero then
+directed that the vessel should be perfected afloat; but how to get
+the vast pile into the water the builders knew not, till Archimedes
+invented his engine called the helix, by which, with the assistance of
+very few hands he drew the ship into the sea, where it was completed
+in six months. The ship consumed wood enough to build sixty large
+galleys; it had twenty tiers of bars and three decks; the middle deck
+had on each side fifteen dining apartments besides other chambers,
+luxuriously furnished, and floors paved with mosaics of the story of
+the "Iliad." On the upper deck were gardens with arbors of ivy and
+vines; and here was a temple of Venus, paved with agates, and roofed
+with Cyprus-wood; it was richly adorned with pictures and statues, and
+furnished with couches and drinking-vessels. Adjoining was an
+apartment of box-wood, with a clock in the ceiling, in imitation of
+the great dial of Syracuse; and here was a huge bath set with gems
+called Tauromenites. There were also on each side of this deck, cabins
+for the marine soldiers, and twenty stables for horses; in the
+forecastle was a fresh-water cistern which held 253 hogsheads; and
+near it was a large tank of sea-water, in which fish were kept. From
+the ship's sides projected ovens, kitchens, mills, and other offices,
+built upon beams, each supported by a carved image nine feet high.
+Around the deck were eight wooden towers, from each of which was
+raised a breastwork full of loopholes, whence an enemy might be
+annoyed with stones <span class="pagenum"><a id="page062" name="page062"></a>(p. 062)</span> each tower being guarded by four armed
+soldiers and two archers. On this upper deck was also placed the
+machine invented by Archimedes to fling stones of 300 pounds weight
+and darts eighteen feet long, to the distance of 120 paces; while each
+of the three masts had two engines for throwing stones. The ship was
+furnished with four anchors of wood and eight of iron; and "the
+water-screw" of Archimedes, already mentioned, was used instead of a
+pump for the vast ship; "by the help of which one man might easily and
+speedily drain out the water, though it were very deep." The whole
+ship's company consisted of an immense multitude, there being in the
+forecastle alone 600 seamen. There were placed on board her 60,000
+bushels of corn, 10,000 barrels of salt fish, and 20,000 barrels of
+flesh, besides the provisions for her company. She was first called
+the Syracuse, but afterward the Alexandria. The builder was Archias,
+the Corinthian shipwright. The vessel appears to have been armed for
+war and sumptuously fitted for a pleasure-yacht, yet was ultimately
+used to carry corn. The timber for the main mast, after being in vain
+sought for in Italy, was brought from England. The dimensions are not
+recorded, but they must have exceeded those of any ship of the present
+day; indeed, Hiero, finding that none of the surrounding harbors
+sufficed to receive his vast ship, loaded it with corn and presented
+the vessel with its cargo to Ptolemy, King of Egypt, and on arriving
+at Alexandria it was hauled ashore, and nothing more is recorded
+respecting it. A most elaborate description of this vast ship has been
+preserved to us by Athenæus, and translated into English by Burchett,
+in his "Naval Transactions."</p>
+
+<p>Archimedes has been styled the Homer of geometry; yet it must not be
+concealed that he fell into the prevailing error of the ancient
+philosophers&mdash;that geometry was degraded by being employed to produce
+anything useful. "It was with difficulty," says Lord Macaulay, "that
+he was induced to stoop from speculation to practice. He was half
+ashamed of those inventions which were the wonder of hostile nations,
+and always spoke of them slightingly, as mere amusements, as trifles
+in which a mathematician might be suffered to relax his mind after
+intense application to the higher parts of his science."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page063" name="page063"></a>(p. 063)</span> MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rev. W. J. Brodribb</span><br>
+(106-43 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img022" name="img022"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="250" height="334" alt="Cicero." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Marcus Tullius Cicero, the foremost orator of ancient Rome, one of her
+leading statesmen, and the most brilliant and accomplished of her men
+of letters, lived in those stirring later days of the Roman republic,
+that age of revolution and civil wars, in which an old and decaying
+order of things was passing away. It was the age of great and daring
+spirits, of Catiline, Cæsar, Pompey, Antony, with whose history
+Cicero's life is so closely intertwined.</p>
+
+<p>Born 106 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, at an old Italian town, Arpinum in Latium, of a good
+family, and inheriting from his father, who was a man of considerable
+culture, a moderate estate, he went as a boy to Rome, and there, under
+the best teachers and professors, he learned law and oratory, Greek
+philosophy, and Greek literature, acquiring in fact the universal
+knowledge which he himself says in his essay "On the Orator" (De
+Oratore), an orator ought to possess. An orator in the ancient world,
+we should bear in mind, was first and chiefly a pleader of causes,
+causes both legal and political&mdash;speaker alike, as we should say, at
+the bar and in parliament. Hence the necessity for knowledge and
+information of every kind. Cicero's first important speech, in his
+twenty-sixth year, was the successful defence in a criminal trial of a
+client against one of the favorites of the all-powerful Sulla, then
+dictator. After a visit to Athens, and a tour in Asia Minor, where he
+profited by the society of eminent professors of rhetoric and men of
+letters, he returned to Rome, and at thirty years of age he was in the
+highest repute at the Roman bar.</p>
+
+<p>In 76 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, having been elected quæstor (a financial secretary, as we
+may say) by a unanimous popular vote, he held an appointment in
+Sicily, where he won the good opinion of two highly important
+interests, apt at times to conflict, the traders and the revenue
+collectors. To this he owed the glory of his successful impeachment of
+the infamous Verres, in 70 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, which he undertook at the request of
+the Sicilian provincials. The bad man who had so hideously misgoverned
+them, felt himself crushed by Cicero's opening speech, and went into
+voluntary exile. Cicero was now a power in the state, and his rise up
+the official ladder was sure and rapid; in 66 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> he was prætor, and
+supported in a great political speech (Pro Lege Manilia) the
+appointment of Pompey to the conduct of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page064" name="page064"></a>(p. 064)</span> war with
+Mithridates, which in fact carried with it the supreme control of Asia
+and of the East. In 63 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, at the age of forty-four, he was consul,
+the highest dignity attainable to a Roman; in that memorable year he
+foiled by a bold promptitude, the revolutionary plot of Catiline, in
+which many distinguished Romans&mdash;Cæsar it was even said among
+them&mdash;were implicated. He was now at the height of his fame; "father
+of his country" he was actually called, for a brief space he was with
+all classes the great man of the day. But the tide soon turned; Cicero
+might have saved the country, but in saving it, it was said he had
+violated the constitution, according to which a Roman citizen could
+not be capitally punished but by the sentence of the people in regular
+assembly. As it was, Roman citizens guilty of complicity with Catiline
+had, at Cicero's instigation, been put to death simply by an order of
+the senate; this, it was said, was a dangerous precedent and Cicero
+must be held responsible for it. His bitter enemy, Clodius, now
+tribune, pressed the charge against him in inflammatory speeches
+specially addressed to the lowest class of citizens, and Cicero in
+despair left Rome in 58 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and took refuge at Thessalonica. That
+same year saw the "father of his country" condemned to exile by a vote
+of the Roman people, and his house at Rome and his country houses at
+Formiæ and Tusculum plundered and ruined.</p>
+
+<p>But in those revolutionary days the events of one year were reversed
+by those of the next; in 57 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, with new counsels and new tribunes,
+the people almost unanimously voted the recall of the exile, and
+Cicero was welcomed back to Rome amid an outburst of popular
+enthusiasm. But he was no longer a power in the world of politics; he
+could not see his way clearly; and he was so nervously sensitive to
+the fluctuations of public opinion that he could not decide between
+Pompey and the aristocracy on the one hand, and Cæsar and the new
+democracy on the other. His leanings had hitherto been toward Pompey
+and the senate and the old republic; but as time went on, he felt that
+Pompey was a half-hearted man, who could not be trusted, and that he
+would have ultimately to succumb to his far abler and more far-sighted
+rival, Cæsar. The result was that he lost the esteem of both parties,
+and came to be regarded as a mere trimmer and time-server. There was
+all that political indecision about him which may be often observed in
+eminent lawyers and men of letters. The age wanted strong men such as
+Cæsar; this Cicero certainly was not. He was gentle, amiable, very
+clever, and highly cultivated, but the last man in the world to
+succeed in politics. The later years of his life were spent chiefly in
+pleading at the bar and writing essays. In 52 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> he composed one of
+his finest speeches in defence of Milo, who had killed Clodius in a
+riot, and was then standing for the consulship; in this he was acting
+quite against the wishes of Pompey. In the following years (51-50
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) he was in Asia, as governor of the province of Cilicia, and here
+the best side of his character showed itself in his just and
+sympathetic treatment of the provincials. In 49-48 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> he was with
+Pompey's army in Greece to fight for the old cause, of which, however,
+he well-nigh despaired, and after the decisive battle of Pharsalia, at
+which he was not present, he threw himself on the conqueror's mercy.
+Cæsar, who had certainly nothing to fear from him, received <span class="pagenum"><a id="page065" name="page065"></a>(p. 065)</span>
+him kindly, and was a great friend to him from that day; but Cicero
+was not a happy man now that he could no longer make speeches in the
+senate or in the courts; to all this Cæsar's victory had for the time
+at least put at end. In the years 46, 45, 44 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>., he wrote most of
+his chief works on rhetoric and philosophy, living in retirement and
+brooding mournfully over his griefs and disappointments. In 43 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.,
+the year after Cæsar's death, he had once again the delight of having
+his eloquence applauded by the senate. In that year his famous
+speeches against Antony&mdash;Philippics, as he called them after the title
+of Demosthenes's orations against Philip of Macedon&mdash;were delivered.
+These cost him his life. As soon as Antony, Octavius (afterward the
+Emperor Augustus), and Lepidus had leagued themselves together in the
+so-called triumvirate for the settlement of the state, they followed
+the precedent of former revolutions, a proscription-list of their
+political enemies. All such were outlawed and given up to destruction.
+Cicero's name was in the fatal list. Old and feeble, he fled to his
+villa at Formiæ, pursued by the soldiers of Antony, and was overtaken
+by them as he was being carried in a litter down to the shore, where
+it had been his intention to embark. With a calm courage (which, to
+quote Macaulay's words) "has half redeemed his fame," he put his head
+out of the litter and bade his murderers strike. He died in the
+December of 43 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>., in the sixty-third year of his age.</p>
+
+<p>As an orator and a pleader Cicero undoubtedly stands in the first
+rank. Many of his speeches have come down to us. Of these the most
+famous, and perhaps the finest, are his speeches against Verres and
+against Catiline. Eloquence in those days of furious faction and
+revolution was a greater force than it is with us. As a politician he
+failed because he did not distinctly realize to himself that the old
+republic, the government of the senate and of the nobles, had been
+tried and had been found wanting. He had not the courage to face the
+great changes which he felt were impending. Pompey, the champion of
+the old order, was not a leader to whom he could look up with
+confidence. And so he wavered, and half acquiesced in Cæsar's triumph,
+even though he suspected that with that triumph the Rome which he had
+known and loved would pass away. To us it is as an essayist and as the
+writer of a multitude of letters to friends, full of miscellaneous
+information, that Cicero is particularly attractive; there is a
+gracefulness and refinement and elevation of tone about his writings
+which cannot fail to incline the reader to say with Erasmus, "I feel a
+better man for reading Cicero." His essays on "Old Age" and "on
+Friendship," his De Officiis or "Whole Duty of Man," as we may
+paraphrase it, are good and pleasant reading such as we can all enjoy.
+There is no fairer picture in literature than of him sitting in the
+garden of his villa at Tusculum, surrounded by admiring friends, and
+engaged upon his "Tusculan disputations;" while his treatises on the
+"Nature of the Gods," and on the "True Ends of Human Life" (De
+Finibus), if they do not show any very deep and original thought, at
+least give us an insight into the teachings of the various
+philosophical schools.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page066" name="page066"></a>(p. 066)</span> AUGUSTUS CÆSAR<br>
+(63 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>-14 <span class="smcap">A.D</span>.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img023" name="img023"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="250" height="387" alt="Augustus Cæsar." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Caius Julius Cæsar Octavianus Augustus, son of Caius Octavius and Atia
+(Julius Cæsar's niece), was born in 63 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>. He was the first and
+greatest of the Roman emperors, in his way perhaps fully as great as
+his adoptive father, Julius Cæsar. The Octavian family came originally
+from Velitræ, in the country of the Volsci; and the branch to which
+Augustus belonged was rich and honorable. His father had risen to the
+rank of senator and prætor, but died in the prime of life, when
+Augustus was only four years old. Augustus was carefully educated in
+Rome under the guardianship of his mother and his step-father; and his
+talents recommended him to his great-uncle, Julius Cæsar, who adopted
+him as his son and heir. At the time of Cæsar's assassination (44
+<span class="smcap">B.C</span>.), Augustus was a student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus,
+at Apollonia in Illyricum, whither, however, he had been sent chiefly
+to gain practical instruction in military affairs. He returned to
+Italy, and now first learning that he was his uncle's heir, assumed
+the name of Julius Cæsar Octavianus. The soldiers at Brundusium
+saluted him as Cæsar, but he declined their offers, and entered Rome
+almost alone. The city was at this time divided between the
+republicans and the friends of Mark Antony, but the latter, by adroit
+man&oelig;uvres, had gained the ascendency, and enjoyed almost absolute
+power. At first, Augustus was haughtily treated by Antony, who refused
+to surrender Cæsar's property; but after some fighting, in which
+Antony was worsted and forced to flee across the Alps, Augustus, who
+had made himself a favorite with the people and the army, obtained the
+consulship and carried out Cæsar's will. He found an able advocate in
+Cicero, who at first had regarded him with contempt. To himself the
+great orator seemed to be laboring in behalf of the republic, whereas
+he really was only an instrument for raising Augustus to supreme
+power. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, Augustus threw off
+the republican mask, and joined them in establishing a triumvirate. He
+obtained Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily; Antony, Gaul; and Lepidus,
+Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the massacre of those
+unfriendly to them in Italy, and by the victory at Philippi over the
+republicans under Brutus <span class="pagenum"><a id="page067" name="page067"></a>(p. 067)</span> and Cassius. The Perusian war,
+excited by Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to lead to a contest
+between Augustus and his rival; but was ended by Fulvia's death, and
+the subsequent marriage of Antony with Octavia, sister of Augustus.
+Shortly afterward the Roman world was divided anew, Augustus taking
+the western half, and Antony the eastern. The contest for supremacy
+commenced. While Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the court
+of Cleopatra, Augustus was industriously striving to gain the love and
+confidence of the Roman people, and to damage his rival in public
+estimation. War was at length declared against the Egyptian queen, and
+at the naval battle of Actium (31 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.) Augustus was victorious, and
+became sole ruler of the whole Roman world. Antony soon afterward
+ended his life by suicide; and Cleopatra, learning of his death and
+believing that Augustus intended carrying her in chains to Rome, also
+killed herself, so that Augustus triumphed only over her dead body,
+which he found awaiting him. Antony's son by Fulvia, and Cæsarion, son
+of Cæsar and Cleopatra, were put to death; and in 29 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>., after
+regulating affairs in Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, Augustus
+returned to Rome in triumph, and, closing the temple of Janus,
+proclaimed universal peace.</p>
+
+<a id="img024" name="img024"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="500" height="384" alt="" title="">
+<p>Augustus Cæsar and Cleopatra.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His subsequent measures were mild and prudent. To insure popular
+favor, he abolished the laws of the triumvirate, and reformed many
+abuses. Hitherto, since Cæsar's death, he had been named Octavian; but
+now the title of Augustus ("sacred" or "consecrated") was conferred on
+him. In his eleventh consulship (23 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.), the tribunician power was
+granted him for life by the senate. Republican names and forms still
+remained, but they were mere shadows; and Augustus, in all but name,
+was absolute monarch. In 21 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>., on the death of Lepidus, he had the
+high title of Pontifex Maximus bestowed on him. The nation surrendered
+to him all the power and honor that it had to give.</p>
+
+<p>After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Gaul,
+etc., Augustus (9 <span class="smcap">B.C</span>.) suffered the one crushing defeat of his long
+rule, in the person of Quintilius Varus, whose army was annihilated by
+the Germans under Hermann. The loss so afflicted Augustus that for
+some time he allowed his beard and hair to grow, as a sign of deep
+mourning, and often exclaimed, "O Varus, Varus, give me back my
+legions!" Thenceforth he confined himself to plans of domestic
+improvements and reform, and so beautified Rome that it was said,
+"Augustus found the city built of brick, and left it built of marble."
+He also built cities in several parts of the empire; and altars were
+raised by the grateful people to commemorate his beneficence; while by
+a decree of the senate the name Augustus was given to the month
+Sextilis.</p>
+
+<p>Though thus surrounded with honor and prosperity, Augustus was not
+free from domestic trouble. The abandoned conduct of his daughter
+Julia was the cause of sore vexation to him. He had no son, and his
+nephew Marcellus, and Caius and Lucius, his daughter's sons, whom he
+had appointed as his successors and heirs, as well as his favorite
+stepson, Drusus, all died early; while his stepson, Tiberius, was an
+unamiable character whom he could not love. Age, sorrow, and failing
+health warned him to seek repose; and, to recruit his strength,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page068" name="page068"></a>(p. 068)</span> he undertook a journey to Campania; but his infirmity
+increased, and he died at Nola (14 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>), in the seventy-seventh year
+of his age. According to tradition, shortly before his death, he
+called for a mirror, arranged his hair neatly, and said to his
+attendants: "Did I play my part well? If so, applaud me!" Augustus had
+consummate tact and address as a ruler and politician, and made use of
+the passions and talents of others to forward his own designs. The
+good and great measures which marked his reign were originated mostly
+by himself. He encouraged agriculture, patronized the arts and
+literature, and was himself an author; though only a few fragments of
+his writings have been preserved. Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Propertius,
+Tibullus, and Livy&mdash;greatest of Latin poets and scholars&mdash;belonged to
+the Augustan Age, a name since applied in France to the reign of Louis
+XIV., in England to that of Queen Anne.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ST. AMBROSE<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7" title="Go to footnote 7"><span class="smaller">[7]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rev. A. A. Lambing, LL.D.</span><br>
+(340-397)</h3>
+
+<a id="img025" name="img025"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="200" height="349" alt="St. Ambrose." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Biographical history presents few characters more interesting either
+to the statesman or the churchman than that of St. Ambrose. As a
+statesman&mdash;though but a small part of his life was devoted to the
+affairs of civil government&mdash;he showed great prudence, was sincerely
+devoted to the interests of his imperial master, and yet he was at the
+same time an uncompromising advocate and defender of the rights of the
+people. As a churchman he united a high degree of personal sanctity
+and a fatherly care of those intrusted to his pastoral
+vigilance&mdash;especially the poor&mdash;to an extraordinary firmness in
+maintaining the rights of the Church against imperial usurpation, and
+the purity of doctrine against the inroads of heresy.</p>
+
+<p>St. Ambrose was born about the year 340, of a Roman of the same name
+who was at that time prefect of the pretorium in Gaul, a province
+which then embraced a large portion of western and southwestern
+Europe. Arles, Lyons, and Trèves contend for the honor of being his
+birthplace, but it is most probable that it was in the latter he first
+saw the light. Legends, too, are not <span class="pagenum"><a id="page069" name="page069"></a>(p. 069)</span> wanting of
+extraordinary occurrences which took place during his infancy, that
+seemed to presage his future greatness. Be these as they may, his life
+and works, which are before the world, stand in need of no such
+embellishments, now that they have become matters of history. His
+father died in his infancy, and his mother returned to Rome, where her
+wealth and social position enabled her to give her children the best
+education possible; and none of them profited more by his
+opportunities than Ambrose. His attainments were numerous and varied,
+embracing, among other things, a thorough knowledge of the Greek
+language and literature, oratory of a high order, unusual skill in
+poetic composition, and a thorough acquaintance with music.</p>
+
+<p>Having completed his education, he went to Milan to enter upon his
+public career. Here his learning, ability, and integrity were soon
+recognized, and preferments crowded thick upon him. But under all
+circumstances he remained true to himself; and, although then only a
+catechumen&mdash;or one undergoing instruction before embracing
+Christianity&mdash;he yet made the maxims of the Gospel the rule of his
+life and conduct. In a short time he was made governor of the
+provinces of Liguria and Æmelia, which embraced the greater part of
+Northern Italy. When setting out to assume the duties of that exalted
+position, he was told by one of those highest in authority, to "go and
+rule more as a bishop than a judge." Although but thirty years of age
+at the time of his appointment, he strove by his vigilance, mildness,
+and probity, to act upon that advice which seemed almost prophetic;
+for he was soon after called to the bishopric of Milan, as we shall
+presently have occasion to remark. The Arian heresy was then at the
+zenith of its power, and was at least secretly, and often openly,
+favored by the imperial authority. In few places was it more openly
+defiant than at Milan. Auxentius, the Arian bishop of that see, died
+in the year 374, and a serious tumult was raised during the election
+of his successor&mdash;the Arians and the orthodox Christians each
+contending for the mastery. In the discharge of his duties as
+governor, Ambrose entered the assembly, where by his firmness,
+prudence, and moderation he succeeded in restoring order. Tradition
+states that in a moment of tranquillity a child cried out: "Ambrose is
+bishop;" but, be that as it may, and it matters little, so great was
+the public appreciation of his merits, and so high was the esteem in
+which he was held, that he was immediately elected by acclamation.
+Alarmed at this determination of the people, he endeavored to escape
+the honor and remain in concealment till another election should take
+place; but the vigilance of the people prevented it. He then had
+recourse to another means of escape, urging that he was only a
+catechumen and could not lawfully be elected a bishop. But this, too,
+was overruled, when he insisted that being in the service of the
+emperor his permission was necessary. So far, however, from this
+availing, it had the opposite effect, for the Emperor Valentinian
+readily gave his consent, adding the flattering remark that he was
+very much pleased to know that the civil governors whom he had
+selected to rule the provinces of the Empire, were fit to be made
+bishops to rule the Church of God. Seeing the will of heaven so
+clearly manifested, Ambrose feared longer to refuse his acquiescence,
+and at the age of thirty-four he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page070" name="page070"></a>(p. 070)</span> passed through the various
+ecclesiastical orders and was consecrated Bishop of Milan on December
+7, 374.</p>
+
+<p>Solicitude for the portion of the Church now entrusted to his pastoral
+care was thenceforth his only thought; and to his other numerous and
+profound acquirements he added that of a careful study of the
+scriptures. In those unhappy times storms were raging on all sides
+between the orthodox Christians and the Arians; and while he and the
+church of Milan were congratulated from all sides on the choice of so
+able a chief pastor, he clearly saw that his future life must be one
+of constant struggle with the civil power for the rights of the
+Church, and with the Arians for the purity of doctrine. But his
+extraordinary combination of gentleness and charity with firmness and
+courage never failed him, and in the end it proved equal to the task
+imposed upon him; and it has handed down his name as one of the
+noblest on the pages of the world's history. The better to free
+himself from unnecessary trammels, he at once disposed of his immense
+wealth to the poor, except so much of it as was necessary for the
+becoming maintenance of his household; and the administration of even
+this he committed to others.</p>
+
+<p>The turbulent times through which the Church had passed and was still
+passing, had necessarily given rise to numerous abuses; and to the
+correction of these the newly consecrated bishop unsparingly devoted
+himself. But though this was destined to be a life-work, and though he
+met with a great measure of success, "it must needs be that scandals
+come," and no one can hope to eradicate entirely every abuse. Never
+was the Arian heresy so successfully dealt with as by him, and if he
+did not succeed in entirely destroying it, he did succeed in breaking
+its power and restoring greater tranquillity to the Church than it had
+enjoyed for a long term of years. Many elements combined to produce
+these consoling results, and since we are treating of an eminent
+churchman, it is necessary to attach due importance to his own
+personal sanctity, which was at once a rebuke to disregard of
+ecclesiastical discipline, a living illustration of what the true
+Christian should be, and an evidence of the purity of his motives and
+the sincerity of his conduct. This holiness had its effect too before
+the Throne of Grace, for the scriptures assure us that the prayers of
+the just man avail much. So long as we entertain the belief that
+Christ has established a church on earth, we must from necessity hold
+that He takes a lively interest in it, and blesses the labors of those
+who devote themselves to its extension. His eloquence, too, in the
+pulpit not only advanced the interests of religion, but also
+stimulated the zeal and guided the efforts of others of less ability.
+His numerous controversial works refuted the errors and sophistries of
+the enemies of religion, on the one hand, and on the other, explained
+and defended its tenets. Those who wished to tread the higher walks of
+the spiritual life, found in his several treatises on certain of the
+Christian virtues, a sure light to guide them in the way of
+perfection. Devoting his attention to the liturgy of divine worship,
+he added greatly to the attractiveness of the ceremonial, especially
+by a thorough revision of the church music that had previously been in
+use. But in the march of the human mind nothing now remains of the
+Ambrosian chant in its purity, save the "Exultet," as it is called,
+which is a hymn sung <span class="pagenum"><a id="page071" name="page071"></a>(p. 071)</span> in the Latin Church during the blessing
+of the Paschal candle on Holy Saturday. Large numbers of his poetic
+compositions still remain, and are found for the most part in the
+Roman breviary. It may be said that his pen was never idle nor his
+voice hushed when the interests of religion could be promoted, and
+many of his writings remain to our day, a proof of his learning, an
+evidence of his zeal, and a monument to his courage. Among his
+successes in advancing the cause of religion must be mentioned his
+conversion, in 387, of St. Augustine, the greatest light of the
+Western Church. But he is better known to the world at large by his
+firmness in withstanding the usurpation of the secular power, and
+bringing those in high places to confess and repent of their faults.
+In doing this he had ever the best interests of mankind at heart.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his consecration as a bishop he wrote to the emperor,
+complaining of the corruption of some imperial governors; to whom
+Valentinian replied: "I have long since been acquainted with your
+freedom of speech, which did not deter me from consenting to your
+consecration. Continue to apply to our sins the remedies prescribed by
+the divine law." Even in our own day, not a few salutary laws are due
+to his humane influence. He prevailed on the Emperor Gratian to pass a
+law, among others, that no criminal should be executed within less
+than thirty days after sentence had been passed. He also succeeded,
+but with great difficulty, in having the pagan statues removed from
+the senate. He had also a law passed forbidding the Arians to rebuild
+or repair their churches. When the Empress Justina sent to him asking
+the use of certain churches for the celebration of Easter, he refused;
+and when threats were made he answered in language worthy of a
+Christian prelate: "Should you ask what is mine, as my land or my
+money, I would not refuse you, though all that I possess belongs to
+the poor; but you have no right to that which belongs to God." A year
+later, the Easter of 386, the same request was made, when the intrepid
+bishop answered: "Naboth would not give up the inheritance of his
+ancestors, and shall I give up that of Jesus Christ?" It may perhaps
+be difficult for many in our day, when so little importance is
+attached to Christian unity, to appreciate the fearless action of this
+heroic person; but his biography would be imperfect in a very
+important particular if these points were passed over in silence; and
+before passing judgment on him we must bear in mind the rule of the
+historian and biographer, so frequently lost sight of, that persons
+and things must be judged by the times and circumstances in which they
+were placed. The times change and we change in them.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most remarkable event in the life of St. Ambrose, so far
+as the world at large will judge him, was his rebuke of the Emperor
+Theodosius. Instances like this are not rare, it is true, in the
+history of the Christian Church; but this one stands forth with more
+than ordinary prominence. The circumstances are briefly these: A
+sedition broke out in the city of Thessalonica, in which a number of
+officers and the commander of the imperial forces were slain.
+Theodosius, at the instigation of Rufinus, a military officer of
+prominence, sent a warrant to the commander of Illyricum to let the
+soldiers loose upon the city; a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page072" name="page072"></a>(p. 072)</span> command that was carried out
+with great cruelty, and by which more than seven thousand persons, the
+innocent as well as the guilty, were massacred in the most inhuman
+manner. The grief of Ambrose on hearing this was extreme; and, in
+order to afford the emperor time to reflect, he withdrew from Milan,
+and addressed him a very touching letter exhorting him to repentance,
+assuring him at the same time that he, as bishop, would not receive
+his offerings nor perform the services of religion in his presence
+till he had done so. The prelate soon after returned to his episcopal
+city; and when the emperor appeared at the doors of the church to
+attend divine services, he forbade him to enter till he had done
+penance for his crime. Excuses and palliations were of no avail, and
+when the emperor urged that King David had sinned, he was told that as
+he had imitated David in his sin, he should also imitate him in his
+repentance; and the doors of the church were closed against him. The
+emperor returned to his palace, where for eight months he did penance
+for his fault; and he was not admitted to full communion till he had
+perfectly complied with the requirements of the bishop.</p>
+
+<p>While to the general reader there may appear an unwonted severity, and
+even a tyrannical vindictiveness in this firmness of the holy prelate,
+his companions and those who knew his character best find in it an
+evidence of his zeal for the cause of religion, and his desire for the
+true conversion of the sinner; and the man of the world will find in
+him the champion of the poor and oppressed against the tyranny of
+power. It is a well-known fact of history that he did not cease,
+during all this time, to beseech heaven with prayers and tears for the
+emperor, whom he sincerely loved. But his character in this, as in all
+else, has withstood the test of time, and shines with undiminished
+lustre down the vista of ages.</p>
+
+<p>St. Ambrose died about midnight before Holy Saturday, April 4, 397;
+and his body reposes in a vault under the high altar of the basilica
+of Milan&mdash;the church that he had served so long and so well. His feast
+is kept in the Latin Church on December 7th, and he is justly regarded
+as one of the most illustrious doctors of the Church.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig006" name="sig006"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig006.jpg" width="350" height="93" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+<a id="img026" name="img026"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="" title="">
+<p>Ambrose rebukes Theodosius.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page073" name="page073"></a>(p. 073)</span> ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8" title="Go to footnote 8"><span class="smaller">[8]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">His Eminence James, Cardinal Gibbons</span><br>
+(354-430)</h3>
+
+<a id="img027" name="img027"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="250" height="332" alt="St. Augustine." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the few great names which have most signally emblazoned the
+pages of history, and whose fame and influence have not been limited
+to their own age, country, or people, that of Augustine, saint and
+bishop, stands out pre-eminently as worthy of all the encomiums
+bestowed upon him by serious students of men and their times. He has
+been and is regarded as the greatest and most celebrated of
+theologians, the father and master of preachers of the Divine Word,
+the peer of the rarest and most enlightened minds, whose soaring is
+above all time. He has been given a place with Plato and Bossuet, with
+Cicero and St. Thomas, in the universal acclaim. Great in faith, great
+in thought, great in virtue, great in genius, he lived in the century
+of great men, towering above all. Athanasius was Patriarch of
+Alexandria and Cyril of Jerusalem; Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of
+Nazianzen, and Basil the Great, formed a triumvirate of holy,
+eloquent, and erudite defenders of truth and justice; Ambrose was by
+his faith and piety illumining the See of Milan; the Christian Cicero,
+Chrysostom, was pouring forth at Constantinople streams of golden
+eloquence; Jerome, the hermit of Bethlehem, was giving his masterly
+expositions of Scripture. And Augustine arose in this galaxy of
+greatness and genius to shed glory on the land and church of Africa,
+which had seen its Tertullian and been adorned by its Cyprian. Contact
+with such men were an honor; drinking at their feet deep and wholesome
+draughts of purest wisdom were glory: but to have the notes of one's
+song arise above theirs as did Augustine's, were solid genius and
+lasting fame.</p>
+
+<p>St. Augustine was born on November 13, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 354, at the little town of
+Tagasta, in ancient Numidia, which is now Algeria. His father was an
+unassuming and honorable soul, though of humble and modest origin. His
+mother was the sainted Monica, who is so justly venerated on Christian
+altars. The early education of Augustine was received in his native
+village, with slender means and amidst meagre advantages. As a boy he
+manifested very little of those studious habits which were afterward
+to distinguish and elevate him to universal honor. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page074" name="page074"></a>(p. 074)</span> At great
+sacrifice on his father's part, and with the princely generosity of a
+noted inhabitant of Tagasta, named Romanian, he was sent to the better
+equipped schools of the neighboring Madaura and later to Carthage. The
+schools of Carthage, though not so renowned and exceptional as those
+of Alexandria and Antioch, were yet among the most prominent of the
+Roman World. He was sixteen years of age when he was taken to this
+city, and after four years he had risen to the first place in the
+schools of rhetoric and had mastered all the branches of the liberal
+arts then taught. None could equal his penetration, none surpass him
+in the readiness of his answers or in the clearness of his
+expositions. The subtle distinctions and divisions of Aristotle were
+plain to him. And in the arena of philosophical disputation he knew no
+superior. He was particularly attracted to the study of eloquence; and
+the perusal of Cicero's "Hortensius" (which unfortunately has been
+lost in the vicissitudes of time) stirred his soul to higher flights
+and begot a noble enthusiasm for the imperishable beauty of wisdom,
+made him impatient of the evanescent hopes of men, and carried him
+onward to further quest of truth.</p>
+
+<p>When his studies were completed, he returned in 370 to Tagasta and
+lodged with his wealthy patron and benefactor; for his father had died
+the year after his arrival in Carthage. Though here he began to teach
+grammar and kindred branches, he did not long remain at home; he soon
+departed again for Carthage, where his successes as a master surpassed
+those he had gained as a disciple. Led by his former fame and by the
+daily increasing applause which greeted the youthful professor of
+rhetoric, many gathered around him. He was then only twenty-three
+years of age. Among his pupils he numbered Licentius and Alypius&mdash;two
+names indissolubly bound up with the story of Augustine's life. His
+place among the learned and first men of that ancient city was made
+doubly secure when, at a public contest in poetry, he was awarded the
+prize, and was crowned with the laurel by the Proconsul, Vindician,
+before the assembled people and most celebrated minds of the city.</p>
+
+<p>But while he was thus advancing in favor with men, while thirst for
+truth was burning him, he yielded to the seductions of the wealthy
+youth of his time; though he had been early trained by his pious
+mother in the love of virtue and the hatred of iniquity, yet the
+apparent austerity of virtue seemed now to affright him, and the
+pleasures of life and the allurements of vice captivated his ardent
+disposition; and while he never seems to have plunged into the
+extravagances and disorders common to so many of his companions, nor
+to have been guilty of crimes which spring from a cruel nature or very
+depraved instincts, he indulged in some pursuits which formed the
+prolific source of future profound grief. He loved ease, and was
+averse to self-denial and hardship&mdash;hence his indiscretions and
+follies. But the most distinguishing trait of his character was his
+honesty, and this feature redeemed and palliated his few
+irregularities.</p>
+
+<a id="img028" name="img028"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img028.jpg" width="400" height="526" alt="" title="">
+<p>St. Augustine and his mother, St. Monica.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The scholars of Carthage were anything but sober, industrious, modest,
+and orderly youths. They were indocile and turbulent; not only
+disturbing by their wild pranks the peace of the city, but
+interrupting by their noisy behavior and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page075" name="page075"></a>(p. 075)</span> inattention the
+master's discourses and lectures. It was next to impossible to
+preserve any semblance of discipline in the classes. So Augustine left
+in disgust and set out for Rome, the ancient mistress of the world. He
+had been enamoured by her imperishable traditions and magnificent
+monuments of grandeur and art, by her memories of numerous great men,
+their genius and their works, by her history ever rich in majesty and
+glory. Induced by the consideration that he would find there the
+absence of unfavorable circumstances and the presence of stronger
+incentives to enthusiasm and high inspiration, he left his country and
+his mother, and in 383, with Alypius, his friend and pupil, he
+departed for this metropolis. But again he was doomed to
+disappointment. Though disciples were not wanting, and his chair was
+surrounded by a throng of earnest and strong students, he did not find
+the all-absorbing passion for wisdom and truth, for the sublime and
+beautiful, that he had fondly anticipated. There was not, indeed, the
+same degree of turbulence and disorder as at Carthage, but the
+magnificence and ostentation of the Roman family and life, their
+splendid palaces and festive orgies, could not but prove very
+injurious to habits of study. The youth had imbibed the venal
+corruption everywhere prevalent. Hence it not seldom happened that
+Roman scholars conspired to rob their master of his salary and desert
+his class in a body. Roman vileness and baseness disgusted Augustine
+even more than Punic insubordination. He therefore took advantage of a
+request made by the citizens of Milan of Symmachus who was then
+Prefect of Rome, that he would procure for them a professor of
+rhetoric. He accepted the proposal; and toward the close of the year
+384 he was teaching at Milan.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time the soul of Augustine was not influenced by higher
+inspiration than pleasure, nor his mind by anything which did not
+correspond to his preconceived notions of philosophic accuracy. Nor
+was he yet a Christian by baptism, as it was the custom of the age to
+postpone the reception of this sacrament till later in life, both that
+it might be received with better dispositions and more fruit, and
+because sins and faults committed by the baptized possessed in their
+eyes and before God deeper malice and blacker ingratitude; they wished
+to avoid this evil. When a child, Augustine was so ill that his life
+was despaired of; the waters of regeneration were about to be poured
+over him; but he soon recovered and again the baptism was deferred. In
+Milan he was attracted by St. Ambrose's eloquent discourses on the
+Christian religion; and their simple and earnest character, their
+strong and convincing argument, their fervid and impassioned vein
+appealed to the young man's mind. His heart was touched by the
+manifest holiness of the good bishop's life and conduct, especially
+when he contrasted them with those of the Manicheans with whom he had
+so long been associated. The study of Platonic philosophy urged him on
+to celestial heights and made him gaze on the infinite nature of God.
+The Epistles of St. Paul riveted his attention in his search after
+purest truth, and joined to the pious prayers of the Sainted Monica,
+who thus drew down abundant grace divine, completed the miracle of his
+conversion. The wayward Augustine wept for his sins, the learned
+philosopher bowed his head in faith and humility before the Gospel
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page076" name="page076"></a>(p. 076)</span> of Jesus Christ and the truth of God as revealed by Him.
+After a period of seclusion which he spent from August (386) to the
+Easter solemnity of the next year, with Monica, Alypius, Licentius,
+and several others, at Cassiciacum in the suburbs of Milan, he was
+baptized by St. Ambrose on April 24th or 25th, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 387.</p>
+
+<p>Once a Christian, Augustine thought of returning to his native
+country. He desired to perfect himself in the Christian science and
+spirit, and to teach and defend among his own people Catholic
+doctrines and interests&mdash;henceforth to be the sole aim of his life. In
+August or September therefore of that same year he set out with his
+mother and friends for Africa. But the death of Monica at Ostia in
+Italy changed his plans. And after paying all the duties of religion
+and filial tenderness to this devoted mother, he went to Rome. But in
+the spring of the year 388 he finally set foot on his native shores.
+He betook himself immediately to the environs of Tagasta and found an
+asylum for study, contemplation, and prayer.</p>
+
+<p>It happened that, prompted by zeal and affection, he went on one
+occasion in 391 to Hippo, which was on the Mediterranean Sea five
+leagues from Carthage, and the site of the present Bona, for the
+purpose of inducing a certain friend to join him in his solitude.
+While here he entered the church where the holy bishop, Valerius, was
+preaching to the people and complaining of his sad need of a priest to
+aid him in his duties, and especially to exercise the office of
+preaching, since an impediment in his speech rendered that duty very
+difficult and extremely painful for him. Preaching was the exclusive
+function of the bishop. And when Augustine as a priest assumed the
+duty, he was the first in priest's orders who had ever preached in
+presence of a bishop. And it was in that capacity that he arose in the
+Council of Hippo (393) and delivered his famous discourse on "Faith
+and its Creed." As Augustine entered the church while the bishop was
+making the above complaint, the congregation, who recognized him (for
+his fame had spread over all Africa), immediately, as if by divine
+inspiration, proposed him for the office of priest. Valerius was of
+course overjoyed; and after a short time which the saint requested for
+preparation, he was ordained and attached to the church of Hippo. The
+esteem in which the new priest was held, his apostolic labors, his
+eloquence, his piety, soon impelled the aged bishop to raise his
+sacerdotal co-laborer to the episcopal dignity and associate him still
+more closely with himself in the government of the See of Hippo. He
+was accordingly consecrated a little before Christmas of the year 395.
+And the subsequent thirty-five years were the busiest, the most
+arduous, and the most fruitful of his long and eventful career. His
+energy was indefatigable and extended in every direction. The
+religious movements of his time brought into play all the resources of
+his mind and heart. He combated heresies and reclaimed heretics. His
+correspondence embraced a multitude of subjects and was carried on
+with various parts of the Church. His zeal in preaching never knew
+rest, and his efforts in instructing the ignorant were ceaseless. He
+established centres of religious life for men and women, and composed
+for them a rule of life and spirit and principles that have <span class="pagenum"><a id="page077" name="page077"></a>(p. 077)</span>
+not yet died. He was alive to the necessity of a zealous and energetic
+clergy whom he wished trained in the spirit and teachings of the
+Gospel maxims and counsels, and therefore formed the nucleus of a
+monastic clergy. He had begun the realization of this idea in the
+community which he established at Hippo just after his ordination as
+priest, and he perfected it when he was made bishop. Ten of those whom
+he trained in this his first monastery, became bishops of the various
+sees of Africa, including Alypius, who was sent to Tagasta, Possidius,
+his first biographer, and Fortunatus, who was his successor in the See
+of Hippo. During all this time he continued to wear the long black
+robe and hood and leathern girdle peculiar to the cenobites of the
+East, which he had donned at Milan shortly after his baptism when he
+laid aside the dress of his native Africa. Not only his vesture but
+also his daily life and practices were the same as those which are the
+privilege and glory of monks, nuns, and hermits. None surpassed him in
+austerities and self-denial, as none had surpassed him in philosophic
+lore at Carthage, and at Milan and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The magnificent effects of his extraordinary gifts, fertile ingenuity,
+and deep learning and broad mind; the influence of his genius on the
+thoughts and ideas of his own and succeeding ages, may be best gleaned
+from a brief survey of his writings. Augustine's early aim was to seek
+truth. He was perplexed with many doubts; he could not conceive the
+existence of anything real outside of physical bodies; and nothing
+around him completely and satisfactorily gave him answer. The
+Manicheans, who had occupied themselves with questions on the nature
+of God, the creation of the world, and the origin of evil, seemed to
+have attained on these points some tangible conclusions. For want of
+better Augustine defended their doctrines without participating in the
+excesses which distinguished those sectaries. But he felt himself
+alienated from them, partly because of the lack of the prestige of
+great men among them, and because he found Faustus, a Manichean bishop
+and the Goliath of their forces, ignorant of many simple subjects, and
+unable to give but vague and shallow responses to the questions that
+agitated his soul. He afterward had a famous controversy with this
+Faustus, and wrote against him thirty-three books. The results of
+Augustine's studies were that he was able to refute their attacks on
+Holy Scripture which they said had undergone serious changes, and to
+see the falsehood of their main postulate that good proceeds from a
+good principle and evil from an evil principle; and also to recognize
+the futility of their objection that the Christians spoke of a human
+form in God. Against this sect his principal writings are "On the
+Manners and Customs of the Catholic Church and those of the
+Manicheans;" "The Utility of Faith," "The Two Souls," and a book
+against Adimantes, the disciple of Manes, in which he reconciles the
+contradictions alleged to exist between the Old and the New Testament.</p>
+
+<p>From the Manicheans Augustine turned to the Academicians, who were a
+philosophical sect, and pretended that it was impossible for man to
+come to the possession of truth. Augustine had many conferences on
+this subject with his friends in his retreat at Cassiciacum: and the
+outcome was two books "On Order," <span class="pagenum"><a id="page078" name="page078"></a>(p. 078)</span> and one on "The Blessed
+Life." These works discussed the matter thoroughly and left the
+philosophers no loophole of escape.</p>
+
+<p>A more dangerous error, though purely local in its immediate
+surroundings, was the denial of the validity of Baptism when conferred
+by heretics. This contention had occasioned a schism in the church of
+Africa since the beginning of the fourth century. It received the name
+of Donatism from Donatus, schismatic Bishop of Carthage, who had been
+aided by another Donatus of Casæ Nigræ. In St. Augustine's time it had
+spread over the whole country. The Saint put forward the true idea of
+the Church and showed that the minister of a sacrament does not
+communicate to the recipient his own character of holiness or of
+guilt, that it is Christ Himself who baptizes and absolves and gives
+efficacy to sacramental signs. The cogency of his words, the clearness
+of his explanations, and his grace of manner led many of the Donatists
+to desire union with the Church, which he showed them, as Christ's
+Body, is one and indivisible. His chief works in this controversy are
+a letter to Maximinus, a Donatist bishop whom he brought back to
+Catholic Unity, the "Christian Combat," the "One Baptism," three books
+against Parmeian, letter to Glorius and three others, and a conference
+with Bishop Fortunatus, at Turbusum.</p>
+
+<p>As if by divine inspiration he had laid down in a work on "Free Will,"
+which he had begun at Rome, enlarged at Tagasta, and completed in 395,
+principles which afford sufficient answer to the errors of
+Pelagianism. This heresy broached novel teachings on man, the fall,
+and the state in which that fall had left the human race. St.
+Augustine, who had not been able to take part in the council of
+Carthage, where Pelagius was first condemned, brought out in clear
+light the true doctrine and nature and action of supernatural grace,
+and the effects of original sin on man's will and heart. His treatises
+on "Merit" and the "Remission of Sins," explained all the weakness of
+fallen nature, the need of divine grace to perform actions that
+conduce to eternal life, and the necessity and place of human effort
+in the work of justification and faith. As it was asserted that
+children should not be baptized because the sin of Adam was not
+transmitted to them, he wrote a book on the "Baptism of Children." In
+"Nature and Grace" and "Faith and its Works," "On the Grace of Jesus
+Christ" and "Original Sin," still further explanation and argument are
+given to establish Catholic truth.</p>
+
+<p>Still another heresy was beginning to poison religious thought:
+Arianism, or the denial of the divinity of Jesus Christ, was invading
+the church of Africa. And the writings of St. Augustine against this
+movement are among his most luminous and brilliant works. He wrote
+three letters and fifteen books on the Trinity&mdash;these he commenced in
+400 and completed in 416. Perhaps the clearest and plainest are the
+one hundred and twenty-four treatises (so called) on the Gospel of St.
+John, and ten on the First Epistle of the same Apostle. They were
+sermons or catechetical instructions and homilies, delivered during
+the year 416 to his flock, on the prevalent heresies but especially on
+the Arian. And his response to the five questions of Honorius, a
+citizen of Carthage, contains lucid expositions of some difficult
+portions of Scripture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page079" name="page079"></a>(p. 079)</span> On Scripture matters, besides the works just mentioned, St.
+Augustine's enlightened views are found in twelve books on the
+"Literal Sense of Genesis;" in these he seems to have divined all
+modern objections and theories about this work of Moses. On the seven
+first books of the Bible, he has left us seven treatises. "An
+Explanation of the Psalms," a correspondence with St. Jerome on the
+Epistle to the Galatians, four books on the agreement of the
+Evangelists, two on Gospel questions, and a book on "Things That are
+not Seen," should not be unknown to Biblical students.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was the Pagan attitude toward Catholic Truth forgotten. He had
+passed through the phase, and knew the Pagan mind. He put down their
+difficulties, reasoned away their doubts, threw light on their
+darkness, led them on in truth, in "The True Religion," "Eighty-three
+Questions," "The Christian Doctrine," and an early treatise on the
+"Immortality of the Soul."</p>
+
+<p>But by far his greatest and most enduring works are his "Confessions"
+and "The City of God." The former, at once a poem, a history, and a
+treatise of philosophy, beautifully expresses the trials and efforts
+of a human soul striving for truth and happiness away from God, and
+the ecstatic sentiments of the same soul on the attainment of both
+truth and happiness in the faith and virtues of Jesus Christ and in
+His Gospel. The other, in eloquent and philosophical vein, discourses
+on the Church of God on earth and in heaven; shows the hollowness of
+all opinions, thoughts, and efforts contrary to the eternal order
+which is God; is, as it were, an encyclopedia of all that he had
+written before, an exhaustless summary of refutation against heresy
+and paganism, and an analysis of the glories and benefits of
+Christianity. St. Augustine in its composition occupied all the time
+from 413 to 426&mdash;the period of his momentous struggle against
+Pelagianism.</p>
+
+<p>The lines of intellectual and religious thought which called forth the
+just mentioned and other productions of St. Augustine's brilliant
+genius, have continued all along the centuries even till now. The same
+movements exist; the same tendencies, though more intense in their
+working, actuate men toward truth; and the same obstacles impede their
+progress; objections, in other forms perhaps, yet substantially the
+same, are urged against the very points against which the sainted
+pontiff wrote and struggled&mdash;God, Creation, the Bible, Christ, human
+infirmity or human strength, man's power to attain truth unaided, and
+his freedom from any supernatural dependence. No wonder that
+Augustine, who had passed through all these phases of action, should
+have always been called upon for effective weapons in the warfare, and
+that he should have been the supreme authority in such questions for
+many an age in the Latin or Western Church. His sounds are as clear
+to-day, and his arguments are as convincing and potent. The student
+and the dialectician and the theologian can ill afford to be
+unfamiliar with the great doctor's thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>All these writings everywhere evidence the beauty of his character, as
+his actions were ever in accord with evangelical perfection. There is
+wonderful power of mercy, compassion, and love, in all. He had been
+weak himself, hence he treated weakness with gentleness. Two things
+rendered him indulgent; a sad <span class="pagenum"><a id="page080" name="page080"></a>(p. 080)</span> experience of the infirmities
+of human nature, and a profound knowledge of the depth of those
+infirmities. His virtues of humility, compassion, moderation, and
+generosity, all sprung from that, just as his deep faith and strong
+convictions of Christian truth were begotten of his fierce struggle
+with doubt and error and his long and ardent search for truth.</p>
+
+<p>He died in honor on August 28th, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 430. But men have not ceased to
+admire his genius, appreciate his labors, love his character; and
+thousands imitate his piety and are governed by his mandates of
+spiritual life.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig007" name="sig007"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig007.jpg" width="200" height="42" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>ST. PATRICK<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rev. G. F. Maclear, B.D</span>.<br>
+(ABOUT 372-466)</h3>
+
+<a id="img029" name="img029"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="250" height="155" alt="A book." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>The original name of St. Patrick was <span class="italic">Succat</span>, which is said to
+signify "strong in war." Patricius appears to have been his Roman
+name. He was born of Christian parents at some period between <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 372
+and <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 415. His father, Calphurnius, was a deacon, his grandfather,
+Potitus, a priest Though an ecclesiastic, Calphurnius would seem to
+have held the rank of decurion, and may therefore have been of Roman
+or provincial British extraction. His birthplace was a spot which he
+himself calls Bonavem Taberniæ, and which in all probability may be
+identified with the modern Kirkpatrick, between Dumbarton and Glasgow.</p>
+
+<p>The parents of Succat, as has been already said, were Christians, and
+it would seem that the Gospel had been preached to some extent in the
+neighborhood of his father's home. Whatever amount, however, of
+instruction he may have received was rudely interrupted, when he was
+about sixteen years of age.</p>
+
+<p>The coasts of Scotland were at this time exposed to the frequent
+incursions of Irish chieftains, who landed from their swift barks,
+ravaged the country, and having carried off as many of the inhabitants
+as they could, consigned them to slavery. In one of these expeditions
+the house of Calphurnius was attacked, and Succat, with two of his
+sisters and many of his countrymen, was carried away and conveyed to
+the north of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page081" name="page081"></a>(p. 081)</span> Here he was purchased as a slave by Michul or Milchu, a chief
+of North Dalaradia, who dwelt in the valley of the Braid, near Mount
+Slemish, in the country of Antrim. The work assigned him was that of
+attending his master's flocks and herds, and in his "Confession,"
+which he wrote toward the close of his life, he describes how he
+wandered over the bleak mountains, often drenched with the rains, and
+numbed with the frosts. His period of servitude lasted six years; and
+during this time he would seem to have made himself acquainted with
+the language of the native tribes, and to have learned their habits
+and modes of life. At length he succeeded in effecting his escape to
+the seaside, where he took ship, and, after a tempestuous passage,
+regained his father's house. His stay, however, was destined to be
+very short. In a predatory excursion he was a second time taken
+captive, and again, after a brief interval, succeeded in making his
+escape.</p>
+
+<p>Had he listened to his parents, he would now have remained with them,
+but he was bent on a very different occupation. "The Divine Voice," he
+says, "frequently admonished me to consider whence I derived the
+wisdom which was in me, who once knew neither the number of my days
+nor was acquainted with God; and whence I obtained afterward so great
+and salutary a gift as to know and to love God." During the weary
+hours, moreover, of his captivity, he had often reflected how blessed
+a thing it would be if he, to whom it had been given to know the true
+God and his Son Jesus Christ, could carry the glad tidings to his
+master's people and the land of his exile.</p>
+
+<p>One night, he tells us, he had a dream, in which he thought he saw a
+man coming from Ireland with a number of letters. One of these he gave
+him to read, and in the beginning occurred the words, "The voice of
+the Irish." While he was reading it, he thought he heard a voice
+calling to him across the Western Sea, "We entreat thee, holy youth,
+to come and walk among us."</p>
+
+<p>Obedient, therefore, to what he deemed to be a plain leading from
+heaven, and resisting the arguments and entreaties of relatives and
+friends, who mocked at his enthusiastic resolve, he set out for the
+monasteries in Southern France, there to prepare himself for the work
+of preaching the gospel in the land of his captivity. Amidst the
+conflicting legends which now follow him at every step, it seems
+probable that he repaired to the monastic schools of Tours, Auxerre,
+and Lerins, where he studied and was employed for some little time in
+pastoral duties, having been ordained successively deacon and priest.</p>
+
+<p>There, too, he would seem to have been elevated to the episcopate, and
+thence with a band of fellow-laborers he set sail for Ireland, about
+the middle of the fifth century. Landing on one of the islands off the
+coast of Dublin, he and his companions tried unsuccessfully to obtain
+provisions, which they greatly needed. Thence sailing northward they
+put in at a strait called Brene, and after landing at the southwestern
+extremity of Strangford Lough, advanced some considerable way into the
+interior.</p>
+
+<p>They had not gone far before they encountered a native chief named
+Dichu, at the head of a band of men. Mistaking St. Patrick for the
+leader of one of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page082" name="page082"></a>(p. 082)</span> the many pirate crews which at that time
+often appeared upon the coast, he was on the point of putting him to
+death. But struck by the missionary's appearance, and seeing that both
+he and his companions were unarmed, he hospitably received them into
+his house. In frequent interviews he now heard the doctrines of the
+faith, and after a time was baptized, with all his family. According
+to some authorities he also bestowed upon his instructor the ground
+whereon his barn was built; and here arose the celebrated church
+called <span class="italic">Sabhall Patraic</span>, "The Barn of Patrick," which still retains
+the name of Sabhal, or Saul, and is situated about two miles northeast
+of Downpatrick.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Saul, the missionaries proceeded to northern Dalaradia, and
+the residence of St. Patrick's old master, Milchu. But nothing would
+induce the old chief to receive one who had once been his slave, or to
+forsake the paganism of his forefathers. His journey thus ineffectual,
+St. Patrick returned to the district where Dichu resided, and made the
+neighborhood for sometime his headquarters. Thence proceeding
+southward, he determined to visit the central parts of the island, and
+especially the famous hill of Tara, where King Laoghaire was about to
+hold a great religious festival in the presence of all of his
+tributary chieftains, druids, and bards. In this stronghold of
+druidism he resolved to celebrate the approaching festival of Easter,
+and preach the word to the assembled chiefs. It was Easter eve, we are
+told, when he reached the neighborhood of Tara, and having erected a
+tent, he made preparations for spending the night with his companions,
+and kindled a fire for the purpose of preparing food. As the smoke
+curled upward in the evening air, it was observed by the druids in the
+king's tents and caused the greatest consternation. To kindle any fire
+during the solemn assembly of the chiefs, before the king had lighted
+the sacred flame in the palace of Tara, was a sin of the greatest
+enormity, and the druids did not scruple to warn the king that if the
+fire of the stranger was not extinguished that night, unto him, whose
+fire it was, would belong the sovereignty of Ireland forever.</p>
+
+<p>Messengers were accordingly sent to discover the authors of the
+sacrilege, and to order them to appear before Laoghaire. The
+missionaries went, and their fearlessness when in the presence of the
+monarch and his nobles won for them a respectful hearing. On the
+following day St. Patrick again addressed the chiefs, doubtless in
+their own language, and proclaimed to them the doctrines of the faith.
+Laoghaire himself, indeed, did not profess to be a convert, but he
+gave permission to the man of God to preach the word, on condition
+that he did not disturb the peace of the kingdom. During the ensuing
+week, therefore, when the great public games were celebrated at
+Tailten, the missionary and his companions addressed themselves to the
+youngest brother of the king, and were so favorably received that he
+professed himself a believer, submitted to baptism, and is said to
+have given the site of a church called afterward "The Great Church of
+Patrick."</p>
+
+<a id="img030" name="img030"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="400" height="544" alt="" title="">
+<p>St. Patrick journeying to Tara.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The impression thus made upon the chiefs was soon shared by their
+subjects, and though the pagan party made frequent attempts to put the
+missionaries to death, from which they narrowly escaped, they were
+heartily received in Westmeath, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page083" name="page083"></a>(p. 083)</span> Connaught, Mayo, and
+Ulster, and before long found themselves strong enough to destroy the
+great idol Crom-cruach, on the plain of Magh Slecht, in the county of
+Cavan; and, in the district of the clan Amalgaidh, admitted to baptism
+the seven sons of the king and many of their people.</p>
+
+<p>To the worshippers of the powers of nature, and especially the sun and
+other heavenly bodies, St. Patrick proclaimed that the great luminary
+which ruled the day had no self-originated existence, but was created
+by One whom he taught them to call God the Father. "Besides him," said
+he, "there is no other god, nor ever was, nor will be. He was in the
+beginning before all things, and from him all things are derived,
+visible and invisible." He told them next of "his only begotten Son
+Jesus Christ, who had become man, had conquered death and ascended
+into heaven, where he sat far above all principalities and powers, and
+whence he would hereafter come to judge both the quick and the dead,
+and reward every man according to his deeds." "Those," he declared,
+"who believed in him, would rise again in the glory of the true Sun,
+that is, in the glory of Jesus Christ, being by redemption sons of God
+and joint-heirs of the Christ, of whom, and by whom, and to whom, are
+all things; for the true Sun, Jesus Christ, will never wane nor set,
+nor will any perish who do his will, but they shall live forever, even
+as he liveth forever with God the Father Almighty, and the Holy
+Spirit, world without end."</p>
+
+<p>Such, as it would seem from his "Confession," was the Gospel he
+proclaimed, and his words, confirmed and illustrated by his own
+intrepid zeal, ardent love, and sincere and devoted life, made a deep
+impression on the minds of the Celtic chiefs. With the religious
+enthusiasm deeply seated in the primitive Celtic character, which many
+years before won for St. Paul so warm a reception in Galatia, their
+hearts were touched and they welcomed the missionary, and believed the
+word which he preached.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, the labors of St. Patrick were lightened by the
+arrival of the bishops Secundinus, Auxilius, and Isserninus, whom he
+had sent either to France or Britain to receive consecration. Their
+coming enabled him to extend the sphere of his operations, and he
+undertook missionary tours in Meath, Leinster, Ossory, and Munster.
+These continued for several years, during which he was occupied in
+preaching the word, baptizing new converts, and erecting churches.
+Knowing well how much his own acquaintance with the native language
+had contributed to his success, he labored diligently to establish a
+native ministry wherever he went. Cautiously selecting from the higher
+classes those whose piety and intelligence seemed to fit them for the
+work of the ministry, he established seminaries and monastic schools,
+where they were trained and educated; and to these schools the young
+of both sexes flocked with extraordinary eagerness.</p>
+
+<p>While he was laboring in the southeastern part of Munster, a petty
+prince of Cardiganshire, named Coroticus, though apparently professing
+Christianity, set out from Wales, and descending on the Irish coast
+with a band of armed followers, murdered several of the people, and
+carried off a large number with the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page084" name="page084"></a>(p. 084)</span> intention of disposing
+of them as slaves. This outrage, perpetrated in one of the districts
+where St. Patrick was baptizing, roused his keenest indignation, and
+he wrote a letter, which he sent by one of his companions, calling
+upon Coroticus to restore the captives, many of whom had been
+baptized. But his request being treated with contempt and scorn, he
+composed another circular epistle, in which he inveighed in the
+strongest terms against the cruelty of the marauding tribe and its
+chief. He contrasted his conduct with that of the Christians of the
+Continent, who were in the habit of sending large sums of money to
+ransom captives, and concluded by threatening him and his followers
+with excommunication, unless he desisted in future from his piratical
+habits. What was the result of the epistle is not known, but it is to
+be feared that the attempt to recover the captives was not successful.
+Slavery and the trade in slaves was almost more difficult to root out
+than paganism, and the inhuman traffic was in full activity as late as
+the tenth century between England and Ireland, and the port of Bristol
+was one of its principal centres.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, after a somewhat lengthened sojourn in the district of
+Lowth and parts of Ulster, St. Patrick reached the district of Macha,
+containing the royal city of Emania, the residence of the kings of
+Ulster, the remains of which, under the name of the Navan, still exist
+about two miles west of Armagh. Here he was cordially received by
+Daire, a wealthy chief, who made over to him a pleasant piece of
+ground on an eminence, <span class="italic">Druim-sailch</span>, or "Hill of the Willows." The
+spot pleased St. Patrick, and here he determined to erect a church.
+The foundations were accordingly laid, and around it rose by degrees
+the city of Armagh, the ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland; and here
+its founder spent the remainder of his life, only leaving it now and
+then to visit his favorite retreat at Saul, round which clustered so
+many associations of his earliest labors, and of his first convert
+Dichu.</p>
+
+<p>Here, too, having called to his aid the bishops Secundinus,
+Isserninus, and Auxilius, who next to himself were best qualified by
+long experience for the work, he proceeded to hold synods, and to make
+regulations for the general government of the churches he had founded.
+Again and again he was solicited to revisit his friends and relatives
+in Scotland, but nothing could induce him to leave his post. In his
+"Confession," written when far advanced in years, he touchingly
+describes how often he had been requested to come among his kinsmen
+once more, but how a deep sense of the spiritual love between himself
+and his flock ever retained him in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>It was while he was staying at Saul that the apostle of Ireland was
+seized with his last illness. He had lived to a good old age, and the
+sunset of his life was calm and peaceful. Perceiving that his end drew
+nigh, and desirous, as we are told, that Armagh should be the
+resting-place of his remains, he set out thither, but was unable to
+continue the journey. Increasing weakness, and, as it seemed to him
+the voice of an angel, bade him return to the church of his first
+convert; and there he closed his eyes in death, probably in the year
+<span class="smcap">A.D</span>. 466, leaving behind him the visible memorials of a noble work
+nobly done. He and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page085" name="page085"></a>(p. 085)</span> his fellow-laborers had made for
+themselves, by the labors of their own hands, civilized dwellings amid
+the tangled forest and the dreary morass. At a time when clan-feuds
+and bloodshed were rife, and princes rose and fell, and all was stormy
+and changeful, they had covered the islands with monastic schools,
+where the Scriptures were studied, ancient books collected and read,
+and native missionaries trained for their own country, and for the
+remotest parts of the European continent.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>JUSTINIAN THE GREAT<br>
+(483-565)</h3>
+
+<a id="img031" name="img031"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="250" height="335" alt="Justinian." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Flavius Anicius Justinianus, nephew on the mother's side of the
+Emperor Justin, was born in 482 or 483 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, in the village of
+Tauresium, in Illyria. His original name was Upranda. Although of
+obscure parentage, and indeed slave-born, he shared the success of his
+maternal uncle, Justin, being invited at an early age to
+Constantinople, where he received an early education. When his uncle
+assumed the purple, in 518, he appointed Justinian commander-in-chief
+of the army of Asia. His tastes, however, inclining him rather to
+civic pursuits, he declined this appointment, and remained attached to
+the court of Constantinople. In 521, he was named consul, and during
+the remaining years of the reign of his uncle he continued to exercise
+great influence. In 527 the Emperor Justin, by the advice of the
+senate, proclaimed him his partner in the empire. Justin survived this
+step but four months, and in the same year Justinian was proclaimed
+sole emperor, and crowned along with his wife, the famous Theodora,
+whom, despite her more than dubious antecedents as an actress, he had
+raised to the position as his wife. Justinian on his accession was in
+his forty-fifth year. His reign, which extends over thirty-eight
+years, is the most brilliant in the history of the late empire.
+Although himself without the taste or the capacity for military
+command, he had the good fortune or the skill to select the ablest
+generals of the last days of Roman military ascendency. Under the
+direction of his generals, and especially of the celebrated Narses and
+Belisarius, his reign may be said to have restored the Roman Empire,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page086" name="page086"></a>(p. 086)</span> at least in outward appearance, to its ancient limits, and
+to have reunited the East and the West under a single rule. In his
+first war&mdash;that with Persia&mdash;he concluded a treaty by which the crisis
+that had so long threatened, was at least warded off; but the
+rejoicings which celebrated its termination had, owing to a domestic
+revolution, almost proved fatal to the authority of Justinian himself.
+A conflict of the so-called Blue and Green factions in the circus, in
+532, was but an outburst of political discontent, which went so far as
+to elect a rival emperor, Hypatius. Justinian himself was struck with
+dismay, and had made preparations for flight; but the vigor and
+determination of Theodora arrested the revolt. Narses, with a
+relentless hand, repressed the tumults, 30,000 victims having, it is
+said, fallen in a single day. By the arms of Belisarius, the Vandal
+kingdom of Africa was re-annexed to the Empire; and the same general,
+conjointly with Narses, restored the imperial authority in Rome, in
+Northern Italy, and in a large portion of Spain. One of the most
+extraordinary, though in the end ineffective works of the reign of
+Justinian, was the vast line of fortification which he constructed, or
+renewed and strengthened, along the eastern and southeastern frontier
+of his empire. These works of defence, and the construction of many
+public buildings both in his capital and in other cities of the
+Empire, involved an enormous expenditure, and the fiscal
+administration of Justinian, in consequence, pressed heavily on the
+public resource.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, as a legislator that Justinian has gained his most
+enduring renown. His good fortune in obtaining the services of able
+generals was not greater than that which attended him in the field of
+law and legislation. Brilliant as were the triumphs of Narses and
+Belisarius, they were indeed short-lived in comparison with the work
+done by the celebrated Tribonian and his coadjutors in the way of
+reforming and codifying the law. Immediately on his accession
+Justinian set himself to collect and codify the principal imperial
+constitutions or statutes enacted prior to, and in force at, the date
+of his accession. In this respect he followed the example set by his
+predecessor, Theodosian. The code in which these constitutions were
+collected was published in 528-29, and it contained a general
+provision by which all previous imperial enactments were repealed. But
+Justinian's ambition in the matter of consolidating the laws went much
+further. Imperial constitutions made up but a comparatively small part
+of the body of the law. The bulk of it (what might be called the
+common law) was contained in the writings of the jurists, that is, of
+text-writers and commentators. Of these writers there were at this
+time many hundreds of volumes in existence, and, owing to want of
+agreement in the opinion of the various writers, the law was in a
+state of great uncertainty, not to say confusion.</p>
+
+<p>To remedy this evil, Justinian resolved upon the publication of a
+single treatise in which the commentaries and other writings of the
+jurists might be digested and harmonized. The preparation of this
+great work was intrusted to Tribonian, with the assistance of
+Theophilus, a celebrated professor of law at Berytus (modern Beyrout),
+and two other professors, and it was completed in the almost
+incredibly short period of four years. It was published in fifty
+books, under the title <span class="pagenum"><a id="page087" name="page087"></a>(p. 087)</span> Digesta or Pandectæ. While the Digest
+was in course of preparation Justinian resolved on the composition of
+a third work&mdash;viz., a systematic and elementary treatise on the law
+which might serve as a text-book for the use of students, and as an
+introduction to the larger work. The preparation of this was also
+intrusted to Tribonian and his colleagues, and having been completed a
+few days before the Digest, was published in four books on the same
+day (December 31, 534), under the title of Institutiones. It is based
+upon the Institutes of Gaius, and is familiar to all modern lawyers
+under the name of "Justinian's Institutes." Meantime, while both the
+Digest and the Institutes were being prepared, the Code of 529 above
+mentioned was withdrawn from circulation and republished in 534 with
+some alterations, and especially with the addition of fifty new
+constitutions (known as the Quinquaginta Decisiones) which had in the
+interim been pronounced by Justinian. This new edition, in twelve
+books, is known as the Codex Repetitiæ Pr&oelig;lectionis, and is the one
+which has come down to us, no copy of the earlier codex being extant.
+All these works (Code, Digest, Institutes) were written originally in
+Latin, and all of them were prepared with care and skill, and testify
+to the great ability of Tribonian and his co-editors. Upon the
+publication of the "Digest" Justinian declared by a constitution that
+all previous law-books and decisions were to be held as superseded and
+it was forbidden to refer to them in the practice of the courts.
+During the subsequent years of his reign Justinian pronounced from
+time to time several new constitutions or laws, some of them making
+very important changes in certain departments of the law. These
+(mostly in Greek) were collected and published under the title of
+"Novellæ" (<span class="italic">i.e.</span>, "The Novels" or "New Works"). There were, so far as
+can be ascertained, about one hundred and seventy of these Novels. The
+Institutes, Digest, Code, and Novels together make up what is known as
+the Corpus Juris Civilis.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Justinian has been much canvassed, and opinions are
+not agreed about it. Procopius, in two separate works, has painted him
+in very different lights. Making allowance, however, for much
+exaggeration of his abilities by contemporary writers, it may be said
+that he contrasts favorably with most of the emperors, whether of the
+earlier or of the later Empire. If his personal virtues be open to
+doubt (and certainly vanity, avarice, and inconstancy were in no small
+degree characteristic of him), he, on the other hand, displayed
+undoubted ability as a ruler, and, in the main, just and upright
+intentions. He was easy of access, patient of hearing, courteous and
+affable in discourse, and perfect master of his temper. In the
+conspiracies against his authority and person he often showed both
+justice and clemency. He excelled in the private virtues of chastity
+and temperance; his meals were short and frugal; on solemn fasts he
+contented himself with water and vegetables, and he frequently passed
+two days and as many nights without tasting any food. He allowed
+himself little time for sleep, and was always up before the morning
+light. His restless application to business and to study, as well as
+the extent of his learning, have been attested even by his enemies. He
+was, or professed to be, a poet and philosopher, a lawyer and
+theologian, a musician and an architect; but the brightest ornament of
+his reign is the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page088" name="page088"></a>(p. 088)</span> compilation of Roman law which has
+immortalized his name. He died on November 14, 565, at the age of
+eighty-three, and in the thirty-eighth year of his reign.</p>
+
+<p>A few words must be said about the legislative reforms carried through
+by Justinian. He was not only a collector and a codifier of the laws;
+he also introduced in many directions the most fundamental changes
+into the substantive law itself. The following were the most important
+changes. (1) He ameliorated the condition of slaves&mdash;depriving their
+masters of the power of putting them to death. He declared that any
+one who put a slave to death by his own hand should be guilty of
+homicide. (2) He greatly revolutionized the law of intestate
+succession by giving to cognati (relatives on the mother's side) an
+equal share with agnati (relatives on the father's side) of the same
+degree. These two changes in the law were probably in a large measure
+induced by the circumstances of his birth. (3) He made considerable
+changes in the law of divorce, and as to the property of spouses. (4)
+He reformed civil procedure in the way of making it uniform, and
+introducing a system of small-debt courts.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ST. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9" title="Go to footnote 9"><span class="smaller">[9]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rt. Rev. Henry Codman Potter, Bishop of New York</span><br>
+(DIED, 604)</h3>
+
+<a id="img032" name="img032"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="200" height="456" alt="St. Augustine." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>A complete biography of St. Augustine of Canterbury it is impossible
+to write: almost all that is known of him is his work as a missionary
+to the English, and almost the only source of our knowledge of that
+missionary work is the "Ecclesiastical History" of Bæda. But the
+mission of St. Augustine was one of the great crises, not only of the
+history of the Christian Church, but of the history of human
+civilization. The difference between a number of Celtic churches, with
+bishops largely subordinate to the abbots of monasteries, included (as
+it seems) in none of the great Catholic patriarchates, cut off from
+all communication with the great centres of human thought and
+life&mdash;and a Church of England taking her place, at once independent
+and subordinate, in the swift development of human progress, both
+conservative and creative&mdash;this difference is quite incalculable. And
+the mission of St. Augustine made the difference.</p>
+
+<p>The triumph of Christianity depended&mdash;apart from its divine
+authority&mdash;upon the thorough organization of the Christian
+communities; and that organization had for its centre the Episcopacy.
+But as separate congregations without a bishop could never have
+escaped disintegration, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page089" name="page089"></a>(p. 089)</span> so the united congregations, with
+their presbyters and bishop, would have been powerless without some
+further organization, uniting the bishops, with well-defined
+regulations, under some recognized hierarchy of authority. Thus arose
+metropolitan sees, and the great patriarchates of the Catholic
+Church&mdash;Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople. This
+centralization was rendered necessary by the course of events; but it
+had otherwise no divine authority and might be modified just as
+validly as it was created. When the Roman Empire was submerged under
+the deluge of barbarian races, a yet closer centralization became
+necessary, at least in the West; and the ark in which floated over
+that terrible deluge not only the Christian religion, but the remains
+of ancient civilization, both Greek and Roman, was the patriarchate of
+Rome. The man who not only clearly perceived, but was absolutely
+compelled to assume, his awful responsibility in the West, the Saviour
+at once of the Church and the world, was the splendid pontiff, Gregory
+the Great; the great pontiff who sent St. Augustine and his companions
+to preach the gospel to the English conquerors of Britain. If we would
+clearly understand the work of St. Augustine we must free our minds
+from the illusion produced by familiar names. One of these is the name
+Britain. In the time of Gregory the Great the island called by that
+name was, of course, the same as that on which Julius Cæsar had
+landed. The barbarians whom Cæsar encountered had been subdued by his
+successors, and a Roman province had been formed. Roman civilization
+had been introduced and, one might almost say, had flourished. The
+Christian religion had found its way thither; there had been Christian
+congregations and bishops, and even a heresiarch. But Rome, in the
+struggle for her own existence, had been compelled to withdraw her
+legions from the province of Britain; and to leave the people not only
+to their internal dissensions, but to the attacks of the "Scots" and
+"Picts," from Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Then followed the
+conquest of Britain by the English, as the Teutonic invaders began
+soon to be called. The Celtic people were largely driven out,
+including the Celtic Christians. The English were heathens, and the
+Celtic Christians seem to have made no effort whatever for their
+conversion. The English, again, were by no means consolidated into an
+English nation. It was to one division of these English heathens that
+Gregory the Great sent Augustine.</p>
+
+<p>Even the term "the British Church" is somewhat misleading. There is
+not the slightest trustworthy evidence, either as to the time when, or
+the person by whom, Christianity was introduced into Britain. There,
+of course, as everywhere else, the Church was under the rule of
+bishops; but, excepting for the purpose of ordaining, the authority of
+the British bishops seems to have been entirely overshadowed by the
+authority of the abbots of monasteries. There seems, as we have said,
+no evidence of anything resembling the patriarchal system among them;
+nor of any close or frequent communication between the British
+churches and the rest of Christendom. This is proved, among other
+things, by their curious reckoning of Easter; which (as Gieseler
+shows, "Eccle. Hist.," ii., 164, English translation) was by no means
+identical with that of the Quarto-decimans. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page090" name="page090"></a>(p. 090)</span> It was simply
+the survival of the use of an old cycle which had been elsewhere
+superseded by one more accurate and convenient.</p>
+
+<p>The ascertainable biography of St. Augustine begins with his mission,
+by command of Gregory, to the heathen English; and especially to the
+subjects of Ethelbert, King of Kent, who had married a Christian lady.
+There is not the slightest reason for discrediting the story related
+by Bæda, of the incident which first excited Gregory's interest in the
+heathen English. The relations between Britain and Rome having come to
+an end, it is not in the least surprising that even a person so
+exceptionally well informed should have known nothing about the
+Teutonic peoples&mdash;Angles, Jutes, Saxons&mdash;which had driven out the
+British. That he should have played upon words so suggestive as Angli,
+Deira, and Ælla, is exactly what might be expected from the author of
+the "Magna Moralia." The familiar story&mdash;he calls it "opinio quæ de
+beato Gregorio traditione majorum ad nos usque perlata est"&mdash;as told
+by Bæda, is as follows ("Hist. Eccl.," ii., 1):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>It is reported that some merchants, having just arrived at Rome on a
+certain day, exposed many things for sale in the market-place, and
+abundance of people resorted thither to buy; Gregory himself went with
+the rest, and, among other things, some boys were set to sale, their
+bodies white, their countenances beautiful, and their hair very fine.
+Having viewed them, he asked, as is said, from what country or nation
+they were brought? and was told, from the island of Britain, whose
+inhabitants were of such personal appearance. He again inquired
+whether those islanders were Christians, or still involved in the
+errors of paganism? and was informed that they were pagans. Then,
+fetching a deep sigh from the bottom of his heart, "Alas! what pity,"
+said he, "that the author of darkness is possessed of men of such fair
+countenances; and that being remarkable for such graceful aspects,
+their minds should be void of inward grace." He therefore again asked,
+what was the name of that nation? and was answered that they were
+called Angles. "Right," said he, "for they have an angelic face, and
+it becomes such to be co-heirs with the angels in heaven. What is the
+name," proceeded he, "of the province from which they are brought?" It
+was replied, that the natives of that place were called Deiri. "Truly
+are they De ira," said he, "withdrawn from wrath, and called to the
+mercy of Christ. How is the king of that province called?" They told
+him his name was Ælla; and he, alluding to the name, said,
+"Hallelujah, the praise of God the Creator must be sung in those
+parts."</p>
+
+<p>Gregory was eager to go at once on a mission to the home of these
+beautiful children, and the then pope gave his consent; but the Roman
+people could not bear the loss of one already so useful and
+distinguished, and almost before he had started he was recalled. When,
+during his own pontificate, Gregory carried out his purpose, it was
+probably due to a request of Queen Bertha, speaking, most likely, in
+behalf of some of the Kentish people, made to the Frankish bishops for
+missionaries. "It has come to our knowledge," writes Gregory, "that,
+through the mercy of God, the people of the Angli are eagerly desiring
+to be converted to the Christian faith, but that the priests of their
+own neighborhood neglect them." <span class="pagenum"><a id="page091" name="page091"></a>(p. 091)</span> When Bertha married
+Ethelbert it was on condition that she should retain her own religion;
+and she was accompanied to Kent by a French bishop, named Luidhard,
+who must have acted chiefly as her private chaplain. Ethelbert nobly
+kept his word, and thus the piety of Bertha, and her religion, may
+easily and deeply have impressed the Kentish heathen. That the Celtic
+bishops and clergy&mdash;"sacerdotes e vicinio"&mdash;did nothing for the
+conversion of the heathen English can scarcely be matter of surprise,
+though possibly of regret. For they were not only Christians, but
+belonged to the conquered race; whom, apart from their religion, it
+was the policy of the conquerors to drive out of the country, and who
+were compelled to take refuge in the remotest districts of the land.
+The Frankish bishops seem to have done little or nothing in response
+to Queen Bertha's solicitations; and Gregory ordered Candidus,
+administrator of the Patrimony of St. Peter in Gaul, to bring up
+English youths, and have them trained in monasteries, and fitted to be
+made missionaries to their own land. At length, in the sixth year of
+his pontificate, he determined to undertake the work himself; and sent
+from his own monastery of St. Andrew, on the Cælian Hill, in Rome, a
+company of forty monks, headed by their prior, Augustine.</p>
+
+<p>Their progress at first was rapid. Starting in the summer of <span class="smcap">A.D</span>. 596,
+they soon arrived in the neighborhood of Aix, in Provence. But the
+nearer they came to what should have been their journey's end, the
+less inclined they were for the work to which they had been appointed.
+The heathen English were represented as barbarians of unusual
+ferocity; and the companions of Augustine were as frightened as the
+companions of Caleb and Joshua. They induced their prior to return to
+Gregory and seek a release from their perilous task. But Gregory was
+not a man to be frightened himself, or to have much sympathy with
+cowards. He wrote, however, with great gentleness: "For as much as it
+had been better not to begin a good work than to think of desisting
+from that which has been begun, it behoves you, my beloved sons, to
+fulfil the good work which, by the help of the Lord, you have
+undertaken. Let not, therefore, the toil of the journey, nor the
+tongues of evil-speaking men, deter you: but with all possible
+earnestness and zeal, perform that which by God's direction you have
+undertaken." He furnished them with letters to the bishops of Tours,
+Marseilles, Vienne, and Autun, and also to the metropolitan of Arles.
+After the lapse of a year they slowly continued their journey, and
+landed at last at Ebbe's Fleet, in the Isle of Thanet.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as they had landed Augustine sent the interpreters, whom he
+had obtained from "the nation of the Franks," to tell Ethelbert of his
+arrival. Ethelbert seems to have been a really noble-hearted man, and
+had doubtless been attracted by the piety of his wife Bertha. The
+missionaries told him that they had come from Rome, the great capital
+of the West, and "had brought a joyful message which most undoubtedly
+assured to all that took advantage of it, everlasting joys in heaven,
+and a kingdom that would never end, with the living and true God." The
+king ordered them to remain in the island where they had landed, and
+promised that they should be furnished with all necessaries till he
+should consider what <span class="pagenum"><a id="page092" name="page092"></a>(p. 092)</span> he would do with them. Soon after he
+came to the island, and conferred with Augustine and his companions in
+the open air; fearing the possibility of magic enchantments if he met
+them under any roof. He was much impressed by their ceremonial, their
+bearing, and their teaching. "Your words and promises," he said, "are
+very fair, but as they are new to us, and of uncertain import, I
+cannot approve of them so far as to forsake that which I have so long
+followed with the whole English nation ["cum omni Anglorum gente:"
+this by no means implies, it is scarcely necessary to say, an English
+nation in the modern sense of those words]. But because you are come
+from far into my kingdom, and, as I conceive, are desirous to impart
+to us those things which you believe to be true and most beneficial,
+we will not molest you, but give you favorable entertainment, and take
+care to supply you with your necessary sustenance; nor do we forbid
+you to preach, and gain as many as you can to your religion."</p>
+
+<p>By the king's invitation they crossed from Thanet and took their abode
+in the then rude town of Canterbury, and before long were allowed to
+worship in St. Martin's Church, with the queen. Their influence
+gradually increased, and a considerable number of the English were
+converted. At last Ethelbert himself received baptism (Whitsunday,
+<span class="smcap">A.D</span>. 597); and following his example, it is said that on December 25th
+following&mdash;mid-winter!&mdash;upward of ten thousand were baptized in the
+waters of the Swale. Of course, it cannot be supposed that in these
+mediæval "conversions" of whole tribes or "nations," there was any
+rational acceptance of the complete theology of the Church. The
+conversion was rather the acceptance of a discipline, a mode of life;
+founded indeed on Christian doctrine and in all kinds of subtle ways
+symbolizing it; but primarily an imitation of a sweeter and purer
+life, and a more spiritual and suggestive worship. The words of Bæda
+(i., 26) are worthy of note as indicating the temper both of Gregory
+and Augustine: "Their conversion the king so far encouraged, as that
+he compelled none to embrace Christianity, but only showed more
+affection to the believers, as to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly
+kingdom. For he had learnt from his instructors and leaders to
+salvation, that the service of Christ ought to be voluntary, not by
+compulsion."</p>
+
+<a id="img033" name="img033"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="400" height="550" alt="" title="">
+<p>Conversion of Ethelbert by Augustine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Having so far succeeded in his mission, Augustine went to Arles and
+was consecrated archbishop of the English by the Metropolitan
+Virgilius. [Bæda says (i., 27): "Archiepiscopus genti Anglorum
+ordinatus est," the actual see probably being then undetermined.] On
+his return he despatched Lawrence and Peter to Rome to tell Gregory
+that the Angli had been converted to the faith, and that he himself
+(Augustine) had been made a bishop. They were also to bring back the
+Pope's answers to sundry questions respecting the conduct of the
+mission which Augustine proposed to him. Both the questions and the
+answers are highly suggestive. The first question was as to the
+division of the offerings of the faithful. The second as to
+differences of "Use" in the celebration of Mass and other divine
+offices. The answer of Gregory is almost classical, and may well be
+repeated here: "You know, my brother," he says, "the custom of the
+Roman Church.... But it pleases me that if you have found anything,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page093" name="page093"></a>(p. 093)</span> whether in the Roman Church, or the church of the Gauls
+["Galliarum"], or any church whatever, which may be more pleasing to
+Almighty God, you carefully make choice of the same and diligently
+teach the church of the English, which as yet is new in the faith ...
+whatever you have been able to collect from many churches. For things
+are not to be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of
+good things." The fourth and fifth questions of Augustine refer to
+prohibited degrees of marriage, and Gregory replies, as to the
+marriage of first-cousins, among other objections, "we have learned by
+experience that no offspring can come of such marriage." To
+Augustine's inquiry as to his relations with the bishops of Gaul and
+Britain ["Galliarum Brittaniarumque,"] Gregory replies that Augustine
+has no authority whatever within the jurisdiction of the metropolitan
+of Arles; but he adds: "As for all the bishops of Britain
+["Brittaniarum"], we commit them to your care, that the unlearned may
+be taught, the weak strengthened by persuasion, and the perverse
+corrected by authority." Considering the context&mdash;Augustine had been
+asking whether, under the circumstances, he could consecrate bishops
+without the presence of any other bishops; and, moreover, he had not
+as yet come into any kind of contact with the Celtic bishops&mdash;it seems
+probable that "the bishops of Britain" here placed under Augustine's
+jurisdiction were the bishops to be afterward consecrated by himself,
+with or without the presence and witness of Gallic or other bishops.
+Gregory's advice to Augustine, conveyed through the Abbot Mellitus,
+may well be pondered by the managers of modern missions. He says: "The
+temples of the idols in that nation [the English] ought not to be
+destroyed; but let the idols that are in them be destroyed; let holy
+water be made and sprinkled in the said temples, let altars be
+erected, and relics placed. For if those temples are well built it is
+requisite that they be converted from the worship of devils to the
+service of the true God; that the nation ... adoring the true God, may
+the more familiarly resort to the places to which they have been
+accustomed." He even suggests that their sacrifices&mdash;which were
+largely festivals, as much social as religious&mdash;should be
+discontinued, indeed, as sacrifices, but changed into banquets and
+associated with the day of the dedication of a church, or the
+"nativity" of a holy martyr. And all this on the perfectly sound
+principle, too often forgotten, that "he who strives to reach the
+highest place raises himself by steps and degrees, and not by leaps
+[gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus elevatus]."</p>
+
+<p>At last Augustine was brought into contact with the Celtic bishops. It
+was clear that their assistance would be very valuable in the endeavor
+to convert the English, and also that their peculiar usages would
+convey the impression of far greater diversity of doctrine than
+actually existed. Augustine was willing to make much concession. There
+were three conditions of union which seemed to him indispensable:
+agreement as to the time of keeping Easter; agreement as to the mode
+of administering baptism; and hearty co-operation in mission work
+among the heathen. We may leave out of consideration alleged miracles;
+also the curious, or even the ludicrous, test of a divine mission
+suggested by "the aged hermit" of the story. The Celtic bishops
+refused any sort of co-operation, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page094" name="page094"></a>(p. 094)</span> Augustine left them,
+not without a solemn warning: "If they would not have peace with their
+brethren, they would have to accept war from their enemies; if they
+would not preach the way of life to the nation of the Angli, they
+would have to suffer at their hands the vengeance of death." It is
+scarcely credible&mdash;though in religious controversy almost anything is
+credible&mdash;that a warning so obviously wise, and even charitable,
+should have been interpreted as a mere threat, and as evidence that
+Augustine himself was the author of the calamities that afterward
+befell the Celtic Church.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the simple story of the mission and the life&mdash;for we read
+nothing about his life but his mission&mdash;of Augustine, the first
+archbishop of Canterbury. He was not able to carry out the whole
+scheme of Gregory. He was not the first to introduce Christianity into
+Britain. But, apart from Queen Bertha's private chaplain, he was the
+first to introduce Christianity to the English&mdash;those Teutonic tribes
+which were the ancestors of the English of to-day. Who first brought
+the gospel to the Roman province of Britain no one knows; nor is it of
+the slightest importance that anyone should know. But that there
+should have been two Christian religions in England when the nation
+was being consolidated, would have been fatal both to nation and
+church. We conclude this brief notice by a passage from two
+historians, neither of whom could possibly be suspected of any undue
+subservience to the modern Church of Rome. The first is from Mr.
+Green's "The Making of England" (pp. 314, 315); he is speaking of the
+results of the Synod of Whitby (<span class="smcap">A.D</span>. 664).</p>
+
+<p>"It is possible that lesser political motives may have partly swayed
+Oswin in his decision, for the revival of Mercia had left him but the
+alliance of Kent in the south, and this victory of the Kentish Church
+would draw tighter the bonds which linked together the two powers. But
+we may fairly credit him with a larger statesmanship. Trivial in fact
+as were the actual points of difference which parted the Roman Church
+from the Irish, the question to which communion Northumbria should
+belong was, as we have seen, of immense moment to the after-fortunes
+of England. It was not merely that, as Wilfrid said, to fight against
+Rome was to fight against the world. Had England, indeed, clung to the
+Irish Church, it must have remained spiritually isolated from the bulk
+of Western Christendom. Fallen as Rome might be from its older
+greatness, it preserved the traditions of civilization, of letters,
+and art and law. Its faith still served as a bond which held together
+the nations that sprang from the wreck of the Empire. To repulse Rome
+was to condemn England to isolation. But grave as such considerations
+were, they were of little weight beside the influence which Oswin's
+decision had on the very unity of the English race. The issue of the
+Synod not only gave England a share in the religious unity of Western
+Christendom; it gave her a religious unity at home. However dimly such
+thoughts may have presented themselves to Oswin's mind, it was the
+instinct of a statesman that led him to set aside the love and
+gratitude of his youth, and to secure the religious oneness of England
+in the Synod of Whitby."</p>
+
+<p>The other is from Milman's "History of Latin Christianity" (ii., 198,
+199, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page095" name="page095"></a>(p. 095)</span> Amer. Edition): "The effect of Christianity on
+Anglo-Saxon England was at once to re-establish a connection both
+between the remoter parts of the island with each other, and of
+England with the rest of the Christian world. They ceased to dwell
+apart, a race of warlike, unapproachable barbarians, in constant
+warfare with the bordering tribes, or occupied in their own petty
+feuds or inroads, rarely, as in the case of Ethelbert, connected by
+intermarriage with some neighboring Teutonic state. Though the Britons
+were still secluded in the mountains, or at extremities of the land,
+by animosities which even Christianity could not allay, yet the Picts
+and Scots, and the parts of Ireland which were occupied by Christian
+monasteries, were now brought into peaceful communication, first with
+the kingdom of Northumbria, and through Northumbria with the rest of
+England. The intercourse with Europe was of far higher importance, and
+tended much more rapidly to introduce the arts and habits of
+civilization into the land. There was a constant flow of missionaries
+across the British Channel, who possessed all the knowledge which
+still remained in Europe. All the earlier metropolitans of Canterbury
+and the bishops of most of the southern sees, were foreigners; they
+were commissioned at Rome, if not consecrated there; they travelled
+backward and forward in person, or were in constant communication with
+that great city, in which were found all the culture, the letters, the
+arts, and sciences which had survived the general wreck."</p>
+
+<p>Nobody need disparage the Celtic Church; but it is not too much to say
+that the Celtic Church could never have preserved Christianity in
+Britain against the victorious Saxon or English heathen. But from the
+very beginning the Church of England has retained the traces of her
+early origin, when Gregory the Great was Pope, when the claim to be
+universal bishop was deemed untenable, when even the ritual of the
+Mass was still in unessential details flexible.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig008" name="sig008"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig008.jpg" width="150" height="97" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3>MAHOMET<br>
+(571-632)</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Arabian "Prophet" was born at the city of Mecca, some time during
+the sixth century, but the precise year has, after much discussion,
+still been left in doubt. Hottinger says, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 571, Reiske, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 572,
+and Gagnier, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 578. His lineage has also been the subject of great
+altercation, one party exalting him above most of his countrymen,
+while the other degraded him to the lowest rank&mdash;particularly
+contemporary Christian writers, who were desirous of rendering him an
+object of contempt; and in the same degree that the Christians felt
+themselves called upon to degrade the Arabian prophet, so did the
+Mahometans think themselves compelled to exalt him. Mahomet
+successfully vindicated for himself a high <span class="pagenum"><a id="page096" name="page096"></a>(p. 096)</span> lineage among his
+countrymen; the tribe of Koreish, to which he belonged, laying claim
+to Ishmael as their progenitor, and this claim, arising from the
+vanity of the tribe, was eagerly laid hold of and supported by his
+votaries.</p>
+
+<a id="img034" name="img034"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img034.jpg" width="250" height="197" alt="Two camel ridders." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Abdallah, the father of Mahomet, was the youngest son of Abd al
+Motâlleb, the son of Hashem. "Hashem," say the authors of the "Modern
+Universal History," "succeeded his father Abd al Menaf in the
+principality of the Koreish, and consequently in the government of
+Mecca, and the custody of the Caaba." So far the genealogy of the
+prophet is supported by authentic history&mdash;that he was descended from
+the princes of his people cannot be denied. This descent from Ishmael,
+Gibbon, after Sale, thus disproves: "Abulfeda and Gagnier describe the
+popular and approved genealogy of the prophet. At Mecca I would not
+dispute its authenticity; at Lausanne, I will venture to observe, 1st,
+That, from Ishmael to Mahomet, a period of two thousand five hundred
+years, they reckon thirty instead of seventy-five generations. 2d.
+That the modern Bedoweens are ignorant of their history, and careless
+of their pedigree."</p>
+
+<p>Abdallah, though of high lineage, was possessed of little wealth; and
+as he died while his son was yet an infant, we may easily suppose that
+little to have been diminished by the rapacity of his kindred. At the
+early age of six years Mahomet lost his mother, Amina; and two years
+after, his grandfather, Abd al Motâlleb, who when dying, earnestly
+confided the helpless orphan to the care of Abu Taleb, the eldest of
+his sons, and the successor to his authority. From him, though treated
+with kindness, Mahomet received a scanty education; but whether that
+education was equal or inferior to that of his countrymen, it is not
+easy to discover. Tradition states that at the time of Mahomet's first
+declaration concerning his mission, only one man in Mecca could write.
+If so, it is nothing wonderful that Mahomet, like the rest of his
+kindred, should also he unable to write. At thirteen years of age, he
+is said to have made a journey to Syria, in the caravan of his uncle,
+and, some years after, to have performed the same journey in the
+capacity of factor to his mistress, Cadijah.</p>
+
+<p>The next remarkable event in the life of Mahomet, is his appearance in
+the character of a soldier. At the early age of fourteen, he served
+under his uncle, who commanded the troops of his tribe, the Koreish,
+in their wars against the rival tribes of Kenan and Hawazan. The
+circumstance is worthy of remark, as illustrative of the perfect
+compatibility between the business of a merchant and that of a
+soldier, among the Arabian people, and upon the constant and rapid
+transition from one to the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page097" name="page097"></a>(p. 097)</span> By the assistance of his uncle he became soon after the
+factor of a rich trading widow in his native city. The animosity of
+his enemies has degraded the confidential agent into a driver of
+camels. It has been confidently and constantly asserted that he was a
+menial servant in the household of his mistress, Cadijah; while, in
+truth, he was employed to carry on her mercantile transactions, and to
+superintend her affairs. In this situation of factor, his conduct and
+integrity gained him the affections of his mistress. Cadijah was not,
+in the eyes of her people, degraded by an alliance with the grandson
+of their prince; and in her own estimation, by bestowing her hand and
+fortune upon Mahomet, she gained a young, handsome, and affectionate
+husband. Twenty years of constancy, of kind and respectful attention,
+on the part of Mahomet, fully justified her choice. It may, indeed, be
+imagined, and we confess the supposition bears the appearance of some
+plausibility, that the affection of Cadijah was not uninfluenced by
+the handsome person and insinuating eloquence of her youthful suitor.
+And we cannot refuse our applause to the conduct of Mahomet, who,
+whatever might have been her motives, never afterward forgot the
+benefits he had received from his benefactress, never made her repent
+having so bestowed her affection, or grieve at having placed her
+fortune and her person at his absolute disposal. Cadijah, at the time
+of her marriage, was forty; Mahomet, twenty-five years of age. Till
+the age of sixty-four years, when she died, did Cadijah enjoy the
+undivided affection of her husband; "in a country where polygamy was
+allowed, the pride or tenderness of the venerable matron was never
+insulted by the society of a rival. After her death he placed her in
+the rank of the four perfect women: with the sister of Moses, the
+mother of Jesus, and Fatima, the best beloved of his daughters. 'Was
+she not old?' said Ayesha, with the insolence of a blooming beauty;
+'has not Allah given you a better in her place?' 'No, by Allah!' said
+Mahomet, with an effusion of honest gratitude, 'there never can be a
+better! She believed in me, when men despised me: she relieved my
+wants when I was poor and persecuted by the world.'"</p>
+
+<p>Commerce now occupied his attention, and till the age of forty nothing
+remarkable happened in the life of the future prophet. His marriage
+with Cadijah raised him to an equality with the first citizens of
+Mecca, gave an importance to his opinions, and, combined with the
+power of his family, probably rendered it impossible to punish or
+interrupt the first steps he made toward the propagation of his new
+religion. When relieved from the pressure of indigence, his mind seems
+almost immediately to have been turned toward religious meditation.
+The result of this meditation was an opinion exceedingly unfavorable
+to the religion of his countrymen. The first statement of this
+conviction was met rather by ridicule than anger, being considered the
+fantasy of a dreaming enthusiast, who was little to be dreaded, and
+unworthy of opposition. We are told that he retired to a cave in Mount
+Hara, near Mecca, where, as he assured his first proselyte, his wife,
+he regularly received the visits of the angel Gabriel. This tale his
+wife believed, or affected to believe. The next on the list of true
+believers were Zeid, the servant of the prophet, and Ali, the son of
+his uncle, Abu Taleb. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page098" name="page098"></a>(p. 098)</span> The impetuous youth, disdaining his
+two predecessors in the true faith, proudly styled himself the first
+of believers. The next and most important convert was Abu Bekr, a
+powerful citizen of Mecca, by whose influence a number of persons
+possessing great authority were induced to profess the religion of
+Islam. Three years were spent in the arduous task of converting six of
+these men. They were afterward his chief companions, and with a few
+others, were the only proselytes to the new religion before it became
+publicly known.</p>
+
+<p>The apostle, who was at first derided, came at length to be feared.
+The people flocked to hear his doctrines, and as they retired,
+wondering and believing, general consternation reigned among the
+governors of Mecca. Frightened by his growing influence, they
+imprudently endeavored to arrest the evil by punishing the offender.
+For some time, however, the power of Abu Taleb, the prophet's uncle,
+defended him against these hostile attacks, which served, by
+manifesting the alarm and hatred of the nobles, to increase Mahomet's
+fame and importance. Persecution gave him strength by bringing him
+before the public. Once known, he gained sympathizing listeners among
+the benevolent, because a persecuted man; and blindly believing
+votaries among the ignorant and fearful, because a bold and vehement
+declaimer against wickedness, as well as an eloquent describer of the
+horrible torments attached to unbelief. In the seventh year of his
+mission, the heads of the tribe of Koreish made a solemn league one
+with another, engaging themselves to have no commerce or connection
+with the families of Hashem and Al Motâlleb. While Abu Taleb lived the
+league was of no avail; the power of the uncle defended the nephew
+against the designs of his enemies. At length, at the end of the
+seventh year, Abu Taleb died; and a few days after his death Mahomet
+was left a widower, by the decease of Cadijah. In his affliction he
+termed this fatal year the year of mourning.</p>
+
+<p>The unprotected prophet was now completely exposed to the attacks of
+his enemies. His only safety was in flight, and had not the city of
+Medina been friendly to his cause, the religion of Islam would have
+been crushed in the bud. The fame of Mahomet, however, had extended
+far beyond the walls of his native town. Distance, by shrouding him in
+mystery, increased his influence. While he was scorned and derided at
+Mecca, he was worshipped at Medina. A secret deputation from the city
+of Medina waited on the apostle, and an alliance was entered into
+"during two secret and nocturnal interviews, on a hill in the suburbs
+of Mecca." Seventy-three men and two women having professed the faith
+of Islam, as well as some yet unbelievers, met the prophet and
+proffered him assistance. "What recompense," said they, "have we to
+expect, should we fall in your defence?" "Paradise," exclaimed the
+confident apostle. They promised him fidelity and allegiance.</p>
+
+<p>From a fugitive Mahomet became a monarch; no sooner had he arrived at
+Medina than he found himself at the head of an army devoted to his
+person, obedient to his will, and blind believers in his holy office.
+The <span class="italic">fugitives</span> from Mecca and the <span class="italic">auxiliaries</span> of Medina (the two
+parties into which Mahomet's followers were now divided) gathered
+round their chief, and with friendly emulation <span class="pagenum"><a id="page099" name="page099"></a>(p. 099)</span> vied with
+each other in obedience and in valor. To prevent all jealousy between
+the brethren, Mahomet wisely gave each one a friend and companion from
+the rival band; each <span class="italic">fugitive</span> had for his brother one of the
+<span class="italic">auxiliaries</span>. Their fraternity was continued in peace and in war, and
+during the life of the prophet their union was undisturbed by the
+voice of discord.</p>
+
+<p>The commands of the prophet were followed to the letter. The first
+warlike attempt of the believers was, nevertheless, unsuccessful.
+Mahomet having learned that a caravan, the property of the hostile
+Koreish, was on its way from Syria to Mecca, despatched his uncle
+Hamza, with a party of thirty horse, to capture it. Hamza, however,
+discovering the caravan to be guarded by 300 men, desisted from his
+hostile enterprise, and returned without the expected booty. On the
+plain of Beder, Mahomet, at the head of his troops, effaced the shame
+of this failure. A rich caravan, proceeding to Mecca, and guarded by
+Abu Sofian, with between thirty and forty men, occasioned the contest.
+The spies of Mahomet informed him that this rich and apparently easy
+prey was within his grasp. He advanced with a few followers in pursuit
+of it; but before he could overtake the unprotected band, Abu Sofian
+had sent for a reinforcement from Mecca. A troop consisting of 950
+men, among whom were the chief persons of that city, instantly obeyed
+the summons. Mahomet was posted between the caravan and the coming
+succor, being able to oppose to this formidable force no more than 313
+soldiers, mounted for the most part on camels; some few (according to
+some authors, not more than two) being mounted on horses.</p>
+
+<p>Undismayed by this disparity of force, Mahomet determined to try the
+event of a battle, and risk his fortune and perhaps his life upon the
+contest. The troops were persuaded to engage the superior forces of
+the enemy, and for the present to abandon the tempting prize of Abu
+Sofian's rich caravan. Mahomet animated them by his prayers, and in
+the name of the Most High promised them certain victory. However
+assured he might have been of divine assistance, he was careful to let
+slip no human means of securing success. An entrenchment was made to
+cover the flanks of his troop, and a rivulet flowed past the spot he
+had chosen for his encampment, and furnished his army with a constant
+supply of water. When the enemy appeared, descending from the hills,
+Mahomet ordered his soldiers to the attack; but before the armies
+could engage, three combatants, Ali, Al Hareth, and Hamza, on the side
+of the Moslems, and three of the Koreish, joined in single conflict.
+The Moslem warriors were victorious, and thus gave to both armies a
+presage of the coming engagement. The prophet, with Abu Bekr, at the
+commencement of the battle, mounted a pulpit, fervently demanding of
+God the assistance of Gabriel and three thousand angels; but when his
+army appeared to waver, he started from his place of prayer, mounted a
+horse, and flinging a handful of dust into the air, exclaiming, "May
+their faces be confounded!" rushed upon the enemy. Fanaticism rendered
+his followers invincible; the numerous forces of the Koreish were
+unable to break the ranks or resist the furious attacks of his
+confiding soldiers. They fled, leaving seventy of their principal
+officers dead upon the field, and seventy prisoners in the hands of
+the enemy. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>(p. 100)</span> Of the Moslems, only fourteen were slain. The
+names of the slaughtered warriors have been handed down to posterity,
+and enrolled among the list of pious martyrs whom the faithful
+Mussulman is taught to worship.</p>
+
+<p>Space will not permit us to enumerate the various battles fought by
+Mahomet; according, however, to the computation of some authors, no
+less than twenty-seven expeditions were undertaken, in which he
+personally commanded, and in which nine pitched battles were fought.
+During the same period, he was besieged in Medina, by the implacable
+Koreish; but, by his own skill, and the bravery of his troops, he
+repelled all their attacks. In the sixth year of the Hegira, with
+1,400 men, he meditated what he asserted to be a peaceful pilgrimage
+to the holy temple of Mecca. Entrance into the city being refused by
+the people, the prophet, in his anger, determined to force his way. At
+this critical juncture an ambassador was despatched from Mecca to
+demand a peace. The policy of Mahomet induced him to lay aside his
+determination of assaulting his native city, and to accept the
+peaceful offers of his countrymen. A truce of ten years was
+consequently concluded between the prophet and the Koreish.</p>
+
+<p>Two years had hardly elapsed when Mahomet accused the people of Mecca
+of a breach of their engagement. When a man is really desirous of
+quarrelling, a pretext is never wanting. He was now strong, and his
+enemies were weak. His superstitious reverence for the city of his
+nativity, and for the temple it contained, served also to influence
+his determination for war. The time since the concluding of the truce
+had been skilfully employed in seducing the adherents of the Koreish,
+and converting to his religion the chief citizens of Mecca. With an
+army of 10,000 men he marched to besiege it, and no sooner did he
+appear before the walls than the city surrendered at discretion.</p>
+
+<a id="img035" name="img035"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img035.jpg" width="400" height="497" alt="" title="">
+<p>The Muezzin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The religion of Mahomet may be considered now to have been permanently
+settled. The conquest of Mecca and of the Koreish was the signal for
+the submission of the rest of Arabia. The events of the prophet's
+after-life cease, therefore, to possess an interest for a Western
+reader. They were, for the most part, merely expeditions undertaken
+for the purpose of reducing the petty tribes who still resisted his
+authority, and were all of them eventually successful. The influence
+and religion of Mahomet continued rapidly to extend; his difficulties
+were over; and the hour of his prosperity has nothing to instruct or
+to amuse the general reader. Between the taking of Mecca and the
+period of his death, not more than three years elapsed. In that short
+period he had destroyed the idols of Arabia; had extended his
+conquests to the borders of the Greek and Persian empires; had
+rendered his name formidable to those once mighty kingdoms; had tried
+his arms against the undisciplined troops of the former, and defeated
+them in a desperate encounter at Muta. His throne was now firmly
+established, and an impetus given to the Arabian nations that in a few
+years induced them to invade, and enabled them to subdue, a great
+portion of the globe. India, Persia, the Greek Empire, the whole of
+Asia Minor, Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>(p. 101)</span> were reduced by
+their victorious arms. The Muezzin<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10" title="Go to footnote 10"><span class="smaller">[10]</span></a> was heard throughout an empire
+greater than Alexander's; and though the temporal power of his
+successors has now faded to a shadow, the religion which he founded
+still holds sway throughout all that empire, and is even endeavoring
+to extend itself. Although Mahomet did not live to see such mighty
+conquests, he laid the first foundations of this wide-spreading
+dominion, and established over the whole of Arabia, and some part of
+Syria, the religion he had proclaimed.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ALFRED THE GREAT<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Sir J. Bernard Burke, LL.D</span>.<br>
+(849-901)</h3>
+
+<a id="img036" name="img036"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="300" height="192" alt="Family scene." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>No name in English history is so popular, and so justly popular, as
+that of Alfred the Great. That he taught his people to defend
+themselves and defeat their enemies, is the least of his many claims
+to our grateful admiration; he did much more than this; he gave the
+first impulse to the spirit of civilization, and taught a horde of
+wild barbarians that there were other and worthier pursuits than war
+or the pleasures of the table. In fact, he was one of those highly
+gifted men that would seem to be raised up especially by Providence to
+meet certain emergencies, or to advance the career of nations. Such
+was the hero, so beautifully recorded by the pen of Edmund Burke, and
+of whose history we now purpose to give a slight sketch for the
+amusement of those who might turn in weariness from a more ample
+record.</p>
+
+<p>Alfred the Great was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in the year 849,
+one of the most dreary and calamitous periods of English chronicle. He
+was the youngest son of Ethelwulph, a mild and virtuous prince, but
+full of a timid piety <span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>(p. 102)</span> which utterly disqualified him for the
+circumstances in which he was placed. According to the historian
+Asser, young Alfred, being of a more comely person and sweeter
+disposition than his elder brothers, became the favorite of both his
+parents, and was sent by them to Rome, while yet a child, in order
+that he might be anointed king by the Pope himself. But though the
+feeble piety of Ethelwulph showed this especial instance of regard for
+his son, he altogether neglected his education, and the young prince
+in his twelfth year had not yet learned to read or write. Fortunately
+for himself, and still more so for the kingdom he was afterward to
+govern, he possessed a mind too active to be entirely subdued by the
+most unfavorable circumstances. If he could not read for himself, he
+nevertheless loved to listen to the rude but inspiring strains of
+Saxon poetry when recited by others, and had he not been a hero and a
+statesman, he might probably have been a poet. At length, as the old
+chronicler tells us&mdash;"on a certain day, his mother was shewing him and
+his brothers a Saxon book of poetry, which she held in her hand, and
+said, 'Whichever of you shall the soonest learn this volume, shall
+have it for his own.'" Thus stimulated, Alfred bent himself to the
+task with all that steady ardor which so strongly characterized him in
+after-life, and easily won the prize from his tardy competitors. This
+gave a fresh impulse to his natural appetite for learning; even his
+passion for the chase could not divert him from earnest study; nor was
+he to be deterred by what might have been a better excuse for
+indolence, the incessant tortures of the secret malady which had
+attacked him while yet a child, and which never left him but with
+life. What this <span class="italic">secret</span> disease was, the old chroniclers have
+forgotten, or for some reasons omitted, to explain.</p>
+
+<p>In 871, Alfred succeeded his brother in the sovereignty of Wessex, at
+a period when the whole country was suffering under the ravages of the
+Danes, who burnt, plundered, and destroyed without the least
+distinction of age, sex, or profession. Being still pagans, the
+convent was no more sacred to them than the palace or the cottage.
+They waged war upon all alike, and the general misery was yet farther
+increased by a raging pestilence, and the internal dissensions of the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Alfred now for the first time took the field against these brave, but
+ruthless, invaders. He was defeated; yet such was his skill and
+courage, that he was able to maintain the struggle till at length a
+peace, or rather a truce, was concluded between the combatants, for
+these intervals of calm seldom lasted beyond a year. Neither was this
+the worst of the evils that beset the Saxon prince. Any compact he
+might make with one party of the Danes was considered binding only
+upon <span class="italic">that</span> party, and had no influence whatever upon others of their
+countrymen, who had different leaders and different interests. Thus,
+upon the present occasion, Alfred had no sooner made terms with one
+piratical horde than he was invaded by a fresh body of them under
+Rollo; and when he had compelled these to abandon Wessex, and seek for
+an easier conquest on the shores of Normandy, he was attacked by fresh
+bodies of Danes already settled in the other parts of England. So
+long, however, as they ventured to meet him in the open field, his
+skill secured him the victory; till, taught by repeated defeats, they
+had recourse <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>(p. 103)</span> to another system of tactics. "They used," says
+Burke, "suddenly to land and ravage a part of the country; when a
+force opposed them they retired to their ships and passed to some
+other part, which in a like manner they ravaged, and then retired as
+before, until the country, entirely harassed, pillaged, and wasted by
+their incursions, was no longer able to resist them. Then they
+ventured safely to enter a desolated and disheartened country and to
+establish themselves in it."</p>
+
+<p>To meet this system of warfare it was necessary to create a navy at a
+time when the Saxons knew not how to build ships, or to manage them
+when built. But the genius of Alfred triumphed over every obstacle. He
+brought shipwrights from the Continent, himself assisted the workmen
+in their labors, and engaged Frisian seamen, the neighbors of the
+Danes, and, like them, pirates.</p>
+
+<p>The new armament being completed, Alfred fell upon a Danish fleet
+which was bringing round a large force from Wareham to the relief of
+their friends, besieged in Exeter. These he defeated at all points,
+taking or destroying no less than one hundred and twenty, already
+damaged by a previous storm, and perhaps, on that account, less
+capable of defence. The Danes, whom he held cooped up in Exeter, found
+themselves in consequence compelled to surrender, and, giving hostages
+not to trouble Wessex any longer, they settled themselves in Mercia,
+after the example of so many of their countrymen, and became occupants
+of the land they had before ravaged. Thus Alfred, in the seventh year
+of his reign, had lost nothing by the war waged under so many
+difficulties and disadvantages, enough to have overwhelmed a man of
+less energy and genius; he still retained that portion of the kingdom
+which lies south of the Thames, the only part ever belonging to him in
+separate sovereignty, while the Danes possessed all the country on the
+northern side of the river. The rest of the land was thus divided:
+Halfdane reigned in Northumberland; his brother in East Anglia; and
+Guthrum, Osketel, and Amund, governed with their subordinate king,
+Ceowulph, in Mercia.</p>
+
+<p>There now occurs a difficulty in the life of Alfred, unexplained by
+the most industrious of his historians from any satisfactory record.
+We have just seen him triumphant, and at peace with his defeated
+enemies. Suddenly, without the notice of any lost battle, we find him
+seeking refuge in the cottage of a herdsman in the <span class="italic">Isle of
+Ethelingeye</span>, or <span class="italic">Island of Nobles</span>, now called Athelney. This spot,
+scarcely comprising two acres of ground, was surrounded on all sides
+by marshes, so that it could be approached only in a boat, and in it
+flourished a considerable grove of alders, in which were stags, goats,
+and other animals. Here it is that the romantic incident of the burnt
+cake is supposed to have occurred; a story told by many of the old
+writers, but nowhere so fully as in the Latin life of St. Neot. There
+we read that "Alfred, a fugitive, and exiled from his people, came by
+chance and entered the house of a poor herdsman, and there remained
+some days in poverty, concealed and unknown.</p>
+
+<p>"Now it happened that on the Sabbath day, the herdsman, as usual, led
+his cattle to their accustomed pastures, and the king remained alone
+with the man's wife. She, as necessity required, placed a few loaves,
+which some call <span class="italic">loudas</span>, on <span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>(p. 104)</span> a pan, with fire underneath, to
+be baked for her husband's repast on his return, as well as for her
+own.</p>
+
+<p>"While she was of need busied, peasant-like, upon other affairs, she
+went anxious to the fire, and found the bread burning on the other
+side. She immediately assailed the king with reproaches. 'Why, man, do
+you sit thinking there, and are too proud to turn the bread? Whatever
+be your family, with such manners and sloth, what trust can be put in
+you hereafter? If you were a nobleman, you will be glad to eat the
+bread which you neglect to attend to.' The king, though stung by her
+upbraidings, yet heard her with patience and mildness, and roused by
+her scolding, took care to bake her bread as she wished."</p>
+
+<p>This fable has been variously narrated; some accounts making the
+disguised prince busy in forming for himself a bow with arrows and
+other instruments of war, while the woman gives vent to her
+indignation in rhyme:</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "To turn the burning cakes you have forgot,<br>
+  Prompt as you are to eat them when they're hot."</p>
+
+<p>In a short time the king's retreat became known to his adherents, who
+flocking to him in numbers, he soon found himself enabled to carry on
+a sort of guerilla warfare upon the nearest Danes. Growing bolder from
+the general success of these sallies, he at length determined upon
+more decisive measures; but before making the attempt, it was
+expedient to learn the actual condition of his enemy. With this view
+he assumed the costume of a Saxon minstrel, and ventured into the
+Danish camp at Chippenham, about thirty miles distant from his
+stronghold among the marshes. In this disguise he went from tent to
+tent, and, as some of the chroniclers tell us, was admitted into the
+tent of Guthrum himself, the Danish leader, his quality of gleeman
+assuring safety even to a Saxon. Having obtained the necessary
+information, he returned to Athelney, which he finally left on the
+seventh week after Easter, and rode to <span class="italic">Egbert's Stone</span>, in the
+eastern part of <span class="italic">Selwood</span>, or the <span class="italic">Great Wood</span>. Here he was met by all
+the neighboring folk of Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire, who
+had not, for fear of the pagans, fled beyond the sea. Once more he
+encountered his enemies, and with a success almost as marvellous as
+the vision of St. Neot, which announced it, he routed the Danes at
+Ethendune with so much slaughter that they were glad to obtain peace
+on such terms as he chose to dictate. Guthrum embraced Christianity,
+and became the adopted son of Alfred.</p>
+
+<p>The king's next care was to endeavor at amalgamating the Danes, who
+had settled in the country, with the victorious Saxons; a wise policy,
+and as wisely carried out. The result of it was, that when new hordes
+of invaders poured down upon England, they met with no encouragement
+from their countrymen already established in the island, and for want
+of this support were easily put to flight. Nor was it by land only
+that Alfred proved his superiority, being no less successful by sea
+against the Danes of East Anglia. These he defeated off their adopted
+coast, and captured thirteen of their ships, with all the treasure in
+them.</p>
+
+<a id="img037" name="img037"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="" title="">
+<p>King Alfred visiting a monastery school.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fearful as were the ravages committed by the Danes, they were yet,
+like <span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>(p. 105)</span> many others of the evils of life, productive in the
+end of good. Before their invasion of the country, Wessex, Mercia,
+East Anglia, and Northumberland existed as four independent kingdoms.
+The last three they subdued in a little time to their own power, but
+being in turn defeated by Alfred, the conquered states fell to him,
+and this led the way to their final consolidation into a single
+kingdom. It was, however, a work of time, for the turbulent spirit of
+the Northmen required long and judicious treatment to make them lay
+down the sword, and take up the spade and sickle.</p>
+
+<p>Peace being at length restored, Alfred, who was a full century in
+advance of his people, commenced in earnest the arduous task of
+civilization. He called about him from all parts the most learned men
+of the day, and, setting the example in his own person, did more in a
+few years for the general advancement than had been previously
+effected in as many ages. Deficient himself in cultivation, but a
+giant in intellect, he devoted himself to study amid care, toil, and
+disease, mastered the Latin tongue, and&mdash;if we may believe William of
+Malmsbury&mdash;translated almost all that was known of Roman literature
+into Saxon. His clear and capacious mind was pious without bigotry,
+and while he reverenced the Pope as universal vicar, according to the
+doctrines of his age, he had yet none of the religious weakness of his
+father, but governed his kingdom in absolute independence of the Roman
+see. At the same time, no prince was more earnest in advancing the
+general interests of religion, which he considered, truly enough,
+essential to the well-being of the country. He rebuilt the ruined
+monasteries, added largely to the endowments of those that had escaped
+the barbarous invaders, and gave every encouragement to the
+ecclesiastics who came recommended to his favor by ability or virtue.</p>
+
+<p>While thus employed in the arts of peace, Alfred did not for an
+instant neglect the military defences of his kingdom, without which,
+indeed, he would have been like an improvident husbandman, who should
+carefully cultivate his land, but leave it unhedged and unprotected.
+One of his most efficient measures for this purpose, was the building
+of a new kind of galleys, which "were twice as long, twice as high,
+sailed more quickly, and were less unsteady than those of the Danes;
+some of these ships had sixty oars, some more." In addition to these
+naval improvements, his genius, which seemed to adapt itself alike to
+all arts, suggested a complete revolution in the existing state of
+military tactics, both in the field and in fortifications. He was,
+however, feebly seconded by his people; they had not yet arrived at
+that degree of practical wisdom which teaches men to endure a present
+pain for the sake of a future benefit, and could with difficulty be
+brought to make preparations against dangers which were still remote
+from them.</p>
+
+<p>Had Alfred done no more than what has been already mentioned, he would
+have deserved the lasting gratitude of his countrymen. But, in
+addition to all this, his services as a legislator must be taken into
+the account. If we judge of the system established by him, with
+reference to the age in which, and for which, it was produced, we
+shall find that in this respect also, the great Alfred stands
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>(p. 106)</span> without a rival. He had no help from the accumulated wisdom
+of ages; his enactments were to a great extent the result of his own
+mind and genius; or, at least, we may say of him, that he was the most
+original of legislators.</p>
+
+<p>Peace had lasted for what in those days must be held a very
+considerable period. But now the storm burst forth again as violently
+as ever. In the year 893 a famine visited the coast of France, and of
+so sweeping a kind, that the Danes, who had settled there under
+Hastings, determined to relieve themselves by a piratical attack upon
+Kent. Having landed without opposition, for Hastings had taken the
+English by surprise, he formed two encampments, the one at Appledore,
+the other at Milton, only twenty miles apart; there they were joined
+by many of their countrymen, who poured in from the north and east,
+notwithstanding their oaths, and that they had given hostages for
+their good conduct to the king of Wessex. Incredible as it may now
+seem, the invaders were allowed for a whole year to retain possession
+of the land thus acquired, without any attempt being made to dislodge
+them. The chroniclers of the time, however, tell us that this delay
+was occasioned by the necessity of providing against the faithlessness
+of their brethren, who, although they had not yet revolted, were
+hardly to be trusted without some farther security for their loyal
+adherence to the pledges already given. Having taken the necessary
+measures, Alfred then attacked Hastings, compelled him to sue for
+peace, and next turned his arms against a body of these pirates who
+had established themselves at Farnham. With them, too, he was no less
+successful; but while he was thus occupied, the East-Anglian and
+Northumbrian Danes seized the opportunity of revolt, and sailed in two
+fleets for the coast of Devonshire. These also he defeated, though
+even then it required no less than three years to drive these new
+invaders from the country.</p>
+
+<p>And now, in the year 901, having fulfilled his earthly mission as the
+defender and civilizer of his people, the great and good King Alfred
+expired, on October 26th, six days before the Mass of All Saints&mdash;not
+less beloved by his contemporaries than admired by after-ages.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>JOHN HUSS<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Rev. Dr. Tweedie</span><br>
+(1373-1415)</h3>
+
+<a id="img038" name="img038"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/img038.jpg" width="250" height="325" alt="John Huss." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>John Huss, a reformer before the Reformation, and the martyr of
+Constance, was born about the year 1373. His birthplace was Hussinetz,
+a village of Bohemia. His parentage was humble, and his early toils
+and privations formed the school in which he was trained for future
+hardships and sufferings. He studied at the university of Prague; and
+some of his teachers were men somewhat in advance of their age. In the
+year 1396 Huss received his master's degree, and began to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>(p. 107)</span>
+lecture in his university in 1398. In 1400 he was appointed confessor
+to the Queen of Bohemia; and in 1401 he became president of the
+philosophical faculty of Prague. The corruptions of his day,
+especially among the Romish priesthood, early suggested deep thoughts
+to this ardent man, and he found a few who were like-minded with
+himself among those who resided at Prague. Some of these entered into
+an arrangement for spreading truth as purely as it was then known;
+Huss was chosen their preacher, and there, in a place appropriately
+called "Bethlehem," or the House of Bread, he "refreshed the common
+people with the bread of holy preaching." The impression which he
+produced was profound. A fervent love, a holy life, glowing appeals,
+and a gentle manner, all helped to make him a master in grace, but
+soon brought him into collision with dark, mediæval minds.</p>
+
+<p>Here, then, is another decided and heroic man who has entered the
+ranks of the friends of truth. He will have much to do and much to
+endure&mdash;his patron will become his persecutor, and his friends will
+cast him out&mdash;if he is to assail the corruptions of the year 1400. But
+Huss was not the man to be damped by danger. His only inquiry was,
+What is duty?&mdash;he will do it at all hazards, and let us consider how;
+for in considering it, we see another example of the need of heroic
+decision in a world like ours, if man would really benefit his brother
+man. As early as the year 1391, the Bohemian reformer was studying the
+works of the great Englishman of that age; and all these things helped
+to urge him forward in the path in which he resolved to move. An
+archbishop might thwart him, and try to put him down. A whole
+university might oppose some of his measures. Wickliff's books might
+be burned, and loud remonstrances be heard. As a result, students,
+variously estimated at from 5,000 to 44,000 might forsake the
+university of Prague. But unmoved by such commotions, Huss went boldly
+forward.</p>
+
+<p>But, intrepid as he was, Huss needed all his intrepidity. One of his
+friends was first thrown into prison, and then banished for his
+boldness; and Huss had to appeal to the archbishop, the chief agent in
+the persecution. "What is this," he cried "that men stained with
+innocent blood&mdash;men guilty of every crime&mdash;shall be found walking
+abroad with impunity, while humble priests, who spend all their
+efforts to destroy sin ... are cast into dungeons as heretics, and
+must suffer banishment for preaching the gospel?"</p>
+
+<p>Matters soon reached a crisis. Huss was summoned to Italy to defend
+his doctrines, and all Bohemia was roused by that step. The future
+martyr was not permitted to go&mdash;it would have been to sacrifice his
+life. Meanwhile Queen <span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>(p. 108)</span> Sophia used her influence on his
+behalf. The king wrote to the Pope and the cardinal in his favor. He
+demanded liberty for Huss to preach, and insisted that all actions
+against him should cease, so that for a while the persecution was
+stayed. But at last Huss was pronounced a heretic; and now he is one
+stage nearer to Constance and the funeral pile. On the way, however,
+he could exclaim, "Where I see anything at variance with the doctrines
+of Christ, I will not obey, though the stakes were staring me in the
+face." That was his maxim all through life; and in such an age such
+heroism in such a cause was the harbinger of death.</p>
+
+<p>At one stage of these life and death struggles, Huss had to do battle
+against a whole theological faculty; and that and similar contests
+trained him to a boldness and decision which was constantly growing.
+But he had now to separate, for the truth's sake, from friends whom he
+had prized through life. His pathway, indeed, is gradually becoming
+more narrow, as well as more rough&mdash;he is one of those who must often
+walk alone.</p>
+
+<p>Indulgences were now attacked by him in public disputations. About
+this period some of his friends were condemned to death because they
+objected to indulgences, and Huss took up their cause. He hastened to
+the Senate House, and pleaded for the three condemned men. He made
+their danger his own, and declared that he, the teacher, not they, the
+disciples, should die. In spite of his efforts, and in violation of
+promises given that no blood should be shed, his three friends were
+hurried to execution; and what could be the result of that step, but a
+more intense antagonism, a more resolute decision? On a subsequent
+occasion, accordingly, Huss appeared before the king and his council,
+to defend what he reckoned the right. He offered, with characteristic
+ardor, to be bound to die at the stake if he did not make good his
+views, provided his eight opponents would do the same. But all other
+struggles were soon merged in the great conflict with Rome itself. The
+Pope had determined to put down Huss, and he was excommunicated with
+the most terrible of papal forms. If he did not submit in twenty days,
+the ban was to be proclaimed against him in all churches; all who
+harbored him were to be laid under an interdict, and Huss himself was
+to be burned according to law.</p>
+
+<p>The King of Bohemia had urged Huss to leave Prague for a time, in the
+hope that peace might thus be restored. He complied, and, like Luther
+in the Wartburg, in the Castle of Kozi-hradek wrote some of his most
+important works. Never was more determined courage displayed by any
+man in similar circumstances than by Huss in that castle.</p>
+
+<p>From his hiding-place Huss often went abroad and preached to the
+crowds who flocked to hear him; but the Council of Constance is now at
+hand, for we are referring to the year 1414, and he is to proceed
+thither under a safe-conduct from Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, with
+the assurance that if he could not submit to the decision of the
+Council, the emperor would send him back unharmed to Bohemia. This was
+an opportunity for which Huss had longed. He would now, he thought,
+deliver his message and uphold the truth before assembled <span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>(p. 109)</span>
+potentates, and proceeded to Prague to prepare for the council.<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11" title="Go to footnote 11"><span class="smaller">[11]</span></a> He
+there publicly challenged all his opponents to convict him of error if
+they could, and proved that he was valiant for the truth as long as he
+was free.</p>
+
+<p>Huss set out for Constance on October 11, 1414, with two faithful
+knights to protect him by the way. Even in Germany he was cordially
+welcomed by many. He courted opportunities of making known his views,
+and at Nuremberg, in particular, he enjoyed such an opportunity to the
+full. He reached Constance on November 3d, where his enemies were
+busily employed, and he was speedily posted as a vile heretic; indeed,
+it was soon made plain that if he was a bold, intrepid man, he needed
+to be so. Officials from the Pope, who was then at Constance, desired
+him, as an interdicted priest, to abstain from the Church services;
+but he declined to comply. Had he chosen even to equivocate, he might
+have escaped; but Huss was not the man to trim. Such a course was
+formally proposed to him; but though he was far from being buoyed up
+by false hopes, he resolutely and without hesitation declined all
+underhand suggestions: he would uphold the truth, but that was all
+that he would do. "I fear nothing," he said; "for I hope that, after a
+great conflict, will ensue a great victory, and after the victory a
+still greater reward to me, and a still greater discomfiture to my
+enemies."</p>
+
+<p>Huss was not kept long in suspense. He sought various opportunities of
+proclaiming his views: but these were all denied him, and moreover, on
+November 28th, he was made a close prisoner. He was removed in chains
+to the castle of Gottleben. By night and day he was kept chained
+there, and all was done that was likely to bow down, or to break, the
+undaunted man. But though one form of disease after another assailed
+him, no wavering thought was harbored, no wavering word escaped; all
+his sorrows only led him deeper and deeper into the truth which he
+prized so well, and, in the face of crowding dangers, his resolution
+actually became more and more fixed and heroic.</p>
+
+<p>The cruel mockery of justice at Constance was carried on by tribunal
+after tribunal; but the victim was steadfast and unmovable. Now,
+gleams of hope broke forth for him and his friends, and then darkness
+gathered round them once more; but Huss found one thing unchanging,
+the word of his God&mdash;and when the council met in the Franciscan
+convent, which had become the martyr's prison, formally to try his
+case, they cruelly attempted to prejudge the matter without hearing
+him at all. But the emperor interfered, and Huss appeared before them,
+ready to retract whatever was contrary to Scripture: but whenever he
+attempted to plead, a savage outcry arose around, till the voice of
+truth was drowned in the din. On June 7th, he stood forth the second
+time before the council; but it was a wrangle rather than a solemn
+trial, for Huss would not abate one jot of his convictions, except as
+the Scriptures condemned them.</p>
+
+<p>On June 8th, his third examination took place. Huss was told, at the
+close, that if he would suppliantly submit and retract opinions which
+he declared he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>(p. 110)</span> never held, his judges would be
+lenient&mdash;otherwise, his danger was obvious. He was thus asked to
+confess his errors, to swear that he would never more preach them, and
+publicly recant; but he constantly refused such terms, unless he were
+convicted by the word of God. Even the emperor pleaded with him to
+yield; the judges also urged him, and professed a desire for his
+escape; but he was not to be moved, and must therefore hasten back to
+his cell, an outcast heretic in chains. If he would recant, he would
+be permitted to live&mdash;but little more, for imprisonment for life was
+to be his lot. But little did those judges know either the man whom
+they held in their grasp, or the principles and the power which bore
+him up. He could die, but he could not be anything but a true man. An
+emperor's safe-conduct was found to be a worthless thing, and "Trust
+not in princes" was a portion of the word of God which Huss learned
+thoroughly to understand.</p>
+
+<a id="img039" name="img039"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="250" height="204" alt="Execution." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>It was with unruffled self-possession that Huss gave himself to
+martyrdom. As he had never abandoned the Romish Church, he calmly
+engaged in its functions preparatory to his death. Indeed, some
+touching scenes were witnessed in his prison&mdash;he unshaken&mdash;his
+friends, his very enemies weeping like womanhood beside him.
+Deputation after deputation visited him&mdash;one of them from the emperor
+himself&mdash;and recantation was constantly the burden of their pleading.
+But Huss would not recant except upon conviction; and on July 6, 1415,
+he appeared once more before the council, where the emperor was
+present on his throne. Many of the judges were Huss's bitter personal
+enemies, for as he had assailed the measureless corruptions of their
+order, that was an unpardonable sin. Besides, history is careful to
+tell that bribery was largely employed to make sure of his
+destruction&mdash;and now the last act of the dark tragedy has arrived. No
+further defence was permitted to Huss, yet he uttered one solemn
+appeal. Once and again he prayed for his enemies. Being clothed in his
+priestly robes, he was stripped of them by seven bishops, while he
+still persisted in holding fast his convictions, except as the truth
+of God could be shown to condemn them. The mark of his tonsure was
+next removed, and that with great cruelty. A cap daubed over with the
+figures of demons was then placed on his head, and thus the heroic
+martyr of Bohemia was led forth to be burned in the name of religion.</p>
+
+<a id="img040" name="img040"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="600" height="409" alt="" title="">
+<p>Execution of Huss.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the place of execution Huss prayed, and often repeated the words,
+"Into thy hands, Lord, I commit my spirit." When compelled to rise
+from his knees, he still appealed to the Saviour, and prayed for "a
+strong and steadfast soul" to endure that shameful death. Even after
+he was placed at the stake, and had actually been surrounded by
+fagots, he declared that he willingly wore his chains <span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>(p. 111)</span> for
+Christ, who wore yet heavier bonds. With his last breath he repelled a
+temptation to recant, and when the fire was kindled he began to sing
+with a loud voice, "Jesus, son of the living God, have mercy upon me."
+When he was repeating the words for the third time, his voice failed;
+he was stifled by the flames, and soon reduced to ashes. These ashes
+were cast into the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>Thus perished one of the noblest men who ever walked our world. His
+death led to the Hussite war. In his native Bohemia he was so loved
+that the peasants rose in great bodies, crying for vengeance. Many of
+the nobles joined them, and for fifteen years battle and bloodshed
+avenged his execution.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>LOUIS XI. OF FRANCE<br>
+By <span class="smcap">E. Spencer Beesly, M.A.</span><br>
+(1423-1483.)</h3>
+
+<a id="img041" name="img041"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="350" height="196" alt="A group of men." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages there was a constant struggle in the West
+between the two elements of the temporal power&mdash;the central, or
+national, and the local, or that of the great vassals. Gradually the
+local governments all merged in large aggregates, in each of which a
+single national government gathered to itself all military, civil, and
+judicial functions. This movement was already in progress before the
+end of the thirteenth century. By the end of the fifteenth the
+struggle was substantially decided, though it did not come completely
+to an end till the latter part of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In France, as in most countries, the agent in this organizing and
+nationalizing movement was the crown. Almost every French monarch did
+something toward enforcing recognition of the royal authority in all
+parts of that country which by geographical conditions, as well as by
+its history, was fitted for political unity. But, either because they
+did not see their way to undertaking the direct government of so large
+an area, or because they were themselves under the dominion of feudal
+ideas, they did not always avail themselves of their frequent
+opportunities <span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>(p. 112)</span> for extinguishing the local governments of the
+fiefs which fell into their hands. The Valois kings granted many of
+them as appanages to their younger sons, and so created a new set of
+great vassals, who revived the struggle for feudal independence. The
+most dangerous of these, the Duke of Burgundy, openly aided the
+English invaders. This prince, besides his French fiefs, possessed the
+yet more important territories now known as Belgium and the
+Netherlands. Charles VII., the father of Louis XI., having expelled
+the English, established a permanent force of nine thousand
+cavalry&mdash;the first standing army in modern times.</p>
+
+<p>During the life of his father, Louis was not a dutiful subject. His
+masterful spirit could brook no superior. He even conspired with the
+rebel vassals. But as king (1461-1483) he pursued the policy of his
+greatest predecessors with undaunted courage, patient perseverance,
+and political genius of the highest order. At first he was too much in
+a hurry. He tried to clip the wings of all his vassals at once. He
+irritated the industrial classes by severe taxation. He drove into
+exile or rebellion his father's ablest generals and councillors. This
+brought upon him the so-called "League of Public Welfare," headed by
+Charles the Bold, heir of Burgundy, which aimed at a virtual
+dismemberment of France. Persevering as Louis was, he had none of the
+weak obstinacy which cannot distinguish between means and ends.
+Finding himself overmatched, though he had cut his way through the
+hosts of rebels at Montlhéry, he conceded to them everything they
+demanded. By the treaty of Conflans (1465) he might seem to have flung
+up the game in despair, and to have signed the ruin of France. But his
+high Court of Justice (Parlement), by refusing to register the treaty,
+gave him an excuse for evading its performance, and by negotiating
+with the princes separately he broke up their coalition. The peaceful
+and industrious classes stood by him, and he studiously cared for
+their interests; mixing familiarly with the citizens of Paris, dining
+at their houses, standing godfather to their children, putting aside
+all state and ceremony, and even dressing in humble attire. The
+precautions of his residence at Plessis belong only to the last months
+of his life, when he was old and paralytic. Never ashamed to own a
+mistake and to retrace false steps, he won back the most valuable of
+his father's servants, whom he had at first driven away. His designs
+against feudalism were not for a moment suspended. But instead of
+attacking all his vassals at once he took them in detail; while one
+was being crushed, others were humored till their turn came.</p>
+
+<a id="img042" name="img042"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img042.jpg" width="400" height="588" alt="" title="">
+<p>Louis XI. and Olivier Le Dain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a young man he had shown warlike tastes and brilliant personal
+valor; but as king he always preferred negotiation and policy. It was
+a too daring confidence in his mastery of these weapons which led him
+to risk his famous visit to Charles the Bold, at Péronne (1468), so
+vividly painted by Scott in "Quentin Durward," who, however, omits to
+mention the safe-conduct which Charles basely violated. At such
+critical moments Louis's nerve became steadiest and his intellect most
+acute. The concessions extorted from him at Péronne seemed to undo the
+work of years; but when once he was free he found means to remedy all
+the mischief that had been done. "Never," says his Minister Comines,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>(p. 113)</span> "was there a man so sagacious in adversity; when he drew
+back it was to make a longer spring." In another war with Burgundy,
+Edward IV., of England, landed with a large army (1475). To warlike
+nobles it seemed very base that Louis bought off the invaders instead
+of rushing upon another Crécy or Agincourt; but he thoroughly despised
+such criticism. He had an army, and a good one; but if a round sum of
+money would effect his purpose more cheaply, surely, and speedily, why
+should he expose his subjects to the horrors and losses of war? Two
+years later Charles fell at Nancy, fighting against the Swiss, who
+were in the pay of Louis. It was the death-blow of feudalism. Louis
+promptly seized the duchy of Burgundy and some other territories of
+the deceased duke. Altogether, during his reign, he brought eleven
+provinces under the direct government of the crown&mdash;Brittany being the
+only great fief which at his death remained independent. He had thus
+assured the unity of France and her preponderance in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly less important services to his country were his establishment
+of order and good administration, his financial and judicial reforms,
+his encouragement of industry and commerce. "He effected," says
+Lavallée, "attempted, or projected, all the innovations of modern
+France." Diplomacy, the modern makeshift for the international office
+of the mediæval papacy, dates from him. Historians have dwelt on his
+cruelty, perfidy, and superstition.<a id="footnotetag12" name="footnotetag12"></a><a href="#footnote12" title="Go to footnote 12"><span class="smaller">[12]</span></a> Turbulent nobles, like St. Pol
+and Armagnac, were brought to the block; treacherous ministers, like
+Cardinal La Balue, were kept for years in iron cages; vulgar criminals
+swung from gibbets on every highroad. But this severity toward
+ruffians of high and low degree, who had preyed on the country for the
+best part of the century, wrought peace and prosperity for the
+law-abiding and industrious. In the decay of feudal manners and
+Catholic discipline, the sentiment of honor had almost vanished from
+public life. But, judged relatively to his times, Louis is not to be
+branded as perfidious. He did not scruple to break treaties contrary
+to the interests of his country, which had been extorted from him by
+force; but he was more straightforward than his principal
+contemporaries. Twice, when he could have got rid of Charles the Bold
+by acts of treachery, which in those days no one would have blamed, he
+chose the honorable course. To reproach a man of the fifteenth century
+with superstition, because he thought there might be some efficacy in
+images and relics, is an abuse of language. If he clung to life it was
+because he felt that so much of his projected work remained
+unfinished. He met death with remarkable fortitude, his thoughts and
+efforts being to the last moment occupied with the affairs, not of his
+soul, but of his country. His minister and intimate friend, Comines,
+has left a faithful and judicious account of his life. Two great poets
+have dealt unfairly with him: Scott could not forgive the foe of
+feudalism; Hugo was blinded by democratic prejudices.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>(p. 114)</span> ISABELLA OF CASTILE<a id="footnotetag13" name="footnotetag13"></a><a href="#footnote13" title="Go to footnote 13"><span class="smaller">[13]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Sarah H. Killikelly</span><br>
+(1451-1504)</h3>
+
+<a id="img043" name="img043"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="250" height="267" alt="Isabella." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Isabella, the only daughter of John II., of Castile, and Isabella, of
+Portugal, his second wife, was born in Madrigal, Spain, in 1451. Upon
+the death of her father her elder half-brother succeeded to the throne
+in 1454, as Henry IV. The queen dowager retired from court life with
+her infant son Alfonso, and her daughter Isabella, then in her fourth
+year. The royal children were reared by a wise mother in the seclusion
+of the little town of Arevalo, until Isabella was twelve years old.
+How carefully the seeds of character were sown in these early years is
+shown by the after-fruits. Her fervent piety and unwavering faith, her
+strict integrity and self-abnegation, disarmed the enemies of her
+crown, as they disarm the unprejudiced historian of to-day. The
+verdict of four hundred years is still: "Her faults were the faults of
+her age, her virtues were her own." The quiet home life at Arevalo
+came suddenly to an end in 1463, when King Henry arbitrarily ordered
+the infantas, as all royal children are called in Spain, to repair to
+the palace as members of his court. Thus at the early age of twelve
+years Isabella entered upon her public career, and from thenceforth
+the eyes of the civilized world were turned upon her. Shortly after, a
+revolution deposed Henry and placed Alfonso upon the throne. Both
+kings had their followers, and the boy-king, eleven years old, rode on
+horseback at the head of his troops beside his appointed regent. But
+the crown was too heavy for the young victim, and Alfonso was one
+morning found dead in his bed. To Isabella, a beautiful girl of
+sixteen, the fallen crown was offered and urged; but in spite of the
+fact that the old standard had already been unfurled in her honor, and
+unmoved by the eloquence of the primate and the arguments of the first
+nobles of the land, Isabella, with a wisdom beyond her years,
+resolutely refused to take the throne. Her reasons baffled her
+advisers: "So long as King Henry lives none other has the right to
+wear the crown." She advised his reinstatement and promised to help
+redress the wrongs of which the nation had the unquestioned right to
+complain. An amnesty was declared and a reconciliation was effected;
+but not until Henry had consented to divorce his queen and to
+acknowledge Isabella as the heir-apparent to the throne in place of
+his reputed daughter, Joanna. The cortes, or parliament, was assembled
+to ratify the treaty, and at the same time, passed a resolution that
+the infanta was not to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>(p. 115)</span> be coerced in her matrimonial
+alliance. In 1468, with great pomp and ceremony, Isabella was solemnly
+proclaimed Princess of Asturias, heir-apparent to the throne of
+Castile and Leon. She is described as of medium height, of fair
+complexion, regular features, auburn hair, clear blue eyes, and with a
+sweet but serious expression that told both sides of her character.
+She inherited from her father a desire for knowledge and a love of
+literature, and was herself a fine linguist. These graces of mind and
+person, added to her nearness to the throne, soon brought many ardent
+suppliants from the principal thrones of Europe for the honor of her
+hand. Her cousin, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon, was her wise choice, and
+to him she was married, notwithstanding her brother's opposition, in
+1469. The brilliant wedding at Valladolid, in the presence of the
+nobility and about two thousand persons, closes the second period of
+her life. Five years intervened before the Princess of Asturias became
+Queen of Leon and Castile. Stormy years, for the angry brother
+instituted a fresh rebellion against her succession, and Isabella was
+again the peace-maker; years of poverty, also, for the heirs-apparent
+of Castile and Aragon had scarcely a competency for their daily needs.
+Isabella was residing in Segovia at the time of her brother's death;
+hence, in Segovia, with more than the usual solemnities which
+accompany the accession of a new sovereign even in Spain, she took the
+vows and was crowned Queen of Castile and Leon in 1474. During the
+first four years and a half of her reign civil war desolated her
+kingdom, for Joanna, the reputed daughter of Henry IV., again
+contested her right to the crown, supported by the King of Portugal,
+to whom she was affianced. But the same people who had said "Isabella
+shall be the heir-apparent," said now "Isabella shall rule over us,"
+and conquered. The reign of Isabella, therefore, dates from 1479, when
+she was left in undisputed possession of her throne, rather than from
+1474, when she wore her crown for the first time in Segovia. The same
+year that brought peace to the Queen of Castile elevated Ferdinand to
+the throne of Aragon.</p>
+
+<p>No more important epoch marks the history of Spain than the union of
+the crowns of Castile and Aragon; it meant the end of petty
+principalities and powers, it meant united Spain. But the crowns were
+only linked together, for Isabella, even in her marriage contract, had
+maintained the independence of the crown of Castile and her individual
+right to rule over it. It was this loyalty to her inherited crown that
+won the love and confidence of her people and made them ready, when
+the need came, to die for Isabella of Castile. And it was this
+independence of her crown that enabled her to say at last to Columbus:
+"I will assume the enterprise for mine own crown of Castile," and "to
+the crown of Castile" belonged the first discovered territories in the
+New World.</p>
+
+<p>Had the reign of Isabella been less distinguished for events of such
+momentous magnitude as to involve the future interests of the world,
+her personal life would yet furnish data for a series of volumes, so
+replete was it with stirring incidents and with heart-breaking
+sorrows. But the same mental strength and moral courage that made her
+eminent as a queen, made her remarkable also as a friend and mother.
+Prescott says: "Her heart overflowed with affectionate sensibilities
+to her family <span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>(p. 116)</span> and friends. She watched over the declining
+years of her aged mother and ministered to her sad infirmities with
+filial tenderness; we have abundant proofs of how fondly and
+faithfully she loved her husband to the last; while for her children
+she lived more than for herself, and for them too she died; for it was
+their loss and their afflictions which froze the current of her blood
+before age had had time to chill it."</p>
+
+<p>Five children, four daughters and one son, grew to maturity under her
+guiding influence. Isabella, the first born, and ever the favorite
+child of the sovereigns, was born in 1470. She was twice married,
+first to Alfonso, Prince of Portugal, who was killed by a fall from
+his horse within five months after their marriage. Seven years later
+she married his brother, Emanuel, King of Portugal. To the intense
+grief of her husband, her parents, and her kingdom, she died in 1498,
+just one hour after the birth of her son, the first and only heir to
+the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. The little Prince
+Miguel did not live to fulfil the hopes that were centred in him, for
+he died, to the great grief of the nation, before he had completed his
+second year.</p>
+
+<p>The only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, Juan, Prince of Asturias, was
+born in 1478. In his twentieth year he married the Princess Margaret,
+daughter of the Emperor Maximilian; but before the elaborate nuptial
+rejoicings had ended the young bridegroom died suddenly of a malignant
+fever.</p>
+
+<p>The Infanta Joanna, born 1479, married Philip I., son of the German
+emperor, and became the mother of the great Emperor Charles V. of
+Germany, Charles I. of Spain. Her mental derangement, tending to
+permanent insanity, was a sore grief to the great queen, who
+nevertheless made her the heir to her crown, with Ferdinand as regent.</p>
+
+<p>The Infanta Maria, born in 1482, married Emanuel, the King of
+Portugal, in 1600. Her daughter Isabella married her cousin, Charles
+V., and was the mother of Philip II.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth and last child of Ferdinand and Isabella, Catalina, was born
+in 1485. She married, when scarcely sixteen, Arthur, Prince of Wales,
+son of Henry VII., but was left a widow within a year. By special
+dispensation from the Pope she married her brother-in-law in 1509, and
+is better known in history as Catharine of Aragon, first wife of Henry
+VIII., of England, mother of Mary I., or "bloody Mary." Knowing her
+Spanish parentage, we can better understand why she was such an ardent
+Roman Catholic. Strange that one so loyal to the forms of her religion
+should have been the innocent cause of the English Reformation! The
+injured queen, divorced, remained in England, a religious recluse,
+until her death in 1536.</p>
+
+<p>This brief outline of family life, with its joys, disappointments, and
+heart-breaking sorrows, brings into clearer relief the mental strength
+and moral courage of Isabella, who, while carrying this burden on her
+heart never relaxed for a moment her vigilant, vigorous rule over a
+mighty empire; and this brings us at last to the</p>
+
+<p class="center smcap">
+  GREAT HISTORIC QUEEN.</p>
+
+<p>From the very beginning of the reconquest of Spain from the Arab-Moors
+in 718, when the brave band of refugees who had not bowed to the
+Saracen yoke issued <span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>(p. 117)</span> from the mountains of Asturias in the
+extreme northwest corner of Spain, under Pelayo, with vows resting
+upon them "to rid the land of its infidel invaders and to advance the
+standard of the cross until it was everywhere victorious over the
+crescent," the "Expulsion of the Moors" had been the hereditary
+appanage of the crown of Castile and Leon, the first fruits of the
+reconquest.</p>
+
+<p>The crown was heavy and the burden was great that descended to
+Isabella in 1474, for although she came to the throne through Gothic
+ancestry and in conformity with Gothic law, her father's heir and the
+chosen of the people, yet the nation had already poured out its blood
+in defence of her "succession" and the war of her "accession" was
+pending. No wonder that Isabella never forgot that it was through the
+people and for the people, and in defence of the cross, that she wore
+the crown and sat upon the throne of Leon and Castile.</p>
+
+<p>During the preceding reigns the laws of the country had been so
+constantly defied that they had become of no effect. The one law of
+barbarism seemed the only law that governed,</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "He can take who has the power,<br>
+  And he may keep who can."</p>
+
+<p>The country was infested with lawless banditti, and even the cities
+were powerless to protect individuals or property. The prisons were
+overcrowded with suspected criminals who had never been brought to
+trial; the immorality of the court had spread like a deadly poison
+through the lower grades of social life; even the priests had become
+tainted with the general demoralization. The coin of Castile had been
+debased until the most necessary articles of life were enhanced from
+three to six times their value; the late civil wars had exhausted the
+treasury, and the country seemed on the verge of bankruptcy. The Moors
+had even ceased to pay tribute and were making frequent forays into
+the surrounding country, taking men, women, and children into
+Mussulman captivity with the hope of exacting a ransom. Public
+confidence was dead. No wonder that Isabella felt her crown heavy and
+the burden of her kingdom great.</p>
+
+<p>But the brave, resolute woman, making choice of wise and able
+counsellors, entered at once upon a vigorous crusade of reform. The
+first measure proposed to the cortes, in 1476, was the
+re-establishment of the celebrated Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood,
+which was carried into effect the same year. The new institution
+differed from the ancient, inasmuch as its power proceeded from the
+crown and was disbanded by it in 1498. The Hermandad in our day would
+be called a mounted police, but in the days of Isabella every
+organization came under the sanction of the Church. The duties of the
+Holy Brotherhood were to arrest offenders throughout the kingdom and
+to enforce the law. Every one hundred householders throughout the
+kingdom maintained one Hermandad. Upon the flight of a criminal
+tocsins were sounded, and the officers of the Brotherhood stationed
+within hearing took up a pursuit that left little hope for escape.
+Thus a body of cavalry, two thousand in number, fully equipped and
+supported, was at the disposal of the crown to enforce the law and to
+suppress insurrections. In a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>(p. 118)</span> few years the country was
+cleared of banditti and the blessing of personal security under the
+government was restored.</p>
+
+<p>Isabella revived also another ancient custom of her forefathers, that
+of presiding in person over courts of justice. From city to city she
+travelled on horseback, making the circuit of her kingdom, regardless
+of personal fatigue. Side by side with Ferdinand, when he had leisure
+from foreign complications to accompany her, she sat (not unmindful of
+the dignity belonging to the crown) with her courtiers around her, to
+listen with interest, that she might redress wrongs, punish the
+wrongdoers, and administer justice even to the lowliest of her
+subjects. Her personal address, and the unbounded respect which her
+integrity inspired; her proclamation throughout the kingdom that the
+interests of her people were her interests, re-established such public
+confidence that, says a writer of that age, "Those who had long
+despaired of public justice blessed God for their deliverance, as it
+were, from deplorable captivity." Nor did the sovereigns relax their
+personal efforts for the restoration of law and order until the cortes
+had passed measures for the permanent administration of justice. Thus
+in a few years, from a state of anarchy and misrule, Castile entered
+upon her "Golden Age of Justice."</p>
+
+<p>The golden age of literature, developed in the next century, has been
+justly ascribed to the impetus given by Isabella to liberal education,
+classical and scientific. Under her patronage schools were established
+in every city, presided over by learned men. The printing press,
+lately invented, was introduced; foreign books were imported free of
+duty, while such precedence was given to native literature as led on
+to the brilliant achievements of the sixteenth century. In social
+reform precept was enforced by example. In all that was pure, in all
+that was true, in all that was noble and magnanimous, Isabella, in
+private life, was a witness unto her people. No calumny of any kind,
+even in a depraved age, was ever cast upon Isabella of Castile or upon
+any one of her royal children. But the strongest characteristic of
+Isabella, that which colored her whole life and gave force to every
+public action, was her fervent piety and her unfaltering [perhaps
+blind] faith in the divine authority of the Roman Catholic Church. For
+all the evils that grew out of the latter she is still branded, even
+among the liberal-minded of to-day, regardless of her illiberal age,
+with that worst of all brands, "a religious bigot." This side of her
+character we will not discuss, but refer our readers to the history of
+Christianity during the fifteenth century, when the great flood-tide
+of religious intolerance reached its height.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the fulness of this tide that the great historic events of
+her reign occurred, viz., the conquest of Granada, the expulsion of
+the Jews, the Inquisition, and the discovery of America. After each of
+these, for honor or dishonor, we interline the name of Isabella. Yet
+the conquest of Granada, or the reconquest of every foot of land which
+the Moors had taken from the Goths, was foreordained in Castilian
+councils centuries before Isabella was born. The expulsion of the
+Jews, the so-called "enemies of Christ," was but a part of the same
+effort "to rid the land of unbelieving invaders." The Inquisition,
+with all its horrors, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>(p. 119)</span> was re-established by the Church
+during that age of intolerance to which the reign of Isabella belongs.
+Yet these are still named to the dishonor of Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>But the discovery of America, with all its lasting benefits to
+mankind, is the immortal crown which the world has woven out of her
+proffered "Jewels;" and with this crown it has crowned Isabella of
+Castile.</p>
+
+<p>In the marriage contract of the youthful prince and princess it was
+agreed that Ferdinand should lead the armies of Castile against the
+Moors as soon as the affairs of the kingdom would permit. The
+opportunity and the provocation came after twelve years, when the
+sovereigns sent to demand of the Moors the long unpaid tribute, and
+received only the defiant answer, "Tell your masters that the Moors
+who paid tribute to Castile are dead. Our mints no longer coin gold,
+but steel!" And to prove the efficacy of their steel they sallied
+forth and took Zahara, one of the strongholds which the father of
+Ferdinand had taken from the Moors. The chivalry of Spain sprang
+quickly into well-girt saddles, and the ten years' siege of Granada,
+"the last stronghold of the Moors in Spain," began in 1481. The Iliad
+of the reconquest of Spain from the Arab-Moors has yet to be written;
+the Homer of its Iliad has yet to appear. But the closing year of the
+struggle between Christian knight and turbaned Moor would furnish as
+stirring incidents, and immortalize the names of its heroes as
+successfully, as has the Greek Homer the Trojan war.</p>
+
+<p>Those of us who have read the story of the Arab-Moors in Spain, the
+quick-witted, light-footed, brave-hearted Moors, who coveted the land
+"flowing with milk and honey" that lay across a narrow strait; who
+conquered it, redeemed its barren wastes, and made them to blossom as
+the rose; who, in their quick flight from the Arabian deserts through
+civilized lands, gathered seeds of knowledge and planted them so
+freely in the land of their adoption that their planting overspread
+the earth; who, like the Goths, became enervated when they became
+stationary, and were no longer able to resist the powerful foe who had
+from their entrance into Spain sworn their expulsion or their
+extermination, will be ready to weep when the final retribution comes.
+Yet come it did, when Ferdinand and Isabella pitched their tents and
+planted their banners of Castile and Aragon upon the verdant vega, or
+plain, around Granada.</p>
+
+<p>And yet we as readily accept the inevitable. We have known that it was
+impossible for Isabella to allow any portion of her dominions to be
+possessed by a people alien in race, language, customs, and religion;
+to see the Crescent triumphant over any site that had been hallowed by
+the Cross. To the Spanish Christian the fall of Granada was only the
+final victory of a righteous war. It was the triumph of his race, his
+nation, and his creed. And, looking back over the long march from
+Asturias to Granada, he claimed to have invaded no man's right; every
+victory but won back what was his own: every step retraced by the
+Moors but left him in possession of another portion of his inheritance
+from his forefathers.</p>
+
+<p>The Arab-Moors claimed also hereditary rights. For nearly eight
+hundred years the Moors had held possession of that strip of land
+between the "Snow Mountains" and the blue sea, in Southern Spain. One
+cannot but feel respect <span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>(p. 120)</span> for the brave Moorish king of
+Granada, who said, when threatened with invasion, "Our mint no longer
+coins gold, but steel!" In this last great chivalrous war, a war for
+race and creed and country, all honor is due to the vanquished, who
+poured out their blood like water for their homes and their religion.
+The details of this heroic death-struggle belong to history rather
+than to biography. Yet Isabella was the great animating spirit of the
+war. Her tent was side by side with that of Ferdinand, and her counsel
+was ever wise and practical.</p>
+
+<p>And near the royal tents were others which she erected, where the
+wounded in the fray might have medical aid and tender nursing. Thus
+our "Warrior Queen," with a woman's heart, provided the first Army
+Hospital on record. The tents were burned down, but a substantial city
+arose, as if by magic, to take their place. The knights would have
+called it "Isabella," but she named it "Santa Fé," the city of Holy
+Faith. And this city helped to bring the war to a close. The Moors
+knew by it that Isabella had come to stay until she had added Granada
+to the crown of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Another form rises before us as we look back four hundred years across
+the vega of Granada to the city of Sante Fé. We forget for a time the
+Christians and the Moors, we see only the great queen and the great
+discoverer. The man of science, Christoforo Colombo, had been lately
+dismissed from the court at Sante Fé. The sovereigns had no time for
+adventurers seeking aid to discover unknown lands when the reconquest
+of their own was just within their grasp. Cast down, but not
+discouraged, Columbus, all alone, was retracing his steps across the
+vega, en route for a port from whence to sail for England, when the
+queen sent a royal summons for him to return, and he reached Sante Fé
+just in time to be present at the surrender of Granada. Let me add
+that while the Moors as a nation fell with Granada, they were not as
+individuals banished from Spain until the reign of Philip II., the
+great-grandson of Isabella.</p>
+
+<a id="img044" name="img044"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="600" height="394" alt="" title="">
+<p>Ferdinand and Isabella. The surrender of Granada.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We all know the story of Columbus. At this time he was but a penniless
+mendicant travelling on foot from court to court, seeking patronage to
+enable him to prove the truth which his great mind had grasped, the
+rotundity of the earth. The subject had given him no rest for eighteen
+years. He had discussed it before wise men in council assembled; he
+had pleaded with royalty in vain; at the court of Isabella, for the
+first time, he laid his plans and discussed his projects before a
+woman. The world to-day pays its tribute of four hundred years to
+Columbus, the World-finder. All honor to the brave man who, firm of
+faith and fearless of fate, unfurled his sails upon an unknown sea,
+and planted the cross and the banner of Castile upon an unknown land.
+All honor, too, to Queen Isabella of Spain, who, with "faith in things
+unseen," had the courage to say, "I will undertake the enterprise for
+mine own crown of Castile," and from whose presence Columbus went
+forth to discover a land he never dreamed of, and to open a gate for
+the exodus of nations across the pathless sea. The same pen that
+signed the capitulation of the Moors and the contract with Columbus,
+signed also an edict for the expulsion of all unbaptized Jews from
+Spain between March and July of 1492. This edict condemned to
+perpetual exile from one to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>(p. 121)</span> eight hundred thousand of
+Spain's most wealthy subjects. The coast was lined with vessels of
+every kind, and size, busy with the transportation of these unhappy
+victims, when Columbus was seeking for vessels and men to cross the
+"Sea of Darkness." And now we are beginning to understand the
+momentous events that culminated in the reign of Isabella. We find
+that religious enthusiasm, inspired during the long wars with the
+"Infidel Moors," developed into religious bigotry. In the Jews, Spain
+expelled the most wealthy portion of her subjects; in the Moors, the
+most industrious; the wealth and industry of the nation were
+sacrificed for race and creed. And then within its own race and creed
+arose a new foe to combat; with equal energy and blind zeal Spain
+crushed Protestantism within her borders through the terrors of the
+Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>But let us not lay the whole blame of such intolerant Christianity
+upon the unfortunate woman who fell heir to the crown of Castile
+during the period when the Church of Rome had the power to bind the
+consciences of men. Let us remember that as a woman Isabella was an
+honor to her sex; as a Christian she lived devoutly; as a queen she
+ruled wisely for the uplifting of her nation, and that the only
+censure the world casts upon her is the fortitude with which she said
+"Infidelity must be banished from the land."</p>
+
+<p>"Bury me in Granada, the brightest jewel in my crown," she said, when
+dying, in far-off Castile, November 26, 1504. The way was long and the
+December winds were cold as the royal cortége, with knightly escort,
+wended its way across the barren heights of Central Spain into the
+beautiful valley of Andalusia, across the lovely vega, past Santa Fé,
+up the rugged slope of the acropolis of Granada into the Chapel
+Isabella, near the unrivalled Alhambra. Here in the very heart of the
+last Moorish capital, while the whole nation mourned, they laid all
+that was mortal of the great queen, whom Lord Bacon has named "the
+corner-stone of the greatness of Spain."</p>
+
+<p>Twelve years later, January 23, 1516, they laid King Ferdinand beside
+her, "the wisest king that ever ruled in Spain." (Prescott.) Their
+grandson, Charles V., now summoned the finest artists in the world to
+prepare royal mausoleums for Ferdinand and Isabella and for his
+parents, Joanna of Castile and Philip of Burgundy. The cathedral of
+Granada is the Spanish temple of victory. It covers the site of an
+ancient Moorish mosque. Within its royal chapel one may read, in
+bas-relief, the whole story of the reconquest of Spain. On either side
+of its high altar kneel the life-size statues of the final conquerors;
+while in solemn, stately magnificence, the royal mausoleums of purest
+Carrara marble, with their reclining portrait figures of Ferdinand and
+Isabella in soft, time-tinted alabaster, tell us that here the nation,
+"redeemed from bondage," laid their deliverers to rest. And here, at
+the close of nearly four hundred years, a hand from across the sea
+lays this tribute, with a garland of white roses and a wreath of olive
+leaves and immortelles, upon the tomb of <span class="smcap">Isabella of Castile</span>.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig009" name="sig009"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig009.jpg" width="300" height="41" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>(p. 122)</span> NICHOLAS COPERNICUS<br>
+By <span class="smcap">John Stoughton, D.D.</span><br>
+(1473-1543)</h3>
+
+<a id="img045" name="img045"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img045.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="Copernicus." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>The life of Nicholas Copernicus furnishes a signal example of the
+accordance between profound religious sentiment and the utmost
+inquisitiveness respecting the secrets of nature and the laws of the
+universe.</p>
+
+<p>The birthplace of genius is sometimes found nestled amid the fairest
+scenes, and the opening years of life are favored with appeals to
+curiosity and imagination, such as stimulate the exercise of the
+intellect; but the lot of Copernicus, as a boy, was cast in one of the
+flattest, tamest, and most uninteresting parts of Germany. Not far
+from the banks of the Vistula, on the way to the free city of Dantzic,
+lies a fortified town named Thorn, where the river is crossed by a
+wooden bridge, and the place is adorned by a bronze statue of our
+philosopher&mdash;for there he was born. His father was a merchant, and in
+the municipal records his father's name appears as a freeman admitted
+to the franchise in 1462. In 1472 or 1473 a son was added to the
+family, and the parents had a horoscope taken of the child, who
+appeared at thirty-eight minutes past four on January 19, 1472,
+according to some; at forty-eight minutes past four in the afternoon
+of February 19, 1473, according to others; the exact instant of the
+nativity being an important point in astrological calculations, which,
+in those days, inspired in fathers and mothers the deepest concern. At
+all events, Copernicus was deemed to have entered the world under a
+lucky planet, and it was augured that he would turn out a man of
+distinguished talent. About ten years before Martin Luther studied at
+Mansfield, and then at Eisenach, and rambled about the quaint streets,
+singing Christmas carols in the town where he was born, Nicholas
+Copernicus passed through a similar course of education. He did so
+under some old-fashioned pedagogue, who no more dreamed of the
+scientific fame of his pupil than did Trebonius of the approaching
+celebrity of young Master Martin. Copernicus would there learn to
+read, to write, to construe Latin, and to commit to memory hymns,
+prayers, and catechisms. Whether as a lad he studied Greek is
+uncertain; but, as his parents seem to have been wealthy, he would
+enjoy greater advantages than his still more illustrious contemporary;
+hence at an early period he was sent to Cracow, where he studied
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>(p. 123)</span> philosophy, mathematics, and medicine. Mathematics formed
+his favorite pursuit, and by the thorough acquisition of its
+principles and modes of reasoning he laid the basis of his subsequent
+eminence. But he took a degree as doctor of medicine; and according to
+the comprehensive methods of culture which obtained in those days, he
+paid attention to painting, and made some proficiency as an artist.
+Scholars were at that period accustomed to travel, and Copernicus
+proceeded from Cracow to Bologna; and in that city of feudal palaces
+and towers he would find a school of painting to cultivate his
+artistic taste, as well as a university where he could study
+astronomy. There he entered upon divers calculations connected with
+the position of the earth and the plan of the heavenly bodies. Then
+proceeding to Rome, he became there a mathematical professor, and won
+vast renown. Soon after the commencement of the sixteenth century he
+returned to the banks of the Vistula, and having been ordained to the
+priesthood, had a canonry at Frauenburg, on the Frische-Häff, bestowed
+upon him by his uncle. The cathedral is described as a handsome
+building of brick, erected in 1342, in an elevated part of the town,
+overlooking the flat sandbanks of the Elbing, as it flows on its way
+to the Baltic. In connection with his canonry, Copernicus had some
+contention about his official rights, the nature of which does not
+appear. All we know is that he settled down in that quiet,
+out-of-the-way corner of the world, heedless of worldly ambition and
+indifferent to ecclesiastical honors and emoluments. He was no
+sceptic, no free-thinker, nor do we find him taking a part in the
+theological controversies of his age. No mention is made of what he
+thought and did in relation to the grand quarrel between Luther and
+Leo, or the Diet of Worms, or the burning of the bull at the gates of
+Wittenberg, or the other stirring events of the Reformation; only we
+know he remained a Catholic, a quiet, self-contained, thoughtful,
+devout man, childlike in his religion, trustful in his piety, and
+exemplary in the discharge of clerical duties. We can picture him
+going through the usual routine of canonical services in Frauenburg
+Cathedral, full of faith and prayer. With this vocation he coupled
+medical practice. He turned to good charitable account that
+proficiency in the healing art which he had acquired at Cracow, and
+visited the sick and the poor, bringing upon himself the blessing of
+those who were ready to perish. But the nature of his intellect,
+sharpened by studies at Bologna and Rome, gave him special advantages
+in the pursuit of astronomical knowledge; and as he had a decided
+taste in that direction, what time he could spare from the cathedral
+and the treatment of the sick he devoted to the study of the heavens.
+"He went very little into the world; he considered all conversation as
+fruitless except that of a serious and learned cast, so that he formed
+no intimacies except with grave and learned men." Alone at midnight he
+would watch the stars; in his study with his books he would inquire of
+the ancients; and then the profound thoughts passing through his mind
+he would exchange with the "grave and reverend seigniors" of his
+acquaintance.</p>
+
+<p>The Ptolemaic hypothesis of the universe was then in fashion. It was
+supposed that the earth was the centre of celestial motions, that the
+sun, the moon, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>(p. 124)</span> and the stars revolved around the world which
+we inhabit. Not that the Pythagorean hypothesis was totally forgotten.
+There were those who believed that the sun, not the earth, is the
+centre of the great circle in which the heavenly bodies perform their
+evolutions; but the Ptolemaic hypothesis had the ascendency beyond all
+doubt; and with this hypothesis Copernicus could not rest satisfied.
+It appeared to him beset with insuperable difficulties. True enough,
+the rotation of the heavens around the earth seemed to be what the
+human eye beheld, as anyone watched sunrise and sunset. But what the
+senses thus presented, reason, in its ponderings, was led to
+contradict. For the notion of a huge mechanism like the celestial
+sphere, spinning round the terraqueous globe as its pivot looked
+unreasonable. To explain it in any way on mathematical principles
+needed a most complicated array of cycles and epicycles. Symmetry and
+simplicity were wanting in the theory. <span class="italic">A priori</span> objections started
+up against it. If the senses pointed to the earth as a centre, reason
+pointed to a centre elsewhere. Copernicus studied the works of ancient
+philosophers on the question. He examined mathematical traditions and
+criticised the opinions of learned professors. He found accounts of
+those who had asserted the motion of the earth. "Though," he says, "it
+appeared an absurd opinion, yet, since I knew that in former times
+liberty had been permitted to others to figure as they pleased certain
+circles for the purpose of demonstrating the phenomena of the stars, I
+considered that to me also it might be easily allowed to try whether,
+by a supposition of the earth's motion, a better explanation might be
+found of the revolution of the celestial orbs. Having assumed," he
+goes on to say, "the motions of the earth, by laborious and long
+observation I at length found that if the motions of the other planets
+be compared with the revolution of the earth, not only these phenomena
+follow from the suppositions, but also that the several orbs and the
+whole system are so connected in order and magnitude, that no one part
+can be transposed without disturbing the rest and introducing
+confusion into the whole universe." What Copernicus was in search of
+was some simple and symmetrical theory of the appearances of the
+heavens which would relieve him of the complexity and confusion
+attendant on the Ptolemaic system so popular in the schools. He
+started from an <span class="italic">a priori</span> point of reasoning&mdash;the only one thought of
+in his day&mdash;but he came to certain conclusions which <span class="italic">a posteriori</span>
+examination in after times abundantly confirmed.</p>
+
+<a id="img046" name="img046"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img046.jpg" width="400" height="737" alt="" title="">
+<p>Copernicus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He believed that the earth is spherical; that the earth and the sea
+constitute a wonderful globe; that the motions of the heavenly bodies
+are circular and uniform, or compounded of circular and uniform
+motions; that the earth revolves on its own axis, and also performs a
+journey along its own orbit round the sun; that the sphere of the
+fixed stars is immensely distant, and that it is impossible to explain
+the motion of the planets upon the supposition of the earth being
+their centre. And he distinctly remarks: "It does not shame us to
+confess that the whole space in which the moon revolves, together with
+the earth, moves along a great orbit among the planets, round the sun
+every year; that the sun remains permanent and immovable, whatever may
+be its apparent motion." It must be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>(p. 125)</span> kept in mind
+throughout any careful study of his theory, that it was an
+<span class="italic">hypothesis</span> framed to remove difficulties connected with older
+systems; that he sought to bring conceptions of the universe into
+harmony with reason, instead of giving way to impressions made by the
+senses, or to the authority of world-honored teachers, either in other
+days or in his own; nor can we omit adding that, while he found fault
+with the Ptolemaic cycles and epicycles, he constructed similar
+devices of his own.</p>
+
+<p>"As the real motions, both of the earth and the planets, are
+unequable, it was requisite to have some mode of representing their
+inequalities; and accordingly the ancient theory of excentrics and
+epicycles was retained so far as was requisite for this purpose." In
+the case of Mercury's orbit he makes suppositions which are extremely
+complex, although they manifest his apprehension of the difficulties
+attendant on the common theory of his own time; but he verified many
+of his views by astronomical observations; and his approximations to
+modern science, and the light he threw on preceding discoveries,
+establish the fame of Nicholas Copernicus.</p>
+
+<p>On a review of the life of Copernicus, and the conclusions he reached,
+the mental and moral qualities of the man come out with conspicuous
+and extraordinary lustre.</p>
+
+<p>He was a mathematician, thus walking in the footsteps of Roger Bacon.
+This science, since the days of Euclid, had been pursued with untiring
+ardor, and many who neglected to study, or who, by their own
+imagination, distorted the actual phenomena of nature, addicted
+themselves to the investigation of the abstract properties of
+magnitude and number. Copernicus, in his knowledge of mathematical
+principles, and in his skilful application of them to astronomical
+inquiries, probably surpassed all his contemporaries. And, at the same
+time, he had that inventive genius which is fruitful in suggestions,
+such as become pioneers in the path of scientific demonstration. His
+independence of mind, his real originality, and his boldness in the
+pursuit of truth are quite as remarkable as the qualities just
+noticed; indeed, they are involved in or they led to the latter of
+these. "I beg you," says one of his admiring disciples, "to have this
+opinion concerning that learned man, my preceptor, that he was an
+ardent admirer and follower of Ptolemy; but when he was compelled by
+phenomena and demonstration, he thought he did well to aim at the same
+mark at which Ptolemy had aimed, though with a bow and shaft very
+different from his." We must recollect that Ptolemy says 'He who is to
+follow philosophy must be a freeman in mind.' Copernicus knew very
+well that there were many prepared to challenge his conclusions, and
+perhaps to bring theological objections to the principles of science
+which he had been constrained to adopt. "If, perchance," it is said in
+the preface to his book on astronomy, "there be vain babblers who,
+knowing nothing of mathematics, yet assume the right of judging, on
+account of some place of Scripture, perversely wrested to their
+purpose, and who blame and attack my undertaking, I heed them not, and
+look upon their judgments as rash and contemptible."</p>
+
+<p>Copernicus had a profound reverence for Scripture. He regarded it as
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>(p. 126)</span> Word of God, able to make us wise unto salvation; and
+none of his discoveries pertaining to the laws of nature shook for one
+moment his confidence in the revelation of the gospel. Copernicus
+delayed for years the publication of his discoveries to the world.
+That delay had been thought to have proceeded from something like
+fear, or, at least, caution, lest views in some respects so novel
+should rouse ecclesiastical antagonism and expose him to serious
+persecution. But the words used in the dedication of his astronomical
+work seem to point in another direction. It is there said that he had
+kept it four times the nine years recommended by Horace, and published
+it at last in compliance with the entreaties of his friend, Cardinal
+Schomberg. "Though I know," it is added, "that the thoughts of a
+philosopher do not depend on the judgment of the many, his study being
+to seek out truth in all things as far as that is permitted by God to
+human reason, yet when I considered how absurd that doctrine would
+appear, I long hesitated whether I should publish my book, or whether
+it were not better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and
+others, who delivered their doctrines only by tradition and to
+friends." From this passage we should infer that he apprehended
+controversy rather than persecution, that for the former he had no
+desire, that he was without ambition, and felt no wish to found a new
+school, but would rather leave truths he had learned quietly to make
+their way through the world.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of Copernicus is now wide as the world. He painted a portrait
+of himself which fell into the hands of Tycho Brahe; and he wrote an
+epigram upon the subject, to the effect that the whole earth could not
+contain the whole of the man who whirled it along the ocean of ether.
+Less extravagant was the grateful enthusiasm of Rhiticus, a disciple
+of Copernicus, when he wrote, "God has given to my excellent preceptor
+a reign without end, which may He vouchsafe to guide, govern, and
+increase, to the restoration of astronomical truth. Amen!"</p>
+
+<p>"The Copernican system" is the name now generally given to the almost
+universal scientific belief that the earth and the planets revolve
+around the sun, though the system carried out and perfected by Kepler,
+Newton, Halley, Laplace, and others is by no means perfectly identical
+with the theory of the German astronomer. But the inextricable
+interweaving of his name with opinions sanctioned by the entire
+scientific world, is one of the noblest conceivable tributes to the
+magnitude and lustre of his renown.</p>
+
+<p>His death was in harmony with his life. Shortly before he expired he
+repeated these words:</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "Non parem Paulo gratiam requiro,<br>
+  Veniam Petri neque posco; sed quam<br>
+  In crucis ligno dederat latroni<br>
+<span class="add3em">Sedulus oro."</span></p>
+
+<p>He had lived a life of Christian virtue&mdash;imitating his master, who
+went about doing good, healing the sick and preaching the gospel to
+the poor&mdash;yet, so far from having anything whereof to boast before
+God, he said himself that he felt <span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>(p. 127)</span> his need of infinite
+mercy, and in seeking the pardon of his sins he would not place
+himself on a level with Paul or Peter, but rather choose a point of
+self-humiliation by the side of the penitent thief.</p>
+
+<p>His work on the revolution of the celestial bodies was passing through
+the press at the time of his fatal illness in 1543, when he had
+completed his seventieth year and was brought to him just before he
+breathed his last; and thus, as has been beautifully expressed, he was
+"made to touch the first printed copy of his book when the sense of
+touch was gone, seeing it only as a dim object through the deepening
+dusk."</p>
+
+<p>He is buried under a flat stone in one of the side aisles of his own
+cathedral at Frauenburg. On his monument is painted a half-length
+portrait, pale, thin, aged, but with an expression of countenance
+intelligent and pleasant. His hair and eyes are black; he is habited
+as a priest; his hands are joined in prayer; before him is a crucifix,
+at his feet a skull, and behind him are a globe and a pair of
+compasses. His devotion, his deadness to the world, and his love of
+science are thus aptly symbolized.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>MARTIN LUTHER<br>
+(1483-1546)</h3>
+
+<a id="img047" name="img047"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="250" height="317" alt="Luther and a group of men." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Martin Luther, the greatest of the Protestant Reformers of the
+sixteenth century, was born at Eisleben on November 10, 1483. His
+father was a miner in humble circumstances; his mother, as Melancthon
+records, was a woman of exemplary virtue, and particularly esteemed in
+her walk of life. Shortly after Martin's birth his parents removed to
+Mansfeld, where their circumstances ere long improved by industry and
+perseverance. Their son was sent to school; and both at home and in
+school his training was severe. His father sometimes whipped him, he
+says, "for a mere trifle till the blood came," and he was subjected to
+the scholastic rod fifteen times in one day! Luther's schooling was
+completed at Magdeburg and Eisenach, and at the latter place he
+attracted by his singing the notice of a good lady of the name of
+Cotta, who welcomed the lad into her family and provided him with a
+comfortable home during <span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>(p. 128)</span> his stay there. Here under Trebonius
+he made good progress in Latin. In 1501, when he had reached his
+eighteenth year, he entered the university of Erfurt, with the view of
+qualifying himself for the legal profession. He went through the usual
+studies in the classics and the schoolmen, and took his degree of
+doctor of philosophy, or master of arts, in 1505, when he was
+twenty-one years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to this, however, a profound change of feeling had begun in
+him. The death of a friend, and the terror of a thunder-storm, deeply
+impressed him. Chancing one day to examine the Vulgate in the
+university library, he saw with astonishment that there were more
+gospels and epistles than in the lectionaries. He was arrested by the
+contents of his newly found treasure. His heart was deeply touched,
+and he resolved to devote himself to a spiritual life. He separated
+himself from his friends and fellow-students, and withdrew into the
+Augustinian convent at Erfurt. Here he spent the next three years of
+his life&mdash;years of peculiar interest and significance; for it was
+during this time that he laid, in the study of the Bible and of
+Augustine, and with the assistance of his life-long friend Staupitz,
+the foundation of those doctrinal convictions which were afterward to
+rouse and strengthen him in his life-long struggle. He describes very
+vividly the spiritual crisis through which he passed, the burden of
+sin which so long lay upon him, "too heavy to be borne," and the
+relief that he at length found in the clear apprehension of the
+doctrine of the "forgiveness of sins," through the grace of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1507 Luther was ordained a priest, and in the following
+year he removed to Wittenberg, destined to derive its chief celebrity
+from his name. He became a teacher in the new university founded there
+by the Elector Frederick of Saxony. At first he lectured on dialectics
+and physics, but his heart was already given to theology, and in 1509
+he became a bachelor of theology, and commenced lecturing on the Holy
+Scriptures. His lectures made a great impression, and the novelty of
+his views already began to excite attention. "This monk," said the
+rector of the university, "will puzzle our doctors and bring in a new
+doctrine." Besides lecturing, he began to preach, and his sermons
+reached a wider audience, and produced a still more powerful
+influence. They were printed and widely circulated in Germany, France,
+and England, so that his doctrines were diffused throughout Europe.
+His words, as Melancthon says, were "born not on his lips, but in his
+soul," and they moved profoundly the souls of all who heard them. In
+1511 he was sent on a mission to Rome, and he has described very
+vividly what he saw and heard there. His devout and unquestioning
+reverence&mdash;for he was yet in his own subsequent view "a most insane
+papist"&mdash;appears in strange conflict with his awakened thoughtfulness
+and the moral indignation at the abuses of the papacy beginning to
+stir him.</p>
+
+<a id="img048" name="img048"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="500" height="379" alt="" title="">
+<p>Luther introduced to the home of Frau Cotta.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On Luther's return from Rome he was made a doctor of the Holy
+Scriptures, and his career as a reformer may be said to have
+commenced. The system of indulgences had reached a scandalous height.
+The idea that it was in the power of the Church to forgive sin had
+gradually grown into the notion that the Pope could issue pardons of
+his own free will, which, being dispensed to the faithful, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>(p. 129)</span>
+exonerated them from the consequences of their transgressions. The
+sale of these pardons had become an organized part of the papal
+system. Money was largely needed at Rome, and its numerous emissaries
+sought everywhere to raise funds by the sale of "indulgences;" the
+principal of these was John Tetzel, a Dominican friar, who had
+established himself at Jüterberg (1517). Luther's indignation at the
+shameless traffic which this man carried on, finally became
+irrepressible. "God willing," he exclaimed, "I will beat a hole in his
+drum." He drew out ninety-five theses on the doctrine of indulgences,
+which on October 31st he nailed up on the door of the church at
+Wittenberg, and which he offered to maintain in the university against
+all impugners. The general purport of these theses was to deny to the
+Pope all right to forgive sins. This sudden and bold step of Luther
+was all that was necessary to awaken a wide-spread excitement. Tetzel
+was forced to retreat from the borders of Saxony to
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he drew out and published a set of
+counter-theses and publicly committed those of Luther to the flames.
+The students at Wittenberg retaliated by burning Tetzel's theses. The
+elector refused to interfere, and the excitement increased as new
+combatants&mdash;Hochstratten, Prierias, and Eck&mdash;entered the field. Eck
+was an able man, and an old friend of Luther's, and the argument
+between him and the reformer was especially vehement. In 1518 the
+latter was joined by Melancthon, who became one of his dearest and
+most trusted friends.</p>
+
+<p>At first the Pope, Leo X., took little heed of the disturbance; he is
+reported even to have said, when he heard of it, that "Friar Martin
+was a man of genius, and that he did not wish to have him molested."
+Some of the cardinals, however, saw the real character of the
+movement, which gradually assumed a seriousness evident even to the
+Pope; and Luther received a summons to appear at Rome, and answer for
+his theses (1518). Once again in Rome, it is unlikely he would ever
+have been allowed to return. His university and the elector
+interfered, and a legate was sent to Germany to hear and determine the
+case. Cardinal Cajetan was the legate, and he was but little fitted to
+deal with Luther. He would enter into no argument with him, but merely
+called upon him to retract. Luther refused, and fled from Augsburg,
+whither he had gone to meet the papal representative. The task of
+negotiation was then undertaken by Miltitz, a German, who was envoy of
+the Pope to the Saxon court, and by his greater address, a temporary
+peace was obtained. This did not last long. The reformer was too
+deeply moved to keep silent. "God hurries and drives me," he said; "I
+am not master of myself; I wish to be quiet, and am hurried into the
+midst of tumults." Dr. Eck and he held a memorable disputation at
+Leipsic (1519), in which the subject of argument was no longer merely
+the question of indulgences, but the general power of the Pope. The
+disputation, of course, came to no practical result; each
+controversialist claimed the victory, and Luther in the meantime made
+progress in freedom of opinion, and attacked the papal system as a
+whole more boldly. Erasmus and Hutten joined in the conflict, which
+waxed more loud and threatening.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>(p. 130)</span> In 1520 the reformer published his famous address to the
+"Christian Nobles of Germany." This was followed in the same year by a
+treatise "On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church." In these works,
+both of which circulated widely and powerfully influenced many minds,
+Luther took firmer and broader ground; he attacked not only the abuses
+of the papacy and its pretensions to supremacy, but also the doctrinal
+system of the Church of Rome. "These works," Ranke says, "contain the
+kernel of the whole Reformation." The papal bull containing forty-one
+theses was issued against him; the dread document, with other papal
+books, was burned before an assembled multitude of doctors, students,
+and citizens, at the Elster Gate of Wittenberg. Germany was convulsed
+with excitement. Eck (who had been the chief agent in obtaining the
+bull) fled from place to place, glad to escape with his life, and
+Luther was everywhere the hero of the hour.</p>
+
+<p>Charles V. had at this time succeeded to the empire, and he convened
+his first diet of the sovereigns and states at Worms. The diet met in
+the beginning of 1521; an order was issued for the destruction of
+Luther's books, and he himself was summoned to appear before the diet.
+This was above all what he desired&mdash;to confess the truth before the
+assembled powers of Germany. He resolved&mdash;having received a
+safe-conduct&mdash;to obey the summons, come what would. All Germany was
+moved by his heroism; his journey resembled a triumph; the threats of
+enemies and the anxieties of friends alike failed to move him. "I am
+resolved to enter Worms," he said, "although as many devils should set
+at me as there are tiles on the housetops." His appearance and
+demeanor before the diet, and the firmness with which he held his
+ground and refused to retract, all make a striking picture. He was not
+allowed to defend his opinions. "Unless I be convinced," he said, "by
+Scripture and reason, I neither can nor dare retract anything, for my
+conscience is a captive to God's word, and it is neither safe nor
+right to go against conscience. There I take my stand. I can do no
+otherwise. So help me God. Amen."</p>
+
+<p>On his return from Worms he was seized, at the instigation of his
+friend, the Elector of Saxony, and safely lodged in the old castle of
+the Wartburg. The affair was made to assume an aspect of violence, but
+in reality it was designed to secure him from the destruction which
+his conduct at Worms would certainly have provoked, he having been
+placed under the ban of the empire. He remained in this shelter for
+about a year, concealed in the guise of a knight. His chief employment
+was his translation of the Scriptures into his native language. He
+composed various treatises besides, and injured his health by
+sedentary habits and hard study. His imagination became morbidly
+excited, and he thought he saw and heard the Evil One mocking him
+while engaged in his literary tasks; the blot from the inkstand that
+he hurled at him is still shown on the wall of his chamber. The
+subject of the personality and presence of Satan was a familiar one
+with Luther, and he has many things about it in his Table-talk.</p>
+
+<a id="img049" name="img049"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="600" height="372" alt="" title="">
+<p>Martin Luther before the Council of Worms.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The disorders which sprang up in the progress of the Reformation
+recalled <span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>(p. 131)</span> Luther to Wittenberg. He felt that his presence
+was necessary to restrain Carlstadt and others, and, defying any
+danger to which he might still be exposed, he returned in 1522 to the
+old scene of his labors, rebuked the unruly spirits who had acquired
+power in his absence, and resumed with renewed energy his interrupted
+work. He strove to arrest the excesses of the Zwickau fanatics, and
+counselled peace and order to the inflamed peasants; while he warned
+the princes and nobles of the unchristian cruelty of many of their
+doings, which had driven the people to exasperation and frenzy. At no
+period of his life is he greater than now, in the stand which he made
+against lawlessness on the one hand and tyranny on the other. He
+vindicated his claim to be a reformer in the highest sense by the wise
+and manly part which he acted in this great social crisis in the
+history of Germany. In this year also he published his acrimonious
+reply to Henry VIII. on the seven sacraments. Although he had been at
+first united in a common cause with Erasmus, estrangement had
+gradually sprung up between the scholar of Rotterdam and the
+enthusiastic reformer of Wittenberg. This estrangement came to an open
+breach in the year 1525, when Erasmus published his treatise "De
+Libero Arbitrio." Luther immediately followed with his
+counter-treatise "De Servo Arbitrio." The controversy raged loudly
+between them; and in the vehemence of his hostility to the doctrine of
+Erasmus, Luther was led into various assertions of a very questionable
+kind, besides indulging in the wild abuse of his opponent's character.
+The quarrel was an unhappy one on both sides; and it must be confessed
+there is especially a want of generosity in the manner in which Luther
+continued to cherish the dislike which sprang out of it.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the same year Luther married Katharina von Bora, one
+of nine nuns who, under the influence of his teaching, had emancipated
+themselves from their religious vows. The step rejoiced his enemies
+and even alarmed some of his friends, like Melancthon. But it greatly
+contributed to his happiness, while it served to enrich and strengthen
+his character. All the most interesting and touching glimpses we get
+of him henceforth are in connection with his wife and children.</p>
+
+<p>Two years after his marriage he fell into a dangerous sickness and
+depression of spirits, from which he was only aroused by the dangers
+besetting Christendom from the advance of the Turks. Two years later,
+in 1529, he engaged in his famous conference at Marburg with Zwingli
+and other Swiss divines. The following year finds him at Coburg, while
+the diet sat at Augsburg. It was deemed prudent to intrust the
+interests of the Protestant cause to Melancthon, who attended the
+diet, but Luther removed to Coburg to be at hand for consultation. The
+drawing up of the Augsburg Confession marks the culmination of the
+German Reformation (1530); and the life of Luther from henceforth
+possesses comparatively little interest. He survived sixteen years
+longer, but they are years marked by few incidents of importance. He
+died at Eisleben on February 18, 1546, and was buried at Wittenberg.</p>
+
+<p>Luther's character presents an imposing combination of great
+qualities. Endowed with broad human sympathies, massive energy, manly
+and affectionate <span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>(p. 132)</span> simplicity, and rich, if sometimes coarse
+humor, he is at the same time a spiritual genius. His intuitions of
+divine truth were bold, vivid, and penetrating, if not comprehensive;
+and he possessed the art which God alone gives to the finer and abler
+spirits that He calls to do special work in this world, of kindling
+other souls with the fire of his own convictions, and awakening them
+to a higher consciousness of religion and duty. He was a leader of
+men, therefore, and a Reformer in the highest sense. His powers were
+fitted to his appointed task; it was a task of Titanic magnitude, and
+he was a Titan in intellectual robustness and moral strength and
+courage. It was only the divine energy which swayed him, and of which
+he recognized himself the organ, that could have accomplished what he
+did.</p>
+
+<p>View him as a mere theologian, and there are others who take higher
+rank. There is a lack of patient thoughtfulness and philosophical
+temper in his doctrinal discussions; but the absence of these very
+qualities gave vigor to his bold, if sometimes crude, conceptions, and
+enabled him to triumph in the struggle for life and death in which he
+was engaged. To initiate the religious movement which was destined to
+renew the face of Europe, required a gigantic will, which, instead of
+being crushed by opposition, or frightened by hatred, should only
+gather strength from the fierceness of the conflict before it. To
+clear the air thoroughly, as he himself said, thunder and lightning
+are necessary. Upon the whole, it may be said that history presents
+few greater characters&mdash;few that excite at once more love and
+admiration, and in which we see tenderness, humor, and a certain
+picturesque grace and poetic sensibility more happily combined with a
+lofty and magnanimous, if sometimes rugged, sublimity.</p>
+
+<p>Luther's works are very voluminous, partly in Latin, and partly in
+German. Among those of more general interest are his Table-Talk, his
+letters, and sermons. His Commentaries on Galatians and the Psalms are
+still read; and he was one of the great leaders of sacred song, his
+hymns, rugged but intense and expressive, having an enduring power.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of his more tender writing, take his letter to his
+little son Hans:</p>
+
+<p>"Grace and peace in Christ. My dear little son, I am glad to hear that
+thou learnest well and prayest diligently. Do this, my son, and
+continue it; when I return home I will bring thee a fine fairing.</p>
+
+<p>"I know a beautiful, cheerful garden, in which many children walk
+about. They have golden coats on, and gather beautiful apples under
+the trees, and pears, and cherries, and plums; they sing and jump
+about, and are merry; they have also fine little horses with golden
+bridles and silver saddles. And I asked the man, 'Whose children are
+they?' He replied, 'These are the children who like to pray and learn
+and are pious.' Then I said, 'My good man, I have a son; his name is
+Hans Luther; may he not also come to this garden to eat such nice
+apples and pears, and ride such fine little horses, and play with
+these children?' And the man said, 'If he likes to pray and learn, and
+is pious, he shall come to this garden with Lippus and Just; and when
+they all come together, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>(p. 133)</span> they shall have pipes and cymbals,
+lutes, and other musical instruments; and dance and shoot with little
+cross-bows.'</p>
+
+<p>"And he showed me a fine meadow in the garden, prepared for dancing:
+there being nothing but golden pipes, cymbals, and beautiful silver
+cross-bows. But it was yet early, and the children had not dined.
+Therefore I could not wait for the dancing, and said to the man, 'My
+good master, I will go quickly and write all this to my dear little
+son Hans, that he may pray diligently, learn well, and be pious, that
+he also may be admitted into this garden; but he hath an aunt Lena
+whom he must bring with him.' The man answered, 'So be it; go and
+write this to him.'</p>
+
+<p>"Therefore, my dear little son Hans, learn and pray with all
+confidence; and tell this to Lippus and Just, that they also may learn
+and pray; and ye will all meet in this beautiful garden. Herewith I
+commend thee to Almighty God. Give greetings to Aunt Lena, and also a
+kiss from me,<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<p class="left50">"Thy loving father,</p>
+
+<p class="right">"<span class="smcap">Martin Luther</span>."</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHARLES V. OF GERMANY<br>
+(1500-1558)</h3>
+
+<a id="img050" name="img050"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="250" height="305" alt="Charles V." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Charles V., who ruled over more kingdoms than any other European
+monarch before or since, who was the most powerful ruler of his
+century, and who, on the whole, used his great power wisely and well,
+was born at Ghent, February 24, 1500. His parents were the Archduke
+Philip, son of the Emperor Maximilian, and Joanna, daughter of
+Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. To those united kingdoms
+Charles succeeded on the death of his grandfather Ferdinand, in 1516.
+The early part of his reign was stormy; a Flemish regency and Flemish
+ministers became hateful to the Spaniards, and their discontent broke
+out into civil war. The Castilian rebels assumed the name of The Holy
+League, and seemed animated by a spirit not unlike that of the English
+Commons under the Stuarts. Spain was harassed by these internal
+contests until 1522, when they were calmed by the presence of Charles,
+whose prudence and, we may hope, his humanity, put an end to the
+rebellion. He made <span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>(p. 134)</span> some examples, but soon held his hand,
+with the declaration, that "too much blood had been spilt." An amnesty
+was more effectual than severities, and the royal authority was
+strengthened, as it will seldom fail to be, by clemency. Some of his
+courtiers informed him of the place where one of the ring leaders was
+concealed. His answer is worthy of everlasting remembrance: "You ought
+to warn him that I am here, rather than acquaint me where he is."</p>
+
+<p>Spain, the Two Sicilies, the Low Countries, and Franche Comté,
+belonged to Charles V. by inheritance; and by his grandfather
+Maximilian's intervention he was elected king of the Romans; nor had
+he to wait long before that prince's death, in 1519, cleared his path
+to the empire. But Francis I. of France was also a candidate for the
+imperial crown, with the advantage of being six years senior to
+Charles, and of having already given proof of military talent. The
+Germans, however, were jealous of their liberties; and not
+unreasonably dreading the power of each competitor, rejected both.
+Their choice fell on Frederic, Elector of Saxony, surnamed the Wise,
+celebrated as the protector of Luther; but that prince declined the
+splendid boon, and recommended Charles, on the plea that a powerful
+emperor was required to stop the rapid progress of the Turkish arms.</p>
+
+<p>The political jealousy, embittered by personal emulation, which
+existed between the Emperor and the King of France, broke out into war
+in 1521. France, Navarre, and the Low Countries were at times the seat
+of the long contest which ensued; but chiefly Italy. The duchy of
+Milan had been conquered by Francis in 1515. It was again wrested from
+the French by the emperor in 1522. In 1523, a strong confederacy was
+formed against France, by the Pope, the Emperor, the King of England,
+the Archduke Ferdinand, to whom his brother Charles had ceded the
+German dominions of the House of Austria, the states of Milan, Venice,
+and Genoa; all united against a single power. And in addition, the
+celebrated Constable of Bourbon became a traitor to France to gratify
+his revenge; brought his brilliant military talents to the emperor's
+service, and was invested with the command of the Imperial troops in
+Italy. To this formidable enemy Francis opposed his weak and
+presumptuous favorite, the Admiral Bonnivet, who was driven out of
+Italy in 1524, the year in which the gallant Bayard lost his life in
+striving to redeem his commander's errors.</p>
+
+<p>The confidence of Francis seemed to increase with his dangers, and his
+faults with his confidence. He again entered the Milanese in 1525, and
+retook the capital. But Bonnivet was his only counsellor; and under
+such guidance the siege of Pavia was prosecuted with inconceivable
+rashness, and the battle of Pavia fought without a chance of gaining
+it. Francis was taken prisoner, and wrote thus to his mother, the
+Duchess of Angoulême: "Everything is lost, except our honor." This
+Spartan spirit has been much admired; but whether justly, may be a
+question. From a Bayard, nothing could have been better; but the honor
+of a king is not confined to fighting a battle; and this specimen,
+like the conduct of Francis in general, proves him to have been the
+mirror of knighthood, rather than of royalty.</p>
+
+<p>Charles, notwithstanding his victory at Pavia, did not invade France,
+but, as <span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>(p. 135)</span> the price of freedom, he prescribed the harshest
+conditions to the captive king. At first they were rejected, but his
+haughty spirit and conscience were at length both reconciled to the
+casuistry that the fulfilment of forced promises may be eluded.
+Francis, therefore, consented to the treaty of Madrid, made in 1526,
+by which it was stipulated that he should give up his claims in Italy
+and the Low Countries; surrender the Duchy of Burgundy to Spain; and
+return into captivity if these conditions were not fulfilled in six
+weeks. When once at large, instead of executing the treaty, he formed
+a league with the Pope, the King of England, and the Venetians, to
+maintain the liberty of Italy. The Pope absolved him from his oaths,
+and he refused to return into Spain. The passions of the rival
+monarchs were now much excited, and challenges and the lie were
+exchanged between them. No duel was fought, nor probably intended; but
+the notoriety of the challenge went far to establish a false point of
+punctilio, we will not call it honor, among gentlemen, and single
+combats became more frequent than in the ages of barbarism.</p>
+
+<p>In 1529, the course of these calamities was suspended by the treaty of
+Cambray, negotiated in person by two women. The Duchess of Angoulême
+and Margaret of Austria, governess of the Low Countries, met in that
+city, and settled the terms of pacification between the rival
+monarchs.</p>
+
+<p>For Charles's honorable conduct on Luther's appearance before the diet
+of Worms, the reader may refer to the life of the reformer in the
+present volume. The cause of Lutheranism gained ground at the diet of
+Nuremberg; and if Charles had declared in favor of the Lutherans, all
+Germany would probably have changed its religion. As it was, the
+Reformation made progress during the war between the emperor and
+Clement VII. All that Charles acquired from the diet of Spire, in
+1526, was to wait patiently for a general council, without encouraging
+novelties. In 1530, he assisted in person at the diet of Augsburg,
+when the Protestants (a name bestowed on the reformers in consequence
+of the protest entered by the Elector of Saxony and others at the
+second diet of Spire) presented their confession, drawn up by
+Melancthon, the most moderate of Luther's disciples. About this time
+Charles procured the election of his brother Ferdinand as king of the
+Romans, on the plea that, in his absence, the empire required a
+powerful chief to make head against the Turks. This might be only a
+pretence for family aggrandizement; but the emperor became seriously
+apprehensive lest the Lutherans, if provoked, should abandon the cause
+of Christendom, and policy therefore conceded what zeal would have
+refused. By a treaty concluded with the Protestants at Nuremberg, and
+ratified at Ratisbon in 1531, Charles granted them liberty of
+conscience till a council should be held, and annulled all sentences
+passed against them by the imperial chamber; on this they engaged to
+give him powerful assistance against the Turks.</p>
+
+<p>In 1535, Muley Hassan, the exiled king of Tunis, implored Charles's
+aid against the pirate Barbarossa, who had usurped his throne. The
+emperor eagerly seized the opportunity of acquiring fame by the
+destruction of that pest of Spain and Italy. He carried a large army
+into Africa, defeated Barbarossa, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>(p. 136)</span> marched to Tunis. The
+city surrendered, being in no condition to resist, and while the
+conqueror was deliberating what terms to grant, the soldiery sacked
+it, committed the most atrocious violence, and are said to have
+massacred more than thirty thousand persons. This outrage tarnished
+the glory of the expedition, which was entirely successful. Muley
+Hassan was restored to his throne.</p>
+
+<p>In 1536 a fresh dispute for the possession of the Milanese broke out
+between the King of France and the Emperor. It began with negotiation,
+artfully protracted by Charles, who promised the investiture,
+sometimes to the second, sometimes to the youngest, son of his
+formerly impetuous rival, whom he thus amused, while he took measures
+to crush him by the weight of his arms. But if misfortune had made the
+King of France too cautious, prosperity had inspired Charles with a
+haughty presumption, which gave the semblance of stability to every
+chimerical vision of pride. In 1536 he attempted the conquest of
+France by invading Provence; but his designs were frustrated by a
+conduct so opposite to the national genius of the French that it
+induced them to murmur against their general. Charles, however, felt
+by experience the prudence of those measures which sacrificed
+individual interests to the general good by making a desert of the
+whole country. Francis marked his impotent hatred by summoning the
+emperor before parliament by the simple name of Charles of Austria, as
+his vassal for the counties of Artois and Flanders. The charge was the
+infraction of the treaty of Cambray, the offence was laid as felony,
+to abide the judgment of the court of peers. On the expiration of the
+legal term, two fiefs were decreed to be confiscated. A fresh source
+of hostility broke out on the death of the young Dauphin of France,
+who was said to have been poisoned, and the king accused Charles V. of
+the crime. But there is neither proof nor probability to support the
+charge; and the accused could have no interest to commit the act
+imputed to him, since there were two surviving sons still left to
+Francis.</p>
+
+<p>But the resources even of Charles were exhausted by his great
+exertions; arrears were due to his troops, who mutinied everywhere
+from his inability to pay them. He therefore assembled the Cortes, or
+states-general, of Castile, at Toledo, in 1539, stated his wants, and
+demanded subsidies. The clergy and nobility pleaded their own
+exemption and refused to impose new taxes on the other orders.
+Charles, in anger, dissolved the Cortes, and declared the nobles and
+prelates forever excluded from that body, on the ground that men who
+pay no taxes have no right to a voice in the national assemblies. But
+the people of Ghent made a more serious resistance to authority, on
+account of a tax which infringed their privileges. They offered to
+transfer their allegiance to Francis, who did not avail himself of the
+proposal, not from either conscientious or chivalrous scruples, but
+because his views were all centred in Milan; he therefore betrayed his
+Flemish clients to the emperor, in hopes of obtaining the investiture
+of the Italian duchy. By holding out the expectation of this boon,
+Charles obtained a safe-conduct for his passage through France into
+Flanders, whither he was anxious to repair without loss of time. His
+presence soon reduced the insurgents. The inhabitants of Ghent opened
+their gates to him on his fortieth birthday, in 1540; and he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>(p. 137)</span>
+entered his native city, in his own words, "as their sovereign and
+their judge, with the sceptre and the sword." He punished twenty-nine
+of the principal citizens with death, the town with the forfeiture of
+its privileges, and the people by a heavy fine for the building of a
+citadel to coerce them. He broke his word with Francis by bestowing
+the Milanese on his own son, afterward Philip II.</p>
+
+<p>Our limits will not allow of our detailing the circumstances of the
+emperor's calamitous expedition against Algiers; but his courage,
+constancy, and humanity in distress and danger, claim a sympathy for
+his misfortunes which is withheld from the selfish and wily career of
+his prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>Francis devised new grounds for war, and allied himself with Sweden,
+Denmark, and the Sultan Soliman. This is the first instance of a
+confederacy with the North. But he had alienated the Protestants of
+Germany by his severe measures against the Lutherans, and Henry VIII.
+by crossing the marriage of his son Edward with Mary of Scotland, yet
+in her cradle. Henry therefore leagued with the emperor, who found it
+convenient to bury the injuries of Catherine of Aragon in her grave.
+The war was continued during the two following years with varying
+success: the most remarkable events were the capture of Boulogne by
+the English, and the great victory won by the French over the
+Imperialists at Cerisolles, Piedmont, in 1544. In the autumn of that
+year a treaty was concluded at Crespi, between Charles and Francis,
+involving the ordinary conditions of marriage and mutual
+renunciations, with the curious clause that both should make joint war
+against the Turks. In the same year the embarrassments created by the
+war, and the imminent danger of Hungary, increased the boldness of the
+German Protestants belonging to the league of Smalkald, and the
+emperor, while presiding at the diet of Spire, won them over by
+consenting to the free exercise of their religion.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholics had always demanded a council, which was convened at
+Trent in 1545. The Protestants refused to acknowledge its authority,
+and the emperor no longer affected fairness toward them. In 1546 he
+joined Pope Paul III. in a league against them, by a treaty in terms
+contradictory to his own public protestations. Paul himself was so
+imprudent as to reveal the secret, and it enabled the Protestants to
+raise a formidable army in defence of their religion and liberties.
+But the Electors of Cologne and Brandenburg, and the Elector Palatine,
+resolved to remain neuter. Notwithstanding this secession, the war
+might have been ended at once, had the confederates attacked Charles
+while he lay at Ratisbon with very few troops, instead of wasting time
+by writing a manifesto, which he answered by putting the Elector of
+Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse under the ban of the empire. He
+foresaw those divisions which soon came to pass by Maurice of Saxony's
+seizure of his cousin's electorate.</p>
+
+<p>Delivered by the death of Francis in 1547, in which year Henry VIII.
+also died, from the watchful supervision of a jealous and powerful
+rival, and relieved from the fear of the Turks by a five years' truce,
+Charles was at liberty to bend his whole strength against the revolted
+princes of Germany. He marched against the Elector Frederick of
+Saxony, who was defeated at Mulhausen, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>(p. 138)</span> taken prisoner, and
+condemned to death by a court-martial composed of Italians and
+Spaniards, in contempt of the laws of the empire. The sentence was
+communicated to the prisoner while playing at chess; his firmness was
+not shaken, and he tranquilly said, "I shall die without reluctance,
+if my death will save the honor of my family and the inheritance of my
+children." He then finished his game. But his wife and family could
+not look at his death so calmly; at their entreaty he surrendered his
+electorate into the emperor's hands. The other chief of the Protestant
+league, the Landgrave of Hesse, was also forced to submit, and
+detained in captivity, contrary to the pledged word of the emperor;
+who, fearless of any further resistance to his supreme authority,
+convoked a diet at Augsburg in 1548. At that assembly Maurice was
+invested with Saxony, and the emperor, in the vain hope of enforcing a
+uniformity of religious practice, published by his own authority a
+body of doctrine called the "Interim," to be in force till a general
+council should be assembled. This necessarily was unsatisfactory to
+both parties, but its observance was enforced by a master with whom
+terror was the engine of obedience.</p>
+
+<p>These measures, however, did not preserve tranquillity long in
+Germany. Maurice of Saxony and the Elector of Brandenburg urged the
+deliverance of the Landgrave of Hesse, as having made themselves
+sureties against violence to his person. Charles answered by absolving
+them from their pledges. The Protestants, of course, charged him as
+arrogating the same spiritual authority with the popes. And Maurice,
+offended at the slight put upon him, directed his artful policy to the
+humiliation of Charles. He had compelled his subjects to conform to
+the Interim by the help of the timid Melancthon, who was no longer
+supported by the firmness of Luther. On the other hand, he had
+silenced the clamors of the more sturdy by a public avowal of his zeal
+for the Reformation. In the meantime the diet of Augsburg, completely
+at the emperor's devotion, had named him general of the war against
+Magdeburg, which had been placed under the ban of the empire for
+opposition to the Interim. He took that Lutheran city, but by private
+assurances regained the good-will of the inhabitants. He also engaged
+in a league with France, but still wore the mask. He even deceived the
+able Granville, Bishop of Arras, afterward cardinal, who boasted that
+"a drunken German could never impose on him;" yet was he of all others
+most imposed on. At last, in 1552, Maurice declared himself; and Henry
+II. of France published a manifesto, assuming the title of "Protector
+of the liberties of Germany and its captive princes." He began with
+the conquest of the three bishoprics of Toul, Baden, and Metz. In
+conjunction with Maurice he had lain a plan for surprising Charles at
+Innspruck, and getting possession of his person, and the daring
+attempt had almost succeeded. Charles was forced to escape by night
+during a storm, in a paroxysm of gout, and was carried across the Alps
+in a litter. These disputes were adjusted in 1555, at the diet of
+Augsburg, by the solemn grant of entire freedom of worship to the
+Protestants. The King of France was abandoned by his allies, and
+scarcely named in the treaty.</p>
+
+<a id="img051" name="img051"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="600" height="279" alt="" title="">
+<p>Charles V. on his way to the convent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Henry resolved to defend his acquisition of the three bishoprics, and
+Charles <span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>(p. 139)</span> to employ his whole force for their recovery. The
+Duke of Guise made adequate preparations for the defence of Metz, the
+siege of which the emperor was compelled to raise after sixty-five
+days spent in fruitless efforts, with the loss of 30,000 men by
+skirmishes and battles, and by diseases incident to the severity of
+the season. "I perceive," said he, "that Fortune, like other females,
+forsakes old men, to lavish her favors on the young." This sentiment
+probably sunk deeper into his reflections than might be inferred from
+the sarcastic terms in which it was clothed: for in the year 1556,
+after various events of war, alternately calamitous to the subjects of
+both nations, he astonished Europe by his abdication in favor of his
+son. In an assembly of the states at Brussels, he addressed Philip in
+a speech which melted the audience into tears. The concluding passage,
+as given by Robertson, is worth transcribing. "Preserve an inviolable
+regard for religion; maintain the Catholic faith in its purity; let
+the laws of your country be sacred in your eyes; encroach not on the
+rights and privileges of your people; and if the time should ever come
+when you shall wish to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you
+have a son endowed with such qualities that you can resign your
+sceptre to him with as much satisfaction as I give up mine to you!"
+Charles retired into a monastery, where he died after more than two
+years passed in deep melancholy, and in practices of devotion
+inconsistent with sound health, when only between fifty-eight and
+fifty-nine years of age. His activity and talents had been the theme
+of universal admiration, the ardor of his ambitious policy had been
+extreme, and his knowledge of mankind profound; but he should have
+followed up the objects of his high aspirations by a straighter road.
+His glory would have been truly enviable had he devoted his efforts to
+the happiness of his subjects, instead of harassing their minds by
+dissensions, and mowing down their lives by hundreds of thousands in
+war.</p>
+
+<p>To the statesman or the politician the history of this period is an
+inexhaustible fund of instruction and interest, and to the general
+reader it is rendered more than usually attractive by the almost
+dramatic contrast of character among the principal actors in the
+scene. Francis seems to have been the representative of the expiring
+school of chivalry; Charles was not the representative, but the
+founder of the modern system of state policy; Henry was the
+representative of ostentation, violence, and selfishness, to be found
+in all ages.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>(p. 140)</span> JOHN CALVIN<br>
+(1509-1564)</h3>
+
+<a id="img052" name="img052"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="200" height="217" alt="Calvin." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>John Calvin was born at Noyon, in Picardy, on July 10, 1509. His
+father, Gerard Caulvin or Cauvin, was procureur-fiscal of the district
+of Noyon, and secretary of the diocese. He was one of six
+children&mdash;four sons and two daughters. All the three sons who survived
+were ecclesiastics; and the reformer himself, while still only twelve
+years of age, was appointed to a chaplaincy in the cathedral church of
+Noyon. Calvin was educated in circumstances of ease and even
+affluence. The noble family of De Mortmar, in the neighborhood,
+invited him to share in the studies of their children; he was in some
+measure adopted by them; and when the family went to Paris, in his
+fourteenth year, he accompanied them. He was entered as a pupil in the
+College de la Marche, under the regency of Mathurin Cordier, better
+remembered, perhaps, by his Latin name of Corderius. It was under this
+distinguished master that Calvin laid the foundation of his own
+wonderful mastery of the Latin language. During this early period he
+was so distinguished by the great activity of his mental powers and
+the grave severity of his manners that his companions, it is said,
+surnamed him "The Accusative."</p>
+
+<p>For a while his attention was directed to the study of law, and his
+father sent him to the university of Orleans, then adorned by Pierre
+de l'Étoile, one of the most famous jurists of his day. At Orleans he
+continued the same life of rigorous temperance and earnest
+studiousness for which he was already noted. It was while a
+law-student in Orleans that he became acquainted with the Scriptures,
+and received his first impulse to the theological studies which have
+made his name so distinguished. A relative of his own, Pierre Robert
+Olivetan, was there engaged in a translation of the Scriptures; and
+this had the effect of drawing Calvin's attention, and awakening
+within him the religious instinct which was soon to prove the
+master-principle of his life. The seeds of the new faith were now
+beyond doubt sown in his heart, and from this time, although he still
+continued for a while longer to pursue his legal studies, his main
+interests appear to have been religious and theological. From Orleans
+he went to Bourges, where he acquired the knowledge of Greek, under
+the tuition of a learned German, Melchior Wolmar. He began here to
+preach the reformed doctrines, and passed over into the ranks of
+Protestantism, under the slow but sure growth of his new convictions
+rather than under the agitation of any violent feeling. Here, as
+everywhere, his life presents a marked contrast to that of Luther.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>(p. 141)</span> He proceeded to Paris in 1533, which at this date had become
+a centre of the "new learning," under the teaching of Lefèvre and
+Farel, and the influence of the Queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I.
+The Sorbonne itself had not escaped the infection. There was a growing
+religious excitement in the university, in the court, and even among
+the bishops. This, however, was not to last. The king was soon stirred
+up to take active measures to quell this rising spirit, and the result
+was that Calvin and others were obliged to flee for their lives. After
+this he repaired for a short time to his native place, resigned the
+preferment he held in the Roman Catholic Church, and for a year or two
+led a wandering life, sheltered in various places. We find him at
+Saintorge; at Nerac, the residence of the Queen of Navarre; at
+Angoulême, with his friend Louis du Tillet; then for a brief while at
+Paris again. Persecutions against the Protestants at this time raged
+so hotly that Calvin was no longer safe in France, and he betook
+himself to Basel, whence he issued, in the year 1536, the first
+edition of his "Christianæ Religionis Institutio," with the famous
+preface addressed to Francis I. The concentrated vigor and intensity
+of feeling of this address, rising into indignant remonstrance, and at
+times into pathetic and powerful influence, make it one of the most
+memorable documents in connection with the Reformation. After
+completing this great service to the cause of Protestantism, he made a
+short visit to Italy, to Renée, the Duchess of Ferrara. Finally, he
+revisited his native town, sold the paternal estate, which had
+devolved to him on the death of his eldest brother, and, bidding Noyon
+adieu, set out, in company with his younger brother and sister, on his
+way to Strasbourg. The direct road being rendered dangerous by the
+armies of Charles V., which had penetrated into France, he sought a
+circuitous route through Savoy and Geneva.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this journey was memorable for the cause of the
+Reformation. Arrived in Geneva, in the autumn of 1536, he met there
+his friend, Louis du Tillet, who communicated the fact of his arrival
+to Farel, then in the very midst of his struggle to promote the
+Reformation. Farel hastened to see him, and urge upon him the duty of
+remaining where he was, and undertaking his share of the work of God.
+Calvin did not at first respond to the call. He was given, he himself
+says, to his "own intense thoughts and private studies." He wished to
+devote himself to the service of the reformed churches generally,
+rather than to the care of any particular church. By some strange
+insight, however, Farel penetrated to the higher fitness of the young
+stranger who stood before him, and he ventured to lay the curse of God
+upon him and his studies if he refused his aid to the church of Geneva
+in her time of need. "It was," Calvin said, "as if God had seized me
+by his awful hand from heaven." He abandoned his intention of pursuing
+his journey, and joined eagerly with Farel in the work of reformation.</p>
+
+<p>Having entered upon his task, he soon infused an energy into it which
+crowned the struggling efforts of Farel with success. The hierarchical
+authority was already overturned before his arrival; the citizens had
+asserted their independence against the Duke of Savoy. The magistrates
+and people eagerly joined <span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>(p. 142)</span> with the reformers in the first
+heat of their freedom and their zeal. A Protestant Confession of Faith
+was drawn out, approved of by the Council of Two Hundred, and then
+proclaimed in the cathedral church of St. Peter. Great and marvellous
+changes were wrought in a short time upon the manners of the people;
+where license and frivolity had reigned, a strict moral severity began
+to characterize the whole aspect of society. The strain, however, was
+too sudden and too extreme. A spirit of rebellion against the rule of
+Calvin and Farel broke forth; but they refused to yield to the wishes
+of a party animated by a more easy and liberal spirit than themselves,
+and known in the history of Geneva under the nickname of Libertines;
+and the consequence was that they were both expelled from the city
+after less than two years' residence.</p>
+
+<a id="img053" name="img053"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="200" height="346" alt="A procession." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Calvin retreated to Strasbourg, and devoted himself to theological
+study, especially to his critical labors on the New Testament. Here,
+in October, 1539, he married the widow of a converted Anabaptist.</p>
+
+<p>The Genevans found, after a short time, that they could not well get
+on without Calvin. His rule might be rigid; but an authority even such
+as his was better than no settled authority at all; and the Libertine
+party seem to have been unable to construct any efficient and
+beneficent form of government. Accordingly, they invited Calvin to
+return; and, after some delay on his part, in order to test the spirit
+in which they were acting, he acceded to their invitation, and in the
+autumn of 1541, after three years' absence, once more made his entry
+into Geneva.</p>
+
+<p>Now, at length, he succeeded in establishing his plan of
+church-government. By his College of Pastors and Doctors, and his
+Consistorial Court of Discipline, he founded a theocracy, which aimed
+virtually to direct all the affairs of the city, and to control and
+modify both the social and individual life of the citizens. The
+Libertines still remained a strong party, which was even augmented
+after Calvin's return, by men such as Ami Perrin, who had strongly
+concurred in the invitation to Calvin, but who were afterward
+alienated from him by the high hand with which he pursued his designs,
+as well as by their own schemes of ambition. The struggle with this
+party lasted, with varying fortune, for no less a period than fifteen
+years, and was only terminated in 1555, after a somewhat ridiculous
+<span class="italic">émeute</span> in the streets. Perrin and others, driven from the city, were
+executed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>(p. 143)</span> in effigy; and the reformer's authority from this
+date was confirmed into an absolute supremacy. During the long
+struggle with the Libertines occurred also Calvin's controversies with
+Sebastian Castellio, Jerome Bolsec, and above all, Michael Servetus.</p>
+
+<p>After the execution of Servetus, and the expulsion of the Libertines
+two years later, Calvin's power in Geneva was firmly established, and
+he used it vigorously and beneficently for the defence of
+Protestantism throughout Europe. By the mediation of Beza he made his
+influence felt in France in the great struggle that was there going on
+between the hierarchical party, with the Guises at its head, and the
+Protestants, led by Condé and Coligny. In 1561 his energies began to
+fail. He had been long suffering from bad health, though his strength
+of will and buoyancy of intellect sustained him; but his health grew
+very much worse, and although he survived for more than two years, he
+never regained any vigor. He died on May 27, 1564.</p>
+
+<p>Very different estimates have been formed of Calvin's character. None,
+however, can dispute his intellectual greatness or the powerful
+services which he rendered to the cause of Protestantism. Stern in
+spirit and unyielding in will, he is never selfish or petty in his
+motives. Nowhere amiable, he is everywhere strong. Arbitrary and cruel
+when it suits him, he is yet heroic in his aims, and beneficent in the
+scope of his ambition. His moral purpose is always clear and definite:
+to live a life of duty, to shape circumstances to such divine ends as
+he apprehended, and in whatever sphere he might be placed, to work out
+the glory of God.</p>
+
+<p>He rendered a double service to Protestantism, which, apart from
+anything else, would have made his name illustrious: he systematized
+its doctrine, and he organized its ecclesiastical discipline. He was
+at once the great theologian of the Reformation, and the founder of a
+new church polity which did more than all other influences together to
+consolidate the scattered forces of the Reformation and give them an
+enduring strength. As a religious teacher, as a social legislator, and
+as a writer, especially of the French language, whose modern prose
+style was then in process of formation, his fame is second to none in
+his age, and must always conspicuously adorn the history of
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>His famous "Institutio" entitles Calvin to the foremost place among
+the dogmatic theologians of the Reformed Church. This masterpiece of
+luminous argument presents a complete system of Christian faith, based
+on the Protestant principle that the Scriptures are the source of
+Christian truth. "Two things there are," says Hooker, in the preface
+to the "Ecclesiastical Polity," "which have deservedly procured him
+honor throughout the world&mdash;the one, his exceeding pains in composing
+the 'Institutions of the Christian Religion;' the other, his no less
+industrious travails for exposition of Holy Scripture." His
+Commentaries embrace the greater part of the Old Testament and the
+whole of the New, except the Revelation, and place him in the front
+rank of expositors of Scripture.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>(p. 144)</span> JOHN KNOX<br>
+By <span class="smcap">P. Hume Brown</span><br>
+(1505-1572)</h3>
+
+<a id="img054" name="img054"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="250" height="333" alt="John Knox." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>John Knox, the great Scottish Reformer, was born at Giffordgate, a
+suburb of the town of Haddington, in 1505, the year preceding the
+birth of his famous countryman, George Buchanan. Knox has himself told
+us in a single sentence all that is definitely known of his family
+connections: "My lord," he represents himself as saying to the
+notorious Earl of Bothwell, "my grandfather, grandsire (maternal
+grandfather), and father have served under your lordship's
+predecessors, and some of them have died under their standards." He
+received the elements of his education in the grammar school of his
+native town, and in 1522 was sent to the University of Glasgow. St.
+Andrews was nearer his home, and possessed the more famous university;
+but he was probably drawn to Glasgow by the fame of the most
+distinguished literary Scotchman of his generation&mdash;John Major, the
+schoolman. For this reason, at least, Buchanan was sent to St.
+Andrews, though Glasgow was nearer his native place, when Major had
+migrated to the former university. At Glasgow, under Major, Knox could
+have been subjected to none of the influences of the great
+intellectual revolution which substituted for the studies and methods
+of mediævalism the ideas of the Revival of Letters. Like all his
+educated contemporaries, he learned to speak and write Latin with
+perfect fluency; but it was always with an idiom that showed he had
+none of the humanist's scruples regarding purity of language. What he
+learned from Major was the art for which that scholar was renowned
+throughout Europe&mdash;the art of logical exercitation; and Knox's
+writings everywhere show that all through life he had a natural
+delight in the play of dialectic. He left the university without
+taking the degree of master of arts, thus by the conditions of all the
+mediæval universities precluding himself from the career of an
+academic teacher.</p>
+
+<p>During the eighteen years that follow his leaving the university, Knox
+passes completely out of sight. All that is known of him during this
+period is that, from 1540 to 1543, he acted as notary in his native
+town of Haddington. As in the documents that establish this fact his
+name appears with the addition of "Sir," the title of priests who were
+not Masters of Arts, Knox must have been in orders in the Church of
+Rome till as late as 1543. In 1544 we find him acting as tutor to the
+sons of Douglas of Lorgniddry and Cockburn of Ormiston&mdash;families, it
+is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>(p. 145)</span> to be noted, both favorably disposed to the new opinions
+in religion now making their way in Scotland. Through these families
+he was brought into contact with George Wishart, who had lately
+returned from travelling in Germany and England, with the burning zeal
+to gain his country to the Lutheran reformation. From this period the
+future direction of Knox's life was decided, and thenceforward, with
+an intensity and self-devotion never surpassed, he is the apostle of
+the cause with which his name is forever identified&mdash;the establishment
+in Scotland of what he deemed the only true conception of the
+primitive church as based on the teaching of Christ and the apostles.
+We have reason to believe that, even before this date, his sympathies
+were on the side of reform in religion, but the teaching and example
+of Wishart seem first to have brought to him the clear consciousness
+of his mission. Knox identified himself with Wishart with all the
+impetuosity of his character, and was in the habit, he tells us, of
+carrying a two-handed sword before the preacher. When Wishart was
+seized by the emissaries of Cardinal Beaton, Knox would willingly have
+attended him to the last; but Wishart, who knew the fate in store for
+him, rejected the offer. "Return to your bairns" (meaning Knox's
+pupils), he said, "and God bless you. One is sufficient for one
+sacrifice."</p>
+
+<p>Wishart was burned in St. Andrews in March, 1546, and in May of the
+same year Cardinal Beaton was murdered. The cardinal's murderers held
+possession of the castle of St. Andrews; and, as Knox was known to be
+the enemy of Beaton (though he had no share in his assassination), he
+was forced (1547) for his own safety to join them with his pupils.
+Here his zeal and theological attainments made him so conspicuous
+that, at the instance of the leaders of the reforming party (Sir David
+Lyndsay among the rest), he was formally called to the ministry, and
+preached with much acceptance in the castle and parish church of St.
+Andrews. A few months later the castle surrendered to the French; and,
+in the teeth of the express terms of capitulation, the more prominent
+of the besieged party were sent as prisoners on board the French
+galleys. For eighteen months Knox remained a captive, his first winter
+being spent in a galley on the Loire, the second in prison in Rouen.
+His constitution was not naturally robust, and his hard experience
+during these two years seriously impaired his health for the rest of
+his life. The breach of faith on the part of the French, and the
+ignominy to which he was subjected, were never forgotten by Knox, and
+must in part explain and justify his life-long conviction that no good
+thing could come of French policy or French religion.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1549, on the express intercession of Edward VI., Knox
+regained his liberty. As it was still unsafe for him to return to
+Scotland, for the next four years, till the death of Edward VI., he
+made his home in England. From all that is known of him during these
+years, it is clear that he made himself a person to be reckoned with
+by those at the centre of authority in the country. By his preaching
+at Berwick he gave such offence to the Bishop of Durham that he was
+removed to Newcastle, where it was supposed his influence would be
+less mischievous. In 1551 he was appointed one of six chaplains to
+Edward VI., and in 1552, at the suggestion of the Duke of
+Northumberland, he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>(p. 146)</span> was offered the bishopric of Rochester.
+As the duke's object in suggesting the appointment was simply to
+check, as far as he could, what he deemed the dangerous activity of
+Knox, the offer was unhesitatingly rejected. Knox's importance in
+England is still further proved by the fact that, along with five
+others, he was consulted by Archbishop Cranmer regarding his
+forty-five (afterward forty-two) articles of religion.</p>
+
+<p>On Mary's accession, Knox, like the majority of the Reformed
+ministers, had to seek refuge on the continent. That he might be
+within call, should circumstances permit his return either to Scotland
+or England, he took up his abode at Dieppe till the beginning of the
+following year (1554), when he proceeded to Geneva. In July of this
+year he was again in Dieppe, "to learn the estate of England;" but
+with Mary of Lorraine as regent in Scotland, and Mary Tudor as Queen
+of England, he was convinced that for the present both these countries
+were closed against him. He accordingly accepted a call from the
+English congregation at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where, however, on
+account of a dispute regarding the use of the Book of Common Prayer,
+he remained only a few months. At Geneva he found a congregation of
+his own way of thinking; but, eager to be an apostle in his own
+country, he once more returned to Dieppe (August, 1555), whence he
+ventured into Scotland in September. He remained in Scotland till July
+of the next year, residing chiefly in Edinburgh, but making preaching
+journeys into various parts of the country. The new doctrines were
+steadily spreading in Scotland, but as yet their supporters were not
+strong enough to present a confident front against the government. It
+was at his own risk, therefore, that Knox remained in the country; and
+at the prayer of the congregation in Geneva, he returned to that town
+in July, 1556. It was probably during this visit to Scotland that he
+married his first wife, Marjory Bowes, to whom he seems to have been
+engaged during his sojourn in Newcastle. For the next two years he
+remained in Geneva, ministering to his congregation, and seeing much
+of Calvin, whose influence on Knox regarding all the great questions
+of the time was afterward to bear fruit in the ordering of affairs in
+Scotland. To this period also belong several of his minor writings,
+and notably his "First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous
+Regiment of Women," the publication of which he must afterward have
+regretted in the interest of the cause he had most at heart.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in Scotland the ground was being prepared for the great
+work in store for Knox. Under Mary of Lorraine as regent, the French
+influence had come to be regarded as a danger to the independence of
+the country, and a sense of this danger threw many into the party of
+reform. The unworthy lives of the old clergy, and the cupidity of many
+of the nobles, worked in the same direction. In 1557 the advocates of
+reform bound themselves, by what is known as the First Covenant, to do
+all in their power to effect a religious revolution, and by 1558 they
+felt themselves strong enough to summon Knox to their aid in the work
+he deemed the mission of his life.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1559, Knox found himself again in Scotland, which he never
+again left for a prolonged period. He at once became the life and soul
+of his party. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>(p. 147)</span> At the moment of his arrival the Lords of the
+Congregation, as the Protestant nobility termed themselves, were in
+open revolt against the regent. By his preaching at Perth and St.
+Andrews Knox gained these important towns to his cause, and by his
+labors in Edinburgh, of which he was appointed minister, he also won a
+strong party against the government. But the reformers, of their own
+resources, could not hold their ground against the regent, subsidized
+by France with money and soldiers. Mainly, therefore, through the
+efforts of Knox, who all through his public career was deep in the
+politics of the time, the assistance of England was obtained against
+what was now deemed the French invasion. The help of England proved
+effective, and by the treaty of Leith (1560), and the death of the
+regent the same year, the insurgent party became masters of the
+country. The estates of Parliament having met on August 1st, the
+ministers were ordered to draw up a Confession of Faith which should
+embody the new teaching, and on August 17th Protestantism was formally
+established as the religion of the country. Having gained thus much,
+the ministers, desirous of practical results from their victory, drew
+up the first Book of Discipline&mdash;a document ever memorable in the
+history of Scotland, and admirable in itself for its wise and liberal
+suggestions for the religious and educational organization of the
+country. These suggestions, however, were little to the mind of the
+majority of the Protestant nobles, who, "perceiving their carnal
+liberty and worldly commodity to be impaired thereby," sneeringly
+spoke of them as "devote imaginationis." In the revolution that had
+been accomplished Knox had been the leading spirit; but he saw that
+the victory was as yet only half gained, and that the deadliest
+struggle had still to be decided.</p>
+
+<p>The return of the young queen to Scotland (August, 1561) revived all
+the old dissensions, and introduced new elements into the strife of
+parties. By every opinion she held on religion, on the relations of
+prince and subject, on the fundamental principles of life, Mary was
+separated as by an abyss from the party represented by Knox. If we may
+judge from the language which each used of the other, Knox and she
+failed to find one point on which genial intercourse was possible. As
+the minister of St. Giles (then the only Reformed church in
+Edinburgh), Knox believed that Mary was his special charge. Her
+personal conduct, therefore, no less than her public policy, were made
+the subject of his most stringent criticism; and during the six years
+of her reign his attitude toward her was that of uncompromising
+insistence. The celebration of mass in Holyrood Chapel, in defiance of
+the late religious settlement, first roused his wrath; and a sermon
+delivered by him in St. Giles led to the first of those famous
+interviews with Mary, the record of which makes such a remarkable
+portion of his "History of the Reformation." The division of
+ecclesiastical property, by which those in actual possession received
+two-thirds, the reformed ministers one-third, was a further ground of
+quarrel with the new government. The delay of Mary to confirm the late
+religious settlement also gave rise to the greatest anxiety on the
+part of Knox and his brother ministers. In view of the precarious
+interests of the great cause, Knox spoke out with such frankness
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>(p. 148)</span> as to alienate the most powerful noble in the country, and
+the one whom he respected most&mdash;Lord James Stuart, afterward the
+Regent Moray. The marriage of Mary with Darnley (1565), again,
+however, led them to common counsels, as both saw in this marriage the
+most serious menace against the new religion. In the subsequent
+revolt, headed by Moray and the other Protestant nobles, Knox
+nevertheless took no part, and remained at his charge in Edinburgh.
+But after the murder of Rizzio, he deemed it wise, considering Mary's
+disposition toward him, to withdraw to Kyle, in Ayrshire, where he
+appears to have written the greater part of his history.</p>
+
+<p>The events of the next two years&mdash;the murder of Darnley, Mary's
+marriage with Bothwell, and her subsequent flight into England&mdash;again
+threw the management of affairs into the hands of the Protestant
+party; and under Moray as regent the acts of 1560, in favor of the
+reformed religion, were duly ratified by the estates of the realm. As
+in the former revolution, Knox was still the same formidable force the
+nobles had to reckon with; and at Stirling, at the coronation of James
+VI. (1567), he preached in that strain which gave his sermons the
+character and importance of public manifestoes. The assassination of
+Moray, in 1570, and the consequent formation of a strong party in
+favor of Mary, once more endangered the cause to which he had devoted
+his life, and the possession of the castle of Edinburgh by the queen's
+supporters forced him to remove to St. Andrews for safety. He had
+already had a stroke of apoplexy, and he was now but the wreck of his
+former self, but his spirit was as indomitable as ever. The
+description of him at this period, by James Melville, can never be
+omitted in any account of Knox. "Being in St. Andrews, he was very
+weak. I saw him every day of his doctrine go hulie and fear with a
+furring of martricks about his neck, a staff in the one hand, and
+good, godly Richart Ballanden, his servant, holding up the other,
+oxter from the abbey to the parish church; and be the said Richart and
+another servant lifted up to the pulpit where he behooved to loan, at
+his first entry, but or he had done with his sermon, he was so active
+and vigorous that he was like to ding that pulpit in blads, and fly
+out of it."</p>
+
+<p>It was the desire of his congregation of St. Giles to hear him once
+more before he died. Accordingly, by short stages, he made his way to
+Edinburgh, and on November 9, 1572, at the induction of his successor
+in office, he made his last public appearance. He died the same month,
+at the age of sixty-seven, and was buried in the churchyard then
+attached to St. Giles, behind which church a small square stone in the
+pavement of Parliament Square, marked "J. K., 1572," now indicates the
+spot where he is supposed to lie. The saying of Regent Morton at his
+grave, "Here lieth a man who in his life never feared the face of man"
+(Calderwood), was the most memorable panegyric that could have been
+pronounced to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>Knox was twice married. His first wife, Marjory Bowes, died in 1560,
+leaving him two sons. By his second wife, Margaret Stewart, daughter
+of Lord Ochiltree, whom (little more than a girl) he married in 1564,
+he had three daughters. His widow and all his family survived him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>(p. 149)</span> In their broader features the character of Knox and of the
+work he achieved cannot be misread. In himself he stands as the
+pre-eminent type of the religious reformer&mdash;dominated by his one
+transcendent idea, indifferent or hostile to every interest of life
+that did not subserve its realization. He is sometimes spoken of as a
+fanatic; but the term is hardly applicable to one who combined in such
+a degree as Knox, the shrewdest worldly sense with an ever-ready wit
+and a native humor that declares itself in his most serious moments
+and in the treatment of the loftiest subjects. To blame him for
+intolerance or harshness is but to pass judgment on his age and on the
+type to which he belongs. It is his unquestionable tribute, that the
+work he accomplished was the fashioning anew of his country's
+destinies. It has to be added that by his "History of the Reformation
+in Scotland," Knox holds a place of his own in the history of
+literature. His narrative, as was to be expected, is that of one who
+saw only a single aspect of the events he chronicles; but the impress
+of the writer's individuality, stamped on every page, renders his work
+possibly unique in English literature.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Samuel L. Knapp</span><br>
+(1533-1603)</h3>
+
+<a id="img055" name="img055"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="250" height="292" alt="Elizabeth I." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>If the question respecting the equality of the sexes was to be
+determined by an appeal to the characters of sovereign princes, the
+comparison is, in proportion, manifestly in favor of woman, and that
+without having recourse to the trite and flippant observation, proved
+to have been ill-founded, of male and female influence. Elizabeth of
+England affords a glorious example in truth of this position.</p>
+
+<p>Daughter of Henry VIII., a capricious tyrant, and of the imprudent and
+unfortunate Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was born at Greenwich, on the banks
+of the Thames, September 7, 1533. Her infancy was unfortunate through
+the unhappy fate of her mother, but she was nevertheless educated with
+care and attention; in her yet infant faculties her father had the
+discernment to perceive uncommon strength and promise. Lady
+Champernoun, an accomplished and excellent woman, was appointed by
+Henry <span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>(p. 150)</span> governess to the young princess. It appears to have
+been the custom of the times to instruct young women in the learned
+languages, an admirable substitute for fashionable and frivolous
+acquisitions; habits of real study and application have a tendency to
+strengthen the faculties and discipline the imagination. Mr. William
+Grindal was Elizabeth's first classical tutor; with him she made a
+rapid progress. From other masters she received the rudiments of
+modern languages; at eleven years of age she translated out of French
+verse into English prose "The Mirror of the Sinful Soul," which she
+dedicated to Catherine Parr, sixth wife to Henry VIII. At twelve years
+of age she translated from the English into Latin, French, and
+Italian, prayers and meditations, etc., collected from different
+authors by Catherine, Queen of England. These she dedicated to her
+father, December 30, 1545; MS. in the royal library at Westminster.
+She also, about the same period, translated from the French "The
+Meditations of Margaret, Queen of Navarre, etc.," published by Bale,
+1548.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ascham thus speaks of Elizabeth in a letter to Sir John Cheke: "It
+can scarcely be credited to what degree of skill in the Latin and
+Greek she might arrive, if she should proceed in that course of study
+wherein she hath begun by the guidance of Grindal." In 1548 she had
+the misfortune to lose her tutor, who died of the plague. At this
+time, it is observed by Camden, that she was versed in the Latin,
+French, Spanish, and Italian tongues, had some knowledge of the Greek,
+was well skilled in music, and both sung and played with art and
+sweetness.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of her father, her brother, King Edward, who tenderly
+loved her, encouraged her in her studies and literary pursuits, while,
+without imposition or restraint, he left her to choose her own
+principles and preceptors. To supply the loss of her tutor she
+addressed herself to the celebrated Roger Ascham, who, at her
+solicitation, left Cambridge and consented to become her instructor.
+Under him she read the orations of Æschines, and Demosthenes' "On the
+Crown," in Greek, and understood at first sight not only the force and
+propriety of the language and the meaning of the orator, but the whole
+scheme of the laws, customs, and manners of the Athenians. By Doctor
+Grindal, professor of theology, she was initiated into the subtleties
+of polemic divinity, to which she gave assiduous application. Such,
+during the short reign of her brother, was the laudable and tranquil
+time of her life, and by these occupations and pursuits she was
+prepared for the great part she was to act on the theatre of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1553, Mary, after the death of Edward, succeeded to the
+throne; and having received from her sister many favors and
+testimonies of esteem, she treated her at first with a form of regard;
+but Elizabeth was afterward imprisoned and harshly treated, even to
+the hazard of her life. Her sufferings were, however, mitigated by the
+interposition of Philip, the husband of Mary, for which she was ever
+grateful.</p>
+
+<p>The reign, the bigotry, and the butchery of Mary, who, <span class="italic">to do God
+service</span>, amused herself by burning and torturing her people, lasted
+five years and four months. She died, fortunately for the nation,
+November 17, 1558. A parliament <span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>(p. 151)</span> had been assembled a few
+days previous to her death, to which the chancellor notified the
+event. "God save Queen Elizabeth," resounded in joyful acclamations
+through both houses, while by the people a transport still more
+general and fervent was expressed.</p>
+
+<p>The commencement of her reign was not less auspicious than its
+duration was prosperous to the country and glorious to herself. It is
+observed by Bayle that to say only that no woman reigned with more
+glory would be saying little. "It must be added that there have been
+but few great kings whose reigns are comparable to hers, it being the
+most beautiful period of English history."</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth when informed of the death of her sister, was at Hatfield,
+whence, after a few days, she proceeded to London, through crowds of
+people, who contended with each other in testimonies of joy and
+attachment. On entering the Tower she was affected with the comparison
+of her past and present situation; once a captive, exposed to the
+bigotry and malignity of her enemies, now a sovereign, triumphant over
+her adversaries, and the hope and joy of the nation. Falling on her
+knees she expressed her gratitude to heaven for the deliverance she
+had experienced from her persecutors, a deliverance, she declared, not
+less miraculous than that of Daniel from the den of lions. With a
+magnanimity that did her honor, and a prudence that evinced her
+judgment, she threw a veil over every offence that had been committed
+against her, and received graciously and with affability the most
+virulent of her enemies.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of her sister, Elizabeth had, by her ambassador,
+signified her accession to the Pope, whose precipitate temper,
+insolent reflections, and extravagant demands, determined her to
+persevere in the plan she had already secretly embraced. While, to
+conciliate the Catholics she retained in her cabinet eleven of her
+sister's counsellors, she took care to balance their power by adding
+to their number eight partisans of the Protestant faith; among whom
+were Sir Nicholas Bacon, whom she created lord keeper, and Sir William
+Cecil, made Secretary of State.</p>
+
+<p>Cecil assured her that the greater part of the nation, since the reign
+of her father, inclined to the reformation, though constrained to
+conceal their principles by the cruelties practised under the late
+reign. These arguments, to which other considerations and reasonings
+were added, founded on policy and on a knowledge of mankind, had their
+just weight with Elizabeth, and determined her to adopt the party
+which education and political wisdom equally inclined to her favor.
+Yet she wisely resolved to proceed gradually by safe and progressive
+steps. As symptoms of her future intentions, and with a view of
+encouraging the Protestants, whom persecution had discouraged and
+depressed, she recalled all the exiles, and gave liberty to those who
+had, on account of their religion, been confined in prison. She also
+altered the religious service, and gave orders that the Lord's prayer,
+the litany, the creed, and the gospels, should be read in the churches
+in the vulgar tongue; and she forbade the elevation of the host in her
+presence.</p>
+
+<p>The bishops, foreseeing in these measures the impending change,
+refused to officiate at her coronation; and it was not without
+difficulty that the Bishop of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>(p. 152)</span> Carlisle was at length
+prevailed upon to perform the ceremony. Amid the joyful acclamations
+of her subjects, as she was conducted through London, a boy,
+personating Truth, let down from a triumphal arch, presented to her a
+copy of the Bible. She received the present graciously, placed it near
+her heart, and declared that of all the costly testimonies of
+attachment given to her that day by the city, this was the most
+precious and acceptable. Elizabeth insinuated herself into the
+affections of the people by the most laudable art; frank in her
+address, and on all public occasions affable, conciliating, and easy
+of access, she appeared delighted with the concourse that crowded
+around her; entered, without forgetting her dignity, into the
+pleasures and amusements of her subjects, and acquired a popularity
+unknown to her predecessors. Her youth, her graces, her prudence, her
+fortitude, and her talents, attracted the admiration of one sex and
+afforded to the other a subject of pride and triumph. Individuals were
+captivated by her complacency, the public won by her services, while
+her authority, chastened by religion and law, appeared to be derived
+from its legitimate source, the choice and affections of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The Commons entreated her, with all humility, that she would make
+choice of a husband to share with her the weight of government, a
+request which they hoped, from her sex and age, would not be
+displeasing or offensive. To this Elizabeth replied, that as their
+application was expressed in general terms, merely recommending
+marriage, without pretending to direct her choice, she could not be
+offended or regard their wishes otherwise than as a new instance of
+their attachment toward her; but that any farther interposition
+respecting this subject, on their part, it would ill become them as
+subjects to make, or her, as an independent princess, to endure.
+England was the husband which she had betrothed to her; Englishmen
+were her children; while employed in rearing and governing such a
+family, she could not deem herself sterile or her life useless. She
+desired, for her own part, no higher character, nor fairer remembrance
+of her to be transmitted to posterity, than to have this inscription,
+when she should pay the debt of nature, engraven on her tomb: "Here
+lies Queen Elizabeth, who lived and died a maiden queen."</p>
+
+<p>Misfortune threw the Queen of Scots into the power of Elizabeth, and
+she was denied those services to which the unfortunate are entitled.
+Driven beyond endurance, she openly and bitterly defied her more
+fortunate rival, who viewed her with jealousy as heir to the crown,
+and was fearful that her beauty and influence might supplant her own
+popularity. Mary was kept in prison eighteen years and then executed
+on the scaffold. This transaction will ever remain a foul blot on the
+character of Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<a id="img056" name="img056"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="400" height="525" alt="" title="">
+<p>Elizabeth defied by Mary Stuart.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Neither the cares of government nor the infirmities of approaching age
+weaned her from the love of letters, which at every interval of
+leisure were her great delight. When nearly sixty years of age, in
+1592, she made a second visit to Oxford, where, having been
+entertained with orations, disputations, etc., she pronounced on her
+departure, a Latin oration to the vice-chancellors and doctors, when
+she took her last farewell of the university. In the ensuing year she
+translated <span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>(p. 153)</span> from Latin into English, Boethius's "De
+Consolatione Philosophæ." In 1598, when the disturbances in Ireland
+occupied a considerable share of her attention, she translated
+Sallust's "De bello Jugurthino," also the greater part of Horace's "De
+Arte Poetica," and Plutarch's book, "De Curiositate," all of which
+were written in her own hand.</p>
+
+<p>But Elizabeth no longer took an interest in public concerns; her sun
+was setting, overshadowed by a dark cloud. Prosperity and glory palled
+upon her sense; an incurable melancholy had fixed itself on her heart.
+The anxiety of her mind made swift ravages upon her feeble frame; the
+period of her life visibly approached. The Archbishop of Canterbury
+advised her to fix her thoughts on God. She did so, she replied, nor
+did her mind in the least wander from Him. Her voice and her senses
+soon after failing, she fell into a lethargic slumber, which having
+continued some hours, she expired gently, without a struggle, March
+24, 1603, in the seventieth year of her age and the forty-fifth of her
+reign.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Elizabeth appears to have been exalted by her friends
+and depreciated by her enemies, in nearly equal proportions. As a
+monarch, her activity and force of mind, her magnanimity, sagacity,
+prudence, vigilance, and address, have scarcely been surpassed in
+royal annals, and are worthy of the highest admiration. Pope Sixtus V.
+spoke of her on all occasions as "a woman with a strong head," and
+gave her a place among the three persons who only, in his opinion,
+deserved to reign; the remaining two were himself and Henry IV. of
+France. "Your queen," said he once to an Englishman, "is born
+fortunate; she governs her kingdom with great happiness; she wants
+only to be married to me to give the world a second Alexander."</p>
+
+<p>Her temper and her talents equally fitted her for government. Capable
+of self-command, and of controlling her own passions, she acquired an
+unlimited ascendency over those of her people. She possessed courage
+without temerity; spirit, resource, and activity in war, with the love
+of peace and tranquillity. Her frugality was exempt from avarice, it
+was the result rather of her love of independence than a passion for
+accumulation. She never amassed any treasures. Her friendships were
+uniform and steady, yet she was never governed by her favorites&mdash;a
+criterion of a strong mind. Her choice in her ministers gave proof of
+her sagacity, as her constancy in supporting them did of her firmness.
+If a conduct less rigorous, less imperious, and more indulgent would
+have thrown greater lustre over her character, let it be remembered
+that some good qualities appear to be incompatible with others; nor
+let the seductive and corrupting nature of power be left out in the
+account. Her insincerity was perhaps the greatest blot in her
+character and the fruitful source of all the vexatious incidents of
+her reign. Though unacquainted with philosophical toleration, the only
+method of disarming the turbulence of religious factions, she yet
+preserved her people, by her prudence and good sense, from those
+theological disputes which desolated the neighboring nations.</p>
+
+<p>Beset with enemies, both at home and abroad, among the most powerful
+princes in Europe, the most enterprising and the least scrupulous, the
+vigor of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>(p. 154)</span> her administration enabled her to defeat all their
+purposes, to annoy and plunder them in their own dominions, and to
+preserve her own dignity untouched and unimpaired. Few monarchs have
+succeeded to a throne in more difficult circumstances, nor have any
+ever reigned with more uniform success and prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>If, as a woman, cut off by the peculiarities of her situation from the
+sympathies of nature and the charm of equal affections, Elizabeth, at
+times suffered under these privations, which even gave to her
+sensibility additional force and acuteness, the strength of her reason
+still triumphed over her passions, and the struggle which her
+victories cost her served but to display the firmness of her
+resolution and the loftiness of her mind.</p>
+
+<p>The praises which have by some been bestowed upon Elizabeth for her
+regard for the constitution and tender concern for the liberties of
+the people, are wholly without foundation. Few princes have exerted
+with more arbitrary power the regal prerogatives which had been
+transmitted to her by her immediate predecessors; yet no censure
+belongs to her for this conduct, in the principles of which she had
+been trained and of the justice of which she was persuaded. What
+potentate, what man, has voluntarily resigned the power in which those
+beneath him quietly acquiesced? Compared with the reigns of her father
+and sister, that of Elizabeth might be termed a golden age.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>FRANCIS BACON<a id="footnotetag14" name="footnotetag14"></a><a href="#footnote14" title="Go to footnote 14"><span class="smaller">[14]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Hon. Ignatius Donnelly</span><br>
+(1561-1626)</h3>
+
+
+<p>Francis Bacon was born in York House, London, on January 22, 1561. Of
+this building only the ancient water-gate, fronting the Thames,
+survives the waste of time. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was for
+twenty years Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under Elizabeth&mdash;a famous
+statesman, orator, and wit. His mother, Lady Ann Bacon, was the second
+daughter of the celebrated Sir Anthony Cooke, formerly tutor of King
+Edward VI., Henry VIII.'s short-lived son. She was a woman of great
+learning and many accomplishments, and of a strong, earnest,
+passionate, affectionate, and religious nature.</p>
+
+<p>Francis was the youngest of eight children, six of whom were by the
+first wife of Sir Nicholas. He belonged to the aristocracy of England,
+but not to that ancient, warlike race of battle-crowned warriors,
+whose pedigree dated back beyond the Crusades. His father was a
+lawyer. Both his father's family and his mother's seem to have risen
+from the ranks on the great wave of the Reformation; they belonged to
+the intellectual new age, then dawning; rather than to the rude,
+fighting age which was about to pass away. Francis was no accident.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>(p. 155)</span> We can see in him the two natures of his father and his
+mother&mdash;the commingling of the powerful, practical, sagacious
+politician and man of affairs, with the studious, contemplative,
+imaginative, affectionate, religious enthusiast.</p>
+
+<p>His birthplace was a palace; the country seat of Gorhamsbury, near
+Saint Albans' village, is in the midst of the most charming rural
+scenery in England, or in the world. There a great part of his youth
+and early manhood was passed.</p>
+
+<a id="img057" name="img057"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="250" height="332" alt="Francis Bacon." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>He came into this breathing world when the human race were upon the
+threshold of the tremendous development which now surrounds us. He was
+born sixty-nine years after Columbus had re-opened the long-closed
+pathway from the eastern to the western shores of the Atlantic Ocean;
+twenty-seven years after the French took possession of Canada; twelve
+years after the Portuguese settled in Brazil; and forty-six years
+before the first English colonists landed at Jamestown, Va. The degree
+of advancement of the mind of the age will be understood when it is
+remembered that it was only one hundred and twenty-five years, at the
+date of Bacon's birth, since Guttenberg had invented movable types, in
+Germany; and but eighty-seven years since Caxton set up his printing
+press at Westminster. No man has ever lived who did more than Bacon to
+change the opinions and condition of those who came after him.</p>
+
+<p>It was a "day of little things." England contained less than five
+million inhabitants, and of these probably not one-tenth spoke a
+language which could be understood to-day by the English-using people
+of the world. The mass of the populace were steeped to the lips in
+brutality and ignorance. The houses of the peasants were built of
+"sticks and dirt;" many of them "without chimneys or glazed windows;"
+the habits of the people were "inconceivably filthy;" "scurvy and
+leprosy were endemic;" the schools did not, as a rule, teach English;
+the amusements of the populace were bear-baitings and dancing naked in
+barns; the people of one county could not understand the speech of the
+inhabitants of the next county; "the disputes about tithes and
+boundaries were usually settled by bands of armed men, and the records
+of the Star-Chamber swarm with such cases." Education was at a low
+ebb. "In one year, 1570 (Bacon was then nine years of age), the
+scholars of Trinity College, Cambridge, consumed 2,250 barrels of
+beer." Many of the graduates became beggars; and so extensive was this
+evil that Parliament, by an act of 14th Elizabeth, declared that "all
+scholars of the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge that go about
+begging, not being authorized under the seal of the said
+universities," are declared "vagabonds" and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>(p. 156)</span> punished as
+such. But even this was an improvement on Henry VIII.'s time when
+three hundred men were hanged in London for soliciting alms.</p>
+
+<p>The only illuminated spot in all this darkness was the Court in
+London. Here they talked something which we would to-day call English;
+here they caught, through France and Italy, a reflected light from the
+dying glories of the ancient Roman civilization; here the travelled
+wealthy, "the picked men of countries," brought home some of the
+culture of more refined races. Bacon says:</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "Courts are but only superficial schools<br>
+<span class="add1em">To dandle fools;</span><br>
+  The rural parts are turned into a den<br>
+<span class="add1em">Of savage men;</span><br>
+  And where's the city, from foul vice so free,<br>
+<span class="add1em">But may be termed the worst of all the three?"</span></p>
+
+<p>In this curious, primitive, rude, ensmalled age, grew up the great man
+who was to do so much to change it all.</p>
+
+<p>From his early years he manifested that vastly active intellect "which
+knew no rest save in motion." He studied, as a child, the nature of
+echoes in a tunnel. At fifteen years of age (so his chaplain Rawley
+and his biographer Spedding assure us), he had realized the
+shallowness of the Aristotelian philosophy and had thought out those
+principles which have since revolutionized human society. There are
+reasons to believe that he was the child of fifteen, referred to by
+the Rosicrucians, who planned the foundation of their society, and, at
+that early age, wrote the "Chymical Marriage of Christian
+Rosencreutz," first published in 1616.</p>
+
+<p>At about twelve years of age he went to Cambridge&mdash;to Trinity
+College&mdash;rooming with his brother Anthony, who was two years his
+senior. In June, 1576, he left the university and became an <span class="italic">ancient</span>
+of the Gray's Inn law-society. On September 25, 1576, he accompanied
+Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador, to France. Here he witnessed
+the sixth civil war of the French people. He followed the court
+through several of the French provinces; he resided for three months
+at Poitiers. About February 17, 1579, he dreamed that his father's
+house in the country was all covered over with black mortar. At the
+same time his father was taken sick and died in three days thereafter.
+He returned home on March 20, 1579, to find himself poor. As he said,
+he could not "live to study," but had "to study to live." He became a
+practising lawyer, but he did not like the profession. He feared "the
+bar would be his bier;" it absorbed time which he thought should be
+dedicated to better ends. We think we find the expression of his heart
+in the lines of the so-called Shakespeare Sonnet:</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "O, for my sake, do thou with fortune chide,<br>
+  The guilty goddess of my harmful deeds,<br>
+  That did not better for my life provide,<br>
+  Than public means, which public manners breeds."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>(p. 157)</span> His pecuniary embarrassments were numerous, and continuous.
+Falstaff doubtless expresses a thought which often recurred to him: "I
+can get no remedy against this consumption of the purse; borrowing
+only lingers and lingers it out, but the disease is incurable." More
+than once he was thrown into a "sponging-house" for debt. His brother
+Anthony loaned him money repeatedly. In 1592 a "hard Jew or Lombard"
+put him in confinement for a debt on a bond. Anthony mortgaged his
+property to pay his debts. In 1594 Malone believes the play of "The
+Merchant of Venice" was in existence, in which Bassanio, being in debt
+to a hard Jew, his friend, Antonius, mortgages his own flesh to help
+him out of his troubles; and the Jew money-lender is sent down through
+all the ages the terrible type and exemplar of the merciless usurer.
+Bacon continues a "briefless barrister," with much time at his
+disposal. He helps in the composition of the play called "The
+Misfortunes of Arthur." He writes a Sonnet to the Queen. About this
+time, 1592, the Shakespeare plays begin to appear. Bacon assists in
+the preparation of several "masks" and "revels," gotten up by Gray's
+Inn. "The Comedy of Errors" first appears in the hall of that society,
+which still stands in London. The "Venus and Adonis" and "Lucrece"
+appear, dedicated to Bacon's intimate friend, Lord Southampton; and
+that nobleman in 1594 contributes a large sum to the construction of
+the <span class="italic">Globe</span> play-house, Bacon having observed that the stage is a
+powerful instrumentality to "play on the minds" of the people; and on
+this stage a series of historical plays are put forth, everyone of
+which represents kings as monsters or imbeciles.</p>
+
+<p>The Shakespeare plays continue to be poured forth, and Bacon suffers
+from a siege of "Jews and duns." He describes himself "as poor and
+sick, working for bread." "I am purposed," he says, "not to follow the
+practice of the law." "It is easier," says Mr. Spedding, Bacon's
+biographer, "to understand why Bacon was resolved not to devote his
+life to the ordinary practice of a lawyer, than what plan he had to
+clear himself of the difficulties which were now accumulating upon
+him, and to obtain the means of living and working. What course he
+betook himself to at the crisis at which we have now arrived, I cannot
+possibly say." We have here the time, the opportunity, the incentive,
+and the necessity for the composition of the Shakespeare plays; part
+of the fruits of the representation of which made Shakespeare very
+wealthy.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1597, the first acknowledged work of Bacon&mdash;his
+"Essays"&mdash;was published. They were ten in number. Bacon said of them
+he hoped they would be "like the late new half-pence, which, though
+the pieces are small, the silver is good."</p>
+
+<p>Until he was forty-four years of age, Bacon was kept poor and out of
+office by his uncle Burleigh, and his cousin Cecil; during the
+life-time of Queen Elizabeth he was steadily passed over and
+suppressed; and even during the first years of the reign of King James
+I., the influence of Cecil, then the Earl of Salisbury, was sufficient
+to keep him out of office. In 1605, Bacon published his first great
+philosophical work, "The Advancement of Learning;" in 1607, he became
+Solicitor-General; and in 1612, Attorney-General, and member of the
+Privy Council. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>(p. 158)</span> He was then fifty-one years of age, and
+Shakespeare forty-eight. After the appointment of Bacon as
+Attorney-General, no more of the Shakespeare plays appeared; the
+"Tempest," which is evidently the last of the series, for in it
+Prospero declares&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+<span class="add6em">"I'll break my staff,</span><br>
+  Bury it certain fathoms in the earth,<br>
+  And deeper than did ever plummet sound,<br>
+  I'll drown my book;"</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">is set down by the commentators, as written between 1609 and 1611. At
+that time Shakespeare was forty-five or forty-seven years of age, and
+lived for five or seven years thereafter in utter intellectual
+idleness, in Stratford.</p>
+
+<p>In 1609 Bacon published "The Wisdom of the Ancients," a prose work of
+great poetical beauty. His professional practice was large and his
+income princely. In 1617 he succeeded Ellesmere, the Lord Chancellor,
+with the title of lord-keeper. In January, 1618, he was created lord
+high chancellor, and the same year was raised to the peerage as Baron
+of Verulam; and in 1621 he was made Viscount St. Albans. The "Novum
+Organum," his great life-work, was printed in October, 1620. His
+extraordinary industry is revealed in the fact that it had been copied
+and revised twelve times before it took its present shape. The new
+philosophy meant the study of nature and the acquisition of the
+knowledge of things. In this search the "most common," "base,
+illiberal and filthy matters," are not to be overlooked. We find in
+the plays the same novel philosophy:</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+<span class="add6em">"Some kinds of baseness</span><br>
+  Are nobly undergone; and most poor matters<br>
+  Point to rich ends." (Tempest, iii. 1.)</p>
+
+<p>"Bacon's leading thought was the good of humanity. He held that study,
+instead of employing itself in wearisome and sterile speculations,
+should be engaged in mastering the secrets of nature and life, and in
+applying them to human use. His method, in the attainment of this end,
+was rigid and pure observation, aided by experiment and fructified by
+induction.... He clearly invented a thermometer; he instituted
+ingenious experiments on the compressibility of bodies, and on the
+density and weight of air; he suggested chemical processes; he
+suggested the law of universal gravitation, afterward demonstrated by
+Newton; he foresaw the true explication of the tides, and the cause of
+colors." ["American Cyclopedia." Vol. II., p. 204.]</p>
+
+<p>This great work, the "Novum Organum," as often happens, was received
+by the majority of readers of his time with laughter and ridicule.
+Coke wrote on the title-page of a presentation copy:</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "It deserveth not to be read in schools,<br>
+  But to be freighted in the ship of fools."</p>
+
+<p>The ill-fortune which had so shrouded Bacon's struggling youth, and
+which had given way to such a magnificent sun-burst of splendid
+prosperity, was again <span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>(p. 159)</span> massing its clouds and determined to
+cover his old age with shame, gloom and sorrow. He had been Lord
+Chancellor but three years, when, on March 15, 1621, a committee of
+the House of Commons reported two cases of bribery or corruption
+against him. Twenty-two other cases were also soon after presented.
+The House of Lords proceeded to investigate these charges, and Bacon
+defended himself. It was shown that fourteen of the twenty-four cases
+were presents given long after the suits were terminated; three more
+were sums of money loaned in the ordinary course of business; another
+case was an arbitration where compensation was due him; in another
+case the gift was sent back; another present, a piece of furniture,
+had never been accepted; another case was a New Year's gift, and in
+other cases the money was openly paid to the officers of his court.
+"Thus," says Hepworth Dixon, "after the most rigid scrutiny into his
+official acts, and into the official acts of his servants, not a
+single fee or remembrance, traced to the chancellor, can, by any fair
+construction, be called a bribe. Not one appears to have been given on
+a promise; not one appears to have been given in secret; not one is
+alleged to have corrupted justice."</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that the salaries of all the high officers of
+the government were at that time paid in gifts and fees. Thus the king
+gave the lord chancellor but £81 6<span class="italic">s.</span> 8<span class="italic">d.</span> a year, while the place
+was worth £10,000 to £15,000; worth in our money to-day $125,000. "The
+judges had enough to buy their gloves and robes, not more." The lord
+chancellor had to maintain a huge retinue: "his court, his household,
+and his followers, gentlemen of quality, sons of peers and prelates;
+magistrates, deputy lieutenants of counties, knights of the shire,
+have all to live on fees and presents." It is still true that in
+England the law will not help a barrister or a physician to recover a
+fee; their compensation is, in theory, at least, supposed to be a
+gratuity for those they serve.</p>
+
+<p>But it may be urged that Bacon plead guilty to corruption and bribery.
+He did nothing of the kind. He acknowledged that he "partook of the
+abuses of the times," and that the existing customs should be
+reformed; but he solemnly declared to Buckingham, May 31, 1621: "I
+have been a trusty and honest and Christ-loving friend to your
+lordship and the justest chancellor that hath been in the five charges
+since my father's time." Again, he said: "I had no bribe or reward in
+my eye or thought when I pronounced any sentence or order.... I take
+myself to be as innocent as any babe born on St. Innocent's day in my
+heart." All attempts to subsequently reverse his decrees failed,
+although his enemies were in possession of power. But King James urged
+him to make no defence, "to trust his honor and his safety to the
+crown.... He pleads guilty to carelessness, not to crime." He desired
+to live to finish up his philosophical works. To resist the king's
+wishes was to leave himself at the mercy of his life-long enemy, Coke;
+he yielded. The king remitted his fine of £40,000 and released him
+from the Tower. Bacon goes back to his books and writes in cipher: "I
+was the justest judge that was in England these fifty years; but it
+was the justest censure that was in Parliament these two hundred
+years." He meant thereby, that while personally innocent of
+corruption, the sentence would <span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>(p. 160)</span> end gift-giving to judges.
+His formal confession to Parliament is a justification of every act
+complained of, for he relieves it, while acknowledging it, of those
+details which imply bribery.</p>
+
+<p>He devoted the last five years of his life to putting forth the
+greatest works ever published by man; including the first complete
+edition of the so-called Shakespeare plays. Fortunate is it for the
+world that he was driven from the task of settling petty squabbles
+about the trash of the time, listening to "weary lawyers with endless
+tongues;" adjudicating questions of pounds, shillings, and pence
+between litigants whose very names have disappeared; and was
+shipwrecked by the stress of the great storm that struck him, like
+<span class="italic">Prospero</span>, on an island of solicitude, with books that "he prized
+above his dukedom," to perform labors in which all mankind will be
+interested even to the consummation of civilization on earth.</p>
+
+<p>His patience, his gentleness, his forbearance were saint-like; still
+in his right hand he carried "gentle peace to silence envious
+tongues." His appearance, we are told, struck all men who beheld him
+with a great sense of awe. Those who were most closely associated with
+him loved him most dearly. His purposes were Godlike. They were "the
+glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate." Macaulay says of
+Bacon's experimental philosophy:</p>
+
+<p>"It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; it has extinguished
+diseases; it has increased the fertility of the soil; it has given new
+securities to the mariner; it has furnished new arms to the warrior;
+it has spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown
+to our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven
+to earth; it has lighted up the night with the splendor of the day; it
+has extended the range of the human vision; it has multiplied the
+power of human muscle; it has accelerated motion; it has annihilated
+distance; it has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly
+offices, all despatch of business; it has enabled men to descend to
+the depths of the sea; to soar into the air; to penetrate securely
+into the noxious recesses of the earth; to traverse the land with cars
+which whirl along without horses; and the ocean with ships which sail
+against the wind."</p>
+
+<p>In other words, the brain of this tremendous, this incomprehensible,
+this complex man, lies at the base of all our literature and of all
+our modern progress and civilization. The world is hardly big enough
+for his fame, and the praises of mankind cannot fill the measure of
+his greatness.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig010" name="sig010"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig010.jpg" width="200" height="41" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>(p. 161)</span> GALILEO-GALILEI<br>
+(1564-1642)</h3>
+
+<a id="img058" name="img058"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img058.jpg" width="250" height="290" alt="Galileo-Galilei." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>The great Tuscan astronomer is best known as the first telescopic
+observer, the fortunate discoverer of the Medicean stars (so Jupiter's
+satellites were first named); and what discovery more fitted to
+immortalize its author than one which revealed new worlds and thus
+gave additional force to the lesson, that the universe, of which we
+form so small a part, was not created only for our use or pleasure?
+Those, however, who consider Galileo only as a fortunate observer,
+form a very inadequate estimate of one of the most meritorious and
+successful of those great men who have bestowed their time for the
+advantage of mankind in tracing out the hidden things of nature.
+Galileo-Galilei was born at Pisa, February 15, 1564. In childhood he
+displayed considerable mechanical ingenuity, with a decided taste for
+the accomplishments of music and painting. His father formed a just
+estimate of his talents, and at some inconvenience entered him, when
+nineteen years old, at the university of his native town, intending
+that he should pursue the medical profession. Galileo was then
+entirely ignorant of mathematics; and he was led to the study of
+geometry by a desire thoroughly to understand the principles of his
+favorite arts. This new pursuit proved so congenial to his taste, that
+from thenceforward his medical books were entirely neglected. The
+elder Galilei, a man of liberal acquirements and enlarged mind, did
+not require the devotion of his son's life to a distasteful pursuit.
+Fortunately the young man's talents attracted notice, and in 1589 he
+was appointed mathematical lecturer in the University of Pisa. There
+is reason to believe that, at an early period of his studentship, he
+embraced, upon inquiry and conviction, the doctrines of Copernicus, of
+which through life he was an ardent supporter.</p>
+
+<p>Galileo and his colleagues did not long remain on good terms. The
+latter were content with the superstructure which <span class="italic">à priori</span> reasoners
+had raised upon Aristotle, and were by no means desirous of the
+trouble of learning more. Galileo chose to investigate physical truths
+for himself; he engaged in experiments to determine the truth of some
+of Aristotle's positions, and when he found him in the wrong, he said
+so, and so taught his pupils. This made the "paper philosophers," as
+he calls them, very angry. He repeated his experiments in their
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>(p. 162)</span> presence, but they set aside the evidence of their senses
+and quoted Aristotle as much as before. The enmity arising from these
+disputes rendered his situation so unpleasant, that in 1592, at the
+invitation of the Venetian commonwealth, he gladly accepted the
+professorship of mathematics at Padua. The period of his appointment
+being only six years, he was re-elected in 1598, and again in 1606,
+each time with an increase of salary; a strong proof of the esteem in
+which he was held, even before those astronomical discoveries which
+have immortalized his name. His lectures at this period were so fully
+attended that he was sometimes obliged to adjourn them to the open
+air. In 1609 he received an invitation to return to his original
+situation at Pisa. This produced a letter, still extant, from which we
+quote a catalogue of the undertakings on which he was already
+employed. "The works which I have to finish are principally two books
+on the 'System or Structure of the Universe,' an immense work, full of
+philosophy, astronomy, and geometry; three books on 'Local Motion,' a
+science entirely new, no one, either ancient or modern, having
+discovered any of the very many admirable accidents which I
+demonstrate in natural and violent motions, so that I may, with very
+great reason, call it a new science, and invented by me from its very
+first principles; three books of mechanics, two on the demonstration
+of principles and one of problems; and although others have treated
+this same matter, yet all that has been hitherto written, neither in
+quantity nor otherwise, is the quarter of what I am writing on it. I
+have also different treatises on natural subjects&mdash;on Sound and
+Speech, on Light and Colors, on the Tides, on the Composition of
+Continuous Quantity, on the Motions of Animals, and others besides. I
+have also an idea of writing some books relating to the military art,
+giving not only a model of a soldier, but teaching with very exact
+rules everything which it is his duty to know, that depends upon
+mathematics, as the knowledge of castrametation, drawing up of
+battalions, fortification, assaults, planning, surveying, the
+knowledge of artillery, the use of instruments, etc." Out of this
+comprehensive list, the treatises on the universe, on motion and
+mechanics, on tides, on fortification, or other works upon the same
+subjects, have been made known to the world. Many, however, of
+Galileo's manuscripts, through fear of the Inquisition, were
+destroyed, or concealed and lost, after the author's death.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year, 1609, Galileo heard the report that a
+spectacle-maker of Middleburg, in Holland, had made an instrument by
+which distant objects appeared nearer. He tasked his ingenuity to
+discover the construction, and soon succeeded in manufacturing a
+telescope. His telescope, however, seems to have been made on a
+different construction from that of the Dutch optician. It consisted
+of a convex and concave glass, distant from each other by the
+difference of their focal lengths, like a modern opera-glass; while
+there is reason to believe that the other was made up of two convex
+lenses, distant by the sum of their focal lengths, the common
+construction of the astronomical telescope. Galileo's attention
+naturally was first turned to the moon. He discovered that her
+surface, instead of being smooth and perfectly spherical, was rough
+with mountains and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>(p. 163)</span> apparently varied like the earth, by land
+and water. He next applied to Jupiter, and was struck by the
+appearance of three small stars, almost in a straight line and close
+to him. At first he did not suspect the nature of these bodies; but
+careful observation soon convinced him that these three, together with
+a fourth, which was at first invisible, were in reality four moons
+revolving round their primary planet. These he named the Medicean
+stars. They have long ceased to be known by that name; but so highly
+prized was the distinction thus conferred upon the ducal house of
+Florence, that Galileo received an intimation that he would "do a
+thing just and proper in itself, and at the same time render himself
+and his family rich and powerful forever," if he "named the next star
+which he should discover after the name of the great star of France,
+as well as the most brilliant of all the earth," Henry IV. These
+discoveries were made known in 1610, in a work entitled "Nuncius
+Sidereus," the Newsman of the Stars; in which Galileo further
+announced that he had seen many stars invisible to the naked eye, and
+ascertained that the nebulæ scattered through the heavens consist of
+assemblages of innumerable small stars. The ignorant and unprejudiced
+were struck with admiration; indeed, curiosity had been raised so high
+before the publication of this book, as materially to interfere with
+the convenience of those who possessed telescopes. Galileo was
+employed a month in exhibiting his own to the principal persons in
+Venice; and our unfortunate astronomer was surrounded by a crowd who
+kept him in durance for several hours, while they passed his glass
+from one to another. He left Venice the next morning, to pursue his
+inquiries in some less inquisitive place. But the great bulk of the
+philosophers of the day were far from joining in the general feeling.
+They raised an outcry against the impudent fictions of Galileo, and
+one, a professor of Padua, refused repeatedly to look through the
+telescope, lest he should be compelled to admit that which he had
+pre-determined to deny.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long before Galileo had new and equally important matter to
+announce. He observed a remarkable appearance in Saturn, as if it were
+composed of three stars touching each other; his telescope was not
+sufficiently powerful to resolve them into Saturn and his ring. Within
+a month he ascertained that Venus exhibits phases like those of the
+moon&mdash;a discovery of great importance in confirming the Copernican
+system. The same phenomenon he afterward detected in Mars. We close
+the list with the discovery of the revolution of the sun round his
+axis, in the space of about a lunar month, derived from careful
+observation of the spots on his surface.</p>
+
+<p>About this time (1610-1611) Galileo took up his abode in Tuscany, upon
+the invitation of the grand duke, who offered to him his original
+situation at Pisa, with a liberal salary, exemption from the necessity
+of residence, and complete leisure to pursue his studies. In 1612 he
+published a discourse on "Floating Bodies," in which he investigates
+the theory of buoyancy, and refutes, by a series of beautiful and
+conclusive experiments, the opinion that the floating or sinking of
+bodies depends on their shape.</p>
+
+<p>Neither Copernicus nor his immediate followers suffered inconvenience
+or restraint <span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>(p. 164)</span> on account of their astronomical doctrines; nor
+had Galileo, until this period of his life, incurred ecclesiastical
+censure for anything which he had said or written. But the Inquisition
+now took up the matter as heretical and contrary to the express words
+of Scripture; and in 1616, Copernicus's work, "De Revolutionibus,"
+Kepler's "Epitome," and some of Galileo's own letters, were placed on
+the list of prohibited books; and he himself, being then in Rome,
+received formal notice not to teach that the earth revolves round the
+sun. He returned to Florence full of indignation; and considering his
+hasty temper, love of truth, and full belief of the condemned theory,
+it is rather wonderful that he kept silence so long, than that he
+incurred at last the censures of the hierarchy. He did, however,
+restrain himself from any open advocacy of the heretical doctrines,
+even in composing his great work, the "Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and
+Copernican Systems." This was completed in 1630, but not printed till
+1632, under license from officers of the church, both at Rome and
+Florence. It is a dialogue between Simplicio, an Aristotelian,
+Salviati, who represents the author, and Sagredo, a half convert to
+Salviati's opinions. It professes "indeterminately to propose the
+philosophical arguments, as well on one side as on the other;" but the
+neutrality is but ill kept up, and was probably assumed, not with any
+hope that the court of Rome would be blinded as to the real tendency
+of the book, but merely that it would accept this nominal submission
+as a sufficient homage to its authority. If this were so, the author
+was disappointed; the Inquisition took cognizance of the matter, and
+summoned him to Rome to undergo a personal examination. Age and
+infirmity were in vain pleaded as excuses; still, through the urgent
+and indignant remonstrances of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, he was
+treated with a consideration rarely shown by that stern tribunal. He
+was allowed to remain at the Florentine ambassador's palace, with the
+exception of a short period, from his arrival in February, until the
+passing of sentence, June 21, 1633. He was then condemned, in the
+presence of the Inquisitors, to curse and abjure the "false
+doctrines," which his life had been spent in proving, to be confined
+in the prison of the Holy Office during pleasure, and to recite the
+seven penitential psalms once a week during three years. The sentence
+and the abjuration are given at full length in the "Life of Galileo,"
+in the "Library of Useful Knowledge." "It is said," continues the
+biographer, "that Galileo, as he rose from his knees, stamped on the
+ground, and whispered to one of his friends, '<span class="italic">e pur si muove</span>,' it
+does move though."</p>
+
+<a id="img059" name="img059"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img059.jpg" width="500" height="343" alt="" title="">
+<p>Galileo before the Inquisition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Galileo's imprisonment was not long or rigorous, for after four days
+he was reconducted to the Florentine ambassador's palace; but he was
+still kept under strict surveillance. In July he was sent to Sienna,
+where he remained five months in strict seclusion. He obtained
+permission in December to return to his villa at Arcetri, near
+Florence: but there, as at Sienna, he was confined to his own
+premises, and strictly forbidden to receive his friends. It is painful
+to contemplate the variety of evils which overcast the evening of this
+great man's life. In addition to a distressing chronic complaint,
+contracted in youth, he was now suffering under a painful infirmity
+which by some is said to have been produced by torture, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>(p. 165)</span>
+applied in the prisons of the Inquisition to extort a recantation. But
+the arguments brought forward to show that the Inquisitors did resort
+to this extremity do not amount to anything like direct proof. In
+April, 1634, Galileo's afflictions were increased by the death of a
+favorite, intelligent, and attached daughter. He consoled his
+solitude, and lightened the hours of sickness, by continuing the
+observations which he was now forbidden to publish to the world; and
+the last of his long train of discoveries was the phenomenon known by
+the name of the moon's libration. In the course of 1636-37 he lost
+successively the sight of both his eyes. He mentions this calamity in
+a tone of pious submission, mingled with a not unpleasing pride.
+"Alas, your dear friend and servant Galileo has become totally and
+irreparably blind; so that this heaven, this earth, this universe,
+which with wonderful observations I had enlarged a hundred thousand
+times beyond the belief of by-gone ages, henceforward for me is shrunk
+into the narrow space which I myself fill in it. So it pleases God: it
+shall therefore please me also." In 1638 he obtained leave to visit
+Florence, still under the same restrictions as to society; but at the
+end of a few months he was remanded to Arcetri, which he never again
+quitted. From that time, however, the strictness of his confinement
+was relaxed, and he was allowed to receive the friends who crowded
+round him, as well as the many distinguished foreigners who eagerly
+visited him. Among these we must not forget Milton, whose poems
+contain several allusions to the celestial wonders observed and
+published by the Tuscan astronomer. Though blind and nearly deaf,
+Galileo retained to the last his intellectual powers; and his friend
+and pupil, the celebrated Torricelli, was employed in arranging his
+thoughts on the nature of percussion, when he was attacked by his last
+illness. He died January 8, 1642, aged seventy-eight.</p>
+
+<p>It was disputed whether, as a prisoner of the Inquisition, Galileo had
+a right to burial in consecrated ground. The point was conceded; but
+Pope Urban VIII. himself interfered to prevent the erection of a
+monument to him in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence, for which a
+large sum had been subscribed. A splendid monument now covers the spot
+in which his remains repose with those of his friend and pupil, the
+eminent mathematician Viviani.</p>
+
+<p>For an account of Galileo's application of the pendulum to the
+mensuration of time; his invention of the thermometer, though in an
+inaccurate and inconvenient form; his methods of discovering the
+longitude, and a variety of other points well worth attention, we must
+refer to the Life of Galileo already quoted. The numerous extracts
+from Galileo's works convey a lively notion of the author's character,
+and are distinguished by a peculiar tone of quaint humor. In
+conclusion, we quote the estimate of Galileo's character, from the
+same masterly memoir. "The numberless inventions of his acute
+industry; the use of the telescope, and the brilliant discoveries to
+which it led; the patient investigation of the laws of weight and
+motion, must all be looked upon as forming but a part of his real
+merits, as merely particular demonstrations of the spirit in which he
+everywhere withstood the despotism of ignorance, and appealed boldly
+from traditional opinions to the judgment of reason and common sense.
+He claimed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>(p. 166)</span> and bequeathed to us the right of exercising our
+faculties in examining the beautiful creation which surrounds us.
+Idolized by his friends, he deserved their affection by numberless
+acts of kindness; by his good humor, his affability, and by the
+benevolent generosity with which he devoted himself, and a great part
+of his limited income, to advance their talents and fortunes. If an
+intense desire of being useful is everywhere worthy of honor; if its
+value is immeasurably increased when united to genius of the highest
+order; if we feel for one, who, notwithstanding such titles to regard,
+is harassed by cruel persecution, then none deserve our sympathy, our
+admiration, and our gratitude, more than Galileo."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>CARDINAL RICHELIEU<br>
+(1585-1642)</h3>
+
+<a id="img060" name="img060"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img060.jpg" width="250" height="296" alt="Richelieu." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Armand Jean Du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu, the future cardinal, was
+the third son of François Du Plessis, Grand Provost of the French
+Court, and was born on September 5, 1585, at Paris, say his
+biographers, Aubery and Leclerc; while tradition claims this honor for
+the family château in Poitou. He received the elements of education at
+home from the Prior of St. Florent, but soon quitted the paternal
+mansion, first for the College of Navarre, subsequently for that of
+Lisieux. From thence he removed to a military academy, being intended
+for the profession of arms. But on his brother, who was Bishop of
+Luçon, resolving to quit the world for the cloister, young Armand was
+advised to abandon the sword for the gown, in order that he might
+succeed to his brother's bishopric.</p>
+
+<p>He adopted the advice, entered with zeal into the study of theology,
+and soon qualified himself to pass creditably through the exercises
+necessary to obtain the degree of doctor in theology. He already wore
+the insignia of his bishopric, but the Pope's sanction was still
+wanting, and was withheld on account of the extreme youth of the
+expectant. Resolved to overcome this difficulty, he set off to Rome,
+addressed the pontiff in a Latin oration, and gave such proofs of
+talent and acquirements above his age, that he was consecrated at Rome
+on the Easter of 1607, being as yet but twenty-two years of age.</p>
+
+<p>This position attained, Richelieu endeavored to make the utmost
+advantage of it. He acquired the good-will of his diocese by rigid
+attention to the affairs <span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>(p. 167)</span> that fell under his jurisdiction;
+while in frequent visits to the capital, he sought to acquire
+reputation by preaching. In the Estates General of 1614, he was chosen
+deputy by his diocese, and was afterward selected by the clergy of the
+States to present their <span class="italic">cahier</span> or vote of grievances to the monarch.
+It was an opportunity not to be thrown away by the ambition of
+Richelieu, who instantly put himself forward as the champion of the
+queen-mother against the cabal of the high noblesse. He at the same
+time pointed out where she might find auxiliaries, by complaining that
+ecclesiastics had no longer a place in the public administration, and
+were thus degraded from their ancient and legitimate share of
+influence. Richelieu was rewarded with the place of almoner to the
+queen; and he was soon admitted to her confidence as well as to that
+of her favorite, the Maréchal D'Ancre.</p>
+
+<p>In 1616 he was appointed secretary of state; but aware by what slender
+tenure the office was held, he refused to give up his bishopric. This
+excited not only the animadversions of the public, but the anger of
+the favorite. Richelieu offered to give up his secretaryship, but the
+queen could not dispense with his talents. The assassination of the
+favorite, however, soon overthrew the influence of the queen herself.
+Still Richelieu remained attached to her, and followed her to Blois;
+but the triumphant party, dreading his talents for intrigue, ordered
+him to quit the queen and repair to one of his priories in Anjou. He
+was subsequently commanded to retire to his bishopric, and at last
+exiled to Avignon. Here he sought to avert suspicion by affecting to
+devote himself once more to theological pursuits. During this period
+he published one or two polemical tracts, the mediocrity of which
+proves either that his genius lay not in this path, or, as is
+probable, that his interest and thoughts were elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The escape of the queen-mother from her place of confinement, excited
+the fears of her enemies and the hopes of Richelieu. He wrote
+instantly to court, to proffer his services toward bringing about an
+accommodation. In the difficulty of the moment, the king and his
+favorite accepted the offer. Richelieu was released from exile, and
+allowed to join the queen at Angoulême, where he certainly labored to
+bring about a reconciliation. There were long and bitter struggles,
+but an agreement was finally concluded, and it was found that
+Richelieu, the negotiator, had himself reaped all the benefits. He
+received the cardinal's hat from the king's hand at Lyons, toward the
+close of the year 1622.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with this advancement of her counsellor, Mary de Medici
+continued to press the king to admit Richelieu to his cabinet. Louis
+long resisted her solicitations, such was his instinctive dread of the
+man destined to rule him. Nor was it until 1624, after the lapse of
+sixteen months, and when embarrassed with difficult state questions,
+which no one then in office was capable of managing, that the royal
+will was declared admitting Richelieu to the council. Even this grace
+was accompanied by the drawback that the cardinal was allowed to give
+merely his opinion, not his vote.</p>
+
+<p>Once, however, seated at the council table, the colleagues of the
+cardinal shrunk before him into ciphers. He boldly avowed his
+determination to adopt <span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>(p. 168)</span> the policy and resume the scheme of
+Henry IV., for the humiliation of the House of Austria. His anchor of
+safety was in the confidence reposed in him by Louis XIII. This
+prince, although of most feeble will, was not without the just pride
+of a monarch; he could not but perceive that his former ministers or
+favorites were but the instruments or slaves of the noblesse, who
+consulted but their own interests, and provided but for the
+difficulties of the moment. Richelieu, on the contrary, though eager
+for power, sought it as an instrument to great ends, to the
+consolidation of the monarchy, and to its ascendancy in Europe. He was
+in the habit of unfolding these high views to Louis, who, though
+himself incapable of putting them into effect, nevertheless had the
+spirit to admire and approve them. Richelieu proposed to render his
+reign illustrious abroad, and at home to convert the chief of a
+turbulent aristocracy into a real monarch. It forms indeed the noblest
+part of this great statesman's character, that he won upon the royal
+mind, not by vulgar flattery, but by exciting within it a love of
+glory and of greatness to which, at the same time, he pointed the way.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, through all the plots formed against him, Louis XIII.
+remained firmly attached to Richelieu, sacrificing to this minister's
+pre-eminence his nobility, his brother Gaston, Duke of Orleans, his
+queen, and finally the queen-mother herself, when she too became
+jealous of the man whom she had raised.</p>
+
+<p>If Richelieu thus imprudently indulged his passion or his pique, he
+redeemed the error by activity and exertion unusual to the age. He at
+once formed the project of attacking the Huguenots in their chief
+stronghold of La Rochelle. Buckingham, the English minister, could not
+fail to attempt the relief of this sea-port, and the cardinal
+anticipated the triumph of personally defeating a rival. He
+accordingly himself proceeded to preside over the operations of the
+siege. To render the blockade effectual, it was requisite to stop up
+the port. The military officers whom he employed could suggest no
+means of doing this. Richelieu took counsel of his classic reading,
+and having learned from Quintus Curtius how Alexander the Great
+reduced Tyre, by carrying out a mole against it through the sea, he
+was encouraged to undertake a similar work. The great mound was
+accordingly commenced, and well-nigh finished, when a storm arose and
+destroyed it in a single night. But Richelieu was only rendered more
+obstinate: he recommenced the mole, and was seen with the volume of
+Alexander's History in his hand, encouraging the workmen and
+overruling the objections of the tacticians of the army. The second
+attempt succeeded, the harbor was blocked up, and the promised aid of
+England rendered fruitless. The cardinal triumphed, for La Rochelle
+surrendered. In his treatment of the vanquished, Richelieu showed a
+moderation seldom observable in his conduct. He was lenient, and even
+tolerant, toward the Huguenots, content with having humbled the pride
+of his rival, Buckingham.</p>
+
+<p>La Rochelle was no sooner taken, and Richelieu rewarded by the title
+of prime minister than he resumed those projects of humbling the House
+of Austria, in which he had previously been interrupted. A quarrel
+about the succession to Mantua afforded him a pretext to interfere;
+and he did so, after his fashion, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>(p. 169)</span> not by mere negotiations,
+but by an army. This expedition proved a source of quarrel between him
+and the queen-mother, Mary de Medici, who hitherto had been his firm
+and efficient friend.</p>
+
+<p>The voice of the conqueror of La Rochelle triumphed in council, and
+his project in the field. The French were victorious in Italy, and the
+minister equally so over the mind of the monarch.</p>
+
+<p>But Mary de Medici could not forgive, and she now openly showed her
+hatred of Richelieu, and exerted herself to the utmost to injure him
+with the king. Though daily defeating her intrigues, the cardinal
+dreaded her perseverance, and resolved to drag the king with him to
+another Italian campaign. Louis obeyed, and the court set out for the
+south, the queen-mother herself accompanying it. Richelieu, however,
+did not tarry for the slow motions of the monarch. He flew to the
+army, took upon him the command, and displayed all the abilities of a
+great general in out-man&oelig;uvring and worsting the generals and
+armies of Savoy. In the meantime Louis fell dangerously ill at Lyons.
+His mother, an affectionate attendant on his sick-couch, resumed her
+former empire over him. At one moment his imminent death seemed to
+threaten the cardinal with ruin. Louis recovered, however, and his
+first act was to compel a reconciliation, in form at least, between
+the cardinal and the queen-mother.</p>
+
+<p>The king's illness, although not so immediately fatal to Richelieu as
+his enemies had hoped, was still attended with serious consequences to
+him. The French army met with ill success through the treachery of the
+general, Marillac, who was secretly attached to the queen's party, and
+the failure was attributed to Richelieu.</p>
+
+<p>Mary de Medici renewed her solicitations to her son, that he would
+dismiss his minister. Louis, it appears, made a promise to that
+effect; a reluctant promise, given to get rid of her importunity. Mary
+calculated too securely upon his keeping it; she broke forth in bitter
+contumely against Richelieu; deprived him of his superintendence over
+her household, and treated Madame de Combalet, the cardinal's niece,
+who had sunk on her knees to entreat her to moderate her anger almost
+with insult. The king was present, and seemed to sanction her violence
+so that Richelieu withdrew to make his preparations for exile. Louis,
+dissatisfied and irresolute, retired to Versailles; while Mary
+remained triumphant at the Luxembourg, receiving the congratulations
+of her party. Richelieu, in the meantime, ere taking his departure,
+repaired to Versailles, and, once there, resumed the ascendant over
+the monarch. The tidings of this was a thunder-stroke to Mary and her
+party, who became instantly the victims of the cardinal's revenge.
+Marillac was beheaded, and Mary de Medici, herself at length
+completely vanquished by her rival, was driven out of France to spend
+the rest of her days in exile.</p>
+
+<p>The trial of Marillac had roused the spirit and indignation even of
+those nobles who had previously respected, and bowed to, the minister
+of the royal choice. Richelieu not only threatened their order with
+the scaffold, but his measures of administration were directed to
+deprive them of their ancient privileges, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>(p. 170)</span> and means of
+wealth and domination. One of these was the right of governors of
+provinces to raise the revenue within their jurisdiction, and to
+employ or divert no small portion of it to their use. Richelieu, to
+remedy this, transferred the office of collecting the revenue to new
+officers, called the <span class="italic">Elect</span>. He tried this in Languedoc, then
+governed by the Duc de Montmorenci, a noble of the first rank, whose
+example, consequently, would have weight, and who had always proved
+himself obedient and loyal. Moved, however, by his private wrongs, as
+well as that of his order, he now joined the party of the nobles and
+the king's brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans. That weak prince, after
+forming an alliance with the Duke of Lorraine, had raised an army.
+Richelieu lost not a moment in despatching a force which reduced
+Lorraine, and humbled its hitherto independent duke almost to the rank
+of a subject. Gaston then marched his army to Languedoc and joined
+Montmorenci. The Maréchal de Brezé, Richelieu's brother-in-law, led
+the loyal troops against them, defeated Gaston at Castelnaudari, and
+took Montmorenci prisoner. This noble had been the friend and
+supporter of Richelieu, who even called him his son; yet the
+cardinal's cruel policy determined that he should die. There was
+difficulty in proving before the judges that he had actually borne
+arms against the king. "The smoke and dust," said St. Reuil, the
+witness, "rendered it impossible to recognize any combatant
+distinctly. But when I saw one advance alone, and cut his way through
+five ranks of gens-d'armes, I knew that it must be Montmorenci."</p>
+
+<p>This gallant descendant of five constables of France perished on the
+scaffold at Toulouse. Richelieu deemed the example necessary to strike
+terror into the nobility. And he immediately took advantage of that
+terror, by removing all the governors of provinces, and replacing them
+throughout with officers personally attached to his interests.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus made, as it were, a clear stage for the fulfilment of his
+great political schemes, Richelieu turned his exertions to his
+original plan of humbling the House of Austria, and extending the
+territories of France at its expense. He formed an alliance with the
+great Gustavus Adolphus, who then victoriously supported the cause of
+religious liberty in Germany. Richelieu drew more advantage from the
+death than from the victories of his ally; since, as the price of his
+renewing his alliance with the Swedes, he acquired the possession of
+Philipsburg, and opened the way toward completing that darling project
+of France and every French statesman, the acquisition of the Rhine as
+a frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The French having manifested their design to get possession of Trèves,
+the Spaniards anticipated them; and open war ensued betwixt the two
+monarchies. Richelieu in his wars was one of those scientific
+combatants who seek to weary out an enemy, and who husband their
+strength in order not to crush at once, but to ruin in the end. Such,
+at least, were the tactics by which he came triumphant out of the
+struggle with Spain. He made no conquests at first, gained no striking
+victories; but he compensated for his apparent want of success by
+perseverance, by taking advantage of defeat to improve the army, and
+by laboring to transfer to the crown the financial and other resources
+which had been previously <span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>(p. 171)</span> absorbed by the aristocracy. Thus
+the war, though little brilliant at first, produced at last these very
+important results. Arras in the north, Turin in the south, Alsace in
+the east, fell into the hands of the French; Roussillon was annexed to
+the monarchy; and Catalonia revolted from Spain. Richelieu might boast
+that he had achieved the great purposes of Henry IV., not so
+gloriously indeed as that heroic prince might have done, but no less
+effectually. This was effected not so much by arms as by
+administration. The foundation was laid for that martial pre-eminence
+which Louis XIV. long enjoyed; and which he might have retained, had
+the virtue of moderation been known to him.</p>
+
+<p>It was not without incurring great personal perils, with proportionate
+address and good fortune, that Cardinal Richelieu arrived at such
+great results. Constant plots were formed against him, the most
+remarkable of which was that of Cinq-Mars, a young nobleman selected
+to be the king's favorite, on account of his presumed frivolity. But
+he was capable of deep thoughts and passions; and wearied by the
+solitude in which the monarch lived, and to which he was reduced by
+the minister's monopoly of all power, he dared to plot the cardinal's
+overthrow. This bold attempt was sanctioned by the king himself, who
+at intervals complained of the yoke put upon him.</p>
+
+<p>Great interests were at stake, for Richelieu, reckoning upon the
+monarch's weak health, meditated procuring the regency for himself.
+The Queen, Anne of Austria, aware of this intention, approved of the
+project of Cinq-Mars, which, of course, implied the assassination of
+the cardinal. No other mode of defying his power and talent could have
+been contemplated. But Richelieu was on the watch. The court was then
+in the south of France, engaged in the conquest of Roussillon, a
+situation favorable for the relation of the conspirators with Spain.
+The minister surprised one of the emissaries, had the fortune to seize
+a treaty concluded between them and the enemies of France; and with
+this flagrant proof of their treason, he repaired to Louis, and forced
+from him an order for their arrest. It was tantamount to their
+condemnation. Cinq-Mars and his friends perished on the scaffold; Anne
+of Austria was again humbled; and every enemy of the cardinal shrunk
+in awe and submission before his ascendancy. Among them was the king
+himself, whom Richelieu looked upon as an equal in dignity, an
+inferior in mind and in power. The guards of the cardinal were as
+numerous as the monarch's, and independent of any authority save that
+of their immediate master. A treaty was even drawn up between king and
+minister, as between two potentates. But the power and the pride of
+Richelieu reached at once their height and their termination. A mortal
+illness seized him in the latter days of 1642, a few months after the
+execution of Cinq-Mars. No abatement of his pride marked his last
+moments. He summoned the monarch like a servant to his couch,
+instructed him what policy to follow and appointed the minister who
+was to be his own successor.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the career of this supereminent statesman, who, although in
+the position of Damocles all his life, with the sword of the assassin
+suspended over his head, surrounded with enemies, and with insecure
+and treacherous support <span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>(p. 172)</span> even from the monarch whom he
+served, still not only maintained his own station, but possessed time
+and zeal to frame and execute gigantic projects for the advancement of
+his country and of his age. It makes no small part of Henry IV.'s
+glory that he conceived a plan for diminishing the power of the House
+of Austria. Richelieu, without either the security or the advantages
+of the king and the warrior, achieved it. Not only this, but he dared
+to enter upon the war at the very same time when he was humbling that
+aristocracy which had hitherto composed the martial force of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of his domestic policy were indeed more durable than those
+of what he most prided himself upon, his foreign policy. He it was, in
+fact, who founded the French monarchy, such as it existed until near
+the end of the eighteenth century&mdash;a grand, indeed, rather than a
+happy result. He was a man of penetrating and commanding intellect,
+who visibly influenced the fortunes of Europe to an extent which few
+princes or ministers have equalled. Unscrupulous in his purposes, he
+was no less so in the means by which he effected them. But so long as
+men are honored, not for their moral excellences, but for the great
+things which they have done for themselves, or their country, the name
+of Richelieu will be recollected with respect, as that of one of the
+most successful statesmen that ever lived.</p>
+
+<p>As a patron of letters and of the arts, Richelieu has acquired a
+reputation almost rivalling that of his statesmanship. His first and
+earliest success in life had been as a scholar supporting his theses;
+and, as it is continually observed that great men form very erroneous
+judgments of their own excellences, he ever prided himself especially
+in his powers as a penman.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="img061" name="img061"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img061.jpg" width="600" height="393" alt="" title="">
+<p>A Concert At Richelieu's Palace.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>WILLIAM BRADFORD<a id="footnotetag15" name="footnotetag15"></a><a href="#footnote15" title="Go to footnote 15"><span class="smaller">[15]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Elbridge S. Brooks</span><br>
+(1589-1657)</h3>
+
+<a id="img062" name="img062"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="250" height="252" alt="Seal of Massachusetts." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Greatness is not allied to rank alone, nor is heroism to blood. The
+noblest of the Pilgrims of Plymouth was sprung from the people. For
+generations the little farming village of Austerfield, a royal manor
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire close to the Nottingham line, had
+known the family of Bradfurth or Bradford as a race of tenant-yeomen
+who, besides tilling the lands of the Mortons, possessed also a
+freehold of their own. But no man or woman of the Bradford name had
+given it prominence or worth until, on March 19, 1589, William
+Bradford was born in that low-roofed farm-house on the great plain of
+York. Puritan writers speak of Austerfield as a "profane and
+irreligious" village in which was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>(p. 173)</span> to be found "no bible
+and a careless priest." Whatever the facts, the environments,
+undoubtedly, were not such as would suggest the making of a leader or
+the development of a religious nature. But we are assured that, before
+the age of twelve, the boy William Bradford, brought up in that
+Austerfield farm-house "in the innocent trade of husbandry," displayed
+alike a thoughtful temperament and "a pious mind." At sixteen he fell,
+in some unknown way, under the influence of one of the much-maligned
+Puritan preachers of Scrooby, a Nottinghamshire village but a few
+miles from Austerfield. As a result he gave up his farming-life, left
+his Austerfield home, and in the face of bitter opposition, distrust,
+censure, and persecution, joined the Puritan church and settlement at
+Scrooby, established there by William Brewster, the postmaster of
+Scrooby and a prominent leader in the new sect of dissenters from the
+English church, known first as separatists and, later, because of
+their frequent changes and wanderings, as Pilgrims.</p>
+
+<p>From his earliest association with this feeble and despised communion,
+William Bradford was zealous in his readiness to stand boldly for his
+faith, whatever the risk involved. He was one of the first to
+appreciate the real meaning of the struggle; he saw that dissent
+implied not alone a religious opposition, but a political defiance as
+well, and that its followers, braving the will of England's royal
+bigot, James Stuart, and denying his assumption of the divine right of
+kings, would ere long do open battle in the cause of the people
+against despotism, and stand for that deeper question of liberty which
+the Pilgrims of Scrooby and Leyden first fully grasped.</p>
+
+<p>Bradford was one of that venturesome company which, in 1607, embarking
+at Boston, in Lincolnshire, sought to flee from English tyranny, and
+find a home in Holland. They were betrayed, turned back, and
+imprisoned. The next year this young eighteen-year old enthusiast
+escaped from his jailers, and made his way to Amsterdam. Here he
+apprenticed himself to a silk-weaver, and became an efficient member
+of the association of English exiles in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his coming of age in 1610, he sold off the Austerfield lands that
+had descended to him upon the death of his father, and entered upon an
+unsuccessful business investment in Amsterdam. This failing, he joined
+himself to the Pilgrim colony that Brewster and Robinson, the Pilgrim
+preachers, had established at Leyden.</p>
+
+<p>When those far-seeing reformers awoke to the fact that an
+English-speaking community in Holland must, in time, become Dutch in
+manners, speech, and life, and looked across the western ocean with
+the dream of founding a religious republic of English-speaking folk in
+the New World, Bradford was one of the most earnest in adopting and
+carrying out their views, and was one of that famous company which, on
+September 16, 1620, sailed from Plymouth in England, to cast anchor,
+three months later, in the harbor of the new Plymouth in New England.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that if William Brewster was the Aaron of the
+Plymouth enterprise, William Bradford was its Moses. Certainly he was,
+almost from its inception, its leader and deliverer. It was his brain
+that conceived and his hand <span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>(p. 174)</span> that executed that memorable
+compact which the forty-one earnest men signed in the cabin of the
+Mayflower, as she rode at anchor in Provincetown harbor&mdash;"the first
+instrument of civil government ever subscribed as the act of the whole
+people." It was into his hands, when Carver, the first governor, died
+of sunstroke in the spring of 1621, that the colonists gave the
+guidance of their affairs, electing him governor of the Plymouth
+colony on April 21, 1621&mdash;"the first American citizen of English race
+who bore rule by the free choice of his brethren." More than this, we
+may look upon William Bradford, so says Mr. Doyle, the English
+historian of the Puritan colonies, "as heading that bead-roll of
+worthies that, from his day, America has never wanted&mdash;men who, with
+no early training in political life, and lacking much that the Old
+World has deemed needful in her rulers, have yet, by inborn strength
+of mind and lofty public spirit, shown themselves in all things worthy
+of high office."</p>
+
+<p>Certainly William Bradford showed himself worthy the trust and
+confidence of his fellows. For nearly forty years he filled the office
+of governor of the Plymouth colony. His hand guided it through the
+perils of its early years, his brain planned that systematic
+development of its slender resources that made it the one successful
+episode in America's beginnings. His treatment of the Indians was
+always firm but friendly; his dealings with the grasping "London
+adventurers," whose greed would have seriously crippled the colony had
+it not been for his restraining hand, were courteous but convincing;
+it was Bradford who led the colony from the unsatisfactory communism
+of its first years to the system of individual property that, from
+1623, held sway, and turned an uncertain venture into a career of
+industrial prosperity. Always tolerant, never injudicious, and alike
+pure-minded, liberty-loving, courageous, and wise, no hand could have
+better guided than did his, or have more systematically shaped, the
+destinies of the infant State. The testimony of contemporaries and the
+judgment of historians unite in crediting to William Bradford that
+rare combination of intelligence and industry, of judicial and
+executive ability, by which a small and obscure band of persecuted
+fugitives laid in an unexplored wilderness the foundations of a great
+and prosperous commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>His methods were as simple as was his own noble nature. Each advance
+was the outgrowth of his own observation and the colony's necessities,
+and while the corner-stone of the community was religion, he stood
+himself for religious liberty, and never permitted the zeal of his
+associates to degenerate into intolerance and persecution. While other
+of the early American colonies were narrow, bigoted, and vindictive,
+it is to the credit of the Pilgrim colony of Plymouth that the cargo
+of the Mayflower contained no seeds of persecution, and throughout the
+long administration of Governor William Bradford the colony he guided
+had, in his time at least, a clear comprehension of the meaning of
+religious and political freedom, and did not descend into the harrying
+of so-called heretics, the scourging of Quakers, nor the burning of
+witches. Whatever intolerance of this sort may, at a later day, have
+stained the records of the colony, was of foreign growth and contrary
+to the heritage of charity left by William Bradford.</p>
+
+<a id="img063" name="img063"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="400" height="624" alt="" title="">
+<p>A Puritan Christmas.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>(p. 175)</span> This willingness to serve, to spend and be spent, is apparent
+throughout the whole story of Bradford's life. It displayed itself in
+the boyish spirit of renunciation that led him to join the Scrooby
+society, and held him loyal to his association even through
+imprisonment and persecution, through exile, flight, and emigration.
+Again and again through his long service as governor of the Plymouth
+colony, he wished to lay aside the burden, but always yielded to the
+wishes of his comrades. Elected by the suffrages of his associates, he
+himself restricted his own authority by the formation, in 1624, of the
+governor's council of five members, increased in 1633 to seven, in
+which the only privilege held by the governor was a double vote. In
+1624 he with seven of his associates assumed, what was for that day
+and the uncertainties involved, a great risk, and bought out the
+"London Adventurers" who had so feebly backed the colonists. In 1629
+he obtained a patent that conferred upon himself, his associates, and
+assigns the title to the whole Plymouth tract, and in 1640 he conveyed
+this valuable title to the colony, reserving only his personal
+proportion as a settler.</p>
+
+<p>It was this unselfishness of disposition, this loyalty to
+duty&mdash;accepting honors as trusts and burdens as obligations&mdash;this
+union of justice and faith that made William Bradford great and kept
+him noble.</p>
+
+<p>"With malice toward none, with charity for all," even as had that
+great American of two centuries later, Bradford could keep the even
+tenor of his way in the midst of obstacles and discouragements.
+Unmoved by the ingratitude of Weston, the insolence of Morton, the
+treachery of Oldham and Lyford, and the selfishness of Allerton; calm
+amid the controversies brought about by the arrogance of the greater
+colony of Massachusetts Bay, the encroachments of the French in Maine,
+and of the Dutch on the Connecticut, he could yet, when occasion
+demanded, display that stern justice that meted out the extreme
+penalty of the law to offenders, and condemned to death Billington,
+the first murderer in the colony, and Peach, the assassin of a
+defenceless Indian.</p>
+
+<p>William Bradford is one of the most interesting figures in the history
+of New England. He is the noblest of the Puritans&mdash;a type of their
+best element, an exponent of their highest effort, a pioneer in their
+struggle for liberty for justice, and for law. The boy who could brave
+opposition and contumely for conscience's sake, could also be of
+gentlest manners and serenest mood when called to lead and govern
+those who put their trust in him; the same native courage and
+independence that held him loyal to his convictions in his early years
+made him, when responsibilities multiplied and burdens were laid upon
+him, the very staff and hope of the Pilgrim colony of Plymouth.</p>
+
+<p>He combined with executive ability other notable gifts. Though bred to
+the soil in an age when the farmer was a drudge and had no ambition
+beyond his crops, he yet, when opportunity offered, applied himself to
+study with such good results that he was learned in Latin, Greek, and
+Hebrew, and conversed in French and Dutch. He was acquainted with the
+history and philosophy of his day, was deeply versed in theology, and
+even attempted poetry. He wrote much and well. His most important
+production was his "History of the Plymouth <span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>(p. 176)</span> Plantations"&mdash;a
+detailed chronicle of the history of the Pilgrims from 1608 to 1646.
+Carried away from the old South Church by British soldiers, it was
+completely lost, until almost providentially discovered, though
+partially destroyed, in the shop of a Halifax grocer, and to-day it
+tells us almost all that we know of the Plymouth settlers, from the
+day when they left Lincolnshire till they became a prosperous
+commonwealth in America.</p>
+
+<p>Of this important contribution to American history, Mr. Doyle, the
+English historian, says: "Gratitude is quickened when we compare the
+simple, vigorous, and picturesque chronicle set before us by Bradford,
+with the tedious and pedantic writings from which so much of the later
+history of New England has to be extracted.... His work is in the true
+sense scholarly. The language is like the language of Bunyan, that of
+a man who trained himself not merely to speak but to think in the
+words of Scripture. Every expression is simple and effective, never
+far-fetched, never mean nor common. The substance is worthy of the
+style. Faults no doubt there are ... yet with all its defects
+Bradford's writings still remain the worthy first-fruits of Puritan
+literature in its new home. They are the work of a wise and good man,
+who tells with a right understanding the great things that he and his
+brethren have done."</p>
+
+<p>The wise governor was loyal to his colony to the last. He resisted the
+ambition to take larger holdings of land and become great estate
+owners that influenced Standish and Brewster, Alden and Winslow, and
+other of his Mayflower companions, drawing them away from Plymouth to
+the broader acres at Duxbury and Scituate and Marshfield. The governor
+deplored this withdrawal as a desertion on the part of his old
+friends, and a menace to the welfare of the colony. He lived on in
+Plymouth, where his home on Leyden Street, still standing, gradually
+outgrew its early primitive dimensions as became the house of the
+governor of Plymouth. Here he died on May 9, 1657, "lamented by all
+the colonists of New England as a common blessing and father to them
+all," and the only special memorial that tangibly recalls his fame is
+the unpretentious obelisk on Burial Hill.</p>
+
+<p>As Miles Standish and John Alden had a romance in their lives that has
+made them historic, so this Puritan governor of Plymouth had his. His
+first wife, gentle Dorothy May, was drowned in Cape Cod harbor while
+her husband was away exploring the new-found coast. He had married her
+in Leyden in 1613 and less than three years after her death, on August
+14, 1623, he married Mistress Alice Carpenter Southworth, who in
+earlier days, it is alleged, had been young William Bradford's
+"dearest love." She came across the sea&mdash;at his call&mdash;a widow, to
+marry the widowed governor of Plymouth and thus complete the unwritten
+romance begun in his earlier years.</p>
+
+<p>A self-made man, a scholar of repute, a writer of renown, an upright
+and fearless magistrate, a model citizen, a courageous leader, gentle,
+just and generous, practical and wise, William Bradford stands in
+history as the essence and exponent of what was best in the Puritanism
+of his day, the architect and builder of a God-fearing, independent,
+and progressive community that, throughout the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>(p. 177)</span> ages, remains
+the most notable because the most typical of the foundation-stones
+that underlie the mighty structure of the Republic of the United
+States of America.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig011" name="sig011"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig011.jpg" width="300" height="82" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3>CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND<br>
+By <span class="smcap">F. Hindes Groome</span><br>
+(1600-1649)</h3>
+
+<a id="img064" name="img064"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img064.jpg" width="200" height="312" alt="Charles I." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Charles I. was born at Dunfermline, November 19, 1600, was a sickly
+child, unable to speak till his fifth year, and so weak in the ankles
+that till his seventh he had to crawl upon his hands and knees. Except
+for a stammer, he outgrew both defects, and became a skilled tilter
+and marksman, as well as an accomplished scholar and a diligent
+student of theology. He was created Duke of Albany at his baptism,
+Duke of York in 1605, and Prince of Wales in 1616, four years after
+the death of his dear brother, Prince Henry, had left him heir to the
+crown of three kingdoms. A Spanish match had been mooted as early as
+1614; but it was not till February 17, 1623, that, with Buckingham,
+his inseparable friend, Charles started on the romantic incognito
+journey to Madrid, its objects to win the hand of the Infanta, and to
+procure the restitution of the Palatinate to his brother-in-law,
+Frederick. Both he and his father swore to all possible concessions to
+the Catholics, but nothing short of his own conversion would have
+satisfied the Spanish and papal courts; and on October 5th he landed
+again in England, eager for rupture with Spain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>(p. 178)</span> The nation's joy was speedily dashed by his betrothal to the
+French princess, Henrietta Maria (1609-69); for the marriage articles
+pledged him, in violation of solemn engagements to Parliament, to
+permit her and all her domestics the free exercise of the Catholic
+religion, and to give her the up-bringing of their children till the
+age of thirteen.</p>
+
+<p>On March 27, 1625, Charles succeeded his father, James I.; on June
+13th he welcomed his little bright-eyed queen at Dover, having married
+her by proxy six weeks earlier. Barely a twelvemonth was over when he
+packed off her troublesome retinue to France&mdash;a bishop and 29 priests,
+with 410 more male and female attendants. Thenceforth their domestic
+life was a happy one; and during the twelve years following the murder
+of Buckingham (1592-1628), in whose hands he had been a mere tool,
+Charles gradually came to yield himself up to her unwise
+influence&mdash;not wholly indeed, but more than to that of Stafford even,
+or Laud. Little meddlesome Laud, made archbishop in 1633, proceeded to
+war against the dominant Puritanism, to preach passive obedience, and
+uphold the divine right of kings; while great Stafford, from
+championing the Petition of Right (1628), passed over to the king's
+service, and entered on that policy of "Thorough" whose aim was to
+make his master absolute. Three Parliaments were summoned and
+dissolved in the first four years of the reign; then for eleven years
+Charles ruled with but one, in its stead, with subservient judges, and
+the courts of Star Chamber and High Commission. In 1627 he had
+blundered into an inglorious French war; but with France he concluded
+peace in 1629, with Spain in 1630. Peace, economy, and arbitrary
+taxation were to solve the great problem of his policy, how to get
+money, yet not account for it. Not that Charles cared for money in
+itself, or had far-reaching projects of tyranny (he failed to enter
+into Stafford's scheme); but he had inherited a boundless egoism, and
+content with his own petty self, had little sympathy with the dead
+heroism of the Tudor age, none at all with the nascent ardor of
+democracy. The extension of the ship-tax to the inland counties was
+met by Hampden's passive resistance (1637); Laud's attempt to
+Anglicize the Scottish Church, by the active resistance of the whole
+northern nation. Once more Charles had to call a Parliament; two met
+in 1640&mdash;the Short Parliament, which lasted but three weeks, and the
+Long, which outlasted Charles.</p>
+
+<p>It met to pronounce Stafford's doom; and his plot with the army
+detected, Charles basely sacrificed his loyal servitor, his own kingly
+word, to fears for the queen's safety; no act weighed heavier on him
+afterward. The same signature that sent Stafford to the block gave
+assent to a second bill, by which the existing Parliament might not be
+dissolved without its own consent. That pledge, as extorted by force,
+Charles purposed to disregard; and during his visit to Edinburgh, in
+the autumn of 1641, he trusted by lavish concessions to bring over the
+Scots to his side. Instead, he got entangled in dark suspicions of
+plotting the murder of the covenanting lords, of connivance even in
+the Ulster massacre. Still, his return to London was welcomed with
+some enthusiasm, and a party was forming in the Commons itself, of men
+who revolted from the sweeping changes that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>(p. 179)</span> menaced both
+church and state. Pym's "Grand Remonstrance" justified their fears,
+and Charles seemed to justify the "Grand Remonstrance" by his attempt
+to arrest the five members (January 4, 1642); but that ill-stricken
+blow was dictated by the knowledge of an impending impeachment of the
+queen herself. On August 22d he raised the royal standard at
+Nottingham; and the four years civil war commenced, in which, as at
+Naseby, he showed no lack of physical courage, and which resulted at
+Naseby in the utter annihilation of his cause (June 14, 1645).</p>
+
+<p>No need here to track him through plot and counterplot with Catholics,
+Presbyterians, and Sectaries, with the Scots and the Irish, with the
+Parliament and the Army; enough that, quitting his last refuge,
+Oxford, he surrendered himself on May 5, 1646, to the Scots at Newark,
+and by them, in the following January, was handed over to the
+Parliament. His four months captivity at Holmby House, near
+Northampton; his seizure on June 3d by Cornet Joyce; the three months
+at Hampton Court; the fight on November 11th; the fresh captivity at
+Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle of Wight&mdash;these lead up to the trial
+at Westminster of the tyrant, traitor, and murderer, Charles Stuart.
+He had drawn the sword, and by the sword he perished, for it was the
+Army, not Parliament, that stood at the back of the judges. Charles
+faced them bravely and with dignity. Thrice he refused to plead,
+denying the competence of such a court: and his refusal being treated
+as a confession, on the third day fifty-five out of seventy-one
+judges&mdash;sixty-four more never were present&mdash;affixed their names and
+seals to his death-warrant; four days later, sentence was pronounced.</p>
+
+<p>No need here to tell the well-known story of his meekness toward his
+persecutors, of the pathetic parting from two of his younger children,
+of his preparation for a holy death; or how, on the morning of January
+30, 1649, he passed to that death on the scaffold in front of
+Whitehall, with a courage worthy of a very martyr. On the snowy 7th of
+February they bore the "white king" to his grave at Windsor in Henry
+VIII.'s vault; in 1813 the Prince Regent had his leaden coffin opened.
+Six children survived him&mdash;Charles and James, his successors; Mary,
+Princess of Orange (1631-60); Elizabeth (1635-50); Henry, Duke of
+Gloucester (1639-60); and Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans (1644-70), the
+last born ten weeks after Charles's final parting from his queen. At
+the Restoration Charles II. appointed, on his sole authority, a form
+of prayer, with fasting, for the day of the martyrdom of the Blessed
+King Charles I., to be annexed to the Common Prayer Book, with the
+other state services; it kept its place there till 1859.</p>
+
+<p>A far stronger man than Charles might scarcely have extricated himself
+from the difficulties that beset him; true, those difficulties were
+largely of his own creating. But was he right in abandoning Stafford?
+should he also have sacrificed wife, faith, and crown? If yes, then
+was he wholly in the wrong; if no, he was partly&mdash;for once at
+least&mdash;in the right. Vices, other than duplicity, he had none, as we
+use the word. He was vague, vacillating, obstinate, unable to lead or
+to be led; superstitious, heedful of omens; unsympathetic and reserved
+where he did not love; intolerant of opposition to his will. But he
+was a good husband, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>(p. 180)</span> a good father, a good churchman&mdash;no man
+so good was ever so bad a king; no man so fallible believed so
+honestly in his infallibility. For Charles was honest to his own
+convictions. His very duplicity was due sometimes to schooling in
+"kingcraft," but oftener to inability to see two sides of a question.
+Now he saw one, and now the other, but never both sides at once; and,
+just as he saw, so he spoke. Milton's charges against him of "all
+manner of lewdness" rank with Milton's charge that he poisoned his
+father. Indeed, as a pattern of culture and purity, few princes are
+worthy to be named beside him.</p>
+
+<p>His children all loved and respected him. His little daughter
+Elizabeth, held as a prisoner by his foes, wrote of him with such
+womanly sympathy and admiration as even now brings tears to our eyes.
+His last letter of advice to his son Charles is a model hardly to be
+improved on. Parts of it read as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I had rather you should be Charles <span class="italic">le bon</span>, than <span class="italic">le grand</span>, good,
+than great; I hope God hath designed you to be both; having so early
+put you into that exercise of His graces and gifts bestowed upon you,
+which may best weed out all vicious inclinations, and dispose you to
+those princely endowments and employments which will most gain the
+love, and intend the welfare of those over whom God shall place you.</p>
+
+<p>"With God, I would have you begin and end, who is King of kings, the
+sovereign disposer of the kingdoms of the world, who pulleth down one
+and setteth up another.</p>
+
+<p>"The best government and highest sovereignty you can attain to, is to
+be subject to Him, that the sceptre of His word and spirit may rule in
+your heart.</p>
+
+<p>"The true glory of princes consists in advancing God's glory, in the
+maintenance of true religion and the church's good; also in the
+dispensation of civil power with justice and honor to the public
+peace.</p>
+
+<p>"Piety will make you prosperous, at least it will keep you from
+becoming miserable; nor is he much a loser that loseth all, yet saveth
+his own soul at last.</p>
+
+<p>"To which centre of true happiness, God (I trust) hath and will
+graciously direct all these black lines of affliction which He hath
+been pleased to draw on me, and by which He hath (I hope) drawn me
+nearer to Himself. You have already tasted of that cup whereof I have
+liberally drunk; which I look upon as God's physic, having that in
+healthfulness which it wants in pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>"Take heed that outward circumstances and formalities of religion
+devour not all, or the best, encouragements of learning, industry, and
+piety; but with an equal eye and impartial hand distribute favors and
+rewards to all men, as you find them for their real goodness both in
+abilities and fidelity, worthy and capable of them.</p>
+
+<p>"And if neither I nor you be ever restored to our right, but God, in
+His severest justice, will punish my subjects with continuance in
+their sin, and suffer them to be deluded with the prosperity of their
+wickedness, I hope God will give me and you that grace which will
+teach and enable us to want, as well as to wear, a crown, which is not
+worth taking up or enjoying upon sordid, dishonorable and irreligious
+terms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>(p. 181)</span> "Keep you to true principles of piety, virtue, and honor; you
+shall never want a kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>"A principal point of your honor will consist in your deferring all
+respect, love, and protection to your mother, my wife, who hath many
+ways deserved well of me, and chiefly in this, that having been a
+means to bless me with so many hopeful children (all which, with their
+mother, I recommend to your love and care), she hath been content with
+incomparable magnanimity and patience to suffer both for and with me
+and you.</p>
+
+<p>"Farewell, till we meet, if not on earth, yet in heaven."</p>
+
+<a id="img065" name="img065"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img065.jpg" width="400" height="601" alt="" title="">
+<p>Princess Elizabeth in Prison.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But Charles was predestined to sorrow. "A tragic face!" said the
+sculptor Bernini, as he looked on the triple portrait by Vandyke.
+Already the shadow of a violent death overclouded those fine, weak
+features.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>OLIVER CROMWELL<br>
+Extracts from "The History of England," by <span class="smcap">Thomas B. Macaulay</span><br>
+(1599-1658)</h3>
+
+<a id="img066" name="img066"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="250" height="245" alt="An arrest." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>And now a new and alarming class of symptoms began to appear in the
+distempered body politic. There had been, from the first, in the
+Parliamentary party, some men whose minds were set on objects from
+which the majority of that party would have shrunk with horror. These
+men were, in religion, Independents. They conceived that every
+Christian congregation had, under Christ, supreme jurisdiction in
+things spiritual; that appeals to provincial and national synods were
+scarcely less unscriptural than appeals to the Court of Arches or to
+the Vatican; and that popery, prelacy, and Presbyterianism were merely
+three forms of one great apostasy. In politics they were, to use the
+phrase of their time, Root and Branch men, or, to use the kindred
+phrase of our own time, Radicals. Not content with limiting the power
+of the monarch, they were desirous to erect a commonwealth on the
+ruins of the old English polity. At first they had been inconsiderable
+both in numbers and in weight; but, before the war had lasted two
+years, they became, not indeed the largest, but the most powerful
+faction in the country. Some of the old Parliamentary leaders had been
+removed by death, and others had forfeited <span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>(p. 182)</span> the public
+confidence. Pym had been borne, with princely honors, to a grave among
+the Plantagenets. Hampden had fallen, as became him, while vainly
+endeavoring, by his heroic example, to inspire his followers with
+courage to face the fiery cavalry of Rupert. Bedford had been untrue
+to the cause. Northumberland was known to be lukewarm. Essex and his
+lieutenants had shown little vigor and ability in the conduct of
+military operations. At such a conjuncture it was, that the
+Independent party, ardent, resolute, and uncompromising, began to
+raise its head both in the camp and in the Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The soul of that party was Oliver Cromwell. Bred to peaceful
+occupations, he had, at more than forty years of age, accepted a
+commission in the Parliamentary army. No sooner had he become a
+soldier, than he discerned, with the keen glance of genius, what Essex
+and men like Essex, with all their experience, were unable to
+perceive. He saw precisely where the strength of the Royalists lay,
+and by what means alone that strength could be overpowered. He saw
+that it was necessary to reconstruct the army of the Parliament. He
+saw, also, that there were abundant and excellent materials for the
+purpose; materials less showy, indeed, but more solid, than those of
+which the gallant squadrons of the king were composed. It was
+necessary to look for recruits who were not mere mercenaries; for
+recruits of decent station and grave character, fearing God and
+zealous for public liberty. With such men he filled his own regiment,
+and, while he subjected them to a discipline more rigid than had ever
+before been known in England, he administered to their intellectual
+and moral nature stimulants of fearful potency.</p>
+
+<p>The events of the year 1644 fully proved the superiority of his
+abilities. In the south, where Essex held the command, the
+Parliamentary forces underwent a succession of shameful disasters, but
+in the north the victory of Marston Moor fully compensated for all
+that had been lost elsewhere. That victory was not a more serious blow
+to the Royalists than to the party which had hitherto been dominant at
+Westminster; for it was notorious that the day, disgracefully lost by
+the Presbyterians, had been retrieved by the energy of Cromwell, and
+by the steady valor of the warriors whom he had trained.</p>
+
+<p>These events produced the Self-denying Ordinance and the new model of
+the army. Under decorous pretexts, and with every mark of respect,
+Essex and most of those who had held high posts under him were
+removed, and the conduct of the war was intrusted to very different
+hands. Fairfax, a brave soldier, but of mean understanding and
+irresolute temper, was the nominal lord-general of the forces, but
+Cromwell was their real head.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell made haste to organize the whole army on the same principles
+on which he had organized his own regiment. As soon as this process
+was complete, the event of the war was decided. The Cavaliers had now
+to encounter natural courage equal to their own, enthusiasm stronger
+than their own, and discipline such as was utterly wanting to them. It
+soon became a proverb that the soldiers of Fairfax and Cromwell were
+men of a different breed from the soldiers of Essex. At Naseby took
+place the first great encounter between the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>(p. 183)</span> Royalists and
+the remodelled army of the Houses. The victory of the Roundheads was
+complete and decisive. It was followed by other triumphs in rapid
+succession. In a few months the authority of the Parliament was fully
+established over the whole kingdom. Charles fled to the Scots, and was
+by them, in a manner which did not much exalt their national
+character, delivered up to his English subjects.</p>
+
+<p>But while the Houses were employing their authority thus, it suddenly
+passed out of their hands. It had been obtained by calling into
+existence a power which could not be controlled. In the summer of
+1647, about twelve months after the last fortress of the Cavaliers had
+submitted to the Parliament, the Parliament was compelled to submit to
+its own soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Thirteen years followed, during which England was, under various names
+and forms, really governed by the sword. Never before that time, or
+since that time, was the civil power in our country subjected to
+military dictation.</p>
+
+<p>To keep down the English people was no light task even for that army.
+No sooner was the first pressure of military tyranny felt, than the
+nation, unbroken to such servitude, began to struggle fiercely.
+Insurrections broke out even in those counties which, during the
+recent war, had been the most submissive to the Parliament. Indeed,
+the Parliament itself abhorred its old defenders more than its old
+enemies, and was desirous to come to terms of accommodation with
+Charles at the expense of the troops. In Scotland, at the same time, a
+coalition was formed between the Royalists and a large body of
+Presbyterians, who regarded the doctrines of the Independents with
+detestation. At length the storm burst. There were risings in Norfolk,
+Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Wales. The fleet in the Thames suddenly hoisted
+the royal colors, stood out to sea, and menaced the southern coast. A
+great Scottish force crossed the frontier and advanced into
+Lancashire. It might well be suspected that these movements were
+contemplated with secret complacency by a majority both of the Lords
+and of the Commons.</p>
+
+<p>But the yoke of the army was not to be so shaken off. While Fairfax
+suppressed the risings in the neighborhood of the capital, Oliver
+routed the Welsh insurgents, and, leaving their castles in ruins,
+marched against the Scots. His troops were few when compared with the
+invaders; but he was little in the habit of counting his enemies. The
+Scottish army was utterly destroyed. A change in the Scottish
+government followed. An administration, hostile to the king, was
+formed at Edinburgh; and Cromwell, more than ever the darling of his
+soldiers, returned in triumph to London.</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+<p>England had already ceased to struggle; but the two other kingdoms
+which had been governed by the Stuarts were hostile to the new
+republic. The Independent party was equally odious to the Roman
+Catholics of Ireland and to the Presbyterians of Scotland. Both these
+countries, lately in rebellion against Charles I., now acknowledged
+the authority of Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>But everything yielded to the vigor and ability of Cromwell. In a few
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>(p. 184)</span> months he subjugated Ireland as Ireland had never been
+subjugated during the five centuries of slaughter which had elapsed
+since the landing of the first Norman settlers. He resolved to put an
+end to that conflict of races and religions which had so long
+distracted the island, by making the English and Protestant population
+decidedly predominant. For this end he gave the rein to the fierce
+enthusiasm of his followers, waged war resembling that which Israel
+waged on the Canaanites, smote the idolaters with the edge of the
+sword, so that great cities were left without inhabitants, drove many
+thousands to the Continent, shipped off many thousands to the West
+Indies, and supplied the void thus made, by pouring in numerous
+colonists of the Anglo-Saxon blood and of the Calvinistic faith.
+Strange to say, under that iron rule the conquered country began to
+wear an outward face of prosperity. Districts which had recently been
+as wild as those where the first white settlers of Connecticut were
+contending with the red men, were in a few years transformed into the
+likeness of Kent and Norfolk. New buildings, roads, and plantations
+were everywhere seen. The rent of estates rose fast; and soon the
+English land-owners began to complain that they were met in every
+market by the products of Ireland, and to clamor for protecting laws.</p>
+
+<p>From Ireland the victorious chief, who was now in name, as he had long
+been in reality, lord-general of the armies of the commonwealth,
+turned to Scotland. The young king was there. He had consented to
+profess himself a Presbyterian, and to subscribe the Covenant; and, in
+return for these concessions, the austere Puritans who bore sway at
+Edinburgh had permitted him to hold, under their inspection and
+control, a solemn and melancholy court in the long-deserted halls of
+Holyrood. This mock royalty was of short duration. In two great
+battles Cromwell annihilated the military force of Scotland. Charles
+fled for his life, and, with extreme difficulty, escaped the fate of
+his father. The ancient kingdom of the Stuarts was reduced, for the
+first time, to profound submission. Of that independence, so manfully
+defended against the mightiest and ablest of the Plantagenets, no
+vestige was left. The English Parliament made laws for Scotland. The
+English judges held assizes in Scotland. Even that stubborn Church,
+which has held its own against so many governments, scarce dared to
+utter an audible murmur.</p>
+
+<p>Thus far there had been at least the semblance of harmony between the
+warriors who subjugated Ireland and Scotland, and the politicians who
+sat at Westminster; but the alliance which had been cemented by danger
+was dissolved by victory. The Parliament forgot that it was but the
+creature of the Army. The Army was less disposed than ever to submit
+to the dictation of the Parliament. Indeed, the few members who made
+up what was contemptuously called the Rump of the House of Commons,
+had no more claim than the military chiefs to be esteemed the
+representatives of the nation. The dispute was soon brought to a
+decisive issue. Cromwell filled the house with armed men. The speaker
+was pulled out of his chair, the mace taken from the table, the room
+cleared, and the door locked. The nation, which loved neither of the
+contending parties, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>(p. 185)</span> but which was forced, in its own
+despite, to respect the capacity and resolution of the general, looked
+on with patience, if not with complacency.</p>
+
+<p>King, Lords, and Commons had now, in turn, been vanquished and
+destroyed, and Cromwell seemed to be left the sole heir of the powers
+of all three. Yet were certain limitations still imposed on him by the
+very army to which he owed his immense authority. That singular body
+of men was, for the most part, composed of zealous republicans. In the
+act of enslaving their country, they had deceived themselves into the
+belief that they were emancipating her. The book which they most
+venerated furnished them with a precedent which was frequently in
+their mouths. It was true that the ignorant and ungrateful nation
+murmured against its deliverers; even so had another chosen nation
+murmured against the leader who brought it, by painful and dreary
+paths, from the house of bondage to the land flowing with milk and
+honey. Yet had that leader rescued his brethren in spite of
+themselves; nor had he shrunk from making terrible examples of those
+who contemned the proffered freedom, and pined for the flesh-pots, the
+task-masters, and the idolatries of Egypt. The object of the warlike
+saints who surrounded Cromwell was the settlement of a free and pious
+commonwealth. For that end they were ready to employ, without scruple,
+any means, however violent and lawless. It was not impossible,
+therefore, to establish by their aid a monarchy absolute in effect;
+but it was probable that their aid would be at once withdrawn from a
+ruler who, even under strict constitutional restraints, should venture
+to assume the regal name and dignity.</p>
+
+<p>The sentiments of Cromwell were widely different. He was not what he
+had been; nor would it be just to consider the change which his views
+had undergone as the effect merely of selfish ambition. When he came
+up to the Long Parliament, he brought with him from his rural retreat
+little knowledge of books, no experience of great affairs, and a
+temper galled by the long tyranny of the government and of the
+hierarchy. He had, during the thirteen years which followed, gone
+through a political education of no common kind. He had been a chief
+actor in a succession of revolutions. He had been long the soul, and
+at last the head, of a party. He had commanded armies, won battles,
+negotiated treaties, subdued, pacified, and regulated kingdoms. It
+would have been strange indeed if his notions had been still the same
+as in the days when his mind was principally occupied by his fields
+and his religion, and when the greatest events which diversified the
+course of his life were a cattle-fair, or a prayer-meeting at
+Huntingdon. He saw that some schemes of innovation for which he had
+once been zealous, whether good or bad in themselves, were opposed to
+the general feeling of the country, and that, if he persevered in
+those schemes, he had nothing before him but constant troubles, which
+must be suppressed by the constant use of the sword. He therefore
+wished to restore, in all essentials, that ancient constitution which
+the majority of the people had always loved, and for which they now
+pined. The course afterward taken by Monk was not taken by Cromwell.
+The memory of one terrible day separated the great regicide forever
+from the house of Stuart. What remained was that he should mount the
+ancient <span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>(p. 186)</span> English throne, and reign according to the ancient
+English polity. If he could effect this, he might hope that the wounds
+of the lacerated state would heal fast. Great numbers of honest and
+quiet men would speedily rally round him. Those Royalists, whose
+attachment was rather to institutions than to persons, to the kingly
+office than to King Charles I. or King Charles II., would soon kiss
+the hand of King Oliver. The peers, who now remained sullenly at their
+country houses, and refused to take any part in public affairs, would,
+when summoned to their House by the writ of a king in possession,
+gladly resume their ancient functions. Northumberland and Bedford,
+Manchester and Pembroke, would be proud to bear the crown and the
+spurs, the sceptre and the globe, before the restorer of aristocracy.
+A sentiment of loyalty would gradually bind the people to the new
+dynasty, the royal dignity might descend with general acquiescence to
+his posterity.</p>
+
+<p>The ablest Royalists were of opinion that these views were correct,
+and that, if Cromwell had been permitted to follow his own judgment,
+the exiled line would never have been restored. But his plan was
+directly opposed to the feelings of the only class which he dared not
+offend. The name of king was hateful to the soldiers. Some of them
+were, indeed, unwilling to see the administration in the hands of any
+single person. The great majority, however, were disposed to support
+their general, as elective first magistrate of a commonwealth, against
+all factions which might resist his authority; but they would not
+consent that he should assume the regal title, or that the dignity,
+which was the just reward of his personal merit, should be declared
+hereditary in his family.<a id="footnotetag16" name="footnotetag16"></a><a href="#footnote16" title="Go to footnote 16"><span class="smaller">[16]</span></a> All that was left to him was to give to
+the new republic a constitution as like the constitution of the old
+monarchy as the army would bear. That his elevation to power might not
+seem to be his own mere act, he convoked a council, composed partly of
+persons on whose support he could depend, and partly of persons whose
+opposition he might safely defy. This assembly, which he called a
+Parliament, and which the populace nicknamed, from one of the most
+conspicuous members, Barebones's Parliament, after exposing itself
+during a short time to the public contempt, surrendered back to the
+general the powers which it had received from him, and left him at
+liberty to frame a plan of government.</p>
+
+<p>How Oliver's Parliaments were constituted, however, was practically of
+little moment; for he possessed the means of conducting the
+administration without their support, and in defiance of their
+opposition. His wish seems to have been to govern constitutionally,
+and to substitute the empire of the laws for that of the sword; but he
+soon found that, hated as he was both by Royalists and Presbyterians,
+he could be safe only by being absolute. The first House of Commons
+which the people elected by his command questioned his authority, and
+was dissolved without having passed a single act. His second House of
+Commons, though it recognized him as Protector, and would gladly have
+made him king, obstinately refused to acknowledge his new lords. He
+had no course left but to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>(p. 187)</span> dissolve the Parliament. "God,"
+he exclaimed, at parting, "be judge between you and me!"</p>
+
+<a id="img067" name="img067"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img067.jpg" width="500" height="355" alt="" title="">
+<p>Cromwell's daughter entreats him to refuse the crown.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Yet was the energy of the Protector's administration in nowise relaxed
+by these dissensions. Those soldiers who would not suffer him to
+assume the kingly title stood by him when he ventured on acts of power
+as high as any English king has ever attempted. The government,
+therefore, though in form a republic, was in truth a despotism,
+moderated only by the wisdom, the sober-mindedness, and the
+magnanimity of the despot. The country was divided into military
+districts; these districts were placed under the command of
+major-generals. Every insurrectionary movement was promptly put down
+and punished. The fear inspired by the power of the sword in so
+strong, steady, and expert a hand, quelled the spirit both of
+Cavaliers and Levellers. The loyal gentry declared that they were
+still as ready as ever to risk their lives for the old government and
+the old dynasty, if there were the slightest hope of success; but to
+rush at the head of their serving-men and tenants on the pikes of
+brigades victorious in a hundred battles and sieges, would be a
+frantic waste of innocent and honorable blood. Both Royalists and
+Republicans, having no hope in open resistance, began to revolve dark
+schemes of assassination; but the Protector's intelligence was good;
+his vigilance was unremitting; and, whenever he moved beyond the walls
+of his palace, the drawn swords and cuirasses of his trusty
+body-guards encompassed him thick on every side.</p>
+
+<p>Had he been a cruel, licentious, and rapacious prince, the nation
+might have found courage in despair, and might have made a convulsive
+effort to free itself from military domination; but the grievances
+which the country suffered, though such as excited serious discontent,
+were by no means such as impel great masses of men to stake their
+lives, their fortunes, and the welfare of their families against
+fearful odds. The taxation, though heavier than it had been under the
+Stuarts, was not heavy when compared with that of the neighboring
+states and with the resources of England. Property was secure. Even
+the Cavalier, who refrained from giving disturbance to the new
+settlement, enjoyed in peace whatever the civil troubles had left him.
+The laws were violated only in cases where the safety of the
+Protector's person and government were concerned. Justice was
+administered between man and man with an exactness and purity not
+before known. Under no English government since the Reformation had
+there been so little religious persecution. The unfortunate Roman
+Catholics, indeed, were held to be scarcely within the pale of
+Christian charity; but the clergy of the fallen Anglican Church were
+suffered to celebrate their worship on condition that they would
+abstain from preaching about politics. Even the Jews, whose public
+worship had, ever since the thirteenth century, been interdicted,
+were, in spite of the strong opposition of jealous traders and
+fanatical theologians, permitted to build a synagogue in London.</p>
+
+<p>The Protector's foreign policy at the same time extorted the
+ungracious approbation of those who most detested him. The Cavaliers
+could scarcely refrain from wishing that one who had done so much to
+raise the fame of the nation <span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>(p. 188)</span> had been a legitimate king; and
+the Republicans were forced to own that the tyrant suffered none but
+himself to wrong his country, and that, if he had robbed her of
+liberty, he had at least given her glory in exchange. After half a
+century, during which England had been of scarcely more weight in
+European politics than Venice or Saxony, she at once became the most
+formidable power in the world, dictated terms of peace to the United
+Provinces, avenged the common injuries of Christendom on the pirates
+of Barbary, vanquished the Spaniards by land and sea, seized one of
+the finest West India islands, and acquired on the Flemish coast a
+fortress which consoled the national pride for the loss of Calais. She
+was supreme on the ocean. She was the head of the Protestant interest.
+All the Reformed churches scattered over Roman Catholic kingdoms
+acknowledged Cromwell as their guardian. The Huguenots of Languedoc,
+the shepherds who, in the hamlets of the Alps, professed a
+Protestantism older than that of Augsburg, were secured from
+oppression by the mere terror of that great name. The Pope himself was
+forced to preach humanity and moderation to popish princes; for a
+voice which seldom threatened in vain had declared that, unless favor
+were shown to the people of God, the English guns should be heard in
+the Castle of St. Angelo. In truth, there was nothing which Cromwell
+had, for his own sake and that of his family, so much reason to desire
+as a general religious war in Europe. In such a war he must have been
+the captain of the Protestant armies. The heart of England would have
+been with him. His victories would have been hailed with a unanimous
+enthusiasm unknown in the country since the rout of the Armada, and
+would have effaced the stain which one act, condemned by the general
+voice of the nation, has left on his splendid fame. Unhappily for him,
+he had no opportunity of displaying his admirable military talents
+except against the inhabitants of the British Isles.</p>
+
+<p>While he lived his power stood firm, an object of mingled aversion,
+admiration, and dread to his subjects. Few indeed loved his
+government; but those who hated it most, hated it less than they
+feared it. Had it been a worse government, it might, perhaps, have
+been overthrown in spite of all its strength. Had it been a weaker
+government, it would certainly have been overthrown in spite of all
+its merits. But it had moderation enough to abstain from those
+oppressions which drive men mad; and it had a force and energy which
+none but men driven mad by oppression would venture to encounter.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been affirmed, but apparently with little reason, that
+Oliver died at a time fortunate for his renown, and that, if his life
+had been prolonged, it would probably have closed amid disgraces and
+disasters. It is certain that he was, to the last, honored by his
+soldiers, obeyed by the whole population of the British Islands, and
+dreaded by all foreign powers; that he was laid among the ancient
+sovereigns of England with funeral pomp such as London had never
+before seen, and that he was succeeded by his son Richard as quietly
+as any king had ever been succeeded by any Prince of Wales.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>(p. 189)</span> FREDERICK, THE GREAT ELECTOR<br>
+(1620-1688)</h3>
+
+<a id="img068" name="img068"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="250" height="330" alt="Frederick." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg surnamed the Great Elector,
+was the son of the Elector George William. In the distracted state of
+Germany, during the Thirty Years' War, and the necessary absence of
+his father with the army, the young prince saw but little of the
+splendor and indulgences of a court, passing the first years of his
+life in retirement with his tutors, who were men of learning and
+experience, and with his mother, first at the castle of Litzlingen, in
+the forests of the Altmark, and afterward at Custrin. The adventures
+and the singular fortunes of the family of his mother (who was sister
+of Frederick, King of Bohemia, husband of the Princess Elizabeth,
+daughter of James I. of England), the cruel and barbarous manner in
+which the war was carried on, and the dangers to which he and his
+family were exposed, necessarily made a deep impression on his mind.
+At the age of fifteen he was sent to the University at Leyden, where
+he especially devoted himself to the classics and to history. Of
+modern languages he was a proficient in French, Dutch, and Polish. He
+was afterward in the camp of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, during
+the siege of Breda, and was much noticed by the prince for his amiable
+manners and exemplary conduct, as well as for his sound understanding.
+About this time a widely known society of young persons of both sexes
+(called Media Nocte) endeavored to draw the prince into its circle at
+The Hague; but his friend and tutor, the Baron Schulenberg, making him
+aware of the immoral nature of the society, the prince abruptly left
+one of their convivial meetings, and resolved immediately to quit The
+Hague. The Prince of Orange was much surprised at this self-command,
+and when the prince arrived in the camp before Breda, said to him,
+"Cousin, your flight is a greater proof of heroism than if I took
+Breda; he who so early knows how to command himself will always
+succeed in great deeds." These words, as he himself owned, made a deep
+impression on him.</p>
+
+<p>His father dying in 1640, the young prince found his dominions reduced
+to a most deplorable condition by war and bad government. The
+exactions of Wallenstein in Altmark alone were estimated at twenty
+millions of gold florins; and in a memorial of the magistrate of
+Prenzlau, it is stated that the inhabitants are reduced to such
+dreadful extremities that they not only eat dogs, cats, and even
+carrion, but that, both in the town and country, they attack and kill
+each other <span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>(p. 190)</span> for food. He commenced his government with a
+degree of prudence and wisdom rarely found in so young a sovereign.
+His first care was to correct many crying abuses and to restore order
+in the finances. His attention was then directed to foreign affairs.
+In 1642 he received the investiture of Prussia from the King of
+Poland; in 1643 he concluded a peace with the Swedes, on condition of
+their evacuating the greater part of his dominions. At the peace of
+Munster he was not able to enforce his claims to Pomerania and
+Silesia, but obtained Magdeburg, Wallenstadt, Minden, and part of
+Pomerania.</p>
+
+<p>It is highly to his credit that it was chiefly owing to him, that the
+principle of equal rights and privileges for the two great divisions
+of the Protestant Church was admitted in that famous treaty. Charles
+Gustavus, King of Sweden, appearing emulous of rivalling Gustavus
+Adolphus, the elector concluded an alliance with Holland, and sought
+the friendship of Cromwell and Louis XIV. He was, however, obliged to
+make in 1655 a treaty with the Swedes, in consequence of which he
+joined in the invasion of Poland, and greatly contributed to the
+victory at Warsaw. Austria, Holland, and Poland vehemently protested
+against this alliance with Sweden. Cromwell, however, who believed the
+Protestant cause to be in danger from the King of Poland, sent William
+Jepson as his ambassador to the elector, whom in letters he
+compliments in the highest terms for his service to the Protestant
+religion. But Russia and Austria declaring in favor of Poland, he, by
+the mediation of Austria, concluded a convention with Poland at
+Wehlau, by one of the stipulations of which he obtained the entire
+sovereignty of Prussia, and in 1678 completed the conquest of all
+Pomerania by the taking of Griefswald and Stralsund. The death of
+Charles Gustavus freed him from an adversary who would probably have
+endeavored to prevent the execution of this treaty, which was
+confirmed by the treaty of Oliva. Frederick, now at peace with his
+neighbors, directed all his attention to promote the welfare of his
+subjects by favoring all internal improvements; the ruined towns and
+villages were rebuilt, new roads made, waste lands cultivated,
+commerce encouraged, and many useful establishments founded.</p>
+
+<a id="img069" name="img069"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="600" height="338" alt="" title="">
+<p>The Great Elector withdraws from the association of the
+Dutch nobility.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1672, however, Holland being threatened by Louis XIV., he concluded
+a treaty with the republic, engaging to furnish 20,000 men for its
+defence. He also contributed to induce the emperor: Denmark, Hesse
+Cassel, and several German princes to join him against France. But
+though his advance into Westphalia induced the French to quit Holland,
+the campaign was rendered unsuccessful by the slowness of the Austrian
+general, and he was forced to abandon Westphalia to the enemy. The
+Austrians leaving him, and the Dutch neglecting to send him subsidies,
+he was obliged to make a convention with France in 1673. The French
+were to evacuate Westphalia and pay him 800,000 livres, he promising
+to withdraw from his alliance with Holland, and not to support the
+enemies of France; yet he reserved to himself the right of assisting
+the German emperor in case of attack. This happened in 1674, when he
+invaded Alsace with 16,000 men, and joined the Imperial army; but the
+Austrian general, Bournonville, avoided a battle, contrary to the
+advice of Frederick, and Turenne receiving reinforcements <span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>(p. 191)</span>
+obliged the Germans to quit Alsace. In order to free themselves from
+Frederick, the French instigated the Swedes to invade Pomerania and
+Altmark, which they attacked in December, 1674, with 16,000 men.
+Frederick hastened to his dominions, and proceeding with great
+rapidity and secrecy at the head of only 5,000 men, he totally
+defeated 11,000 Swedes at Fehrbellin in 1675, and freed his dominions
+from the enemy. Following up his successes, he took Stettin. In
+January, 1679, he crossed the Frische Haff and the Gulf of Courland
+with his army on sledges over the ice, and surprising the Swedes in
+their winter quarters, compelled them to quit Prussia. He did not reap
+any real advantage from his success, for Louis XIV. insisted that he
+should make peace with Sweden and give up all his conquests; and on
+his refusal, sent an army of 30,000 men to lay waste the duchy of
+Cleves, and city of Minden, so that he was forced to conclude the
+treaty of St. Germain, by which he restored all his conquests to
+Sweden; the French withdrew from his Westphalian dominions, and paid
+him 300,000 crowns.</p>
+
+<p>After this, we do not find Frederick again in the field. He was indeed
+engaged in various negotiations; was involved in disputes with France
+on account of its seizure of Strasbourg and Luxembourg; and in
+consequence of his reception of 20,000 French Protestants, who left
+their country on the repeal of the edict of Nantes. Frederick, who had
+previously obtained from his ambassador, von Spanheim, notice of the
+intended measure, had made preparations to receive the fugitives, and
+sent funds to his agents at Frankfort, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, for
+their assistance. In like manner he protected the proscribed
+Waldenses. Having in vain interceded for them in a very affecting
+letter to the Duke of Savoy, he offered to receive 2,000 of them into
+his dominions. He sent 8,000 men, in 1686, to assist the emperor
+against the Turks; having in the year preceding renewed his alliance
+with Holland, when Prince William of Orange was preparing for his
+expedition to England, Frederick assisted him with several regiments
+and Marshal von Schomberg, who became so great a favorite with
+William, and was eventually killed at the battle of the Boyne. As
+another proof of Frederick's enterprising spirit, it deserves to be
+noticed that Spain neglecting to pay him the arrears of a subsidy
+promised him for his co-operation against France, he resolved to
+commence a war by sea against that power; he fitted out eight frigates
+which had been employed against Sweden, and sent them in 1680 to
+capture Spanish ships, and they actually took some rich merchantmen.</p>
+
+<p>We have not space, nor is it necessary, to detail the proceedings of
+this great prince in consolidating the prosperity of his dominions and
+the welfare of his subjects. He died in April, 1688, leaving to his
+son a much enlarged and highly cultivated territory, a well-filled
+treasury, and an army of 30,000 excellent troops. He was twice
+married: first, in 1647, to Louisa Henrietta, Princess of Orange, an
+amiable and accomplished person, author of the celebrated German hymn
+"Jesus meine Zuversicht." She died in 1667. In the following year
+Frederick married Dorothea, Duchess Dowager of Brunswick Lüneberg; but
+though an excellent and virtuous princess, she was not liked by the
+people, chiefly because she was on ill terms with her step-children,
+especially the crown-prince. The character <span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>(p. 192)</span> of Frederick,
+both in public and private life, has always been highly esteemed. He
+was kind, generous, fond of society, and, though rather quick in his
+temper, extremely placable. He was the real founder of the Prussian
+monarchy; and as a sovereign he appears to have justly merited the
+surname of the Great Elector.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>LOUIS XIV.<a id="footnotetag17" name="footnotetag17"></a><a href="#footnote17" title="Go to footnote 17"><span class="smaller">[17]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Oliver Optic</span><br>
+(1638-1715)</h3>
+
+<a id="img070" name="img070"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="250" height="384" alt="Louis XIV." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>On September 16, 1638, Paris was in a state of intense excitement and
+rejoicing. The booming of cannon resounded through the city, the
+people gave thanks in their churches, all the palaces of the nobility
+were illuminated, and so brilliant were the bonfires and torches in
+the evening that one could see to read on both sides of the Seine. The
+poor were feasted as never before, and there was no limit to the
+enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>The occasion of this unbounded rejoicing was the birth of an heir to
+the throne of France. Louis XIII., the son of Henry IV., the first of
+the Bourbons, was king. He had married the daughter of Philip III. of
+Spain, who was called Anne of Austria, after her mother. She was one
+of the most beautiful women of her time; but for twenty-two years she
+had lived nearly in a state of separation from her husband, and no
+living heir to the throne had been born. The king and the queen were
+not harmonious; and after the lapse of this long period, the birth of
+a son was regarded as an extraordinary, if not a miraculous event,
+especially by the devout people of the nation, who called the child
+the "God-given."</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIII. was personally a brave man, and had some good qualities;
+but as a ruler he was weak and incapable of governing his kingdom. He
+admitted Cardinal Richelieu to his cabinet, and the astute politician
+became his prime-minister, and was the actual ruler of France. The
+king fully appreciated the vast abilities of his great minister, even
+while he feared, if he did not hate him, and became but a pliant tool
+in the hands of the greatest statesman of his time.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that Richelieu was fascinated by the beauty and grace of
+Anne of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>(p. 193)</span> Austria, and that she made a bitter enemy of the
+minister by repelling his courtesies. Be this as it may, they were
+never friends, except so far as the relations of state compelled them
+to be such. He died in 1642, naming Cardinal Mazarin as his successor.
+Before his death he had built up the power of France, and won for her
+an influential position among the governments of Europe. But he had
+repressed constitutional liberty, and severely burdened the people
+with taxation to carry on the wars he advocated.</p>
+
+<p>Two years after the birth of the Dauphin, as the heir to the throne
+was then called, another son was born to the king, the Duke of Anjou,
+who afterward became the Duke of Orleans. The brother of the king is
+called "Monsieur" in France, by courtesy; and he is so designated in
+various works of the time. Louis XIII. died when his two sons were
+respectively five and three years old, naming the queen as regent
+during the minority of the young king. Richelieu had died the year
+before, and Mazarin had been installed in his place.</p>
+
+<p>The Palais-Royal, which claims the attention of every visitor in Paris
+at the present time, was built by Richelieu for his own residence, and
+was called the Palais-Cardinal. At his death he bequeathed it to the
+king, and it became the residence of Anne of Austria and her two
+children. The official in charge of the palaces represented that it
+was not proper for the king to live in the mansion of a subject, and
+the inscription bearing the former name was removed, and that of the
+present day was substituted for it; which seemed to many to be an act
+of ingratitude to the statesman who had presented it to the crown. The
+chamber which had been occupied by Richelieu was given to Louis, then
+only five years old. It was a small apartment, for the cardinal built
+more for effect upon the world than for his own personal comfort; but
+it was conveniently located for the proper care of the young king, for
+whose sake alone the name of the palace had been changed.</p>
+
+<p>The Palais-Royal, as enlarged and beautified from time to time by its
+first occupant, who was ambitious to be more magnificently lodged than
+the nominal sovereign at the Louvre, was the most splendid royal
+residence of the time. Corneille, the greatest tragic poet of France,
+said of it in one of his poems, that "the entire universe cannot
+present the equal of the magnificent exterior of the Palais-Cardinal;"
+though, as the stranger looks upon it to-day, the praise of the French
+Shakespeare seems to be extravagant.</p>
+
+<p>The apartments of the queen-regent were vastly more extensive and
+elegant than those of his little majesty, and she caused a great deal
+of money and good taste to be expended in their further ornamentation.
+Cardinal Mazarin also went to reside with the royal family in this
+luxurious palace, and his rooms looked out upon the Rue des Bons
+Enfants (the street of the Good Children), though the name was hardly
+applicable to those who dwelt in the place. Louis was provided with
+the surroundings of royalty on a small scale, such as valets, and
+young nobles as children of honor, even while the young king was
+pinched in his personal comforts and luxuries. Until he was seven
+years old Louis was mostly in the hands of the feminine portion of the
+household, like other children. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>(p. 194)</span> At this age the governor
+appointed to take charge of him, the sub-governor, the preceptor, and
+the valets, entered upon their special functions; the king was
+practically emancipated from the nursery.</p>
+
+<p>Laporte, a valet who had long been on duty in the royal family, and
+had served a term in the Bastille for his fidelity, desired to read to
+the king, when he went to bed, something besides fairy tales; if his
+juvenile majesty went to sleep the reading would be lost; if not,
+something instructive would be retained in his memory. He read the
+history of France, and his charge was interested in it. Permission had
+been obtained of the preceptor, but Mazarin did not approve of the
+reading. One evening, to escape from the crowd, the cardinal passed
+through the room during the reading. Louis closed his eyes and
+pretended to be asleep. He had already taken a strong aversion to the
+minister, like the greater portion of the people in general.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion he called the cardinal "the Grand Turk," and the
+remark was reported to his mother, who sent for him and scolded him
+severely for it. The queen-regent did not share the general dislike of
+the minister, for they were on the most intimate terms of friendship.
+It was not a matter of record, but it was believed by many, that
+Mazarin had been privately married to Anne of Austria. The minister
+had brought his relatives to Paris, where he was in a situation to
+advance their fortunes. One of his youngest nephews had been appointed
+an <span class="italic">enfant d'honneur</span> of the king, who did not confine his dislike to
+the minister, but extended it to his family. Two of these were
+designated to remain with his majesty when he went to bed, and Laporte
+had been instructed by the queen to give each of them a stand with two
+candles in it, as an emblem of office and a token of honor. The king
+had the selection, and he forbade Laporte to give it to the young
+Mazarin.</p>
+
+<p>The minister was one of the most adroit and cunning diplomats of his
+time, or any time. He was an Italian by birth, and had been in the
+military and diplomatic service of the Pope, in which capacity he had
+been recognized as a man of transcendent abilities by Richelieu, who
+had retained him in France, where he became a naturalized Frenchman.
+He was the most obsequious of courtiers, and he made himself
+indispensable to the queen, who nominally wielded the executive power
+of the government. He filled one of the most difficult political
+positions imaginable, and did it with consummate skill, though he very
+nearly sacrificed himself to the indignation of the people and the
+nobility in the accomplishment of his purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Richelieu had deprived the representatives of the people of many of
+their powers and liberties, and the Parliament had attempted to
+recover them under Mazarin. He caused their leaders to be arrested,
+which initiated the war of the Fronde, consisting more of a series of
+riots than of organized warfare. This disturbance compelled the court
+to retire to St. Germain, where Louis was born. The young king was
+conveyed there under the protection of the Royal Guard, which forms an
+exciting scene in the series of Dumas, Père, "Les Trois
+Mousquetaires." Though humiliated and banished, Mazarin triumphed in
+the end. He <span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>(p. 195)</span> had the hardihood to arrest the Great Condé, who
+had made the rebellion a success at one time. The minister was driven
+from the seat of his power into exile; but diplomacy accomplished what
+soldiers could not, and after an absence of a year he returned, and
+established himself so securely that he held his office to the day of
+his death.</p>
+
+<p>Under Mazarin's direction and skilful intriguing at home and abroad,
+the influence of France was largely increased beyond her own borders,
+and the way was paved for triumphs to be achieved after he had himself
+passed away. In the family, as it were, of such a statesman and such
+an intriguer, were passed the earliest years of the life of Louis XIV.
+As the skilful diplomat had overcome the people and the nobility,
+changing them from the bitterest foes to at least the semblance of
+friends, so the hatred of the young king was buried under his respect
+for the vast ability of the minister.</p>
+
+<p>Louis was brought up in the midst of political storms and in the
+turmoil of civil war. Mazarin was avaricious, and carried his
+economical notions in household matters to a ridiculous extent,
+limiting the young king's wardrobe, furniture, garments for underwear
+and bed use, so that some of the latter did not half cover the limbs
+of the growing boy, and he was compelled to sleep on a bed covered
+with ragged sheets. He was a bright boy, and being a king, he realized
+that he was not supported in the style that became his exalted
+condition. He was inclined to military recreations and to athletic
+exercises. He came very early to an understanding of what was
+necessary to support his character as the ruler of a great nation, and
+as a boy he cultivated the graces of social life, and was always a
+gentleman. He was a good horseman, and delighted in this exercise.</p>
+
+<p>The civil war had "hunted him from pillar to post," and it was not
+till he was a dozen years old that he was permanently settled down in
+Paris. All these events of his early life had left a powerful
+impression upon his mind. It was the custom for the children of honor
+and the king to exchange little presents among themselves. One of
+these gifts to the juvenile monarch was a golden cannon drawn by a
+flea, which seemed to indicate a knowledge of his tastes. Another
+present was a case of surgical instruments, containing all the
+implements, but weighing only a few grains; and doubtless it suggested
+the horrors of the battle-field. Another present was a miniature sword
+of agate, ornamented with gold and rubies. These were all given to him
+by the same young noble; in return for them Louis was willing to lend
+the giver the cross-bow of which he made use himself.</p>
+
+<p>"Kings give what they lend, sire," interposed a governess; and then
+Louis presented it to him, wishing it was something more valuable; for
+his pocket-money evidently did not permit him to indulge in such
+expensive gifts as those he had received; but such as they were, he
+gave them with his whole heart. The recipient of the gift kept it, and
+regarded it as vastly more valuable than if it had been covered with
+gold and diamonds from another.</p>
+
+<p>September 7, 1651, was a memorable day in the annals of France, and if
+it was not marked by the popular rejoicings which had greeted the
+birth of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>(p. 196)</span> king, it was because the people were worn out
+by the war of the Frondeurs. The grand master of ceremonies had
+notified the Parliament that Louis XIV. would take the "seat of
+justice," the place of the monarch in this body on solemn and
+important occasions, on that day, for the purpose of declaring his
+majority, and assuming the government. There was a great deal of
+simple fiction in the formalities, for his majesty was only a boy of
+fourteen, with far less education than is usually obtained by one of
+that age at the present time, and was incapable of ruling over a great
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>There was even some fiction in regard to his age, for though he had
+entered his fourteenth year, he was hardly thirteen years old. If a
+boy of that age were transferred from his place in school to the
+presidency of the United States to-day, the cases would be parallel.
+The education of the juvenile king had been neglected, perhaps
+intentionally, by Mazarin for his cunning purposes, and though he had
+been instructed in all the forms and ceremonials of the court, he was
+deficient in his knowledge of the solid branches of learning, even for
+one in his sphere at that age. But the government, so far as he was
+concerned, was all a fiction. It was to be carried on in his name in
+the future as it had been in the name of his mother, the queen-regent,
+before, though neither of them was the actual ruler. Mazarin was more
+than "the power behind the throne;" he was practically the throne
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>At seven o'clock in the morning, six heralds, clothed in crimson
+velvet covered with <span class="italic">fleurs de lis</span>, the royal emblem of France,
+mounted on elegantly caparisoned horses, led the court to the palace
+where the Parliament assembled. The king's trumpeters came next to the
+heralds, and they were followed by the governors of provinces, two
+hundred of the nobility, and the officers of the royal household,
+escorted and flanked by several companies of light horsemen. Pages and
+valets had been dressed in new liveries, and the spectacle was as
+magnificent as the occasion required.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the boy-king, as a chronicler of the period describes him,
+"with his august countenance beaming with a gentle dignity truly
+royal, and with his natural politeness, calling forth from the
+assembled multitude that lined the streets redoubled good wishes for
+his health and prosperity." The youth who played the principal part in
+this great ceremonial was dressed in elegant garments, so covered with
+gold embroideries that the color and material could hardly be
+discerned. He was mounted on a beautiful and high-spirited horse,
+which pranced and curvetted as if aware that he bore a king; and Louis
+managed him so skilfully and gracefully that he won the admiration of
+the spectators.</p>
+
+<p>The king was received at the entrance of the palace chapel, where the
+court attended divine service, by the Bishop of Bayeux, who made an
+address to him, to which he listened, apparently in a thoughtful mood,
+and then ushered him into the chapel, where he heard low mass. Then he
+took his place in the hall of parliament. The minutest particulars of
+the scene that surrounded him when he took his seat are given in the
+memoirs of some who were present. Seated, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>(p. 197)</span> with his head
+covered, which was alone his privilege, the young king addressed the
+assembled representatives of the people:</p>
+
+<p>"Gentlemen, I have come before my Parliament to inform you that, in
+obedience to the law of my kingdom, I desire to take upon myself the
+government of my country; and with the blessing of God, I trust that
+it will be conducted with justice and piety. My chancellor will state
+to you more particularly my intentions."</p>
+
+<p>The official indicated returned to his place and eloquently enlarged
+upon the address of his majesty in a long discourse. The queen-mother
+then spoke to him, telling him that she had taken charge of his
+education and of the government in accordance with the expressed wish
+of the late king, her honored lord, and in obedience to the law she
+passed over to him the government of the kingdom, and hoped that the
+grace of God, with his own power and prudence, would render his reign
+a happy one. The king thanked her for the care she had given to his
+education and the government of the kingdom, and begged her to
+continue to give him her good counsels, saying that she should be his
+chief adviser.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, the Duke of Anjou, then approached him, kneeled, kissed
+his hand, and protested his fidelity. The Duke of Orleans then
+followed the example of his nephew, as did a multitude of princes,
+dukes, marshals, ecclesiastics, and all the officers of state. The
+royal party returned to the Palais-Royal amidst the unanimous
+acclamations of the multitude, and the cries of "Vive le roi"
+continued all night, with bonfires and illuminations. The boy of
+fourteen was now actually the king, so far as forms could make him so,
+though he was to remain not much more than a cipher for several years
+to come.</p>
+
+<p>The war of the Fronde lasted about eight years, and was carried on in
+the interest of the people against the court, which had overburdened
+them with taxes. The word "<span class="italic">fronde</span>" means a sling, and was applied to
+those who criticised the government then and in later years. The
+Parliament refused to impose the taxes required by the regent, which
+meant Mazarin, and some of its members were arrested and imprisoned.
+Some of the most distinguished nobles in France were implicated with
+the opposition, including the great Condé, the king's uncle. Mazarin's
+politic yielding, which alone saved him from destruction, assisted in
+restoring peace. Condé was in arms against the government, but he was
+defeated by Turenne. The people and the nobles were tired of the
+strife, and a general amnesty was proclaimed in 1653.</p>
+
+<p>Though Louis was well instructed in his religious duties, was entirely
+familiar with court etiquette, and knew enough about military affairs
+to enable him to review his troops, he knew little or nothing about
+the politics of his kingdom, for he had been purposely kept in
+ignorance of affairs of state. But he manifested a sound judgment and
+considerable discernment even at this early age. He accompanied
+Turenne in a campaign against Condé, and was present at the siege of
+Arras, which put an end to the Fronde contests. Some of the Frondeurs
+had injudiciously called in the aid of Spain to their cause, and that
+brought on war between the two nations. Peace was made in 1659, and
+one of the articles of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>(p. 198)</span> treaty stipulated the marriage of
+Louis XIV. and Marie Therese, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, and
+they were married a year later. This princess was good-natured and
+beautiful, but this was about all that could be said of her, for she
+was rather weak in intellect, and was not such a queen as "Louis the
+Great" needed. His majesty was not attached to her, though he
+invariably treated her with the most ceremonious respect, and extended
+to her the utmost kindness and consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Though the king had a certain respect for the proprieties of his
+position, he lived in a period of the greatest immorality and license,
+while he attended strictly to his formal religious duties. Judged by
+any standard of the morals of more modern times, the verdict of
+average citizens would be against him. He was surrounded by dissolute
+men, and some, who ought to have protected him from the assaults of
+vice, placed him in its way. He was no worse in this respect than even
+Richelieu and Mazarin, not to mention his mother and many of the most
+noted men of his time. This is not the place to detail the king's
+gallantries, for they would fill a volume.</p>
+
+<p>When Louis was twenty-three years of age, Cardinal Mazarin died,
+having ruled the nation for eighteen years; but ten of them were after
+the king had come to his majority, and the minister had discovered
+that he had a will of his own, incompetent as he then was to hold the
+reins of government. Louis went to see him in his final hours, and
+asked him for his last counsels. "Sire," replied the dying cardinal,
+"see that you respect yourself, and others will respect you; never
+have another first minister; employ Colbert in all things in which you
+need the services of an intelligent and devoted man." And the king
+followed this advice, and perhaps Mazarin gave it because he
+understood so well the inclination of Louis.</p>
+
+<p>Mazarin died possessed of an immense fortune, which was not generally
+believed to have been honestly acquired. He was a usurer, though he
+could be very liberal when his policy demanded. On his death-bed his
+confessor warned him that he was eternally lost if he did not restore
+whatever wealth he had fraudulently accumulated; but the dying
+cardinal declared that he had nothing which had not been bestowed upon
+him by the bounty of the king. His fortune was estimated at fifty
+millions of francs, or about ten millions of dollars, a vast sum for
+that time. He gave the bulk of it to his nieces and nephews, with
+presents to members of the royal family, and eighteen large diamonds
+to the crown, called "the Mazarins."</p>
+
+<p>Like Richelieu, he had built a palace on the Seine, which he gave to
+the State, and the Palais Mazarin is now occupied by the French
+Academy. This act and the creation of a dukedom were to perpetuate his
+name. He was the owner of one of the original twenty-five Bibles
+printed by Gutenberg, which is called by Mazarin's name, and was once
+sold for about twenty thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<a id="img071" name="img071"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="600" height="339" alt="" title="">
+<p>Molière at breakfast with Louis XIV.</p></div>
+
+<p>After the death of the great minister, officials of the government
+desired to know to whom they were to apply for instructions, and the
+king promptly replied that they were to address themselves to him.
+Louis had hitherto devoted <span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>(p. 199)</span> himself almost wholly to the
+pleasures of his dissolute age, and he astonished his people and the
+nations of Europe by assuming in reality the entire control of the
+affairs of state, which he retained to the end of his life. He
+proceeded at once to examine into the finances of the nation, and
+appointed Colbert, as Mazarin had advised, minister of this
+department. He succeeded Fouquet, a brilliant man who had amassed
+enormous wealth by robbing the treasury. Louis was firm and resolute
+in carrying out his will, and he caused the arrest of the peculating
+minister immediately after a magnificent fête he had given in honor of
+his sovereign. He was convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Colbert did not disappoint the king, and the measures recommended by
+him at once improved the finances, stimulated the commerce of the
+country, established extensive manufactures, and filled the treasury.
+France was in the highest degree prosperous as a nation. Louis was
+arbitrary and absolute. His most notable saying, "<span class="italic">L'état c'est moi</span>"
+(I am the State), was fully realized in his administration. He made
+war and made peace at his own pleasure, and, as monarchs are measured,
+he was entitled to the appellation of Louis le Grand, chiselled on the
+triumphal arches of Paris to perpetuate his glory. In the later years
+of his reign his wars made serious inroads upon the treasury, and they
+were not always successful. The building of the immense and
+extravagant palace of Versailles, with its surroundings, costing a
+billion francs, was an act of folly often condemned, and was one of
+the burdens which broke down the treasury of the nation. Colbert was
+dead, and the king, with Louvois, his over-liberal minister,
+dissipated the resources he had collected.</p>
+
+<p>Marie Therese, the queen, died in 1683. He afterward married Madame de
+Maintenon, then the widow of the lame and deformed poet Scarron, who
+had rescued her from poverty. She had a powerful influence over the
+king, which was unfortunate for him, for she was a bigot, though a
+better woman than most of those who had been his intimates. Throughout
+his reign Louis maintained the most severe system of court etiquette.
+He regarded himself as the absolute owner of his realm, and the
+arbiter of the existence of all his subjects. His habits were
+methodical. He rose at eight, and was dressed by his valets in the
+presence of many courtiers, after he had performed his devotions. He
+breakfasted at ten, and dined alone at one, waited upon by the highest
+officers of the court. His presence awed those who came before him.</p>
+
+<p>He patronized and encouraged poets, authors, and artists; and Molière,
+both author and actor, was a great favorite with him, and appears to
+have been the only man of his profession who was ever admitted to the
+honor of dining with the king. Though Louis was not known to make a
+joke himself, he greatly enjoyed the witty conversation of Molière,
+who is commemorated in Paris by a fountain and street named after him.</p>
+
+<p>The last years of the reign of Louis XIV. are in strong contrast with
+the glorious period of the zenith of his prosperity. Several bloody
+defeats of his armies darkened the military splendor of his reign, the
+treasury was well-nigh bankrupt, and his court for the speedy trial
+and punishment of offenders, political <span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>(p. 200)</span> or otherwise, had
+estranged the people; but he remained arbitrary and absolute to the
+end. At the age of seventy-seven he died, after intense suffering, in
+1715. He died a great king, but not a great man.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig012" name="sig012"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig012.jpg" width="300" height="65" alt="Author signature" title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>WILLIAM PENN<br>
+(1644-1718)</h3>
+
+<a id="img072" name="img072"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img072.jpg" width="250" height="273" alt="William Penn." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>William Penn was born in London, October 14, 1644. He was the son of a
+naval officer of the same name, who served with distinction both in
+the Protectorate and after the Restoration, and who was much esteemed
+by Charles II. and the Duke of York. At the age of fifteen he was
+entered as a gentleman-commoner at Christchurch, Oxford. He had not
+been long in residence, when he received, from the preaching of Thomas
+Loe, his first bias toward the doctrines of the Quakers; and in
+conjunction with some fellow-students he began to withdraw from
+attendance on the Established Church, and to hold private
+prayer-meetings. For this conduct Penn and his friends were fined by
+the college for non-conformity: and the former was soon involved in
+more serious censure by his ill-governed zeal, in consequence of an
+order from the king that the ancient custom of wearing surplices
+should be revived. This seemed to Penn an infringement of the
+simplicity of Christian worship; whereupon he, with some friends, tore
+the surplices from the backs of those students who appeared in them.
+For this act of violence, totally inconsistent, it is to be observed,
+with the principles of toleration which regulated his conduct in after
+life, he and they were very justly expelled.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral Penn, who, like most sailors, possessed a quick temper and
+high notions of discipline and obedience, was little pleased with this
+event, and still less satisfied with his son's grave demeanor, and
+avoidance of the manners and ceremonies of polite life. Arguments
+failing, he had recourse to blows, and as a last resource, he turned
+his son out of doors; but soon relented so far as to equip <span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>(p. 201)</span>
+him, in 1662, for a journey to France, in hope that the gayety of that
+country would expel his new-fashioned and, as he regarded them,
+fanatical notions. Paris, however, soon became wearisome to William
+Penn, and he spent a considerable time at Saumur, for the sake of the
+instruction and company of Moses Amyrault, an eminent Protestant
+divine. Here he confirmed and improved his religious impressions, and
+at the same time acquired, from the insensible influence of those who
+surrounded him, an increased polish and courtliness of demeanor, which
+greatly gratified the admiral on his return home in 1664.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral Penn went to sea in 1664, and remained two years on service.
+During this time the external effects of his son's residence in France
+had worn away, and he had returned to those grave habits, and that
+rule of associating only with religious people, which had before given
+his father so much displeasure. To try the effect of absence and
+change of associates, Admiral Penn sent William to manage his estates
+in Ireland, a duty which the latter performed with satisfaction both
+to himself and his employer. But it chanced that, on a visit to Cork,
+he again attended the preaching of Thomas Loe, by whose exhortations
+he was deeply impressed. From this time he began to frequent the
+Quakers' meetings; and in September, 1667, he was imprisoned, with
+others, under the persecuting laws which then disgraced the
+statute-book. Upon application to the higher authorities, he was soon
+released. Soon after the admiral again turned him out of doors.</p>
+
+<p>In 1668, he began to preach, and in the same year he published his
+first work, "Truth Exalted, etc." We cannot here notice his very
+numerous works, of which the titles run, for the most part, to an
+extraordinary length; but "The Sandy Foundation Shaken," published in
+the same year, claims notice as having led to his first public
+persecution. He was detained in prison for seven months, and treated
+with much severity. In 1669 he had the satisfaction of being
+reconciled to his father. He was one of the first sufferers by the
+passing of the Conventicle Act, in 1670. He was imprisoned in Newgate,
+and tried for preaching to a seditious and riotous assembly in
+Gracechurch Street; and this trial is remarkable and celebrated in
+criminal jurisprudence for the firmness with which he defended
+himself, and still more for the admirable courage and constancy with
+which the jury maintained the verdict of acquittal which they
+pronounced.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year died Sir William Penn, in perfect harmony with his
+son, toward whom he in the end felt the most cordial regard and
+esteem, and to whom he bequeathed an estate computed at £1,500 a
+year&mdash;a large sum in that age. Toward the end of the year he was again
+imprisoned in Newgate for six months, the statutable penalty for
+refusing to take the oath of allegiance, which was maliciously
+tendered to him by a magistrate. This appears to have been the last
+absolute persecution for religion's sake which he endured. Though his
+poor brethren continued to suffer imprisonment in the stocks, fines,
+and whipping, as the penalty of their peaceable meetings for divine
+worship, the wealthy proprietor, though he travelled largely, both in
+England and abroad, and labored both in writing and in preaching, as
+the missionary of his sect, both escaped injury, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>(p. 202)</span> and
+acquired reputation and esteem by his self-devotion. To the favor of
+the king and the Duke of York he had a hereditary claim, which appears
+always to have been cheerfully acknowledged; and an instance of the
+rising consideration in which he was held appears in his being
+admitted to plead, before a committee of the House of Commons, the
+request of the Quakers that their solemn affirmation should be
+admitted in the place of an oath.</p>
+
+<p>Penn married in 1672, and took up his abode at Rickmansworth, in
+Hertfordshire. In 1677 we find him removed to Worminghurst, in Sussex,
+which long continued to be his place of residence. His first
+engagement in the plantation of America was in 1676, in consequence of
+being chosen arbitrator in a dispute between two quakers who had
+become jointly concerned in the colony of New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>In these transactions he had the opportunity of contemplating the
+glorious results which might be hoped for from a colony founded with
+no interested views, but on the principles of universal peace,
+toleration, and liberty; and he felt an earnest desire to be the
+instrument in so great a work, more especially as it held out a
+prospect of deliverance to his persecuted Quaker brethren in England,
+by giving them a free and happy asylum in a foreign land.
+Circumstances favored his wish. The crown was indebted to him £16,000
+for money advanced by the late admiral for the naval service.
+Accordingly, Penn received, in 1681, a grant by charter of that
+extensive province, named Pennsylvania by Charles himself, in honor of
+the admiral.</p>
+
+<p>He immediately drew up and published "Some Account of Pennsylvania,
+etc.;" and then "Certain Conditions or Concessions, etc.," to be
+agreed on between himself and those who wished to purchase land in the
+province. These having been accepted by many persons, he proceeded to
+frame the rough sketch of a constitution, on which he proposed to base
+the charter of the province. The price fixed on land was forty
+shillings, with the annual quit-rent of one shilling, for one hundred
+acres; and it was provided that no one should, in word or deed,
+affront or wrong any Indian without incurring the same penalty as if
+the offence had been committed against a fellow-planter; that strict
+precautions should be taken against fraud in the quality of goods sold
+to them; and that all differences between the two nations should be
+adjudged by twelve men, six of each. And he declares his intention "to
+leave myself and my successors no power of doing mischief; that the
+will of one man may not hinder the good of a whole country." It was
+this constitution, substantially, which Burke, in his "Account of the
+European Settlements in America," describes as "that noble charter of
+privileges, by which he made them as free as any people in the world,
+and which has since drawn such vast numbers of so many different
+persuasions and such various countries to put themselves under the
+protection of his laws. He made the most perfect freedom, both
+religious and civil, the basis of his establishment; and this has done
+more toward the settling of the province, and toward the settling of
+it in a strong and permanent manner, than the wisest regulations could
+have done on any other plan."</p>
+
+<p>In 1682 a number of settlers, principally Quakers, having been already
+sent <span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>(p. 203)</span> out, Penn himself embarked for Pennsylvania, leaving
+his wife and children in England. On occasion of this parting, he
+addressed to them a long and affectionate letter, which presents a
+very beautiful picture of his domestic character, and affords a
+curious insight into the minute regularity of his daily habits. He
+landed on the banks of the Delaware in October, and forthwith summoned
+an assembly of the freemen of the province, by whom the frame of
+government, as it had been promulgated in England, was accepted.
+Penn's principles did not suffer him to consider his title to the land
+as valid without the consent of the natural owners of the soil. He had
+instructed persons to negotiate a treaty of sale with the Indian
+nations before his own departure from England; and one of his first
+acts was to hold that memorable assembly, to which the history of the
+world offers none alike, at which this bargain was ratified, and a
+strict league of amity established. We do not find specified the exact
+date of this meeting, which took place under an enormous elm-tree,
+near the site of Philadelphia, and of which a few particulars only
+have been preserved by the uncertain record of tradition. Well and
+faithfully was that treaty of friendship kept by the wild denizens of
+the woods; "a friendship," says Proud, the historian of Pennsylvania,
+"which for the space of more than seventy years was never interrupted,
+or so long as the Quakers retained power in the government."</p>
+
+<p>Penn remained in America until the middle of 1684. During this time
+much was done toward bringing the colony into prosperity and order.
+Twenty townships were established, containing upward of seven thousand
+Europeans; magistrates were appointed; representatives, as prescribed
+by the constitution, were chosen, and the necessary public business
+transacted. In 1683 Penn undertook a journey of discovery into the
+interior: and he has given an interesting account of the country in
+its wild state, in a letter written home to the Society of Free
+Traders to Pennsylvania. He held frequent conferences with the
+Indians, and contracted treaties of friendship with nineteen distinct
+tribes. His reasons for returning to England appear to have been
+twofold; partly the desire to settle a dispute between himself and
+Lord Baltimore, concerning the boundary of their provinces, but
+chiefly the hope of being able, by his personal influence, to lighten
+the sufferings and ameliorate the treatment of the Quakers in England.
+He reached England in October, 1684. Charles II. died in February,
+1685. But this was rather favorable to Penn's credit at court; for
+beside that James appears to have felt a sincere regard for him, he
+required for his own church that toleration which Penn wished to see
+extended to all alike. The same credit, and the natural and laudable
+affection and gratitude toward the Stuart family which he never
+dissembled, caused much trouble to him after the Revolution. He was
+continually suspected of plotting to restore the exiled dynasty; was
+four times arrested, and as often discharged in the total absence of
+all evidence against him. During the years 1691, 1692, and part of
+1693, he remained in London, living, to avoid offence, in great
+seclusion; in the latter year he was heard in his own defence before
+the king and council, and informed that he need apprehend no
+molestation or injury.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>(p. 204)</span> The affairs of Pennsylvania fell into some confusion during
+Penn's long absence. Even in the peaceable sect of Quakers there were
+ambitious, bustling, and selfish men; and Penn was not satisfied with
+the conduct either of the representative Assembly, or of those to whom
+he had delegated his own powers. He changed the latter two or three
+times, without effecting the restoration of harmony; and these
+troubles gave a pretext for depriving him of his powers as governor,
+in 1693. The real cause was probably the suspicion entertained of his
+treasonable correspondence with James II. But he was reinstated in
+August, 1694, by a royal order, in which it was complimentarily
+expressed that the disorders complained of were produced entirely by
+his absence. Anxious as he was to return, he did not find an
+opportunity till 1699; the interval was chiefly employed in religious
+travel through England and Ireland, and in the labor of controversial
+writing, from which he seldom had a long respite. His course as a
+philanthropist on his return to America is honorably marked by an
+endeavor to ameliorate the condition of Negro slaves. The society of
+Quakers in Pennsylvania had already come to a resolution, that the
+buying, selling, and holding men in slavery was inconsistent with the
+tenets of the Christian religion; and following up this honorable
+declaration, Penn had no difficulty in obtaining for the negroes free
+admission into the regular meetings for religious worship, and in
+procuring that other meetings should be holden for their particular
+benefit. The Quakers, therefore, merit our respect as the earliest, as
+well as some of the most zealous, emancipators.</p>
+
+<p>The governor returned to England in 1701, to oppose a scheme agitated
+in Parliament for abolishing the proprietary governments and placing
+the colonies immediately under royal control; the bill, however, was
+dropped before he arrived. He enjoyed Anne's favor, as he had that of
+her father and uncle, and resided much in the neighborhood of the
+court, at Kensington and Knightsbridge. In his religious labors he
+continued constant, as heretofore. He was much harassed by a lawsuit,
+the result of too much confidence in a dishonest steward; which being
+decided against him, he was obliged for a time to reside within the
+Rules of the Fleet Prison. This, and the expenses in which he had been
+involved by Pennsylvania, reduced him to distress, and in 1709 he
+mortgaged the province for £6,600. In 1712 he agreed to sell his
+rights to the government for £12,000, but was rendered unable to
+complete the transaction by three apoplectic fits, which followed each
+other in quick succession. He survived, however, in a tranquil and
+happy state, though with his bodily and mental vigor much broken,
+until July 30, 1718, on which day he died at his seat at Rushcomb, in
+Berkshire, where he had resided for some years.</p>
+
+<p>His first wife died in 1693. He married a second time in 1696; and
+left a family of children by both wives, to whom he bequeathed his
+landed property in Europe and America. His rights of government he
+left in trust to the Earls of Oxford and Powlett, to be disposed of;
+but no sale being ever made, the government, with the title of
+Proprietaries, devolved on the surviving sons of the second family.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 1:</strong> Copyright. 1894. by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag1"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 2:</strong> Moses, the lawgiver of the Hebrew people, was, according
+to the Biblical account, an Israelite of the tribe of Levi, and the
+son of Amram and Jochebed. He was born in Egypt, in the year 1571
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, according to the common chronology. To evade the edict of
+Pharaoh, the King of Egypt, that all the male children of the Hebrews
+should be killed, he was hid by his mother three months, and then
+exposed in an ark of rushes on the banks of the Nile. Here the child
+was found by Pharaoh's daughter, who adopted him for her son,
+entrusting him to his own mother to nurse, by which circumstance he
+was preserved from being entirely separated from his own people. He
+was probably educated at the Egyptian court, where he became "learned
+in all the wisdom of the Egyptians." At the age of forty years Moses
+conceived the idea of freeing his Hebrew brethren from their bondage
+in Egypt, and on one occasion, seeing an Egyptian maltreating an
+Israelite, he interfered, slew the Egyptian, and buried him in the
+sand. The next day, upon his attempting to reconcile two Hebrews who
+had quarrelled, his services were scornfully rejected, and he was
+upbraided with the murder of the Egyptian. Finding that his secret was
+known, he fled from Egypt, and took refuge with a tribe of Midianites
+in Arabia Petræa, among whom he lived as a shepherd forty years,
+having married the daughter of their priest Jethro or Reuel.</p>
+
+<p>As Moses led his father-in-law's flocks in the desert of Sinai, God
+appeared to him at Mount Horeb in a bush which burnt with fire, but
+was not consumed, and commanded him to return to Egypt and lead out
+his people thence into the land of Canaan. On his arrival in Egypt,
+the Israelites accepted him as their deliverer and after bringing ten
+miraculous plagues upon the land of Egypt before he could gain
+Pharaoh's consent to the departure of the people, he led them out
+through the Red Sea, which was miraculously divided for their passage,
+into the peninsula of Sinai. While the people were encamped at the
+foot of Sinai, God delivered to them through Moses the law which, with
+some additions and alterations, was ever after observed as their
+national code. After leading the Israelites through the wilderness for
+forty years, Moses appointed Joshua as his successor in the command
+over them, and died at the age of one hundred and twenty years, on
+Mount Pisgah, on the east side of the River Jordan, having first been
+permitted to view the land of Canaan from its summit. God buried him
+in the valley of Bethpeor, in the land of Moab, but his tomb was never
+made known.<a href="#footnotetag2"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 3:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag3"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 4:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag4"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 5:</strong> Copyright. 1894. by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag5"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 6:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag6"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 7:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag7"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 8:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag8"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 9:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag9"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 10:</strong> The Muezzin is the Mahometan official who announces to
+the faithful the hour of prayer. Three times in the day and twice at
+night he goes up to the balcony of one of the minarets of the mosque,
+and chants the call. It is a simple but solemn melody, which floats
+down from the height of his turret upon the sleeping or bustling city
+with vast impressiveness, and receives immediate and universal
+obedience.<a href="#footnotetag10"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 11:</strong> It should be carefully observed here, that the emperor
+guaranteed to Huss a safe journey both to Constance and from it. The
+words of the document are: "Ut ei transire, stare, morari, redire
+libere permittatis."<a href="#footnotetag11"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote12" name="footnote12"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 12:</strong> It is said that Louis was a firm believer in astrology,
+that he wore a cap set round with leaden images of the saints to which
+he prayed, but told them falsehoods even in his prayers. His choice of
+a confidential adviser was perhaps his greatest offence in the eyes of
+the nobility, for he selected his barber, Olivier le Dain, or Oliver
+the Devil. This man mocked his master even while he served him. Our
+engraving, after the painting of Hermann Kaulbach, represents both in
+characteristic positions.<a href="#footnotetag12"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote13" name="footnote13"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 13:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag13"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote14" name="footnote14"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 14:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag14"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote15" name="footnote15"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 15:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag15"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote16" name="footnote16"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 16:</strong> It is said that it was largely by the warnings and
+entreaties of his daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, whom he tenderly
+loved, that Cromwell was persuaded not to claim the crown.<a href="#footnotetag16"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote17" name="footnote17"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 17:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag17"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8
+       A series of pen and pencil sketches of the lives of more
+       than 200 of the most prominent personages in History
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Charles F. Horne
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26423]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT MEN, FAMOUS WOMEN, VOL. 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine P. Travers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.
+
+Captions marked with [TN] have been added while producing this file.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Justinian and his council.]
+
+
+
+
+GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN
+
+
+_A Series of Pen and Pencil Sketches of_
+
+THE LIVES OF MORE THAN 200 OF THE MOST PROMINENT PERSONAGES IN HISTORY
+
+
+VOL. III.
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1894, BY SELMAR HESS
+
+edited by Charles F. Horne
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's arm.]
+
+New-York: Selmar Hess Publisher
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1894, by SELMAR HESS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
+
+
+  SUBJECT                         AUTHOR                          PAGE
+
+  ALFRED THE GREAT,           _Sir J. Bernard Burke, LL.D._,       101
+  ST. AMBROSE,                _Rev. A. Lambing, LL.D._,             68
+  ARCHIMEDES,                 _John Timbs, F.S.A._,                 59
+  ARISTOTLE,                  _Fenelon_,                            54
+  ST. AUGUSTINE OF
+    CANTERBURY,               _Rt. Rev. Henry Codman Potter_,       88
+  ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO,     _James, Cardinal Gibbons_,            73
+  FRANCIS BACON,              _Hon. Ignatius Donnelly_,            154
+  WILLIAM BRADFORD,           _Elbridge S. Brooks_,                172
+  AUGUSTUS CAESAR,                                                   66
+  JOHN CALVIN,                                                     140
+  CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND,      _F. Hindes Groome_,                  177
+  _Letter written on the eve of his
+    execution by Charles I. to his son_,                           180
+  CHARLES V. OF GERMANY,                                           133
+  MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO,      _Rev. W. J. Brodribb_,                63
+  NICHOLAS COPERNICUS,        _John Stoughton, D.D._,              122
+  OLIVER CROMWELL,            _Lord Macaulay_,                     181
+  DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL,      _Margaret E. Sangster_,               10
+  DEMOSTHENES,                _E. Benjamin Andrews_,                47
+  DIOGENES,                   _Fenelon_,                            54
+  ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF
+    ENGLAND,                  _Samuel L. Knapp_,                   149
+  FREDERICK, THE GREAT ELECTOR,                                    189
+  GALILEO GALILEI,                                                 161
+  JOHN HUSS,                  _Rev. Dr. Tweedy_,                   106
+  ISABELLA OF CASTILE,        _Sarah H. Killikelly_,               114
+  JUSTINIAN THE GREAT,                                              85
+  JOHN KNOX,                  _P. Hume Brown_,                     144
+  LOUIS XI. OF FRANCE,        _E. Spencer Biesly, M.A._,           111
+  LOUIS XIV.,                 _Oliver Optic_,                      192
+  MARTIN LUTHER,                                                   127
+  _Letter of affection from Luther
+    to his little son Hans_,                                       132
+  LYCURGUS,                   _Rev. Joseph T. Duryea_,              22
+  MAHOMET,                                                          95
+  MOSES,                      _Henry George_,                        1
+  ST. PATRICK,                _Rev. G. F. Maclear, B.D._,           80
+  WILLIAM PENN,                                                    200
+  PERICLES,                                                         34
+  CARDINAL RICHELIEU,                                              166
+  SOCRATES,                   _Fenelon_,                            38
+  SOLOMON,                    _Rev. Charles F. Deems_,              16
+  THEMISTOCLES,                                                     29
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME III.
+
+
+PHOTOGRAVURES
+
+
+  ILLUSTRATION                           ARTIST               TO FACE PAGE
+
+  JUSTINIAN AND HIS COUNCIL,             _Benjamin Constant_ _Frontispiece_
+  MOSES IN THE BULRUSHES,                _Paul Delaroche_            2
+  THE VICTORS OF SALAMIS,                _Fernand Cormon_           32
+  DEMOSTHENES PRACTISING ORATORY,        _Jules Jean
+                                           Lecomte-du-Nouy_         48
+  AUGUSTUS CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA,          _August von Heckel_        66
+  LOUIS XI. AND OLIVIER LE DAIN,         _Hermann Kaulbach_        112
+  MARTIN LUTHER BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF
+    WORMS,                               _E. Delperte_             130
+  CHARLES V. ON HIS WAY TO THE CONVENT,  _Hermann Schneider_       138
+  MOLIERE AT BREAKFAST WITH LOUIS XIV.,  _Jean Leon Gerome_        198
+
+
+
+
+WOOD-ENGRAVINGS AND TYPOGRAVURES
+
+
+  DAVID CALMING THE WRATH OF SAUL,       _J. J. Lefebvre_           12
+  JUDGMENT OF SOLOMON,                   _Jos. Fuehrich_             18
+  DEATH OF SOCRATES,                     _Louis David_              42
+  DIOGENES IN HIS TUB,                   _Jean Leon Gerome_         44
+  DEATH OF ARCHIMEDES,                   _Gustave Courtois_         60
+  AMBROSE REBUKES THEODOSIUS,            _Peter Paul Rubens_        72
+  ST. AUGUSTINE AND HIS MOTHER,
+    ST. MONICA,                          _Ary Scheffer_             74
+  ST. PATRICK JOURNEYING TO TARA,                                   82
+  CONVERSION OF ETHELBERT BY AUGUSTINE,  _H. Tresham_               92
+  THE MUEZZIN,                           _Jean Leon Gerome_        100
+  KING ALFRED VISITING A MONASTERY
+    SCHOOL,                              _Benziger_                104
+  EXECUTION OF HUSS,                     _C. G. Hellquist_         110
+  FERDINAND AND ISABELLA--THE SURRENDER
+    OF GRANADA,                          _F. de Pradilla_          120
+  COPERNICUS,                            _O. Brausewetter_         124
+  LUTHER INTRODUCED TO THE HOME OF FRAU
+    COTTA,                               _G. Spangenberg_          128
+  ELIZABETH AND MARY STUART,             _Hermann Kaulbach_        152
+  GALILEO BEFORE THE INQUISITION,                                  164
+  A CONCERT AT RICHELIEU'S PALACE,       _J. Leisten_              172
+  A PURITAN CHRISTMAS,                   _Hyde_                    174
+  PRINCESS ELIZABETH IN PRISON,          _J. Everett Millais_      180
+  CROMWELL'S DAUGHTER ENTREATS HIM TO
+    REFUSE THE CROWN                                               186
+  THE GREAT ELECTOR WITHDRAWS FROM THE
+    ASSOCIATION OF THE DUTCH NOBILITY,   _F. Neuhaus_              190
+
+
+
+
+STATESMEN AND SAGES
+
+  Lives of great men all remind us,
+    We can make our lives sublime,
+  And departing, leave behind us
+    Footprints on the sands of time.
+
+  --LONGFELLOW
+
+
+
+
+MOSES[1]
+
+By HENRY GEORGE
+
+(1571-1451 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 1: Copyright. 1894. by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Moses. [TN]]
+
+
+Three great religions place the leader of the Exodus upon the highest
+plane they allot to man. To Christendom and to Islam, as well as to
+Judaism, Moses is the mouthpiece of the Most High; the medium, clothed
+with supernatural powers, through which the Divine Will has spoken. Yet
+this very exaltation, by raising him above comparison, may prevent the
+real grandeur of the man from being seen. It is amid his brethren that
+Saul stands taller and fairer.
+
+On the other hand, the latest school of Biblical criticism asserts that
+the books and legislation attributed to Moses are really the product of
+an age subsequent to that of the prophets. Yet to this Moses, looming
+vague and dim, of whom they can tell us almost nothing, they, too,
+attribute the beginning of that growth which flowered centuries after in
+the humanities of Jewish law, and again, higher still and fairer,
+gleamed forth in that star of spiritual light which rested over the
+stable of Bethlehem, in Judea.
+
+But whether wont to look on Moses in this way or in that, it may be
+sometimes worth our while to take the point of view in which all shades
+of belief may find common ground, and accepting the main features of
+Hebrew record,[2] consider them in the light of history, and of human
+nature as it shows itself to-day. Here is a case in which sacred history
+may be treated as we would treat profane history without any shock to
+religious feeling. The keenest criticism cannot resolve Moses into a
+myth. The fact of the Exodus presupposes such a leader.
+
+         [Footnote 2: Moses, the lawgiver of the Hebrew people, was,
+         according to the Biblical account, an Israelite of the tribe of
+         Levi, and the son of Amram and Jochebed. He was born in Egypt,
+         in the year 1571 B.C., according to the common chronology. To
+         evade the edict of Pharaoh, the King of Egypt, that all the
+         male children of the Hebrews should be killed, he was hid by
+         his mother three months, and then exposed in an ark of rushes
+         on the banks of the Nile. Here the child was found by Pharaoh's
+         daughter, who adopted him for her son, entrusting him to his
+         own mother to nurse, by which circumstance he was preserved
+         from being entirely separated from his own people. He was
+         probably educated at the Egyptian court, where he became
+         "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians." At the age of
+         forty years Moses conceived the idea of freeing his Hebrew
+         brethren from their bondage in Egypt, and on one occasion,
+         seeing an Egyptian maltreating an Israelite, he interfered,
+         slew the Egyptian, and buried him in the sand. The next day,
+         upon his attempting to reconcile two Hebrews who had
+         quarrelled, his services were scornfully rejected, and he was
+         upbraided with the murder of the Egyptian. Finding that his
+         secret was known, he fled from Egypt, and took refuge with a
+         tribe of Midianites in Arabia Petraea, among whom he lived as a
+         shepherd forty years, having married the daughter of their
+         priest Jethro or Reuel.
+
+         As Moses led his father-in-law's flocks in the desert of Sinai,
+         God appeared to him at Mount Horeb in a bush which burnt with
+         fire, but was not consumed, and commanded him to return to
+         Egypt and lead out his people thence into the land of Canaan.
+         On his arrival in Egypt, the Israelites accepted him as their
+         deliverer and after bringing ten miraculous plagues upon the
+         land of Egypt before he could gain Pharaoh's consent to the
+         departure of the people, he led them out through the Red Sea,
+         which was miraculously divided for their passage, into the
+         peninsula of Sinai. While the people were encamped at the foot
+         of Sinai, God delivered to them through Moses the law which,
+         with some additions and alterations, was ever after observed as
+         their national code. After leading the Israelites through the
+         wilderness for forty years, Moses appointed Joshua as his
+         successor in the command over them, and died at the age of one
+         hundred and twenty years, on Mount Pisgah, on the east side of
+         the River Jordan, having first been permitted to view the land
+         of Canaan from its summit. God buried him in the valley of
+         Bethpeor, in the land of Moab, but his tomb was never made
+         known.]
+
+To lead into freedom a people long crushed by tyranny; to discipline and
+order such a mighty host; to harden them into fighting men, before whom
+warlike tribes quailed and walled cities went down; to repress
+discontent and jealousy and mutiny; to combat reactions and reversions;
+to turn the quick, fierce flame of enthusiasm to the service of a steady
+purpose, require some towering character--a character blending in
+highest expression the qualities of politician, patriot, philosopher,
+and statesman.
+
+Such a character in rough but strong outline the tradition shows us--the
+union of the wisdom of the Egyptians with the unselfish devotion of the
+meekest of men. From first to last, in every glimpse we get, this
+character is consistent with itself, and with the mighty work which is
+its monument. It is the character of a great mind, hemmed in by
+conditions and limitations, and working with such forces and materials
+as were at hand--accomplishing, yet failing. Behind grand deed, a
+grander thought. Behind high performance, the still nobler ideal.
+
+Egypt was the mould of the Hebrew nation--the matrix in which a single
+family, or, at most, a small tribe, grew to a people as numerous as the
+American people at the time of the Declaration of Independence. For four
+centuries, according to the Hebrew tradition--a period as long as
+America has been known to Europe--this growing people, coming a
+patriarchal family from a roving, pastoral life, had been placed under
+the dominance of a highly developed and ancient civilization--a
+civilization symbolized by monuments that rival in endurance the
+everlasting hills; a civilization so ancient that the Pyramids, as we
+now know, were hoary with centuries ere Abraham looked on them.
+
+[Illustration: Moses in the bulrushes.]
+
+No matter how clearly the descendants of the kinsmen who came into Egypt
+at the invitation of the boy-slave become prime minister, maintained the
+distinction of race, and the traditions of a freer life, they must have
+been powerfully affected by such a civilization; and just as the Hebrews
+of to-day are Polish in Poland, German in Germany, and American in the
+United States, so, but far more clearly and strongly, the Hebrews of the
+Exodus must have been Egyptian.
+
+It is not remarkable, therefore, that the ancient Hebrew institutions
+show in so many points the influence of Egyptian ideas and customs. What
+is remarkable is the dissimilarity. To the unreflecting nothing may seem
+more natural than that a people, in turning their back upon a land where
+they had been long oppressed, should discard its ideas and institutions.
+But the student of history, the observer of politics, know that nothing
+is more _un_natural. For "institutions make men." And when amid a people
+used to institutions of one kind, we see suddenly arise institutions of
+an opposite kind, we know that behind them must be that active, that
+initiative force--the "men who in the beginnings make institutions."
+
+This is what occurs in the Exodus. The striking differences between
+Egyptian and Hebrew policy are not of form but of essence. The tendency
+of the one is to subordination and oppression; of the other, to
+individual freedom. Strangest of recorded births! from out the strongest
+and most splendid despotism of antiquity comes the freest republic. From
+between the paws of the rock-hewn Sphinx rises the genius of human
+liberty, and the trumpets of the Exodus throb with the defiant
+proclamation of the rights of man.
+
+Consider what Egypt was. The very grandeur of her monuments testify to
+the enslavement of the people--are the enduring witnesses of a social
+organization that rested on the masses an immovable weight. That narrow
+Nile Valley, the cradle of the arts and sciences, the scene, perhaps, of
+the greatest triumphs of the human mind, is also the scene of its most
+abject enslavement. In the long centuries of its splendor its lord,
+secure in the possession of irresistible temporal power, and securer
+still in the awful sanctions of a mystical religion, was as a god on
+earth, to cover whose poor carcass with a tomb befitting his state
+hundreds of thousands toiled away their lives. For the classes who came
+next to him were all the sensuous delights of a most luxurious
+civilization, and high intellectual pleasures which the mysteries of the
+temple hid from vulgar profanation. But for the millions who constituted
+the base of the social pyramid there was but the lash to stimulate their
+toil, and the worship of beasts to satisfy the yearnings of the soul.
+From time immemorial to the present day the lot of the Egyptian peasant
+has been to work and to starve, that those above him might live
+daintily. He has never rebelled. The spirit for that was long ago
+crushed out of him by institutions which made him what he is. He knows
+but to suffer and to die.
+
+Imagine what opportune circumstances we may, yet to organize and carry
+on a movement resulting in the release of a great people from such a
+soul-subduing tyranny, backed by an army of half a million highly
+trained soldiers, requires a leadership of most commanding and
+consummate genius. But this task, surpassingly great though it is, is
+not the measure of the greatness of the leader of the Exodus. It is not
+in the deliverance from Egypt, it is in the constructive statesmanship
+that laid the foundations of the Hebrew commonwealth that the
+superlative grandeur of that leadership looms up. As we cannot imagine
+the Exodus without the great leader, neither can we account for the
+Hebrew polity without the great statesman. Not merely intellectually
+great, but morally great--a statesman aglow with the unselfish
+patriotism that refuses to grasp a sceptre or found a dynasty.
+
+It matters not when or by whom were compiled the books popularly
+attributed to Moses; it matters not how much of the code there given may
+be the survivals of more ancient usage or the amplifications of a later
+age; its great features bear the stamp of a mind far in advance of
+people and time, of a mind that beneath effects sought for causes, of a
+mind that drifted not with the tide of events, but aimed at a definite
+purpose.
+
+The outlines that the record gives us of the character of Moses--the
+brief relations that wherever the Hebrew scriptures are read have hung
+the chambers of the imagination with vivid pictures--are in every way
+consistent with this idea. What we know of the life illustrates what we
+know of the work. What we know of the work illumines the life.
+
+It was not an empire such as had reached full development in Egypt or
+existed in rudimentary patriarchal form in the tribes around, that Moses
+aimed to found. Nor was it a republic where the freedom of the citizen
+rested on the servitude of the helot, and the individual was sacrificed
+to the state. It was a commonwealth based upon the individual; a
+commonwealth whose ideal it was that every man should sit under his own
+vine and fig-tree, with none to vex him or make him afraid; a
+commonwealth in which none should be condemned to ceaseless toil; in
+which, for even the bond slave, there should be hope; in which, for even
+the beast of burden, there should be rest. A commonwealth in which, in
+the absence of deep poverty, the manly virtues that spring from personal
+independence should harden into a national character; a commonwealth in
+which the family affections might knit their tendrils around each
+member, binding with links stronger than steel the various parts into
+the living whole.
+
+It is not the protection of property, but the protection of humanity,
+that is the aim of the Mosaic code. Its sanctions are not directed to
+securing the strong in heaping up wealth, so much as to preventing the
+weak from being crowded to the wall. At every point it interposes its
+barriers to the selfish greed that, if left unchecked, will surely
+differentiate men into landlord and serf, capitalist and workman,
+millionaire and tramp, ruler and ruled. Its Sabbath day and Sabbath year
+secure, even to the lowliest, rest and leisure. With the blast of the
+Jubilee trumpets the slave goes free, the debt that cannot be paid is
+cancelled, and a re-division of the land secures again to the poorest
+his fair share in the bounty of the common Creator. The reaper must
+leave something for the gleaner; even the ox cannot be muzzled as he
+treadeth out the corn. Everywhere, in everything, the dominant idea is
+that of our homely phrase--"Live and let live!"
+
+And the religion with which this civil policy is so closely intertwined
+exhibits kindred features--from the idea of the brotherhood of man
+springs the idea of the fatherhood of God. Though the forms may resemble
+those of Egypt, the spirit is that which Egypt had lost; though a
+hereditary priesthood is retained, the law in its fulness is announced
+to all the people. Though the Egyptian rite of circumcision is
+preserved, and the Egyptian symbols reappear in all the externals of
+worship, the tendency to take the type for the reality is sternly
+repressed. It is only when we think of the bulls and the hawks, of the
+deified cats and sacred ichneumons of Egypt, that we realize the full
+meaning of the command--"Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
+image!"
+
+And if we seek, beneath form and symbol and command, the thought of
+which they are but the expression, we find that the distinctive feature
+of the Hebrew religion, that which separates it by such a wide gulf from
+the religions amid which it grew up, is its utilitarianism, its
+recognition of divine law in human life. It asserts, not a God whose
+domain is confined to the far-off beginning or the vague future, who is
+over and above and beyond men, but a God who in His inexorable laws is
+here and now; a God of the living as well as of the dead; a God of the
+market-place as well as of the temple; a God whose judgments wait not
+another world for execution, but whose immutable decrees will, in this
+life, give happiness to the people that heed them and bring misery upon
+the people that forget them.
+
+The absence in the Mosaic books of any reference to a future life is
+only intelligible by the prominence into which this truth is brought.
+Nothing could have been more familiar to the Hebrews of the Exodus than
+the doctrine of immortality. The continued existence of the soul, the
+judgment after death, the rewards and punishments of the future state,
+were the constant subjects of Egyptian thought and art. But a truth may
+be hidden or thrown into the background by the intensity with which
+another truth is grasped. And the truth that Moses brought so
+prominently forward, the truth his gaze was concentrated upon, is a
+truth that has often been thrust aside by the doctrine of immortality,
+and that may perhaps, at times, react on it in the same way. This is the
+truth that the actions of men bear fruit in this world, that though on
+the petty scale of individual life wickedness may seem to go unpunished
+and wrong to be rewarded, there is yet a Nemesis that with tireless feet
+and pitiless arm follows every national crime, and smites the children
+for the father's transgression; the truth that each individual must act
+upon and be acted upon by the society of which he is a part; that all
+must in some degree suffer for the sin of each, and the life of each be
+dominated by the conditions imposed by all.
+
+It is the intense appreciation of this truth that gives the Mosaic
+institutions so practical and utilitarian a character. Their genius, if
+I may so speak, leaves the abstract speculations where thought so easily
+loses and wastes itself, or finds expression only in symbols that
+become finally but the basis of superstition, in order that it may
+concentrate attention upon laws that determine the happiness or misery
+of men upon this earth. Its lessons have never tended to the essential
+selfishness of asceticism, which is so prominent a feature in Brahmanism
+and Buddhism, and from which Christianity and Islamism have not been
+exempt. Its injunction has never been, "Leave the world to itself that
+you may save your own soul," but rather, "Do your duty in the world that
+you may be happier and the world be better." It has disdained no
+sanitary regulation that might secure the health of the body. Its
+promise has been of peace and plenty and length of days, of stalwart
+sons and comely daughters.
+
+It may be that the feeling of Moses in regard to a future life was that
+expressed in the language of the Stoic, "It is the business of Jupiter,
+not mine;" or it may be that it partook of the same revulsion that shows
+itself in modern times, when a spirit essentially religious has been
+turned against the forms and expressions of religion, because these
+forms and expressions have been made the props and bulwarks of tyranny,
+and even the name and teachings of the Carpenter's Son perverted into
+supports of social injustice--used to guard the pomp of Caesar and
+justify the greed of Dives.
+
+Yet, however such feelings influenced Moses, I cannot think that such a
+soul as his, living such a life as his--feeling the exaltation of great
+thoughts, feeling the burden of great cares, feeling the bitterness of
+great disappointments--did not stretch forward to the hope beyond; did
+not rest and strengthen and ground itself in the confident belief that
+the death of the body is but the emancipation of the soul; did not feel
+the assurance that there is a power in the universe upon which it might
+confidently rely, through wreck of matter and crash of worlds. But the
+great concern of Moses was with the duty that lay plainly before him:
+the effort to lay foundations of a social state in which deep poverty
+and degrading want should be unknown--where men, released from the
+meaner struggles that waste human energy, should have opportunity for
+intellectual and moral development.
+
+Here stands out the greatness of the man. What was the wisdom and
+stretch of the forethought that in the desert sought to guard in advance
+against the dangers of a settled state, let the present speak.
+
+In the full blaze of the nineteenth century, when every child in our
+schools may know as common truths things of which the Egyptian sages
+never dreamed; when the earth has been mapped, and the stars have been
+weighed; when steam and electricity have been pressed into our service,
+and science is wresting from nature secret after secret--it is but
+natural to look back upon the wisdom of three thousand years ago as the
+man looks back upon the learning of the child.
+
+And yet, for all this wonderful increase of knowledge, for all this
+enormous gain of productive power, where is the country in the civilized
+world in which to-day there is not want and suffering--where the masses
+are not condemned to toil that gives no leisure, and all classes are not
+pursued by a greed of gain that makes life an ignoble struggle to get
+and to keep? Three thousand years of advance, and still the moan goes
+up, "They have made our lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and in
+brick, and in all manner of service!" Three thousand years of advance!
+Yet the piteous voices of little children are in the moan.
+
+We progress and we progress; we girdle continents with iron roads and
+knit cities together with the mesh of telegraph wires; each day brings
+some new invention; each year marks a fresh advance--the power of
+production increased, and the avenues of exchange cleared and broadened.
+Yet the complaint of "hard times" is louder and louder: everywhere are
+men harassed by care, and haunted by the fear of want. With swift,
+steady strides and prodigious leaps, the power of human hands to satisfy
+human wants advances and advances, is multiplied and multiplied. Yet the
+struggle for mere existence is more and more intense, and labor is
+cheapest of commodities. Beside glutted warehouses human beings grow
+faint with hunger and shiver with cold; under the shadow of churches
+festers the vice that is born of want.
+
+Trace to their root the causes that are thus producing want in the midst
+of plenty, ignorance in the midst of intelligence, aristocracy in
+democracy, weakness in strength--that are giving to our civilization a
+one-sided and unstable development; and you will find it something which
+this Hebrew statesman three thousand years ago perceived and guarded
+against. Moses saw that the real cause of the enslavement of the masses
+of Egypt was, what has everywhere produced enslavement, the possession
+by a class of the land upon which and from which the whole people must
+live. He saw that to permit in land the same unqualified private
+ownership that by natural right attaches to the things produced by
+labor, would be inevitably to separate the people into the very rich and
+the very poor, inevitably to enslave labor--to make the few the masters
+of the many, no matter what the political forms, to bring vice and
+degradation no matter what the religion.
+
+And with the foresight of the philosophic statesman he sought, in ways
+suited to his times and conditions, to guard against this error.
+
+Everywhere in the Mosaic institutions is the land treated as the gift of
+the Creator to His common creatures, which no one has the right to
+monopolize. Everywhere it is, not your estate, or your property; not the
+land which you bought, or the land which you conquered, but "the land
+which the Lord thy God giveth thee"--"the land which the Lord lendeth
+thee." And by practical legislation, by regulations to which he gave the
+highest sanctions, he tried to guard against the wrong that converted
+ancient civilizations into despotisms--the wrong that in after centuries
+ate out the heart of Rome, and produced the imbruting serfdom of Poland
+and the gaunt misery of Ireland, the wrong that is to-day crowding
+families into single rooms and filling our new States with tramps. He
+not only provided for the fair division of the land among the people,
+and for making it fallow and common every seventh year, but by the
+institution of the jubilee he provided for a redistribution of the land
+every fifty years and made monopoly impossible.
+
+I do not say that these institutions were, for their ultimate purpose,
+the best that might even then have been devised, for Moses had to work,
+as all great constructive statesmen have to work, with the tools that
+came to his hand, and upon materials as he found them. Still less do I
+mean to say that forms suitable for that time and people are suitable
+for every time and people. I ask, not veneration of the form, but
+recognition of the spirit.
+
+Yet how common it is to venerate the form and to deny the spirit! There
+are many who believe that the Mosaic institutions were literally
+dictated by the Almighty, yet who would denounce as irreligious and
+"communistic" any application of their spirit to the present day. And
+yet to-day how much we owe to these institutions! This very day, the
+only thing that stands between our working classes and ceaseless toil is
+one of these Mosaic institutions. Let the mistakes of those who think
+that man was made for the Sabbath, rather than the Sabbath for man, be
+what they may; that there is one day in the week on which hammer is
+silent and loom stands idle, is due, through Christianity, to
+Judaism--to the code promulgated in the Sinaitic wilderness.
+
+It is in these characteristics of the Mosaic institutions that, as in
+the fragments of a Colossus, we may read the greatness of the mind whose
+impress they bear--of a mind in advance of its surroundings, in advance
+of its age; of one of those star souls that dwindle not with distance,
+but, glowing with the radiance of essential truth, hold their light
+while institutions and languages and creeds change and pass.
+
+That the thought was greater than the permanent expression it found, who
+can doubt? Yet from that day to this that expression has been in the
+world a living power.
+
+From the free spirit of the Mosaic law sprang that intensity of family
+life that amid all dispersions and persecutions has preserved the
+individuality of the Hebrew race; that love of independence that under
+the most adverse circumstances has characterized the Jew; that burning
+patriotism that flamed up in the Maccabees and bared the breasts of
+Jewish peasants to the serried steel of Grecian phalanx and the
+resistless onset of Roman legion; that stubborn courage that in exile
+and in torture has held the Jew to his faith. It kindled that fire that
+has made the strains of Hebrew seers and poets phrase for us the highest
+exaltations of thought; that intellectual vigor that has over and over
+again made the dry staff bud and blossom. And passing outward from one
+narrow race it has exerted its power wherever the influence of the
+Hebrew scriptures has been felt. It has toppled thrones and cast down
+hierarchies. It strengthened the Scottish Covenanter in the hour of
+trial, and the Puritan amid the snows of a strange land. It charged with
+the Ironsides at Naseby; it stood behind the low redoubt on Bunker Hill.
+
+But it is in example as in deed that such lives are helpful. It is thus
+that they dignify human nature and glorify human effort, and bring to
+those who struggle hope and trust. The life of Moses, like the
+institutions of Moses, is a protest against that blasphemous doctrine,
+current now as it was three thousand years ago; that blasphemous
+doctrine preached ofttimes even from Christian pulpits: that the want
+and suffering of the masses of mankind flow from a mysterious
+dispensation of Providence, which we may lament, but can neither quarrel
+with nor alter.
+
+Adopted into the immediate family of the supreme monarch and earthly
+god; standing almost at the apex of the social pyramid which had for its
+base those toiling millions; priest and prince in a land where prince
+and priest might revel in all delights--everything that life could offer
+to gratify the senses or engage the intellect was open to him.
+
+What to him the wail of them who beneath the fierce sun toiled under the
+whips of relentless masters? Heard from granite colonnade or beneath
+cool linen awning, it was mellowed by distance, to monotonous music. Why
+should _he_ question the Sphinx of Fate, or quarrel with destinies the
+high gods had decreed? So had it always been, for ages and ages; so must
+it ever be. The beetle rends the insect, and the hawk preys on the
+beetle; order on order, life rises from death and carnage, and higher
+pleasures from lower agonies. Shall the man be better than nature?
+Soothing and restful flows the Nile, though underneath its placid
+surface finny tribes wage cruel war, and the stronger eat the weaker.
+Shall the gazer who would read the secrets of the stars turn because
+under his feet a worm may writhe?
+
+Theirs to make bricks without straw; his a high place in the glorious
+procession that with gorgeous banners and glittering emblems, with clash
+of music and solemn chant, winds its shining way to dedicate the
+immortal edifice their toil has reared. Theirs the leek and the garlic;
+his to sit at the sumptuous feast. Why should he dwell on the
+irksomeness of bondage, he for whom the chariots waited, who might at
+will bestride the swift coursers of the Delta, or be borne on the bosom
+of the river with oars that beat time to songs? Did he long for the
+excitement of action?--there was the desert hunt, with steeds fleeter
+than the antelope and lions trained like dogs. Did he crave rest and
+ease?--there was for him the soft swell of languorous music and the
+wreathed movements of dancing girls. Did he feel the stir of
+intellectual life?--in the arcana of the temples he was free to the lore
+of ages; an initiate in the society where were discussed the most
+engrossing problems; a sharer in that intellectual pride that centuries
+after compared Greek philosophy to the babblings of children.
+
+It was no sudden ebullition of passion that caused Moses to turn his
+back on all this, and to bring the strength and knowledge acquired in a
+dominant caste to the life-long service of the oppressed. The
+forgetfulness of self manifested in the smiting of the Egyptian shines
+through the whole life. In institutions that moulded the character of a
+people, in institutions that to this day make easier the lot of toiling
+millions, we may read the stately purpose.
+
+Through all that tradition has given us of that life runs the same grand
+passion--the unselfish desire to make humanity better, happier, nobler.
+And the death is worthy of the life. Subordinating to the good of his
+people the natural disposition to found a dynasty, which in his case
+would have been so easy, he discards the claims of blood and calls to
+his place of leader the fittest man. Coming from a land where the rites
+of sepulture were regarded as all-important, and the preservation of the
+body after death was the passion of life; among a people who were even
+then carrying the remains of their great ancestor, Joseph, to rest with
+his fathers, he yet conquered the last natural yearning and withdrew
+from the sight and sympathy of men to die alone and unattended, lest the
+idolatrous feeling, always ready to break forth, should in death accord
+him the superstitious reverence he had refused in life.
+
+"No man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day." But while the despoiled
+tombs of the Pharaohs mock the vanity that reared them, the name of the
+Hebrew who, revolting from their tyranny, strove for the elevation of
+his fellow-men, is yet a beacon light to the world.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL[3]
+
+By MARGARET E. SANGSTER
+
+(1074-1001 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 3: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: David Rex. [TN]]
+
+
+More than a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era, in
+a little farmstead in Palestine, there was rejoicing at the birth of a
+son. Not the first-born, whose coming was a fit occasion for gifts and
+feasting, not the second, the third, nor even the seventh. David was the
+eighth son of Jesse the Bethlehemite. Jesse would seem to have been a
+landholder, as his fathers had been before him, a man of substance, with
+fields and flocks and herds. We first meet David, a ruddy, fair-haired
+lad, tough of sinew and keen of eye and aim, keeping the sheep among the
+mountains.
+
+Two hundred years before David's day, a fair woman of Moab had brought a
+new infusion of strength, a new type, into the princely line of Judah.
+The blood of the daring children of the wilderness flowed in the veins
+of those who descended from Boaz. Just as in modern times and in royal
+houses a single feature, as a set of the jaw, a curve of the lips, a
+fulness of the brow or the eye, is stamped upon a race by some marriage
+of its heir with a strong woman of another race, so, it has always
+seemed to me, that the poetry, the romance, the fire and the passion,
+came with Ruth of Moab into the household of Boaz. For they were strong
+and beautiful, these sons of Jesse, who had Ruth as their not remote
+ancestress, and the mother-qualities live long and tell through many
+generations.
+
+Of Jesse's many sons, David was the youngest. His early life was spent
+as was that of other boys belonging to his class and period. He must
+have added to his natural abilities and quickness, rare talents for
+attaining such knowledge as was possible, knowledge of all woodcraft and
+of nature, knowledge of musical instruments, and acquaintance with arms.
+Clean of limb and sure of foot, ready of repartee, fearless and alert,
+he was, even as a boy, something of what he was to become in maturity,
+one of the greatest men of his own or any age. Unique in some
+capacities, versatile and varied in arts and accomplishments, at once
+vindictive and forgiving, impetuous and politic, shrewd and impulsive,
+heroic and mean, of long memory for wrongs committed, of decisive act
+and incisive speech, relentless and magnanimous, strong and weak. A man
+whose influence has never died out among men, and who is to-day a vital
+force in the world of religion, of philanthropy, and of letters.
+
+The short and ill-starred reign of Saul, the first king of the Jews,
+chosen when the people had wearied of the theocratic style of
+government, came to a speedy end. While yet the crown was on his head,
+the favor of the Lord departed from Saul, and Samuel, the Lord's
+prophet, was sent, 1064 B.C., to anoint his successor. The monarch was
+virtually deposed, though still in power. Saul was like a man under
+sentence of death who is still ignorant of his coming fate, and Samuel,
+who entertained a strong regard for him, evidently cared little to carry
+out the command received from God to discover the new king. Almost under
+protest, the old prophet sought Jesse the Bethlehemite, great-grandson
+of Boaz and the beautiful Ruth, and father of the sturdy set of stalwart
+sons who passed in review before him.
+
+The youngest of these, a lad herding sheep in the fields, ruddy and
+goodly to look upon, bearing in his eyes the fearlessness of her who
+left her father's house to follow Naomi's desolate fortunes, came from
+the fields when he was sent for. Peaceful as was his shepherd's life in
+general, it was not without its occasional spice of danger, as when a
+lion and a bear, famished and furious and ravening for their prey, came
+out of the wintry woods to devour the sheep. Then, as the sacred
+chronicler tersely and with Homeric brevity tells us, the shepherd "slew
+both the lion and the bear."
+
+That strange possession, the Spirit of the Lord, came upon David from
+the day of his anointing by Samuel, though it is improbable that he
+understood then, or for long afterward, precisely what was the function
+to which he had been consecrated. David was far older, and had dipped
+deep into many cups, before he spoke or thought of himself as "The
+Lord's Anointed."
+
+The steps toward the throne were not smoothed for the boy's feet, though
+his upward path was in a comparatively straight line. First, quite
+naturally, it came about that he was sent for by King Saul, who was
+afflicted with periods of melancholia which were charmed away only by
+the sweetness of melody. David's harp, on which he played skilfully, was
+the instrument of relief to Saul, and Saul looking on the young man
+loved him, desired to attach him to his person, and speedily made him
+his armor-bearer. Jonathan, Saul's son, grew so deeply attached to
+David, that their souls were knit together in that strong friendship
+which strikes its fibres into the soil underlying passion, and godlike
+in its endurance. The friendship of the two young men passed into a
+proverb, a proverb which is the crystallization of history. As David and
+Jonathan, is friendship's strongest simile.
+
+Of the episodes of this portion of David's life, the conflict with
+Goliath is familiar to every reader. The youth, armed with a pebble and
+a sling, slays the boastful champion, storming about in helmet and
+greaves and brazen target, and the victorious hosts of Israel pursue the
+defeated and flying Philistines hour after hour, till the sun goes down.
+Saul, apparently forgetful of his former favorite and armor-bearer,
+inquires whose son the stripling is, led proudly into his presence by
+Abner, the captain of the host.
+
+"I am the son of thy servant, Jesse, the Bethlehemite," is the modest
+answer.
+
+Again, this time aroused by jealousy, Saul's moody fit returns and his
+insanity is once more dispelled by David's harp. David becomes the
+king's son-in-law, and Michal, the king's daughter, loves her husband so
+dearly that she sets her woman's wits at work to save him when her
+father's hot displeasure, in the summary fashion known to Eastern kings,
+sends messengers to seek his life. Poor Michal, whose love was never
+half returned!
+
+The next chapter in David's history is a curious one. Anointed king over
+Israel, he wanders an outlaw captain, hiding in crannies of the
+mountains, gathering to himself a band of young and daring spirits,
+reckless of peril, and willing to accept service under a leader who
+fears nothing, and whose incursions into the adjacent countries dispose
+people to hold him in wholesome terror. Again and again, in this
+precarious Robin Hood life of his, David has the opportunity to revenge
+himself upon Saul, but with splendid generosity puts the temptation
+aside.
+
+"The Lord judge between me and thee," he exclaims; "the Lord avenge me
+of thee, but mine hand shall not be upon thee."
+
+An interesting side-light is thrown upon this portion of David's career,
+by the incident of his meeting with Abigail, a woman fair and discreet,
+married to a sordid churl named Nabal. David and his band had protected
+Nabal's fields from other rovers, and had been, so to speak, a wall of
+fire between the churl's estate and the hand of depredation. But at the
+time of the sheep-shearing the surly ingrate refuses food and drink to
+the band of David, though the favor is most courteously asked. When the
+rough answer is brought back, one sees the quick temper of the soldier,
+in the flashing repartee, and the hand flying to the sword. Little had
+been left to Nabal of barn or byre, if sweet-voiced and stately Abigail,
+wiser than her lord, had not herself brought a present in her hand, and
+with a gentle tongue soothed the angry warrior.
+
+In days to come, Abigail was to be wife to David, after the custom of
+the period, which attached a numerous harem to the entourage of a
+chieftain or a king.
+
+[Illustration: David calming the wrath of Saul.]
+
+In judging of David, of his relations with women, and of his dealings
+with his enemies, it is not fair to measure him by the standards of our
+own time. His was a day of the high hand, and of lax morality. The kings
+of neighboring countries knew no gentleness, no law but of
+self-interest and of self-pleasing in their marriages, and in their
+quarrels. Many of the alliances made by David were distinctly in the
+line of political arrangements, bargains by which he strengthened his
+boundary lines, and attracted to his own purposes the resources or the
+kindly interest of other nations.
+
+Reading of David's dashing forays, when he and his valiant two hundred
+fought the Amalekites, chased the Philistines, took prisoners and spoil,
+yet with rare wisdom ordained that, in the division of the spoils, those
+who tarried at home by the stuff, the guard of wives and children,
+should share equally with those who took upon them the pleasanter, if
+more perilous, tasks of the battle, we are transported into the morning
+of the world. These were days when the trumpets blew and the flags
+fluttered, days of riotous health and the joy of life.
+
+After the death of Saul and of Jonathan his son, David succeeded to the
+throne. This story is very dramatic. The conquering Philistines affixed
+the bodies of the dead heroes to their temple walls, and hung their
+armor as a trophy in the house of Ashtaroth. But the valiant men of
+Jabesh-Gilead came by night, took down the bodies and burned them, then
+buried the bones, and wept over them for seven days. David himself
+ordered to execution the messenger who brought him Saul's crown and
+bracelet, confessing that his own hand had given the king the _coup de
+grace_. His lamentation over Saul and Jonathan rises to the height of
+the sublime. Never laureate sang in strains more solemn and tender.
+
+But from this moment on the tenor of David's life was boisterous and
+broken. He was constantly at war, now war that was defensive only, again
+war that was fiercely aggressive. He had to face internal dissensions.
+As his sons grew up, children of different mothers and of different
+trainings, there came to the heart of the father, always most
+passionately loving, such bitterness as none but great souls know.
+
+Between David's house and that of Saul there was long and fierce
+dispute, and never any real peace. Treachery, assassination, jealousy,
+marked the course of these two houses, though David, to his lasting
+honor, be it said, showed only kindness and rendered only protection to
+the kindred of Saul. He could not control the cupidity or fierceness of
+his retainers, but he gave the crippled Mephibosheth the household and
+the income befitting a prince.
+
+David was thirty years old when he began his reign. His first capital
+was Hebron, where he was publicly anointed, after the custom of the
+period. His reign lasted forty years, seven years and six months of
+which he spent in Hebron. Observing the natural advantages of Jerusalem
+as a stronghold, he took it after a sharp contest, and set up the throne
+there, remaining there for thirty-three years.
+
+In nothing did David display great abilities in a more marked manner
+than in the choice of his generals and counsellors. Joab, Abishai, and
+Zeruiah, Hushai and Ahithophel were all men of great administrative or
+executive powers. They were not invariably faithful to David's
+interests, but in the main they served him well, and to his "mighty men
+of valor" he owed the debt for success that all great captains owe to
+those who surround their persons, further their plans, and aid their
+enterprises.
+
+In the Second Book of Chronicles the honor-roll of David's heroes is
+starred with undying lustre. Thirty captains are mentioned, among them
+three mightiest, and the record of these valiant men is like the record
+written of Thor and his followers in the legendry of the stormy
+Norsemen. There was one who slew an Egyptian, a giant five cubits high,
+with a spear like a weaver's beam, and the champion went down to the
+combat armed with a staff only, disarmed the Egyptian, and slew him with
+his own spear. Another slew "a lion in a pit in a snowy day." One sees
+the picture, the yellow-maned, fierce-eyed lion, the white drift of the
+blinding flakes, the hole of the pit, deep-walled and narrow, a fit lair
+for the wild beast. The incident of the well of Bethlehem belongs here.
+The king was spent and athirst, and he longed for a drink from the old
+well by the gate. But when three mighty men cut their way sword in hand
+through the enemy's host, and brought the precious water, the king would
+not drink it, but poured it out before the Lord in libation. "God
+forbid," he exclaimed, "that I should drink the blood of these men, that
+have put their lives in jeopardy!"
+
+If David had always been as noble! But men have the defects of their
+qualities. These mighty men of earth have often, on one side or another,
+a special liability to temptation. In the seduction of Bathsheba and the
+cowardly murder of Uriah, her husband, David committed a sin for which
+he was punished not only in the denunciation of Nathan the prophet and
+the loss of Bathsheba's first child, but by the stings of a deep
+remorse, which expresses itself in a psalm which is a miserere. Yet
+Bathsheba became the mother of Solomon, and Solomon was the heir chosen
+by the Lord to preserve the kingly line of David, and to maintain the
+kingdom in great glory and splendor.
+
+In the quaint language of the sacred scribes, we find David's frequent
+battles graphically described. Rapid and pitiless as Attila or Napoleon,
+he "smote" the Amalekites, and the Ammonites, and the neighboring
+warlike peoples, and compelled them to pay tribute. He was not more
+rapacious than France has recently shown herself to Siam, or than
+England to India, and he was emphatically the "battle-axe of God." It
+was enlightenment against savagery, the true religion against the
+idolatries and witchcrafts of a false worship. In every way David
+displayed statesmanship, not carrying on war for the mere pleasure of
+it, but strengthening his national lines, and laying deep the
+foundations on which his successor was to carry forward a kingdom of
+peace.
+
+It was not until Hiram, king of Tyre, sent cedar from Lebanon, on floats
+down the Mediterranean, that David built him a house. The hardy soldier
+had often slept with the sky for his roof, and the grass for his bed,
+but as he grew rich and strong he needed a palace. With the pleasure and
+security of the palace, the ceiled house, came the wish of the devout
+soul to erect a temple to God. Never was sacrifice greater nor pain more
+intense than that which the great king experienced when told that not
+for him was to be this crowning joy, this felicity which would have made
+his cup overflow. His hands had shed too much blood. He had been a man
+of war from his youth. The temple on Mount Zion, a glittering mass of
+gold and gems, shining like a heap of snowflakes on the pilgrims going
+up to the annual passover, was to be the great trophy not of David's,
+but of Solomon's time. David acquiesced in the divine ordering, though
+with a sore heart. But he occupied himself with the accumulation of rich
+materials, so that when Solomon came to the throne he might find much
+and valuable preparation made.
+
+The troubles of David's reign, gathering around him thickly, as the
+almond blossoms of age grew white upon his head, were chiefly brought
+upon him through dissensions in his family. Did so loving a father spoil
+his sons in their early youth, or were they, as is probable, influenced
+by the spites, the malignities, and the weaknesses of the beautiful
+foreign princesses who were their mothers? In the rebellion of Absalom,
+the king tasted the deepest draught of sorrow ever pressed to mortal
+lips, and the whole tragic tale is as vivid in its depiction, and as
+intensely real in its appeal to-day, as when fresh from the pen of the
+writer.
+
+The conduct of Absalom, whose beauty and vanity were equalled by his
+ambition and his ingratitude, has made him forever infamous. He omitted
+no act that could convict him of shameless infidelity to all that was
+worthy a prince, and with an armed host he set his battle in array
+against his father. One charge, reiterated again and again, showed the
+depth of that father's heart--a heart like that of the Father in Heaven
+for its yearning over ingrates and rebels:
+
+"Beware that none touch the young man Absalom!"
+
+Joab, of all men in the realm, least afraid of David and most relentless
+when any one stood in his way, himself became Absalom's executioner,
+when, David's people being victors, Absalom hung caught by his hair in
+the boughs of an oak, unable to escape. Then it was a question who
+should tell the king these tidings, which dashed the hearts of the
+conquerors with a sudden pang. Finally a swift runner reached the
+watch-tower, whence the old king looked forth, awaiting news of the day.
+
+"Is the young man Absalom safe?" he asked
+
+And Cushi answered, "The enemies of my lord the king, and all that rise
+against thee to do thee hurt, be as that young man is."
+
+"And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate,
+and wept; and as he went, thus he said 'O my son Absalom, my son, my son
+Absalom! Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom my son, my son!'"
+
+Long, long ago, these battles and sieges, these truces and victories,
+were over forever on this earth. Egypt and Assyria, contemporary with
+Israel in greatness, have perished from the memories of men, save as a
+few marbles remain to tell their tale. The vitality of David is
+imperishable, but not because he was a shrewd statesman, a doughty
+warrior, or a captain of conquering armies. David the shepherd, David
+the king, are of the past. David the musician, David the psalmist, is as
+alive to-day as he ever was, the music of his harp still vibrating in
+temples and cathedrals and in human souls. Those matchless hymns
+antedating our modern era by so many shifting centuries, are lisped by
+children at their mother's knee, form part of every religious ritual of
+which the one God is the centre, and voice the love and prayer and
+praise of every heart that seeks the Creator. With the intense adoration
+and trust of the Hebrew, we too exclaim, "The Lord is my shepherd, I
+shall not want," and "God is our refuge and strength, a very present
+help in time of trouble."
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON[4]
+
+By REV. CHARLES F. DEEMS
+
+(1033-975 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 4: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: A town. [TN]]
+
+
+Looking down the vista of the past ages we see standing conspicuous
+among men David, the father of Solomon. In David's case it is as if the
+all-wise God had constructed in one human being an organ with all the
+keys and stops possible to humanity, and as if the Holy Ghost had on
+that organ with those keys and stops played every tune of every song
+that all humanity may need to sing in life or death, or carry in memory
+from earth to heaven. When we remember who Solomon's father was we are
+helped to grasp the significance of the life and character of the son,
+who, narrower indeed than his father, was yet more brilliant and more
+intense.
+
+In 1033 B.C., shortly after the death of David's first child by
+Bathsheba, which was begotten in sin, a second child was born, whom
+David called "Solomon," or "peaceful," probably with reference to the
+peace between God and David brought about by the latter's deep penitence
+for his sin against Uriah. But the Prophet Nathan, to whose wise and
+tender care he was early committed, called him "Jedediah," or, "The
+beloved of the Lord." If, as the best authorities are agreed, Solomon
+wrote the thirty-first chapter of Proverbs, he had still another name,
+"Lemuel," which means, "to God," or "dedicated to God."
+
+The great number and variety of traditions about Solomon extant in
+Persia, Arabia, Abyssinia, and among the Jews and other peoples, is a
+proof of the profound impression which he made on his age, and an
+evidence of his greatness; for only the great among men beget many
+traditions. Before taking up the authentic and credible history of
+Solomon a few specimens of these traditions may well receive our
+attention.
+
+The Abyssinians claim that a son given to the Queen of Sheba by Solomon
+was the founder of their imperial dynasty! In Persian literature Solomon
+is a favorite character. With nothing to say of David, it has countless
+stories of his gifted son. One alone, called "Solomon-Nameh," fills
+eighty books. Arabia also claims Solomon as the Father of her kings, and
+to this day, under the eastern sky dusky Arabs sit around the lonely
+tent-fire and tell weird and wonderful tales of the wit, wisdom, and
+wealth of Solomon. Legends of which he is the hero are also preserved
+not only in Asia and Africa, but also in the remotest corners of Europe.
+According to these stories he could interpret the language of birds and
+beasts, was acquainted with the mysterious virtues of herbs and gems,
+knew spells for casting out demons and charms for curing diseases,
+possessed a ring which revealed to him the past, present, and future,
+was acquainted with the arts of magic and by them made evil spirits his
+slaves, who helped him with his vast buildings and other great
+enterprises. It was with the assistance of demons called Jinns that he
+built the gorgeous city of Persepolis; while other evil spirits,
+rebelling, he conquered after a long and fierce struggle and immured in
+dark depths and caves of the sea. But let us return to sober history.
+The only trustworthy account of the wise king available, is that which
+is written in the Bible and in the crumbling ruins of his great
+buildings and public and private works in the East, especially in and
+around Jerusalem.
+
+He was ten years of age when the rebellion of his older brother,
+Absalom, fell almost like a death-blow upon the brow and heart of his
+aged father David, with whom he shared the perils of flight and a brief
+exile. Not many years later Adonijah, another brother, with the
+connivance of Joab, David's rugged old general, and Abiathar, the elder
+high priest, attempting to steal the throne, Zadok the high priest,
+Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah, the most famous and heroic of Israel's
+captains after Joab, together with Bathsheba, the beautiful and
+ambitious mother of Solomon, succeeded in thwarting Adonijah's base
+designs and roused in David for a short time his old-time energy.
+Whereupon he placed Solomon upon the throne while yet a young man only
+fifteen or twenty years of age.
+
+Upon taking up his sceptre Solomon first of all, removed his father's
+enemies and the heads of the conspiracies which had been made against
+the throne, not even hesitating to cut off Joab, whose deeds of prowess
+had added a marvellous lustre to the military fame of Israel. Solomon
+now sat secure upon his throne, the undisputed monarch of the wide
+territory secured by the conquests of his great father. About this time,
+in order to strengthen his kingdom, he married a daughter of the
+Pharaoh of Northern Egypt, an alliance which pleased the people, for it
+showed that their king was a king among kings. The end of this political
+alliance, however, was not as brilliant as its beginning promised;
+because, although Egypt was at that time the most mighty nation of the
+world, because the most wealthy and civilized, yet it was divided into
+two kingdoms, and after the lapse of years, the Pharaoh of the united
+kingdom did not hesitate to become Solomon's foe because one of his
+wives had been an Egyptian princess.
+
+After removing the enemies of the throne, and marrying the daughter of
+Pharaoh, Solomon repaired to the heights of Gibeon, six miles north of
+Jerusalem, a spot far-famed as the home of the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, which was the original Tent of the wanderings. On the
+brazen altar in front of the Tabernacle the young king offered to
+Jehovah a holocaust of a thousand victims.
+
+It was on the night after this magnificent sacrifice that the Lord
+offered to Solomon, dreaming, his heart's chief desire. The wise and as
+yet pious young king asking for wisdom, the Lord was so pleased that He
+promised him not only wisdom, but also wealth, honor, and long life. He
+had already been endowed with extreme personal beauty.
+
+Immediately following this vision the wisdom of the king was tested in a
+way which showed that his God was a faithful promiser. Into the royal
+presence two women of bad character were ushered by the authorities,
+bringing two babes, the one living and the other cold in death. In the
+night the latter's mother had by accident smothered it, whereupon she
+had stolen the living babe from its mother's side. In the morning a
+bitter conflict was waged by the two women over the living child, each
+wildly claiming it as her own. When the officers of the law were
+appealed to they brought the case before their king, whose wisdom and
+fitness to judge a great kingdom were now to be tried. As the spectators
+of the dramatic scene looked on, it was with anxious curiosity, which in
+a moment was turned into horror as Solomon ordered a stalwart attendant
+to take a keen sword and cut the living little one into two parts and
+give to each mother a half. One of the women appeared stolidly satisfied
+with this arrangement, but the other sprang between the babe and its
+executioner, and, weeping, pleaded that its life might be spared and her
+rival be permitted to have the whole child. In this pity and tenderness
+Solomon discovered the true mother heart, and to her gave the babe,
+while the news of the marvellous wisdom of the new king spread like
+wild-fire through Jerusalem and all Israel.
+
+Solomon had now secured an assured place in the hearts of his subjects,
+and was firmly seated on a throne from which for forty years he governed
+Israel with a rule whose wisdom was surpassed only by its magnificence.
+
+As it is impossible at this date to get at the exact chronological order
+of the events of his life from the time that he ascended the throne, and
+as it was remarkable for the fruits of peace rather than war, we may
+best study it by considering his government, household, buildings,
+riches, and writings.
+
+[Illustration: Judgment of Solomon.]
+
+Solomon's rule extended over a wide territory and over many peoples, for
+it had been the glory of David that he fought successfully with and
+subdued the enemies of Israel on every side. From the Mediterranean
+Sea to the Euphrates, and from the Red Sea to the northern bounds of
+Syria, the great son of David held sway, and thus was God's ancient
+promise to Abraham fulfilled. (Gen. xv. 18.)
+
+Solomon's government was Asiatic, that is it was an absolutism, marked
+by luxury, display, and taxation so heavy as to amount almost to
+oppression. Its luxuriousness and display are illustrated by his
+seraglio, which included seven hundred wives (1 Kings xi. 3); and its
+despotic nature is seen in such acts as his summary and severe
+punishment of Adonijah, Joab, and Abiathar.
+
+For the first time in the history of Israel, alliances were entered into
+with other nations. We have already seen how Solomon had married an
+Egyptian princess. Then he made a treaty with his neighbor on the
+Mediterranean coast, Hiram, king of Tyre, who in exchange for corn
+agreed to supply Solomon with timber for building the Temple and his own
+magnificent palace. The timber was floated down from Tyre to Joppa
+whence it was transported to Jerusalem or wherever needed.
+
+At peace with surrounding nations, and with a thoroughly systematized
+and centralized government, Solomon sat on his throne of ivory and gold
+and looked around on his people, to see an astonishing increase of
+population and a tremendous growth in business and wealth, especially
+during the first half of his reign.
+
+Entering his court and his household, one saw all things in keeping with
+his Asiatic government: magnificent palaces, surrounded by beautiful
+gardens; multitudes of slaves, each one having his work and doing it
+with swiftness and precision; troops of courtiers, and a harem of seven
+hundred wives and three hundred concubines. Around his gorgeous throne
+stood his officers and attendants, in his stables were forty thousand
+horses, and chariots in proportion. Whenever he went forth before his
+people it was to dazzle them with his splendor. But, fond as he was of
+display and of women, he nevertheless did not neglect the business of
+his kingdom, a large part of each day being spent either in his
+throne-room with his officials, or superintending his great public and
+private works. Besides this no inconsiderable part of his time in his
+home was given to study, meditation, and writing.
+
+The king was one of the greatest builders of the ages. Among the
+structures erected by him, easily first in splendor was the Temple. In
+Solomon's Temple lies Solomon's true greatness and glory rather than in
+his songs, his proverbs, his riches, and his outward splendor. It was
+the bud whose blooming was in Christ and Christianity. Around it was to
+be preserved the people chosen to save the true knowledge of their God
+for the human race and produce the human nature of Jesus Christ,
+humanity's incarnate God and Saviour.
+
+The conception of a fitting, permanent, earthly abode for Jehovah, and
+for the ark and the sacred symbols therein, was David's. He it was who
+took the ark to Jerusalem and placed it in a temporary tabernacle or
+tent while he collected money and materials for a great shrine. To aid
+him in his great work David had already secured the friendship of Hiram,
+king of Tyre, with whom, as we have seen, Solomon made a treaty, and
+from whom he procured both workmen and materials for his great
+enterprise.
+
+The Temple was begun four hundred and eighty years after the exodus from
+Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign, or 1012 B.C., and was
+completed in the twelfth year of his reign. Its site was Mount Moriah at
+the point where Araunah's threshing-floor had been, and where the angel
+met David at the time the plague was stayed.
+
+The house of the Lord finished, Solomon built his gorgeous palaces. And
+thirteen years after the completion of the Temple (991 B.C.) the people
+of Israel assembled on the occasion of its dedication. This occurred at
+the time of the Feast of Tabernacles, when a magnificent festival of two
+weeks' duration was held. The priests bore the ark into the "Holy of
+Holies" and deposited it under the wings of the cherubim. When they had
+retired the cloud of glory filled the whole edifice, and thus proclaimed
+the approving presence of Jehovah. Thereupon Solomon stood upon the
+brazen platform which had been built for him and made his memorable
+prayer. He thanked God for helping him to build the Temple; and prayed
+that He would hear the prayers that should there be made. Scarcely was
+his prayer ended when fire came down from heaven and consumed the
+sacrifice which had been laid on the altar, and the awe-stricken
+multitude bowed with their faces to the ground upon the pavement and
+worshipped and adored the Lord, saying, "For He is good; for His mercy
+endureth forever." (2 Chron. vii. 3.)
+
+In keeping with the Temple were the gorgeous palaces on which for
+thirteen years Solomon lavished time and toil and money. In the "Tower
+of the House of David," as one of these was called, hung a thousand
+golden bucklers; while in the great judgment-hall stood the far-famed
+throne of the great king. (1 Kings x. 18-20.) Solomon's other buildings
+were beautiful gardens and pools, and aqueducts and a luxurious summer
+resort. He moreover, either established or built many important towns or
+fortresses, among others being Tadmor in the wilderness, afterward
+celebrated in history as Palmyra. Countless workmen and inestimable
+wealth were involved in the building enterprises of the great king,
+which included at the last, to his shame, rival temples to Moloch, and
+the other false gods of his heathen wives.
+
+Of course, Solomon's government, household, and buildings, as we have
+considered them, involved the accumulation and expenditure of vast sums
+of money. But the king's ambition, energy, industry, and business talent
+rose to the height of these demands. From two sources he drew his vast
+wealth, namely, taxation and commerce. He received large revenues in the
+way of tributes from subject peoples, in addition to the increasingly
+heavy taxes which he imposed on the people of Israel. Besides taxation,
+the king increased his wealth by means of his great commercial
+operations in the desert, which was the highway between the Orient and
+the Occident, and by means of his two fleets, one on the Mediterranean
+and the other on the eastern arm of the Red Sea, which provided a
+waterway to both Southern Asia and Western Africa. So rich did Solomon
+become from these sources that it is said that he "made silver and gold
+at Jerusalem as plentiful as stones." (2 Chron. i. 15.) There was,
+however, one fatal fault in Solomon's commercial policy: all the gain
+went to the palace and the government. Herein lay one of the secrets of
+the division and fall of the nation immediately upon the close of his
+career.
+
+Naturally, Solomon's commercial greatness, together with the pomp and
+splendor of his court and government, carried his fame to all parts of
+the earth. But that for which he received the greatest respect from
+surrounding nations was his wisdom, manifested in many ways but chiefly
+in his writings. One of the marked effects of David's long and vigorous
+reign was to stimulate mental activity in the Hebrew mind. The great
+foreign wars with the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Sabeans, and the
+surrounding nations, who were more or less advanced in a knowledge of
+the arts and sciences, had the effect of widening the range of knowledge
+of Israel as a nation, and of stirring her up to an ambition to excel
+her neighbors in affairs of peace as well as in those of war. Solomon's
+peaceful and wise reign, characterized as it was by commercial
+prosperity, gave the people both the time and means for cultivating the
+arts. In study and in wisdom the king was the leader of his day and
+generation. He was learned in political economy, a great king. He was
+learned in music and poetry, having composed some of the most beautiful
+of the Psalms, such as the second. But in cultivating the fine arts he
+did not neglect the physical sciences, for he was a botanist, writing of
+all kinds of trees and plants; and he was a natural historian, writing
+works on beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes. It would be most
+interesting to see these science primers prepared by Solomon, and
+compare them with what we see on the same subjects in our own day. But
+the Bible has not preserved them, and they have long centuries ago
+passed into oblivion. Solomon's knowledge was not of that shallow sort
+which is limited to the sphere of earthly material, "seen things;" for
+he was wise with that deeper knowledge which has for its object God and
+the human soul, and their natures and movements in their natural
+relations. This wisdom is illustrated and handed down to us in his
+Proverbs of which we are told he spoke three thousand. A portion of
+these is in the Book of Proverbs, the others are lost to us.
+
+In his poetry also was crystallized much of his wisdom. This consisted
+of one thousand and five songs, all of which have gone down in the flood
+of years, with the exception of the Song of Solomon, which is an
+epithalamium, in which pure wedded love is incarnated. It is a sort of
+poetry of the family relations, and, therefore, worthy a place in the
+sacred canon. Taken literally and read with a pure heart, it is
+eminently fitted to spiritualize the family relations. This theory of
+this much discussed portion of Solomon's writings by no means shuts out
+the more spiritual use of the book, wherein we see in it the Church
+represented by the bride and God by the bridegroom.
+
+In Ecclesiastes we have the latest conclusions of Solomon's moral
+wisdom. Read in the light of its general scope rather than the dim light
+of detached portions, it appears as the confessions of a humbled,
+penitent, believing, godly man, who, after piety followed by apostasy,
+comes back to piety with the conclusion that after all, "the fear of the
+Lord is the beginning of wisdom."
+
+Through his writings and sayings Solomon's genius flashed from Jerusalem
+into the surrounding darkness of the heathen nations, and lighted by its
+rays, as mariners by the beacon in the light-house tower, there came of
+all people to hear the wisdom of Solomon, from all kings of the earth,
+which had heard of his wisdom, (1 Kings x. 1-10.) The celebrated visit
+of the Queen of Sheba is a deeply interesting illustration of these
+royal visits to the court of Israel's splendid king.
+
+Such was King Solomon the magnificent, and such the life of one of
+earth's most famous men. But, after all, he is a striking illustration
+of Plato's saying, that "Princes are never without flatterers to seduce
+them, ambition to deprave them, and desires to corrupt them." So,
+forgetting that as a king he was God's vicegerent, he lived more and
+more to gratify his lusts and ambitions, and to please his flatterers,
+especially his heathen wives. These finally seduced him into permitting
+temples to be built to Moloch and their other false gods. This ended in
+Solomon's becoming idolatrous himself. Then his wealth gradually melted
+away, his allies plotted against him, and, in the midst of life, being
+about fifty-eight years old, he died in the year 975 B.C., leaving a
+terrible legacy to his sons: a corrupted religion, a depleted treasury,
+and a discontented and broken people.
+
+Although there is every reason to believe that Solomon died a penitent
+man, yet his sins and the consequent wretchedness of soul, and the ruin
+of his kingdom, teach most emphatically the weakness of human nature,
+even when accompanied by the greatest genius, the perils of material
+prosperity, and the real insufficiency of all possible earthly good to
+satisfy the wants of the soul of man.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+LYCURGUS[5]
+
+By REV. JOSEPH T. DURYEA
+
+(About 884-820 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 5: Copyright. 1894. by Selmar Hess.]
+
+
+Scholars generally agree in the judgment that Lycurgus was a real
+person. It is probable that he was born in the ninth century B.C., and
+that, in the later part of the same century (850-820), he was an
+important, if not the principal, agent in the reconstruction of the
+Dorian state of Sparta, in the Peloponnesus. According to Herodotus, he
+was the uncle of King Labotas, of the royal line of Eurysthenes. Others,
+whom Plutarch follows, describe him as the uncle and guardian of King
+Charilaus, and therefore in the line of Procles. Either way his
+mythical lineage would be traced to Hercules. We are able to find no
+trustworthy records of the circumstances of his birth, and of the
+incidents of his childhood and youth. Plutarch, with all his diligence,
+found nothing. Nor could he sift and blend the varying stories of his
+later life and so construct a consistent and credible narrative, O.
+Mueller says: "We have absolutely no account of him as an individual
+person."
+
+[Illustration: Lycurgus. [TN]]
+
+Accordingly Lycurgus appears already in his maturity. We know what he
+was only from what he did. He has this imperishable honor, that he did
+something, and did it in such a manner and with such effect that the
+memory of him and his deeds has lasted until this late time, and bids
+fair to last throughout all time.
+
+The following traditions concerning Lycurgus are commonly repeated.
+Polydectes, his brother, was king in Sparta. After the king's death a
+son was born to the widow. Lycurgus became his guardian and presented
+him to the magistrates as their future king. He was suspected by the
+queen's brother of a design to take the crown, and even of a purpose to
+destroy his infant nephew. Accordingly he went into exile. He remained
+some time in Crete, studying the institutions of the Dorian people of
+that island. He travelled extensively in Asia and was especially careful
+to observe the manners and customs of the Ionians. He found the poems of
+Homer, transcribed and arranged them, and caused them to be more
+generally known. The Egyptians claimed that he visited their country and
+derived much of his wisdom from them. Meanwhile the affairs of Sparta
+were in a critical condition and the king and the people alike desired
+his presence and his aid in restoring peace and renewing the prosperity
+of the community and the people of Laconia. Immediately upon his return
+he entered upon the work of framing a constitution and reconstructing
+the state. Notwithstanding much opposition and complaint from the
+classes obliged to make concessions and sacrifices for the common good,
+he secured the assent of the people to his legislation. Having seen the
+system in working order, he announced his purpose to leave the country
+for a period, and moved the citizens to take an oath that they would
+observe the laws until he should return. He departed to remain away to
+the end of his life, but first repaired to Delphi and obtained an oracle
+promising prosperity to the Spartans, so long as they should maintain
+faithfully the constitution.
+
+Laconia was the southeastern portion of the peninsula. The soil was
+mainly mountain land and meagrely productive under toilsome and careful
+tillage. So much of it as was naturally fertile lay in the centre, shut
+in from the sea by the mountains. At the time of the Dorian immigration,
+it was occupied in part by the descendants of the old Pelasgian
+population and in part by a mixed people which had come in at different
+times and from various sources. Because of the limited area there was
+already considerable pressure between the several elements. Accordingly
+the Dorians and their Achaean and AEolian allies met with a stout
+resistance, and established themselves after an obstinate and
+long-continued struggle. They descended from the sources of the Eurotas
+and forced their way into the plains in the midst of the land. They
+seized the heights on the right bank of the river at a point where its
+channel is split by an island and it was most easy to cross the stream.
+The hill of Athene became the centre of the settlement. Their
+establishment in the land was a slow process. It is said Laconia was
+divided into six districts, with six capital cities, each ruled by a
+king. The immigrants were distributed among the inhabitants and lands
+were allotted to them, in return for which they recognized the authority
+of the kings and engaged to support them in power. They seem to have
+been adopted by the kings, as their kindred were in Crete, as the
+military guardians of their prerogatives. The result was inevitable.
+They who are intrusted to maintain power become conscious that it is
+really their own, take formal possession of it, and exercise it for
+their own ends.
+
+Two leading families drew to themselves the central body of the Dorians,
+rallied the rest, gathered them all at one point, and made it the centre
+of the district and the seat of government. They were supported by
+families of common descent and recognized by the people of the land, who
+suffered no change in the circumstances of their life. These gave them
+homage, paid to them taxes, and united with their kindred in celebrating
+funeral rites at their tombs. Sparta became the capital of the whole
+country, while the former capitals became country towns.
+
+But there were difficulties in the way of the new regime. There were
+conflicting claims between the two royal families. Both of them were in
+collision with families in all respects their equals as to lineage and
+rank. The older and newer elements of the mass of the population were
+mingled but not yet combined. Everywhere there was friction, with
+occasions enough for irritation and confusion. The descendants of the
+primitive races were attached to their ancient ways. The Dorians were
+not less, but more tenacious of their traditional customs. And they were
+conscious of their vantage and knew they were able to insist on their
+preferences. As the props of the royal houses they could hope to make
+terms with them, or withdraw and let them fall, or turn to cast them
+down. The kings were compelled, on the one hand, to exert themselves to
+hold in control a subject people, and, on the other, to check the
+headstrong Dorian warriors. There was danger of the disruption of the
+kingdom, a lapse into anarchy, the rise of opposing factions, and a
+conflict destructive alike and equally of the welfare of all classes of
+the people.
+
+There was need of a statesman who could comprehend the problem, find a
+solution, commend it to the judgment of all classes, and gain their
+cordial consent to the renovation of the state upon a more equitable
+basis. He must be a man of large capacity, great attainments, thorough
+sincerity, earnest devotion, generous and self-sacrificing patriotism.
+He must have ability to conceive a high ideal, steadily contemplate it,
+and nevertheless consider the materials on which and the conditions
+under which he must do his work, maintain the sober judgment which
+discriminates between the ideal and the practicable, and exercise the
+rigid self-control which calmly renounces the best conceivable and
+resolutely attempts the best attainable. He must have regard to the
+ideas, sentiments, associations, sacred traditions, and immemorial
+customs of the several races and classes of the people. He must be
+prudently conservative and keenly cautious in shaping and applying new
+measures and methods. He must study and comprehend the inevitable
+oppositions of interests, and conceive modes of action which involve
+reasonable concessions accompanied by manifest compensations. He must
+ally himself with no party and yet command the confidence of all
+parties. Whatever prior advantage he may have had in the matters of
+birth, rank, and association, he must use to conciliate those who would
+be asked to make the largest apparent sacrifices, and so turn it to
+account for the benefit of those who might otherwise suspect and
+distrust him and fall away from his influence. He must be able to
+explain and commend the system he might devise, convince the several
+parties of its wisdom, persuade them to yield their preferences and
+accept the needful compromises, and move them to make a fair and full
+experiment of its provisions. Such a man was Lycurgus, if we may trust
+the persistent tradition that he was the framer of the new constitution
+and the second founder of the Dorian state of Sparta. From time to time
+the question has been raised, was the work of Lycurgus original or an
+imitation, shaped perhaps by his observations among the Dorian folk on
+the island of Crete? It does not matter what the answer shall be. The
+statesman who fitly adapts may be as wise and skilful as he who invents
+and creates. The man who loves his people, plans and labors for their
+good, will not peril their welfare by his experiments, disdaining the
+help of those who have wrought before him, and the guidance of his
+contemporaries in examples, the benign results of which he may have had
+opportunity to witness. The truth appears to be that Lycurgus had
+respect to the reverence of the people for the ancient ways, and
+retained as far as he was able the suitable elements of the primitive
+polity of the Homeric age. This was based on the Council of Chiefs or
+Elders and occasional meetings of an assembly of the people to listen
+and learn, to assent and give heed. From whatsoever sources he drew, he
+adapted the materials of his knowledge to the conditions under which his
+structure must be shaped, the circumstances under which it must get on
+its base and stand secure. Those who affirm the exemplary influence of
+the Cretan polity, hold fast to the tradition that Lycurgus visited the
+island and could not have failed to observe the features of society
+there, and could not have expelled from his mind the similarity of
+conditions among the two peoples and the expedients which the lawgiver
+of Crete had employed to meet and resolve the difficulties he
+encountered and secure the results he attained. It must, however, be
+remembered that similar peoples with common traditions and customs,
+under like circumstances may independently work out for themselves
+systems of society analogous in many particulars and varying only by
+adaptation to special conditions. If Lycurgus perceived what was
+suitable to the exigency, wrought it into a plan, moved the people to
+accept it, brought harmony out of discord, order out of confusion,
+contentment out of unrest, prosperity out of impending calamity, and
+rescued the commonwealth for the time, he deserved abundant honor and
+still deserves a permanent rank among the notable statesmen of the
+world.
+
+The constitution was unwritten. Its provisions were expressed in forms
+known as Rhaetra. The kings were retained. Their power was a guaranty of
+unity. They maintained the continuity of civic life. Each was a check
+upon the other. They were held under restraint by the senate. Its
+composition and functions were now fixed. It met not only to deliberate
+and advise, but to perform judicial offices. In case of capital offences
+the kings sat with the elders, each having, with every other member, but
+a single vote. The members were thirty in number, one for each of the
+ten clans of each of the three tribes, the kings representing their
+clans and sitting as equals with equals, though presiding at the
+sessions. The elders must be of the age of sixty and upward, and were
+appointed for life. The ancient division of the people was preserved;
+the households were grouped in thirties, the thirties in clans, the
+clans in tribes. Their capital was Sparta. It was not a compact walled
+town. It stretched into the open country and Dorians lived along the
+entire valley of the Eurotas. Not only those dwelling at the ford of the
+river, but all were acknowledged as Spartans. The kings were required to
+summon the heads of the families in the assembly once every month. The
+place was designated. The session was brief. To encourage brevity there
+was no provision for seats, but the freemen stood. Elders and other
+public officers were chosen. Official persons made known new laws,
+declarations of war and peace and treaties. The people simply voted aye
+or nay. The decision was according to the volume of sound. The session
+closed with a military review.
+
+The army: The Dorians had entered the land and held their place in it by
+force of arms. To maintain their power it was necessary to develop a
+military system and maintain a body of vigorous and able soldiers. All
+citizens were constituted guardians of the nation. To all their rights
+was attached the duty of military service. They composed a standing
+army. The valley became a camp. The men left their estates under the
+management of the women. The wife cared for the home, reared the young
+children, and superintended the laborers in the business of the farm.
+The soldier could not leave the valley or enter it without announcement.
+The older men visited their homes on "leave of absence," the younger by
+stealth at night. Emigration was desertion punishable by death. To have
+gold and silver was to risk the same penalty. The heavy iron money only
+could be held, and this was without value in foreign parts. The soldier
+was part of an animated machine. His simple duty was to obey. Speech was
+repressed. It became abrupt, brief, pithy. Relief was found at the
+Lesche, near the training-ground, where talk was often free and even
+merry. The whole aim of the discipline was to form the soldier. Marriage
+was delayed for the sake of vigorous offspring. The girls were trained
+for motherhood. They were subject to a system of athletic exercises, and
+engaged in contests of running, wrestling, and boxing. The boys were put
+under training at the age of eight years. They became accustomed to
+severe exercise, and were inured to patient and painful endurance. They
+were compelled to suffer hunger, thirst, cold, heat, and fatigue, and to
+bear torture without flinching or show of emotion. Their food was kept
+almost within the limits of war rations. To increase the amount and
+variety they were allowed to steal. But they were careful not to be
+detected, lest they should be severely punished. Likely this was a
+device for training them to stealthy and cautious movements. After the
+time of their maturity they continued gymnastic culture. They hunted the
+goats, boars, stags, and bears on the rugged heights of the Taygetus
+range. There was no system of liberal education; mental growth and
+development were not sought as ends. They were rather feared. Poetry and
+music were used to a limited degree, so far as they might be made
+conducive to forming the traits of the soldier.
+
+While the Spartans were solely occupied in preparation for the art of
+war, it is evident there must have been a population as wholly given to
+the pursuit of the practical arts, or the community could not have
+existed. There were two classes of laborers. The Perioeci dwelt in the
+rural townships. They were mainly of the mixed population of the lands,
+but there were Dorians among them. They were freemen; they held lands,
+and enjoyed certain rights of local government, voting for their
+magistrates in their townships. More and more they were trained for
+military service and entered the ranks as heavy-armed infantry. Some of
+them were shepherds and herdsmen. From them came all the skilled
+workmen, who wrought in the quarries and mines, provided building
+materials, shaped iron implements, made woollen stuff and leathern
+wares. Their number was three times as great as that of the citizens of
+the capital city. But over all their townships the Spartans held sway
+through the kings, the senate, and the assembly. These facts exhibit the
+civil polity which became so common during Greek and Roman times, and
+obtained again in Italy after the fall of the empire and the barbarian
+invasions, up to the time of the Renaissance.
+
+The Helots were a rural people dwelling on the lands of the Spartans
+which lay about the capital or in the Laconian towns. Some of them were
+in the country as villagers and rustics when the Dorians came. They
+remained upon their lands as they were before, but were forced to pay a
+part of the annual produce of barley, oil, and wine. Some of them were
+people made captive in the border wars. They were serfs. They were,
+however, wards of the state. No one could treat them as personal
+property. They could not be sold or given away. They belonged to the
+inventory of the farm. Their taxes were defined by law. More could not
+be exacted. They could not be harmed in person. They were of value to
+the state and therefore protected. More and more they were needed in the
+army, where they were respected and honored for energy and bravery.
+Grote says they were as happy as the peasantry of the most civilized and
+humane modern nations. They lived in their villages, enjoyed their homes
+and the companionship of their wives and children, and the common
+fellowship of their neighbors, with ample supply for their needs and
+comfort from the surplus product of their labor and apart from the eye
+of their masters. Still the Helot had in him the common sentiments of
+our nature. His state was servile and mean. It was not to be expected he
+would always remain content in his subjection to his superiors in social
+and civil life. More and more his discontent would menace the stability
+of the community. Especially when the exigencies of war should compel
+his rulers to place arms in his hands and enlist him for defence against
+the foreign foe, it would become necessary to keep close watch upon him
+and to use strong measures for the repression of his impulse toward
+freedom.
+
+Judged by the highest standards, Lycurgus certainly did not form the
+Laconians into an ideal nationality. He set up a military sovereignty in
+the land, and this demanded that the citizens should be soldiers, live
+in the camp, and devote themselves solely to the art of war. It is
+likely he perceived the imperfections of the system, anticipated its
+reflex effect upon the character and manners of the Spartans, and
+foreknew its weakness and the consequent perils of the people when it
+should inevitably be put to stress and strain by the aspirations of the
+subject classes after freedom and social equality. Could he speak for
+himself, he would doubtless say, with Solon, that he had not done the
+best he knew but the best he could, that his constitution was
+provisional and suited to the time, and that it was designed to serve as
+a bridge over which his countrymen could cross a torrent and reach
+safely the solid ground on which they might securely stand to rearrange
+their polity and form themselves on a more equitable and generous basis
+into a real and happy commonwealth.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+THEMISTOCLES
+
+(514-449 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Themistocles. [TN]]
+
+
+Themistocles, who raised Athens from a subordinate position to her proud
+rank as leader of the Grecian States, was born about the year B.C., 514.
+He was the son of Nicocles, an Athenian of moderate fortune, who,
+however, was connected with the priestly house of the Lycomedae; his
+mother, Abrotonon, or, according to others Euterpe, was not an Athenian
+citizen; and according to most authorities, not even a Greek, but either
+a native of Caria or of Thrace. The education which he received was like
+that of all Athenians of rank at the time, but Themistocles had no taste
+for the elegant arts which then began to form a prominent part in the
+education of Athenian youths; he applied himself with much more zeal to
+the pursuit of practical and useful knowledge. This, as well as the
+numerous anecdotes about his youthful wilfulness and waywardness,
+together with the sleepless nights which he is said to have passed in
+meditating on the trophies of Miltiades, are more or less clear symptoms
+of the character which he subsequently displayed as a general and a
+statesman. His mind was early bent upon great things, and was incapable
+of being diverted from them by reverses, scruples, or difficulties. The
+great object of his life appears to have been to make Athens great. The
+powers with which nature had endowed him were quickness of perception,
+an accurate judgment of the course which was to be taken on sudden and
+extraordinary emergencies, and sagacity in calculating the consequences
+of his own actions; and these were the qualities which Athens during her
+wars with Persia stood most in need of. His ambition was unbounded, but
+he was at the same time persuaded that it could not reach its end unless
+Athens was the first among the Grecian States; and as he was not very
+scrupulous about the means that he employed for these ends, he came into
+frequent conflict with Aristides the Just, who had nothing at heart but
+the welfare of his country and no desire for personal aggrandizement.
+
+In the year 483 B.C., when Aristides was sent into exile by ostracism,
+Themistocles, who had for several years taken an active part in public
+affairs, and was one of the chief authors of the banishment of his
+rival, remained in the almost undivided possession of the popular favor,
+and the year after, B.C. 482, he was elected archon eponymus of Athens.
+The city was at that time involved in a war with AEgina, which then
+possessed the strongest navy in Greece, and with which Athens was unable
+to cope. It was in this year that Themistocles conceived and partly
+carried into effect the plans by which he intended to raise the power of
+Athens. His first object was to increase the navy of Athens; and this he
+did ostensibly to enable Athens to contend with AEgina, but his real
+intention was to put his country in a position to meet the danger of a
+second Persian invasion, with which Greece was threatened. The manner in
+which he raised the naval power was this. Hitherto the people of Athens
+had been accustomed to divide among themselves the yearly revenues of
+the silver-mines of Laurion. In the year of his archonship these
+revenues were unusually large, and he persuaded his countrymen to forego
+their personal advantage, and to apply these revenues to the enlargement
+of their fleet. His advice was followed, and the fleet was raised to the
+number of two hundred sail. It was probably at the same time that he
+induced the Athenians to pass a decree that for the purpose of keeping
+up their navy, twenty new ships should be built every year. Athens soon
+after made peace with AEgina, as Xerxes was at Sardis making preparations
+for invading Greece with all the forces he could muster. At the same
+time Themistocles was actively engaged in allaying the disputes and
+hostile feelings which existed among the several states of Greece. He
+acted, however, with great severity toward those who espoused the cause
+of the Persians, and a Greek interpreter, who accompanied the envoys of
+Xerxes that came to Athens to demand earth and water as a sign of
+submission, was put to death for having made use of the Greek tongue in
+the service of the common enemy.
+
+After affairs among the Greeks were tolerably settled, a detachment of
+the allied troops of the Greeks was sent out to take possession of
+Tempe, under the command of Themistocles, of Athens, and Euaenetus, of
+Sparta; but on finding that there they would be overwhelmed by the host
+of the barbarians, they returned to the Corinthian isthmus. When Xerxes
+arrived in Pieria, the Greek fleet took its post near Artemisium on the
+north coast of Euboea, under the command of the Spartan admiral
+Eurybiades, under whom Themistocles condescended to serve in order not
+to cause new dissensions among the Greeks, although Athens alone
+furnished one hundred and twenty-seven ships, and supplied the
+Chalcidians with twenty others; while the Spartan contingent was
+incomparably smaller. When the Persian fleet, notwithstanding the severe
+losses which it had sustained by a storm, determined to sail round the
+eastern and southern coasts of Euboea, and then up the Euripus, in order
+to cut off the Greek fleet at Artemisium, the Greeks were so surprised
+and alarmed that Themistocles had great difficulty in inducing them to
+remain and maintain their station. The Euboeans, who perceived the
+advantages of the plan of Themistocles, rewarded him with the sum of
+fifty talents, part of which he gave to the Spartan Eurybiades and the
+Corinthian Adimantus to induce them to remain at Artemisium. In the
+battle which then took place, the Greeks gained considerable advantage,
+though the victory was not decisive. A storm and a second engagement
+near Artemisium, severely injured the fleet of the Persians, but the
+Greeks also sustained great losses, as half of their ships were partly
+destroyed and partly rendered unfit for further service. When at the
+same time they received intelligence of the defeat of Leonidas, at
+Thermopylae, the Greeks resolved to retreat from Artemisium, and sailed
+to the Saronic gulf.
+
+Xerxes was now advancing from Thermopylae, and Athens trembled for her
+existence, while the Peloponnesians were bent upon seeking shelter and
+safety in their peninsula, and upon fortifying themselves by a wall
+across the Corinthian isthmus. On the approach of the danger the
+Athenians had sent to Delphi to consult the oracle about the means they
+should employ for their safety, and the god had commanded Athens to
+defend herself behind wooden walls. This oracle, which probably had been
+given at the suggestion of Themistocles, was now also interpreted by him
+as referring to the fleet, and his advice to seek safety in the fleet
+was followed. He then further moved that the Athenians should abandon
+the city to the care of its tutelary deity, that the women, children,
+and infirm should be removed to Salamis, AEgina, or Troezen, and that the
+men should embark in the ships. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting of
+three hundred and eighty ships, assembled at Salamis, still under the
+supreme command of Eurybiades. When the Persians had made themselves
+masters of Attica, and Athens was seen in flames at a distance, some of
+the commanders of the fleet, under the influence of fear, began to make
+preparation for an immediate retreat. Themistocles saw the disastrous
+results of such a course, and exerted all his powers of persuasion to
+induce the commanders of the fleet to maintain their post; when all
+attempts proved ineffectual, Themistocles had recourse to threats, and
+thus induced Eurybiades to stay. The example of the admiral was followed
+by the other commanders also. In the meantime the Persian fleet arrived
+in the Saronic gulf, and the fears of the Peloponnesians were revived
+and doubled, and nothing seemed to be able to keep them together. At
+this last and critical moment Themistocles devised a plan to compel them
+to remain and face the enemy. He sent a message to the Persian admiral,
+informing him that the Greeks were on the point of dispersing, and that
+if the Persians would attack them while they were assembled, they would
+easily conquer them all at once, whereas it would be otherwise necessary
+to defeat them one after another.
+
+This apparently well-meant advice was eagerly taken up by the enemy, who
+now hastened, as he thought, to destroy the fleet of the Greeks. But the
+event proved the wisdom of Themistocles. The unwieldy armament of the
+Persians was unable to perform any movements in the narrow straits
+between the island of Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks gained a most
+complete and brilliant victory, for they only lost forty ships, while
+the enemy lost two hundred, or according to Ctesias, even five hundred.
+Very soon after the victory was decided, Xerxes with the remains of the
+fleet left the Attic coast and sailed toward the Hellespont. The battles
+of Artemisium and Salamis occurred in the same year, B.C. 480.
+
+When the Greeks were informed of the departure of Xerxes, they pursued
+him as far as Andros, without gaining sight of his fleet, and
+Themistocles proposed to continue the chase. But he gave way to the
+opposition that was made to this plan, and consented not to drive the
+vanquished enemy to despair. The Greek fleet therefore only stayed some
+time among the Cyclades, to chastise those islanders who had been
+unfaithful to the national cause. Themistocles, in the meantime, in
+order to get completely rid of the king and his fleet, sent a message to
+him, exhorting him to hasten back to Asia as speedily as possible, for
+otherwise he would be in danger of having his retreat cut off.
+Themistocles availed himself of the stay of the Greek fleet among the
+Cyclades for the purpose of enriching himself at the cost of the
+islanders, partly by extorting money from them by way of punishment, and
+partly by accepting bribes for securing them impunity for their conduct.
+He was now, however, the greatest man in Greece, his fame spread
+everywhere, and all acknowledged that the country had been saved through
+his wisdom and resolution. But the confederate Greeks, actuated by
+jealousy, awarded to him only the second prize; at Sparta, whither he
+went, as Herodotus says, to be honored, he received a chaplet of
+olive-leaves--a reward which they had bestowed upon their own admiral
+Eurybiades--and the best chariot that the city possessed, and on his
+return three hundred knights escorted him as far as Tegea in Arcadia.
+
+When the Persian army had been again defeated at Plataea and Mycale in
+B.C. 479, and when the Athenians had rebuilt their private dwellings, it
+was also resolved, on the advice of Themistocles, to restore the
+fortifications of Athens, but on a larger scale than they had been
+before, and more in accordance with the proud position which the city
+now occupied in Greece. This plan excited the fear and jealousy of the
+rival states, and especially of Sparta, which sent an embassy to Athens,
+and under the veil of friendship, which ill concealed its selfish
+policy, endeavored to persuade the Athenians not to fortify the city.
+Themistocles, who saw through their designs, undertook the task of
+defeating them with their own weapons. He advised his countrymen to
+dismiss the Spartan ambassadors, and to promise that Athenian envoys
+should be sent to Sparta to treat with them there respecting the
+fortifications. He himself offered to go as one of the envoys, but he
+directed the Athenians not to let his colleagues follow him until the
+walls, on which all hands should be employed during his absence, should
+be raised to such a height as to afford sufficient protection against
+any attack that might be made upon them. His advice was followed, and
+Themistocles, after his arrival at Sparta, took no steps toward opening
+the negotiations, but pretended that he was obliged to wait for the
+arrival of his colleagues. When he was informed that the walls had
+reached a sufficient height, and when he could drop the mask with
+safety, he gave the Spartans a well-deserved rebuke, returned home, and
+the walls were completed without any hindrance. He then proceeded to
+carry into effect the chief thing which remained to be done to make
+Athens the first maritime power of Greece. He induced the Athenians to
+fortify the three ports of Phalerum, Munychia, and Piraeus by a double
+range of walls.
+
+[Illustration: The victors of Salamis.]
+
+When Athens was thus raised to the station on which it had been the
+ambition of Themistocles to place it, his star began to sink, though he
+still continued for some time to enjoy the fruits of his memorable
+deeds. He was conscious of the services he had done his country, and
+never scrupled to show that he knew his own value. His extortion and
+avarice, which made him ready to do anything, and by which he
+accumulated extraordinary wealth, could not fail to raise enemies
+against him. But what perhaps contributed more to his downfall was his
+constant watchfulness in maintaining and promoting the interests of
+Athens against the encroachments of Sparta, which in its turn was ever
+looking out for an opportunity to crush him. The great men who had grown
+up by his side at Athens, such as Cimon, and who were no less indebted
+to him for their greatness in the eyes of Greece than to their own
+talents, were his natural rivals, and succeeded in gradually supplanting
+him in the favor of the people. They also endeavored to represent him as
+a man of too much power, and as dangerous to the public. The consequence
+of all this was that in B.C. 472, he was banished from Athens by the
+ostracism. He took up his residence at Argos, where he was still
+residing when, in the same year, B.C. 472, Pausanias was put to death at
+Sparta for his ambitious and treacherous designs, and his fate involved
+that of Themistocles. The Spartans, in their search to discover more
+traces of the plot of Pausanias, found a letter of Themistocles from
+which it was evident that he had been acquainted with his plans. This
+was sufficient for the Spartans to ground upon it the charge that
+Themistocles had been an accomplice in his crime, and ambassadors were
+forthwith sent to Athens to demand that he should suffer the same
+punishment as Pausanias.
+
+This charge was no less welcome to his enemies at Athens than the
+discovery of his letter had been to the Spartans. Orders were
+consequently issued to arrest and convey him to Athens; and foreseeing
+that his destruction would be unavoidable if he should fall into the
+hands of his enemies, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to the opposite
+coast of Epirus, where he took refuge at the court of Admetus, king of
+the Molossians. On his arrival the king was absent, but his Queen Phthia
+received him kindly, and pointed out to him in what manner he might win
+the sympathy of Admetus. When the king returned home, Themistocles,
+seated on the hearth and holding the child of Admetus in his arms,
+implored the king not to deliver him up to his persecutors, who traced
+him to the court of the Molossians. It is stated that Themistocles was
+here joined by his wife and children. The king not only granted his
+request, but provided him with the means of reaching the coast of the
+AEgean, whence he intended to proceed to Asia and seek refuge at the
+court of the king of Persia. From Pydna he sailed in a merchant ship to
+the coast of Asia Minor. At Ephesus he received such part of his
+property as his friends had been able to wrest from the hands of his
+enemies at Athens, together with that which he had left at Argos.
+
+A few months after his arrival in Asia, Xerxes was assassinated (B.C.
+465), and was after a short interval succeeded by Artaxerxes. Various
+adventures are told of Themistocles before he reached the residence of
+the Persian king. On his arrival he sent him a letter, in which he
+acknowledged the evils he had inflicted upon his predecessor; but at the
+same time claimed the merit of having saved him from destruction by his
+timely advice. He added that his present exile was only the consequence
+of his great zeal for the interests of the king of Persia. He did not
+ask for an immediate interview with the king, as he was yet unacquainted
+with the language and the manners of the Persians, to acquire which he
+requested a year's time. During this period he applied himself so
+zealously and with such success to these studies that at the close of
+the year, when he was presented to the king, he is said to have excited
+the jealousy of the courtiers, and was most kindly received by the king,
+to whom he held out prospects of conquering Greece by his assistance.
+The king became so attached to him, that Themistocles was always in his
+company.
+
+But death overtook him at the age of sixty-five, before any of his plans
+were carried into effect. Most of the ancient writers state that he put
+an end to his life by poison, or according to another strange story, by
+drinking the blood of a bull, because he despaired of being able to
+fulfil his promises to the king. The motive for his suicide is very
+questionable. Reflection on his past life and upon the glory of his
+former rivals at Athens, are much more likely to have rendered him
+dissatisfied with life. Before he took the poison he is said to have
+requested his friends to convey his remains secretly to Attica, and in
+later times a tomb which was believed to contain them existed in Piraeus.
+In the market-place of Magnesia a splendid monument was erected to his
+memory, and his descendants in that place continued to be distinguished
+by certain privileges down to the time of Plutarch.
+
+
+
+
+PERICLES
+
+(499-429 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Pericles. [TN]]
+
+
+Pericles, the greatest statesman of ancient Greece, was born of
+distinguished parentage in the early part of the fifth century B.C. His
+father was that Xanthippus who won the victory over the Persians at
+Mycale, 479 B.C.; and by his mother, Agariste, the niece of the great
+Athenian reformer, Cleisthenes, he was connected with the princely line
+of Sicyon and the great house of the Alcmaeonidae. He received an
+elaborate education, but of all his teachers the one whom he most
+reverenced was the serene and humane philosopher, Anaxagoras. Pericles
+was conspicuous all through his career for the singular dignity of his
+manners, the Olympian grandeur of his eloquence, his "majestic
+intelligence" in Plato's phrase, his sagacity, probity, and profound
+Athenian patriotism. Both in voice and in appearance he was so like
+Pisistratus, who had once overturned the Athenian republic and ruled as
+a king, that for some time he was afraid to come forward in political
+life. When he entered on public life Aristides had only recently died,
+Themistocles was an exile, and Cimon was fighting the battles of his
+country abroad. Although the family to which he belonged was good, it
+did not rank among the first in either wealth or influence, yet so
+transcendent were the abilities of Pericles that he rapidly rose to the
+highest power in the state as the leader of the dominant democracy. The
+sincerity of his attachment to the popular party has been questioned,
+but without a shadow of evidence. At any rate, the measures which,
+either personally or through his adherents, he brought forward and
+caused to be passed, were always in favor of extending the privileges of
+the poorer class of the citizens, and, if he diminished the spirit of
+reverence for the ancient institutions of public life, he enlisted an
+immense body of citizens on the side of law. He extended enormously, if
+he did not originate, the practice of distributing gratuities among the
+citizens for military service, for acting as dicast and in the Ecclesia
+and the like, as well as for admission to the theatre--then really a
+great school for manners and instruction. Pericles seems to have grasped
+very clearly, and to have held as firmly, the modern radical idea, that
+as the state is supported by the taxation of the body of the citizens,
+it must govern with a view to general interests rather than to those of
+a caste alone. About 463, Pericles, through the agency of his follower,
+Ephialtes, struck a great blow at the influence of the oligarchy, by
+causing the decree to be passed which deprived the Areopagus of its most
+important political powers. Shortly after the democracy obtained another
+triumph in the ostracism of Cimon (461). During the next few years the
+political course pursued by Pericles is less clearly intelligible to us,
+but it is safe to say that in general his attitude was hostile to the
+desire for foreign conquest or territorial aggrandizement, so prevalent
+among his ambitious fellow-citizens. Shortly after the battle of Tanagra
+(457), in which he showed conspicuous courage, Pericles magnanimously
+carried the measure for the recall of Cimon. His successful expeditions
+to the Thracian Chersonese, and to Sinope on the Black Sea, together
+with his colonies planted at Naxos, Andros, Oreus in Euboea, Brea in
+Macedonia, and AEgina, as well as Thurii in Italy, and Amphipolis on the
+Strymon, did much to extend and confirm the naval supremacy of Athens,
+and afford a means of subsistence for her poorer citizens. But his
+greatest project was to form, in concert with the other Hellenic states,
+a grand Hellenic confederation in order to put an end to the mutually
+destructive wars of kindred peoples, and to make Greece one mighty
+nation, fit to front the outlying world. The idea was not less sagacious
+than it was grand. Had it been accomplished, the semi-barbarous
+Macedonians would have menaced the civilized Greeks in vain, and even
+Rome at a later period, might perhaps have found the Adriatic, and not
+the Euphrates, the limit of her empire. But the Spartan aristocrats were
+utterly incapable of appreciating such exalted patriotism, or of
+understanding the political necessity for it, and by their secret
+intrigues the well-planned scheme was brought to nothing. Athens and
+Sparta were already in that mood toward each other which rendered the
+disaster of the Peloponnesian war inevitable. When the Spartans, in 448,
+restored to the Delphians the guardianship of the temple and treasures
+of Delphi, of which they had been deprived by the Phocians, the
+Athenians immediately after marched an army thither and reinstated the
+latter. Three years later an insurrection broke out in the tributary
+Megara and Euboea, and the Spartans again appeared in the field as the
+allies of the insurgents. The position of Athens was critical. Pericles
+wisely declined to fight against all his enemies at once. A bribe of ten
+talents sent the Spartans home, and the insurgents were then thoroughly
+subdued. The thirty years' peace with Sparta (445) left him free to
+carry out his schemes for the internal prosperity of Athens.
+
+Cimon was now dead and was succeeded in the leadership of the
+aristocratic party by Thucydides, son of Melesias, who in 444 B.C. made
+a strong effort to overthrow the supremacy of Pericles by attacking him
+in the popular assembly for squandering the public money on buildings
+and in festivals and amusements. Thucydides made an effective speech;
+but Pericles immediately rose and offered to execute the buildings at
+his own expense, if the citizens would allow him to put his own name
+upon them instead of theirs. The sarcasm was successful. Thucydides was
+ostracized, and to the end of his life, Pericles reigned the undisputed
+master of the public policy of Athens. During the rest of his career
+"there was," says the historian Thucydides, "in name a democracy, but in
+reality a government in the hands of the first man." And the Athens of
+his day was the home of AEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Anaxagoras,
+Zeno, Protagoras, Socrates, as well as Myron and Phidias; while there
+flourished at the same time, but elsewhere in Greece, Herodotus,
+Hippocrates, Pindar, Empedocles, and Democritus. The centre of this
+splendid group was Pericles, of whom the truthful pen of Thucydides
+records that he never did anything unworthy of his high position, that
+he did not flatter the people or oppress his adversaries, and that with
+all his unlimited command of the public purse, he was personally
+incorruptible.
+
+Soon after this the Samian war broke out, in which Pericles gained high
+renown as a naval commander. This war originated in a quarrel between
+Miletus and the island of Samos, in which Athens was led to take part
+with the former. The Samians, after an obstinate struggle, were beaten,
+and a peace was concluded (439). The position in which Athens then stood
+toward many of the Greek states was peculiar. Since the time of the
+Persian invasion, she had been the leader of the confederacy formed to
+resist the attacks of the powerful enemy, and the guardian of the
+confederate treasury kept in the isle of Delos. Pericles caused the
+treasury to be removed to Athens, and commuting the contingents of the
+allies for money, enormously increased the contributions to the
+patriotic fund, Athens herself undertaking to protect the confederacy.
+The grand charge against Pericles is that he applied the money thus
+obtained to other purposes than those for which it was designed; that,
+in short, he adorned and enriched Athens with the spoils of the allied
+states. To his mind Hellas was subordinate to Athens, and he confounded
+the splendor of the dominant city with the splendor of Greece, in a
+manner possible to a man of poetic imagination, hardly to a man of the
+highest honor. His enemies, who dared not attack himself, struck at him
+in the persons of his friends. Phidias was flung into prison for the
+impiety of introducing portraits of himself and Pericles into the battle
+of the Amazons depicted on the shield of the goddess Athena in the
+Parthenon; the brilliant Aspasia, the famous mistress of Pericles, was
+arraigned on a charge of impiety, and only acquitted through the
+eloquence of Pericles on her behalf; while the aged Anaxagoras was
+driven from the city.
+
+It is unnecessary to give a detailed account of all that Pericles did to
+make his native city the most glorious in the ancient world. Greek
+architecture and sculpture under his patronage reached perfection. To
+him Athens owed the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, left unfinished at his
+death, the Propylaea, the Odeum, and numberless other public and sacred
+edifices; he also liberally encouraged music and the drama; and during
+his life, industry and commerce were in so flourishing a condition that
+prosperity was universal in Attica.
+
+At length, in 431, the long foreseen and inevitable Peloponnesian war
+broke out between Athens and Sparta. The plan of Pericles was for Athens
+to adopt a defensive attitude, to defend the city itself, leaving Attica
+to be ravaged by the enemy, but to cripple the power of Sparta by
+harassing its coasts. The story of the war must be told elsewhere; here
+it is enough to say that the result was unfavorable to Athens for
+reasons for which Pericles was only in small part to blame. He trusted
+in the ultimate success of Athens, both from her superior wealth and
+from her possessing the command of the sea, but he had not calculated
+upon the deterioration in her citizens' spirit, nor upon the robust
+courage of the Boeotian and Spartan infantry. Nor was his advice to keep
+behind the city walls rather than face the enemy in the field, best
+calculated to arouse the Athenians' courage. The plague ravaged the city
+in 430, and in the autumn of the following year, Pericles died after a
+lingering fever. His two sons had been carried off by the plague, he had
+been harassed by a charge of peculation brought by Cleon, and the actual
+infliction of a fine by the dicastery, while he had been without office
+from July, 430, to July, 429, but before the last he recovered his hold
+over the Ecclesia, and was gratified in the closing days of his life by
+its legitimation of his and Aspasia's son.
+
+As a statesman his greatest fault was a failure to foresee that personal
+government is ultimately ruinous to a nation. He taught the people to
+follow a leader, but he could not perpetuate a descent of leaders like
+himself. Hence we cannot wonder, when days of trouble broke over Athens,
+how that men spoke bitterly of Pericles and all his glory. Yet he was a
+lofty-minded statesman, inspired by noble aspirations, and his heart
+was full of a noble love for the city and her citizens. Plutarch tells
+the story that, as he lay dying and apparently unconscious, his friends
+around his bed were passing in review the great achievements of his
+life, and the nine trophies which he had erected at different times for
+so many victories. The dying patriot quietly interrupted with the
+characteristic sentence: "What you praise in my life belongs partly to
+good fortune, and is, at best, common to me with many generals. But that
+of which I am proudest, you have left unnoticed--no Athenian has ever
+put on mourning through any act of mine."
+
+
+
+
+SOCRATES
+
+From the French of FENELON
+
+(468-399 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Socrates. [TN]]
+
+
+Socrates, who, by the consent of all antiquity, has been considered as
+the most virtuous and enlightened of Pagan philosophers, was a citizen
+of Athens, and belonged to the town of Alopece.
+
+He was born in the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad. His father,
+Sophroniscus, was a sculptor; and his mother, Phanarete, a midwife.
+
+He first studied philosophy under Anaxagoras, and next under Archelaus,
+the natural philosopher. But finding that all these vain speculations
+concerning natural objects served no useful purpose, and had no
+influence in rendering the philosopher a better man, he devoted himself
+to the study of ethics; and (as Cicero, in the third book of his
+Tusculan Questions, observes) may be said to be the founder of moral
+philosophy among the Greeks. In the first book, speaking of him still
+more particularly and more extensively, he expresses himself thus: "It
+is my opinion (and it is an opinion in which all are agreed) that
+Socrates was the first who, calling off the attention of philosophy from
+the investigation of secrets which nature has concealed (but to which
+alone all preceding philosophers had attached themselves), engaged her
+in those things which concern the duties of common life; his object was
+to investigate the nature of virtue and vice; and to point out the
+characteristics of good and evil; saying, that the investigation of
+celestial phenomena was a subject far above the reach of our powers;
+and that even were they more within the reach of our faculties, it could
+have no influence in regulating our conduct."
+
+That part of philosophy, then, whose province is the cultivation of
+morals, and which embraces every age and condition of life, he made his
+only study. This new mode of philosophizing was the better received on
+this account, that he who was the founder of it, fulfilling with the
+most scrupulous care all the duties of a good citizen, whether in peace
+or in war, enforced by example the precepts which he taught.
+
+Of all the philosophers who have acquired celebrity, he (as Lucian in
+his dialogue of the Parasite remarks) was the only one that ever
+subjected himself to the hardships of war. He served two campaigns, in
+both of which, though unsuccessful, he served in person and exhibited a
+manly courage. In the one, he saved the life of Xenophon, who when
+retreating, had fallen from his horse and would have been killed by the
+enemy, had not Socrates taking him upon his shoulders, removed him from
+the danger and carried him several furlongs, till his horse, which had
+run off, was brought back. This fact is related by Strabo.
+
+In his other campaign, the Athenians having been entirely defeated and
+put to flight, Socrates was the last to retreat, and showed such a stern
+aspect that the pursuers of those who fled, seeing him every moment
+ready to turn upon them, never had the boldness to attack him. This
+testimony is given him by Athenaeus.
+
+After these two expeditions, Socrates never set a foot out of Athens. In
+this, his conduct was very different from that of the other
+philosophers, who all devoted a part of their life to travelling, that
+by intercourse with the learned of other countries they might acquire
+new knowledge. But as that kind of philosophy to which Socrates limited
+himself led a man to use every effort to know himself rather than to
+burden his mind with knowledge which has no influence on moral conduct,
+he thought it his duty to dispense with tedious travelling, in which
+nothing was to be learned which he might not learn at Athens among his
+countrymen, for whose reformation, besides, he thought his labors ought
+to be devoted, rather than to that of strangers. And as moral philosophy
+is a science which is taught better by example than by precept, he laid
+it down as a rule to himself, to follow and practise all that right
+reason and the most rigid virtue could demand.
+
+It was in compliance with this maxim that, when elected one of the
+senators of the city, and having taken the oath to give his opinion
+"according to the laws," he peremptorily refused to subscribe to the
+sentence by which the people, in opposition to the laws, had condemned
+to death nine officers; and though the people took offence at it, and
+some of the most powerful even threw out severe menaces against him, he
+always firmly adhered to his resolution; thinking it inconsistent with
+the principles of a man of virtue or honor, to act contrary to his oath
+merely to please the people. Except on this single occasion, we know not
+whether he ever acted in a civil capacity; but insulated as the occasion
+was, he acquired such reputation by it at Athens, for probity and the
+other virtues, that he was more respected there than the magistrates
+themselves.
+
+He was very careful of his person, and blamed those who paid no
+attention to themselves, or who affected exterior negligence. He was
+always neat, dressed in a decent, becoming manner; observing a just
+medium between what might seem gross and rustic, and what savored of
+pride and effeminacy.
+
+Though furnished with few of the blessings of fortune, he always
+maintained perfect disinterestedness by receiving no remuneration from
+those who attended on his instructions. By such conduct he condemned the
+practice of the other philosophers, whose custom it was to sell their
+lessons, and to tax their scholars higher or lower, according to the
+degree of reputation they had acquired.
+
+Thus Socrates, as Xenophon relates, used to say that he could not
+conceive how a man, whose object it was to teach virtue, should think of
+turning it to gain; as if to form a man of virtue, and to make of his
+pupil a good friend, were not the richest advantages and the most solid
+profit with which his cares could be rewarded.
+
+It must further be remarked that Socrates kept no class, as did the
+other philosophers, who had a fixed place where their scholars
+assembled, and where lectures were delivered to them at stated hours.
+Socrates' manner of philosophizing consisted simply in conversing with
+those who chanced to be where he was, without any regard to time or
+place.
+
+He was always poor; but in his poverty so contented, that though to be
+rich was within the reach of a wish, by receiving the presents which his
+friends and scholars often urged him to accept, he always returned them;
+to the great displeasure of his wife, who had no relish for carrying
+philosophy to such a height. In regard to food and clothes, so hardy was
+his manner of life that Antiphon, the Sophist, sometimes reproached him,
+by saying that he had not a slave so miserable as would be contented
+with it: "For," said he, "your food is disgustingly mean; besides, not
+only are you always very poorly dressed, but winter or summer you have
+the same robe; and never anything above it: with this, you on all
+occasions, go barefoot."
+
+But Socrates proved to him that he was greatly mistaken if he thought
+that happiness depended on wealth or finery; and that, poor as he might
+seem to him, he was in fact happier than he. "I consider," said he,
+"that as to want nothing is the exclusive prerogative of the gods, so
+the fewer wants a man has, the nearer he approaches to the condition of
+the gods."
+
+It was impossible that virtue so pure as that of Socrates should have no
+effect in exciting admiration, especially in a city such as Athens,
+where that example must have appeared very extraordinary. For those very
+persons who have not the happiness to follow virtue themselves, cannot
+refrain from doing justice to those who do follow it. This soon gained
+Socrates the universal esteem of his fellow-citizens, and attracted to
+him many scholars of every age; by whom the advantages of listening to
+his instructions, and engaging in conversation with him, were preferred
+to the most fascinating pleasure and the most agreeable amusements.
+
+What rendered the manner of Socrates peculiarly engaging was, that
+though in his own practice he maintained the most rigid severity, yet to
+others he was in the highest degree gentle and complaisant. The first
+principle with which he wished to inspire his youthful auditors was
+piety and reverence for the gods; he then allured them as much as
+possible to observe temperance, and to avoid voluptuousness;
+representing to them how the latter deprives a man of liberty, the
+richest treasure of which he is possessed.
+
+His manner of treating the science of morals was the more insinuating,
+as he always conducted his subject in the way of conversation and
+without any apparent method. For without proposing any point for
+discussion, he kept by that which chance first presented. Like one who
+himself wished information, he first put a question, and then, profiting
+by the concessions of his respondent, brought him to a proposition
+subversive of that which in the beginning of the debate had been
+considered as a first principle. He spent one part of the day in
+conferences of this kind, on _morals_. To these everyone was welcome,
+and according to the testimony of Xenophon, none departed from them
+without becoming _a better man_.
+
+Though Socrates has left us nothing in writing, yet by what we find in
+the works of Plato and Xenophon, it is easy to judge both of the
+principles of his ethical knowledge and of the manner in which he
+communicated them. The uniformity observable (especially in his manner
+of disputing), as transmitted by these two scholars of Socrates, is a
+certain proof of the method which he followed.
+
+It will be difficult to conceive how a person who exhorted all men to
+honor the gods, and who preached, so to speak, to the young to avoid and
+abandon every vice, should himself be condemned to death for impiety
+against the gods received at Athens, and as a corrupter of youth. This
+infamously unjust proceeding took place in a time of disorder and under
+the seditious government of the thirty tyrants. The occasion of it was
+as follows:
+
+Critias, the most powerful of these thirty tyrants, had formerly, as
+well as Alcibiades, been a disciple of Socrates. But both of them being
+weary of a philosophy the maxims of which would not yield to their
+ambition and intemperance, they, at length, totally abandoned it.
+Critias, though formerly a scholar of Socrates, became his most
+inveterate enemy. This we are to trace to that firmness with which
+Socrates reproached him for a certain shameful vice; and to those means
+by which he endeavored to thwart his indulging in it. Hence it was that
+Critias, having become one of the thirty tyrants, had nothing more at
+heart than the destruction of Socrates, who, besides, not being able to
+brook their tyranny, was wont to speak against them with much freedom.
+For, seeing that they were always putting to death citizens and powerful
+men, he could not refrain from observing, in a company where he was,
+that if he to whom the care of cattle was committed, exhibited them
+every day leaner and fewer in number, it would be very strange if he
+would not himself confess that he was a bad cow-herd.
+
+Critias and Charicles, two of the most powerful of the thirty tyrants,
+feeling the weight of the allusion fall upon themselves, first enacted
+that no one should teach in Athens the art of reasoning. Although
+Socrates never had professed that art, yet it was easy to discover that
+he was aimed at; and that it was intended thus to deprive him of the
+liberty of conversing as usual, on moral subjects, with those who
+resorted to him.
+
+That he might have a precise explanation of this law, he went to the two
+authors of it; but as he embarrassed them by the subtlety of his
+questions, they plainly told him that they prohibited him from entering
+into conversation with young people.
+
+But, seeing Socrates' reputation was so great that to attack him and
+serve him with an indictment would have drawn upon them public odium, it
+was thought necessary to begin by discrediting him in the view of the
+public. This was attempted by the comedy of Aristophanes entitled "The
+Clouds," in which Socrates was represented as teaching the art of making
+that which is just appear unjust.
+
+The comedy having had its effect, by the ridicule which it threw upon
+Socrates, Melitus brought a capital accusation against him, in which he
+alleged; first, that he did not honor those as gods, who were
+acknowledged such at Athens, and that he was introducing new ones;
+secondly, that he corrupted the youth; that is to say, that he taught
+them not to respect their parents, or the magistrates. The accuser
+required that for these two crimes he should be condemned to death.
+
+Enraged as the tyrants were (and especially Critias and Charicles)
+against Socrates, it is certain that they would have been very reluctant
+to condemn him, had he availed himself in the least of the favorable
+circumstances in his case. But the intrepidity and resolution with which
+he heard the accusation, refusing even to pay any fine, as that would
+have been to avow himself in some degree culpable; and especially the
+firmness with which he addressed the judges when called upon to state
+the punishment which he thought he deserved, enraged them against him.
+For, with confidence in his integrity, he answered them, "That he
+thought he deserved to be maintained at the public expense during the
+rest of his life." This whetted afresh the resentment of the thirty
+tyrants, who caused him now to be condemned to death.
+
+Lysias, a very eloquent philosopher, had composed an apologetical
+oration that Socrates might avail himself of it, and pronounce it before
+the judges, when called to appear before them. Socrates having heard it,
+acknowledged it to be a very good one, but returned it, saying that it
+did not suit him. "But why," replied Lysias, "will it not suit you,
+since you think it a good one?"
+
+"Oh, my friend!" returned Socrates, "may there not be shoes and
+different articles of dress very good in themselves, and yet not
+suitable for me?"
+
+The fact is, though the oration was very fine and energetic, yet the
+manner in which it was conducted, did not suit the uprightness and
+candor of Socrates.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Socrates.]
+
+Now condemned to death, Socrates was put into prison, where some days
+after, he died by drinking the poison hemlock. For this was the
+instrument of death, then used by the Athenians, in the case of those
+who were condemned for capital crimes.
+
+According to Diogenes Laertius, Socrates was twice married, but of the
+two wives he has given him, we know nothing except of the famous
+Xantippe, by whom he had a son named Tamprocles; Xantippe rendered
+herself celebrated by her ill-humor, and by the exercise which she
+afforded to the patience of Socrates. He had married her, he said, from
+a persuasion that if he were able to bear with her bad temper, there
+could be nothing which he might not support.
+
+He died in the first year of the 95th Olympiad, aged seventy.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES
+
+From the French of FENELON
+
+(412-323 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Diogenes. [TN]]
+
+
+Diogenes the Cynic, son of Icesius a banker, was born about the 91st
+Olympiad, in Sinope, a city of Paphlagonia. He was accused of having
+forged money, in concert with his father. Icesius was arrested, and died
+in prison. Alarmed at the fate of his father, Diogenes fled to Athens.
+When he had arrived at that city, he inquired for Antisthenes; but the
+latter, having resolved never to take a scholar, repulsed him and beat
+him off with his stick. Diogenes was by no means discouraged by this
+treatment. "Strike--fear not," said he to him, bowing his head; "you
+shall never find a stick hard enough to make me run off, so long as you
+continue to speak." Overcome by the importunity of Diogenes, Antisthenes
+yielded, and permitted him to become his scholar.
+
+Banished from his native country and without any resource, Diogenes was
+reduced to great indigence. He perceived one day, a mouse running
+briskly up and down, without any fear of being surprised by the approach
+of night, without any anxiety about a lodging-place, and even without
+thinking of food. This reconciled him to his misery. He resolved to live
+at his ease, without constraint, and to dispense with everything which
+was not absolutely necessary for the preservation of life. He doubled
+his cloak, that by rolling himself up in it, it might serve the purposes
+both of a bed and of a coverlet. His movables consisted of a bag, a jug,
+and a staff; and wherever he went he always carried his furniture along
+with him. His stick, however, he used only when he went to the country,
+or on some emergency. Persons really lame were, he said, neither the
+deaf nor the blind, but those who had no bag.
+
+He always went barefoot, nor did he wear sandals even when the ground
+was covered with snow. He endeavored also to accustom himself to eat raw
+flesh, but this was a point of perfection to which he never could
+arrive. He entreated a person of his acquaintance to afford him some
+little hole in his lodging, to which he might occasionally retire. But
+as he was dilatory in giving him a positive answer he took possession of
+an earthen tub, which he always carried about with him, and which was
+the only house he ever had. In the heat of summer when the fields were
+scorched by the sun, he used to roll among the burning sands, and in
+winter to embrace statues covered with snow, that he might accustom
+himself to endure without pain the inclemencies of heat and cold.
+
+He treated everyone with contempt. He accused Plato and his scholars of
+dissipation, and of the crime of loving good cheer. All the orators he
+styled "the slaves of the people." Crowns were, he said, as brittle
+marks of glory as bubbles of water, which burst in the formation; that
+theatrical representations were the wonder of fools only. In a word,
+nothing escaped his satiric humor.
+
+He ate, he spoke, he slept, without discrimination, wherever chance
+placed him. Pointing to Jupiter's porticos on one occasion, he
+exclaimed: "How excellent a dining-room the Athenians have built for me
+there!"
+
+He frequently said: "When I consider the rulers, the physicians, and the
+philosophers whom the world contains, I am tempted to think man
+considerably elevated by his wisdom above the brutes; but when, on the
+other hand, I behold augurs, interpreters of dreams, and people who can
+be inflated with pride on account of their riches or honors, I cannot
+help thinking him the most foolish of all animals."
+
+When taking a walk one day, he observed a child drinking from the hollow
+of his hand. He felt greatly affronted at the sight. "What!" exclaimed
+Diogenes, "do children know better than I do with what things a man
+ought to be contented?" Upon which he took his jug out of his bag, and
+instantly broke it, as a superfluous movable.
+
+The province in philosophy to which Diogenes attached himself, was that
+of morals. He did not, however, entirely neglect the other sciences. He
+was possessed of lively parts, and easily anticipated objections.
+
+[Illustration: Diogenes in his tub.]
+
+As he was one day discoursing on a very serious and important subject
+everyone passed by without giving himself the least concern about what
+Diogenes was saying. Upon this, he began to sing. The people crowded
+about him. He immediately seized the opportunity of giving them a severe
+reprimand for flocking about him and attending with eagerness to a
+mere trifle, while they would not so much as listen to things of the
+greatest importance.
+
+Walking out once at noon, with a lighted torch in his hand, he was asked
+what he was in quest of. "I am searching for a _man_," said he. On
+another occasion he called out in the middle of a street: "Ho!
+_men_--_men_." A great many people assembling around him, Diogenes beat
+them away with his stick, saying "I was calling for men."
+
+Alexander passing through Corinth on one occasion, had the curiosity to
+see Diogenes, who happened to be there at that time. He found him
+basking in the sun in the grove Craneum, where he was cementing his tub.
+"I am," said he to him, "the great king Alexander." "And I," replied the
+philosopher, "am the dog Diogenes." "Are you not afraid of me?"
+continued Alexander. "Are you good or bad?" returned Diogenes. "I am
+good," rejoined Alexander. "And who would be afraid of one who is good?"
+replied Diogenes.
+
+Alexander admired the penetration and free manners of Diogenes. After
+some conversation, he said to him: "I see, Diogenes, that you are in
+want of many things; and I shall be happy to have an opportunity of
+assisting you: ask of me what you will." "Retire a little to one side
+then," replied Diogenes; "you are depriving me of the rays of the sun."
+
+It is no wonder that Alexander stood astonished at seeing a man so
+completely above every human concern. "Which of the two is richest?"
+continued Diogenes: "he who is content with his cloak and his bag, or he
+for whom a whole kingdom is not sufficient, but who is daily exposing
+himself to a thousand dangers in order to extend its limits?"
+Alexander's courtiers felt indignant that so great a king should do so
+much honor to such a dog as Diogenes, who did not even rise from his
+place. Alexander perceived it, and turning about to them said: "Were I
+not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes."
+
+As Diogenes was one day going to Egina, he was taken by pirates, who
+brought him to Crete, and exposed him to sale. He did not appear to be
+in the least disconcerted, nor to feel the least uneasiness on account
+of his misfortune. Seeing one Xeniades, corpulent and well-dressed, "I
+must be sold to that person," said he, "for I perceive he needs a
+master. Come, child," said he to Xeniades, as he was coming up to
+purchase him, "come, child, buy a man." Being asked what he could do, he
+said he had the talent of commanding men. "Crier," said he, "call out in
+the market, _If anyone needs a master, let him come here and purchase
+one_."
+
+Xeniades charged him with the instruction of his children, a task which
+Diogenes performed with great fidelity. He made them commit to memory
+the finest passages of the poets, with an abridgment of his own
+philosophy, which he composed on purpose for them. He made them exercise
+themselves in running, wrestling, hunting, horsemanship, and in using
+the bow and the sling. He accustomed them to very plain fare, and in
+their ordinary meals to drink nothing but water. He ordered them to be
+shaven to the skin. He brought them with him into the streets very
+carelessly dressed, and frequently without sandals and tunics. These
+children had a great affection for Diogenes, and took particular care to
+recommend him to their parents.
+
+When Diogenes was in slavery, some of his friends used their interest to
+procure him his liberty. "Fools!" said he, "you are jesting. Do you not
+know that the lion is not the slave of them who feed him? They who feed
+him are his slaves."
+
+Diogenes one day heard a herald publish that Dioxippus had conquered men
+at the Olympic games. "Say slaves and wretches," said he to them. "It is
+I who have conquered men."
+
+When it was said to him, "You are old, you must take your ease," he
+said, "What? must I slacken my pace at the end of my course? Would it
+not be fitter that I should redouble my efforts?"
+
+When walking in the streets, he observed a man let fall some bread which
+he was ashamed to lift. In order to show him that a man ought never to
+blush when he is desirous to save anything, Diogenes collected the
+fragments of a broken bottle and carried them through the town. "I am
+like good musicians," said he, "who leave the true sound that others may
+catch it." To one who came to him to be his disciple, he gave a gammon
+of bacon to carry and desired him to follow him. Ashamed to carry it
+through the streets, the man threw it down and made off. Diogenes
+meeting him a few days after, said to him, "What? has a gammon of bacon
+broken our friendship?"
+
+After reflecting on his life, Diogenes smiling said: "That all the
+imprecations generally uttered in tragedies had fallen upon him; that he
+had neither house, nor city, nor country; and that, in a state of
+indigence he lived from day to day; but that to fortune he opposed
+firmness; to custom, nature; and reason to the disorders of the soul."
+
+Diogenes was greatly beloved and highly esteemed by the Athenians. They
+publicly scourged one who had broken his tub, and gave the philosopher
+another.
+
+He was one day asked where he chose to be buried after his death? He
+replied: "In an open field." "How!" said one, "are you not afraid of
+becoming food for birds of prey and wild beasts?" "Then I must have my
+stick beside me," said Diogenes, "to drive them away when they come."
+"But," resumed the other, "you will be devoid of all sensation." "If
+that be the case," replied he, "it is no matter whether they eat me or
+not, seeing I shall not be sensible to it."
+
+Some say that having arrived at the age of ninety, he ate a neat's-foot
+raw, which caused indigestion to such a degree that he burst. It is said
+by others that feeling himself burdened with age, he retained his
+breath, and was thus the cause of his own death. His friends coming next
+day, found him muffled up in his cloak. Upon first discovering him they
+doubted whether he were not asleep (which with him, was very unusual);
+they were soon convinced that he was dead. There was a great dispute
+among them about who should bury him; but when on the eve of breaking
+out into open violence, the magistrates and old men of Corinth
+opportunely arrived to appease the disturbance.
+
+Diogenes was buried beside the gate lying toward the isthmus. There was
+erected, beside his tomb, a dog of Parian marble. The death of this
+philosopher happened in the first year of the 114th Olympiad, on the
+same day that Alexander died at Babylon.
+
+
+
+
+DEMOSTHENES[6]
+
+By E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS, PRES'T OF BROWN UNIVERSITY.
+
+(385-322 B.C.)
+
+         [Footnote 6: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Demosthenes. [TN]]
+
+
+Demosthenes, the foremost orator of all history, was born in Athens
+about July in the year 385 B.C. His father, also named Demosthenes, a
+manufacturer of swords, was a gentleman widely and justly esteemed. His
+mother was Cleobule, the daughter of Gylon by a Scythian lady. The
+father died when the son was about seven years of age, leaving an estate
+of fourteen or fifteen talents, equal to some $200,000 now. The
+guardians partly embezzled, partly wasted the property, and the young
+orator's first law business, occupying several years, was the
+prosecution of these criminals to recover what he might. His success was
+but partial, yet his patrimony, with what he earned, always kept him in
+relative affluence, spite of his expensive tastes and great public and
+private munificence. As a boy he was weak, and did not avail himself of
+the physical training then usual among Greek youth of good families. He,
+however, employed the best teachers in his studies and his mental
+education was thorough. To Thucydides and the old rhetoricians he was
+ardently devoted, and these, with personal instruction by the orator
+Isaeus, did most to form his style.
+
+The early years of Demosthenes's manhood were spent in preparing
+speeches for sale, in instructing pupils in rhetoric, and in the severe
+and painstaking education of himself as a public speaker. His resolution
+in overcoming obstacles is much dwelt upon by ancient writers. He at
+first lisped and stammered and had a weak voice. To cure these faults he
+enunciated with pebbles in his mouth and declaimed while walking uphill
+and by the roaring breakers of the sea-shore. He shut himself in an
+underground study, which he constructed for the purpose, and practised
+going through long trains of thought there alone. "When he went out
+upon a visit or received one," says Plutarch, "he would take something
+that passed in conversation, some business or fact that was reported to
+him, for a subject to exercise himself upon. As soon as he had parted
+from his friends, he went to his study, where he repeated the matter in
+order as it passed, together with the arguments for and against it. The
+substance of the speeches which he heard he committed to memory, and
+afterward reduced them to regular sentences and periods, meditating a
+variety of corrections and new forms of expression, both for what others
+had said to him and he had addressed to them. Hence it was concluded
+that he was not a man of much genius, and that all his eloquence was the
+effect of labor. A strong proof of this seemed to be that he was seldom
+heard to speak anything extempore, and though the people often called
+upon him by name as he sat in the assembly, to speak to the point
+debated, he would not do it unless he came prepared." It is related that
+when in speaking he happened to be thrown into confusion by any
+occurrence in the assembly, the orator Demades, the foremost extempore
+speaker of the age, often arose and supported him in an extempore
+address, but that he never did this for Demades. Demosthenes was not,
+however, the slave of manuscript or memory. He declared that "he neither
+wrote the whole of his orations nor spoke without first committing part
+to writing." There was said to be greater spirit and boldness in his
+impromptu speeches than in those which he had elaborately prepared.
+People thought that sometimes when he spoke out thus on a sudden, his
+eloquence was inspired from above, as when once he uttered, in regular
+though unpremeditated verse, the forceful oath:
+
+  "By earth, by all her fountains, streams, and floods."
+
+Demosthenes's first speeches were harsh and obscure. The sentences were
+too long, the metaphors violent and inapt. On the occasion of his first
+set address before a public assembly he even broke down. He was,
+however, indomitable in his determination and efforts to speak well, and
+persevered until at last the most critical heard him with delight.
+Notwithstanding certain defects which nice critics very early remarked,
+such as undue vehemence, argumentation and intensity too long sustained,
+and, in general, lack of variety and relief, Demosthenes's oratory is
+worthy the exalted regard which the best readers have in all ages
+accorded to it. His thought is always lucid and weighty, his argument
+fair and convincing, his diction manly and solid. He never uses a
+superfluous or a far-fetched word, never indulges in flowers,
+word-painting, or rhetorical trickery of any kind. He shows no trace of
+affectation, no effort to surprise or to be witty He depends for effect
+upon truth logically and earnestly presented. If such a style,
+everywhere perfectly kept up, was in any degree artificial, how
+matchless the art which concealed the art! So plain and straightforward
+are many of the speeches, that one is tempted to refer their wonderful
+power when spoken to some richness of elocution not appreciable now.
+Says Hume, treating of Demosthenes' manner, "Could it be copied, its
+success would be infallible over a modern assembly. It is rapid harmony
+exactly adjusted to the sense. It is vehement reasoning without any
+appearance of art; it is disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in
+a continued stream of argument; and, of all human productions, the
+orations of Demosthenes present to us the models which approach nearest
+to perfection." ("Essay of Eloquence." Comp. Lord Brougham's Works,
+vii., 59 foll.)
+
+[Illustration: Demosthenes practising oratory.]
+
+Demosthenes was between twenty-five and thirty when Philip of Macedon
+began his astonishing career of conquest. It was soon clear that he was
+to be the rival of Athens for the headship of Greece. Demosthenes became
+the champion of the Athenian cause, and henceforth, so long as he lived,
+used all his powers against Macedonian aggressions. Most of his best
+speeches relate to this issue. His eloquence, argument, and personal
+influence won nearly all the Grecian states to a coalition that, for a
+time, successfully forbade Philip to set foot in Greece proper. Only
+Thebes and Sparta stood out, and when Philip, daring them all, ventured
+south and conquered Phocis, even the Thebans yielded to Demosthenes's
+pleas and joined the league. In vain, however. At the decisive battle of
+Chaeronea, B.C. 338, Philip was entirely victorious. The allies fled,
+Demosthenes himself among them, leaving Philip to become at his leisure
+the master of every city so far south at least as the northern confines
+of Sparta. He might have realized his wish at once but for his excesses.
+He drank himself drunk, dancing over his slain foes, and beating time in
+maudlin song to the caption of the Athenian decree which Demosthenes had
+procured against him. But it is said that when sober again he trembled
+to remember "the prodigious power of that orator who had obliged him to
+put both empire and life on the cast of a day." Two years after the
+battle of Chaeronea Philip is stricken down by the assassin Pausanias.
+Alexander mounts the throne, a youth of twenty. Greece flies to arms
+against him, not dreaming that a greater than Philip is here. Marching
+quickly against the Thracians and the Illyrians, who at once succumb, he
+volts to smite rebellious Thebes and Athens, whom Demosthenes's
+incessant appeals have again induced to take the field. In spite of him,
+the Athenians now basely desert the Thebans, leaving them to stand the
+entire fury of the war alone. Greece is thus soon quieted again, and the
+boy warrior, leaving Antipater behind with a sufficient home guard,
+crosses to Asia never to return. Once, later, when Harpalus, Alexander's
+renegade treasurer, came to Athens with his bags of Asiatic gold, and
+again after Alexander's death, it for a moment seemed possible to throw
+off Macedonia's yoke. Each time the orator led in an attempt to do this,
+but failed. Fined fifty talents for taking some of Harpalus' gold, he
+fled from Athens, living for a time in Troezen and AEgina. The new hope
+for the former Greek regime evoked by Alexander's death was brief.
+Athens recalled Demosthenes and he made a successful tour of the cities
+to rally them against Antipater. Antipater, however, was too strong, and
+his victory at Cranon, B.C. 322, fully restored Macedonia's supremacy.
+Pursued to Calaurea by Antipater's emissaries, Demosthenes fled for
+refuge to the temple of Neptune there, took poison, which he had long
+carried with him for that purpose, and died, aged sixty-two.
+
+It is clear that both the Macedonian conquerors deemed Demosthenes their
+most powerful foe. Drunk or sober, Philip thought constantly of him as
+the great force to be reckoned with. When he with nine other deputies
+visited Philip's court, it was Demosthenes's speech to which Philip felt
+called to give special reply, treating him with argument, while
+bestowing his choicest hospitality upon the others. AEschines and
+Philocrates accordingly came home full of praise for Philip. He was
+eloquent, they said, handsome, and could drink more liquor than any
+other man. Demosthenes, showing for the nonce some wit, ridiculed these
+traits, the first as that of a sophist, the second as that of a woman,
+the third as that of a sponge. "The fame of Demosthenes reached the
+Persian court; and the king wrote letters to his lieutenants commanding
+them to supply him with money and to attend to him more than to any
+other man in Greece; because he best knew how to make a diversion in his
+favor by raising fresh troubles and finding employment for the
+Macedonian arms nearer home. This Alexander afterward discovered by
+letters of Demosthenes which he found at Sardis, and the papers of the
+Persian government expressing the sums which had been given him."
+(Plutarch.)
+
+The moral character of Demosthenes was fiercely assailed during his
+life, the chief charges being vacillation, unchastity, cowardice, and
+the receipt of bribes. In weighing these accusations we must remember
+that they were inspired by personal hatred, and that public life in
+Demosthenes's day was characterized by almost inconceivable strife and
+bitterness. There was probably considerable ground for all the
+allegations, except, perhaps, that of infirmity in purpose. Plutarch
+believes that the orator was "vindictive in his nature and implacable in
+his resentments." But the same author wonders how Theopompus could say
+that he was a man of no steadiness, since it appeared that "he abode by
+the party and the measures which he first adopted, and was so far from
+quitting them during his life that he forfeited his life rather than
+forsake them." "He was never a time-server either in his words or in his
+actions. The key of politics which he first touched he kept to without
+variation." But he certainly lacked physical courage. At Chaeronea, a
+battle which he himself had brought on, he fled ignominiously, throwing
+away his arms. His cowardice was recognized in the inscription upon the
+pedestal of the bronze statue which the Athenians erected to him.
+
+  "Divine in speech, in judgment, too, divine,
+   Had valor's wreath, Demosthenes, been thine,
+   Fair Greece had still her freedom's ensign borne,
+   And held the scourge of Macedon in scorn."
+
+It is equally certain that he loved gold too well, and sometimes took it
+when it should have burnt his hands.
+
+For all this, Demosthenes's character was rather a noble one for that
+age. Among the distinguished Athenians of the day, only Phocion's
+outshone it. Nearly all that Demosthenes's foes cite to his discredit
+seems weak considering the known vices of the period, while much of it,
+as when they taunt him with always drinking water instead of wine,
+implies on his part a creditable strength of will, which is further
+attested by his self-discipline in mastering his chosen art. What, after
+all, speaks the most strongly for the orator's character is the serious
+moral tone of his orations. This cannot have been simulated, and hence
+cannot have proceeded from a man with a vicious nature.
+
+The esteem in which Demosthenes was held at Athens is seen in what
+occurred soon after the battle of Chaeronea, an event which led to
+Demosthenes' greatest oratorical effort. One Ctesiphon had proposed that
+the people reward Demosthenes' public services by the gift of a golden
+crown, and the senate had passed a bill to this effect, for submission
+to the vote of the assembly. AEschines denied that the orator's conduct
+gave him any right to be thus honored, and prosecuted Ctesiphon for
+bringing forward an unconstitutional measure. After years of delay, the
+trial came on in B.C. 330, AEschines delivering his famous address
+against Ctesiphon, really an adverse critical review of Demosthenes's
+public and private life to that time, to which Demosthenes replied by
+his immortal Oration on the Crown. Demosthenes gained a surprising
+victory. Although the judges were nearly all of the Macedonian party,
+AEschines did not secure for his cause a fifth part of their votes, a
+fact which, according to Athenian law, subjected him to a fine of a
+thousand drachmas for provoking the litigation. He at once left Athens
+and never returned.
+
+The most recent judgment of Demosthenes as a statesman differs much from
+that in which nearly all the standard English and American authorities
+since Grote agree. Till lately it has been common to think of Athens as
+a real democracy, favorable to freedom, the bulwark of liberty then for
+Greece and the world. Philip has been deemed a mere barbarian, whose
+victory was certain to be, and was, the death of Grecian liberty. This
+being so, Demosthenes, in opposing Philip and his son Alexander, was not
+only a sincere patriot but a wise one. This is the view of Greek
+politics then which one gets from Demosthenes himself. Readers of his
+masterly orations insensibly adopt it, without due reflection upon the
+evidence now available to substantiate a different one. Demosthenes is
+understood to argue for a constitutional form of government, which, to
+all lovers of such, is an additional reason for siding with him. Grote's
+history urges the same view in a most enthusiastic and unhesitating way,
+and has had enormous influence in disseminating it. Thucydides, the
+original Greek historian most read in our time, makes the fate of
+everything good in Greece turn upon that of Athens. This great author so
+trains us in his manner of thought as to disqualify us from coolly
+considering the question whether the fortunes of Greece might not have
+risen or fallen in some other way.
+
+The present writer believes the above theory to be almost entirely an
+error. Doubtless Demosthenes was honest, but he was mistaken in his
+views of what was best for Greece and even for Athens. Philip and
+Alexander, however selfish, were neither in purpose nor in fact so
+hostile to Greek freedom as the mighty orator makes out. Inordinate
+ambition possessed both. In this they are to be ranked with Napoleon and
+Julius Caesar rather than with Washington. They, however, clearly saw the
+vanity of the old Greek _regime_, the total uselessness of trying to
+unify Greece or to make her independent of Persia through any of the
+devices paraded by the politicians. Therefore, with patriotism and
+philanthropy enough to give their cause a certain moral glow in their
+minds, they set out by force of arms--the only possible way to
+succeed--first, to unify Greece, and next, to make her eternally
+independent of Persia. Since Gustav Droysen, in his "Alexander the
+Great," led off with this theory, the best writers upon Greek history
+have gradually adopted it, deserting Grote more and more. Droysen went
+too far. With him Alexander was the veritable demigod whom he sottishly
+decreed that his subjects should see in him. Droysen, of course, has too
+little respect for Demosthenes's policy. Victor Duruy is the only late
+writer of note who still blows the trumpet for our old orator as a
+statesman. He says that "the result of the Macedonian dominion was the
+death of European Greece," and he calls it the immortal glory of
+Demosthenes to have perceived this; yet even he admits that "the
+civilization of the world gained" by the Macedonian conquest, and hence,
+after all, places himself, "from the point of view of the world's
+history, on the side of Philip and his son." The tendency of writers
+upon this period is thus to exalt the man with a great national policy
+in his head though with a sword in his hand, at the expense of him who,
+never so honestly, dinned the populace with his high-sounding pleas for
+an obstructive course.
+
+We are learning that republicanism or democracy, whichever one pleases
+to call it, was in ancient times a very different thing from aught that
+now exists under either name. The various republics of Greece and the
+republic of Rome were nothing but oligarchies, often atrociously
+tyrannical. Even at their best estate the rights of individuals in them,
+of their citizens even, were far less perfectly guarded than in some
+pretty absolute monarchies of later times.
+
+"The Athenian imperial democracy was no popular government. In the first
+place there was no such thing as representation in their constitution.
+Those only had votes who could come and give them at the general
+assembly, and they did so at once upon the conclusion of the debate.
+There was no Second Chamber or Higher Council to revise or delay their
+decisions, no crown; no High Court of Appeal to settle claims against
+the state. The body of Athenian citizens formed the assembly. Sections
+of this body formed the jury to try cases of violation of the
+constitution either in act or in the proposal of new laws.
+
+"The result was that all outlying provinces, even had they obtained
+votes, were without a voice in the government. But as a matter of fact
+they had no votes, for the states which became subject to Athens were
+merely tributary; and nothing was further from the ideas of the
+Athenians than to make them members of their Imperial Republic, in the
+sense that a new State is made a member of the American Republic.
+
+"This it was which ruined even the great Roman republic, without any
+military reverses, and when its domination of the world was unshaken.
+Owing to the absence of representation, the empire of the Roman republic
+was in the hands of the city population, who were perfectly incompetent,
+even had they been in real earnest, to manage the government of the vast
+kingdoms their troops had conquered. In both cases the outsiders were
+governed wholly for the benefit of the city crowd.
+
+"The mistakes and the injustices which resulted in the Roman executive
+were such that any able adventurer could take advantage of the
+world-wide discontent, and could play off one city faction against the
+other. It is not conceivable that any other general course of events
+would have taken place at Athens, had she become the ruler of the
+Hellenic world. Her demos regarded itself as a sovran, ruling subjects
+for its own glory and benefit; there can therefore be no doubt that the
+external pressure of that wide discontent, which was the primary cause
+of the Peloponnesian war, would have co-operated with politicians
+within, if there were no enemies without, and that ambitious military
+chiefs, as at Rome, would have wrested the power from the sovran people
+either by force or by fraud." (Mahaffy, "Problems in Greek History," 98
+foll.)
+
+In other words, however distressing the ills which might happen to
+Athens through Philip's success, they could not be worse than those
+which were sure to beset her in any event; while for Greece as a whole,
+Philip's victory would mean unity and peace such as could have been
+secured in no other way.
+
+This splendid possibility, which must have impressed the minds of
+Phocion and Philip, is obscured to our thought by the untimely death of
+both the great Macedonian generals, before their plans had any time to
+bear fruit. Desperate chaos follows Alexander's death of course; and
+when, little by little, order is evolved, it is a new order, not the old
+one. Never again does Athens sit there as a queen looking out upon her
+AEgean, but her day of political glory is ended forever.
+
+It is natural to trace all this wild disorder, involving the decline of
+Athens, the wars of Alexander's successors, small and great, and also
+the Roman conquest at last, to Philip's victory at Chaeronea. As we read
+the tangled and bloody record, we say to ourselves: Oh, how much better
+all would have been had the Athenians roused at the cry of Demosthenes,
+and beaten Philip instead of being beaten! We assume that had this
+happened Greece would have kept on its old splendid way, able to have
+conquered Rome herself when Rome came. Philip ruined Greece; the advice
+of Demosthenes, had it been followed, would have saved her.
+
+Superficially considered, all this seems clever reasoning; but it is in
+fact a stupendous fallacy. _Post hoc ergo propter hoc._ Philip conquered
+and subsequently things went ill with Greece. A man looked at Mars and
+subsequently had the cholera.
+
+Let us no longer argue so childishly. The evils that befell Hellas were
+not at all those which Demosthenes prophesied. They are no proof of his
+foresight. From the point of view of his wishes they were entirely
+accidental. To see this we need only inquire what would in all
+probability have come to pass had Alexander lived. One may heavily
+discount Droysen's adoration of the young conqueror, and yet, from what
+he achieved while alive and the way in which he achieved it, believe
+that immeasurable blessings to Greece and to humanity would have
+resulted from a lengthening of his days. I cannot think it rash to
+affirm that ten or twenty years added to Alexander's career would
+probably have changed subsequent history in at least three colossal
+particulars:
+
+1. Probably Greece would have been more happily, perfectly, and
+permanently cemented together than was the case, or could in any other
+way have been the case.
+
+2. Probably Greece would not only have been at last forever free from
+Asia but would also have become Asia's lord, and this in a manner truly
+beneficial to both lands.
+
+3. Probably Greece would have ruled Rome instead of being ruled by Rome,
+and this, too, in such wise as to have benefited both, and the world as
+well.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+ARISTOTLE
+
+From the French of FENELON
+
+(384-322 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Two men sitting face to face. [TN]]
+
+
+Of all the philosophers of antiquity, Aristotle was one of the most
+celebrated; and in every seat of learning, his name, even at this day,
+is held in esteem.
+
+He was son of Nicomachus, a physician, and friend of Amyntas, king of
+Macedonia, and was descended from Machaon, son of AEsculapius. He was
+born at Stagira, a city of Macedonia, in the first year of the 99th
+Olympiad. He lost his father and mother in his infancy, and was very
+much neglected by those who had the charge of his education.
+
+In his early years he dissipated almost all his patrimony in libertinism
+and debauchery. At first he became a soldier; but the profession of arms
+not suiting his turn of mind, he went to Delphi to consult the Oracle,
+and fix his determination. By the response of the Oracle, he was
+directed to go to Athens and pursue the study of philosophy. He was
+then in his eighteenth year. For twenty years he studied in the academy
+under Plato, and as he had spent all his inheritance, he was induced, in
+order to procure a subsistence, to vend medicines at Athens.
+
+Aristotle ate little and slept less. So strong was his passion for
+study, that in order to resist the oppression of sleep, he kept at his
+bedside a brazen basin, over which when in bed, he stretched one of his
+hands in which he held an iron ball, that if he should fall asleep, the
+noise of the ball dropping into the basin might awake him instantly.
+
+According to Laertius his voice was shrill and squeaking, his eyes
+small, his legs slender, and he dressed magnificently.
+
+Aristotle was a man of acute parts, and one who easily comprehended the
+most difficult questions. He soon became master of the doctrines of
+Plato, and distinguished himself among the other academicians. No
+question was decided in the academy without the opinion of Aristotle,
+though it was often subversive of that of Plato. By all his
+fellow-students he was considered as a prodigy of genius, and his
+opinions were often followed, in opposition to those of his master.
+Aristotle left the academy. This excited the resentment of Plato. He
+could not refrain from treating him as a rebel, comparing him to the
+chick which pecks its dam.
+
+The Athenians appointed him ambassador to Philip, king of Macedonia,
+father of Alexander the Great. Aristotle, having spent some time in
+Macedonia in settling the affairs of the Athenians, found, upon his
+return, that Xenocrates had been chosen master of the academy. Seeing
+that place thus filled he said, "It would be a shame for me to be
+silent, when Xenocrates speaks." He accordingly established a new sect,
+and taught doctrines different from those of his master Plato.
+
+The celebrity of Aristotle, who now surpassed all his contemporaries in
+every kind of science, especially in the departments of philosophy and
+politics, induced Philip, king of Macedonia, to offer him the care of
+the education of his son Alexander, then fourteen years of age.
+Aristotle accepted. He continued Alexander's preceptor for eight years;
+and according to the testimony of Plutarch, taught him some secret
+doctrines which he communicated to none other.
+
+The study of philosophy did not render the manners of Aristotle austere.
+He applied to business, and took an interest in everything that passed
+at the court of Macedonia. From respect to this philosopher, Philip
+rebuilt Stagira, his native city, which had been destroyed during the
+wars, and restored to their possessions all the inhabitants, of whom
+some had fled and others had been reduced to slavery.
+
+When Alexander's education was finished, Aristotle returned to Athens,
+where he was well received on account of the mildness with which, for
+his sake, that city had been treated by Philip. He fixed upon a place in
+the Lyceum highly beautified with avenues of trees, where he established
+his school. He used to walk about when teaching and from this
+circumstance his sect was called _Peripatetic_. The Lyceum was soon
+thronged by a concourse of students whom Aristotle's reputation had
+drawn together from every quarter of Greece.
+
+Alexander recommended to him to attend particularly to experiments in
+physical science. To facilitate his observations he sent him, besides
+800 talents to defray expenses, a great number of huntsmen and fishermen
+to supply him from every quarter with subjects for experiment.
+
+At that time Aristotle published his books of physics and metaphysics.
+Of this, Alexander who was now in Asia, got information. That ambitious
+prince, desirous of being in everything the first man in the world, was
+dissatisfied that the learning of his master should become common.
+
+He showed his resentment by the following letter: "You have not done
+well in publishing your books on speculative science. If what you taught
+me be taught to men of all ranks, I shall then have nothing but in
+common with others. But I would have you consider that I had rather be
+superior to other men in abstract and secret knowledge, than to surpass
+them in power."
+
+To appease this prince Aristotle sent him for answer, that he had
+published his books, but in such a way that in fact they were not
+published. By this he apparently meant, that his doctrines were laid
+down in a manner so embarrassed that it was impossible for any one ever
+to understand them.
+
+Aristotle carefully investigated that question, the great object of
+moral philosophy, how men might be rendered happy in the present world.
+In the first place, he refutes the opinion of the voluptuous, who make
+happiness to consist in corporal pleasures. "Not only," said he, "are
+these pleasures fleeting, they are also succeeded by disgust; and while
+they enfeeble the body they debase the mind."
+
+He next rejects the opinion of the ambitious, who place happiness in
+honors, and, with this object in view, pay no regard to the maxims of
+equity or the restraints of law. "Honor," he said, "exists in him who
+honors." "The ambitious," he adds, "desire to be honored in consequence
+of some virtue of which they wish themselves supposed to be possessed;
+that consequently, happiness consists in virtue, rather than in honors,
+especially as these are external and do not depend upon ourselves."
+
+In the last place, he refutes the system of the avaricious, who
+constitute riches the supreme good. "Riches," he said, "are not
+desirable on their own account; they render him who possesses them
+unhappy, because he is afraid to use them. In order to render them
+really useful it is necessary to use and to distribute them, and not to
+place happiness in what is in itself detestable and not worth the
+having."
+
+The opinion of Aristotle is, that happiness consists in the most perfect
+exercise of the understanding and the practice of the virtues. The most
+noble exercise of the understanding, he considered to be speculation
+concerning natural objects; the heavens, the stars, nature, and chiefly
+the First Being. He observed, however, that without a competency of the
+good things of fortune suited to a man's situation in life, it was
+impossible to be perfectly happy, because without this we could neither
+have time to pursue speculation, nor opportunity to practise the
+virtues. Thus, for example, one could not please his friends; and to do
+good to those whom we love is always one of the highest enjoyments of
+life.
+
+"Happiness depends therefore," he said, "on three things: the goods of
+mind, as wisdom and prudence; the goods of the body, as beauty, health,
+strength; and the goods of fortune, as riches and nobility." Virtue he
+maintained, is not sufficient to render men happy; the goods of the body
+and of fortune are absolutely necessary; and a wise man would be unhappy
+were he to want riches or if his share of them were insufficient.
+
+He affirmed, on the other hand: "Vice is sufficient to render men
+unhappy. Though in the greatest affluence and enjoying every other
+advantage, it is impossible for a man ever to be happy while the slave
+of vice. The wise man is not wholly exempted from the ills of life, but
+his share of them is small." "The virtues and vices," he said, "are not
+incompatible, for the same man, though intemperate, may be just and
+prudent."
+
+He mentions three kinds of friendship; one of relationship, another of
+inclination, and a third of hospitality.
+
+Elegant literature, he thinks, contributes greatly to produce a love of
+virtue; and the cultivation of letters he affirms to be the greatest
+consolation of age.
+
+Like Plato, he admitted the existence of a Supreme Being, to whom he
+attributed providence.
+
+In his politics, he maintains that the monarchical form of government is
+the most perfect, because in other forms there are more rulers than one.
+An army under the conduct of one able commander, succeeds better than
+one conducted by several leaders; and while deputies, or chief men, are
+employed in assembling and deliberating, a monarch has already finished
+an expedition and executed his designs. The rulers of a republic do not
+care though they should ruin the state, provided they enrich themselves.
+Jealousies are engendered, divisions arise, and the republic is in
+danger of being finally destroyed and overthrown. In a monarchy, on the
+other hand, the interests of the prince are those of the state; and the
+state of course must flourish.
+
+Aristotle was one day asked, "What does a man gain by telling a lie?"
+"Not to be believed," said he, "even when he tells the truth."
+
+Having been blamed for giving alms to a bad man, he said: "It is not
+because he is bad, but because he is a man, that I have compassion for
+him."
+
+To his friends and scholars he used to say, that knowledge is to the
+soul what light is to the eyes; and that mellowness of the fruit makes
+up for the bitterness of the root. When irritated against the Athenians,
+he reproached them with neglecting their _laws_, and using their _corn_;
+though possessed of the former, as well as the latter.
+
+He was one day asked, "What it is that is soonest effaced?" "Gratitude,"
+replied he. "What is hope?" "A waking man's dream."
+
+Diogenes presented Aristotle with a fig. Aristotle very well knew that
+were he to refuse it, Diogenes would level his wit against him. He took
+the fig, therefore, and with a smile said, "Diogenes has at once lost
+his fig and the use he intended to make of it."
+
+He said there were three things very necessary to children: Genius,
+exercise, and instruction. When asked the difference between the learned
+and the ignorant, he replied: "The same as between the living and the
+dead." "Knowledge," he said, "is an ornament in prosperity, and in
+adversity a refuge. Those who give children a good education, are much
+more their fathers than those who have begotten them; the latter
+communicate mere life to them; the former put it in their power to spend
+it comfortably." "Beauty," said he, "is a recommendation infinitely
+stronger than any kind of learning."
+
+He was one day asked, What pupils should do to turn their instructions
+to the greatest advantage? "They must," said he, "always keep in view
+those before them, and never look back to those behind them."
+
+A certain person was one day boasting of being the citizen of an
+illustrious state. "Do not value yourself upon that," said Aristotle;
+"rather ask yourself whether you deserve to be so?"
+
+Reflecting on human life, he sometimes said: "There are some who amass
+riches with as much avidity as if they were to live forever; others are
+as careless about their possessions as if they were to die to-morrow."
+
+When asked, what is a friend? he replied, "One soul animating two
+bodies." "How," said one to him, "ought we to act to our friends?" "As
+we would have them to act toward us," replied Aristotle. He used
+frequently to exclaim, "Ah! my friends, there is not a friend in the
+world!"
+
+He was one day asked, "How it comes that we prefer beautiful women to
+those who are ugly?" "You now ask a blind man's question," returned
+Aristotle.
+
+He was asked what advantage he had derived from philosophy? "To do
+voluntarily," replied he, "what others do through fear of the laws."
+
+It is said that during his stay at Athens he was intimate with an able
+Jew, by whom he was accurately instructed in the science and religion of
+the Egyptians, for the acquisition of which everyone at that time used
+to go to Egypt itself.
+
+Having taught in the Lyceum for thirteen years with great reputation,
+Aristotle was accused of impiety by Eurimedon, priest of Ceres. He was
+so overwhelmed with the recollection of what Socrates had suffered that
+he hastily left Athens and retired to Chalcis in Euboea. It is said by
+some that he there died of vexation because he could not discover the
+cause of the flux and reflux of the Euripus. By others it is added that
+he threw himself into that sea, and when falling said, "Let the Euripus
+receive me since I cannot comprehend it." And lastly, it is affirmed by
+others that he died of a colic in the sixty-third year of his age, two
+years after the death of his pupil, Alexander the Great.
+
+By the Stagirites, altars were erected to him as a god.
+
+Aristotle made a will, of which Antipater was appointed the executor. He
+left a son called Nicomachus, and a daughter who was married to a
+grandson of Demaratus, king of Lacedaemonia.
+
+
+
+
+ARCHIMEDES
+
+By JOHN TIMBS, F.S.A.
+
+(287-212 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: A boat. [TN]]
+
+
+It is scarcely possible to view the vast steamships of our day without
+reflecting that to a great master of mechanics, upward of two thousand
+years since, we in part owe the invention of the machine by which these
+mighty vessels are propelled upon the wide world of waters. This power
+is an application of "the Screw of Archimedes," the most celebrated of
+the Greek geometricians. He was born in Sicily, in the Corinthian colony
+of Syracuse, in the year 287 B.C., and when a very young man, was
+fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of his relative Hiero, the
+reigning prince of Syracuse.
+
+The ancients attribute to Archimedes more than forty mechanical
+inventions--among which are the endless screw; the combination of
+pulleys; an hydraulic organ, according to Tertullian; a machine called
+the HELIX, or screw, for launching ships; and a machine called
+_loculus_, which appears to have consisted of forty pieces, by the
+putting together of which various objects could be framed, and which
+were used by boys as a sort of artificial memory.
+
+Archimedes is said to have obtained the friendship and confidence of
+Hiero by the following incident. The king had delivered a certain weight
+of gold to a workman, to be made into a crown. When the crown was made
+and sent to the king, a suspicion arose in the royal mind that the gold
+had been adulterated by the alloy of a baser metal, and he applied to
+Archimedes for his assistance in detecting the imposture; the difficulty
+was to measure the bulk of the crown without melting it into a regular
+figure; for silver being, weight for weight, of greater bulk than gold,
+any alloy of the former in place of an equal weight of the latter would
+necessarily increase the bulk of the crown; and at that time there was
+no known means of testing the purity of metal. Archimedes, after many
+unsuccessful attempts, was about to abandon the subject altogether, when
+the following circumstance suggested to his discerning and prepared mind
+a train of thought which led to the solution of the difficulty. Stepping
+into his bath one day, as was his custom, his mind doubtless fixed on
+the object of his research, he chanced to observe that, the bath being
+full, a quantity of water of the same bulk as his body must flow over
+before he could immerse himself. He probably perceived that any other
+body of the same bulk would have raised the water equally; but that
+another body of the same weight, but less bulky, would not have produced
+so great an effect. In the words of Vitruvius, "as soon as he had hit
+upon this method of detection, he did not wait a moment, but jumped
+joyfully out of the bath, and running forthwith toward his own house,
+called out with a loud voice that he had found what he sought. For as he
+ran he called out, in Greek, 'Eureka! Eureka!--I have found it! I have
+found it!'" When his emotion had sobered down, he proceeded to
+investigate the subject calmly. He procured two masses of metal, each of
+equal weight with the crown--one of gold and the other of silver--and
+having filled a vessel very accurately with water, he plunged into it
+the silver, and marked the exact quantity of water that overflowed. He
+then treated the gold in the same manner, and observed that a less
+quantity of water overflowed than before. He next plunged the crown into
+the same vessel full of water, and observed that it displaced more of
+the fluid than the gold had done, and less than the silver; by which he
+inferred that the crown was neither pure gold nor pure silver, but a
+mixture of both. Hiero was so gratified with this result as to declare
+that from that moment he could never refuse to believe anything
+Archimedes told him.
+
+Travelling in Egypt, and observing the necessity of raising the water of
+the Nile to points which the river did not reach, as well as the
+difficulty of clearing the land from the periodical overflowings of the
+Nile, Archimedes invented for this purpose the screw which bears his
+name. It was likewise used as a pump to clear water from the holds of
+vessels; and the name of Archimedes was held in great veneration by
+seamen on this account. The screw may be briefly described as a long
+spiral with its lower extremity immersed in the water, which, rising
+along the channels by the revolution of the machine on its axis, is
+discharged at the upper extremity. When applied to the propulsion of
+steam-vessels the screw is horizontal; and being put in motion by a
+steam-engine, drives the water backward, when its reaction, or return,
+propels the vessel.
+
+The mechanical ingenuity of Archimedes was next displayed in the various
+machines which he constructed for the defence of Syracuse during a three
+years' siege by the Romans. Among these inventions were catapults for
+throwing arrows, and ballistae for throwing masses of stone; and iron
+hands or hooks attached to chains, thrown to catch the prows of the
+enemy's vessels, and then overturn them. He is likewise stated to have
+set their vessels on fire by burning-glasses; this, however, rests upon
+modern authority, and Archimedes is rather believed to have set the
+ships on fire by machines for throwing lighted materials.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Archimedes.]
+
+After the storming of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed by a Roman
+soldier, who did not know who he was. The soldier inquired, but the
+philosopher, being intent upon a problem, begged that his diagram might
+not be disturbed; upon which the soldier put him to death. At his own
+request, expressed during his life, a sphere inscribed in a cylinder was
+sculptured on his tomb, in memory of his discovery that the solid
+contents of a sphere is exactly two-thirds of that of the circumscribing
+cylinder; and by this means the memorial was afterward identified. One
+hundred and fifty years after the death of Archimedes, when Cicero was
+residing in Sicily, he paid homage to his forgotten tomb. "During my
+quaestorship," says this illustrious Roman, "I diligently sought to
+discover the sepulchre of Archimedes, which the Syracusans had
+totally neglected, and suffered to be grown over with thorns and briars.
+Recollecting some verses, said to be inscribed on the tomb, which
+mentioned that on the top was placed a sphere with a cylinder, I looked
+round me upon every object at the Agragentine Gate, the common
+receptacle of the dead. At last I observed a little column which just
+rose above the thorns, upon which was placed the figure of a sphere and
+cylinder. This, said I to the Syracusan nobles who were with me, this
+must, I think, be what I am seeking. Several persons were immediately
+employed to clear away the weeds and lay open the spot. As soon as a
+passage was opened, we drew near, and found on the opposite base the
+inscription, with nearly half the latter part of the verses worn away.
+Thus would this most famous, and formerly most learned, city of Greece
+have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of its most ingenious
+citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of Arpinum."
+
+To Archimedes is attributed the apophthegm: "Give me a lever long
+enough, and a prop strong enough, and with my own weight I will move the
+world." This arose from his knowledge of the possible effects of
+machinery; but however it might astonish a Greek of his day, it would
+now be admitted to be as theoretically possible as it is practically
+impossible. Archimedes would have required to move with the velocity of
+a cannon-ball for millions of ages to alter the position of the earth by
+the smallest part of an inch. In mathematical truth, however, the feat
+is performed by every man who leaps from the ground; for he kicks the
+world away when he rises, and attracts it again when he falls back.
+
+Under the superintendence of Archimedes was also built the renowned
+galley for Hiero. It was constructed to half its height, by three
+hundred master workmen and their servants, in six months. Hiero then
+directed that the vessel should be perfected afloat; but how to get the
+vast pile into the water the builders knew not, till Archimedes invented
+his engine called the helix, by which, with the assistance of very few
+hands he drew the ship into the sea, where it was completed in six
+months. The ship consumed wood enough to build sixty large galleys; it
+had twenty tiers of bars and three decks; the middle deck had on each
+side fifteen dining apartments besides other chambers, luxuriously
+furnished, and floors paved with mosaics of the story of the "Iliad." On
+the upper deck were gardens with arbors of ivy and vines; and here was a
+temple of Venus, paved with agates, and roofed with Cyprus-wood; it was
+richly adorned with pictures and statues, and furnished with couches and
+drinking-vessels. Adjoining was an apartment of box-wood, with a clock
+in the ceiling, in imitation of the great dial of Syracuse; and here was
+a huge bath set with gems called Tauromenites. There were also on each
+side of this deck, cabins for the marine soldiers, and twenty stables
+for horses; in the forecastle was a fresh-water cistern which held 253
+hogsheads; and near it was a large tank of sea-water, in which fish were
+kept. From the ship's sides projected ovens, kitchens, mills, and other
+offices, built upon beams, each supported by a carved image nine feet
+high. Around the deck were eight wooden towers, from each of which was
+raised a breastwork full of loopholes, whence an enemy might be annoyed
+with stones each tower being guarded by four armed soldiers and two
+archers. On this upper deck was also placed the machine invented by
+Archimedes to fling stones of 300 pounds weight and darts eighteen feet
+long, to the distance of 120 paces; while each of the three masts had
+two engines for throwing stones. The ship was furnished with four
+anchors of wood and eight of iron; and "the water-screw" of Archimedes,
+already mentioned, was used instead of a pump for the vast ship; "by the
+help of which one man might easily and speedily drain out the water,
+though it were very deep." The whole ship's company consisted of an
+immense multitude, there being in the forecastle alone 600 seamen. There
+were placed on board her 60,000 bushels of corn, 10,000 barrels of salt
+fish, and 20,000 barrels of flesh, besides the provisions for her
+company. She was first called the Syracuse, but afterward the
+Alexandria. The builder was Archias, the Corinthian shipwright. The
+vessel appears to have been armed for war and sumptuously fitted for a
+pleasure-yacht, yet was ultimately used to carry corn. The timber for
+the main mast, after being in vain sought for in Italy, was brought from
+England. The dimensions are not recorded, but they must have exceeded
+those of any ship of the present day; indeed, Hiero, finding that none
+of the surrounding harbors sufficed to receive his vast ship, loaded it
+with corn and presented the vessel with its cargo to Ptolemy, King of
+Egypt, and on arriving at Alexandria it was hauled ashore, and nothing
+more is recorded respecting it. A most elaborate description of this
+vast ship has been preserved to us by Athenaeus, and translated into
+English by Burchett, in his "Naval Transactions."
+
+Archimedes has been styled the Homer of geometry; yet it must not be
+concealed that he fell into the prevailing error of the ancient
+philosophers--that geometry was degraded by being employed to produce
+anything useful. "It was with difficulty," says Lord Macaulay, "that he
+was induced to stoop from speculation to practice. He was half ashamed
+of those inventions which were the wonder of hostile nations, and always
+spoke of them slightingly, as mere amusements, as trifles in which a
+mathematician might be suffered to relax his mind after intense
+application to the higher parts of his science."
+
+
+
+
+MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO
+
+By REV. W. J. BRODRIBB
+
+(106-43 B.C.)
+
+[Illustration: Cicero. [TN]]
+
+
+Marcus Tullius Cicero, the foremost orator of ancient Rome, one of her
+leading statesmen, and the most brilliant and accomplished of her men of
+letters, lived in those stirring later days of the Roman republic, that
+age of revolution and civil wars, in which an old and decaying order of
+things was passing away. It was the age of great and daring spirits, of
+Catiline, Caesar, Pompey, Antony, with whose history Cicero's life is so
+closely intertwined.
+
+Born 106 B.C., at an old Italian town, Arpinum in Latium, of a good
+family, and inheriting from his father, who was a man of considerable
+culture, a moderate estate, he went as a boy to Rome, and there, under
+the best teachers and professors, he learned law and oratory, Greek
+philosophy, and Greek literature, acquiring in fact the universal
+knowledge which he himself says in his essay "On the Orator" (De
+Oratore), an orator ought to possess. An orator in the ancient world, we
+should bear in mind, was first and chiefly a pleader of causes, causes
+both legal and political--speaker alike, as we should say, at the bar
+and in parliament. Hence the necessity for knowledge and information of
+every kind. Cicero's first important speech, in his twenty-sixth year,
+was the successful defence in a criminal trial of a client against one
+of the favorites of the all-powerful Sulla, then dictator. After a visit
+to Athens, and a tour in Asia Minor, where he profited by the society of
+eminent professors of rhetoric and men of letters, he returned to Rome,
+and at thirty years of age he was in the highest repute at the Roman
+bar.
+
+In 76 B.C., having been elected quaestor (a financial secretary, as we
+may say) by a unanimous popular vote, he held an appointment in Sicily,
+where he won the good opinion of two highly important interests, apt at
+times to conflict, the traders and the revenue collectors. To this he
+owed the glory of his successful impeachment of the infamous Verres, in
+70 B.C., which he undertook at the request of the Sicilian provincials.
+The bad man who had so hideously misgoverned them, felt himself crushed
+by Cicero's opening speech, and went into voluntary exile. Cicero was
+now a power in the state, and his rise up the official ladder was sure
+and rapid; in 66 B.C. he was praetor, and supported in a great political
+speech (Pro Lege Manilia) the appointment of Pompey to the conduct of
+the war with Mithridates, which in fact carried with it the supreme
+control of Asia and of the East. In 63 B.C., at the age of forty-four,
+he was consul, the highest dignity attainable to a Roman; in that
+memorable year he foiled by a bold promptitude, the revolutionary plot
+of Catiline, in which many distinguished Romans--Caesar it was even said
+among them--were implicated. He was now at the height of his fame;
+"father of his country" he was actually called, for a brief space he was
+with all classes the great man of the day. But the tide soon turned;
+Cicero might have saved the country, but in saving it, it was said he
+had violated the constitution, according to which a Roman citizen could
+not be capitally punished but by the sentence of the people in regular
+assembly. As it was, Roman citizens guilty of complicity with Catiline
+had, at Cicero's instigation, been put to death simply by an order of
+the senate; this, it was said, was a dangerous precedent and Cicero must
+be held responsible for it. His bitter enemy, Clodius, now tribune,
+pressed the charge against him in inflammatory speeches specially
+addressed to the lowest class of citizens, and Cicero in despair left
+Rome in 58 B.C., and took refuge at Thessalonica. That same year saw the
+"father of his country" condemned to exile by a vote of the Roman
+people, and his house at Rome and his country houses at Formiae and
+Tusculum plundered and ruined.
+
+But in those revolutionary days the events of one year were reversed by
+those of the next; in 57 B.C., with new counsels and new tribunes, the
+people almost unanimously voted the recall of the exile, and Cicero was
+welcomed back to Rome amid an outburst of popular enthusiasm. But he was
+no longer a power in the world of politics; he could not see his way
+clearly; and he was so nervously sensitive to the fluctuations of public
+opinion that he could not decide between Pompey and the aristocracy on
+the one hand, and Caesar and the new democracy on the other. His leanings
+had hitherto been toward Pompey and the senate and the old republic; but
+as time went on, he felt that Pompey was a half-hearted man, who could
+not be trusted, and that he would have ultimately to succumb to his far
+abler and more far-sighted rival, Caesar. The result was that he lost the
+esteem of both parties, and came to be regarded as a mere trimmer and
+time-server. There was all that political indecision about him which may
+be often observed in eminent lawyers and men of letters. The age wanted
+strong men such as Caesar; this Cicero certainly was not. He was gentle,
+amiable, very clever, and highly cultivated, but the last man in the
+world to succeed in politics. The later years of his life were spent
+chiefly in pleading at the bar and writing essays. In 52 B.C. he
+composed one of his finest speeches in defence of Milo, who had killed
+Clodius in a riot, and was then standing for the consulship; in this he
+was acting quite against the wishes of Pompey. In the following years
+(51-50 B.C.) he was in Asia, as governor of the province of Cilicia, and
+here the best side of his character showed itself in his just and
+sympathetic treatment of the provincials. In 49-48 B.C. he was with
+Pompey's army in Greece to fight for the old cause, of which, however,
+he well-nigh despaired, and after the decisive battle of Pharsalia, at
+which he was not present, he threw himself on the conqueror's mercy.
+Caesar, who had certainly nothing to fear from him, received him kindly,
+and was a great friend to him from that day; but Cicero was not a happy
+man now that he could no longer make speeches in the senate or in the
+courts; to all this Caesar's victory had for the time at least put at
+end. In the years 46, 45, 44 B.C., he wrote most of his chief works on
+rhetoric and philosophy, living in retirement and brooding mournfully
+over his griefs and disappointments. In 43 B.C., the year after Caesar's
+death, he had once again the delight of having his eloquence applauded
+by the senate. In that year his famous speeches against
+Antony--Philippics, as he called them after the title of Demosthenes's
+orations against Philip of Macedon--were delivered. These cost him his
+life. As soon as Antony, Octavius (afterward the Emperor Augustus), and
+Lepidus had leagued themselves together in the so-called triumvirate for
+the settlement of the state, they followed the precedent of former
+revolutions, a proscription-list of their political enemies. All such
+were outlawed and given up to destruction. Cicero's name was in the
+fatal list. Old and feeble, he fled to his villa at Formiae, pursued by
+the soldiers of Antony, and was overtaken by them as he was being
+carried in a litter down to the shore, where it had been his intention
+to embark. With a calm courage (which, to quote Macaulay's words) "has
+half redeemed his fame," he put his head out of the litter and bade his
+murderers strike. He died in the December of 43 B.C., in the sixty-third
+year of his age.
+
+As an orator and a pleader Cicero undoubtedly stands in the first rank.
+Many of his speeches have come down to us. Of these the most famous, and
+perhaps the finest, are his speeches against Verres and against
+Catiline. Eloquence in those days of furious faction and revolution was
+a greater force than it is with us. As a politician he failed because he
+did not distinctly realize to himself that the old republic, the
+government of the senate and of the nobles, had been tried and had been
+found wanting. He had not the courage to face the great changes which he
+felt were impending. Pompey, the champion of the old order, was not a
+leader to whom he could look up with confidence. And so he wavered, and
+half acquiesced in Caesar's triumph, even though he suspected that with
+that triumph the Rome which he had known and loved would pass away. To
+us it is as an essayist and as the writer of a multitude of letters to
+friends, full of miscellaneous information, that Cicero is particularly
+attractive; there is a gracefulness and refinement and elevation of tone
+about his writings which cannot fail to incline the reader to say with
+Erasmus, "I feel a better man for reading Cicero." His essays on "Old
+Age" and "on Friendship," his De Officiis or "Whole Duty of Man," as we
+may paraphrase it, are good and pleasant reading such as we can all
+enjoy. There is no fairer picture in literature than of him sitting in
+the garden of his villa at Tusculum, surrounded by admiring friends, and
+engaged upon his "Tusculan disputations;" while his treatises on the
+"Nature of the Gods," and on the "True Ends of Human Life" (De Finibus),
+if they do not show any very deep and original thought, at least give us
+an insight into the teachings of the various philosophical schools.
+
+
+
+
+AUGUSTUS CAESAR
+
+(63 B.C.-14 A.D.)
+
+[Illustration: Augustus Caesar. [TN]]
+
+
+Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus, son of Caius Octavius and Atia
+(Julius Caesar's niece), was born in 63 B.C. He was the first and
+greatest of the Roman emperors, in his way perhaps fully as great as his
+adoptive father, Julius Caesar. The Octavian family came originally from
+Velitrae, in the country of the Volsci; and the branch to which Augustus
+belonged was rich and honorable. His father had risen to the rank of
+senator and praetor, but died in the prime of life, when Augustus was
+only four years old. Augustus was carefully educated in Rome under the
+guardianship of his mother and his step-father; and his talents
+recommended him to his great-uncle, Julius Caesar, who adopted him as his
+son and heir. At the time of Caesar's assassination (44 B.C.), Augustus
+was a student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus, at Apollonia in
+Illyricum, whither, however, he had been sent chiefly to gain practical
+instruction in military affairs. He returned to Italy, and now first
+learning that he was his uncle's heir, assumed the name of Julius Caesar
+Octavianus. The soldiers at Brundusium saluted him as Caesar, but he
+declined their offers, and entered Rome almost alone. The city was at
+this time divided between the republicans and the friends of Mark
+Antony, but the latter, by adroit manoeuvres, had gained the ascendency,
+and enjoyed almost absolute power. At first, Augustus was haughtily
+treated by Antony, who refused to surrender Caesar's property; but after
+some fighting, in which Antony was worsted and forced to flee across the
+Alps, Augustus, who had made himself a favorite with the people and the
+army, obtained the consulship and carried out Caesar's will. He found an
+able advocate in Cicero, who at first had regarded him with contempt. To
+himself the great orator seemed to be laboring in behalf of the
+republic, whereas he really was only an instrument for raising Augustus
+to supreme power. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, Augustus
+threw off the republican mask, and joined them in establishing a
+triumvirate. He obtained Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily; Antony, Gaul; and
+Lepidus, Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the massacre of
+those unfriendly to them in Italy, and by the victory at Philippi over
+the republicans under Brutus and Cassius. The Perusian war, excited
+by Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to lead to a contest between
+Augustus and his rival; but was ended by Fulvia's death, and the
+subsequent marriage of Antony with Octavia, sister of Augustus. Shortly
+afterward the Roman world was divided anew, Augustus taking the western
+half, and Antony the eastern. The contest for supremacy commenced. While
+Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the court of Cleopatra,
+Augustus was industriously striving to gain the love and confidence of
+the Roman people, and to damage his rival in public estimation. War was
+at length declared against the Egyptian queen, and at the naval battle
+of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus was victorious, and became sole ruler of
+the whole Roman world. Antony soon afterward ended his life by suicide;
+and Cleopatra, learning of his death and believing that Augustus
+intended carrying her in chains to Rome, also killed herself, so that
+Augustus triumphed only over her dead body, which he found awaiting him.
+Antony's son by Fulvia, and Caesarion, son of Caesar and Cleopatra, were
+put to death; and in 29 B.C., after regulating affairs in Egypt, Greece,
+Syria, and Asia Minor, Augustus returned to Rome in triumph, and,
+closing the temple of Janus, proclaimed universal peace.
+
+[Illustration: Augustus Caesar and Cleopatra.]
+
+His subsequent measures were mild and prudent. To insure popular favor,
+he abolished the laws of the triumvirate, and reformed many abuses.
+Hitherto, since Caesar's death, he had been named Octavian; but now the
+title of Augustus ("sacred" or "consecrated") was conferred on him. In
+his eleventh consulship (23 B.C.), the tribunician power was granted him
+for life by the senate. Republican names and forms still remained, but
+they were mere shadows; and Augustus, in all but name, was absolute
+monarch. In 21 B.C., on the death of Lepidus, he had the high title of
+Pontifex Maximus bestowed on him. The nation surrendered to him all the
+power and honor that it had to give.
+
+After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Gaul,
+etc., Augustus (9 B.C.) suffered the one crushing defeat of his long
+rule, in the person of Quintilius Varus, whose army was annihilated by
+the Germans under Hermann. The loss so afflicted Augustus that for some
+time he allowed his beard and hair to grow, as a sign of deep mourning,
+and often exclaimed, "O Varus, Varus, give me back my legions!"
+Thenceforth he confined himself to plans of domestic improvements and
+reform, and so beautified Rome that it was said, "Augustus found the
+city built of brick, and left it built of marble." He also built cities
+in several parts of the empire; and altars were raised by the grateful
+people to commemorate his beneficence; while by a decree of the senate
+the name Augustus was given to the month Sextilis.
+
+Though thus surrounded with honor and prosperity, Augustus was not free
+from domestic trouble. The abandoned conduct of his daughter Julia was
+the cause of sore vexation to him. He had no son, and his nephew
+Marcellus, and Caius and Lucius, his daughter's sons, whom he had
+appointed as his successors and heirs, as well as his favorite stepson,
+Drusus, all died early; while his stepson, Tiberius, was an unamiable
+character whom he could not love. Age, sorrow, and failing health warned
+him to seek repose; and, to recruit his strength, he undertook a
+journey to Campania; but his infirmity increased, and he died at Nola
+(14 A.D.), in the seventy-seventh year of his age. According to
+tradition, shortly before his death, he called for a mirror, arranged
+his hair neatly, and said to his attendants: "Did I play my part well?
+If so, applaud me!" Augustus had consummate tact and address as a ruler
+and politician, and made use of the passions and talents of others to
+forward his own designs. The good and great measures which marked his
+reign were originated mostly by himself. He encouraged agriculture,
+patronized the arts and literature, and was himself an author; though
+only a few fragments of his writings have been preserved. Horace,
+Virgil, Ovid, Propertius, Tibullus, and Livy--greatest of Latin poets
+and scholars--belonged to the Augustan Age, a name since applied in
+France to the reign of Louis XIV., in England to that of Queen Anne.
+
+
+
+
+ST. AMBROSE[7]
+
+By REV. A. A. LAMBING, LL.D.
+
+(340-397)
+
+         [Footnote 7: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Ambrose. [TN]]
+
+
+Biographical history presents few characters more interesting either to
+the statesman or the churchman than that of St. Ambrose. As a
+statesman--though but a small part of his life was devoted to the
+affairs of civil government--he showed great prudence, was sincerely
+devoted to the interests of his imperial master, and yet he was at the
+same time an uncompromising advocate and defender of the rights of the
+people. As a churchman he united a high degree of personal sanctity and
+a fatherly care of those intrusted to his pastoral vigilance--especially
+the poor--to an extraordinary firmness in maintaining the rights of the
+Church against imperial usurpation, and the purity of doctrine against
+the inroads of heresy.
+
+St. Ambrose was born about the year 340, of a Roman of the same name who
+was at that time prefect of the pretorium in Gaul, a province which then
+embraced a large portion of western and southwestern Europe. Arles,
+Lyons, and Treves contend for the honor of being his birthplace, but it
+is most probable that it was in the latter he first saw the light.
+Legends, too, are not wanting of extraordinary occurrences which took
+place during his infancy, that seemed to presage his future greatness.
+Be these as they may, his life and works, which are before the world,
+stand in need of no such embellishments, now that they have become
+matters of history. His father died in his infancy, and his mother
+returned to Rome, where her wealth and social position enabled her to
+give her children the best education possible; and none of them profited
+more by his opportunities than Ambrose. His attainments were numerous
+and varied, embracing, among other things, a thorough knowledge of the
+Greek language and literature, oratory of a high order, unusual skill in
+poetic composition, and a thorough acquaintance with music.
+
+Having completed his education, he went to Milan to enter upon his
+public career. Here his learning, ability, and integrity were soon
+recognized, and preferments crowded thick upon him. But under all
+circumstances he remained true to himself; and, although then only a
+catechumen--or one undergoing instruction before embracing
+Christianity--he yet made the maxims of the Gospel the rule of his life
+and conduct. In a short time he was made governor of the provinces of
+Liguria and AEmelia, which embraced the greater part of Northern Italy.
+When setting out to assume the duties of that exalted position, he was
+told by one of those highest in authority, to "go and rule more as a
+bishop than a judge." Although but thirty years of age at the time of
+his appointment, he strove by his vigilance, mildness, and probity, to
+act upon that advice which seemed almost prophetic; for he was soon
+after called to the bishopric of Milan, as we shall presently have
+occasion to remark. The Arian heresy was then at the zenith of its
+power, and was at least secretly, and often openly, favored by the
+imperial authority. In few places was it more openly defiant than at
+Milan. Auxentius, the Arian bishop of that see, died in the year 374,
+and a serious tumult was raised during the election of his
+successor--the Arians and the orthodox Christians each contending for
+the mastery. In the discharge of his duties as governor, Ambrose entered
+the assembly, where by his firmness, prudence, and moderation he
+succeeded in restoring order. Tradition states that in a moment of
+tranquillity a child cried out: "Ambrose is bishop;" but, be that as it
+may, and it matters little, so great was the public appreciation of his
+merits, and so high was the esteem in which he was held, that he was
+immediately elected by acclamation. Alarmed at this determination of the
+people, he endeavored to escape the honor and remain in concealment till
+another election should take place; but the vigilance of the people
+prevented it. He then had recourse to another means of escape, urging
+that he was only a catechumen and could not lawfully be elected a
+bishop. But this, too, was overruled, when he insisted that being in the
+service of the emperor his permission was necessary. So far, however,
+from this availing, it had the opposite effect, for the Emperor
+Valentinian readily gave his consent, adding the flattering remark that
+he was very much pleased to know that the civil governors whom he had
+selected to rule the provinces of the Empire, were fit to be made
+bishops to rule the Church of God. Seeing the will of heaven so clearly
+manifested, Ambrose feared longer to refuse his acquiescence, and at the
+age of thirty-four he passed through the various ecclesiastical orders
+and was consecrated Bishop of Milan on December 7, 374.
+
+Solicitude for the portion of the Church now entrusted to his pastoral
+care was thenceforth his only thought; and to his other numerous and
+profound acquirements he added that of a careful study of the
+scriptures. In those unhappy times storms were raging on all sides
+between the orthodox Christians and the Arians; and while he and the
+church of Milan were congratulated from all sides on the choice of so
+able a chief pastor, he clearly saw that his future life must be one of
+constant struggle with the civil power for the rights of the Church, and
+with the Arians for the purity of doctrine. But his extraordinary
+combination of gentleness and charity with firmness and courage never
+failed him, and in the end it proved equal to the task imposed upon him;
+and it has handed down his name as one of the noblest on the pages of
+the world's history. The better to free himself from unnecessary
+trammels, he at once disposed of his immense wealth to the poor, except
+so much of it as was necessary for the becoming maintenance of his
+household; and the administration of even this he committed to others.
+
+The turbulent times through which the Church had passed and was still
+passing, had necessarily given rise to numerous abuses; and to the
+correction of these the newly consecrated bishop unsparingly devoted
+himself. But though this was destined to be a life-work, and though he
+met with a great measure of success, "it must needs be that scandals
+come," and no one can hope to eradicate entirely every abuse. Never was
+the Arian heresy so successfully dealt with as by him, and if he did not
+succeed in entirely destroying it, he did succeed in breaking its power
+and restoring greater tranquillity to the Church than it had enjoyed for
+a long term of years. Many elements combined to produce these consoling
+results, and since we are treating of an eminent churchman, it is
+necessary to attach due importance to his own personal sanctity, which
+was at once a rebuke to disregard of ecclesiastical discipline, a living
+illustration of what the true Christian should be, and an evidence of
+the purity of his motives and the sincerity of his conduct. This
+holiness had its effect too before the Throne of Grace, for the
+scriptures assure us that the prayers of the just man avail much. So
+long as we entertain the belief that Christ has established a church on
+earth, we must from necessity hold that He takes a lively interest in
+it, and blesses the labors of those who devote themselves to its
+extension. His eloquence, too, in the pulpit not only advanced the
+interests of religion, but also stimulated the zeal and guided the
+efforts of others of less ability. His numerous controversial works
+refuted the errors and sophistries of the enemies of religion, on the
+one hand, and on the other, explained and defended its tenets. Those who
+wished to tread the higher walks of the spiritual life, found in his
+several treatises on certain of the Christian virtues, a sure light to
+guide them in the way of perfection. Devoting his attention to the
+liturgy of divine worship, he added greatly to the attractiveness of the
+ceremonial, especially by a thorough revision of the church music that
+had previously been in use. But in the march of the human mind nothing
+now remains of the Ambrosian chant in its purity, save the "Exultet," as
+it is called, which is a hymn sung in the Latin Church during the
+blessing of the Paschal candle on Holy Saturday. Large numbers of his
+poetic compositions still remain, and are found for the most part in the
+Roman breviary. It may be said that his pen was never idle nor his voice
+hushed when the interests of religion could be promoted, and many of his
+writings remain to our day, a proof of his learning, an evidence of his
+zeal, and a monument to his courage. Among his successes in advancing
+the cause of religion must be mentioned his conversion, in 387, of St.
+Augustine, the greatest light of the Western Church. But he is better
+known to the world at large by his firmness in withstanding the
+usurpation of the secular power, and bringing those in high places to
+confess and repent of their faults. In doing this he had ever the best
+interests of mankind at heart.
+
+Soon after his consecration as a bishop he wrote to the emperor,
+complaining of the corruption of some imperial governors; to whom
+Valentinian replied: "I have long since been acquainted with your
+freedom of speech, which did not deter me from consenting to your
+consecration. Continue to apply to our sins the remedies prescribed by
+the divine law." Even in our own day, not a few salutary laws are due to
+his humane influence. He prevailed on the Emperor Gratian to pass a law,
+among others, that no criminal should be executed within less than
+thirty days after sentence had been passed. He also succeeded, but with
+great difficulty, in having the pagan statues removed from the senate.
+He had also a law passed forbidding the Arians to rebuild or repair
+their churches. When the Empress Justina sent to him asking the use of
+certain churches for the celebration of Easter, he refused; and when
+threats were made he answered in language worthy of a Christian prelate:
+"Should you ask what is mine, as my land or my money, I would not refuse
+you, though all that I possess belongs to the poor; but you have no
+right to that which belongs to God." A year later, the Easter of 386,
+the same request was made, when the intrepid bishop answered: "Naboth
+would not give up the inheritance of his ancestors, and shall I give up
+that of Jesus Christ?" It may perhaps be difficult for many in our day,
+when so little importance is attached to Christian unity, to appreciate
+the fearless action of this heroic person; but his biography would be
+imperfect in a very important particular if these points were passed
+over in silence; and before passing judgment on him we must bear in mind
+the rule of the historian and biographer, so frequently lost sight of,
+that persons and things must be judged by the times and circumstances in
+which they were placed. The times change and we change in them.
+
+Perhaps the most remarkable event in the life of St. Ambrose, so far as
+the world at large will judge him, was his rebuke of the Emperor
+Theodosius. Instances like this are not rare, it is true, in the history
+of the Christian Church; but this one stands forth with more than
+ordinary prominence. The circumstances are briefly these: A sedition
+broke out in the city of Thessalonica, in which a number of officers and
+the commander of the imperial forces were slain. Theodosius, at the
+instigation of Rufinus, a military officer of prominence, sent a warrant
+to the commander of Illyricum to let the soldiers loose upon the city; a
+command that was carried out with great cruelty, and by which more than
+seven thousand persons, the innocent as well as the guilty, were
+massacred in the most inhuman manner. The grief of Ambrose on hearing
+this was extreme; and, in order to afford the emperor time to reflect,
+he withdrew from Milan, and addressed him a very touching letter
+exhorting him to repentance, assuring him at the same time that he, as
+bishop, would not receive his offerings nor perform the services of
+religion in his presence till he had done so. The prelate soon after
+returned to his episcopal city; and when the emperor appeared at the
+doors of the church to attend divine services, he forbade him to enter
+till he had done penance for his crime. Excuses and palliations were of
+no avail, and when the emperor urged that King David had sinned, he was
+told that as he had imitated David in his sin, he should also imitate
+him in his repentance; and the doors of the church were closed against
+him. The emperor returned to his palace, where for eight months he did
+penance for his fault; and he was not admitted to full communion till he
+had perfectly complied with the requirements of the bishop.
+
+While to the general reader there may appear an unwonted severity, and
+even a tyrannical vindictiveness in this firmness of the holy prelate,
+his companions and those who knew his character best find in it an
+evidence of his zeal for the cause of religion, and his desire for the
+true conversion of the sinner; and the man of the world will find in him
+the champion of the poor and oppressed against the tyranny of power. It
+is a well-known fact of history that he did not cease, during all this
+time, to beseech heaven with prayers and tears for the emperor, whom he
+sincerely loved. But his character in this, as in all else, has
+withstood the test of time, and shines with undiminished lustre down the
+vista of ages.
+
+St. Ambrose died about midnight before Holy Saturday, April 4, 397; and
+his body reposes in a vault under the high altar of the basilica of
+Milan--the church that he had served so long and so well. His feast is
+kept in the Latin Church on December 7th, and he is justly regarded as
+one of the most illustrious doctors of the Church.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+[Illustration: Ambrose rebukes Theodosius.]
+
+
+
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO[8]
+
+By HIS EMINENCE JAMES, CARDINAL GIBBONS
+
+(354-430)
+
+         [Footnote 8: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Augustine. [TN]]
+
+
+Among the few great names which have most signally emblazoned the pages
+of history, and whose fame and influence have not been limited to their
+own age, country, or people, that of Augustine, saint and bishop, stands
+out pre-eminently as worthy of all the encomiums bestowed upon him by
+serious students of men and their times. He has been and is regarded as
+the greatest and most celebrated of theologians, the father and master
+of preachers of the Divine Word, the peer of the rarest and most
+enlightened minds, whose soaring is above all time. He has been given a
+place with Plato and Bossuet, with Cicero and St. Thomas, in the
+universal acclaim. Great in faith, great in thought, great in virtue,
+great in genius, he lived in the century of great men, towering above
+all. Athanasius was Patriarch of Alexandria and Cyril of Jerusalem;
+Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Basil the Great, formed a
+triumvirate of holy, eloquent, and erudite defenders of truth and
+justice; Ambrose was by his faith and piety illumining the See of Milan;
+the Christian Cicero, Chrysostom, was pouring forth at Constantinople
+streams of golden eloquence; Jerome, the hermit of Bethlehem, was giving
+his masterly expositions of Scripture. And Augustine arose in this
+galaxy of greatness and genius to shed glory on the land and church of
+Africa, which had seen its Tertullian and been adorned by its Cyprian.
+Contact with such men were an honor; drinking at their feet deep and
+wholesome draughts of purest wisdom were glory: but to have the notes of
+one's song arise above theirs as did Augustine's, were solid genius and
+lasting fame.
+
+St. Augustine was born on November 13, A.D. 354, at the little town of
+Tagasta, in ancient Numidia, which is now Algeria. His father was an
+unassuming and honorable soul, though of humble and modest origin. His
+mother was the sainted Monica, who is so justly venerated on Christian
+altars. The early education of Augustine was received in his native
+village, with slender means and amidst meagre advantages. As a boy he
+manifested very little of those studious habits which were afterward to
+distinguish and elevate him to universal honor. At great sacrifice on
+his father's part, and with the princely generosity of a noted
+inhabitant of Tagasta, named Romanian, he was sent to the better
+equipped schools of the neighboring Madaura and later to Carthage. The
+schools of Carthage, though not so renowned and exceptional as those of
+Alexandria and Antioch, were yet among the most prominent of the Roman
+World. He was sixteen years of age when he was taken to this city, and
+after four years he had risen to the first place in the schools of
+rhetoric and had mastered all the branches of the liberal arts then
+taught. None could equal his penetration, none surpass him in the
+readiness of his answers or in the clearness of his expositions. The
+subtle distinctions and divisions of Aristotle were plain to him. And in
+the arena of philosophical disputation he knew no superior. He was
+particularly attracted to the study of eloquence; and the perusal of
+Cicero's "Hortensius" (which unfortunately has been lost in the
+vicissitudes of time) stirred his soul to higher flights and begot a
+noble enthusiasm for the imperishable beauty of wisdom, made him
+impatient of the evanescent hopes of men, and carried him onward to
+further quest of truth.
+
+When his studies were completed, he returned in 370 to Tagasta and
+lodged with his wealthy patron and benefactor; for his father had died
+the year after his arrival in Carthage. Though here he began to teach
+grammar and kindred branches, he did not long remain at home; he soon
+departed again for Carthage, where his successes as a master surpassed
+those he had gained as a disciple. Led by his former fame and by the
+daily increasing applause which greeted the youthful professor of
+rhetoric, many gathered around him. He was then only twenty-three years
+of age. Among his pupils he numbered Licentius and Alypius--two names
+indissolubly bound up with the story of Augustine's life. His place
+among the learned and first men of that ancient city was made doubly
+secure when, at a public contest in poetry, he was awarded the prize,
+and was crowned with the laurel by the Proconsul, Vindician, before the
+assembled people and most celebrated minds of the city.
+
+But while he was thus advancing in favor with men, while thirst for
+truth was burning him, he yielded to the seductions of the wealthy youth
+of his time; though he had been early trained by his pious mother in the
+love of virtue and the hatred of iniquity, yet the apparent austerity of
+virtue seemed now to affright him, and the pleasures of life and the
+allurements of vice captivated his ardent disposition; and while he
+never seems to have plunged into the extravagances and disorders common
+to so many of his companions, nor to have been guilty of crimes which
+spring from a cruel nature or very depraved instincts, he indulged in
+some pursuits which formed the prolific source of future profound grief.
+He loved ease, and was averse to self-denial and hardship--hence his
+indiscretions and follies. But the most distinguishing trait of his
+character was his honesty, and this feature redeemed and palliated his
+few irregularities.
+
+[Illustration: St. Augustine and his mother, St. Monica.]
+
+The scholars of Carthage were anything but sober, industrious, modest,
+and orderly youths. They were indocile and turbulent; not only
+disturbing by their wild pranks the peace of the city, but interrupting
+by their noisy behavior and inattention the master's discourses and
+lectures. It was next to impossible to preserve any semblance of
+discipline in the classes. So Augustine left in disgust and set out for
+Rome, the ancient mistress of the world. He had been enamoured by her
+imperishable traditions and magnificent monuments of grandeur and art,
+by her memories of numerous great men, their genius and their works, by
+her history ever rich in majesty and glory. Induced by the consideration
+that he would find there the absence of unfavorable circumstances and
+the presence of stronger incentives to enthusiasm and high inspiration,
+he left his country and his mother, and in 383, with Alypius, his friend
+and pupil, he departed for this metropolis. But again he was doomed to
+disappointment. Though disciples were not wanting, and his chair was
+surrounded by a throng of earnest and strong students, he did not find
+the all-absorbing passion for wisdom and truth, for the sublime and
+beautiful, that he had fondly anticipated. There was not, indeed, the
+same degree of turbulence and disorder as at Carthage, but the
+magnificence and ostentation of the Roman family and life, their
+splendid palaces and festive orgies, could not but prove very injurious
+to habits of study. The youth had imbibed the venal corruption
+everywhere prevalent. Hence it not seldom happened that Roman scholars
+conspired to rob their master of his salary and desert his class in a
+body. Roman vileness and baseness disgusted Augustine even more than
+Punic insubordination. He therefore took advantage of a request made by
+the citizens of Milan of Symmachus who was then Prefect of Rome, that he
+would procure for them a professor of rhetoric. He accepted the
+proposal; and toward the close of the year 384 he was teaching at Milan.
+
+Up to this time the soul of Augustine was not influenced by higher
+inspiration than pleasure, nor his mind by anything which did not
+correspond to his preconceived notions of philosophic accuracy. Nor was
+he yet a Christian by baptism, as it was the custom of the age to
+postpone the reception of this sacrament till later in life, both that
+it might be received with better dispositions and more fruit, and
+because sins and faults committed by the baptized possessed in their
+eyes and before God deeper malice and blacker ingratitude; they wished
+to avoid this evil. When a child, Augustine was so ill that his life was
+despaired of; the waters of regeneration were about to be poured over
+him; but he soon recovered and again the baptism was deferred. In Milan
+he was attracted by St. Ambrose's eloquent discourses on the Christian
+religion; and their simple and earnest character, their strong and
+convincing argument, their fervid and impassioned vein appealed to the
+young man's mind. His heart was touched by the manifest holiness of the
+good bishop's life and conduct, especially when he contrasted them with
+those of the Manicheans with whom he had so long been associated. The
+study of Platonic philosophy urged him on to celestial heights and made
+him gaze on the infinite nature of God. The Epistles of St. Paul riveted
+his attention in his search after purest truth, and joined to the pious
+prayers of the Sainted Monica, who thus drew down abundant grace divine,
+completed the miracle of his conversion. The wayward Augustine wept for
+his sins, the learned philosopher bowed his head in faith and humility
+before the Gospel of Jesus Christ and the truth of God as revealed by
+Him. After a period of seclusion which he spent from August (386) to the
+Easter solemnity of the next year, with Monica, Alypius, Licentius, and
+several others, at Cassiciacum in the suburbs of Milan, he was baptized
+by St. Ambrose on April 24th or 25th, A.D. 387.
+
+Once a Christian, Augustine thought of returning to his native country.
+He desired to perfect himself in the Christian science and spirit, and
+to teach and defend among his own people Catholic doctrines and
+interests--henceforth to be the sole aim of his life. In August or
+September therefore of that same year he set out with his mother and
+friends for Africa. But the death of Monica at Ostia in Italy changed
+his plans. And after paying all the duties of religion and filial
+tenderness to this devoted mother, he went to Rome. But in the spring of
+the year 388 he finally set foot on his native shores. He betook himself
+immediately to the environs of Tagasta and found an asylum for study,
+contemplation, and prayer.
+
+It happened that, prompted by zeal and affection, he went on one
+occasion in 391 to Hippo, which was on the Mediterranean Sea five
+leagues from Carthage, and the site of the present Bona, for the purpose
+of inducing a certain friend to join him in his solitude. While here he
+entered the church where the holy bishop, Valerius, was preaching to the
+people and complaining of his sad need of a priest to aid him in his
+duties, and especially to exercise the office of preaching, since an
+impediment in his speech rendered that duty very difficult and extremely
+painful for him. Preaching was the exclusive function of the bishop. And
+when Augustine as a priest assumed the duty, he was the first in
+priest's orders who had ever preached in presence of a bishop. And it
+was in that capacity that he arose in the Council of Hippo (393) and
+delivered his famous discourse on "Faith and its Creed." As Augustine
+entered the church while the bishop was making the above complaint, the
+congregation, who recognized him (for his fame had spread over all
+Africa), immediately, as if by divine inspiration, proposed him for the
+office of priest. Valerius was of course overjoyed; and after a short
+time which the saint requested for preparation, he was ordained and
+attached to the church of Hippo. The esteem in which the new priest was
+held, his apostolic labors, his eloquence, his piety, soon impelled the
+aged bishop to raise his sacerdotal co-laborer to the episcopal dignity
+and associate him still more closely with himself in the government of
+the See of Hippo. He was accordingly consecrated a little before
+Christmas of the year 395. And the subsequent thirty-five years were the
+busiest, the most arduous, and the most fruitful of his long and
+eventful career. His energy was indefatigable and extended in every
+direction. The religious movements of his time brought into play all the
+resources of his mind and heart. He combated heresies and reclaimed
+heretics. His correspondence embraced a multitude of subjects and was
+carried on with various parts of the Church. His zeal in preaching never
+knew rest, and his efforts in instructing the ignorant were ceaseless.
+He established centres of religious life for men and women, and composed
+for them a rule of life and spirit and principles that have not yet
+died. He was alive to the necessity of a zealous and energetic clergy
+whom he wished trained in the spirit and teachings of the Gospel maxims
+and counsels, and therefore formed the nucleus of a monastic clergy. He
+had begun the realization of this idea in the community which he
+established at Hippo just after his ordination as priest, and he
+perfected it when he was made bishop. Ten of those whom he trained in
+this his first monastery, became bishops of the various sees of Africa,
+including Alypius, who was sent to Tagasta, Possidius, his first
+biographer, and Fortunatus, who was his successor in the See of Hippo.
+During all this time he continued to wear the long black robe and hood
+and leathern girdle peculiar to the cenobites of the East, which he had
+donned at Milan shortly after his baptism when he laid aside the dress
+of his native Africa. Not only his vesture but also his daily life and
+practices were the same as those which are the privilege and glory of
+monks, nuns, and hermits. None surpassed him in austerities and
+self-denial, as none had surpassed him in philosophic lore at Carthage,
+and at Milan and Rome.
+
+The magnificent effects of his extraordinary gifts, fertile ingenuity,
+and deep learning and broad mind; the influence of his genius on the
+thoughts and ideas of his own and succeeding ages, may be best gleaned
+from a brief survey of his writings. Augustine's early aim was to seek
+truth. He was perplexed with many doubts; he could not conceive the
+existence of anything real outside of physical bodies; and nothing
+around him completely and satisfactorily gave him answer. The
+Manicheans, who had occupied themselves with questions on the nature of
+God, the creation of the world, and the origin of evil, seemed to have
+attained on these points some tangible conclusions. For want of better
+Augustine defended their doctrines without participating in the excesses
+which distinguished those sectaries. But he felt himself alienated from
+them, partly because of the lack of the prestige of great men among
+them, and because he found Faustus, a Manichean bishop and the Goliath
+of their forces, ignorant of many simple subjects, and unable to give
+but vague and shallow responses to the questions that agitated his soul.
+He afterward had a famous controversy with this Faustus, and wrote
+against him thirty-three books. The results of Augustine's studies were
+that he was able to refute their attacks on Holy Scripture which they
+said had undergone serious changes, and to see the falsehood of their
+main postulate that good proceeds from a good principle and evil from an
+evil principle; and also to recognize the futility of their objection
+that the Christians spoke of a human form in God. Against this sect his
+principal writings are "On the Manners and Customs of the Catholic
+Church and those of the Manicheans;" "The Utility of Faith," "The Two
+Souls," and a book against Adimantes, the disciple of Manes, in which he
+reconciles the contradictions alleged to exist between the Old and the
+New Testament.
+
+From the Manicheans Augustine turned to the Academicians, who were a
+philosophical sect, and pretended that it was impossible for man to come
+to the possession of truth. Augustine had many conferences on this
+subject with his friends in his retreat at Cassiciacum: and the outcome
+was two books "On Order," and one on "The Blessed Life." These works
+discussed the matter thoroughly and left the philosophers no loophole of
+escape.
+
+A more dangerous error, though purely local in its immediate
+surroundings, was the denial of the validity of Baptism when conferred
+by heretics. This contention had occasioned a schism in the church of
+Africa since the beginning of the fourth century. It received the name
+of Donatism from Donatus, schismatic Bishop of Carthage, who had been
+aided by another Donatus of Casae Nigrae. In St. Augustine's time it had
+spread over the whole country. The Saint put forward the true idea of
+the Church and showed that the minister of a sacrament does not
+communicate to the recipient his own character of holiness or of guilt,
+that it is Christ Himself who baptizes and absolves and gives efficacy
+to sacramental signs. The cogency of his words, the clearness of his
+explanations, and his grace of manner led many of the Donatists to
+desire union with the Church, which he showed them, as Christ's Body, is
+one and indivisible. His chief works in this controversy are a letter to
+Maximinus, a Donatist bishop whom he brought back to Catholic Unity, the
+"Christian Combat," the "One Baptism," three books against Parmeian,
+letter to Glorius and three others, and a conference with Bishop
+Fortunatus, at Turbusum.
+
+As if by divine inspiration he had laid down in a work on "Free Will,"
+which he had begun at Rome, enlarged at Tagasta, and completed in 395,
+principles which afford sufficient answer to the errors of Pelagianism.
+This heresy broached novel teachings on man, the fall, and the state in
+which that fall had left the human race. St. Augustine, who had not been
+able to take part in the council of Carthage, where Pelagius was first
+condemned, brought out in clear light the true doctrine and nature and
+action of supernatural grace, and the effects of original sin on man's
+will and heart. His treatises on "Merit" and the "Remission of Sins,"
+explained all the weakness of fallen nature, the need of divine grace to
+perform actions that conduce to eternal life, and the necessity and
+place of human effort in the work of justification and faith. As it was
+asserted that children should not be baptized because the sin of Adam
+was not transmitted to them, he wrote a book on the "Baptism of
+Children." In "Nature and Grace" and "Faith and its Works," "On the
+Grace of Jesus Christ" and "Original Sin," still further explanation and
+argument are given to establish Catholic truth.
+
+Still another heresy was beginning to poison religious thought:
+Arianism, or the denial of the divinity of Jesus Christ, was invading
+the church of Africa. And the writings of St. Augustine against this
+movement are among his most luminous and brilliant works. He wrote three
+letters and fifteen books on the Trinity--these he commenced in 400 and
+completed in 416. Perhaps the clearest and plainest are the one hundred
+and twenty-four treatises (so called) on the Gospel of St. John, and ten
+on the First Epistle of the same Apostle. They were sermons or
+catechetical instructions and homilies, delivered during the year 416 to
+his flock, on the prevalent heresies but especially on the Arian. And
+his response to the five questions of Honorius, a citizen of Carthage,
+contains lucid expositions of some difficult portions of Scripture.
+
+On Scripture matters, besides the works just mentioned, St. Augustine's
+enlightened views are found in twelve books on the "Literal Sense of
+Genesis;" in these he seems to have divined all modern objections and
+theories about this work of Moses. On the seven first books of the
+Bible, he has left us seven treatises. "An Explanation of the Psalms," a
+correspondence with St. Jerome on the Epistle to the Galatians, four
+books on the agreement of the Evangelists, two on Gospel questions, and
+a book on "Things That are not Seen," should not be unknown to Biblical
+students.
+
+Nor was the Pagan attitude toward Catholic Truth forgotten. He had
+passed through the phase, and knew the Pagan mind. He put down their
+difficulties, reasoned away their doubts, threw light on their darkness,
+led them on in truth, in "The True Religion," "Eighty-three Questions,"
+"The Christian Doctrine," and an early treatise on the "Immortality of
+the Soul."
+
+But by far his greatest and most enduring works are his "Confessions"
+and "The City of God." The former, at once a poem, a history, and a
+treatise of philosophy, beautifully expresses the trials and efforts of
+a human soul striving for truth and happiness away from God, and the
+ecstatic sentiments of the same soul on the attainment of both truth and
+happiness in the faith and virtues of Jesus Christ and in His Gospel.
+The other, in eloquent and philosophical vein, discourses on the Church
+of God on earth and in heaven; shows the hollowness of all opinions,
+thoughts, and efforts contrary to the eternal order which is God; is, as
+it were, an encyclopedia of all that he had written before, an
+exhaustless summary of refutation against heresy and paganism, and an
+analysis of the glories and benefits of Christianity. St. Augustine in
+its composition occupied all the time from 413 to 426--the period of his
+momentous struggle against Pelagianism.
+
+The lines of intellectual and religious thought which called forth the
+just mentioned and other productions of St. Augustine's brilliant
+genius, have continued all along the centuries even till now. The same
+movements exist; the same tendencies, though more intense in their
+working, actuate men toward truth; and the same obstacles impede their
+progress; objections, in other forms perhaps, yet substantially the
+same, are urged against the very points against which the sainted
+pontiff wrote and struggled--God, Creation, the Bible, Christ, human
+infirmity or human strength, man's power to attain truth unaided, and
+his freedom from any supernatural dependence. No wonder that Augustine,
+who had passed through all these phases of action, should have always
+been called upon for effective weapons in the warfare, and that he
+should have been the supreme authority in such questions for many an age
+in the Latin or Western Church. His sounds are as clear to-day, and his
+arguments are as convincing and potent. The student and the dialectician
+and the theologian can ill afford to be unfamiliar with the great
+doctor's thoughts.
+
+All these writings everywhere evidence the beauty of his character, as
+his actions were ever in accord with evangelical perfection. There is
+wonderful power of mercy, compassion, and love, in all. He had been weak
+himself, hence he treated weakness with gentleness. Two things rendered
+him indulgent; a sad experience of the infirmities of human nature, and
+a profound knowledge of the depth of those infirmities. His virtues of
+humility, compassion, moderation, and generosity, all sprung from that,
+just as his deep faith and strong convictions of Christian truth were
+begotten of his fierce struggle with doubt and error and his long and
+ardent search for truth.
+
+He died in honor on August 28th, A.D. 430. But men have not ceased to
+admire his genius, appreciate his labors, love his character; and
+thousands imitate his piety and are governed by his mandates of
+spiritual life.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+ST. PATRICK
+
+By REV. G. F. MACLEAR, B.D.
+
+(ABOUT 372-466)
+
+[Illustration: A book. [TN]]
+
+
+The original name of St. Patrick was _Succat_, which is said to signify
+"strong in war." Patricius appears to have been his Roman name. He was
+born of Christian parents at some period between A.D. 372 and A.D. 415.
+His father, Calphurnius, was a deacon, his grandfather, Potitus, a
+priest Though an ecclesiastic, Calphurnius would seem to have held the
+rank of decurion, and may therefore have been of Roman or provincial
+British extraction. His birthplace was a spot which he himself calls
+Bonavem Taberniae, and which in all probability may be identified with
+the modern Kirkpatrick, between Dumbarton and Glasgow.
+
+The parents of Succat, as has been already said, were Christians, and it
+would seem that the Gospel had been preached to some extent in the
+neighborhood of his father's home. Whatever amount, however, of
+instruction he may have received was rudely interrupted, when he was
+about sixteen years of age.
+
+The coasts of Scotland were at this time exposed to the frequent
+incursions of Irish chieftains, who landed from their swift barks,
+ravaged the country, and having carried off as many of the inhabitants
+as they could, consigned them to slavery. In one of these expeditions
+the house of Calphurnius was attacked, and Succat, with two of his
+sisters and many of his countrymen, was carried away and conveyed to the
+north of Ireland.
+
+Here he was purchased as a slave by Michul or Milchu, a chief of North
+Dalaradia, who dwelt in the valley of the Braid, near Mount Slemish, in
+the country of Antrim. The work assigned him was that of attending his
+master's flocks and herds, and in his "Confession," which he wrote
+toward the close of his life, he describes how he wandered over the
+bleak mountains, often drenched with the rains, and numbed with the
+frosts. His period of servitude lasted six years; and during this time
+he would seem to have made himself acquainted with the language of the
+native tribes, and to have learned their habits and modes of life. At
+length he succeeded in effecting his escape to the seaside, where he
+took ship, and, after a tempestuous passage, regained his father's
+house. His stay, however, was destined to be very short. In a predatory
+excursion he was a second time taken captive, and again, after a brief
+interval, succeeded in making his escape.
+
+Had he listened to his parents, he would now have remained with them,
+but he was bent on a very different occupation. "The Divine Voice," he
+says, "frequently admonished me to consider whence I derived the wisdom
+which was in me, who once knew neither the number of my days nor was
+acquainted with God; and whence I obtained afterward so great and
+salutary a gift as to know and to love God." During the weary hours,
+moreover, of his captivity, he had often reflected how blessed a thing
+it would be if he, to whom it had been given to know the true God and
+his Son Jesus Christ, could carry the glad tidings to his master's
+people and the land of his exile.
+
+One night, he tells us, he had a dream, in which he thought he saw a man
+coming from Ireland with a number of letters. One of these he gave him
+to read, and in the beginning occurred the words, "The voice of the
+Irish." While he was reading it, he thought he heard a voice calling to
+him across the Western Sea, "We entreat thee, holy youth, to come and
+walk among us."
+
+Obedient, therefore, to what he deemed to be a plain leading from
+heaven, and resisting the arguments and entreaties of relatives and
+friends, who mocked at his enthusiastic resolve, he set out for the
+monasteries in Southern France, there to prepare himself for the work of
+preaching the gospel in the land of his captivity. Amidst the
+conflicting legends which now follow him at every step, it seems
+probable that he repaired to the monastic schools of Tours, Auxerre, and
+Lerins, where he studied and was employed for some little time in
+pastoral duties, having been ordained successively deacon and priest.
+
+There, too, he would seem to have been elevated to the episcopate, and
+thence with a band of fellow-laborers he set sail for Ireland, about the
+middle of the fifth century. Landing on one of the islands off the coast
+of Dublin, he and his companions tried unsuccessfully to obtain
+provisions, which they greatly needed. Thence sailing northward they put
+in at a strait called Brene, and after landing at the southwestern
+extremity of Strangford Lough, advanced some considerable way into the
+interior.
+
+They had not gone far before they encountered a native chief named
+Dichu, at the head of a band of men. Mistaking St. Patrick for the
+leader of one of the many pirate crews which at that time often
+appeared upon the coast, he was on the point of putting him to death.
+But struck by the missionary's appearance, and seeing that both he and
+his companions were unarmed, he hospitably received them into his house.
+In frequent interviews he now heard the doctrines of the faith, and
+after a time was baptized, with all his family. According to some
+authorities he also bestowed upon his instructor the ground whereon his
+barn was built; and here arose the celebrated church called _Sabhall
+Patraic_, "The Barn of Patrick," which still retains the name of Sabhal,
+or Saul, and is situated about two miles northeast of Downpatrick.
+
+Leaving Saul, the missionaries proceeded to northern Dalaradia, and the
+residence of St. Patrick's old master, Milchu. But nothing would induce
+the old chief to receive one who had once been his slave, or to forsake
+the paganism of his forefathers. His journey thus ineffectual, St.
+Patrick returned to the district where Dichu resided, and made the
+neighborhood for sometime his headquarters. Thence proceeding southward,
+he determined to visit the central parts of the island, and especially
+the famous hill of Tara, where King Laoghaire was about to hold a great
+religious festival in the presence of all of his tributary chieftains,
+druids, and bards. In this stronghold of druidism he resolved to
+celebrate the approaching festival of Easter, and preach the word to the
+assembled chiefs. It was Easter eve, we are told, when he reached the
+neighborhood of Tara, and having erected a tent, he made preparations
+for spending the night with his companions, and kindled a fire for the
+purpose of preparing food. As the smoke curled upward in the evening
+air, it was observed by the druids in the king's tents and caused the
+greatest consternation. To kindle any fire during the solemn assembly of
+the chiefs, before the king had lighted the sacred flame in the palace
+of Tara, was a sin of the greatest enormity, and the druids did not
+scruple to warn the king that if the fire of the stranger was not
+extinguished that night, unto him, whose fire it was, would belong the
+sovereignty of Ireland forever.
+
+Messengers were accordingly sent to discover the authors of the
+sacrilege, and to order them to appear before Laoghaire. The
+missionaries went, and their fearlessness when in the presence of the
+monarch and his nobles won for them a respectful hearing. On the
+following day St. Patrick again addressed the chiefs, doubtless in their
+own language, and proclaimed to them the doctrines of the faith.
+Laoghaire himself, indeed, did not profess to be a convert, but he gave
+permission to the man of God to preach the word, on condition that he
+did not disturb the peace of the kingdom. During the ensuing week,
+therefore, when the great public games were celebrated at Tailten, the
+missionary and his companions addressed themselves to the youngest
+brother of the king, and were so favorably received that he professed
+himself a believer, submitted to baptism, and is said to have given the
+site of a church called afterward "The Great Church of Patrick."
+
+[Illustration: St. Patrick journeying to Tara.]
+
+The impression thus made upon the chiefs was soon shared by their
+subjects, and though the pagan party made frequent attempts to put the
+missionaries to death, from which they narrowly escaped, they were
+heartily received in Westmeath, Connaught, Mayo, and Ulster, and
+before long found themselves strong enough to destroy the great idol
+Crom-cruach, on the plain of Magh Slecht, in the county of Cavan; and,
+in the district of the clan Amalgaidh, admitted to baptism the seven
+sons of the king and many of their people.
+
+To the worshippers of the powers of nature, and especially the sun and
+other heavenly bodies, St. Patrick proclaimed that the great luminary
+which ruled the day had no self-originated existence, but was created by
+One whom he taught them to call God the Father. "Besides him," said he,
+"there is no other god, nor ever was, nor will be. He was in the
+beginning before all things, and from him all things are derived,
+visible and invisible." He told them next of "his only begotten Son
+Jesus Christ, who had become man, had conquered death and ascended into
+heaven, where he sat far above all principalities and powers, and whence
+he would hereafter come to judge both the quick and the dead, and reward
+every man according to his deeds." "Those," he declared, "who believed
+in him, would rise again in the glory of the true Sun, that is, in the
+glory of Jesus Christ, being by redemption sons of God and joint-heirs
+of the Christ, of whom, and by whom, and to whom, are all things; for
+the true Sun, Jesus Christ, will never wane nor set, nor will any perish
+who do his will, but they shall live forever, even as he liveth forever
+with God the Father Almighty, and the Holy Spirit, world without end."
+
+Such, as it would seem from his "Confession," was the Gospel he
+proclaimed, and his words, confirmed and illustrated by his own intrepid
+zeal, ardent love, and sincere and devoted life, made a deep impression
+on the minds of the Celtic chiefs. With the religious enthusiasm deeply
+seated in the primitive Celtic character, which many years before won
+for St. Paul so warm a reception in Galatia, their hearts were touched
+and they welcomed the missionary, and believed the word which he
+preached.
+
+As time went on, the labors of St. Patrick were lightened by the arrival
+of the bishops Secundinus, Auxilius, and Isserninus, whom he had sent
+either to France or Britain to receive consecration. Their coming
+enabled him to extend the sphere of his operations, and he undertook
+missionary tours in Meath, Leinster, Ossory, and Munster. These
+continued for several years, during which he was occupied in preaching
+the word, baptizing new converts, and erecting churches. Knowing well
+how much his own acquaintance with the native language had contributed
+to his success, he labored diligently to establish a native ministry
+wherever he went. Cautiously selecting from the higher classes those
+whose piety and intelligence seemed to fit them for the work of the
+ministry, he established seminaries and monastic schools, where they
+were trained and educated; and to these schools the young of both sexes
+flocked with extraordinary eagerness.
+
+While he was laboring in the southeastern part of Munster, a petty
+prince of Cardiganshire, named Coroticus, though apparently professing
+Christianity, set out from Wales, and descending on the Irish coast with
+a band of armed followers, murdered several of the people, and carried
+off a large number with the intention of disposing of them as slaves.
+This outrage, perpetrated in one of the districts where St. Patrick was
+baptizing, roused his keenest indignation, and he wrote a letter, which
+he sent by one of his companions, calling upon Coroticus to restore the
+captives, many of whom had been baptized. But his request being treated
+with contempt and scorn, he composed another circular epistle, in which
+he inveighed in the strongest terms against the cruelty of the marauding
+tribe and its chief. He contrasted his conduct with that of the
+Christians of the Continent, who were in the habit of sending large sums
+of money to ransom captives, and concluded by threatening him and his
+followers with excommunication, unless he desisted in future from his
+piratical habits. What was the result of the epistle is not known, but
+it is to be feared that the attempt to recover the captives was not
+successful. Slavery and the trade in slaves was almost more difficult to
+root out than paganism, and the inhuman traffic was in full activity as
+late as the tenth century between England and Ireland, and the port of
+Bristol was one of its principal centres.
+
+Meanwhile, after a somewhat lengthened sojourn in the district of Lowth
+and parts of Ulster, St. Patrick reached the district of Macha,
+containing the royal city of Emania, the residence of the kings of
+Ulster, the remains of which, under the name of the Navan, still exist
+about two miles west of Armagh. Here he was cordially received by Daire,
+a wealthy chief, who made over to him a pleasant piece of ground on an
+eminence, _Druim-sailch_, or "Hill of the Willows." The spot pleased St.
+Patrick, and here he determined to erect a church. The foundations were
+accordingly laid, and around it rose by degrees the city of Armagh, the
+ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland; and here its founder spent the
+remainder of his life, only leaving it now and then to visit his
+favorite retreat at Saul, round which clustered so many associations of
+his earliest labors, and of his first convert Dichu.
+
+Here, too, having called to his aid the bishops Secundinus, Isserninus,
+and Auxilius, who next to himself were best qualified by long experience
+for the work, he proceeded to hold synods, and to make regulations for
+the general government of the churches he had founded. Again and again
+he was solicited to revisit his friends and relatives in Scotland, but
+nothing could induce him to leave his post. In his "Confession," written
+when far advanced in years, he touchingly describes how often he had
+been requested to come among his kinsmen once more, but how a deep sense
+of the spiritual love between himself and his flock ever retained him in
+Ireland.
+
+It was while he was staying at Saul that the apostle of Ireland was
+seized with his last illness. He had lived to a good old age, and the
+sunset of his life was calm and peaceful. Perceiving that his end drew
+nigh, and desirous, as we are told, that Armagh should be the
+resting-place of his remains, he set out thither, but was unable to
+continue the journey. Increasing weakness, and, as it seemed to him the
+voice of an angel, bade him return to the church of his first convert;
+and there he closed his eyes in death, probably in the year A.D. 466,
+leaving behind him the visible memorials of a noble work nobly done. He
+and his fellow-laborers had made for themselves, by the labors of their
+own hands, civilized dwellings amid the tangled forest and the dreary
+morass. At a time when clan-feuds and bloodshed were rife, and princes
+rose and fell, and all was stormy and changeful, they had covered the
+islands with monastic schools, where the Scriptures were studied,
+ancient books collected and read, and native missionaries trained for
+their own country, and for the remotest parts of the European continent.
+
+
+
+
+JUSTINIAN THE GREAT
+
+(483-565)
+
+[Illustration: Justinian. [TN]]
+
+
+Flavius Anicius Justinianus, nephew on the mother's side of the Emperor
+Justin, was born in 482 or 483 A.D., in the village of Tauresium, in
+Illyria. His original name was Upranda. Although of obscure parentage,
+and indeed slave-born, he shared the success of his maternal uncle,
+Justin, being invited at an early age to Constantinople, where he
+received an early education. When his uncle assumed the purple, in 518,
+he appointed Justinian commander-in-chief of the army of Asia. His
+tastes, however, inclining him rather to civic pursuits, he declined
+this appointment, and remained attached to the court of Constantinople.
+In 521, he was named consul, and during the remaining years of the reign
+of his uncle he continued to exercise great influence. In 527 the
+Emperor Justin, by the advice of the senate, proclaimed him his partner
+in the empire. Justin survived this step but four months, and in the
+same year Justinian was proclaimed sole emperor, and crowned along with
+his wife, the famous Theodora, whom, despite her more than dubious
+antecedents as an actress, he had raised to the position as his wife.
+Justinian on his accession was in his forty-fifth year. His reign, which
+extends over thirty-eight years, is the most brilliant in the history of
+the late empire. Although himself without the taste or the capacity for
+military command, he had the good fortune or the skill to select the
+ablest generals of the last days of Roman military ascendency. Under the
+direction of his generals, and especially of the celebrated Narses and
+Belisarius, his reign may be said to have restored the Roman Empire, at
+least in outward appearance, to its ancient limits, and to have reunited
+the East and the West under a single rule. In his first war--that with
+Persia--he concluded a treaty by which the crisis that had so long
+threatened, was at least warded off; but the rejoicings which celebrated
+its termination had, owing to a domestic revolution, almost proved fatal
+to the authority of Justinian himself. A conflict of the so-called Blue
+and Green factions in the circus, in 532, was but an outburst of
+political discontent, which went so far as to elect a rival emperor,
+Hypatius. Justinian himself was struck with dismay, and had made
+preparations for flight; but the vigor and determination of Theodora
+arrested the revolt. Narses, with a relentless hand, repressed the
+tumults, 30,000 victims having, it is said, fallen in a single day. By
+the arms of Belisarius, the Vandal kingdom of Africa was re-annexed to
+the Empire; and the same general, conjointly with Narses, restored the
+imperial authority in Rome, in Northern Italy, and in a large portion of
+Spain. One of the most extraordinary, though in the end ineffective
+works of the reign of Justinian, was the vast line of fortification
+which he constructed, or renewed and strengthened, along the eastern and
+southeastern frontier of his empire. These works of defence, and the
+construction of many public buildings both in his capital and in other
+cities of the Empire, involved an enormous expenditure, and the fiscal
+administration of Justinian, in consequence, pressed heavily on the
+public resource.
+
+It is, however, as a legislator that Justinian has gained his most
+enduring renown. His good fortune in obtaining the services of able
+generals was not greater than that which attended him in the field of
+law and legislation. Brilliant as were the triumphs of Narses and
+Belisarius, they were indeed short-lived in comparison with the work
+done by the celebrated Tribonian and his coadjutors in the way of
+reforming and codifying the law. Immediately on his accession Justinian
+set himself to collect and codify the principal imperial constitutions
+or statutes enacted prior to, and in force at, the date of his
+accession. In this respect he followed the example set by his
+predecessor, Theodosian. The code in which these constitutions were
+collected was published in 528-29, and it contained a general provision
+by which all previous imperial enactments were repealed. But Justinian's
+ambition in the matter of consolidating the laws went much further.
+Imperial constitutions made up but a comparatively small part of the
+body of the law. The bulk of it (what might be called the common law)
+was contained in the writings of the jurists, that is, of text-writers
+and commentators. Of these writers there were at this time many hundreds
+of volumes in existence, and, owing to want of agreement in the opinion
+of the various writers, the law was in a state of great uncertainty, not
+to say confusion.
+
+To remedy this evil, Justinian resolved upon the publication of a single
+treatise in which the commentaries and other writings of the jurists
+might be digested and harmonized. The preparation of this great work was
+intrusted to Tribonian, with the assistance of Theophilus, a celebrated
+professor of law at Berytus (modern Beyrout), and two other professors,
+and it was completed in the almost incredibly short period of four
+years. It was published in fifty books, under the title Digesta or
+Pandectae. While the Digest was in course of preparation Justinian
+resolved on the composition of a third work--viz., a systematic and
+elementary treatise on the law which might serve as a text-book for the
+use of students, and as an introduction to the larger work. The
+preparation of this was also intrusted to Tribonian and his colleagues,
+and having been completed a few days before the Digest, was published in
+four books on the same day (December 31, 534), under the title of
+Institutiones. It is based upon the Institutes of Gaius, and is familiar
+to all modern lawyers under the name of "Justinian's Institutes."
+Meantime, while both the Digest and the Institutes were being prepared,
+the Code of 529 above mentioned was withdrawn from circulation and
+republished in 534 with some alterations, and especially with the
+addition of fifty new constitutions (known as the Quinquaginta
+Decisiones) which had in the interim been pronounced by Justinian. This
+new edition, in twelve books, is known as the Codex Repetitiae
+Proelectionis, and is the one which has come down to us, no copy of the
+earlier codex being extant. All these works (Code, Digest, Institutes)
+were written originally in Latin, and all of them were prepared with
+care and skill, and testify to the great ability of Tribonian and his
+co-editors. Upon the publication of the "Digest" Justinian declared by a
+constitution that all previous law-books and decisions were to be held
+as superseded and it was forbidden to refer to them in the practice of
+the courts. During the subsequent years of his reign Justinian
+pronounced from time to time several new constitutions or laws, some of
+them making very important changes in certain departments of the law.
+These (mostly in Greek) were collected and published under the title of
+"Novellae" (_i.e._, "The Novels" or "New Works"). There were, so far as
+can be ascertained, about one hundred and seventy of these Novels. The
+Institutes, Digest, Code, and Novels together make up what is known as
+the Corpus Juris Civilis.
+
+The character of Justinian has been much canvassed, and opinions are not
+agreed about it. Procopius, in two separate works, has painted him in
+very different lights. Making allowance, however, for much exaggeration
+of his abilities by contemporary writers, it may be said that he
+contrasts favorably with most of the emperors, whether of the earlier or
+of the later Empire. If his personal virtues be open to doubt (and
+certainly vanity, avarice, and inconstancy were in no small degree
+characteristic of him), he, on the other hand, displayed undoubted
+ability as a ruler, and, in the main, just and upright intentions. He
+was easy of access, patient of hearing, courteous and affable in
+discourse, and perfect master of his temper. In the conspiracies against
+his authority and person he often showed both justice and clemency. He
+excelled in the private virtues of chastity and temperance; his meals
+were short and frugal; on solemn fasts he contented himself with water
+and vegetables, and he frequently passed two days and as many nights
+without tasting any food. He allowed himself little time for sleep, and
+was always up before the morning light. His restless application to
+business and to study, as well as the extent of his learning, have been
+attested even by his enemies. He was, or professed to be, a poet and
+philosopher, a lawyer and theologian, a musician and an architect; but
+the brightest ornament of his reign is the compilation of Roman law
+which has immortalized his name. He died on November 14, 565, at the age
+of eighty-three, and in the thirty-eighth year of his reign.
+
+A few words must be said about the legislative reforms carried through
+by Justinian. He was not only a collector and a codifier of the laws; he
+also introduced in many directions the most fundamental changes into the
+substantive law itself. The following were the most important changes.
+(1) He ameliorated the condition of slaves--depriving their masters of
+the power of putting them to death. He declared that any one who put a
+slave to death by his own hand should be guilty of homicide. (2) He
+greatly revolutionized the law of intestate succession by giving to
+cognati (relatives on the mother's side) an equal share with agnati
+(relatives on the father's side) of the same degree. These two changes
+in the law were probably in a large measure induced by the circumstances
+of his birth. (3) He made considerable changes in the law of divorce,
+and as to the property of spouses. (4) He reformed civil procedure in
+the way of making it uniform, and introducing a system of small-debt
+courts.
+
+
+
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY[9]
+
+By RT. REV. HENRY CODMAN POTTER, BISHOP OF NEW YORK
+
+(DIED, 604)
+
+         [Footnote 9: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Augustine. [TN]]
+
+
+A complete biography of St. Augustine of Canterbury it is impossible to
+write: almost all that is known of him is his work as a missionary to
+the English, and almost the only source of our knowledge of that
+missionary work is the "Ecclesiastical History" of Baeda. But the mission
+of St. Augustine was one of the great crises, not only of the history of
+the Christian Church, but of the history of human civilization. The
+difference between a number of Celtic churches, with bishops largely
+subordinate to the abbots of monasteries, included (as it seems) in none
+of the great Catholic patriarchates, cut off from all communication with
+the great centres of human thought and life--and a Church of England
+taking her place, at once independent and subordinate, in the swift
+development of human progress, both conservative and creative--this
+difference is quite incalculable. And the mission of St. Augustine made
+the difference.
+
+The triumph of Christianity depended--apart from its divine
+authority--upon the thorough organization of the Christian communities;
+and that organization had for its centre the Episcopacy. But as separate
+congregations without a bishop could never have escaped disintegration,
+so the united congregations, with their presbyters and bishop, would
+have been powerless without some further organization, uniting the
+bishops, with well-defined regulations, under some recognized hierarchy
+of authority. Thus arose metropolitan sees, and the great patriarchates
+of the Catholic Church--Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria,
+Constantinople. This centralization was rendered necessary by the course
+of events; but it had otherwise no divine authority and might be
+modified just as validly as it was created. When the Roman Empire was
+submerged under the deluge of barbarian races, a yet closer
+centralization became necessary, at least in the West; and the ark in
+which floated over that terrible deluge not only the Christian religion,
+but the remains of ancient civilization, both Greek and Roman, was the
+patriarchate of Rome. The man who not only clearly perceived, but was
+absolutely compelled to assume, his awful responsibility in the West,
+the Saviour at once of the Church and the world, was the splendid
+pontiff, Gregory the Great; the great pontiff who sent St. Augustine and
+his companions to preach the gospel to the English conquerors of
+Britain. If we would clearly understand the work of St. Augustine we
+must free our minds from the illusion produced by familiar names. One of
+these is the name Britain. In the time of Gregory the Great the island
+called by that name was, of course, the same as that on which Julius
+Caesar had landed. The barbarians whom Caesar encountered had been subdued
+by his successors, and a Roman province had been formed. Roman
+civilization had been introduced and, one might almost say, had
+flourished. The Christian religion had found its way thither; there had
+been Christian congregations and bishops, and even a heresiarch. But
+Rome, in the struggle for her own existence, had been compelled to
+withdraw her legions from the province of Britain; and to leave the
+people not only to their internal dissensions, but to the attacks of the
+"Scots" and "Picts," from Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Then
+followed the conquest of Britain by the English, as the Teutonic
+invaders began soon to be called. The Celtic people were largely driven
+out, including the Celtic Christians. The English were heathens, and the
+Celtic Christians seem to have made no effort whatever for their
+conversion. The English, again, were by no means consolidated into an
+English nation. It was to one division of these English heathens that
+Gregory the Great sent Augustine.
+
+Even the term "the British Church" is somewhat misleading. There is not
+the slightest trustworthy evidence, either as to the time when, or the
+person by whom, Christianity was introduced into Britain. There, of
+course, as everywhere else, the Church was under the rule of bishops;
+but, excepting for the purpose of ordaining, the authority of the
+British bishops seems to have been entirely overshadowed by the
+authority of the abbots of monasteries. There seems, as we have said, no
+evidence of anything resembling the patriarchal system among them; nor
+of any close or frequent communication between the British churches and
+the rest of Christendom. This is proved, among other things, by their
+curious reckoning of Easter; which (as Gieseler shows, "Eccle. Hist.,"
+ii., 164, English translation) was by no means identical with that of
+the Quarto-decimans. It was simply the survival of the use of an old
+cycle which had been elsewhere superseded by one more accurate and
+convenient.
+
+The ascertainable biography of St. Augustine begins with his mission, by
+command of Gregory, to the heathen English; and especially to the
+subjects of Ethelbert, King of Kent, who had married a Christian lady.
+There is not the slightest reason for discrediting the story related by
+Baeda, of the incident which first excited Gregory's interest in the
+heathen English. The relations between Britain and Rome having come to
+an end, it is not in the least surprising that even a person so
+exceptionally well informed should have known nothing about the Teutonic
+peoples--Angles, Jutes, Saxons--which had driven out the British. That
+he should have played upon words so suggestive as Angli, Deira, and
+AElla, is exactly what might be expected from the author of the "Magna
+Moralia." The familiar story--he calls it "opinio quae de beato Gregorio
+traditione majorum ad nos usque perlata est"--as told by Baeda, is as
+follows ("Hist. Eccl.," ii., 1):--
+
+It is reported that some merchants, having just arrived at Rome on a
+certain day, exposed many things for sale in the market-place, and
+abundance of people resorted thither to buy; Gregory himself went with
+the rest, and, among other things, some boys were set to sale, their
+bodies white, their countenances beautiful, and their hair very fine.
+Having viewed them, he asked, as is said, from what country or nation
+they were brought? and was told, from the island of Britain, whose
+inhabitants were of such personal appearance. He again inquired whether
+those islanders were Christians, or still involved in the errors of
+paganism? and was informed that they were pagans. Then, fetching a deep
+sigh from the bottom of his heart, "Alas! what pity," said he, "that the
+author of darkness is possessed of men of such fair countenances; and
+that being remarkable for such graceful aspects, their minds should be
+void of inward grace." He therefore again asked, what was the name of
+that nation? and was answered that they were called Angles. "Right,"
+said he, "for they have an angelic face, and it becomes such to be
+co-heirs with the angels in heaven. What is the name," proceeded he, "of
+the province from which they are brought?" It was replied, that the
+natives of that place were called Deiri. "Truly are they De ira," said
+he, "withdrawn from wrath, and called to the mercy of Christ. How is the
+king of that province called?" They told him his name was AElla; and he,
+alluding to the name, said, "Hallelujah, the praise of God the Creator
+must be sung in those parts."
+
+Gregory was eager to go at once on a mission to the home of these
+beautiful children, and the then pope gave his consent; but the Roman
+people could not bear the loss of one already so useful and
+distinguished, and almost before he had started he was recalled. When,
+during his own pontificate, Gregory carried out his purpose, it was
+probably due to a request of Queen Bertha, speaking, most likely, in
+behalf of some of the Kentish people, made to the Frankish bishops for
+missionaries. "It has come to our knowledge," writes Gregory, "that,
+through the mercy of God, the people of the Angli are eagerly desiring
+to be converted to the Christian faith, but that the priests of their
+own neighborhood neglect them." When Bertha married Ethelbert it was on
+condition that she should retain her own religion; and she was
+accompanied to Kent by a French bishop, named Luidhard, who must have
+acted chiefly as her private chaplain. Ethelbert nobly kept his word,
+and thus the piety of Bertha, and her religion, may easily and deeply
+have impressed the Kentish heathen. That the Celtic bishops and
+clergy--"sacerdotes e vicinio"--did nothing for the conversion of the
+heathen English can scarcely be matter of surprise, though possibly of
+regret. For they were not only Christians, but belonged to the conquered
+race; whom, apart from their religion, it was the policy of the
+conquerors to drive out of the country, and who were compelled to take
+refuge in the remotest districts of the land. The Frankish bishops seem
+to have done little or nothing in response to Queen Bertha's
+solicitations; and Gregory ordered Candidus, administrator of the
+Patrimony of St. Peter in Gaul, to bring up English youths, and have
+them trained in monasteries, and fitted to be made missionaries to their
+own land. At length, in the sixth year of his pontificate, he determined
+to undertake the work himself; and sent from his own monastery of St.
+Andrew, on the Caelian Hill, in Rome, a company of forty monks, headed by
+their prior, Augustine.
+
+Their progress at first was rapid. Starting in the summer of A.D. 596,
+they soon arrived in the neighborhood of Aix, in Provence. But the
+nearer they came to what should have been their journey's end, the less
+inclined they were for the work to which they had been appointed. The
+heathen English were represented as barbarians of unusual ferocity; and
+the companions of Augustine were as frightened as the companions of
+Caleb and Joshua. They induced their prior to return to Gregory and seek
+a release from their perilous task. But Gregory was not a man to be
+frightened himself, or to have much sympathy with cowards. He wrote,
+however, with great gentleness: "For as much as it had been better not
+to begin a good work than to think of desisting from that which has been
+begun, it behoves you, my beloved sons, to fulfil the good work which,
+by the help of the Lord, you have undertaken. Let not, therefore, the
+toil of the journey, nor the tongues of evil-speaking men, deter you:
+but with all possible earnestness and zeal, perform that which by God's
+direction you have undertaken." He furnished them with letters to the
+bishops of Tours, Marseilles, Vienne, and Autun, and also to the
+metropolitan of Arles. After the lapse of a year they slowly continued
+their journey, and landed at last at Ebbe's Fleet, in the Isle of
+Thanet.
+
+As soon as they had landed Augustine sent the interpreters, whom he had
+obtained from "the nation of the Franks," to tell Ethelbert of his
+arrival. Ethelbert seems to have been a really noble-hearted man, and
+had doubtless been attracted by the piety of his wife Bertha. The
+missionaries told him that they had come from Rome, the great capital of
+the West, and "had brought a joyful message which most undoubtedly
+assured to all that took advantage of it, everlasting joys in heaven,
+and a kingdom that would never end, with the living and true God." The
+king ordered them to remain in the island where they had landed, and
+promised that they should be furnished with all necessaries till he
+should consider what he would do with them. Soon after he came to the
+island, and conferred with Augustine and his companions in the open air;
+fearing the possibility of magic enchantments if he met them under any
+roof. He was much impressed by their ceremonial, their bearing, and
+their teaching. "Your words and promises," he said, "are very fair, but
+as they are new to us, and of uncertain import, I cannot approve of them
+so far as to forsake that which I have so long followed with the whole
+English nation ["cum omni Anglorum gente:" this by no means implies, it
+is scarcely necessary to say, an English nation in the modern sense of
+those words]. But because you are come from far into my kingdom, and, as
+I conceive, are desirous to impart to us those things which you believe
+to be true and most beneficial, we will not molest you, but give you
+favorable entertainment, and take care to supply you with your necessary
+sustenance; nor do we forbid you to preach, and gain as many as you can
+to your religion."
+
+By the king's invitation they crossed from Thanet and took their abode
+in the then rude town of Canterbury, and before long were allowed to
+worship in St. Martin's Church, with the queen. Their influence
+gradually increased, and a considerable number of the English were
+converted. At last Ethelbert himself received baptism (Whitsunday, A.D.
+597); and following his example, it is said that on December 25th
+following--mid-winter!--upward of ten thousand were baptized in the
+waters of the Swale. Of course, it cannot be supposed that in these
+mediaeval "conversions" of whole tribes or "nations," there was any
+rational acceptance of the complete theology of the Church. The
+conversion was rather the acceptance of a discipline, a mode of life;
+founded indeed on Christian doctrine and in all kinds of subtle ways
+symbolizing it; but primarily an imitation of a sweeter and purer life,
+and a more spiritual and suggestive worship. The words of Baeda (i., 26)
+are worthy of note as indicating the temper both of Gregory and
+Augustine: "Their conversion the king so far encouraged, as that he
+compelled none to embrace Christianity, but only showed more affection
+to the believers, as to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly kingdom. For
+he had learnt from his instructors and leaders to salvation, that the
+service of Christ ought to be voluntary, not by compulsion."
+
+[Illustration: Conversion of Ethelbert by Augustine.]
+
+Having so far succeeded in his mission, Augustine went to Arles and was
+consecrated archbishop of the English by the Metropolitan Virgilius.
+[Baeda says (i., 27): "Archiepiscopus genti Anglorum ordinatus est," the
+actual see probably being then undetermined.] On his return he
+despatched Lawrence and Peter to Rome to tell Gregory that the Angli had
+been converted to the faith, and that he himself (Augustine) had been
+made a bishop. They were also to bring back the Pope's answers to sundry
+questions respecting the conduct of the mission which Augustine proposed
+to him. Both the questions and the answers are highly suggestive. The
+first question was as to the division of the offerings of the faithful.
+The second as to differences of "Use" in the celebration of Mass and
+other divine offices. The answer of Gregory is almost classical, and may
+well be repeated here: "You know, my brother," he says, "the custom of
+the Roman Church.... But it pleases me that if you have found anything,
+whether in the Roman Church, or the church of the Gauls
+["Galliarum"], or any church whatever, which may be more pleasing to
+Almighty God, you carefully make choice of the same and diligently teach
+the church of the English, which as yet is new in the faith ... whatever
+you have been able to collect from many churches. For things are not to
+be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of good
+things." The fourth and fifth questions of Augustine refer to prohibited
+degrees of marriage, and Gregory replies, as to the marriage of
+first-cousins, among other objections, "we have learned by experience
+that no offspring can come of such marriage." To Augustine's inquiry as
+to his relations with the bishops of Gaul and Britain ["Galliarum
+Brittaniarumque,"] Gregory replies that Augustine has no authority
+whatever within the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Arles; but he
+adds: "As for all the bishops of Britain ["Brittaniarum"], we commit
+them to your care, that the unlearned may be taught, the weak
+strengthened by persuasion, and the perverse corrected by authority."
+Considering the context--Augustine had been asking whether, under the
+circumstances, he could consecrate bishops without the presence of any
+other bishops; and, moreover, he had not as yet come into any kind of
+contact with the Celtic bishops--it seems probable that "the bishops of
+Britain" here placed under Augustine's jurisdiction were the bishops to
+be afterward consecrated by himself, with or without the presence and
+witness of Gallic or other bishops. Gregory's advice to Augustine,
+conveyed through the Abbot Mellitus, may well be pondered by the
+managers of modern missions. He says: "The temples of the idols in that
+nation [the English] ought not to be destroyed; but let the idols that
+are in them be destroyed; let holy water be made and sprinkled in the
+said temples, let altars be erected, and relics placed. For if those
+temples are well built it is requisite that they be converted from the
+worship of devils to the service of the true God; that the nation ...
+adoring the true God, may the more familiarly resort to the places to
+which they have been accustomed." He even suggests that their
+sacrifices--which were largely festivals, as much social as
+religious--should be discontinued, indeed, as sacrifices, but changed
+into banquets and associated with the day of the dedication of a church,
+or the "nativity" of a holy martyr. And all this on the perfectly sound
+principle, too often forgotten, that "he who strives to reach the
+highest place raises himself by steps and degrees, and not by leaps
+[gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus elevatus]."
+
+At last Augustine was brought into contact with the Celtic bishops. It
+was clear that their assistance would be very valuable in the endeavor
+to convert the English, and also that their peculiar usages would convey
+the impression of far greater diversity of doctrine than actually
+existed. Augustine was willing to make much concession. There were three
+conditions of union which seemed to him indispensable: agreement as to
+the time of keeping Easter; agreement as to the mode of administering
+baptism; and hearty co-operation in mission work among the heathen. We
+may leave out of consideration alleged miracles; also the curious, or
+even the ludicrous, test of a divine mission suggested by "the aged
+hermit" of the story. The Celtic bishops refused any sort of
+co-operation, and Augustine left them, not without a solemn warning:
+"If they would not have peace with their brethren, they would have to
+accept war from their enemies; if they would not preach the way of life
+to the nation of the Angli, they would have to suffer at their hands the
+vengeance of death." It is scarcely credible--though in religious
+controversy almost anything is credible--that a warning so obviously
+wise, and even charitable, should have been interpreted as a mere
+threat, and as evidence that Augustine himself was the author of the
+calamities that afterward befell the Celtic Church.
+
+Such is the simple story of the mission and the life--for we read
+nothing about his life but his mission--of Augustine, the first
+archbishop of Canterbury. He was not able to carry out the whole scheme
+of Gregory. He was not the first to introduce Christianity into Britain.
+But, apart from Queen Bertha's private chaplain, he was the first to
+introduce Christianity to the English--those Teutonic tribes which were
+the ancestors of the English of to-day. Who first brought the gospel to
+the Roman province of Britain no one knows; nor is it of the slightest
+importance that anyone should know. But that there should have been two
+Christian religions in England when the nation was being consolidated,
+would have been fatal both to nation and church. We conclude this brief
+notice by a passage from two historians, neither of whom could possibly
+be suspected of any undue subservience to the modern Church of Rome. The
+first is from Mr. Green's "The Making of England" (pp. 314, 315); he is
+speaking of the results of the Synod of Whitby (A.D. 664).
+
+"It is possible that lesser political motives may have partly swayed
+Oswin in his decision, for the revival of Mercia had left him but the
+alliance of Kent in the south, and this victory of the Kentish Church
+would draw tighter the bonds which linked together the two powers. But
+we may fairly credit him with a larger statesmanship. Trivial in fact as
+were the actual points of difference which parted the Roman Church from
+the Irish, the question to which communion Northumbria should belong
+was, as we have seen, of immense moment to the after-fortunes of
+England. It was not merely that, as Wilfrid said, to fight against Rome
+was to fight against the world. Had England, indeed, clung to the Irish
+Church, it must have remained spiritually isolated from the bulk of
+Western Christendom. Fallen as Rome might be from its older greatness,
+it preserved the traditions of civilization, of letters, and art and
+law. Its faith still served as a bond which held together the nations
+that sprang from the wreck of the Empire. To repulse Rome was to condemn
+England to isolation. But grave as such considerations were, they were
+of little weight beside the influence which Oswin's decision had on the
+very unity of the English race. The issue of the Synod not only gave
+England a share in the religious unity of Western Christendom; it gave
+her a religious unity at home. However dimly such thoughts may have
+presented themselves to Oswin's mind, it was the instinct of a statesman
+that led him to set aside the love and gratitude of his youth, and to
+secure the religious oneness of England in the Synod of Whitby."
+
+The other is from Milman's "History of Latin Christianity" (ii., 198,
+199, Amer. Edition): "The effect of Christianity on Anglo-Saxon England
+was at once to re-establish a connection both between the remoter parts
+of the island with each other, and of England with the rest of the
+Christian world. They ceased to dwell apart, a race of warlike,
+unapproachable barbarians, in constant warfare with the bordering
+tribes, or occupied in their own petty feuds or inroads, rarely, as in
+the case of Ethelbert, connected by intermarriage with some neighboring
+Teutonic state. Though the Britons were still secluded in the mountains,
+or at extremities of the land, by animosities which even Christianity
+could not allay, yet the Picts and Scots, and the parts of Ireland which
+were occupied by Christian monasteries, were now brought into peaceful
+communication, first with the kingdom of Northumbria, and through
+Northumbria with the rest of England. The intercourse with Europe was of
+far higher importance, and tended much more rapidly to introduce the
+arts and habits of civilization into the land. There was a constant flow
+of missionaries across the British Channel, who possessed all the
+knowledge which still remained in Europe. All the earlier metropolitans
+of Canterbury and the bishops of most of the southern sees, were
+foreigners; they were commissioned at Rome, if not consecrated there;
+they travelled backward and forward in person, or were in constant
+communication with that great city, in which were found all the culture,
+the letters, the arts, and sciences which had survived the general
+wreck."
+
+Nobody need disparage the Celtic Church; but it is not too much to say
+that the Celtic Church could never have preserved Christianity in
+Britain against the victorious Saxon or English heathen. But from the
+very beginning the Church of England has retained the traces of her
+early origin, when Gregory the Great was Pope, when the claim to be
+universal bishop was deemed untenable, when even the ritual of the Mass
+was still in unessential details flexible.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+MAHOMET
+
+(571-632)
+
+
+The Arabian "Prophet" was born at the city of Mecca, some time during
+the sixth century, but the precise year has, after much discussion,
+still been left in doubt. Hottinger says, A.D. 571, Reiske, A.D. 572,
+and Gagnier, A.D. 578. His lineage has also been the subject of great
+altercation, one party exalting him above most of his countrymen, while
+the other degraded him to the lowest rank--particularly contemporary
+Christian writers, who were desirous of rendering him an object of
+contempt; and in the same degree that the Christians felt themselves
+called upon to degrade the Arabian prophet, so did the Mahometans think
+themselves compelled to exalt him. Mahomet successfully vindicated for
+himself a high lineage among his countrymen; the tribe of Koreish, to
+which he belonged, laying claim to Ishmael as their progenitor, and this
+claim, arising from the vanity of the tribe, was eagerly laid hold of
+and supported by his votaries.
+
+[Illustration: Two camel ridders. [TN]]
+
+Abdallah, the father of Mahomet, was the youngest son of Abd al
+Motalleb, the son of Hashem. "Hashem," say the authors of the "Modern
+Universal History," "succeeded his father Abd al Menaf in the
+principality of the Koreish, and consequently in the government of
+Mecca, and the custody of the Caaba." So far the genealogy of the
+prophet is supported by authentic history--that he was descended from
+the princes of his people cannot be denied. This descent from Ishmael,
+Gibbon, after Sale, thus disproves: "Abulfeda and Gagnier describe the
+popular and approved genealogy of the prophet. At Mecca I would not
+dispute its authenticity; at Lausanne, I will venture to observe, 1st,
+That, from Ishmael to Mahomet, a period of two thousand five hundred
+years, they reckon thirty instead of seventy-five generations. 2d. That
+the modern Bedoweens are ignorant of their history, and careless of
+their pedigree."
+
+Abdallah, though of high lineage, was possessed of little wealth; and as
+he died while his son was yet an infant, we may easily suppose that
+little to have been diminished by the rapacity of his kindred. At the
+early age of six years Mahomet lost his mother, Amina; and two years
+after, his grandfather, Abd al Motalleb, who when dying, earnestly
+confided the helpless orphan to the care of Abu Taleb, the eldest of his
+sons, and the successor to his authority. From him, though treated with
+kindness, Mahomet received a scanty education; but whether that
+education was equal or inferior to that of his countrymen, it is not
+easy to discover. Tradition states that at the time of Mahomet's first
+declaration concerning his mission, only one man in Mecca could write.
+If so, it is nothing wonderful that Mahomet, like the rest of his
+kindred, should also he unable to write. At thirteen years of age, he is
+said to have made a journey to Syria, in the caravan of his uncle, and,
+some years after, to have performed the same journey in the capacity of
+factor to his mistress, Cadijah.
+
+The next remarkable event in the life of Mahomet, is his appearance in
+the character of a soldier. At the early age of fourteen, he served
+under his uncle, who commanded the troops of his tribe, the Koreish, in
+their wars against the rival tribes of Kenan and Hawazan. The
+circumstance is worthy of remark, as illustrative of the perfect
+compatibility between the business of a merchant and that of a soldier,
+among the Arabian people, and upon the constant and rapid transition
+from one to the other.
+
+By the assistance of his uncle he became soon after the factor of a rich
+trading widow in his native city. The animosity of his enemies has
+degraded the confidential agent into a driver of camels. It has been
+confidently and constantly asserted that he was a menial servant in the
+household of his mistress, Cadijah; while, in truth, he was employed to
+carry on her mercantile transactions, and to superintend her affairs. In
+this situation of factor, his conduct and integrity gained him the
+affections of his mistress. Cadijah was not, in the eyes of her people,
+degraded by an alliance with the grandson of their prince; and in her
+own estimation, by bestowing her hand and fortune upon Mahomet, she
+gained a young, handsome, and affectionate husband. Twenty years of
+constancy, of kind and respectful attention, on the part of Mahomet,
+fully justified her choice. It may, indeed, be imagined, and we confess
+the supposition bears the appearance of some plausibility, that the
+affection of Cadijah was not uninfluenced by the handsome person and
+insinuating eloquence of her youthful suitor. And we cannot refuse our
+applause to the conduct of Mahomet, who, whatever might have been her
+motives, never afterward forgot the benefits he had received from his
+benefactress, never made her repent having so bestowed her affection, or
+grieve at having placed her fortune and her person at his absolute
+disposal. Cadijah, at the time of her marriage, was forty; Mahomet,
+twenty-five years of age. Till the age of sixty-four years, when she
+died, did Cadijah enjoy the undivided affection of her husband; "in a
+country where polygamy was allowed, the pride or tenderness of the
+venerable matron was never insulted by the society of a rival. After her
+death he placed her in the rank of the four perfect women: with the
+sister of Moses, the mother of Jesus, and Fatima, the best beloved of
+his daughters. 'Was she not old?' said Ayesha, with the insolence of a
+blooming beauty; 'has not Allah given you a better in her place?' 'No,
+by Allah!' said Mahomet, with an effusion of honest gratitude, 'there
+never can be a better! She believed in me, when men despised me: she
+relieved my wants when I was poor and persecuted by the world.'"
+
+Commerce now occupied his attention, and till the age of forty nothing
+remarkable happened in the life of the future prophet. His marriage with
+Cadijah raised him to an equality with the first citizens of Mecca, gave
+an importance to his opinions, and, combined with the power of his
+family, probably rendered it impossible to punish or interrupt the first
+steps he made toward the propagation of his new religion. When relieved
+from the pressure of indigence, his mind seems almost immediately to
+have been turned toward religious meditation. The result of this
+meditation was an opinion exceedingly unfavorable to the religion of his
+countrymen. The first statement of this conviction was met rather by
+ridicule than anger, being considered the fantasy of a dreaming
+enthusiast, who was little to be dreaded, and unworthy of opposition. We
+are told that he retired to a cave in Mount Hara, near Mecca, where, as
+he assured his first proselyte, his wife, he regularly received the
+visits of the angel Gabriel. This tale his wife believed, or affected to
+believe. The next on the list of true believers were Zeid, the servant
+of the prophet, and Ali, the son of his uncle, Abu Taleb. The impetuous
+youth, disdaining his two predecessors in the true faith, proudly styled
+himself the first of believers. The next and most important convert was
+Abu Bekr, a powerful citizen of Mecca, by whose influence a number of
+persons possessing great authority were induced to profess the religion
+of Islam. Three years were spent in the arduous task of converting six
+of these men. They were afterward his chief companions, and with a few
+others, were the only proselytes to the new religion before it became
+publicly known.
+
+The apostle, who was at first derided, came at length to be feared. The
+people flocked to hear his doctrines, and as they retired, wondering and
+believing, general consternation reigned among the governors of Mecca.
+Frightened by his growing influence, they imprudently endeavored to
+arrest the evil by punishing the offender. For some time, however, the
+power of Abu Taleb, the prophet's uncle, defended him against these
+hostile attacks, which served, by manifesting the alarm and hatred of
+the nobles, to increase Mahomet's fame and importance. Persecution gave
+him strength by bringing him before the public. Once known, he gained
+sympathizing listeners among the benevolent, because a persecuted man;
+and blindly believing votaries among the ignorant and fearful, because a
+bold and vehement declaimer against wickedness, as well as an eloquent
+describer of the horrible torments attached to unbelief. In the seventh
+year of his mission, the heads of the tribe of Koreish made a solemn
+league one with another, engaging themselves to have no commerce or
+connection with the families of Hashem and Al Motalleb. While Abu Taleb
+lived the league was of no avail; the power of the uncle defended the
+nephew against the designs of his enemies. At length, at the end of the
+seventh year, Abu Taleb died; and a few days after his death Mahomet was
+left a widower, by the decease of Cadijah. In his affliction he termed
+this fatal year the year of mourning.
+
+The unprotected prophet was now completely exposed to the attacks of his
+enemies. His only safety was in flight, and had not the city of Medina
+been friendly to his cause, the religion of Islam would have been
+crushed in the bud. The fame of Mahomet, however, had extended far
+beyond the walls of his native town. Distance, by shrouding him in
+mystery, increased his influence. While he was scorned and derided at
+Mecca, he was worshipped at Medina. A secret deputation from the city of
+Medina waited on the apostle, and an alliance was entered into "during
+two secret and nocturnal interviews, on a hill in the suburbs of Mecca."
+Seventy-three men and two women having professed the faith of Islam, as
+well as some yet unbelievers, met the prophet and proffered him
+assistance. "What recompense," said they, "have we to expect, should we
+fall in your defence?" "Paradise," exclaimed the confident apostle. They
+promised him fidelity and allegiance.
+
+From a fugitive Mahomet became a monarch; no sooner had he arrived at
+Medina than he found himself at the head of an army devoted to his
+person, obedient to his will, and blind believers in his holy office.
+The _fugitives_ from Mecca and the _auxiliaries_ of Medina (the two
+parties into which Mahomet's followers were now divided) gathered round
+their chief, and with friendly emulation vied with each other in
+obedience and in valor. To prevent all jealousy between the brethren,
+Mahomet wisely gave each one a friend and companion from the rival band;
+each _fugitive_ had for his brother one of the _auxiliaries_. Their
+fraternity was continued in peace and in war, and during the life of the
+prophet their union was undisturbed by the voice of discord.
+
+The commands of the prophet were followed to the letter. The first
+warlike attempt of the believers was, nevertheless, unsuccessful.
+Mahomet having learned that a caravan, the property of the hostile
+Koreish, was on its way from Syria to Mecca, despatched his uncle Hamza,
+with a party of thirty horse, to capture it. Hamza, however, discovering
+the caravan to be guarded by 300 men, desisted from his hostile
+enterprise, and returned without the expected booty. On the plain of
+Beder, Mahomet, at the head of his troops, effaced the shame of this
+failure. A rich caravan, proceeding to Mecca, and guarded by Abu Sofian,
+with between thirty and forty men, occasioned the contest. The spies of
+Mahomet informed him that this rich and apparently easy prey was within
+his grasp. He advanced with a few followers in pursuit of it; but before
+he could overtake the unprotected band, Abu Sofian had sent for a
+reinforcement from Mecca. A troop consisting of 950 men, among whom were
+the chief persons of that city, instantly obeyed the summons. Mahomet
+was posted between the caravan and the coming succor, being able to
+oppose to this formidable force no more than 313 soldiers, mounted for
+the most part on camels; some few (according to some authors, not more
+than two) being mounted on horses.
+
+Undismayed by this disparity of force, Mahomet determined to try the
+event of a battle, and risk his fortune and perhaps his life upon the
+contest. The troops were persuaded to engage the superior forces of the
+enemy, and for the present to abandon the tempting prize of Abu Sofian's
+rich caravan. Mahomet animated them by his prayers, and in the name of
+the Most High promised them certain victory. However assured he might
+have been of divine assistance, he was careful to let slip no human
+means of securing success. An entrenchment was made to cover the flanks
+of his troop, and a rivulet flowed past the spot he had chosen for his
+encampment, and furnished his army with a constant supply of water. When
+the enemy appeared, descending from the hills, Mahomet ordered his
+soldiers to the attack; but before the armies could engage, three
+combatants, Ali, Al Hareth, and Hamza, on the side of the Moslems, and
+three of the Koreish, joined in single conflict. The Moslem warriors
+were victorious, and thus gave to both armies a presage of the coming
+engagement. The prophet, with Abu Bekr, at the commencement of the
+battle, mounted a pulpit, fervently demanding of God the assistance of
+Gabriel and three thousand angels; but when his army appeared to waver,
+he started from his place of prayer, mounted a horse, and flinging a
+handful of dust into the air, exclaiming, "May their faces be
+confounded!" rushed upon the enemy. Fanaticism rendered his followers
+invincible; the numerous forces of the Koreish were unable to break the
+ranks or resist the furious attacks of his confiding soldiers. They
+fled, leaving seventy of their principal officers dead upon the field,
+and seventy prisoners in the hands of the enemy. Of the Moslems, only
+fourteen were slain. The names of the slaughtered warriors have been
+handed down to posterity, and enrolled among the list of pious martyrs
+whom the faithful Mussulman is taught to worship.
+
+Space will not permit us to enumerate the various battles fought by
+Mahomet; according, however, to the computation of some authors, no less
+than twenty-seven expeditions were undertaken, in which he personally
+commanded, and in which nine pitched battles were fought. During the
+same period, he was besieged in Medina, by the implacable Koreish; but,
+by his own skill, and the bravery of his troops, he repelled all their
+attacks. In the sixth year of the Hegira, with 1,400 men, he meditated
+what he asserted to be a peaceful pilgrimage to the holy temple of
+Mecca. Entrance into the city being refused by the people, the prophet,
+in his anger, determined to force his way. At this critical juncture an
+ambassador was despatched from Mecca to demand a peace. The policy of
+Mahomet induced him to lay aside his determination of assaulting his
+native city, and to accept the peaceful offers of his countrymen. A
+truce of ten years was consequently concluded between the prophet and
+the Koreish.
+
+Two years had hardly elapsed when Mahomet accused the people of Mecca of
+a breach of their engagement. When a man is really desirous of
+quarrelling, a pretext is never wanting. He was now strong, and his
+enemies were weak. His superstitious reverence for the city of his
+nativity, and for the temple it contained, served also to influence his
+determination for war. The time since the concluding of the truce had
+been skilfully employed in seducing the adherents of the Koreish, and
+converting to his religion the chief citizens of Mecca. With an army of
+10,000 men he marched to besiege it, and no sooner did he appear before
+the walls than the city surrendered at discretion.
+
+[Illustration: The Muezzin.]
+
+The religion of Mahomet may be considered now to have been permanently
+settled. The conquest of Mecca and of the Koreish was the signal for the
+submission of the rest of Arabia. The events of the prophet's after-life
+cease, therefore, to possess an interest for a Western reader. They
+were, for the most part, merely expeditions undertaken for the purpose
+of reducing the petty tribes who still resisted his authority, and were
+all of them eventually successful. The influence and religion of Mahomet
+continued rapidly to extend; his difficulties were over; and the hour of
+his prosperity has nothing to instruct or to amuse the general reader.
+Between the taking of Mecca and the period of his death, not more than
+three years elapsed. In that short period he had destroyed the idols of
+Arabia; had extended his conquests to the borders of the Greek and
+Persian empires; had rendered his name formidable to those once mighty
+kingdoms; had tried his arms against the undisciplined troops of the
+former, and defeated them in a desperate encounter at Muta. His throne
+was now firmly established, and an impetus given to the Arabian nations
+that in a few years induced them to invade, and enabled them to subdue,
+a great portion of the globe. India, Persia, the Greek Empire, the whole
+of Asia Minor, Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, were reduced by their
+victorious arms. The Muezzin[10] was heard throughout an empire greater
+than Alexander's; and though the temporal power of his successors has
+now faded to a shadow, the religion which he founded still holds sway
+throughout all that empire, and is even endeavoring to extend itself.
+Although Mahomet did not live to see such mighty conquests, he laid the
+first foundations of this wide-spreading dominion, and established over
+the whole of Arabia, and some part of Syria, the religion he had
+proclaimed.
+
+         [Footnote 10: The Muezzin is the Mahometan official who
+         announces to the faithful the hour of prayer. Three times in
+         the day and twice at night he goes up to the balcony of one of
+         the minarets of the mosque, and chants the call. It is a simple
+         but solemn melody, which floats down from the height of his
+         turret upon the sleeping or bustling city with vast
+         impressiveness, and receives immediate and universal
+         obedience.]
+
+
+
+
+ALFRED THE GREAT
+
+By SIR J. BERNARD BURKE, LL.D.
+
+(849-901)
+
+[Illustration: Family scene. [TN]]
+
+
+No name in English history is so popular, and so justly popular, as that
+of Alfred the Great. That he taught his people to defend themselves and
+defeat their enemies, is the least of his many claims to our grateful
+admiration; he did much more than this; he gave the first impulse to the
+spirit of civilization, and taught a horde of wild barbarians that there
+were other and worthier pursuits than war or the pleasures of the table.
+In fact, he was one of those highly gifted men that would seem to be
+raised up especially by Providence to meet certain emergencies, or to
+advance the career of nations. Such was the hero, so beautifully
+recorded by the pen of Edmund Burke, and of whose history we now purpose
+to give a slight sketch for the amusement of those who might turn in
+weariness from a more ample record.
+
+Alfred the Great was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in the year 849, one
+of the most dreary and calamitous periods of English chronicle. He was
+the youngest son of Ethelwulph, a mild and virtuous prince, but full of
+a timid piety which utterly disqualified him for the circumstances in
+which he was placed. According to the historian Asser, young Alfred,
+being of a more comely person and sweeter disposition than his elder
+brothers, became the favorite of both his parents, and was sent by them
+to Rome, while yet a child, in order that he might be anointed king by
+the Pope himself. But though the feeble piety of Ethelwulph showed this
+especial instance of regard for his son, he altogether neglected his
+education, and the young prince in his twelfth year had not yet learned
+to read or write. Fortunately for himself, and still more so for the
+kingdom he was afterward to govern, he possessed a mind too active to be
+entirely subdued by the most unfavorable circumstances. If he could not
+read for himself, he nevertheless loved to listen to the rude but
+inspiring strains of Saxon poetry when recited by others, and had he not
+been a hero and a statesman, he might probably have been a poet. At
+length, as the old chronicler tells us--"on a certain day, his mother
+was shewing him and his brothers a Saxon book of poetry, which she held
+in her hand, and said, 'Whichever of you shall the soonest learn this
+volume, shall have it for his own.'" Thus stimulated, Alfred bent
+himself to the task with all that steady ardor which so strongly
+characterized him in after-life, and easily won the prize from his tardy
+competitors. This gave a fresh impulse to his natural appetite for
+learning; even his passion for the chase could not divert him from
+earnest study; nor was he to be deterred by what might have been a
+better excuse for indolence, the incessant tortures of the secret malady
+which had attacked him while yet a child, and which never left him but
+with life. What this _secret_ disease was, the old chroniclers have
+forgotten, or for some reasons omitted, to explain.
+
+In 871, Alfred succeeded his brother in the sovereignty of Wessex, at a
+period when the whole country was suffering under the ravages of the
+Danes, who burnt, plundered, and destroyed without the least distinction
+of age, sex, or profession. Being still pagans, the convent was no more
+sacred to them than the palace or the cottage. They waged war upon all
+alike, and the general misery was yet farther increased by a raging
+pestilence, and the internal dissensions of the people.
+
+Alfred now for the first time took the field against these brave, but
+ruthless, invaders. He was defeated; yet such was his skill and courage,
+that he was able to maintain the struggle till at length a peace, or
+rather a truce, was concluded between the combatants, for these
+intervals of calm seldom lasted beyond a year. Neither was this the
+worst of the evils that beset the Saxon prince. Any compact he might
+make with one party of the Danes was considered binding only upon _that_
+party, and had no influence whatever upon others of their countrymen,
+who had different leaders and different interests. Thus, upon the
+present occasion, Alfred had no sooner made terms with one piratical
+horde than he was invaded by a fresh body of them under Rollo; and when
+he had compelled these to abandon Wessex, and seek for an easier
+conquest on the shores of Normandy, he was attacked by fresh bodies of
+Danes already settled in the other parts of England. So long, however,
+as they ventured to meet him in the open field, his skill secured him
+the victory; till, taught by repeated defeats, they had recourse to
+another system of tactics. "They used," says Burke, "suddenly to land
+and ravage a part of the country; when a force opposed them they retired
+to their ships and passed to some other part, which in a like manner
+they ravaged, and then retired as before, until the country, entirely
+harassed, pillaged, and wasted by their incursions, was no longer able
+to resist them. Then they ventured safely to enter a desolated and
+disheartened country and to establish themselves in it."
+
+To meet this system of warfare it was necessary to create a navy at a
+time when the Saxons knew not how to build ships, or to manage them when
+built. But the genius of Alfred triumphed over every obstacle. He
+brought shipwrights from the Continent, himself assisted the workmen in
+their labors, and engaged Frisian seamen, the neighbors of the Danes,
+and, like them, pirates.
+
+The new armament being completed, Alfred fell upon a Danish fleet which
+was bringing round a large force from Wareham to the relief of their
+friends, besieged in Exeter. These he defeated at all points, taking or
+destroying no less than one hundred and twenty, already damaged by a
+previous storm, and perhaps, on that account, less capable of defence.
+The Danes, whom he held cooped up in Exeter, found themselves in
+consequence compelled to surrender, and, giving hostages not to trouble
+Wessex any longer, they settled themselves in Mercia, after the example
+of so many of their countrymen, and became occupants of the land they
+had before ravaged. Thus Alfred, in the seventh year of his reign, had
+lost nothing by the war waged under so many difficulties and
+disadvantages, enough to have overwhelmed a man of less energy and
+genius; he still retained that portion of the kingdom which lies south
+of the Thames, the only part ever belonging to him in separate
+sovereignty, while the Danes possessed all the country on the northern
+side of the river. The rest of the land was thus divided: Halfdane
+reigned in Northumberland; his brother in East Anglia; and Guthrum,
+Osketel, and Amund, governed with their subordinate king, Ceowulph, in
+Mercia.
+
+There now occurs a difficulty in the life of Alfred, unexplained by the
+most industrious of his historians from any satisfactory record. We have
+just seen him triumphant, and at peace with his defeated enemies.
+Suddenly, without the notice of any lost battle, we find him seeking
+refuge in the cottage of a herdsman in the _Isle of Ethelingeye_, or
+_Island of Nobles_, now called Athelney. This spot, scarcely comprising
+two acres of ground, was surrounded on all sides by marshes, so that it
+could be approached only in a boat, and in it flourished a considerable
+grove of alders, in which were stags, goats, and other animals. Here it
+is that the romantic incident of the burnt cake is supposed to have
+occurred; a story told by many of the old writers, but nowhere so fully
+as in the Latin life of St. Neot. There we read that "Alfred, a
+fugitive, and exiled from his people, came by chance and entered the
+house of a poor herdsman, and there remained some days in poverty,
+concealed and unknown.
+
+"Now it happened that on the Sabbath day, the herdsman, as usual, led
+his cattle to their accustomed pastures, and the king remained alone
+with the man's wife. She, as necessity required, placed a few loaves,
+which some call _loudas_, on a pan, with fire underneath, to be baked
+for her husband's repast on his return, as well as for her own.
+
+"While she was of need busied, peasant-like, upon other affairs, she
+went anxious to the fire, and found the bread burning on the other side.
+She immediately assailed the king with reproaches. 'Why, man, do you sit
+thinking there, and are too proud to turn the bread? Whatever be your
+family, with such manners and sloth, what trust can be put in you
+hereafter? If you were a nobleman, you will be glad to eat the bread
+which you neglect to attend to.' The king, though stung by her
+upbraidings, yet heard her with patience and mildness, and roused by her
+scolding, took care to bake her bread as she wished."
+
+This fable has been variously narrated; some accounts making the
+disguised prince busy in forming for himself a bow with arrows and other
+instruments of war, while the woman gives vent to her indignation in
+rhyme:
+
+  "To turn the burning cakes you have forgot,
+   Prompt as you are to eat them when they're hot."
+
+In a short time the king's retreat became known to his adherents, who
+flocking to him in numbers, he soon found himself enabled to carry on a
+sort of guerilla warfare upon the nearest Danes. Growing bolder from the
+general success of these sallies, he at length determined upon more
+decisive measures; but before making the attempt, it was expedient to
+learn the actual condition of his enemy. With this view he assumed the
+costume of a Saxon minstrel, and ventured into the Danish camp at
+Chippenham, about thirty miles distant from his stronghold among the
+marshes. In this disguise he went from tent to tent, and, as some of the
+chroniclers tell us, was admitted into the tent of Guthrum himself, the
+Danish leader, his quality of gleeman assuring safety even to a Saxon.
+Having obtained the necessary information, he returned to Athelney,
+which he finally left on the seventh week after Easter, and rode to
+_Egbert's Stone_, in the eastern part of _Selwood_, or the _Great Wood_.
+Here he was met by all the neighboring folk of Somersetshire, Wiltshire,
+and Hampshire, who had not, for fear of the pagans, fled beyond the sea.
+Once more he encountered his enemies, and with a success almost as
+marvellous as the vision of St. Neot, which announced it, he routed the
+Danes at Ethendune with so much slaughter that they were glad to obtain
+peace on such terms as he chose to dictate. Guthrum embraced
+Christianity, and became the adopted son of Alfred.
+
+The king's next care was to endeavor at amalgamating the Danes, who had
+settled in the country, with the victorious Saxons; a wise policy, and
+as wisely carried out. The result of it was, that when new hordes of
+invaders poured down upon England, they met with no encouragement from
+their countrymen already established in the island, and for want of this
+support were easily put to flight. Nor was it by land only that Alfred
+proved his superiority, being no less successful by sea against the
+Danes of East Anglia. These he defeated off their adopted coast, and
+captured thirteen of their ships, with all the treasure in them.
+
+[Illustration: King Alfred visiting a monastery school.]
+
+Fearful as were the ravages committed by the Danes, they were yet, like
+many others of the evils of life, productive in the end of good.
+Before their invasion of the country, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, and
+Northumberland existed as four independent kingdoms. The last three they
+subdued in a little time to their own power, but being in turn defeated
+by Alfred, the conquered states fell to him, and this led the way to
+their final consolidation into a single kingdom. It was, however, a work
+of time, for the turbulent spirit of the Northmen required long and
+judicious treatment to make them lay down the sword, and take up the
+spade and sickle.
+
+Peace being at length restored, Alfred, who was a full century in
+advance of his people, commenced in earnest the arduous task of
+civilization. He called about him from all parts the most learned men of
+the day, and, setting the example in his own person, did more in a few
+years for the general advancement than had been previously effected in
+as many ages. Deficient himself in cultivation, but a giant in
+intellect, he devoted himself to study amid care, toil, and disease,
+mastered the Latin tongue, and--if we may believe William of
+Malmsbury--translated almost all that was known of Roman literature into
+Saxon. His clear and capacious mind was pious without bigotry, and while
+he reverenced the Pope as universal vicar, according to the doctrines of
+his age, he had yet none of the religious weakness of his father, but
+governed his kingdom in absolute independence of the Roman see. At the
+same time, no prince was more earnest in advancing the general interests
+of religion, which he considered, truly enough, essential to the
+well-being of the country. He rebuilt the ruined monasteries, added
+largely to the endowments of those that had escaped the barbarous
+invaders, and gave every encouragement to the ecclesiastics who came
+recommended to his favor by ability or virtue.
+
+While thus employed in the arts of peace, Alfred did not for an instant
+neglect the military defences of his kingdom, without which, indeed, he
+would have been like an improvident husbandman, who should carefully
+cultivate his land, but leave it unhedged and unprotected. One of his
+most efficient measures for this purpose, was the building of a new kind
+of galleys, which "were twice as long, twice as high, sailed more
+quickly, and were less unsteady than those of the Danes; some of these
+ships had sixty oars, some more." In addition to these naval
+improvements, his genius, which seemed to adapt itself alike to all
+arts, suggested a complete revolution in the existing state of military
+tactics, both in the field and in fortifications. He was, however,
+feebly seconded by his people; they had not yet arrived at that degree
+of practical wisdom which teaches men to endure a present pain for the
+sake of a future benefit, and could with difficulty be brought to make
+preparations against dangers which were still remote from them.
+
+Had Alfred done no more than what has been already mentioned, he would
+have deserved the lasting gratitude of his countrymen. But, in addition
+to all this, his services as a legislator must be taken into the
+account. If we judge of the system established by him, with reference to
+the age in which, and for which, it was produced, we shall find that in
+this respect also, the great Alfred stands without a rival. He had no
+help from the accumulated wisdom of ages; his enactments were to a great
+extent the result of his own mind and genius; or, at least, we may say
+of him, that he was the most original of legislators.
+
+Peace had lasted for what in those days must be held a very considerable
+period. But now the storm burst forth again as violently as ever. In the
+year 893 a famine visited the coast of France, and of so sweeping a
+kind, that the Danes, who had settled there under Hastings, determined
+to relieve themselves by a piratical attack upon Kent. Having landed
+without opposition, for Hastings had taken the English by surprise, he
+formed two encampments, the one at Appledore, the other at Milton, only
+twenty miles apart; there they were joined by many of their countrymen,
+who poured in from the north and east, notwithstanding their oaths, and
+that they had given hostages for their good conduct to the king of
+Wessex. Incredible as it may now seem, the invaders were allowed for a
+whole year to retain possession of the land thus acquired, without any
+attempt being made to dislodge them. The chroniclers of the time,
+however, tell us that this delay was occasioned by the necessity of
+providing against the faithlessness of their brethren, who, although
+they had not yet revolted, were hardly to be trusted without some
+farther security for their loyal adherence to the pledges already given.
+Having taken the necessary measures, Alfred then attacked Hastings,
+compelled him to sue for peace, and next turned his arms against a body
+of these pirates who had established themselves at Farnham. With them,
+too, he was no less successful; but while he was thus occupied, the
+East-Anglian and Northumbrian Danes seized the opportunity of revolt,
+and sailed in two fleets for the coast of Devonshire. These also he
+defeated, though even then it required no less than three years to drive
+these new invaders from the country.
+
+And now, in the year 901, having fulfilled his earthly mission as the
+defender and civilizer of his people, the great and good King Alfred
+expired, on October 26th, six days before the Mass of All Saints--not
+less beloved by his contemporaries than admired by after-ages.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN HUSS
+
+By REV. DR. TWEEDIE
+
+(1373-1415)
+
+[Illustration: John Huss. [TN]]
+
+
+John Huss, a reformer before the Reformation, and the martyr of
+Constance, was born about the year 1373. His birthplace was Hussinetz, a
+village of Bohemia. His parentage was humble, and his early toils and
+privations formed the school in which he was trained for future
+hardships and sufferings. He studied at the university of Prague; and
+some of his teachers were men somewhat in advance of their age. In the
+year 1396 Huss received his master's degree, and began to lecture in
+his university in 1398. In 1400 he was appointed confessor to the Queen
+of Bohemia; and in 1401 he became president of the philosophical faculty
+of Prague. The corruptions of his day, especially among the Romish
+priesthood, early suggested deep thoughts to this ardent man, and he
+found a few who were like-minded with himself among those who resided at
+Prague. Some of these entered into an arrangement for spreading truth as
+purely as it was then known; Huss was chosen their preacher, and there,
+in a place appropriately called "Bethlehem," or the House of Bread, he
+"refreshed the common people with the bread of holy preaching." The
+impression which he produced was profound. A fervent love, a holy life,
+glowing appeals, and a gentle manner, all helped to make him a master in
+grace, but soon brought him into collision with dark, mediaeval minds.
+
+Here, then, is another decided and heroic man who has entered the ranks
+of the friends of truth. He will have much to do and much to endure--his
+patron will become his persecutor, and his friends will cast him out--if
+he is to assail the corruptions of the year 1400. But Huss was not the
+man to be damped by danger. His only inquiry was, What is duty?--he will
+do it at all hazards, and let us consider how; for in considering it, we
+see another example of the need of heroic decision in a world like ours,
+if man would really benefit his brother man. As early as the year 1391,
+the Bohemian reformer was studying the works of the great Englishman of
+that age; and all these things helped to urge him forward in the path in
+which he resolved to move. An archbishop might thwart him, and try to
+put him down. A whole university might oppose some of his measures.
+Wickliff's books might be burned, and loud remonstrances be heard. As a
+result, students, variously estimated at from 5,000 to 44,000 might
+forsake the university of Prague. But unmoved by such commotions, Huss
+went boldly forward.
+
+But, intrepid as he was, Huss needed all his intrepidity. One of his
+friends was first thrown into prison, and then banished for his
+boldness; and Huss had to appeal to the archbishop, the chief agent in
+the persecution. "What is this," he cried "that men stained with
+innocent blood--men guilty of every crime--shall be found walking abroad
+with impunity, while humble priests, who spend all their efforts to
+destroy sin ... are cast into dungeons as heretics, and must suffer
+banishment for preaching the gospel?"
+
+Matters soon reached a crisis. Huss was summoned to Italy to defend his
+doctrines, and all Bohemia was roused by that step. The future martyr
+was not permitted to go--it would have been to sacrifice his life.
+Meanwhile Queen Sophia used her influence on his behalf. The king wrote
+to the Pope and the cardinal in his favor. He demanded liberty for Huss
+to preach, and insisted that all actions against him should cease, so
+that for a while the persecution was stayed. But at last Huss was
+pronounced a heretic; and now he is one stage nearer to Constance and
+the funeral pile. On the way, however, he could exclaim, "Where I see
+anything at variance with the doctrines of Christ, I will not obey,
+though the stakes were staring me in the face." That was his maxim all
+through life; and in such an age such heroism in such a cause was the
+harbinger of death.
+
+At one stage of these life and death struggles, Huss had to do battle
+against a whole theological faculty; and that and similar contests
+trained him to a boldness and decision which was constantly growing. But
+he had now to separate, for the truth's sake, from friends whom he had
+prized through life. His pathway, indeed, is gradually becoming more
+narrow, as well as more rough--he is one of those who must often walk
+alone.
+
+Indulgences were now attacked by him in public disputations. About this
+period some of his friends were condemned to death because they objected
+to indulgences, and Huss took up their cause. He hastened to the Senate
+House, and pleaded for the three condemned men. He made their danger his
+own, and declared that he, the teacher, not they, the disciples, should
+die. In spite of his efforts, and in violation of promises given that no
+blood should be shed, his three friends were hurried to execution; and
+what could be the result of that step, but a more intense antagonism, a
+more resolute decision? On a subsequent occasion, accordingly, Huss
+appeared before the king and his council, to defend what he reckoned the
+right. He offered, with characteristic ardor, to be bound to die at the
+stake if he did not make good his views, provided his eight opponents
+would do the same. But all other struggles were soon merged in the great
+conflict with Rome itself. The Pope had determined to put down Huss, and
+he was excommunicated with the most terrible of papal forms. If he did
+not submit in twenty days, the ban was to be proclaimed against him in
+all churches; all who harbored him were to be laid under an interdict,
+and Huss himself was to be burned according to law.
+
+The King of Bohemia had urged Huss to leave Prague for a time, in the
+hope that peace might thus be restored. He complied, and, like Luther in
+the Wartburg, in the Castle of Kozi-hradek wrote some of his most
+important works. Never was more determined courage displayed by any man
+in similar circumstances than by Huss in that castle.
+
+From his hiding-place Huss often went abroad and preached to the crowds
+who flocked to hear him; but the Council of Constance is now at hand,
+for we are referring to the year 1414, and he is to proceed thither
+under a safe-conduct from Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, with the
+assurance that if he could not submit to the decision of the Council,
+the emperor would send him back unharmed to Bohemia. This was an
+opportunity for which Huss had longed. He would now, he thought, deliver
+his message and uphold the truth before assembled potentates, and
+proceeded to Prague to prepare for the council.[11] He there publicly
+challenged all his opponents to convict him of error if they could, and
+proved that he was valiant for the truth as long as he was free.
+
+         [Footnote 11: It should be carefully observed here, that the
+         emperor guaranteed to Huss a safe journey both to Constance and
+         from it. The words of the document are: "Ut ei transire, stare,
+         morari, redire libere permittatis."]
+
+Huss set out for Constance on October 11, 1414, with two faithful
+knights to protect him by the way. Even in Germany he was cordially
+welcomed by many. He courted opportunities of making known his views,
+and at Nuremberg, in particular, he enjoyed such an opportunity to the
+full. He reached Constance on November 3d, where his enemies were busily
+employed, and he was speedily posted as a vile heretic; indeed, it was
+soon made plain that if he was a bold, intrepid man, he needed to be so.
+Officials from the Pope, who was then at Constance, desired him, as an
+interdicted priest, to abstain from the Church services; but he declined
+to comply. Had he chosen even to equivocate, he might have escaped; but
+Huss was not the man to trim. Such a course was formally proposed to
+him; but though he was far from being buoyed up by false hopes, he
+resolutely and without hesitation declined all underhand suggestions: he
+would uphold the truth, but that was all that he would do. "I fear
+nothing," he said; "for I hope that, after a great conflict, will ensue
+a great victory, and after the victory a still greater reward to me, and
+a still greater discomfiture to my enemies."
+
+Huss was not kept long in suspense. He sought various opportunities of
+proclaiming his views: but these were all denied him, and moreover, on
+November 28th, he was made a close prisoner. He was removed in chains to
+the castle of Gottleben. By night and day he was kept chained there, and
+all was done that was likely to bow down, or to break, the undaunted
+man. But though one form of disease after another assailed him, no
+wavering thought was harbored, no wavering word escaped; all his sorrows
+only led him deeper and deeper into the truth which he prized so well,
+and, in the face of crowding dangers, his resolution actually became
+more and more fixed and heroic.
+
+The cruel mockery of justice at Constance was carried on by tribunal
+after tribunal; but the victim was steadfast and unmovable. Now, gleams
+of hope broke forth for him and his friends, and then darkness gathered
+round them once more; but Huss found one thing unchanging, the word of
+his God--and when the council met in the Franciscan convent, which had
+become the martyr's prison, formally to try his case, they cruelly
+attempted to prejudge the matter without hearing him at all. But the
+emperor interfered, and Huss appeared before them, ready to retract
+whatever was contrary to Scripture: but whenever he attempted to plead,
+a savage outcry arose around, till the voice of truth was drowned in the
+din. On June 7th, he stood forth the second time before the council; but
+it was a wrangle rather than a solemn trial, for Huss would not abate
+one jot of his convictions, except as the Scriptures condemned them.
+
+On June 8th, his third examination took place. Huss was told, at the
+close, that if he would suppliantly submit and retract opinions which he
+declared he never held, his judges would be lenient--otherwise, his
+danger was obvious. He was thus asked to confess his errors, to swear
+that he would never more preach them, and publicly recant; but he
+constantly refused such terms, unless he were convicted by the word of
+God. Even the emperor pleaded with him to yield; the judges also urged
+him, and professed a desire for his escape; but he was not to be moved,
+and must therefore hasten back to his cell, an outcast heretic in
+chains. If he would recant, he would be permitted to live--but little
+more, for imprisonment for life was to be his lot. But little did those
+judges know either the man whom they held in their grasp, or the
+principles and the power which bore him up. He could die, but he could
+not be anything but a true man. An emperor's safe-conduct was found to
+be a worthless thing, and "Trust not in princes" was a portion of the
+word of God which Huss learned thoroughly to understand.
+
+[Illustration: Huss' execution. [TN]]
+
+It was with unruffled self-possession that Huss gave himself to
+martyrdom. As he had never abandoned the Romish Church, he calmly
+engaged in its functions preparatory to his death. Indeed, some touching
+scenes were witnessed in his prison--he unshaken--his friends, his very
+enemies weeping like womanhood beside him. Deputation after deputation
+visited him--one of them from the emperor himself--and recantation was
+constantly the burden of their pleading. But Huss would not recant
+except upon conviction; and on July 6, 1415, he appeared once more
+before the council, where the emperor was present on his throne. Many of
+the judges were Huss's bitter personal enemies, for as he had assailed
+the measureless corruptions of their order, that was an unpardonable
+sin. Besides, history is careful to tell that bribery was largely
+employed to make sure of his destruction--and now the last act of the
+dark tragedy has arrived. No further defence was permitted to Huss, yet
+he uttered one solemn appeal. Once and again he prayed for his enemies.
+Being clothed in his priestly robes, he was stripped of them by seven
+bishops, while he still persisted in holding fast his convictions,
+except as the truth of God could be shown to condemn them. The mark of
+his tonsure was next removed, and that with great cruelty. A cap daubed
+over with the figures of demons was then placed on his head, and thus
+the heroic martyr of Bohemia was led forth to be burned in the name of
+religion.
+
+[Illustration: Execution of Huss.]
+
+At the place of execution Huss prayed, and often repeated the words,
+"Into thy hands, Lord, I commit my spirit." When compelled to rise from
+his knees, he still appealed to the Saviour, and prayed for "a strong
+and steadfast soul" to endure that shameful death. Even after he was
+placed at the stake, and had actually been surrounded by fagots, he
+declared that he willingly wore his chains for Christ, who wore yet
+heavier bonds. With his last breath he repelled a temptation to recant,
+and when the fire was kindled he began to sing with a loud voice,
+"Jesus, son of the living God, have mercy upon me." When he was
+repeating the words for the third time, his voice failed; he was stifled
+by the flames, and soon reduced to ashes. These ashes were cast into the
+Rhine.
+
+Thus perished one of the noblest men who ever walked our world. His
+death led to the Hussite war. In his native Bohemia he was so loved that
+the peasants rose in great bodies, crying for vengeance. Many of the
+nobles joined them, and for fifteen years battle and bloodshed avenged
+his execution.
+
+
+
+
+LOUIS XI. OF FRANCE
+
+By E. SPENCER BEESLY, M.A.
+
+(1423-1483.)
+
+[Illustration: A group of men. [TN]]
+
+
+During the Middle Ages there was a constant struggle in the West between
+the two elements of the temporal power--the central, or national, and
+the local, or that of the great vassals. Gradually the local governments
+all merged in large aggregates, in each of which a single national
+government gathered to itself all military, civil, and judicial
+functions. This movement was already in progress before the end of the
+thirteenth century. By the end of the fifteenth the struggle was
+substantially decided, though it did not come completely to an end till
+the latter part of the seventeenth century.
+
+In France, as in most countries, the agent in this organizing and
+nationalizing movement was the crown. Almost every French monarch did
+something toward enforcing recognition of the royal authority in all
+parts of that country which by geographical conditions, as well as by
+its history, was fitted for political unity. But, either because they
+did not see their way to undertaking the direct government of so large
+an area, or because they were themselves under the dominion of feudal
+ideas, they did not always avail themselves of their frequent
+opportunities for extinguishing the local governments of the fiefs
+which fell into their hands. The Valois kings granted many of them as
+appanages to their younger sons, and so created a new set of great
+vassals, who revived the struggle for feudal independence. The most
+dangerous of these, the Duke of Burgundy, openly aided the English
+invaders. This prince, besides his French fiefs, possessed the yet more
+important territories now known as Belgium and the Netherlands. Charles
+VII., the father of Louis XI., having expelled the English, established
+a permanent force of nine thousand cavalry--the first standing army in
+modern times.
+
+During the life of his father, Louis was not a dutiful subject. His
+masterful spirit could brook no superior. He even conspired with the
+rebel vassals. But as king (1461-1483) he pursued the policy of his
+greatest predecessors with undaunted courage, patient perseverance, and
+political genius of the highest order. At first he was too much in a
+hurry. He tried to clip the wings of all his vassals at once. He
+irritated the industrial classes by severe taxation. He drove into exile
+or rebellion his father's ablest generals and councillors. This brought
+upon him the so-called "League of Public Welfare," headed by Charles the
+Bold, heir of Burgundy, which aimed at a virtual dismemberment of
+France. Persevering as Louis was, he had none of the weak obstinacy
+which cannot distinguish between means and ends. Finding himself
+overmatched, though he had cut his way through the hosts of rebels at
+Montlhery, he conceded to them everything they demanded. By the treaty
+of Conflans (1465) he might seem to have flung up the game in despair,
+and to have signed the ruin of France. But his high Court of Justice
+(Parlement), by refusing to register the treaty, gave him an excuse for
+evading its performance, and by negotiating with the princes separately
+he broke up their coalition. The peaceful and industrious classes stood
+by him, and he studiously cared for their interests; mixing familiarly
+with the citizens of Paris, dining at their houses, standing godfather
+to their children, putting aside all state and ceremony, and even
+dressing in humble attire. The precautions of his residence at Plessis
+belong only to the last months of his life, when he was old and
+paralytic. Never ashamed to own a mistake and to retrace false steps, he
+won back the most valuable of his father's servants, whom he had at
+first driven away. His designs against feudalism were not for a moment
+suspended. But instead of attacking all his vassals at once he took them
+in detail; while one was being crushed, others were humored till their
+turn came.
+
+[Illustration: Louis XI. and Olivier Le Dain.]
+
+As a young man he had shown warlike tastes and brilliant personal valor;
+but as king he always preferred negotiation and policy. It was a too
+daring confidence in his mastery of these weapons which led him to risk
+his famous visit to Charles the Bold, at Peronne (1468), so vividly
+painted by Scott in "Quentin Durward," who, however, omits to mention
+the safe-conduct which Charles basely violated. At such critical moments
+Louis's nerve became steadiest and his intellect most acute. The
+concessions extorted from him at Peronne seemed to undo the work of
+years; but when once he was free he found means to remedy all the
+mischief that had been done. "Never," says his Minister Comines, "was
+there a man so sagacious in adversity; when he drew back it was to make
+a longer spring." In another war with Burgundy, Edward IV., of England,
+landed with a large army (1475). To warlike nobles it seemed very base
+that Louis bought off the invaders instead of rushing upon another Crecy
+or Agincourt; but he thoroughly despised such criticism. He had an army,
+and a good one; but if a round sum of money would effect his purpose
+more cheaply, surely, and speedily, why should he expose his subjects to
+the horrors and losses of war? Two years later Charles fell at Nancy,
+fighting against the Swiss, who were in the pay of Louis. It was the
+death-blow of feudalism. Louis promptly seized the duchy of Burgundy and
+some other territories of the deceased duke. Altogether, during his
+reign, he brought eleven provinces under the direct government of the
+crown--Brittany being the only great fief which at his death remained
+independent. He had thus assured the unity of France and her
+preponderance in Europe.
+
+Hardly less important services to his country were his establishment of
+order and good administration, his financial and judicial reforms, his
+encouragement of industry and commerce. "He effected," says Lavallee,
+"attempted, or projected, all the innovations of modern France."
+Diplomacy, the modern makeshift for the international office of the
+mediaeval papacy, dates from him. Historians have dwelt on his cruelty,
+perfidy, and superstition.[12] Turbulent nobles, like St. Pol and
+Armagnac, were brought to the block; treacherous ministers, like
+Cardinal La Balue, were kept for years in iron cages; vulgar criminals
+swung from gibbets on every highroad. But this severity toward ruffians
+of high and low degree, who had preyed on the country for the best part
+of the century, wrought peace and prosperity for the law-abiding and
+industrious. In the decay of feudal manners and Catholic discipline, the
+sentiment of honor had almost vanished from public life. But, judged
+relatively to his times, Louis is not to be branded as perfidious. He
+did not scruple to break treaties contrary to the interests of his
+country, which had been extorted from him by force; but he was more
+straightforward than his principal contemporaries. Twice, when he could
+have got rid of Charles the Bold by acts of treachery, which in those
+days no one would have blamed, he chose the honorable course. To
+reproach a man of the fifteenth century with superstition, because he
+thought there might be some efficacy in images and relics, is an abuse
+of language. If he clung to life it was because he felt that so much of
+his projected work remained unfinished. He met death with remarkable
+fortitude, his thoughts and efforts being to the last moment occupied
+with the affairs, not of his soul, but of his country. His minister and
+intimate friend, Comines, has left a faithful and judicious account of
+his life. Two great poets have dealt unfairly with him: Scott could not
+forgive the foe of feudalism; Hugo was blinded by democratic prejudices.
+
+         [Footnote 12: It is said that Louis was a firm believer in
+         astrology, that he wore a cap set round with leaden images of
+         the saints to which he prayed, but told them falsehoods even in
+         his prayers. His choice of a confidential adviser was perhaps
+         his greatest offence in the eyes of the nobility, for he
+         selected his barber, Olivier le Dain, or Oliver the Devil. This
+         man mocked his master even while he served him. Our engraving,
+         after the painting of Hermann Kaulbach, represents both in
+         characteristic positions.]
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA OF CASTILE[13]
+
+By SARAH H. KILLIKELLY
+
+(1451-1504)
+
+         [Footnote 13: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Isabella. [TN]]
+
+
+Isabella, the only daughter of John II., of Castile, and Isabella, of
+Portugal, his second wife, was born in Madrigal, Spain, in 1451. Upon
+the death of her father her elder half-brother succeeded to the throne
+in 1454, as Henry IV. The queen dowager retired from court life with her
+infant son Alfonso, and her daughter Isabella, then in her fourth year.
+The royal children were reared by a wise mother in the seclusion of the
+little town of Arevalo, until Isabella was twelve years old. How
+carefully the seeds of character were sown in these early years is shown
+by the after-fruits. Her fervent piety and unwavering faith, her strict
+integrity and self-abnegation, disarmed the enemies of her crown, as
+they disarm the unprejudiced historian of to-day. The verdict of four
+hundred years is still: "Her faults were the faults of her age, her
+virtues were her own." The quiet home life at Arevalo came suddenly to
+an end in 1463, when King Henry arbitrarily ordered the infantas, as all
+royal children are called in Spain, to repair to the palace as members
+of his court. Thus at the early age of twelve years Isabella entered
+upon her public career, and from thenceforth the eyes of the civilized
+world were turned upon her. Shortly after, a revolution deposed Henry
+and placed Alfonso upon the throne. Both kings had their followers, and
+the boy-king, eleven years old, rode on horseback at the head of his
+troops beside his appointed regent. But the crown was too heavy for the
+young victim, and Alfonso was one morning found dead in his bed. To
+Isabella, a beautiful girl of sixteen, the fallen crown was offered and
+urged; but in spite of the fact that the old standard had already been
+unfurled in her honor, and unmoved by the eloquence of the primate and
+the arguments of the first nobles of the land, Isabella, with a wisdom
+beyond her years, resolutely refused to take the throne. Her reasons
+baffled her advisers: "So long as King Henry lives none other has the
+right to wear the crown." She advised his reinstatement and promised to
+help redress the wrongs of which the nation had the unquestioned right
+to complain. An amnesty was declared and a reconciliation was effected;
+but not until Henry had consented to divorce his queen and to
+acknowledge Isabella as the heir-apparent to the throne in place of his
+reputed daughter, Joanna. The cortes, or parliament, was assembled to
+ratify the treaty, and at the same time, passed a resolution that the
+infanta was not to be coerced in her matrimonial alliance. In 1468,
+with great pomp and ceremony, Isabella was solemnly proclaimed Princess
+of Asturias, heir-apparent to the throne of Castile and Leon. She is
+described as of medium height, of fair complexion, regular features,
+auburn hair, clear blue eyes, and with a sweet but serious expression
+that told both sides of her character. She inherited from her father a
+desire for knowledge and a love of literature, and was herself a fine
+linguist. These graces of mind and person, added to her nearness to the
+throne, soon brought many ardent suppliants from the principal thrones
+of Europe for the honor of her hand. Her cousin, Prince Ferdinand of
+Aragon, was her wise choice, and to him she was married, notwithstanding
+her brother's opposition, in 1469. The brilliant wedding at Valladolid,
+in the presence of the nobility and about two thousand persons, closes
+the second period of her life. Five years intervened before the Princess
+of Asturias became Queen of Leon and Castile. Stormy years, for the
+angry brother instituted a fresh rebellion against her succession, and
+Isabella was again the peace-maker; years of poverty, also, for the
+heirs-apparent of Castile and Aragon had scarcely a competency for their
+daily needs. Isabella was residing in Segovia at the time of her
+brother's death; hence, in Segovia, with more than the usual solemnities
+which accompany the accession of a new sovereign even in Spain, she took
+the vows and was crowned Queen of Castile and Leon in 1474. During the
+first four years and a half of her reign civil war desolated her
+kingdom, for Joanna, the reputed daughter of Henry IV., again contested
+her right to the crown, supported by the King of Portugal, to whom she
+was affianced. But the same people who had said "Isabella shall be the
+heir-apparent," said now "Isabella shall rule over us," and conquered.
+The reign of Isabella, therefore, dates from 1479, when she was left in
+undisputed possession of her throne, rather than from 1474, when she
+wore her crown for the first time in Segovia. The same year that brought
+peace to the Queen of Castile elevated Ferdinand to the throne of
+Aragon.
+
+No more important epoch marks the history of Spain than the union of the
+crowns of Castile and Aragon; it meant the end of petty principalities
+and powers, it meant united Spain. But the crowns were only linked
+together, for Isabella, even in her marriage contract, had maintained
+the independence of the crown of Castile and her individual right to
+rule over it. It was this loyalty to her inherited crown that won the
+love and confidence of her people and made them ready, when the need
+came, to die for Isabella of Castile. And it was this independence of
+her crown that enabled her to say at last to Columbus: "I will assume
+the enterprise for mine own crown of Castile," and "to the crown of
+Castile" belonged the first discovered territories in the New World.
+
+Had the reign of Isabella been less distinguished for events of such
+momentous magnitude as to involve the future interests of the world, her
+personal life would yet furnish data for a series of volumes, so replete
+was it with stirring incidents and with heart-breaking sorrows. But the
+same mental strength and moral courage that made her eminent as a queen,
+made her remarkable also as a friend and mother. Prescott says: "Her
+heart overflowed with affectionate sensibilities to her family and
+friends. She watched over the declining years of her aged mother and
+ministered to her sad infirmities with filial tenderness; we have
+abundant proofs of how fondly and faithfully she loved her husband to
+the last; while for her children she lived more than for herself, and
+for them too she died; for it was their loss and their afflictions which
+froze the current of her blood before age had had time to chill it."
+
+Five children, four daughters and one son, grew to maturity under her
+guiding influence. Isabella, the first born, and ever the favorite child
+of the sovereigns, was born in 1470. She was twice married, first to
+Alfonso, Prince of Portugal, who was killed by a fall from his horse
+within five months after their marriage. Seven years later she married
+his brother, Emanuel, King of Portugal. To the intense grief of her
+husband, her parents, and her kingdom, she died in 1498, just one hour
+after the birth of her son, the first and only heir to the kingdoms of
+Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. The little Prince Miguel did not live to
+fulfil the hopes that were centred in him, for he died, to the great
+grief of the nation, before he had completed his second year.
+
+The only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, Juan, Prince of Asturias, was
+born in 1478. In his twentieth year he married the Princess Margaret,
+daughter of the Emperor Maximilian; but before the elaborate nuptial
+rejoicings had ended the young bridegroom died suddenly of a malignant
+fever.
+
+The Infanta Joanna, born 1479, married Philip I., son of the German
+emperor, and became the mother of the great Emperor Charles V. of
+Germany, Charles I. of Spain. Her mental derangement, tending to
+permanent insanity, was a sore grief to the great queen, who
+nevertheless made her the heir to her crown, with Ferdinand as regent.
+
+The Infanta Maria, born in 1482, married Emanuel, the King of Portugal,
+in 1600. Her daughter Isabella married her cousin, Charles V., and was
+the mother of Philip II.
+
+The fifth and last child of Ferdinand and Isabella, Catalina, was born
+in 1485. She married, when scarcely sixteen, Arthur, Prince of Wales,
+son of Henry VII., but was left a widow within a year. By special
+dispensation from the Pope she married her brother-in-law in 1509, and
+is better known in history as Catharine of Aragon, first wife of Henry
+VIII., of England, mother of Mary I., or "bloody Mary." Knowing her
+Spanish parentage, we can better understand why she was such an ardent
+Roman Catholic. Strange that one so loyal to the forms of her religion
+should have been the innocent cause of the English Reformation! The
+injured queen, divorced, remained in England, a religious recluse, until
+her death in 1536.
+
+This brief outline of family life, with its joys, disappointments, and
+heart-breaking sorrows, brings into clearer relief the mental strength
+and moral courage of Isabella, who, while carrying this burden on her
+heart never relaxed for a moment her vigilant, vigorous rule over a
+mighty empire; and this brings us at last to the
+
+                    GREAT HISTORIC QUEEN.
+
+From the very beginning of the reconquest of Spain from the Arab-Moors
+in 718, when the brave band of refugees who had not bowed to the Saracen
+yoke issued from the mountains of Asturias in the extreme northwest
+corner of Spain, under Pelayo, with vows resting upon them "to rid the
+land of its infidel invaders and to advance the standard of the cross
+until it was everywhere victorious over the crescent," the "Expulsion of
+the Moors" had been the hereditary appanage of the crown of Castile and
+Leon, the first fruits of the reconquest.
+
+The crown was heavy and the burden was great that descended to Isabella
+in 1474, for although she came to the throne through Gothic ancestry and
+in conformity with Gothic law, her father's heir and the chosen of the
+people, yet the nation had already poured out its blood in defence of
+her "succession" and the war of her "accession" was pending. No wonder
+that Isabella never forgot that it was through the people and for the
+people, and in defence of the cross, that she wore the crown and sat
+upon the throne of Leon and Castile.
+
+During the preceding reigns the laws of the country had been so
+constantly defied that they had become of no effect. The one law of
+barbarism seemed the only law that governed,
+
+  "He can take who has the power,
+   And he may keep who can."
+
+The country was infested with lawless banditti, and even the cities were
+powerless to protect individuals or property. The prisons were
+overcrowded with suspected criminals who had never been brought to
+trial; the immorality of the court had spread like a deadly poison
+through the lower grades of social life; even the priests had become
+tainted with the general demoralization. The coin of Castile had been
+debased until the most necessary articles of life were enhanced from
+three to six times their value; the late civil wars had exhausted the
+treasury, and the country seemed on the verge of bankruptcy. The Moors
+had even ceased to pay tribute and were making frequent forays into the
+surrounding country, taking men, women, and children into Mussulman
+captivity with the hope of exacting a ransom. Public confidence was
+dead. No wonder that Isabella felt her crown heavy and the burden of her
+kingdom great.
+
+But the brave, resolute woman, making choice of wise and able
+counsellors, entered at once upon a vigorous crusade of reform. The
+first measure proposed to the cortes, in 1476, was the re-establishment
+of the celebrated Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood, which was carried into
+effect the same year. The new institution differed from the ancient,
+inasmuch as its power proceeded from the crown and was disbanded by it
+in 1498. The Hermandad in our day would be called a mounted police, but
+in the days of Isabella every organization came under the sanction of
+the Church. The duties of the Holy Brotherhood were to arrest offenders
+throughout the kingdom and to enforce the law. Every one hundred
+householders throughout the kingdom maintained one Hermandad. Upon the
+flight of a criminal tocsins were sounded, and the officers of the
+Brotherhood stationed within hearing took up a pursuit that left little
+hope for escape. Thus a body of cavalry, two thousand in number, fully
+equipped and supported, was at the disposal of the crown to enforce the
+law and to suppress insurrections. In a few years the country was
+cleared of banditti and the blessing of personal security under the
+government was restored.
+
+Isabella revived also another ancient custom of her forefathers, that of
+presiding in person over courts of justice. From city to city she
+travelled on horseback, making the circuit of her kingdom, regardless of
+personal fatigue. Side by side with Ferdinand, when he had leisure from
+foreign complications to accompany her, she sat (not unmindful of the
+dignity belonging to the crown) with her courtiers around her, to listen
+with interest, that she might redress wrongs, punish the wrongdoers, and
+administer justice even to the lowliest of her subjects. Her personal
+address, and the unbounded respect which her integrity inspired; her
+proclamation throughout the kingdom that the interests of her people
+were her interests, re-established such public confidence that, says a
+writer of that age, "Those who had long despaired of public justice
+blessed God for their deliverance, as it were, from deplorable
+captivity." Nor did the sovereigns relax their personal efforts for the
+restoration of law and order until the cortes had passed measures for
+the permanent administration of justice. Thus in a few years, from a
+state of anarchy and misrule, Castile entered upon her "Golden Age of
+Justice."
+
+The golden age of literature, developed in the next century, has been
+justly ascribed to the impetus given by Isabella to liberal education,
+classical and scientific. Under her patronage schools were established
+in every city, presided over by learned men. The printing press, lately
+invented, was introduced; foreign books were imported free of duty,
+while such precedence was given to native literature as led on to the
+brilliant achievements of the sixteenth century. In social reform
+precept was enforced by example. In all that was pure, in all that was
+true, in all that was noble and magnanimous, Isabella, in private life,
+was a witness unto her people. No calumny of any kind, even in a
+depraved age, was ever cast upon Isabella of Castile or upon any one of
+her royal children. But the strongest characteristic of Isabella, that
+which colored her whole life and gave force to every public action, was
+her fervent piety and her unfaltering [perhaps blind] faith in the
+divine authority of the Roman Catholic Church. For all the evils that
+grew out of the latter she is still branded, even among the
+liberal-minded of to-day, regardless of her illiberal age, with that
+worst of all brands, "a religious bigot." This side of her character we
+will not discuss, but refer our readers to the history of Christianity
+during the fifteenth century, when the great flood-tide of religious
+intolerance reached its height.
+
+It was in the fulness of this tide that the great historic events of her
+reign occurred, viz., the conquest of Granada, the expulsion of the
+Jews, the Inquisition, and the discovery of America. After each of
+these, for honor or dishonor, we interline the name of Isabella. Yet the
+conquest of Granada, or the reconquest of every foot of land which the
+Moors had taken from the Goths, was foreordained in Castilian councils
+centuries before Isabella was born. The expulsion of the Jews, the
+so-called "enemies of Christ," was but a part of the same effort "to rid
+the land of unbelieving invaders." The Inquisition, with all its
+horrors, was re-established by the Church during that age of
+intolerance to which the reign of Isabella belongs. Yet these are still
+named to the dishonor of Isabella.
+
+But the discovery of America, with all its lasting benefits to mankind,
+is the immortal crown which the world has woven out of her proffered
+"Jewels;" and with this crown it has crowned Isabella of Castile.
+
+In the marriage contract of the youthful prince and princess it was
+agreed that Ferdinand should lead the armies of Castile against the
+Moors as soon as the affairs of the kingdom would permit. The
+opportunity and the provocation came after twelve years, when the
+sovereigns sent to demand of the Moors the long unpaid tribute, and
+received only the defiant answer, "Tell your masters that the Moors who
+paid tribute to Castile are dead. Our mints no longer coin gold, but
+steel!" And to prove the efficacy of their steel they sallied forth and
+took Zahara, one of the strongholds which the father of Ferdinand had
+taken from the Moors. The chivalry of Spain sprang quickly into
+well-girt saddles, and the ten years' siege of Granada, "the last
+stronghold of the Moors in Spain," began in 1481. The Iliad of the
+reconquest of Spain from the Arab-Moors has yet to be written; the Homer
+of its Iliad has yet to appear. But the closing year of the struggle
+between Christian knight and turbaned Moor would furnish as stirring
+incidents, and immortalize the names of its heroes as successfully, as
+has the Greek Homer the Trojan war.
+
+Those of us who have read the story of the Arab-Moors in Spain, the
+quick-witted, light-footed, brave-hearted Moors, who coveted the land
+"flowing with milk and honey" that lay across a narrow strait; who
+conquered it, redeemed its barren wastes, and made them to blossom as
+the rose; who, in their quick flight from the Arabian deserts through
+civilized lands, gathered seeds of knowledge and planted them so freely
+in the land of their adoption that their planting overspread the earth;
+who, like the Goths, became enervated when they became stationary, and
+were no longer able to resist the powerful foe who had from their
+entrance into Spain sworn their expulsion or their extermination, will
+be ready to weep when the final retribution comes. Yet come it did, when
+Ferdinand and Isabella pitched their tents and planted their banners of
+Castile and Aragon upon the verdant vega, or plain, around Granada.
+
+And yet we as readily accept the inevitable. We have known that it was
+impossible for Isabella to allow any portion of her dominions to be
+possessed by a people alien in race, language, customs, and religion; to
+see the Crescent triumphant over any site that had been hallowed by the
+Cross. To the Spanish Christian the fall of Granada was only the final
+victory of a righteous war. It was the triumph of his race, his nation,
+and his creed. And, looking back over the long march from Asturias to
+Granada, he claimed to have invaded no man's right; every victory but
+won back what was his own: every step retraced by the Moors but left him
+in possession of another portion of his inheritance from his
+forefathers.
+
+The Arab-Moors claimed also hereditary rights. For nearly eight hundred
+years the Moors had held possession of that strip of land between the
+"Snow Mountains" and the blue sea, in Southern Spain. One cannot but
+feel respect for the brave Moorish king of Granada, who said, when
+threatened with invasion, "Our mint no longer coins gold, but steel!" In
+this last great chivalrous war, a war for race and creed and country,
+all honor is due to the vanquished, who poured out their blood like
+water for their homes and their religion. The details of this heroic
+death-struggle belong to history rather than to biography. Yet Isabella
+was the great animating spirit of the war. Her tent was side by side
+with that of Ferdinand, and her counsel was ever wise and practical.
+
+And near the royal tents were others which she erected, where the
+wounded in the fray might have medical aid and tender nursing. Thus our
+"Warrior Queen," with a woman's heart, provided the first Army Hospital
+on record. The tents were burned down, but a substantial city arose, as
+if by magic, to take their place. The knights would have called it
+"Isabella," but she named it "Santa Fe," the city of Holy Faith. And
+this city helped to bring the war to a close. The Moors knew by it that
+Isabella had come to stay until she had added Granada to the crown of
+Castile.
+
+Another form rises before us as we look back four hundred years across
+the vega of Granada to the city of Sante Fe. We forget for a time the
+Christians and the Moors, we see only the great queen and the great
+discoverer. The man of science, Christoforo Colombo, had been lately
+dismissed from the court at Sante Fe. The sovereigns had no time for
+adventurers seeking aid to discover unknown lands when the reconquest of
+their own was just within their grasp. Cast down, but not discouraged,
+Columbus, all alone, was retracing his steps across the vega, en route
+for a port from whence to sail for England, when the queen sent a royal
+summons for him to return, and he reached Sante Fe just in time to be
+present at the surrender of Granada. Let me add that while the Moors as
+a nation fell with Granada, they were not as individuals banished from
+Spain until the reign of Philip II., the great-grandson of Isabella.
+
+[Illustration: Ferdinand and Isabella. The surrender of Granada.]
+
+We all know the story of Columbus. At this time he was but a penniless
+mendicant travelling on foot from court to court, seeking patronage to
+enable him to prove the truth which his great mind had grasped, the
+rotundity of the earth. The subject had given him no rest for eighteen
+years. He had discussed it before wise men in council assembled; he had
+pleaded with royalty in vain; at the court of Isabella, for the first
+time, he laid his plans and discussed his projects before a woman. The
+world to-day pays its tribute of four hundred years to Columbus, the
+World-finder. All honor to the brave man who, firm of faith and fearless
+of fate, unfurled his sails upon an unknown sea, and planted the cross
+and the banner of Castile upon an unknown land. All honor, too, to Queen
+Isabella of Spain, who, with "faith in things unseen," had the courage
+to say, "I will undertake the enterprise for mine own crown of Castile,"
+and from whose presence Columbus went forth to discover a land he never
+dreamed of, and to open a gate for the exodus of nations across the
+pathless sea. The same pen that signed the capitulation of the Moors and
+the contract with Columbus, signed also an edict for the expulsion of
+all unbaptized Jews from Spain between March and July of 1492. This
+edict condemned to perpetual exile from one to eight hundred thousand
+of Spain's most wealthy subjects. The coast was lined with vessels of
+every kind, and size, busy with the transportation of these unhappy
+victims, when Columbus was seeking for vessels and men to cross the "Sea
+of Darkness." And now we are beginning to understand the momentous
+events that culminated in the reign of Isabella. We find that religious
+enthusiasm, inspired during the long wars with the "Infidel Moors,"
+developed into religious bigotry. In the Jews, Spain expelled the most
+wealthy portion of her subjects; in the Moors, the most industrious; the
+wealth and industry of the nation were sacrificed for race and creed.
+And then within its own race and creed arose a new foe to combat; with
+equal energy and blind zeal Spain crushed Protestantism within her
+borders through the terrors of the Inquisition.
+
+But let us not lay the whole blame of such intolerant Christianity upon
+the unfortunate woman who fell heir to the crown of Castile during the
+period when the Church of Rome had the power to bind the consciences of
+men. Let us remember that as a woman Isabella was an honor to her sex;
+as a Christian she lived devoutly; as a queen she ruled wisely for the
+uplifting of her nation, and that the only censure the world casts upon
+her is the fortitude with which she said "Infidelity must be banished
+from the land."
+
+"Bury me in Granada, the brightest jewel in my crown," she said, when
+dying, in far-off Castile, November 26, 1504. The way was long and the
+December winds were cold as the royal cortege, with knightly escort,
+wended its way across the barren heights of Central Spain into the
+beautiful valley of Andalusia, across the lovely vega, past Santa Fe, up
+the rugged slope of the acropolis of Granada into the Chapel Isabella,
+near the unrivalled Alhambra. Here in the very heart of the last Moorish
+capital, while the whole nation mourned, they laid all that was mortal
+of the great queen, whom Lord Bacon has named "the corner-stone of the
+greatness of Spain."
+
+Twelve years later, January 23, 1516, they laid King Ferdinand beside
+her, "the wisest king that ever ruled in Spain." (Prescott.) Their
+grandson, Charles V., now summoned the finest artists in the world to
+prepare royal mausoleums for Ferdinand and Isabella and for his parents,
+Joanna of Castile and Philip of Burgundy. The cathedral of Granada is
+the Spanish temple of victory. It covers the site of an ancient Moorish
+mosque. Within its royal chapel one may read, in bas-relief, the whole
+story of the reconquest of Spain. On either side of its high altar kneel
+the life-size statues of the final conquerors; while in solemn, stately
+magnificence, the royal mausoleums of purest Carrara marble, with their
+reclining portrait figures of Ferdinand and Isabella in soft,
+time-tinted alabaster, tell us that here the nation, "redeemed from
+bondage," laid their deliverers to rest. And here, at the close of
+nearly four hundred years, a hand from across the sea lays this tribute,
+with a garland of white roses and a wreath of olive leaves and
+immortelles, upon the tomb of ISABELLA OF CASTILE.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+NICHOLAS COPERNICUS
+
+By JOHN STOUGHTON, D.D.
+
+(1473-1543)
+
+[Illustration: Copernicus. [TN]]
+
+
+The life of Nicholas Copernicus furnishes a signal example of the
+accordance between profound religious sentiment and the utmost
+inquisitiveness respecting the secrets of nature and the laws of the
+universe.
+
+The birthplace of genius is sometimes found nestled amid the fairest
+scenes, and the opening years of life are favored with appeals to
+curiosity and imagination, such as stimulate the exercise of the
+intellect; but the lot of Copernicus, as a boy, was cast in one of the
+flattest, tamest, and most uninteresting parts of Germany. Not far from
+the banks of the Vistula, on the way to the free city of Dantzic, lies a
+fortified town named Thorn, where the river is crossed by a wooden
+bridge, and the place is adorned by a bronze statue of our
+philosopher--for there he was born. His father was a merchant, and in
+the municipal records his father's name appears as a freeman admitted to
+the franchise in 1462. In 1472 or 1473 a son was added to the family,
+and the parents had a horoscope taken of the child, who appeared at
+thirty-eight minutes past four on January 19, 1472, according to some;
+at forty-eight minutes past four in the afternoon of February 19, 1473,
+according to others; the exact instant of the nativity being an
+important point in astrological calculations, which, in those days,
+inspired in fathers and mothers the deepest concern. At all events,
+Copernicus was deemed to have entered the world under a lucky planet,
+and it was augured that he would turn out a man of distinguished talent.
+About ten years before Martin Luther studied at Mansfield, and then at
+Eisenach, and rambled about the quaint streets, singing Christmas carols
+in the town where he was born, Nicholas Copernicus passed through a
+similar course of education. He did so under some old-fashioned
+pedagogue, who no more dreamed of the scientific fame of his pupil than
+did Trebonius of the approaching celebrity of young Master Martin.
+Copernicus would there learn to read, to write, to construe Latin, and
+to commit to memory hymns, prayers, and catechisms. Whether as a lad he
+studied Greek is uncertain; but, as his parents seem to have been
+wealthy, he would enjoy greater advantages than his still more
+illustrious contemporary; hence at an early period he was sent to
+Cracow, where he studied philosophy, mathematics, and medicine.
+Mathematics formed his favorite pursuit, and by the thorough acquisition
+of its principles and modes of reasoning he laid the basis of his
+subsequent eminence. But he took a degree as doctor of medicine; and
+according to the comprehensive methods of culture which obtained in
+those days, he paid attention to painting, and made some proficiency as
+an artist. Scholars were at that period accustomed to travel, and
+Copernicus proceeded from Cracow to Bologna; and in that city of feudal
+palaces and towers he would find a school of painting to cultivate his
+artistic taste, as well as a university where he could study astronomy.
+There he entered upon divers calculations connected with the position of
+the earth and the plan of the heavenly bodies. Then proceeding to Rome,
+he became there a mathematical professor, and won vast renown. Soon
+after the commencement of the sixteenth century he returned to the banks
+of the Vistula, and having been ordained to the priesthood, had a
+canonry at Frauenburg, on the Frische-Haeff, bestowed upon him by his
+uncle. The cathedral is described as a handsome building of brick,
+erected in 1342, in an elevated part of the town, overlooking the flat
+sandbanks of the Elbing, as it flows on its way to the Baltic. In
+connection with his canonry, Copernicus had some contention about his
+official rights, the nature of which does not appear. All we know is
+that he settled down in that quiet, out-of-the-way corner of the world,
+heedless of worldly ambition and indifferent to ecclesiastical honors
+and emoluments. He was no sceptic, no free-thinker, nor do we find him
+taking a part in the theological controversies of his age. No mention is
+made of what he thought and did in relation to the grand quarrel between
+Luther and Leo, or the Diet of Worms, or the burning of the bull at the
+gates of Wittenberg, or the other stirring events of the Reformation;
+only we know he remained a Catholic, a quiet, self-contained,
+thoughtful, devout man, childlike in his religion, trustful in his
+piety, and exemplary in the discharge of clerical duties. We can picture
+him going through the usual routine of canonical services in Frauenburg
+Cathedral, full of faith and prayer. With this vocation he coupled
+medical practice. He turned to good charitable account that proficiency
+in the healing art which he had acquired at Cracow, and visited the sick
+and the poor, bringing upon himself the blessing of those who were ready
+to perish. But the nature of his intellect, sharpened by studies at
+Bologna and Rome, gave him special advantages in the pursuit of
+astronomical knowledge; and as he had a decided taste in that direction,
+what time he could spare from the cathedral and the treatment of the
+sick he devoted to the study of the heavens. "He went very little into
+the world; he considered all conversation as fruitless except that of a
+serious and learned cast, so that he formed no intimacies except with
+grave and learned men." Alone at midnight he would watch the stars; in
+his study with his books he would inquire of the ancients; and then the
+profound thoughts passing through his mind he would exchange with the
+"grave and reverend seigniors" of his acquaintance.
+
+The Ptolemaic hypothesis of the universe was then in fashion. It was
+supposed that the earth was the centre of celestial motions, that the
+sun, the moon, and the stars revolved around the world which we
+inhabit. Not that the Pythagorean hypothesis was totally forgotten.
+There were those who believed that the sun, not the earth, is the centre
+of the great circle in which the heavenly bodies perform their
+evolutions; but the Ptolemaic hypothesis had the ascendency beyond all
+doubt; and with this hypothesis Copernicus could not rest satisfied. It
+appeared to him beset with insuperable difficulties. True enough, the
+rotation of the heavens around the earth seemed to be what the human eye
+beheld, as anyone watched sunrise and sunset. But what the senses thus
+presented, reason, in its ponderings, was led to contradict. For the
+notion of a huge mechanism like the celestial sphere, spinning round the
+terraqueous globe as its pivot looked unreasonable. To explain it in any
+way on mathematical principles needed a most complicated array of cycles
+and epicycles. Symmetry and simplicity were wanting in the theory. _A
+priori_ objections started up against it. If the senses pointed to the
+earth as a centre, reason pointed to a centre elsewhere. Copernicus
+studied the works of ancient philosophers on the question. He examined
+mathematical traditions and criticised the opinions of learned
+professors. He found accounts of those who had asserted the motion of
+the earth. "Though," he says, "it appeared an absurd opinion, yet, since
+I knew that in former times liberty had been permitted to others to
+figure as they pleased certain circles for the purpose of demonstrating
+the phenomena of the stars, I considered that to me also it might be
+easily allowed to try whether, by a supposition of the earth's motion, a
+better explanation might be found of the revolution of the celestial
+orbs. Having assumed," he goes on to say, "the motions of the earth, by
+laborious and long observation I at length found that if the motions of
+the other planets be compared with the revolution of the earth, not only
+these phenomena follow from the suppositions, but also that the several
+orbs and the whole system are so connected in order and magnitude, that
+no one part can be transposed without disturbing the rest and
+introducing confusion into the whole universe." What Copernicus was in
+search of was some simple and symmetrical theory of the appearances of
+the heavens which would relieve him of the complexity and confusion
+attendant on the Ptolemaic system so popular in the schools. He started
+from an _a priori_ point of reasoning--the only one thought of in his
+day--but he came to certain conclusions which _a posteriori_ examination
+in after times abundantly confirmed.
+
+[Illustration: Copernicus.]
+
+He believed that the earth is spherical; that the earth and the sea
+constitute a wonderful globe; that the motions of the heavenly bodies
+are circular and uniform, or compounded of circular and uniform motions;
+that the earth revolves on its own axis, and also performs a journey
+along its own orbit round the sun; that the sphere of the fixed stars is
+immensely distant, and that it is impossible to explain the motion of
+the planets upon the supposition of the earth being their centre. And he
+distinctly remarks: "It does not shame us to confess that the whole
+space in which the moon revolves, together with the earth, moves along a
+great orbit among the planets, round the sun every year; that the sun
+remains permanent and immovable, whatever may be its apparent motion."
+It must be kept in mind throughout any careful study of his theory,
+that it was an _hypothesis_ framed to remove difficulties connected with
+older systems; that he sought to bring conceptions of the universe into
+harmony with reason, instead of giving way to impressions made by the
+senses, or to the authority of world-honored teachers, either in other
+days or in his own; nor can we omit adding that, while he found fault
+with the Ptolemaic cycles and epicycles, he constructed similar devices
+of his own.
+
+"As the real motions, both of the earth and the planets, are unequable,
+it was requisite to have some mode of representing their inequalities;
+and accordingly the ancient theory of excentrics and epicycles was
+retained so far as was requisite for this purpose." In the case of
+Mercury's orbit he makes suppositions which are extremely complex,
+although they manifest his apprehension of the difficulties attendant on
+the common theory of his own time; but he verified many of his views by
+astronomical observations; and his approximations to modern science, and
+the light he threw on preceding discoveries, establish the fame of
+Nicholas Copernicus.
+
+On a review of the life of Copernicus, and the conclusions he reached,
+the mental and moral qualities of the man come out with conspicuous and
+extraordinary lustre.
+
+He was a mathematician, thus walking in the footsteps of Roger Bacon.
+This science, since the days of Euclid, had been pursued with untiring
+ardor, and many who neglected to study, or who, by their own
+imagination, distorted the actual phenomena of nature, addicted
+themselves to the investigation of the abstract properties of magnitude
+and number. Copernicus, in his knowledge of mathematical principles, and
+in his skilful application of them to astronomical inquiries, probably
+surpassed all his contemporaries. And, at the same time, he had that
+inventive genius which is fruitful in suggestions, such as become
+pioneers in the path of scientific demonstration. His independence of
+mind, his real originality, and his boldness in the pursuit of truth are
+quite as remarkable as the qualities just noticed; indeed, they are
+involved in or they led to the latter of these. "I beg you," says one of
+his admiring disciples, "to have this opinion concerning that learned
+man, my preceptor, that he was an ardent admirer and follower of
+Ptolemy; but when he was compelled by phenomena and demonstration, he
+thought he did well to aim at the same mark at which Ptolemy had aimed,
+though with a bow and shaft very different from his." We must recollect
+that Ptolemy says 'He who is to follow philosophy must be a freeman in
+mind.' Copernicus knew very well that there were many prepared to
+challenge his conclusions, and perhaps to bring theological objections
+to the principles of science which he had been constrained to adopt.
+"If, perchance," it is said in the preface to his book on astronomy,
+"there be vain babblers who, knowing nothing of mathematics, yet assume
+the right of judging, on account of some place of Scripture, perversely
+wrested to their purpose, and who blame and attack my undertaking, I
+heed them not, and look upon their judgments as rash and contemptible."
+
+Copernicus had a profound reverence for Scripture. He regarded it as the
+Word of God, able to make us wise unto salvation; and none of his
+discoveries pertaining to the laws of nature shook for one moment his
+confidence in the revelation of the gospel. Copernicus delayed for years
+the publication of his discoveries to the world. That delay had been
+thought to have proceeded from something like fear, or, at least,
+caution, lest views in some respects so novel should rouse
+ecclesiastical antagonism and expose him to serious persecution. But the
+words used in the dedication of his astronomical work seem to point in
+another direction. It is there said that he had kept it four times the
+nine years recommended by Horace, and published it at last in compliance
+with the entreaties of his friend, Cardinal Schomberg. "Though I know,"
+it is added, "that the thoughts of a philosopher do not depend on the
+judgment of the many, his study being to seek out truth in all things as
+far as that is permitted by God to human reason, yet when I considered
+how absurd that doctrine would appear, I long hesitated whether I should
+publish my book, or whether it were not better to follow the example of
+the Pythagoreans and others, who delivered their doctrines only by
+tradition and to friends." From this passage we should infer that he
+apprehended controversy rather than persecution, that for the former he
+had no desire, that he was without ambition, and felt no wish to found a
+new school, but would rather leave truths he had learned quietly to make
+their way through the world.
+
+The fame of Copernicus is now wide as the world. He painted a portrait
+of himself which fell into the hands of Tycho Brahe; and he wrote an
+epigram upon the subject, to the effect that the whole earth could not
+contain the whole of the man who whirled it along the ocean of ether.
+Less extravagant was the grateful enthusiasm of Rhiticus, a disciple of
+Copernicus, when he wrote, "God has given to my excellent preceptor a
+reign without end, which may He vouchsafe to guide, govern, and
+increase, to the restoration of astronomical truth. Amen!"
+
+"The Copernican system" is the name now generally given to the almost
+universal scientific belief that the earth and the planets revolve
+around the sun, though the system carried out and perfected by Kepler,
+Newton, Halley, Laplace, and others is by no means perfectly identical
+with the theory of the German astronomer. But the inextricable
+interweaving of his name with opinions sanctioned by the entire
+scientific world, is one of the noblest conceivable tributes to the
+magnitude and lustre of his renown.
+
+His death was in harmony with his life. Shortly before he expired he
+repeated these words:
+
+  "Non parem Paulo gratiam requiro,
+   Veniam Petri neque posco; sed quam
+   In crucis ligno dederat latroni
+         Sedulus oro."
+
+He had lived a life of Christian virtue--imitating his master, who went
+about doing good, healing the sick and preaching the gospel to the
+poor--yet, so far from having anything whereof to boast before God, he
+said himself that he felt his need of infinite mercy, and in seeking
+the pardon of his sins he would not place himself on a level with Paul
+or Peter, but rather choose a point of self-humiliation by the side of
+the penitent thief.
+
+His work on the revolution of the celestial bodies was passing through
+the press at the time of his fatal illness in 1543, when he had
+completed his seventieth year and was brought to him just before he
+breathed his last; and thus, as has been beautifully expressed, he was
+"made to touch the first printed copy of his book when the sense of
+touch was gone, seeing it only as a dim object through the deepening
+dusk."
+
+He is buried under a flat stone in one of the side aisles of his own
+cathedral at Frauenburg. On his monument is painted a half-length
+portrait, pale, thin, aged, but with an expression of countenance
+intelligent and pleasant. His hair and eyes are black; he is habited as
+a priest; his hands are joined in prayer; before him is a crucifix, at
+his feet a skull, and behind him are a globe and a pair of compasses.
+His devotion, his deadness to the world, and his love of science are
+thus aptly symbolized.
+
+
+
+
+MARTIN LUTHER
+
+(1483-1546)
+
+[Illustration: Luther and a group of men. [TN]]
+
+
+Martin Luther, the greatest of the Protestant Reformers of the sixteenth
+century, was born at Eisleben on November 10, 1483. His father was a
+miner in humble circumstances; his mother, as Melancthon records, was a
+woman of exemplary virtue, and particularly esteemed in her walk of
+life. Shortly after Martin's birth his parents removed to Mansfeld,
+where their circumstances ere long improved by industry and
+perseverance. Their son was sent to school; and both at home and in
+school his training was severe. His father sometimes whipped him, he
+says, "for a mere trifle till the blood came," and he was subjected to
+the scholastic rod fifteen times in one day! Luther's schooling was
+completed at Magdeburg and Eisenach, and at the latter place he
+attracted by his singing the notice of a good lady of the name of Cotta,
+who welcomed the lad into her family and provided him with a comfortable
+home during his stay there. Here under Trebonius he made good progress
+in Latin. In 1501, when he had reached his eighteenth year, he entered
+the university of Erfurt, with the view of qualifying himself for the
+legal profession. He went through the usual studies in the classics and
+the schoolmen, and took his degree of doctor of philosophy, or master of
+arts, in 1505, when he was twenty-one years of age.
+
+Previous to this, however, a profound change of feeling had begun in
+him. The death of a friend, and the terror of a thunder-storm, deeply
+impressed him. Chancing one day to examine the Vulgate in the university
+library, he saw with astonishment that there were more gospels and
+epistles than in the lectionaries. He was arrested by the contents of
+his newly found treasure. His heart was deeply touched, and he resolved
+to devote himself to a spiritual life. He separated himself from his
+friends and fellow-students, and withdrew into the Augustinian convent
+at Erfurt. Here he spent the next three years of his life--years of
+peculiar interest and significance; for it was during this time that he
+laid, in the study of the Bible and of Augustine, and with the
+assistance of his life-long friend Staupitz, the foundation of those
+doctrinal convictions which were afterward to rouse and strengthen him
+in his life-long struggle. He describes very vividly the spiritual
+crisis through which he passed, the burden of sin which so long lay upon
+him, "too heavy to be borne," and the relief that he at length found in
+the clear apprehension of the doctrine of the "forgiveness of sins,"
+through the grace of Christ.
+
+In the year 1507 Luther was ordained a priest, and in the following year
+he removed to Wittenberg, destined to derive its chief celebrity from
+his name. He became a teacher in the new university founded there by the
+Elector Frederick of Saxony. At first he lectured on dialectics and
+physics, but his heart was already given to theology, and in 1509 he
+became a bachelor of theology, and commenced lecturing on the Holy
+Scriptures. His lectures made a great impression, and the novelty of his
+views already began to excite attention. "This monk," said the rector of
+the university, "will puzzle our doctors and bring in a new doctrine."
+Besides lecturing, he began to preach, and his sermons reached a wider
+audience, and produced a still more powerful influence. They were
+printed and widely circulated in Germany, France, and England, so that
+his doctrines were diffused throughout Europe. His words, as Melancthon
+says, were "born not on his lips, but in his soul," and they moved
+profoundly the souls of all who heard them. In 1511 he was sent on a
+mission to Rome, and he has described very vividly what he saw and heard
+there. His devout and unquestioning reverence--for he was yet in his own
+subsequent view "a most insane papist"--appears in strange conflict with
+his awakened thoughtfulness and the moral indignation at the abuses of
+the papacy beginning to stir him.
+
+[Illustration: Luther introduced to the home of Frau Cotta.]
+
+On Luther's return from Rome he was made a doctor of the Holy
+Scriptures, and his career as a reformer may be said to have commenced.
+The system of indulgences had reached a scandalous height. The idea that
+it was in the power of the Church to forgive sin had gradually grown
+into the notion that the Pope could issue pardons of his own free will,
+which, being dispensed to the faithful, exonerated them from the
+consequences of their transgressions. The sale of these pardons had
+become an organized part of the papal system. Money was largely needed
+at Rome, and its numerous emissaries sought everywhere to raise funds by
+the sale of "indulgences;" the principal of these was John Tetzel, a
+Dominican friar, who had established himself at Jueterberg (1517).
+Luther's indignation at the shameless traffic which this man carried on,
+finally became irrepressible. "God willing," he exclaimed, "I will beat
+a hole in his drum." He drew out ninety-five theses on the doctrine of
+indulgences, which on October 31st he nailed up on the door of the
+church at Wittenberg, and which he offered to maintain in the university
+against all impugners. The general purport of these theses was to deny
+to the Pope all right to forgive sins. This sudden and bold step of
+Luther was all that was necessary to awaken a wide-spread excitement.
+Tetzel was forced to retreat from the borders of Saxony to
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he drew out and published a set of
+counter-theses and publicly committed those of Luther to the flames. The
+students at Wittenberg retaliated by burning Tetzel's theses. The
+elector refused to interfere, and the excitement increased as new
+combatants--Hochstratten, Prierias, and Eck--entered the field. Eck was
+an able man, and an old friend of Luther's, and the argument between him
+and the reformer was especially vehement. In 1518 the latter was joined
+by Melancthon, who became one of his dearest and most trusted friends.
+
+At first the Pope, Leo X., took little heed of the disturbance; he is
+reported even to have said, when he heard of it, that "Friar Martin was
+a man of genius, and that he did not wish to have him molested." Some of
+the cardinals, however, saw the real character of the movement, which
+gradually assumed a seriousness evident even to the Pope; and Luther
+received a summons to appear at Rome, and answer for his theses (1518).
+Once again in Rome, it is unlikely he would ever have been allowed to
+return. His university and the elector interfered, and a legate was sent
+to Germany to hear and determine the case. Cardinal Cajetan was the
+legate, and he was but little fitted to deal with Luther. He would enter
+into no argument with him, but merely called upon him to retract. Luther
+refused, and fled from Augsburg, whither he had gone to meet the papal
+representative. The task of negotiation was then undertaken by Miltitz,
+a German, who was envoy of the Pope to the Saxon court, and by his
+greater address, a temporary peace was obtained. This did not last long.
+The reformer was too deeply moved to keep silent. "God hurries and
+drives me," he said; "I am not master of myself; I wish to be quiet, and
+am hurried into the midst of tumults." Dr. Eck and he held a memorable
+disputation at Leipsic (1519), in which the subject of argument was no
+longer merely the question of indulgences, but the general power of the
+Pope. The disputation, of course, came to no practical result; each
+controversialist claimed the victory, and Luther in the meantime made
+progress in freedom of opinion, and attacked the papal system as a whole
+more boldly. Erasmus and Hutten joined in the conflict, which waxed more
+loud and threatening.
+
+In 1520 the reformer published his famous address to the "Christian
+Nobles of Germany." This was followed in the same year by a treatise "On
+the Babylonish Captivity of the Church." In these works, both of which
+circulated widely and powerfully influenced many minds, Luther took
+firmer and broader ground; he attacked not only the abuses of the papacy
+and its pretensions to supremacy, but also the doctrinal system of the
+Church of Rome. "These works," Ranke says, "contain the kernel of the
+whole Reformation." The papal bull containing forty-one theses was
+issued against him; the dread document, with other papal books, was
+burned before an assembled multitude of doctors, students, and citizens,
+at the Elster Gate of Wittenberg. Germany was convulsed with excitement.
+Eck (who had been the chief agent in obtaining the bull) fled from place
+to place, glad to escape with his life, and Luther was everywhere the
+hero of the hour.
+
+Charles V. had at this time succeeded to the empire, and he convened his
+first diet of the sovereigns and states at Worms. The diet met in the
+beginning of 1521; an order was issued for the destruction of Luther's
+books, and he himself was summoned to appear before the diet. This was
+above all what he desired--to confess the truth before the assembled
+powers of Germany. He resolved--having received a safe-conduct--to obey
+the summons, come what would. All Germany was moved by his heroism; his
+journey resembled a triumph; the threats of enemies and the anxieties of
+friends alike failed to move him. "I am resolved to enter Worms," he
+said, "although as many devils should set at me as there are tiles on
+the housetops." His appearance and demeanor before the diet, and the
+firmness with which he held his ground and refused to retract, all make
+a striking picture. He was not allowed to defend his opinions. "Unless I
+be convinced," he said, "by Scripture and reason, I neither can nor dare
+retract anything, for my conscience is a captive to God's word, and it
+is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. There I take my
+stand. I can do no otherwise. So help me God. Amen."
+
+On his return from Worms he was seized, at the instigation of his
+friend, the Elector of Saxony, and safely lodged in the old castle of
+the Wartburg. The affair was made to assume an aspect of violence, but
+in reality it was designed to secure him from the destruction which his
+conduct at Worms would certainly have provoked, he having been placed
+under the ban of the empire. He remained in this shelter for about a
+year, concealed in the guise of a knight. His chief employment was his
+translation of the Scriptures into his native language. He composed
+various treatises besides, and injured his health by sedentary habits
+and hard study. His imagination became morbidly excited, and he thought
+he saw and heard the Evil One mocking him while engaged in his literary
+tasks; the blot from the inkstand that he hurled at him is still shown
+on the wall of his chamber. The subject of the personality and presence
+of Satan was a familiar one with Luther, and he has many things about it
+in his Table-talk.
+
+[Illustration: Martin Luther before the Council of Worms.]
+
+The disorders which sprang up in the progress of the Reformation
+recalled Luther to Wittenberg. He felt that his presence was
+necessary to restrain Carlstadt and others, and, defying any danger to
+which he might still be exposed, he returned in 1522 to the old scene of
+his labors, rebuked the unruly spirits who had acquired power in his
+absence, and resumed with renewed energy his interrupted work. He strove
+to arrest the excesses of the Zwickau fanatics, and counselled peace and
+order to the inflamed peasants; while he warned the princes and nobles
+of the unchristian cruelty of many of their doings, which had driven the
+people to exasperation and frenzy. At no period of his life is he
+greater than now, in the stand which he made against lawlessness on the
+one hand and tyranny on the other. He vindicated his claim to be a
+reformer in the highest sense by the wise and manly part which he acted
+in this great social crisis in the history of Germany. In this year also
+he published his acrimonious reply to Henry VIII. on the seven
+sacraments. Although he had been at first united in a common cause with
+Erasmus, estrangement had gradually sprung up between the scholar of
+Rotterdam and the enthusiastic reformer of Wittenberg. This estrangement
+came to an open breach in the year 1525, when Erasmus published his
+treatise "De Libero Arbitrio." Luther immediately followed with his
+counter-treatise "De Servo Arbitrio." The controversy raged loudly
+between them; and in the vehemence of his hostility to the doctrine of
+Erasmus, Luther was led into various assertions of a very questionable
+kind, besides indulging in the wild abuse of his opponent's character.
+The quarrel was an unhappy one on both sides; and it must be confessed
+there is especially a want of generosity in the manner in which Luther
+continued to cherish the dislike which sprang out of it.
+
+In the course of the same year Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of
+nine nuns who, under the influence of his teaching, had emancipated
+themselves from their religious vows. The step rejoiced his enemies and
+even alarmed some of his friends, like Melancthon. But it greatly
+contributed to his happiness, while it served to enrich and strengthen
+his character. All the most interesting and touching glimpses we get of
+him henceforth are in connection with his wife and children.
+
+Two years after his marriage he fell into a dangerous sickness and
+depression of spirits, from which he was only aroused by the dangers
+besetting Christendom from the advance of the Turks. Two years later, in
+1529, he engaged in his famous conference at Marburg with Zwingli and
+other Swiss divines. The following year finds him at Coburg, while the
+diet sat at Augsburg. It was deemed prudent to intrust the interests of
+the Protestant cause to Melancthon, who attended the diet, but Luther
+removed to Coburg to be at hand for consultation. The drawing up of the
+Augsburg Confession marks the culmination of the German Reformation
+(1530); and the life of Luther from henceforth possesses comparatively
+little interest. He survived sixteen years longer, but they are years
+marked by few incidents of importance. He died at Eisleben on February
+18, 1546, and was buried at Wittenberg.
+
+Luther's character presents an imposing combination of great qualities.
+Endowed with broad human sympathies, massive energy, manly and
+affectionate simplicity, and rich, if sometimes coarse humor, he is at
+the same time a spiritual genius. His intuitions of divine truth were
+bold, vivid, and penetrating, if not comprehensive; and he possessed the
+art which God alone gives to the finer and abler spirits that He calls
+to do special work in this world, of kindling other souls with the fire
+of his own convictions, and awakening them to a higher consciousness of
+religion and duty. He was a leader of men, therefore, and a Reformer in
+the highest sense. His powers were fitted to his appointed task; it was
+a task of Titanic magnitude, and he was a Titan in intellectual
+robustness and moral strength and courage. It was only the divine energy
+which swayed him, and of which he recognized himself the organ, that
+could have accomplished what he did.
+
+View him as a mere theologian, and there are others who take higher
+rank. There is a lack of patient thoughtfulness and philosophical temper
+in his doctrinal discussions; but the absence of these very qualities
+gave vigor to his bold, if sometimes crude, conceptions, and enabled him
+to triumph in the struggle for life and death in which he was engaged.
+To initiate the religious movement which was destined to renew the face
+of Europe, required a gigantic will, which, instead of being crushed by
+opposition, or frightened by hatred, should only gather strength from
+the fierceness of the conflict before it. To clear the air thoroughly,
+as he himself said, thunder and lightning are necessary. Upon the whole,
+it may be said that history presents few greater characters--few that
+excite at once more love and admiration, and in which we see tenderness,
+humor, and a certain picturesque grace and poetic sensibility more
+happily combined with a lofty and magnanimous, if sometimes rugged,
+sublimity.
+
+Luther's works are very voluminous, partly in Latin, and partly in
+German. Among those of more general interest are his Table-Talk, his
+letters, and sermons. His Commentaries on Galatians and the Psalms are
+still read; and he was one of the great leaders of sacred song, his
+hymns, rugged but intense and expressive, having an enduring power.
+
+As an example of his more tender writing, take his letter to his little
+son Hans:
+
+"Grace and peace in Christ. My dear little son, I am glad to hear that
+thou learnest well and prayest diligently. Do this, my son, and continue
+it; when I return home I will bring thee a fine fairing.
+
+"I know a beautiful, cheerful garden, in which many children walk about.
+They have golden coats on, and gather beautiful apples under the trees,
+and pears, and cherries, and plums; they sing and jump about, and are
+merry; they have also fine little horses with golden bridles and silver
+saddles. And I asked the man, 'Whose children are they?' He replied,
+'These are the children who like to pray and learn and are pious.' Then
+I said, 'My good man, I have a son; his name is Hans Luther; may he not
+also come to this garden to eat such nice apples and pears, and ride
+such fine little horses, and play with these children?' And the man
+said, 'If he likes to pray and learn, and is pious, he shall come to
+this garden with Lippus and Just; and when they all come together, they
+shall have pipes and cymbals, lutes, and other musical instruments; and
+dance and shoot with little cross-bows.'
+
+"And he showed me a fine meadow in the garden, prepared for dancing:
+there being nothing but golden pipes, cymbals, and beautiful silver
+cross-bows. But it was yet early, and the children had not dined.
+Therefore I could not wait for the dancing, and said to the man, 'My
+good master, I will go quickly and write all this to my dear little son
+Hans, that he may pray diligently, learn well, and be pious, that he
+also may be admitted into this garden; but he hath an aunt Lena whom he
+must bring with him.' The man answered, 'So be it; go and write this to
+him.'
+
+"Therefore, my dear little son Hans, learn and pray with all confidence;
+and tell this to Lippus and Just, that they also may learn and pray; and
+ye will all meet in this beautiful garden. Herewith I commend thee to
+Almighty God. Give greetings to Aunt Lena, and also a kiss from me,
+
+  "Thy loving father,
+
+                                   "MARTIN LUTHER."
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. OF GERMANY
+
+(1500-1558)
+
+[Illustration: Charles V. [TN]]
+
+
+Charles V., who ruled over more kingdoms than any other European monarch
+before or since, who was the most powerful ruler of his century, and
+who, on the whole, used his great power wisely and well, was born at
+Ghent, February 24, 1500. His parents were the Archduke Philip, son of
+the Emperor Maximilian, and Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and
+Isabella of Castile. To those united kingdoms Charles succeeded on the
+death of his grandfather Ferdinand, in 1516. The early part of his reign
+was stormy; a Flemish regency and Flemish ministers became hateful to
+the Spaniards, and their discontent broke out into civil war. The
+Castilian rebels assumed the name of The Holy League, and seemed
+animated by a spirit not unlike that of the English Commons under the
+Stuarts. Spain was harassed by these internal contests until 1522, when
+they were calmed by the presence of Charles, whose prudence and, we may
+hope, his humanity, put an end to the rebellion. He made some examples,
+but soon held his hand, with the declaration, that "too much blood had
+been spilt." An amnesty was more effectual than severities, and the
+royal authority was strengthened, as it will seldom fail to be, by
+clemency. Some of his courtiers informed him of the place where one of
+the ring leaders was concealed. His answer is worthy of everlasting
+remembrance: "You ought to warn him that I am here, rather than acquaint
+me where he is."
+
+Spain, the Two Sicilies, the Low Countries, and Franche Comte, belonged
+to Charles V. by inheritance; and by his grandfather Maximilian's
+intervention he was elected king of the Romans; nor had he to wait long
+before that prince's death, in 1519, cleared his path to the empire. But
+Francis I. of France was also a candidate for the imperial crown, with
+the advantage of being six years senior to Charles, and of having
+already given proof of military talent. The Germans, however, were
+jealous of their liberties; and not unreasonably dreading the power of
+each competitor, rejected both. Their choice fell on Frederic, Elector
+of Saxony, surnamed the Wise, celebrated as the protector of Luther; but
+that prince declined the splendid boon, and recommended Charles, on the
+plea that a powerful emperor was required to stop the rapid progress of
+the Turkish arms.
+
+The political jealousy, embittered by personal emulation, which existed
+between the Emperor and the King of France, broke out into war in 1521.
+France, Navarre, and the Low Countries were at times the seat of the
+long contest which ensued; but chiefly Italy. The duchy of Milan had
+been conquered by Francis in 1515. It was again wrested from the French
+by the emperor in 1522. In 1523, a strong confederacy was formed against
+France, by the Pope, the Emperor, the King of England, the Archduke
+Ferdinand, to whom his brother Charles had ceded the German dominions of
+the House of Austria, the states of Milan, Venice, and Genoa; all united
+against a single power. And in addition, the celebrated Constable of
+Bourbon became a traitor to France to gratify his revenge; brought his
+brilliant military talents to the emperor's service, and was invested
+with the command of the Imperial troops in Italy. To this formidable
+enemy Francis opposed his weak and presumptuous favorite, the Admiral
+Bonnivet, who was driven out of Italy in 1524, the year in which the
+gallant Bayard lost his life in striving to redeem his commander's
+errors.
+
+The confidence of Francis seemed to increase with his dangers, and his
+faults with his confidence. He again entered the Milanese in 1525, and
+retook the capital. But Bonnivet was his only counsellor; and under such
+guidance the siege of Pavia was prosecuted with inconceivable rashness,
+and the battle of Pavia fought without a chance of gaining it. Francis
+was taken prisoner, and wrote thus to his mother, the Duchess of
+Angouleme: "Everything is lost, except our honor." This Spartan spirit
+has been much admired; but whether justly, may be a question. From a
+Bayard, nothing could have been better; but the honor of a king is not
+confined to fighting a battle; and this specimen, like the conduct of
+Francis in general, proves him to have been the mirror of knighthood,
+rather than of royalty.
+
+Charles, notwithstanding his victory at Pavia, did not invade France,
+but, as the price of freedom, he prescribed the harshest conditions to
+the captive king. At first they were rejected, but his haughty spirit
+and conscience were at length both reconciled to the casuistry that the
+fulfilment of forced promises may be eluded. Francis, therefore,
+consented to the treaty of Madrid, made in 1526, by which it was
+stipulated that he should give up his claims in Italy and the Low
+Countries; surrender the Duchy of Burgundy to Spain; and return into
+captivity if these conditions were not fulfilled in six weeks. When once
+at large, instead of executing the treaty, he formed a league with the
+Pope, the King of England, and the Venetians, to maintain the liberty of
+Italy. The Pope absolved him from his oaths, and he refused to return
+into Spain. The passions of the rival monarchs were now much excited,
+and challenges and the lie were exchanged between them. No duel was
+fought, nor probably intended; but the notoriety of the challenge went
+far to establish a false point of punctilio, we will not call it honor,
+among gentlemen, and single combats became more frequent than in the
+ages of barbarism.
+
+In 1529, the course of these calamities was suspended by the treaty of
+Cambray, negotiated in person by two women. The Duchess of Angouleme and
+Margaret of Austria, governess of the Low Countries, met in that city,
+and settled the terms of pacification between the rival monarchs.
+
+For Charles's honorable conduct on Luther's appearance before the diet
+of Worms, the reader may refer to the life of the reformer in the
+present volume. The cause of Lutheranism gained ground at the diet of
+Nuremberg; and if Charles had declared in favor of the Lutherans, all
+Germany would probably have changed its religion. As it was, the
+Reformation made progress during the war between the emperor and Clement
+VII. All that Charles acquired from the diet of Spire, in 1526, was to
+wait patiently for a general council, without encouraging novelties. In
+1530, he assisted in person at the diet of Augsburg, when the
+Protestants (a name bestowed on the reformers in consequence of the
+protest entered by the Elector of Saxony and others at the second diet
+of Spire) presented their confession, drawn up by Melancthon, the most
+moderate of Luther's disciples. About this time Charles procured the
+election of his brother Ferdinand as king of the Romans, on the plea
+that, in his absence, the empire required a powerful chief to make head
+against the Turks. This might be only a pretence for family
+aggrandizement; but the emperor became seriously apprehensive lest the
+Lutherans, if provoked, should abandon the cause of Christendom, and
+policy therefore conceded what zeal would have refused. By a treaty
+concluded with the Protestants at Nuremberg, and ratified at Ratisbon in
+1531, Charles granted them liberty of conscience till a council should
+be held, and annulled all sentences passed against them by the imperial
+chamber; on this they engaged to give him powerful assistance against
+the Turks.
+
+In 1535, Muley Hassan, the exiled king of Tunis, implored Charles's aid
+against the pirate Barbarossa, who had usurped his throne. The emperor
+eagerly seized the opportunity of acquiring fame by the destruction of
+that pest of Spain and Italy. He carried a large army into Africa,
+defeated Barbarossa, and marched to Tunis. The city surrendered, being
+in no condition to resist, and while the conqueror was deliberating what
+terms to grant, the soldiery sacked it, committed the most atrocious
+violence, and are said to have massacred more than thirty thousand
+persons. This outrage tarnished the glory of the expedition, which was
+entirely successful. Muley Hassan was restored to his throne.
+
+In 1536 a fresh dispute for the possession of the Milanese broke out
+between the King of France and the Emperor. It began with negotiation,
+artfully protracted by Charles, who promised the investiture, sometimes
+to the second, sometimes to the youngest, son of his formerly impetuous
+rival, whom he thus amused, while he took measures to crush him by the
+weight of his arms. But if misfortune had made the King of France too
+cautious, prosperity had inspired Charles with a haughty presumption,
+which gave the semblance of stability to every chimerical vision of
+pride. In 1536 he attempted the conquest of France by invading Provence;
+but his designs were frustrated by a conduct so opposite to the national
+genius of the French that it induced them to murmur against their
+general. Charles, however, felt by experience the prudence of those
+measures which sacrificed individual interests to the general good by
+making a desert of the whole country. Francis marked his impotent hatred
+by summoning the emperor before parliament by the simple name of Charles
+of Austria, as his vassal for the counties of Artois and Flanders. The
+charge was the infraction of the treaty of Cambray, the offence was laid
+as felony, to abide the judgment of the court of peers. On the
+expiration of the legal term, two fiefs were decreed to be confiscated.
+A fresh source of hostility broke out on the death of the young Dauphin
+of France, who was said to have been poisoned, and the king accused
+Charles V. of the crime. But there is neither proof nor probability to
+support the charge; and the accused could have no interest to commit the
+act imputed to him, since there were two surviving sons still left to
+Francis.
+
+But the resources even of Charles were exhausted by his great exertions;
+arrears were due to his troops, who mutinied everywhere from his
+inability to pay them. He therefore assembled the Cortes, or
+states-general, of Castile, at Toledo, in 1539, stated his wants, and
+demanded subsidies. The clergy and nobility pleaded their own exemption
+and refused to impose new taxes on the other orders. Charles, in anger,
+dissolved the Cortes, and declared the nobles and prelates forever
+excluded from that body, on the ground that men who pay no taxes have no
+right to a voice in the national assemblies. But the people of Ghent
+made a more serious resistance to authority, on account of a tax which
+infringed their privileges. They offered to transfer their allegiance to
+Francis, who did not avail himself of the proposal, not from either
+conscientious or chivalrous scruples, but because his views were all
+centred in Milan; he therefore betrayed his Flemish clients to the
+emperor, in hopes of obtaining the investiture of the Italian duchy. By
+holding out the expectation of this boon, Charles obtained a
+safe-conduct for his passage through France into Flanders, whither he
+was anxious to repair without loss of time. His presence soon reduced
+the insurgents. The inhabitants of Ghent opened their gates to him on
+his fortieth birthday, in 1540; and he entered his native city, in his
+own words, "as their sovereign and their judge, with the sceptre and the
+sword." He punished twenty-nine of the principal citizens with death,
+the town with the forfeiture of its privileges, and the people by a
+heavy fine for the building of a citadel to coerce them. He broke his
+word with Francis by bestowing the Milanese on his own son, afterward
+Philip II.
+
+Our limits will not allow of our detailing the circumstances of the
+emperor's calamitous expedition against Algiers; but his courage,
+constancy, and humanity in distress and danger, claim a sympathy for his
+misfortunes which is withheld from the selfish and wily career of his
+prosperity.
+
+Francis devised new grounds for war, and allied himself with Sweden,
+Denmark, and the Sultan Soliman. This is the first instance of a
+confederacy with the North. But he had alienated the Protestants of
+Germany by his severe measures against the Lutherans, and Henry VIII. by
+crossing the marriage of his son Edward with Mary of Scotland, yet in
+her cradle. Henry therefore leagued with the emperor, who found it
+convenient to bury the injuries of Catherine of Aragon in her grave. The
+war was continued during the two following years with varying success:
+the most remarkable events were the capture of Boulogne by the English,
+and the great victory won by the French over the Imperialists at
+Cerisolles, Piedmont, in 1544. In the autumn of that year a treaty was
+concluded at Crespi, between Charles and Francis, involving the ordinary
+conditions of marriage and mutual renunciations, with the curious clause
+that both should make joint war against the Turks. In the same year the
+embarrassments created by the war, and the imminent danger of Hungary,
+increased the boldness of the German Protestants belonging to the league
+of Smalkald, and the emperor, while presiding at the diet of Spire, won
+them over by consenting to the free exercise of their religion.
+
+The Catholics had always demanded a council, which was convened at Trent
+in 1545. The Protestants refused to acknowledge its authority, and the
+emperor no longer affected fairness toward them. In 1546 he joined Pope
+Paul III. in a league against them, by a treaty in terms contradictory
+to his own public protestations. Paul himself was so imprudent as to
+reveal the secret, and it enabled the Protestants to raise a formidable
+army in defence of their religion and liberties. But the Electors of
+Cologne and Brandenburg, and the Elector Palatine, resolved to remain
+neuter. Notwithstanding this secession, the war might have been ended at
+once, had the confederates attacked Charles while he lay at Ratisbon
+with very few troops, instead of wasting time by writing a manifesto,
+which he answered by putting the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of
+Hesse under the ban of the empire. He foresaw those divisions which soon
+came to pass by Maurice of Saxony's seizure of his cousin's electorate.
+
+Delivered by the death of Francis in 1547, in which year Henry VIII.
+also died, from the watchful supervision of a jealous and powerful
+rival, and relieved from the fear of the Turks by a five years' truce,
+Charles was at liberty to bend his whole strength against the revolted
+princes of Germany. He marched against the Elector Frederick of Saxony,
+who was defeated at Mulhausen, taken prisoner, and condemned to death
+by a court-martial composed of Italians and Spaniards, in contempt of
+the laws of the empire. The sentence was communicated to the prisoner
+while playing at chess; his firmness was not shaken, and he tranquilly
+said, "I shall die without reluctance, if my death will save the honor
+of my family and the inheritance of my children." He then finished his
+game. But his wife and family could not look at his death so calmly; at
+their entreaty he surrendered his electorate into the emperor's hands.
+The other chief of the Protestant league, the Landgrave of Hesse, was
+also forced to submit, and detained in captivity, contrary to the
+pledged word of the emperor; who, fearless of any further resistance to
+his supreme authority, convoked a diet at Augsburg in 1548. At that
+assembly Maurice was invested with Saxony, and the emperor, in the vain
+hope of enforcing a uniformity of religious practice, published by his
+own authority a body of doctrine called the "Interim," to be in force
+till a general council should be assembled. This necessarily was
+unsatisfactory to both parties, but its observance was enforced by a
+master with whom terror was the engine of obedience.
+
+These measures, however, did not preserve tranquillity long in Germany.
+Maurice of Saxony and the Elector of Brandenburg urged the deliverance
+of the Landgrave of Hesse, as having made themselves sureties against
+violence to his person. Charles answered by absolving them from their
+pledges. The Protestants, of course, charged him as arrogating the same
+spiritual authority with the popes. And Maurice, offended at the slight
+put upon him, directed his artful policy to the humiliation of Charles.
+He had compelled his subjects to conform to the Interim by the help of
+the timid Melancthon, who was no longer supported by the firmness of
+Luther. On the other hand, he had silenced the clamors of the more
+sturdy by a public avowal of his zeal for the Reformation. In the
+meantime the diet of Augsburg, completely at the emperor's devotion, had
+named him general of the war against Magdeburg, which had been placed
+under the ban of the empire for opposition to the Interim. He took that
+Lutheran city, but by private assurances regained the good-will of the
+inhabitants. He also engaged in a league with France, but still wore the
+mask. He even deceived the able Granville, Bishop of Arras, afterward
+cardinal, who boasted that "a drunken German could never impose on him;"
+yet was he of all others most imposed on. At last, in 1552, Maurice
+declared himself; and Henry II. of France published a manifesto,
+assuming the title of "Protector of the liberties of Germany and its
+captive princes." He began with the conquest of the three bishoprics of
+Toul, Baden, and Metz. In conjunction with Maurice he had lain a plan
+for surprising Charles at Innspruck, and getting possession of his
+person, and the daring attempt had almost succeeded. Charles was forced
+to escape by night during a storm, in a paroxysm of gout, and was
+carried across the Alps in a litter. These disputes were adjusted in
+1555, at the diet of Augsburg, by the solemn grant of entire freedom of
+worship to the Protestants. The King of France was abandoned by his
+allies, and scarcely named in the treaty.
+
+[Illustration: Charles V. on his way to the convent.]
+
+Henry resolved to defend his acquisition of the three bishoprics, and
+Charles to employ his whole force for their recovery. The Duke of
+Guise made adequate preparations for the defence of Metz, the siege of
+which the emperor was compelled to raise after sixty-five days spent in
+fruitless efforts, with the loss of 30,000 men by skirmishes and
+battles, and by diseases incident to the severity of the season. "I
+perceive," said he, "that Fortune, like other females, forsakes old men,
+to lavish her favors on the young." This sentiment probably sunk deeper
+into his reflections than might be inferred from the sarcastic terms in
+which it was clothed: for in the year 1556, after various events of war,
+alternately calamitous to the subjects of both nations, he astonished
+Europe by his abdication in favor of his son. In an assembly of the
+states at Brussels, he addressed Philip in a speech which melted the
+audience into tears. The concluding passage, as given by Robertson, is
+worth transcribing. "Preserve an inviolable regard for religion;
+maintain the Catholic faith in its purity; let the laws of your country
+be sacred in your eyes; encroach not on the rights and privileges of
+your people; and if the time should ever come when you shall wish to
+enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a son endowed with
+such qualities that you can resign your sceptre to him with as much
+satisfaction as I give up mine to you!" Charles retired into a
+monastery, where he died after more than two years passed in deep
+melancholy, and in practices of devotion inconsistent with sound health,
+when only between fifty-eight and fifty-nine years of age. His activity
+and talents had been the theme of universal admiration, the ardor of his
+ambitious policy had been extreme, and his knowledge of mankind
+profound; but he should have followed up the objects of his high
+aspirations by a straighter road. His glory would have been truly
+enviable had he devoted his efforts to the happiness of his subjects,
+instead of harassing their minds by dissensions, and mowing down their
+lives by hundreds of thousands in war.
+
+To the statesman or the politician the history of this period is an
+inexhaustible fund of instruction and interest, and to the general
+reader it is rendered more than usually attractive by the almost
+dramatic contrast of character among the principal actors in the scene.
+Francis seems to have been the representative of the expiring school of
+chivalry; Charles was not the representative, but the founder of the
+modern system of state policy; Henry was the representative of
+ostentation, violence, and selfishness, to be found in all ages.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN CALVIN
+
+(1509-1564)
+
+[Illustration: Calvin. [TN]]
+
+
+John Calvin was born at Noyon, in Picardy, on July 10, 1509. His father,
+Gerard Caulvin or Cauvin, was procureur-fiscal of the district of Noyon,
+and secretary of the diocese. He was one of six children--four sons and
+two daughters. All the three sons who survived were ecclesiastics; and
+the reformer himself, while still only twelve years of age, was
+appointed to a chaplaincy in the cathedral church of Noyon. Calvin was
+educated in circumstances of ease and even affluence. The noble family
+of De Mortmar, in the neighborhood, invited him to share in the studies
+of their children; he was in some measure adopted by them; and when the
+family went to Paris, in his fourteenth year, he accompanied them. He
+was entered as a pupil in the College de la Marche, under the regency of
+Mathurin Cordier, better remembered, perhaps, by his Latin name of
+Corderius. It was under this distinguished master that Calvin laid the
+foundation of his own wonderful mastery of the Latin language. During
+this early period he was so distinguished by the great activity of his
+mental powers and the grave severity of his manners that his companions,
+it is said, surnamed him "The Accusative."
+
+For a while his attention was directed to the study of law, and his
+father sent him to the university of Orleans, then adorned by Pierre de
+l'Etoile, one of the most famous jurists of his day. At Orleans he
+continued the same life of rigorous temperance and earnest studiousness
+for which he was already noted. It was while a law-student in Orleans
+that he became acquainted with the Scriptures, and received his first
+impulse to the theological studies which have made his name so
+distinguished. A relative of his own, Pierre Robert Olivetan, was there
+engaged in a translation of the Scriptures; and this had the effect of
+drawing Calvin's attention, and awakening within him the religious
+instinct which was soon to prove the master-principle of his life. The
+seeds of the new faith were now beyond doubt sown in his heart, and from
+this time, although he still continued for a while longer to pursue his
+legal studies, his main interests appear to have been religious and
+theological. From Orleans he went to Bourges, where he acquired the
+knowledge of Greek, under the tuition of a learned German, Melchior
+Wolmar. He began here to preach the reformed doctrines, and passed over
+into the ranks of Protestantism, under the slow but sure growth of his
+new convictions rather than under the agitation of any violent feeling.
+Here, as everywhere, his life presents a marked contrast to that of
+Luther.
+
+He proceeded to Paris in 1533, which at this date had become a centre of
+the "new learning," under the teaching of Lefevre and Farel, and the
+influence of the Queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I. The Sorbonne
+itself had not escaped the infection. There was a growing religious
+excitement in the university, in the court, and even among the bishops.
+This, however, was not to last. The king was soon stirred up to take
+active measures to quell this rising spirit, and the result was that
+Calvin and others were obliged to flee for their lives. After this he
+repaired for a short time to his native place, resigned the preferment
+he held in the Roman Catholic Church, and for a year or two led a
+wandering life, sheltered in various places. We find him at Saintorge;
+at Nerac, the residence of the Queen of Navarre; at Angouleme, with his
+friend Louis du Tillet; then for a brief while at Paris again.
+Persecutions against the Protestants at this time raged so hotly that
+Calvin was no longer safe in France, and he betook himself to Basel,
+whence he issued, in the year 1536, the first edition of his "Christianae
+Religionis Institutio," with the famous preface addressed to Francis I.
+The concentrated vigor and intensity of feeling of this address, rising
+into indignant remonstrance, and at times into pathetic and powerful
+influence, make it one of the most memorable documents in connection
+with the Reformation. After completing this great service to the cause
+of Protestantism, he made a short visit to Italy, to Renee, the Duchess
+of Ferrara. Finally, he revisited his native town, sold the paternal
+estate, which had devolved to him on the death of his eldest brother,
+and, bidding Noyon adieu, set out, in company with his younger brother
+and sister, on his way to Strasbourg. The direct road being rendered
+dangerous by the armies of Charles V., which had penetrated into France,
+he sought a circuitous route through Savoy and Geneva.
+
+The result of this journey was memorable for the cause of the
+Reformation. Arrived in Geneva, in the autumn of 1536, he met there his
+friend, Louis du Tillet, who communicated the fact of his arrival to
+Farel, then in the very midst of his struggle to promote the
+Reformation. Farel hastened to see him, and urge upon him the duty of
+remaining where he was, and undertaking his share of the work of God.
+Calvin did not at first respond to the call. He was given, he himself
+says, to his "own intense thoughts and private studies." He wished to
+devote himself to the service of the reformed churches generally, rather
+than to the care of any particular church. By some strange insight,
+however, Farel penetrated to the higher fitness of the young stranger
+who stood before him, and he ventured to lay the curse of God upon him
+and his studies if he refused his aid to the church of Geneva in her
+time of need. "It was," Calvin said, "as if God had seized me by his
+awful hand from heaven." He abandoned his intention of pursuing his
+journey, and joined eagerly with Farel in the work of reformation.
+
+Having entered upon his task, he soon infused an energy into it which
+crowned the struggling efforts of Farel with success. The hierarchical
+authority was already overturned before his arrival; the citizens had
+asserted their independence against the Duke of Savoy. The magistrates
+and people eagerly joined with the reformers in the first heat of their
+freedom and their zeal. A Protestant Confession of Faith was drawn out,
+approved of by the Council of Two Hundred, and then proclaimed in the
+cathedral church of St. Peter. Great and marvellous changes were wrought
+in a short time upon the manners of the people; where license and
+frivolity had reigned, a strict moral severity began to characterize the
+whole aspect of society. The strain, however, was too sudden and too
+extreme. A spirit of rebellion against the rule of Calvin and Farel
+broke forth; but they refused to yield to the wishes of a party animated
+by a more easy and liberal spirit than themselves, and known in the
+history of Geneva under the nickname of Libertines; and the consequence
+was that they were both expelled from the city after less than two
+years' residence.
+
+[Illustration: A procession. [TN]]
+
+Calvin retreated to Strasbourg, and devoted himself to theological
+study, especially to his critical labors on the New Testament. Here, in
+October, 1539, he married the widow of a converted Anabaptist.
+
+The Genevans found, after a short time, that they could not well get on
+without Calvin. His rule might be rigid; but an authority even such as
+his was better than no settled authority at all; and the Libertine party
+seem to have been unable to construct any efficient and beneficent form
+of government. Accordingly, they invited Calvin to return; and, after
+some delay on his part, in order to test the spirit in which they were
+acting, he acceded to their invitation, and in the autumn of 1541, after
+three years' absence, once more made his entry into Geneva.
+
+Now, at length, he succeeded in establishing his plan of
+church-government. By his College of Pastors and Doctors, and his
+Consistorial Court of Discipline, he founded a theocracy, which aimed
+virtually to direct all the affairs of the city, and to control and
+modify both the social and individual life of the citizens. The
+Libertines still remained a strong party, which was even augmented after
+Calvin's return, by men such as Ami Perrin, who had strongly concurred
+in the invitation to Calvin, but who were afterward alienated from him
+by the high hand with which he pursued his designs, as well as by their
+own schemes of ambition. The struggle with this party lasted, with
+varying fortune, for no less a period than fifteen years, and was only
+terminated in 1555, after a somewhat ridiculous _emeute_ in the streets.
+Perrin and others, driven from the city, were executed in effigy; and
+the reformer's authority from this date was confirmed into an absolute
+supremacy. During the long struggle with the Libertines occurred also
+Calvin's controversies with Sebastian Castellio, Jerome Bolsec, and
+above all, Michael Servetus.
+
+After the execution of Servetus, and the expulsion of the Libertines two
+years later, Calvin's power in Geneva was firmly established, and he
+used it vigorously and beneficently for the defence of Protestantism
+throughout Europe. By the mediation of Beza he made his influence felt
+in France in the great struggle that was there going on between the
+hierarchical party, with the Guises at its head, and the Protestants,
+led by Conde and Coligny. In 1561 his energies began to fail. He had
+been long suffering from bad health, though his strength of will and
+buoyancy of intellect sustained him; but his health grew very much
+worse, and although he survived for more than two years, he never
+regained any vigor. He died on May 27, 1564.
+
+Very different estimates have been formed of Calvin's character. None,
+however, can dispute his intellectual greatness or the powerful services
+which he rendered to the cause of Protestantism. Stern in spirit and
+unyielding in will, he is never selfish or petty in his motives. Nowhere
+amiable, he is everywhere strong. Arbitrary and cruel when it suits him,
+he is yet heroic in his aims, and beneficent in the scope of his
+ambition. His moral purpose is always clear and definite: to live a life
+of duty, to shape circumstances to such divine ends as he apprehended,
+and in whatever sphere he might be placed, to work out the glory of God.
+
+He rendered a double service to Protestantism, which, apart from
+anything else, would have made his name illustrious: he systematized its
+doctrine, and he organized its ecclesiastical discipline. He was at once
+the great theologian of the Reformation, and the founder of a new church
+polity which did more than all other influences together to consolidate
+the scattered forces of the Reformation and give them an enduring
+strength. As a religious teacher, as a social legislator, and as a
+writer, especially of the French language, whose modern prose style was
+then in process of formation, his fame is second to none in his age, and
+must always conspicuously adorn the history of civilization.
+
+His famous "Institutio" entitles Calvin to the foremost place among the
+dogmatic theologians of the Reformed Church. This masterpiece of
+luminous argument presents a complete system of Christian faith, based
+on the Protestant principle that the Scriptures are the source of
+Christian truth. "Two things there are," says Hooker, in the preface to
+the "Ecclesiastical Polity," "which have deservedly procured him honor
+throughout the world--the one, his exceeding pains in composing the
+'Institutions of the Christian Religion;' the other, his no less
+industrious travails for exposition of Holy Scripture." His Commentaries
+embrace the greater part of the Old Testament and the whole of the New,
+except the Revelation, and place him in the front rank of expositors of
+Scripture.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN KNOX
+
+By P. HUME BROWN
+
+(1505-1572)
+
+[Illustration: John Knox. [TN]]
+
+
+John Knox, the great Scottish Reformer, was born at Giffordgate, a
+suburb of the town of Haddington, in 1505, the year preceding the birth
+of his famous countryman, George Buchanan. Knox has himself told us in a
+single sentence all that is definitely known of his family connections:
+"My lord," he represents himself as saying to the notorious Earl of
+Bothwell, "my grandfather, grandsire (maternal grandfather), and father
+have served under your lordship's predecessors, and some of them have
+died under their standards." He received the elements of his education
+in the grammar school of his native town, and in 1522 was sent to the
+University of Glasgow. St. Andrews was nearer his home, and possessed
+the more famous university; but he was probably drawn to Glasgow by the
+fame of the most distinguished literary Scotchman of his
+generation--John Major, the schoolman. For this reason, at least,
+Buchanan was sent to St. Andrews, though Glasgow was nearer his native
+place, when Major had migrated to the former university. At Glasgow,
+under Major, Knox could have been subjected to none of the influences of
+the great intellectual revolution which substituted for the studies and
+methods of mediaevalism the ideas of the Revival of Letters. Like all his
+educated contemporaries, he learned to speak and write Latin with
+perfect fluency; but it was always with an idiom that showed he had none
+of the humanist's scruples regarding purity of language. What he learned
+from Major was the art for which that scholar was renowned throughout
+Europe--the art of logical exercitation; and Knox's writings everywhere
+show that all through life he had a natural delight in the play of
+dialectic. He left the university without taking the degree of master of
+arts, thus by the conditions of all the mediaeval universities precluding
+himself from the career of an academic teacher.
+
+During the eighteen years that follow his leaving the university, Knox
+passes completely out of sight. All that is known of him during this
+period is that, from 1540 to 1543, he acted as notary in his native town
+of Haddington. As in the documents that establish this fact his name
+appears with the addition of "Sir," the title of priests who were not
+Masters of Arts, Knox must have been in orders in the Church of Rome
+till as late as 1543. In 1544 we find him acting as tutor to the sons of
+Douglas of Lorgniddry and Cockburn of Ormiston--families, it is to be
+noted, both favorably disposed to the new opinions in religion now
+making their way in Scotland. Through these families he was brought into
+contact with George Wishart, who had lately returned from travelling in
+Germany and England, with the burning zeal to gain his country to the
+Lutheran reformation. From this period the future direction of Knox's
+life was decided, and thenceforward, with an intensity and self-devotion
+never surpassed, he is the apostle of the cause with which his name is
+forever identified--the establishment in Scotland of what he deemed the
+only true conception of the primitive church as based on the teaching of
+Christ and the apostles. We have reason to believe that, even before
+this date, his sympathies were on the side of reform in religion, but
+the teaching and example of Wishart seem first to have brought to him
+the clear consciousness of his mission. Knox identified himself with
+Wishart with all the impetuosity of his character, and was in the habit,
+he tells us, of carrying a two-handed sword before the preacher. When
+Wishart was seized by the emissaries of Cardinal Beaton, Knox would
+willingly have attended him to the last; but Wishart, who knew the fate
+in store for him, rejected the offer. "Return to your bairns" (meaning
+Knox's pupils), he said, "and God bless you. One is sufficient for one
+sacrifice."
+
+Wishart was burned in St. Andrews in March, 1546, and in May of the same
+year Cardinal Beaton was murdered. The cardinal's murderers held
+possession of the castle of St. Andrews; and, as Knox was known to be
+the enemy of Beaton (though he had no share in his assassination), he
+was forced (1547) for his own safety to join them with his pupils. Here
+his zeal and theological attainments made him so conspicuous that, at
+the instance of the leaders of the reforming party (Sir David Lyndsay
+among the rest), he was formally called to the ministry, and preached
+with much acceptance in the castle and parish church of St. Andrews. A
+few months later the castle surrendered to the French; and, in the teeth
+of the express terms of capitulation, the more prominent of the besieged
+party were sent as prisoners on board the French galleys. For eighteen
+months Knox remained a captive, his first winter being spent in a galley
+on the Loire, the second in prison in Rouen. His constitution was not
+naturally robust, and his hard experience during these two years
+seriously impaired his health for the rest of his life. The breach of
+faith on the part of the French, and the ignominy to which he was
+subjected, were never forgotten by Knox, and must in part explain and
+justify his life-long conviction that no good thing could come of French
+policy or French religion.
+
+In February, 1549, on the express intercession of Edward VI., Knox
+regained his liberty. As it was still unsafe for him to return to
+Scotland, for the next four years, till the death of Edward VI., he made
+his home in England. From all that is known of him during these years,
+it is clear that he made himself a person to be reckoned with by those
+at the centre of authority in the country. By his preaching at Berwick
+he gave such offence to the Bishop of Durham that he was removed to
+Newcastle, where it was supposed his influence would be less
+mischievous. In 1551 he was appointed one of six chaplains to Edward
+VI., and in 1552, at the suggestion of the Duke of Northumberland, he
+was offered the bishopric of Rochester. As the duke's object in
+suggesting the appointment was simply to check, as far as he could, what
+he deemed the dangerous activity of Knox, the offer was unhesitatingly
+rejected. Knox's importance in England is still further proved by the
+fact that, along with five others, he was consulted by Archbishop
+Cranmer regarding his forty-five (afterward forty-two) articles of
+religion.
+
+On Mary's accession, Knox, like the majority of the Reformed ministers,
+had to seek refuge on the continent. That he might be within call,
+should circumstances permit his return either to Scotland or England, he
+took up his abode at Dieppe till the beginning of the following year
+(1554), when he proceeded to Geneva. In July of this year he was again
+in Dieppe, "to learn the estate of England;" but with Mary of Lorraine
+as regent in Scotland, and Mary Tudor as Queen of England, he was
+convinced that for the present both these countries were closed against
+him. He accordingly accepted a call from the English congregation at
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, where, however, on account of a dispute regarding
+the use of the Book of Common Prayer, he remained only a few months. At
+Geneva he found a congregation of his own way of thinking; but, eager to
+be an apostle in his own country, he once more returned to Dieppe
+(August, 1555), whence he ventured into Scotland in September. He
+remained in Scotland till July of the next year, residing chiefly in
+Edinburgh, but making preaching journeys into various parts of the
+country. The new doctrines were steadily spreading in Scotland, but as
+yet their supporters were not strong enough to present a confident front
+against the government. It was at his own risk, therefore, that Knox
+remained in the country; and at the prayer of the congregation in
+Geneva, he returned to that town in July, 1556. It was probably during
+this visit to Scotland that he married his first wife, Marjory Bowes, to
+whom he seems to have been engaged during his sojourn in Newcastle. For
+the next two years he remained in Geneva, ministering to his
+congregation, and seeing much of Calvin, whose influence on Knox
+regarding all the great questions of the time was afterward to bear
+fruit in the ordering of affairs in Scotland. To this period also belong
+several of his minor writings, and notably his "First Blast of the
+Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women," the publication of
+which he must afterward have regretted in the interest of the cause he
+had most at heart.
+
+Meanwhile, in Scotland the ground was being prepared for the great work
+in store for Knox. Under Mary of Lorraine as regent, the French
+influence had come to be regarded as a danger to the independence of the
+country, and a sense of this danger threw many into the party of reform.
+The unworthy lives of the old clergy, and the cupidity of many of the
+nobles, worked in the same direction. In 1557 the advocates of reform
+bound themselves, by what is known as the First Covenant, to do all in
+their power to effect a religious revolution, and by 1558 they felt
+themselves strong enough to summon Knox to their aid in the work he
+deemed the mission of his life.
+
+In May, 1559, Knox found himself again in Scotland, which he never again
+left for a prolonged period. He at once became the life and soul of his
+party. At the moment of his arrival the Lords of the Congregation, as
+the Protestant nobility termed themselves, were in open revolt against
+the regent. By his preaching at Perth and St. Andrews Knox gained these
+important towns to his cause, and by his labors in Edinburgh, of which
+he was appointed minister, he also won a strong party against the
+government. But the reformers, of their own resources, could not hold
+their ground against the regent, subsidized by France with money and
+soldiers. Mainly, therefore, through the efforts of Knox, who all
+through his public career was deep in the politics of the time, the
+assistance of England was obtained against what was now deemed the
+French invasion. The help of England proved effective, and by the treaty
+of Leith (1560), and the death of the regent the same year, the
+insurgent party became masters of the country. The estates of Parliament
+having met on August 1st, the ministers were ordered to draw up a
+Confession of Faith which should embody the new teaching, and on August
+17th Protestantism was formally established as the religion of the
+country. Having gained thus much, the ministers, desirous of practical
+results from their victory, drew up the first Book of Discipline--a
+document ever memorable in the history of Scotland, and admirable in
+itself for its wise and liberal suggestions for the religious and
+educational organization of the country. These suggestions, however,
+were little to the mind of the majority of the Protestant nobles, who,
+"perceiving their carnal liberty and worldly commodity to be impaired
+thereby," sneeringly spoke of them as "devote imaginationis." In the
+revolution that had been accomplished Knox had been the leading spirit;
+but he saw that the victory was as yet only half gained, and that the
+deadliest struggle had still to be decided.
+
+The return of the young queen to Scotland (August, 1561) revived all the
+old dissensions, and introduced new elements into the strife of parties.
+By every opinion she held on religion, on the relations of prince and
+subject, on the fundamental principles of life, Mary was separated as by
+an abyss from the party represented by Knox. If we may judge from the
+language which each used of the other, Knox and she failed to find one
+point on which genial intercourse was possible. As the minister of St.
+Giles (then the only Reformed church in Edinburgh), Knox believed that
+Mary was his special charge. Her personal conduct, therefore, no less
+than her public policy, were made the subject of his most stringent
+criticism; and during the six years of her reign his attitude toward her
+was that of uncompromising insistence. The celebration of mass in
+Holyrood Chapel, in defiance of the late religious settlement, first
+roused his wrath; and a sermon delivered by him in St. Giles led to the
+first of those famous interviews with Mary, the record of which makes
+such a remarkable portion of his "History of the Reformation." The
+division of ecclesiastical property, by which those in actual possession
+received two-thirds, the reformed ministers one-third, was a further
+ground of quarrel with the new government. The delay of Mary to confirm
+the late religious settlement also gave rise to the greatest anxiety on
+the part of Knox and his brother ministers. In view of the precarious
+interests of the great cause, Knox spoke out with such frankness as to
+alienate the most powerful noble in the country, and the one whom he
+respected most--Lord James Stuart, afterward the Regent Moray. The
+marriage of Mary with Darnley (1565), again, however, led them to common
+counsels, as both saw in this marriage the most serious menace against
+the new religion. In the subsequent revolt, headed by Moray and the
+other Protestant nobles, Knox nevertheless took no part, and remained at
+his charge in Edinburgh. But after the murder of Rizzio, he deemed it
+wise, considering Mary's disposition toward him, to withdraw to Kyle, in
+Ayrshire, where he appears to have written the greater part of his
+history.
+
+The events of the next two years--the murder of Darnley, Mary's marriage
+with Bothwell, and her subsequent flight into England--again threw the
+management of affairs into the hands of the Protestant party; and under
+Moray as regent the acts of 1560, in favor of the reformed religion,
+were duly ratified by the estates of the realm. As in the former
+revolution, Knox was still the same formidable force the nobles had to
+reckon with; and at Stirling, at the coronation of James VI. (1567), he
+preached in that strain which gave his sermons the character and
+importance of public manifestoes. The assassination of Moray, in 1570,
+and the consequent formation of a strong party in favor of Mary, once
+more endangered the cause to which he had devoted his life, and the
+possession of the castle of Edinburgh by the queen's supporters forced
+him to remove to St. Andrews for safety. He had already had a stroke of
+apoplexy, and he was now but the wreck of his former self, but his
+spirit was as indomitable as ever. The description of him at this
+period, by James Melville, can never be omitted in any account of Knox.
+"Being in St. Andrews, he was very weak. I saw him every day of his
+doctrine go hulie and fear with a furring of martricks about his neck, a
+staff in the one hand, and good, godly Richart Ballanden, his servant,
+holding up the other, oxter from the abbey to the parish church; and be
+the said Richart and another servant lifted up to the pulpit where he
+behooved to loan, at his first entry, but or he had done with his
+sermon, he was so active and vigorous that he was like to ding that
+pulpit in blads, and fly out of it."
+
+It was the desire of his congregation of St. Giles to hear him once more
+before he died. Accordingly, by short stages, he made his way to
+Edinburgh, and on November 9, 1572, at the induction of his successor in
+office, he made his last public appearance. He died the same month, at
+the age of sixty-seven, and was buried in the churchyard then attached
+to St. Giles, behind which church a small square stone in the pavement
+of Parliament Square, marked "J. K., 1572," now indicates the spot where
+he is supposed to lie. The saying of Regent Morton at his grave, "Here
+lieth a man who in his life never feared the face of man" (Calderwood),
+was the most memorable panegyric that could have been pronounced to his
+memory.
+
+Knox was twice married. His first wife, Marjory Bowes, died in 1560,
+leaving him two sons. By his second wife, Margaret Stewart, daughter of
+Lord Ochiltree, whom (little more than a girl) he married in 1564, he
+had three daughters. His widow and all his family survived him.
+
+In their broader features the character of Knox and of the work he
+achieved cannot be misread. In himself he stands as the pre-eminent type
+of the religious reformer--dominated by his one transcendent idea,
+indifferent or hostile to every interest of life that did not subserve
+its realization. He is sometimes spoken of as a fanatic; but the term is
+hardly applicable to one who combined in such a degree as Knox, the
+shrewdest worldly sense with an ever-ready wit and a native humor that
+declares itself in his most serious moments and in the treatment of the
+loftiest subjects. To blame him for intolerance or harshness is but to
+pass judgment on his age and on the type to which he belongs. It is his
+unquestionable tribute, that the work he accomplished was the fashioning
+anew of his country's destinies. It has to be added that by his "History
+of the Reformation in Scotland," Knox holds a place of his own in the
+history of literature. His narrative, as was to be expected, is that of
+one who saw only a single aspect of the events he chronicles; but the
+impress of the writer's individuality, stamped on every page, renders
+his work possibly unique in English literature.
+
+
+
+
+ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND
+
+By SAMUEL L. KNAPP
+
+(1533-1603)
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth I. [TN]]
+
+
+If the question respecting the equality of the sexes was to be
+determined by an appeal to the characters of sovereign princes, the
+comparison is, in proportion, manifestly in favor of woman, and that
+without having recourse to the trite and flippant observation, proved to
+have been ill-founded, of male and female influence. Elizabeth of
+England affords a glorious example in truth of this position.
+
+Daughter of Henry VIII., a capricious tyrant, and of the imprudent and
+unfortunate Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was born at Greenwich, on the banks
+of the Thames, September 7, 1533. Her infancy was unfortunate through
+the unhappy fate of her mother, but she was nevertheless educated with
+care and attention; in her yet infant faculties her father had the
+discernment to perceive uncommon strength and promise. Lady Champernoun,
+an accomplished and excellent woman, was appointed by Henry governess
+to the young princess. It appears to have been the custom of the times
+to instruct young women in the learned languages, an admirable
+substitute for fashionable and frivolous acquisitions; habits of real
+study and application have a tendency to strengthen the faculties and
+discipline the imagination. Mr. William Grindal was Elizabeth's first
+classical tutor; with him she made a rapid progress. From other masters
+she received the rudiments of modern languages; at eleven years of age
+she translated out of French verse into English prose "The Mirror of the
+Sinful Soul," which she dedicated to Catherine Parr, sixth wife to Henry
+VIII. At twelve years of age she translated from the English into Latin,
+French, and Italian, prayers and meditations, etc., collected from
+different authors by Catherine, Queen of England. These she dedicated to
+her father, December 30, 1545; MS. in the royal library at Westminster.
+She also, about the same period, translated from the French "The
+Meditations of Margaret, Queen of Navarre, etc.," published by Bale,
+1548.
+
+Mr. Ascham thus speaks of Elizabeth in a letter to Sir John Cheke: "It
+can scarcely be credited to what degree of skill in the Latin and Greek
+she might arrive, if she should proceed in that course of study wherein
+she hath begun by the guidance of Grindal." In 1548 she had the
+misfortune to lose her tutor, who died of the plague. At this time, it
+is observed by Camden, that she was versed in the Latin, French,
+Spanish, and Italian tongues, had some knowledge of the Greek, was well
+skilled in music, and both sung and played with art and sweetness.
+
+After the death of her father, her brother, King Edward, who tenderly
+loved her, encouraged her in her studies and literary pursuits, while,
+without imposition or restraint, he left her to choose her own
+principles and preceptors. To supply the loss of her tutor she addressed
+herself to the celebrated Roger Ascham, who, at her solicitation, left
+Cambridge and consented to become her instructor. Under him she read the
+orations of AEschines, and Demosthenes' "On the Crown," in Greek, and
+understood at first sight not only the force and propriety of the
+language and the meaning of the orator, but the whole scheme of the
+laws, customs, and manners of the Athenians. By Doctor Grindal,
+professor of theology, she was initiated into the subtleties of polemic
+divinity, to which she gave assiduous application. Such, during the
+short reign of her brother, was the laudable and tranquil time of her
+life, and by these occupations and pursuits she was prepared for the
+great part she was to act on the theatre of Europe.
+
+In July, 1553, Mary, after the death of Edward, succeeded to the throne;
+and having received from her sister many favors and testimonies of
+esteem, she treated her at first with a form of regard; but Elizabeth
+was afterward imprisoned and harshly treated, even to the hazard of her
+life. Her sufferings were, however, mitigated by the interposition of
+Philip, the husband of Mary, for which she was ever grateful.
+
+The reign, the bigotry, and the butchery of Mary, who, _to do God
+service_, amused herself by burning and torturing her people, lasted
+five years and four months. She died, fortunately for the nation,
+November 17, 1558. A parliament had been assembled a few days previous
+to her death, to which the chancellor notified the event. "God save
+Queen Elizabeth," resounded in joyful acclamations through both houses,
+while by the people a transport still more general and fervent was
+expressed.
+
+The commencement of her reign was not less auspicious than its duration
+was prosperous to the country and glorious to herself. It is observed by
+Bayle that to say only that no woman reigned with more glory would be
+saying little. "It must be added that there have been but few great
+kings whose reigns are comparable to hers, it being the most beautiful
+period of English history."
+
+Elizabeth when informed of the death of her sister, was at Hatfield,
+whence, after a few days, she proceeded to London, through crowds of
+people, who contended with each other in testimonies of joy and
+attachment. On entering the Tower she was affected with the comparison
+of her past and present situation; once a captive, exposed to the
+bigotry and malignity of her enemies, now a sovereign, triumphant over
+her adversaries, and the hope and joy of the nation. Falling on her
+knees she expressed her gratitude to heaven for the deliverance she had
+experienced from her persecutors, a deliverance, she declared, not less
+miraculous than that of Daniel from the den of lions. With a magnanimity
+that did her honor, and a prudence that evinced her judgment, she threw
+a veil over every offence that had been committed against her, and
+received graciously and with affability the most virulent of her
+enemies.
+
+On the death of her sister, Elizabeth had, by her ambassador, signified
+her accession to the Pope, whose precipitate temper, insolent
+reflections, and extravagant demands, determined her to persevere in the
+plan she had already secretly embraced. While, to conciliate the
+Catholics she retained in her cabinet eleven of her sister's
+counsellors, she took care to balance their power by adding to their
+number eight partisans of the Protestant faith; among whom were Sir
+Nicholas Bacon, whom she created lord keeper, and Sir William Cecil,
+made Secretary of State.
+
+Cecil assured her that the greater part of the nation, since the reign
+of her father, inclined to the reformation, though constrained to
+conceal their principles by the cruelties practised under the late
+reign. These arguments, to which other considerations and reasonings
+were added, founded on policy and on a knowledge of mankind, had their
+just weight with Elizabeth, and determined her to adopt the party which
+education and political wisdom equally inclined to her favor. Yet she
+wisely resolved to proceed gradually by safe and progressive steps. As
+symptoms of her future intentions, and with a view of encouraging the
+Protestants, whom persecution had discouraged and depressed, she
+recalled all the exiles, and gave liberty to those who had, on account
+of their religion, been confined in prison. She also altered the
+religious service, and gave orders that the Lord's prayer, the litany,
+the creed, and the gospels, should be read in the churches in the vulgar
+tongue; and she forbade the elevation of the host in her presence.
+
+The bishops, foreseeing in these measures the impending change, refused
+to officiate at her coronation; and it was not without difficulty that
+the Bishop of Carlisle was at length prevailed upon to perform the
+ceremony. Amid the joyful acclamations of her subjects, as she was
+conducted through London, a boy, personating Truth, let down from a
+triumphal arch, presented to her a copy of the Bible. She received the
+present graciously, placed it near her heart, and declared that of all
+the costly testimonies of attachment given to her that day by the city,
+this was the most precious and acceptable. Elizabeth insinuated herself
+into the affections of the people by the most laudable art; frank in her
+address, and on all public occasions affable, conciliating, and easy of
+access, she appeared delighted with the concourse that crowded around
+her; entered, without forgetting her dignity, into the pleasures and
+amusements of her subjects, and acquired a popularity unknown to her
+predecessors. Her youth, her graces, her prudence, her fortitude, and
+her talents, attracted the admiration of one sex and afforded to the
+other a subject of pride and triumph. Individuals were captivated by her
+complacency, the public won by her services, while her authority,
+chastened by religion and law, appeared to be derived from its
+legitimate source, the choice and affections of the people.
+
+The Commons entreated her, with all humility, that she would make choice
+of a husband to share with her the weight of government, a request which
+they hoped, from her sex and age, would not be displeasing or offensive.
+To this Elizabeth replied, that as their application was expressed in
+general terms, merely recommending marriage, without pretending to
+direct her choice, she could not be offended or regard their wishes
+otherwise than as a new instance of their attachment toward her; but
+that any farther interposition respecting this subject, on their part,
+it would ill become them as subjects to make, or her, as an independent
+princess, to endure. England was the husband which she had betrothed to
+her; Englishmen were her children; while employed in rearing and
+governing such a family, she could not deem herself sterile or her life
+useless. She desired, for her own part, no higher character, nor fairer
+remembrance of her to be transmitted to posterity, than to have this
+inscription, when she should pay the debt of nature, engraven on her
+tomb: "Here lies Queen Elizabeth, who lived and died a maiden queen."
+
+Misfortune threw the Queen of Scots into the power of Elizabeth, and she
+was denied those services to which the unfortunate are entitled. Driven
+beyond endurance, she openly and bitterly defied her more fortunate
+rival, who viewed her with jealousy as heir to the crown, and was
+fearful that her beauty and influence might supplant her own popularity.
+Mary was kept in prison eighteen years and then executed on the
+scaffold. This transaction will ever remain a foul blot on the character
+of Elizabeth.
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth defied by Mary Stuart.]
+
+Neither the cares of government nor the infirmities of approaching age
+weaned her from the love of letters, which at every interval of leisure
+were her great delight. When nearly sixty years of age, in 1592, she
+made a second visit to Oxford, where, having been entertained with
+orations, disputations, etc., she pronounced on her departure, a Latin
+oration to the vice-chancellors and doctors, when she took her last
+farewell of the university. In the ensuing year she translated from
+Latin into English, Boethius's "De Consolatione Philosophae." In 1598,
+when the disturbances in Ireland occupied a considerable share of her
+attention, she translated Sallust's "De bello Jugurthino," also the
+greater part of Horace's "De Arte Poetica," and Plutarch's book, "De
+Curiositate," all of which were written in her own hand.
+
+But Elizabeth no longer took an interest in public concerns; her sun was
+setting, overshadowed by a dark cloud. Prosperity and glory palled upon
+her sense; an incurable melancholy had fixed itself on her heart. The
+anxiety of her mind made swift ravages upon her feeble frame; the period
+of her life visibly approached. The Archbishop of Canterbury advised her
+to fix her thoughts on God. She did so, she replied, nor did her mind in
+the least wander from Him. Her voice and her senses soon after failing,
+she fell into a lethargic slumber, which having continued some hours,
+she expired gently, without a struggle, March 24, 1603, in the
+seventieth year of her age and the forty-fifth of her reign.
+
+The character of Elizabeth appears to have been exalted by her friends
+and depreciated by her enemies, in nearly equal proportions. As a
+monarch, her activity and force of mind, her magnanimity, sagacity,
+prudence, vigilance, and address, have scarcely been surpassed in royal
+annals, and are worthy of the highest admiration. Pope Sixtus V. spoke
+of her on all occasions as "a woman with a strong head," and gave her a
+place among the three persons who only, in his opinion, deserved to
+reign; the remaining two were himself and Henry IV. of France. "Your
+queen," said he once to an Englishman, "is born fortunate; she governs
+her kingdom with great happiness; she wants only to be married to me to
+give the world a second Alexander."
+
+Her temper and her talents equally fitted her for government. Capable of
+self-command, and of controlling her own passions, she acquired an
+unlimited ascendency over those of her people. She possessed courage
+without temerity; spirit, resource, and activity in war, with the love
+of peace and tranquillity. Her frugality was exempt from avarice, it was
+the result rather of her love of independence than a passion for
+accumulation. She never amassed any treasures. Her friendships were
+uniform and steady, yet she was never governed by her favorites--a
+criterion of a strong mind. Her choice in her ministers gave proof of
+her sagacity, as her constancy in supporting them did of her firmness.
+If a conduct less rigorous, less imperious, and more indulgent would
+have thrown greater lustre over her character, let it be remembered that
+some good qualities appear to be incompatible with others; nor let the
+seductive and corrupting nature of power be left out in the account. Her
+insincerity was perhaps the greatest blot in her character and the
+fruitful source of all the vexatious incidents of her reign. Though
+unacquainted with philosophical toleration, the only method of disarming
+the turbulence of religious factions, she yet preserved her people, by
+her prudence and good sense, from those theological disputes which
+desolated the neighboring nations.
+
+Beset with enemies, both at home and abroad, among the most powerful
+princes in Europe, the most enterprising and the least scrupulous, the
+vigor of her administration enabled her to defeat all their purposes,
+to annoy and plunder them in their own dominions, and to preserve her
+own dignity untouched and unimpaired. Few monarchs have succeeded to a
+throne in more difficult circumstances, nor have any ever reigned with
+more uniform success and prosperity.
+
+If, as a woman, cut off by the peculiarities of her situation from the
+sympathies of nature and the charm of equal affections, Elizabeth, at
+times suffered under these privations, which even gave to her
+sensibility additional force and acuteness, the strength of her reason
+still triumphed over her passions, and the struggle which her victories
+cost her served but to display the firmness of her resolution and the
+loftiness of her mind.
+
+The praises which have by some been bestowed upon Elizabeth for her
+regard for the constitution and tender concern for the liberties of the
+people, are wholly without foundation. Few princes have exerted with
+more arbitrary power the regal prerogatives which had been transmitted
+to her by her immediate predecessors; yet no censure belongs to her for
+this conduct, in the principles of which she had been trained and of the
+justice of which she was persuaded. What potentate, what man, has
+voluntarily resigned the power in which those beneath him quietly
+acquiesced? Compared with the reigns of her father and sister, that of
+Elizabeth might be termed a golden age.
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIS BACON[14]
+
+By HON. IGNATIUS DONNELLY
+
+(1561-1626)
+
+         [Footnote 14: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+
+Francis Bacon was born in York House, London, on January 22, 1561. Of
+this building only the ancient water-gate, fronting the Thames, survives
+the waste of time. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was for twenty years
+Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under Elizabeth--a famous statesman,
+orator, and wit. His mother, Lady Ann Bacon, was the second daughter of
+the celebrated Sir Anthony Cooke, formerly tutor of King Edward VI.,
+Henry VIII.'s short-lived son. She was a woman of great learning and
+many accomplishments, and of a strong, earnest, passionate,
+affectionate, and religious nature.
+
+Francis was the youngest of eight children, six of whom were by the
+first wife of Sir Nicholas. He belonged to the aristocracy of England,
+but not to that ancient, warlike race of battle-crowned warriors, whose
+pedigree dated back beyond the Crusades. His father was a lawyer. Both
+his father's family and his mother's seem to have risen from the ranks
+on the great wave of the Reformation; they belonged to the intellectual
+new age, then dawning; rather than to the rude, fighting age which was
+about to pass away. Francis was no accident. We can see in him the two
+natures of his father and his mother--the commingling of the powerful,
+practical, sagacious politician and man of affairs, with the studious,
+contemplative, imaginative, affectionate, religious enthusiast.
+
+His birthplace was a palace; the country seat of Gorhamsbury, near Saint
+Albans' village, is in the midst of the most charming rural scenery in
+England, or in the world. There a great part of his youth and early
+manhood was passed.
+
+[Illustration: Francis Bacon. [TN]]
+
+He came into this breathing world when the human race were upon the
+threshold of the tremendous development which now surrounds us. He was
+born sixty-nine years after Columbus had re-opened the long-closed
+pathway from the eastern to the western shores of the Atlantic Ocean;
+twenty-seven years after the French took possession of Canada; twelve
+years after the Portuguese settled in Brazil; and forty-six years before
+the first English colonists landed at Jamestown, Va. The degree of
+advancement of the mind of the age will be understood when it is
+remembered that it was only one hundred and twenty-five years, at the
+date of Bacon's birth, since Guttenberg had invented movable types, in
+Germany; and but eighty-seven years since Caxton set up his printing
+press at Westminster. No man has ever lived who did more than Bacon to
+change the opinions and condition of those who came after him.
+
+It was a "day of little things." England contained less than five
+million inhabitants, and of these probably not one-tenth spoke a
+language which could be understood to-day by the English-using people of
+the world. The mass of the populace were steeped to the lips in
+brutality and ignorance. The houses of the peasants were built of
+"sticks and dirt;" many of them "without chimneys or glazed windows;"
+the habits of the people were "inconceivably filthy;" "scurvy and
+leprosy were endemic;" the schools did not, as a rule, teach English;
+the amusements of the populace were bear-baitings and dancing naked in
+barns; the people of one county could not understand the speech of the
+inhabitants of the next county; "the disputes about tithes and
+boundaries were usually settled by bands of armed men, and the records
+of the Star-Chamber swarm with such cases." Education was at a low ebb.
+"In one year, 1570 (Bacon was then nine years of age), the scholars of
+Trinity College, Cambridge, consumed 2,250 barrels of beer." Many of the
+graduates became beggars; and so extensive was this evil that
+Parliament, by an act of 14th Elizabeth, declared that "all scholars of
+the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge that go about begging, not being
+authorized under the seal of the said universities," are declared
+"vagabonds" and punished as such. But even this was an improvement on
+Henry VIII.'s time when three hundred men were hanged in London for
+soliciting alms.
+
+The only illuminated spot in all this darkness was the Court in London.
+Here they talked something which we would to-day call English; here they
+caught, through France and Italy, a reflected light from the dying
+glories of the ancient Roman civilization; here the travelled wealthy,
+"the picked men of countries," brought home some of the culture of more
+refined races. Bacon says:
+
+  "Courts are but only superficial schools
+     To dandle fools;
+   The rural parts are turned into a den
+     Of savage men;
+   And where's the city, from foul vice so free,
+     But may be termed the worst of all the three?"
+
+In this curious, primitive, rude, ensmalled age, grew up the great man
+who was to do so much to change it all.
+
+From his early years he manifested that vastly active intellect "which
+knew no rest save in motion." He studied, as a child, the nature of
+echoes in a tunnel. At fifteen years of age (so his chaplain Rawley and
+his biographer Spedding assure us), he had realized the shallowness of
+the Aristotelian philosophy and had thought out those principles which
+have since revolutionized human society. There are reasons to believe
+that he was the child of fifteen, referred to by the Rosicrucians, who
+planned the foundation of their society, and, at that early age, wrote
+the "Chymical Marriage of Christian Rosencreutz," first published in
+1616.
+
+At about twelve years of age he went to Cambridge--to Trinity
+College--rooming with his brother Anthony, who was two years his senior.
+In June, 1576, he left the university and became an _ancient_ of the
+Gray's Inn law-society. On September 25, 1576, he accompanied Sir Amias
+Paulet, the English ambassador, to France. Here he witnessed the sixth
+civil war of the French people. He followed the court through several of
+the French provinces; he resided for three months at Poitiers. About
+February 17, 1579, he dreamed that his father's house in the country was
+all covered over with black mortar. At the same time his father was
+taken sick and died in three days thereafter. He returned home on March
+20, 1579, to find himself poor. As he said, he could not "live to
+study," but had "to study to live." He became a practising lawyer, but
+he did not like the profession. He feared "the bar would be his bier;"
+it absorbed time which he thought should be dedicated to better ends. We
+think we find the expression of his heart in the lines of the so-called
+Shakespeare Sonnet:
+
+  "O, for my sake, do thou with fortune chide,
+   The guilty goddess of my harmful deeds,
+   That did not better for my life provide,
+   Than public means, which public manners breeds."
+
+His pecuniary embarrassments were numerous, and continuous. Falstaff
+doubtless expresses a thought which often recurred to him: "I can get no
+remedy against this consumption of the purse; borrowing only lingers and
+lingers it out, but the disease is incurable." More than once he was
+thrown into a "sponging-house" for debt. His brother Anthony loaned him
+money repeatedly. In 1592 a "hard Jew or Lombard" put him in confinement
+for a debt on a bond. Anthony mortgaged his property to pay his debts.
+In 1594 Malone believes the play of "The Merchant of Venice" was in
+existence, in which Bassanio, being in debt to a hard Jew, his friend,
+Antonius, mortgages his own flesh to help him out of his troubles; and
+the Jew money-lender is sent down through all the ages the terrible type
+and exemplar of the merciless usurer. Bacon continues a "briefless
+barrister," with much time at his disposal. He helps in the composition
+of the play called "The Misfortunes of Arthur." He writes a Sonnet to
+the Queen. About this time, 1592, the Shakespeare plays begin to appear.
+Bacon assists in the preparation of several "masks" and "revels," gotten
+up by Gray's Inn. "The Comedy of Errors" first appears in the hall of
+that society, which still stands in London. The "Venus and Adonis" and
+"Lucrece" appear, dedicated to Bacon's intimate friend, Lord
+Southampton; and that nobleman in 1594 contributes a large sum to the
+construction of the _Globe_ play-house, Bacon having observed that the
+stage is a powerful instrumentality to "play on the minds" of the
+people; and on this stage a series of historical plays are put forth,
+everyone of which represents kings as monsters or imbeciles.
+
+The Shakespeare plays continue to be poured forth, and Bacon suffers
+from a siege of "Jews and duns." He describes himself "as poor and sick,
+working for bread." "I am purposed," he says, "not to follow the
+practice of the law." "It is easier," says Mr. Spedding, Bacon's
+biographer, "to understand why Bacon was resolved not to devote his life
+to the ordinary practice of a lawyer, than what plan he had to clear
+himself of the difficulties which were now accumulating upon him, and to
+obtain the means of living and working. What course he betook himself to
+at the crisis at which we have now arrived, I cannot possibly say." We
+have here the time, the opportunity, the incentive, and the necessity
+for the composition of the Shakespeare plays; part of the fruits of the
+representation of which made Shakespeare very wealthy.
+
+In January, 1597, the first acknowledged work of Bacon--his
+"Essays"--was published. They were ten in number. Bacon said of them he
+hoped they would be "like the late new half-pence, which, though the
+pieces are small, the silver is good."
+
+Until he was forty-four years of age, Bacon was kept poor and out of
+office by his uncle Burleigh, and his cousin Cecil; during the life-time
+of Queen Elizabeth he was steadily passed over and suppressed; and even
+during the first years of the reign of King James I., the influence of
+Cecil, then the Earl of Salisbury, was sufficient to keep him out of
+office. In 1605, Bacon published his first great philosophical work,
+"The Advancement of Learning;" in 1607, he became Solicitor-General; and
+in 1612, Attorney-General, and member of the Privy Council. He was then
+fifty-one years of age, and Shakespeare forty-eight. After the
+appointment of Bacon as Attorney-General, no more of the Shakespeare
+plays appeared; the "Tempest," which is evidently the last of the
+series, for in it Prospero declares--
+
+                   "I'll break my staff,
+  Bury it certain fathoms in the earth,
+  And deeper than did ever plummet sound,
+  I'll drown my book;"
+
+is set down by the commentators, as written between 1609 and 1611. At
+that time Shakespeare was forty-five or forty-seven years of age, and
+lived for five or seven years thereafter in utter intellectual idleness,
+in Stratford.
+
+In 1609 Bacon published "The Wisdom of the Ancients," a prose work of
+great poetical beauty. His professional practice was large and his
+income princely. In 1617 he succeeded Ellesmere, the Lord Chancellor,
+with the title of lord-keeper. In January, 1618, he was created lord
+high chancellor, and the same year was raised to the peerage as Baron of
+Verulam; and in 1621 he was made Viscount St. Albans. The "Novum
+Organum," his great life-work, was printed in October, 1620. His
+extraordinary industry is revealed in the fact that it had been copied
+and revised twelve times before it took its present shape. The new
+philosophy meant the study of nature and the acquisition of the
+knowledge of things. In this search the "most common," "base, illiberal
+and filthy matters," are not to be overlooked. We find in the plays the
+same novel philosophy:
+
+               "Some kinds of baseness
+  Are nobly undergone; and most poor matters
+  Point to rich ends." (Tempest, iii. 1.)
+
+"Bacon's leading thought was the good of humanity. He held that study,
+instead of employing itself in wearisome and sterile speculations,
+should be engaged in mastering the secrets of nature and life, and in
+applying them to human use. His method, in the attainment of this end,
+was rigid and pure observation, aided by experiment and fructified by
+induction.... He clearly invented a thermometer; he instituted ingenious
+experiments on the compressibility of bodies, and on the density and
+weight of air; he suggested chemical processes; he suggested the law of
+universal gravitation, afterward demonstrated by Newton; he foresaw the
+true explication of the tides, and the cause of colors." ["American
+Cyclopedia." Vol. II., p. 204.]
+
+This great work, the "Novum Organum," as often happens, was received by
+the majority of readers of his time with laughter and ridicule. Coke
+wrote on the title-page of a presentation copy:
+
+  "It deserveth not to be read in schools,
+   But to be freighted in the ship of fools."
+
+The ill-fortune which had so shrouded Bacon's struggling youth, and
+which had given way to such a magnificent sun-burst of splendid
+prosperity, was again massing its clouds and determined to cover his
+old age with shame, gloom and sorrow. He had been Lord Chancellor but
+three years, when, on March 15, 1621, a committee of the House of
+Commons reported two cases of bribery or corruption against him.
+Twenty-two other cases were also soon after presented. The House of
+Lords proceeded to investigate these charges, and Bacon defended
+himself. It was shown that fourteen of the twenty-four cases were
+presents given long after the suits were terminated; three more were
+sums of money loaned in the ordinary course of business; another case
+was an arbitration where compensation was due him; in another case the
+gift was sent back; another present, a piece of furniture, had never
+been accepted; another case was a New Year's gift, and in other cases
+the money was openly paid to the officers of his court. "Thus," says
+Hepworth Dixon, "after the most rigid scrutiny into his official acts,
+and into the official acts of his servants, not a single fee or
+remembrance, traced to the chancellor, can, by any fair construction, be
+called a bribe. Not one appears to have been given on a promise; not one
+appears to have been given in secret; not one is alleged to have
+corrupted justice."
+
+It must be remembered that the salaries of all the high officers of the
+government were at that time paid in gifts and fees. Thus the king gave
+the lord chancellor but L81 6_s._ 8_d._ a year, while the place was
+worth L10,000 to L15,000; worth in our money to-day $125,000. "The
+judges had enough to buy their gloves and robes, not more." The lord
+chancellor had to maintain a huge retinue: "his court, his household,
+and his followers, gentlemen of quality, sons of peers and prelates;
+magistrates, deputy lieutenants of counties, knights of the shire, have
+all to live on fees and presents." It is still true that in England the
+law will not help a barrister or a physician to recover a fee; their
+compensation is, in theory, at least, supposed to be a gratuity for
+those they serve.
+
+But it may be urged that Bacon plead guilty to corruption and bribery.
+He did nothing of the kind. He acknowledged that he "partook of the
+abuses of the times," and that the existing customs should be reformed;
+but he solemnly declared to Buckingham, May 31, 1621: "I have been a
+trusty and honest and Christ-loving friend to your lordship and the
+justest chancellor that hath been in the five charges since my father's
+time." Again, he said: "I had no bribe or reward in my eye or thought
+when I pronounced any sentence or order.... I take myself to be as
+innocent as any babe born on St. Innocent's day in my heart." All
+attempts to subsequently reverse his decrees failed, although his
+enemies were in possession of power. But King James urged him to make no
+defence, "to trust his honor and his safety to the crown.... He pleads
+guilty to carelessness, not to crime." He desired to live to finish up
+his philosophical works. To resist the king's wishes was to leave
+himself at the mercy of his life-long enemy, Coke; he yielded. The king
+remitted his fine of L40,000 and released him from the Tower. Bacon goes
+back to his books and writes in cipher: "I was the justest judge that
+was in England these fifty years; but it was the justest censure that
+was in Parliament these two hundred years." He meant thereby, that while
+personally innocent of corruption, the sentence would end gift-giving
+to judges. His formal confession to Parliament is a justification of
+every act complained of, for he relieves it, while acknowledging it, of
+those details which imply bribery.
+
+He devoted the last five years of his life to putting forth the greatest
+works ever published by man; including the first complete edition of the
+so-called Shakespeare plays. Fortunate is it for the world that he was
+driven from the task of settling petty squabbles about the trash of the
+time, listening to "weary lawyers with endless tongues;" adjudicating
+questions of pounds, shillings, and pence between litigants whose very
+names have disappeared; and was shipwrecked by the stress of the great
+storm that struck him, like _Prospero_, on an island of solicitude, with
+books that "he prized above his dukedom," to perform labors in which all
+mankind will be interested even to the consummation of civilization on
+earth.
+
+His patience, his gentleness, his forbearance were saint-like; still in
+his right hand he carried "gentle peace to silence envious tongues." His
+appearance, we are told, struck all men who beheld him with a great
+sense of awe. Those who were most closely associated with him loved him
+most dearly. His purposes were Godlike. They were "the glory of the
+Creator and the relief of man's estate." Macaulay says of Bacon's
+experimental philosophy:
+
+"It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; it has extinguished
+diseases; it has increased the fertility of the soil; it has given new
+securities to the mariner; it has furnished new arms to the warrior; it
+has spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown to
+our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to
+earth; it has lighted up the night with the splendor of the day; it has
+extended the range of the human vision; it has multiplied the power of
+human muscle; it has accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it
+has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all
+despatch of business; it has enabled men to descend to the depths of the
+sea; to soar into the air; to penetrate securely into the noxious
+recesses of the earth; to traverse the land with cars which whirl along
+without horses; and the ocean with ships which sail against the wind."
+
+In other words, the brain of this tremendous, this incomprehensible,
+this complex man, lies at the base of all our literature and of all our
+modern progress and civilization. The world is hardly big enough for his
+fame, and the praises of mankind cannot fill the measure of his
+greatness.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+GALILEO-GALILEI
+
+(1564-1642)
+
+[Illustration: Galileo-Galilei. [TN]]
+
+
+The great Tuscan astronomer is best known as the first telescopic
+observer, the fortunate discoverer of the Medicean stars (so Jupiter's
+satellites were first named); and what discovery more fitted to
+immortalize its author than one which revealed new worlds and thus gave
+additional force to the lesson, that the universe, of which we form so
+small a part, was not created only for our use or pleasure? Those,
+however, who consider Galileo only as a fortunate observer, form a very
+inadequate estimate of one of the most meritorious and successful of
+those great men who have bestowed their time for the advantage of
+mankind in tracing out the hidden things of nature. Galileo-Galilei was
+born at Pisa, February 15, 1564. In childhood he displayed considerable
+mechanical ingenuity, with a decided taste for the accomplishments of
+music and painting. His father formed a just estimate of his talents,
+and at some inconvenience entered him, when nineteen years old, at the
+university of his native town, intending that he should pursue the
+medical profession. Galileo was then entirely ignorant of mathematics;
+and he was led to the study of geometry by a desire thoroughly to
+understand the principles of his favorite arts. This new pursuit proved
+so congenial to his taste, that from thenceforward his medical books
+were entirely neglected. The elder Galilei, a man of liberal
+acquirements and enlarged mind, did not require the devotion of his
+son's life to a distasteful pursuit. Fortunately the young man's talents
+attracted notice, and in 1589 he was appointed mathematical lecturer in
+the University of Pisa. There is reason to believe that, at an early
+period of his studentship, he embraced, upon inquiry and conviction, the
+doctrines of Copernicus, of which through life he was an ardent
+supporter.
+
+Galileo and his colleagues did not long remain on good terms. The latter
+were content with the superstructure which _a priori_ reasoners had
+raised upon Aristotle, and were by no means desirous of the trouble of
+learning more. Galileo chose to investigate physical truths for himself;
+he engaged in experiments to determine the truth of some of Aristotle's
+positions, and when he found him in the wrong, he said so, and so taught
+his pupils. This made the "paper philosophers," as he calls them, very
+angry. He repeated his experiments in their presence, but they set
+aside the evidence of their senses and quoted Aristotle as much as
+before. The enmity arising from these disputes rendered his situation so
+unpleasant, that in 1592, at the invitation of the Venetian
+commonwealth, he gladly accepted the professorship of mathematics at
+Padua. The period of his appointment being only six years, he was
+re-elected in 1598, and again in 1606, each time with an increase of
+salary; a strong proof of the esteem in which he was held, even before
+those astronomical discoveries which have immortalized his name. His
+lectures at this period were so fully attended that he was sometimes
+obliged to adjourn them to the open air. In 1609 he received an
+invitation to return to his original situation at Pisa. This produced a
+letter, still extant, from which we quote a catalogue of the
+undertakings on which he was already employed. "The works which I have
+to finish are principally two books on the 'System or Structure of the
+Universe,' an immense work, full of philosophy, astronomy, and geometry;
+three books on 'Local Motion,' a science entirely new, no one, either
+ancient or modern, having discovered any of the very many admirable
+accidents which I demonstrate in natural and violent motions, so that I
+may, with very great reason, call it a new science, and invented by me
+from its very first principles; three books of mechanics, two on the
+demonstration of principles and one of problems; and although others
+have treated this same matter, yet all that has been hitherto written,
+neither in quantity nor otherwise, is the quarter of what I am writing
+on it. I have also different treatises on natural subjects--on Sound and
+Speech, on Light and Colors, on the Tides, on the Composition of
+Continuous Quantity, on the Motions of Animals, and others besides. I
+have also an idea of writing some books relating to the military art,
+giving not only a model of a soldier, but teaching with very exact rules
+everything which it is his duty to know, that depends upon mathematics,
+as the knowledge of castrametation, drawing up of battalions,
+fortification, assaults, planning, surveying, the knowledge of
+artillery, the use of instruments, etc." Out of this comprehensive list,
+the treatises on the universe, on motion and mechanics, on tides, on
+fortification, or other works upon the same subjects, have been made
+known to the world. Many, however, of Galileo's manuscripts, through
+fear of the Inquisition, were destroyed, or concealed and lost, after
+the author's death.
+
+In the same year, 1609, Galileo heard the report that a spectacle-maker
+of Middleburg, in Holland, had made an instrument by which distant
+objects appeared nearer. He tasked his ingenuity to discover the
+construction, and soon succeeded in manufacturing a telescope. His
+telescope, however, seems to have been made on a different construction
+from that of the Dutch optician. It consisted of a convex and concave
+glass, distant from each other by the difference of their focal lengths,
+like a modern opera-glass; while there is reason to believe that the
+other was made up of two convex lenses, distant by the sum of their
+focal lengths, the common construction of the astronomical telescope.
+Galileo's attention naturally was first turned to the moon. He
+discovered that her surface, instead of being smooth and perfectly
+spherical, was rough with mountains and apparently varied like the
+earth, by land and water. He next applied to Jupiter, and was struck by
+the appearance of three small stars, almost in a straight line and close
+to him. At first he did not suspect the nature of these bodies; but
+careful observation soon convinced him that these three, together with a
+fourth, which was at first invisible, were in reality four moons
+revolving round their primary planet. These he named the Medicean stars.
+They have long ceased to be known by that name; but so highly prized was
+the distinction thus conferred upon the ducal house of Florence, that
+Galileo received an intimation that he would "do a thing just and proper
+in itself, and at the same time render himself and his family rich and
+powerful forever," if he "named the next star which he should discover
+after the name of the great star of France, as well as the most
+brilliant of all the earth," Henry IV. These discoveries were made known
+in 1610, in a work entitled "Nuncius Sidereus," the Newsman of the
+Stars; in which Galileo further announced that he had seen many stars
+invisible to the naked eye, and ascertained that the nebulae scattered
+through the heavens consist of assemblages of innumerable small stars.
+The ignorant and unprejudiced were struck with admiration; indeed,
+curiosity had been raised so high before the publication of this book,
+as materially to interfere with the convenience of those who possessed
+telescopes. Galileo was employed a month in exhibiting his own to the
+principal persons in Venice; and our unfortunate astronomer was
+surrounded by a crowd who kept him in durance for several hours, while
+they passed his glass from one to another. He left Venice the next
+morning, to pursue his inquiries in some less inquisitive place. But the
+great bulk of the philosophers of the day were far from joining in the
+general feeling. They raised an outcry against the impudent fictions of
+Galileo, and one, a professor of Padua, refused repeatedly to look
+through the telescope, lest he should be compelled to admit that which
+he had pre-determined to deny.
+
+It was not long before Galileo had new and equally important matter to
+announce. He observed a remarkable appearance in Saturn, as if it were
+composed of three stars touching each other; his telescope was not
+sufficiently powerful to resolve them into Saturn and his ring. Within a
+month he ascertained that Venus exhibits phases like those of the
+moon--a discovery of great importance in confirming the Copernican
+system. The same phenomenon he afterward detected in Mars. We close the
+list with the discovery of the revolution of the sun round his axis, in
+the space of about a lunar month, derived from careful observation of
+the spots on his surface.
+
+About this time (1610-1611) Galileo took up his abode in Tuscany, upon
+the invitation of the grand duke, who offered to him his original
+situation at Pisa, with a liberal salary, exemption from the necessity
+of residence, and complete leisure to pursue his studies. In 1612 he
+published a discourse on "Floating Bodies," in which he investigates the
+theory of buoyancy, and refutes, by a series of beautiful and conclusive
+experiments, the opinion that the floating or sinking of bodies depends
+on their shape.
+
+Neither Copernicus nor his immediate followers suffered inconvenience or
+restraint on account of their astronomical doctrines; nor had Galileo,
+until this period of his life, incurred ecclesiastical censure for
+anything which he had said or written. But the Inquisition now took up
+the matter as heretical and contrary to the express words of Scripture;
+and in 1616, Copernicus's work, "De Revolutionibus," Kepler's "Epitome,"
+and some of Galileo's own letters, were placed on the list of prohibited
+books; and he himself, being then in Rome, received formal notice not to
+teach that the earth revolves round the sun. He returned to Florence
+full of indignation; and considering his hasty temper, love of truth,
+and full belief of the condemned theory, it is rather wonderful that he
+kept silence so long, than that he incurred at last the censures of the
+hierarchy. He did, however, restrain himself from any open advocacy of
+the heretical doctrines, even in composing his great work, the "Dialogue
+on the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems." This was completed in 1630,
+but not printed till 1632, under license from officers of the church,
+both at Rome and Florence. It is a dialogue between Simplicio, an
+Aristotelian, Salviati, who represents the author, and Sagredo, a half
+convert to Salviati's opinions. It professes "indeterminately to propose
+the philosophical arguments, as well on one side as on the other;" but
+the neutrality is but ill kept up, and was probably assumed, not with
+any hope that the court of Rome would be blinded as to the real tendency
+of the book, but merely that it would accept this nominal submission as
+a sufficient homage to its authority. If this were so, the author was
+disappointed; the Inquisition took cognizance of the matter, and
+summoned him to Rome to undergo a personal examination. Age and
+infirmity were in vain pleaded as excuses; still, through the urgent and
+indignant remonstrances of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, he was treated
+with a consideration rarely shown by that stern tribunal. He was allowed
+to remain at the Florentine ambassador's palace, with the exception of a
+short period, from his arrival in February, until the passing of
+sentence, June 21, 1633. He was then condemned, in the presence of the
+Inquisitors, to curse and abjure the "false doctrines," which his life
+had been spent in proving, to be confined in the prison of the Holy
+Office during pleasure, and to recite the seven penitential psalms once
+a week during three years. The sentence and the abjuration are given at
+full length in the "Life of Galileo," in the "Library of Useful
+Knowledge." "It is said," continues the biographer, "that Galileo, as he
+rose from his knees, stamped on the ground, and whispered to one of his
+friends, '_e pur si muove_,' it does move though."
+
+[Illustration: Galileo before the Inquisition.]
+
+Galileo's imprisonment was not long or rigorous, for after four days he
+was reconducted to the Florentine ambassador's palace; but he was still
+kept under strict surveillance. In July he was sent to Sienna, where he
+remained five months in strict seclusion. He obtained permission in
+December to return to his villa at Arcetri, near Florence: but there, as
+at Sienna, he was confined to his own premises, and strictly forbidden
+to receive his friends. It is painful to contemplate the variety of
+evils which overcast the evening of this great man's life. In addition
+to a distressing chronic complaint, contracted in youth, he was now
+suffering under a painful infirmity which by some is said to have been
+produced by torture, applied in the prisons of the Inquisition to
+extort a recantation. But the arguments brought forward to show that the
+Inquisitors did resort to this extremity do not amount to anything like
+direct proof. In April, 1634, Galileo's afflictions were increased by
+the death of a favorite, intelligent, and attached daughter. He consoled
+his solitude, and lightened the hours of sickness, by continuing the
+observations which he was now forbidden to publish to the world; and the
+last of his long train of discoveries was the phenomenon known by the
+name of the moon's libration. In the course of 1636-37 he lost
+successively the sight of both his eyes. He mentions this calamity in a
+tone of pious submission, mingled with a not unpleasing pride. "Alas,
+your dear friend and servant Galileo has become totally and irreparably
+blind; so that this heaven, this earth, this universe, which with
+wonderful observations I had enlarged a hundred thousand times beyond
+the belief of by-gone ages, henceforward for me is shrunk into the
+narrow space which I myself fill in it. So it pleases God: it shall
+therefore please me also." In 1638 he obtained leave to visit Florence,
+still under the same restrictions as to society; but at the end of a few
+months he was remanded to Arcetri, which he never again quitted. From
+that time, however, the strictness of his confinement was relaxed, and
+he was allowed to receive the friends who crowded round him, as well as
+the many distinguished foreigners who eagerly visited him. Among these
+we must not forget Milton, whose poems contain several allusions to the
+celestial wonders observed and published by the Tuscan astronomer.
+Though blind and nearly deaf, Galileo retained to the last his
+intellectual powers; and his friend and pupil, the celebrated
+Torricelli, was employed in arranging his thoughts on the nature of
+percussion, when he was attacked by his last illness. He died January 8,
+1642, aged seventy-eight.
+
+It was disputed whether, as a prisoner of the Inquisition, Galileo had a
+right to burial in consecrated ground. The point was conceded; but Pope
+Urban VIII. himself interfered to prevent the erection of a monument to
+him in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence, for which a large sum had
+been subscribed. A splendid monument now covers the spot in which his
+remains repose with those of his friend and pupil, the eminent
+mathematician Viviani.
+
+For an account of Galileo's application of the pendulum to the
+mensuration of time; his invention of the thermometer, though in an
+inaccurate and inconvenient form; his methods of discovering the
+longitude, and a variety of other points well worth attention, we must
+refer to the Life of Galileo already quoted. The numerous extracts from
+Galileo's works convey a lively notion of the author's character, and
+are distinguished by a peculiar tone of quaint humor. In conclusion, we
+quote the estimate of Galileo's character, from the same masterly
+memoir. "The numberless inventions of his acute industry; the use of the
+telescope, and the brilliant discoveries to which it led; the patient
+investigation of the laws of weight and motion, must all be looked upon
+as forming but a part of his real merits, as merely particular
+demonstrations of the spirit in which he everywhere withstood the
+despotism of ignorance, and appealed boldly from traditional opinions to
+the judgment of reason and common sense. He claimed and bequeathed to
+us the right of exercising our faculties in examining the beautiful
+creation which surrounds us. Idolized by his friends, he deserved their
+affection by numberless acts of kindness; by his good humor, his
+affability, and by the benevolent generosity with which he devoted
+himself, and a great part of his limited income, to advance their
+talents and fortunes. If an intense desire of being useful is everywhere
+worthy of honor; if its value is immeasurably increased when united to
+genius of the highest order; if we feel for one, who, notwithstanding
+such titles to regard, is harassed by cruel persecution, then none
+deserve our sympathy, our admiration, and our gratitude, more than
+Galileo."
+
+
+
+
+CARDINAL RICHELIEU
+
+(1585-1642)
+
+[Illustration: Richelieu. [TN]]
+
+
+Armand Jean Du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu, the future cardinal, was the
+third son of Francois Du Plessis, Grand Provost of the French Court, and
+was born on September 5, 1585, at Paris, say his biographers, Aubery and
+Leclerc; while tradition claims this honor for the family chateau in
+Poitou. He received the elements of education at home from the Prior of
+St. Florent, but soon quitted the paternal mansion, first for the
+College of Navarre, subsequently for that of Lisieux. From thence he
+removed to a military academy, being intended for the profession of
+arms. But on his brother, who was Bishop of Lucon, resolving to quit the
+world for the cloister, young Armand was advised to abandon the sword
+for the gown, in order that he might succeed to his brother's bishopric.
+
+He adopted the advice, entered with zeal into the study of theology, and
+soon qualified himself to pass creditably through the exercises
+necessary to obtain the degree of doctor in theology. He already wore
+the insignia of his bishopric, but the Pope's sanction was still
+wanting, and was withheld on account of the extreme youth of the
+expectant. Resolved to overcome this difficulty, he set off to Rome,
+addressed the pontiff in a Latin oration, and gave such proofs of talent
+and acquirements above his age, that he was consecrated at Rome on the
+Easter of 1607, being as yet but twenty-two years of age.
+
+This position attained, Richelieu endeavored to make the utmost
+advantage of it. He acquired the good-will of his diocese by rigid
+attention to the affairs that fell under his jurisdiction; while in
+frequent visits to the capital, he sought to acquire reputation by
+preaching. In the Estates General of 1614, he was chosen deputy by his
+diocese, and was afterward selected by the clergy of the States to
+present their _cahier_ or vote of grievances to the monarch. It was an
+opportunity not to be thrown away by the ambition of Richelieu, who
+instantly put himself forward as the champion of the queen-mother
+against the cabal of the high noblesse. He at the same time pointed out
+where she might find auxiliaries, by complaining that ecclesiastics had
+no longer a place in the public administration, and were thus degraded
+from their ancient and legitimate share of influence. Richelieu was
+rewarded with the place of almoner to the queen; and he was soon
+admitted to her confidence as well as to that of her favorite, the
+Marechal D'Ancre.
+
+In 1616 he was appointed secretary of state; but aware by what slender
+tenure the office was held, he refused to give up his bishopric. This
+excited not only the animadversions of the public, but the anger of the
+favorite. Richelieu offered to give up his secretaryship, but the queen
+could not dispense with his talents. The assassination of the favorite,
+however, soon overthrew the influence of the queen herself. Still
+Richelieu remained attached to her, and followed her to Blois; but the
+triumphant party, dreading his talents for intrigue, ordered him to quit
+the queen and repair to one of his priories in Anjou. He was
+subsequently commanded to retire to his bishopric, and at last exiled to
+Avignon. Here he sought to avert suspicion by affecting to devote
+himself once more to theological pursuits. During this period he
+published one or two polemical tracts, the mediocrity of which proves
+either that his genius lay not in this path, or, as is probable, that
+his interest and thoughts were elsewhere.
+
+The escape of the queen-mother from her place of confinement, excited
+the fears of her enemies and the hopes of Richelieu. He wrote instantly
+to court, to proffer his services toward bringing about an
+accommodation. In the difficulty of the moment, the king and his
+favorite accepted the offer. Richelieu was released from exile, and
+allowed to join the queen at Angouleme, where he certainly labored to
+bring about a reconciliation. There were long and bitter struggles, but
+an agreement was finally concluded, and it was found that Richelieu, the
+negotiator, had himself reaped all the benefits. He received the
+cardinal's hat from the king's hand at Lyons, toward the close of the
+year 1622.
+
+Not content with this advancement of her counsellor, Mary de Medici
+continued to press the king to admit Richelieu to his cabinet. Louis
+long resisted her solicitations, such was his instinctive dread of the
+man destined to rule him. Nor was it until 1624, after the lapse of
+sixteen months, and when embarrassed with difficult state questions,
+which no one then in office was capable of managing, that the royal will
+was declared admitting Richelieu to the council. Even this grace was
+accompanied by the drawback that the cardinal was allowed to give merely
+his opinion, not his vote.
+
+Once, however, seated at the council table, the colleagues of the
+cardinal shrunk before him into ciphers. He boldly avowed his
+determination to adopt the policy and resume the scheme of Henry IV.,
+for the humiliation of the House of Austria. His anchor of safety was in
+the confidence reposed in him by Louis XIII. This prince, although of
+most feeble will, was not without the just pride of a monarch; he could
+not but perceive that his former ministers or favorites were but the
+instruments or slaves of the noblesse, who consulted but their own
+interests, and provided but for the difficulties of the moment.
+Richelieu, on the contrary, though eager for power, sought it as an
+instrument to great ends, to the consolidation of the monarchy, and to
+its ascendancy in Europe. He was in the habit of unfolding these high
+views to Louis, who, though himself incapable of putting them into
+effect, nevertheless had the spirit to admire and approve them.
+Richelieu proposed to render his reign illustrious abroad, and at home
+to convert the chief of a turbulent aristocracy into a real monarch. It
+forms indeed the noblest part of this great statesman's character, that
+he won upon the royal mind, not by vulgar flattery, but by exciting
+within it a love of glory and of greatness to which, at the same time,
+he pointed the way.
+
+Accordingly, through all the plots formed against him, Louis XIII.
+remained firmly attached to Richelieu, sacrificing to this minister's
+pre-eminence his nobility, his brother Gaston, Duke of Orleans, his
+queen, and finally the queen-mother herself, when she too became jealous
+of the man whom she had raised.
+
+If Richelieu thus imprudently indulged his passion or his pique, he
+redeemed the error by activity and exertion unusual to the age. He at
+once formed the project of attacking the Huguenots in their chief
+stronghold of La Rochelle. Buckingham, the English minister, could not
+fail to attempt the relief of this sea-port, and the cardinal
+anticipated the triumph of personally defeating a rival. He accordingly
+himself proceeded to preside over the operations of the siege. To render
+the blockade effectual, it was requisite to stop up the port. The
+military officers whom he employed could suggest no means of doing this.
+Richelieu took counsel of his classic reading, and having learned from
+Quintus Curtius how Alexander the Great reduced Tyre, by carrying out a
+mole against it through the sea, he was encouraged to undertake a
+similar work. The great mound was accordingly commenced, and well-nigh
+finished, when a storm arose and destroyed it in a single night. But
+Richelieu was only rendered more obstinate: he recommenced the mole, and
+was seen with the volume of Alexander's History in his hand, encouraging
+the workmen and overruling the objections of the tacticians of the army.
+The second attempt succeeded, the harbor was blocked up, and the
+promised aid of England rendered fruitless. The cardinal triumphed, for
+La Rochelle surrendered. In his treatment of the vanquished, Richelieu
+showed a moderation seldom observable in his conduct. He was lenient,
+and even tolerant, toward the Huguenots, content with having humbled the
+pride of his rival, Buckingham.
+
+La Rochelle was no sooner taken, and Richelieu rewarded by the title of
+prime minister than he resumed those projects of humbling the House of
+Austria, in which he had previously been interrupted. A quarrel about
+the succession to Mantua afforded him a pretext to interfere; and he did
+so, after his fashion, not by mere negotiations, but by an army. This
+expedition proved a source of quarrel between him and the queen-mother,
+Mary de Medici, who hitherto had been his firm and efficient friend.
+
+The voice of the conqueror of La Rochelle triumphed in council, and his
+project in the field. The French were victorious in Italy, and the
+minister equally so over the mind of the monarch.
+
+But Mary de Medici could not forgive, and she now openly showed her
+hatred of Richelieu, and exerted herself to the utmost to injure him
+with the king. Though daily defeating her intrigues, the cardinal
+dreaded her perseverance, and resolved to drag the king with him to
+another Italian campaign. Louis obeyed, and the court set out for the
+south, the queen-mother herself accompanying it. Richelieu, however, did
+not tarry for the slow motions of the monarch. He flew to the army, took
+upon him the command, and displayed all the abilities of a great general
+in out-manoeuvring and worsting the generals and armies of Savoy. In the
+meantime Louis fell dangerously ill at Lyons. His mother, an
+affectionate attendant on his sick-couch, resumed her former empire over
+him. At one moment his imminent death seemed to threaten the cardinal
+with ruin. Louis recovered, however, and his first act was to compel a
+reconciliation, in form at least, between the cardinal and the
+queen-mother.
+
+The king's illness, although not so immediately fatal to Richelieu as
+his enemies had hoped, was still attended with serious consequences to
+him. The French army met with ill success through the treachery of the
+general, Marillac, who was secretly attached to the queen's party, and
+the failure was attributed to Richelieu.
+
+Mary de Medici renewed her solicitations to her son, that he would
+dismiss his minister. Louis, it appears, made a promise to that effect;
+a reluctant promise, given to get rid of her importunity. Mary
+calculated too securely upon his keeping it; she broke forth in bitter
+contumely against Richelieu; deprived him of his superintendence over
+her household, and treated Madame de Combalet, the cardinal's niece, who
+had sunk on her knees to entreat her to moderate her anger almost with
+insult. The king was present, and seemed to sanction her violence so
+that Richelieu withdrew to make his preparations for exile. Louis,
+dissatisfied and irresolute, retired to Versailles; while Mary remained
+triumphant at the Luxembourg, receiving the congratulations of her
+party. Richelieu, in the meantime, ere taking his departure, repaired to
+Versailles, and, once there, resumed the ascendant over the monarch. The
+tidings of this was a thunder-stroke to Mary and her party, who became
+instantly the victims of the cardinal's revenge. Marillac was beheaded,
+and Mary de Medici, herself at length completely vanquished by her
+rival, was driven out of France to spend the rest of her days in exile.
+
+The trial of Marillac had roused the spirit and indignation even of
+those nobles who had previously respected, and bowed to, the minister of
+the royal choice. Richelieu not only threatened their order with the
+scaffold, but his measures of administration were directed to deprive
+them of their ancient privileges, and means of wealth and domination.
+One of these was the right of governors of provinces to raise the
+revenue within their jurisdiction, and to employ or divert no small
+portion of it to their use. Richelieu, to remedy this, transferred the
+office of collecting the revenue to new officers, called the _Elect_. He
+tried this in Languedoc, then governed by the Duc de Montmorenci, a
+noble of the first rank, whose example, consequently, would have weight,
+and who had always proved himself obedient and loyal. Moved, however, by
+his private wrongs, as well as that of his order, he now joined the
+party of the nobles and the king's brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans.
+That weak prince, after forming an alliance with the Duke of Lorraine,
+had raised an army. Richelieu lost not a moment in despatching a force
+which reduced Lorraine, and humbled its hitherto independent duke almost
+to the rank of a subject. Gaston then marched his army to Languedoc and
+joined Montmorenci. The Marechal de Breze, Richelieu's brother-in-law,
+led the loyal troops against them, defeated Gaston at Castelnaudari, and
+took Montmorenci prisoner. This noble had been the friend and supporter
+of Richelieu, who even called him his son; yet the cardinal's cruel
+policy determined that he should die. There was difficulty in proving
+before the judges that he had actually borne arms against the king. "The
+smoke and dust," said St. Reuil, the witness, "rendered it impossible to
+recognize any combatant distinctly. But when I saw one advance alone,
+and cut his way through five ranks of gens-d'armes, I knew that it must
+be Montmorenci."
+
+This gallant descendant of five constables of France perished on the
+scaffold at Toulouse. Richelieu deemed the example necessary to strike
+terror into the nobility. And he immediately took advantage of that
+terror, by removing all the governors of provinces, and replacing them
+throughout with officers personally attached to his interests.
+
+Having thus made, as it were, a clear stage for the fulfilment of his
+great political schemes, Richelieu turned his exertions to his original
+plan of humbling the House of Austria, and extending the territories of
+France at its expense. He formed an alliance with the great Gustavus
+Adolphus, who then victoriously supported the cause of religious liberty
+in Germany. Richelieu drew more advantage from the death than from the
+victories of his ally; since, as the price of his renewing his alliance
+with the Swedes, he acquired the possession of Philipsburg, and opened
+the way toward completing that darling project of France and every
+French statesman, the acquisition of the Rhine as a frontier.
+
+The French having manifested their design to get possession of Treves,
+the Spaniards anticipated them; and open war ensued betwixt the two
+monarchies. Richelieu in his wars was one of those scientific combatants
+who seek to weary out an enemy, and who husband their strength in order
+not to crush at once, but to ruin in the end. Such, at least, were the
+tactics by which he came triumphant out of the struggle with Spain. He
+made no conquests at first, gained no striking victories; but he
+compensated for his apparent want of success by perseverance, by taking
+advantage of defeat to improve the army, and by laboring to transfer to
+the crown the financial and other resources which had been previously
+absorbed by the aristocracy. Thus the war, though little brilliant at
+first, produced at last these very important results. Arras in the
+north, Turin in the south, Alsace in the east, fell into the hands of
+the French; Roussillon was annexed to the monarchy; and Catalonia
+revolted from Spain. Richelieu might boast that he had achieved the
+great purposes of Henry IV., not so gloriously indeed as that heroic
+prince might have done, but no less effectually. This was effected not
+so much by arms as by administration. The foundation was laid for that
+martial pre-eminence which Louis XIV. long enjoyed; and which he might
+have retained, had the virtue of moderation been known to him.
+
+It was not without incurring great personal perils, with proportionate
+address and good fortune, that Cardinal Richelieu arrived at such great
+results. Constant plots were formed against him, the most remarkable of
+which was that of Cinq-Mars, a young nobleman selected to be the king's
+favorite, on account of his presumed frivolity. But he was capable of
+deep thoughts and passions; and wearied by the solitude in which the
+monarch lived, and to which he was reduced by the minister's monopoly of
+all power, he dared to plot the cardinal's overthrow. This bold attempt
+was sanctioned by the king himself, who at intervals complained of the
+yoke put upon him.
+
+Great interests were at stake, for Richelieu, reckoning upon the
+monarch's weak health, meditated procuring the regency for himself. The
+Queen, Anne of Austria, aware of this intention, approved of the project
+of Cinq-Mars, which, of course, implied the assassination of the
+cardinal. No other mode of defying his power and talent could have been
+contemplated. But Richelieu was on the watch. The court was then in the
+south of France, engaged in the conquest of Roussillon, a situation
+favorable for the relation of the conspirators with Spain. The minister
+surprised one of the emissaries, had the fortune to seize a treaty
+concluded between them and the enemies of France; and with this flagrant
+proof of their treason, he repaired to Louis, and forced from him an
+order for their arrest. It was tantamount to their condemnation.
+Cinq-Mars and his friends perished on the scaffold; Anne of Austria was
+again humbled; and every enemy of the cardinal shrunk in awe and
+submission before his ascendancy. Among them was the king himself, whom
+Richelieu looked upon as an equal in dignity, an inferior in mind and in
+power. The guards of the cardinal were as numerous as the monarch's, and
+independent of any authority save that of their immediate master. A
+treaty was even drawn up between king and minister, as between two
+potentates. But the power and the pride of Richelieu reached at once
+their height and their termination. A mortal illness seized him in the
+latter days of 1642, a few months after the execution of Cinq-Mars. No
+abatement of his pride marked his last moments. He summoned the monarch
+like a servant to his couch, instructed him what policy to follow and
+appointed the minister who was to be his own successor.
+
+Such was the career of this supereminent statesman, who, although in the
+position of Damocles all his life, with the sword of the assassin
+suspended over his head, surrounded with enemies, and with insecure and
+treacherous support even from the monarch whom he served, still not
+only maintained his own station, but possessed time and zeal to frame
+and execute gigantic projects for the advancement of his country and of
+his age. It makes no small part of Henry IV.'s glory that he conceived a
+plan for diminishing the power of the House of Austria. Richelieu,
+without either the security or the advantages of the king and the
+warrior, achieved it. Not only this, but he dared to enter upon the war
+at the very same time when he was humbling that aristocracy which had
+hitherto composed the martial force of the country.
+
+The effects of his domestic policy were indeed more durable than those
+of what he most prided himself upon, his foreign policy. He it was, in
+fact, who founded the French monarchy, such as it existed until near the
+end of the eighteenth century--a grand, indeed, rather than a happy
+result. He was a man of penetrating and commanding intellect, who
+visibly influenced the fortunes of Europe to an extent which few princes
+or ministers have equalled. Unscrupulous in his purposes, he was no less
+so in the means by which he effected them. But so long as men are
+honored, not for their moral excellences, but for the great things which
+they have done for themselves, or their country, the name of Richelieu
+will be recollected with respect, as that of one of the most successful
+statesmen that ever lived.
+
+As a patron of letters and of the arts, Richelieu has acquired a
+reputation almost rivalling that of his statesmanship. His first and
+earliest success in life had been as a scholar supporting his theses;
+and, as it is continually observed that great men form very erroneous
+judgments of their own excellences, he ever prided himself especially in
+his powers as a penman.
+
+[Illustration: A Concert At Richelieu's Palace.]
+
+
+
+
+WILLIAM BRADFORD[15]
+
+By ELBRIDGE S. BROOKS
+
+(1589-1657)
+
+         [Footnote 15: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Massachusetts. [TN]]
+
+
+Greatness is not allied to rank alone, nor is heroism to blood. The
+noblest of the Pilgrims of Plymouth was sprung from the people. For
+generations the little farming village of Austerfield, a royal manor of
+the West Riding of Yorkshire close to the Nottingham line, had known the
+family of Bradfurth or Bradford as a race of tenant-yeomen who, besides
+tilling the lands of the Mortons, possessed also a freehold of their
+own. But no man or woman of the Bradford name had given it prominence or
+worth until, on March 19, 1589, William Bradford was born in that
+low-roofed farm-house on the great plain of York. Puritan writers speak
+of Austerfield as a "profane and irreligious" village in which was to
+be found "no bible and a careless priest." Whatever the facts, the
+environments, undoubtedly, were not such as would suggest the making of
+a leader or the development of a religious nature. But we are assured
+that, before the age of twelve, the boy William Bradford, brought up in
+that Austerfield farm-house "in the innocent trade of husbandry,"
+displayed alike a thoughtful temperament and "a pious mind." At sixteen
+he fell, in some unknown way, under the influence of one of the
+much-maligned Puritan preachers of Scrooby, a Nottinghamshire village
+but a few miles from Austerfield. As a result he gave up his
+farming-life, left his Austerfield home, and in the face of bitter
+opposition, distrust, censure, and persecution, joined the Puritan
+church and settlement at Scrooby, established there by William Brewster,
+the postmaster of Scrooby and a prominent leader in the new sect of
+dissenters from the English church, known first as separatists and,
+later, because of their frequent changes and wanderings, as Pilgrims.
+
+From his earliest association with this feeble and despised communion,
+William Bradford was zealous in his readiness to stand boldly for his
+faith, whatever the risk involved. He was one of the first to appreciate
+the real meaning of the struggle; he saw that dissent implied not alone
+a religious opposition, but a political defiance as well, and that its
+followers, braving the will of England's royal bigot, James Stuart, and
+denying his assumption of the divine right of kings, would ere long do
+open battle in the cause of the people against despotism, and stand for
+that deeper question of liberty which the Pilgrims of Scrooby and Leyden
+first fully grasped.
+
+Bradford was one of that venturesome company which, in 1607, embarking
+at Boston, in Lincolnshire, sought to flee from English tyranny, and
+find a home in Holland. They were betrayed, turned back, and imprisoned.
+The next year this young eighteen-year old enthusiast escaped from his
+jailers, and made his way to Amsterdam. Here he apprenticed himself to a
+silk-weaver, and became an efficient member of the association of
+English exiles in Holland.
+
+Upon his coming of age in 1610, he sold off the Austerfield lands that
+had descended to him upon the death of his father, and entered upon an
+unsuccessful business investment in Amsterdam. This failing, he joined
+himself to the Pilgrim colony that Brewster and Robinson, the Pilgrim
+preachers, had established at Leyden.
+
+When those far-seeing reformers awoke to the fact that an
+English-speaking community in Holland must, in time, become Dutch in
+manners, speech, and life, and looked across the western ocean with the
+dream of founding a religious republic of English-speaking folk in the
+New World, Bradford was one of the most earnest in adopting and carrying
+out their views, and was one of that famous company which, on September
+16, 1620, sailed from Plymouth in England, to cast anchor, three months
+later, in the harbor of the new Plymouth in New England.
+
+It has been said that if William Brewster was the Aaron of the Plymouth
+enterprise, William Bradford was its Moses. Certainly he was, almost
+from its inception, its leader and deliverer. It was his brain that
+conceived and his hand that executed that memorable compact which the
+forty-one earnest men signed in the cabin of the Mayflower, as she rode
+at anchor in Provincetown harbor--"the first instrument of civil
+government ever subscribed as the act of the whole people." It was into
+his hands, when Carver, the first governor, died of sunstroke in the
+spring of 1621, that the colonists gave the guidance of their affairs,
+electing him governor of the Plymouth colony on April 21, 1621--"the
+first American citizen of English race who bore rule by the free choice
+of his brethren." More than this, we may look upon William Bradford, so
+says Mr. Doyle, the English historian of the Puritan colonies, "as
+heading that bead-roll of worthies that, from his day, America has never
+wanted--men who, with no early training in political life, and lacking
+much that the Old World has deemed needful in her rulers, have yet, by
+inborn strength of mind and lofty public spirit, shown themselves in all
+things worthy of high office."
+
+Certainly William Bradford showed himself worthy the trust and
+confidence of his fellows. For nearly forty years he filled the office
+of governor of the Plymouth colony. His hand guided it through the
+perils of its early years, his brain planned that systematic development
+of its slender resources that made it the one successful episode in
+America's beginnings. His treatment of the Indians was always firm but
+friendly; his dealings with the grasping "London adventurers," whose
+greed would have seriously crippled the colony had it not been for his
+restraining hand, were courteous but convincing; it was Bradford who led
+the colony from the unsatisfactory communism of its first years to the
+system of individual property that, from 1623, held sway, and turned an
+uncertain venture into a career of industrial prosperity. Always
+tolerant, never injudicious, and alike pure-minded, liberty-loving,
+courageous, and wise, no hand could have better guided than did his, or
+have more systematically shaped, the destinies of the infant State. The
+testimony of contemporaries and the judgment of historians unite in
+crediting to William Bradford that rare combination of intelligence and
+industry, of judicial and executive ability, by which a small and
+obscure band of persecuted fugitives laid in an unexplored wilderness
+the foundations of a great and prosperous commonwealth.
+
+His methods were as simple as was his own noble nature. Each advance was
+the outgrowth of his own observation and the colony's necessities, and
+while the corner-stone of the community was religion, he stood himself
+for religious liberty, and never permitted the zeal of his associates to
+degenerate into intolerance and persecution. While other of the early
+American colonies were narrow, bigoted, and vindictive, it is to the
+credit of the Pilgrim colony of Plymouth that the cargo of the Mayflower
+contained no seeds of persecution, and throughout the long
+administration of Governor William Bradford the colony he guided had, in
+his time at least, a clear comprehension of the meaning of religious and
+political freedom, and did not descend into the harrying of so-called
+heretics, the scourging of Quakers, nor the burning of witches. Whatever
+intolerance of this sort may, at a later day, have stained the records
+of the colony, was of foreign growth and contrary to the heritage of
+charity left by William Bradford.
+
+[Illustration: A Puritan Christmas.]
+
+This willingness to serve, to spend and be spent, is apparent throughout
+the whole story of Bradford's life. It displayed itself in the boyish
+spirit of renunciation that led him to join the Scrooby society, and
+held him loyal to his association even through imprisonment and
+persecution, through exile, flight, and emigration. Again and again
+through his long service as governor of the Plymouth colony, he wished
+to lay aside the burden, but always yielded to the wishes of his
+comrades. Elected by the suffrages of his associates, he himself
+restricted his own authority by the formation, in 1624, of the
+governor's council of five members, increased in 1633 to seven, in which
+the only privilege held by the governor was a double vote. In 1624 he
+with seven of his associates assumed, what was for that day and the
+uncertainties involved, a great risk, and bought out the "London
+Adventurers" who had so feebly backed the colonists. In 1629 he obtained
+a patent that conferred upon himself, his associates, and assigns the
+title to the whole Plymouth tract, and in 1640 he conveyed this valuable
+title to the colony, reserving only his personal proportion as a
+settler.
+
+It was this unselfishness of disposition, this loyalty to
+duty--accepting honors as trusts and burdens as obligations--this union
+of justice and faith that made William Bradford great and kept him
+noble.
+
+"With malice toward none, with charity for all," even as had that great
+American of two centuries later, Bradford could keep the even tenor of
+his way in the midst of obstacles and discouragements. Unmoved by the
+ingratitude of Weston, the insolence of Morton, the treachery of Oldham
+and Lyford, and the selfishness of Allerton; calm amid the controversies
+brought about by the arrogance of the greater colony of Massachusetts
+Bay, the encroachments of the French in Maine, and of the Dutch on the
+Connecticut, he could yet, when occasion demanded, display that stern
+justice that meted out the extreme penalty of the law to offenders, and
+condemned to death Billington, the first murderer in the colony, and
+Peach, the assassin of a defenceless Indian.
+
+William Bradford is one of the most interesting figures in the history
+of New England. He is the noblest of the Puritans--a type of their best
+element, an exponent of their highest effort, a pioneer in their
+struggle for liberty for justice, and for law. The boy who could brave
+opposition and contumely for conscience's sake, could also be of
+gentlest manners and serenest mood when called to lead and govern those
+who put their trust in him; the same native courage and independence
+that held him loyal to his convictions in his early years made him, when
+responsibilities multiplied and burdens were laid upon him, the very
+staff and hope of the Pilgrim colony of Plymouth.
+
+He combined with executive ability other notable gifts. Though bred to
+the soil in an age when the farmer was a drudge and had no ambition
+beyond his crops, he yet, when opportunity offered, applied himself to
+study with such good results that he was learned in Latin, Greek, and
+Hebrew, and conversed in French and Dutch. He was acquainted with the
+history and philosophy of his day, was deeply versed in theology, and
+even attempted poetry. He wrote much and well. His most important
+production was his "History of the Plymouth Plantations"--a detailed
+chronicle of the history of the Pilgrims from 1608 to 1646. Carried away
+from the old South Church by British soldiers, it was completely lost,
+until almost providentially discovered, though partially destroyed, in
+the shop of a Halifax grocer, and to-day it tells us almost all that we
+know of the Plymouth settlers, from the day when they left Lincolnshire
+till they became a prosperous commonwealth in America.
+
+Of this important contribution to American history, Mr. Doyle, the
+English historian, says: "Gratitude is quickened when we compare the
+simple, vigorous, and picturesque chronicle set before us by Bradford,
+with the tedious and pedantic writings from which so much of the later
+history of New England has to be extracted.... His work is in the true
+sense scholarly. The language is like the language of Bunyan, that of a
+man who trained himself not merely to speak but to think in the words of
+Scripture. Every expression is simple and effective, never far-fetched,
+never mean nor common. The substance is worthy of the style. Faults no
+doubt there are ... yet with all its defects Bradford's writings still
+remain the worthy first-fruits of Puritan literature in its new home.
+They are the work of a wise and good man, who tells with a right
+understanding the great things that he and his brethren have done."
+
+The wise governor was loyal to his colony to the last. He resisted the
+ambition to take larger holdings of land and become great estate owners
+that influenced Standish and Brewster, Alden and Winslow, and other of
+his Mayflower companions, drawing them away from Plymouth to the broader
+acres at Duxbury and Scituate and Marshfield. The governor deplored this
+withdrawal as a desertion on the part of his old friends, and a menace
+to the welfare of the colony. He lived on in Plymouth, where his home on
+Leyden Street, still standing, gradually outgrew its early primitive
+dimensions as became the house of the governor of Plymouth. Here he died
+on May 9, 1657, "lamented by all the colonists of New England as a
+common blessing and father to them all," and the only special memorial
+that tangibly recalls his fame is the unpretentious obelisk on Burial
+Hill.
+
+As Miles Standish and John Alden had a romance in their lives that has
+made them historic, so this Puritan governor of Plymouth had his. His
+first wife, gentle Dorothy May, was drowned in Cape Cod harbor while her
+husband was away exploring the new-found coast. He had married her in
+Leyden in 1613 and less than three years after her death, on August 14,
+1623, he married Mistress Alice Carpenter Southworth, who in earlier
+days, it is alleged, had been young William Bradford's "dearest love."
+She came across the sea--at his call--a widow, to marry the widowed
+governor of Plymouth and thus complete the unwritten romance begun in
+his earlier years.
+
+A self-made man, a scholar of repute, a writer of renown, an upright and
+fearless magistrate, a model citizen, a courageous leader, gentle, just
+and generous, practical and wise, William Bradford stands in history as
+the essence and exponent of what was best in the Puritanism of his day,
+the architect and builder of a God-fearing, independent, and progressive
+community that, throughout the ages, remains the most notable because
+the most typical of the foundation-stones that underlie the mighty
+structure of the Republic of the United States of America.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND
+
+By F. HINDES GROOME
+
+(1600-1649)
+
+[Illustration: Charles I. [TN]]
+
+
+Charles I. was born at Dunfermline, November 19, 1600, was a sickly
+child, unable to speak till his fifth year, and so weak in the ankles
+that till his seventh he had to crawl upon his hands and knees. Except
+for a stammer, he outgrew both defects, and became a skilled tilter and
+marksman, as well as an accomplished scholar and a diligent student of
+theology. He was created Duke of Albany at his baptism, Duke of York in
+1605, and Prince of Wales in 1616, four years after the death of his
+dear brother, Prince Henry, had left him heir to the crown of three
+kingdoms. A Spanish match had been mooted as early as 1614; but it was
+not till February 17, 1623, that, with Buckingham, his inseparable
+friend, Charles started on the romantic incognito journey to Madrid, its
+objects to win the hand of the Infanta, and to procure the restitution
+of the Palatinate to his brother-in-law, Frederick. Both he and his
+father swore to all possible concessions to the Catholics, but nothing
+short of his own conversion would have satisfied the Spanish and papal
+courts; and on October 5th he landed again in England, eager for rupture
+with Spain.
+
+The nation's joy was speedily dashed by his betrothal to the French
+princess, Henrietta Maria (1609-69); for the marriage articles pledged
+him, in violation of solemn engagements to Parliament, to permit her and
+all her domestics the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and to
+give her the up-bringing of their children till the age of thirteen.
+
+On March 27, 1625, Charles succeeded his father, James I.; on June 13th
+he welcomed his little bright-eyed queen at Dover, having married her by
+proxy six weeks earlier. Barely a twelvemonth was over when he packed
+off her troublesome retinue to France--a bishop and 29 priests, with 410
+more male and female attendants. Thenceforth their domestic life was a
+happy one; and during the twelve years following the murder of
+Buckingham (1592-1628), in whose hands he had been a mere tool, Charles
+gradually came to yield himself up to her unwise influence--not wholly
+indeed, but more than to that of Stafford even, or Laud. Little
+meddlesome Laud, made archbishop in 1633, proceeded to war against the
+dominant Puritanism, to preach passive obedience, and uphold the divine
+right of kings; while great Stafford, from championing the Petition of
+Right (1628), passed over to the king's service, and entered on that
+policy of "Thorough" whose aim was to make his master absolute. Three
+Parliaments were summoned and dissolved in the first four years of the
+reign; then for eleven years Charles ruled with but one, in its stead,
+with subservient judges, and the courts of Star Chamber and High
+Commission. In 1627 he had blundered into an inglorious French war; but
+with France he concluded peace in 1629, with Spain in 1630. Peace,
+economy, and arbitrary taxation were to solve the great problem of his
+policy, how to get money, yet not account for it. Not that Charles cared
+for money in itself, or had far-reaching projects of tyranny (he failed
+to enter into Stafford's scheme); but he had inherited a boundless
+egoism, and content with his own petty self, had little sympathy with
+the dead heroism of the Tudor age, none at all with the nascent ardor of
+democracy. The extension of the ship-tax to the inland counties was met
+by Hampden's passive resistance (1637); Laud's attempt to Anglicize the
+Scottish Church, by the active resistance of the whole northern nation.
+Once more Charles had to call a Parliament; two met in 1640--the Short
+Parliament, which lasted but three weeks, and the Long, which outlasted
+Charles.
+
+It met to pronounce Stafford's doom; and his plot with the army
+detected, Charles basely sacrificed his loyal servitor, his own kingly
+word, to fears for the queen's safety; no act weighed heavier on him
+afterward. The same signature that sent Stafford to the block gave
+assent to a second bill, by which the existing Parliament might not be
+dissolved without its own consent. That pledge, as extorted by force,
+Charles purposed to disregard; and during his visit to Edinburgh, in the
+autumn of 1641, he trusted by lavish concessions to bring over the Scots
+to his side. Instead, he got entangled in dark suspicions of plotting
+the murder of the covenanting lords, of connivance even in the Ulster
+massacre. Still, his return to London was welcomed with some enthusiasm,
+and a party was forming in the Commons itself, of men who revolted from
+the sweeping changes that menaced both church and state. Pym's "Grand
+Remonstrance" justified their fears, and Charles seemed to justify the
+"Grand Remonstrance" by his attempt to arrest the five members (January
+4, 1642); but that ill-stricken blow was dictated by the knowledge of an
+impending impeachment of the queen herself. On August 22d he raised the
+royal standard at Nottingham; and the four years civil war commenced, in
+which, as at Naseby, he showed no lack of physical courage, and which
+resulted at Naseby in the utter annihilation of his cause (June 14,
+1645).
+
+No need here to track him through plot and counterplot with Catholics,
+Presbyterians, and Sectaries, with the Scots and the Irish, with the
+Parliament and the Army; enough that, quitting his last refuge, Oxford,
+he surrendered himself on May 5, 1646, to the Scots at Newark, and by
+them, in the following January, was handed over to the Parliament. His
+four months captivity at Holmby House, near Northampton; his seizure on
+June 3d by Cornet Joyce; the three months at Hampton Court; the fight on
+November 11th; the fresh captivity at Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle of
+Wight--these lead up to the trial at Westminster of the tyrant, traitor,
+and murderer, Charles Stuart. He had drawn the sword, and by the sword
+he perished, for it was the Army, not Parliament, that stood at the back
+of the judges. Charles faced them bravely and with dignity. Thrice he
+refused to plead, denying the competence of such a court: and his
+refusal being treated as a confession, on the third day fifty-five out
+of seventy-one judges--sixty-four more never were present--affixed their
+names and seals to his death-warrant; four days later, sentence was
+pronounced.
+
+No need here to tell the well-known story of his meekness toward his
+persecutors, of the pathetic parting from two of his younger children,
+of his preparation for a holy death; or how, on the morning of January
+30, 1649, he passed to that death on the scaffold in front of Whitehall,
+with a courage worthy of a very martyr. On the snowy 7th of February
+they bore the "white king" to his grave at Windsor in Henry VIII.'s
+vault; in 1813 the Prince Regent had his leaden coffin opened. Six
+children survived him--Charles and James, his successors; Mary, Princess
+of Orange (1631-60); Elizabeth (1635-50); Henry, Duke of Gloucester
+(1639-60); and Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans (1644-70), the last born
+ten weeks after Charles's final parting from his queen. At the
+Restoration Charles II. appointed, on his sole authority, a form of
+prayer, with fasting, for the day of the martyrdom of the Blessed King
+Charles I., to be annexed to the Common Prayer Book, with the other
+state services; it kept its place there till 1859.
+
+A far stronger man than Charles might scarcely have extricated himself
+from the difficulties that beset him; true, those difficulties were
+largely of his own creating. But was he right in abandoning Stafford?
+should he also have sacrificed wife, faith, and crown? If yes, then was
+he wholly in the wrong; if no, he was partly--for once at least--in the
+right. Vices, other than duplicity, he had none, as we use the word. He
+was vague, vacillating, obstinate, unable to lead or to be led;
+superstitious, heedful of omens; unsympathetic and reserved where he did
+not love; intolerant of opposition to his will. But he was a good
+husband, a good father, a good churchman--no man so good was ever so
+bad a king; no man so fallible believed so honestly in his
+infallibility. For Charles was honest to his own convictions. His very
+duplicity was due sometimes to schooling in "kingcraft," but oftener to
+inability to see two sides of a question. Now he saw one, and now the
+other, but never both sides at once; and, just as he saw, so he spoke.
+Milton's charges against him of "all manner of lewdness" rank with
+Milton's charge that he poisoned his father. Indeed, as a pattern of
+culture and purity, few princes are worthy to be named beside him.
+
+His children all loved and respected him. His little daughter Elizabeth,
+held as a prisoner by his foes, wrote of him with such womanly sympathy
+and admiration as even now brings tears to our eyes. His last letter of
+advice to his son Charles is a model hardly to be improved on. Parts of
+it read as follows:
+
+"I had rather you should be Charles _le bon_, than _le grand_, good,
+than great; I hope God hath designed you to be both; having so early put
+you into that exercise of His graces and gifts bestowed upon you, which
+may best weed out all vicious inclinations, and dispose you to those
+princely endowments and employments which will most gain the love, and
+intend the welfare of those over whom God shall place you.
+
+"With God, I would have you begin and end, who is King of kings, the
+sovereign disposer of the kingdoms of the world, who pulleth down one
+and setteth up another.
+
+"The best government and highest sovereignty you can attain to, is to be
+subject to Him, that the sceptre of His word and spirit may rule in your
+heart.
+
+"The true glory of princes consists in advancing God's glory, in the
+maintenance of true religion and the church's good; also in the
+dispensation of civil power with justice and honor to the public peace.
+
+"Piety will make you prosperous, at least it will keep you from becoming
+miserable; nor is he much a loser that loseth all, yet saveth his own
+soul at last.
+
+"To which centre of true happiness, God (I trust) hath and will
+graciously direct all these black lines of affliction which He hath been
+pleased to draw on me, and by which He hath (I hope) drawn me nearer to
+Himself. You have already tasted of that cup whereof I have liberally
+drunk; which I look upon as God's physic, having that in healthfulness
+which it wants in pleasure.
+
+"Take heed that outward circumstances and formalities of religion devour
+not all, or the best, encouragements of learning, industry, and piety;
+but with an equal eye and impartial hand distribute favors and rewards
+to all men, as you find them for their real goodness both in abilities
+and fidelity, worthy and capable of them.
+
+"And if neither I nor you be ever restored to our right, but God, in His
+severest justice, will punish my subjects with continuance in their sin,
+and suffer them to be deluded with the prosperity of their wickedness, I
+hope God will give me and you that grace which will teach and enable us
+to want, as well as to wear, a crown, which is not worth taking up or
+enjoying upon sordid, dishonorable and irreligious terms.
+
+"Keep you to true principles of piety, virtue, and honor; you shall
+never want a kingdom.
+
+"A principal point of your honor will consist in your deferring all
+respect, love, and protection to your mother, my wife, who hath many
+ways deserved well of me, and chiefly in this, that having been a means
+to bless me with so many hopeful children (all which, with their mother,
+I recommend to your love and care), she hath been content with
+incomparable magnanimity and patience to suffer both for and with me and
+you.
+
+"Farewell, till we meet, if not on earth, yet in heaven."
+
+[Illustration: Princess Elizabeth in Prison.]
+
+But Charles was predestined to sorrow. "A tragic face!" said the
+sculptor Bernini, as he looked on the triple portrait by Vandyke.
+Already the shadow of a violent death overclouded those fine, weak
+features.
+
+
+
+
+OLIVER CROMWELL
+
+Extracts from "The History of England," by THOMAS B. MACAULAY
+
+(1599-1658)
+
+[Illustration: An arrest. [TN]]
+
+
+And now a new and alarming class of symptoms began to appear in the
+distempered body politic. There had been, from the first, in the
+Parliamentary party, some men whose minds were set on objects from which
+the majority of that party would have shrunk with horror. These men
+were, in religion, Independents. They conceived that every Christian
+congregation had, under Christ, supreme jurisdiction in things
+spiritual; that appeals to provincial and national synods were scarcely
+less unscriptural than appeals to the Court of Arches or to the Vatican;
+and that popery, prelacy, and Presbyterianism were merely three forms of
+one great apostasy. In politics they were, to use the phrase of their
+time, Root and Branch men, or, to use the kindred phrase of our own
+time, Radicals. Not content with limiting the power of the monarch, they
+were desirous to erect a commonwealth on the ruins of the old English
+polity. At first they had been inconsiderable both in numbers and in
+weight; but, before the war had lasted two years, they became, not
+indeed the largest, but the most powerful faction in the country. Some
+of the old Parliamentary leaders had been removed by death, and others
+had forfeited the public confidence. Pym had been borne, with princely
+honors, to a grave among the Plantagenets. Hampden had fallen, as became
+him, while vainly endeavoring, by his heroic example, to inspire his
+followers with courage to face the fiery cavalry of Rupert. Bedford had
+been untrue to the cause. Northumberland was known to be lukewarm. Essex
+and his lieutenants had shown little vigor and ability in the conduct of
+military operations. At such a conjuncture it was, that the Independent
+party, ardent, resolute, and uncompromising, began to raise its head
+both in the camp and in the Parliament.
+
+The soul of that party was Oliver Cromwell. Bred to peaceful
+occupations, he had, at more than forty years of age, accepted a
+commission in the Parliamentary army. No sooner had he become a soldier,
+than he discerned, with the keen glance of genius, what Essex and men
+like Essex, with all their experience, were unable to perceive. He saw
+precisely where the strength of the Royalists lay, and by what means
+alone that strength could be overpowered. He saw that it was necessary
+to reconstruct the army of the Parliament. He saw, also, that there were
+abundant and excellent materials for the purpose; materials less showy,
+indeed, but more solid, than those of which the gallant squadrons of the
+king were composed. It was necessary to look for recruits who were not
+mere mercenaries; for recruits of decent station and grave character,
+fearing God and zealous for public liberty. With such men he filled his
+own regiment, and, while he subjected them to a discipline more rigid
+than had ever before been known in England, he administered to their
+intellectual and moral nature stimulants of fearful potency.
+
+The events of the year 1644 fully proved the superiority of his
+abilities. In the south, where Essex held the command, the Parliamentary
+forces underwent a succession of shameful disasters, but in the north
+the victory of Marston Moor fully compensated for all that had been lost
+elsewhere. That victory was not a more serious blow to the Royalists
+than to the party which had hitherto been dominant at Westminster; for
+it was notorious that the day, disgracefully lost by the Presbyterians,
+had been retrieved by the energy of Cromwell, and by the steady valor of
+the warriors whom he had trained.
+
+These events produced the Self-denying Ordinance and the new model of
+the army. Under decorous pretexts, and with every mark of respect, Essex
+and most of those who had held high posts under him were removed, and
+the conduct of the war was intrusted to very different hands. Fairfax, a
+brave soldier, but of mean understanding and irresolute temper, was the
+nominal lord-general of the forces, but Cromwell was their real head.
+
+Cromwell made haste to organize the whole army on the same principles on
+which he had organized his own regiment. As soon as this process was
+complete, the event of the war was decided. The Cavaliers had now to
+encounter natural courage equal to their own, enthusiasm stronger than
+their own, and discipline such as was utterly wanting to them. It soon
+became a proverb that the soldiers of Fairfax and Cromwell were men of a
+different breed from the soldiers of Essex. At Naseby took place the
+first great encounter between the Royalists and the remodelled army of
+the Houses. The victory of the Roundheads was complete and decisive. It
+was followed by other triumphs in rapid succession. In a few months the
+authority of the Parliament was fully established over the whole
+kingdom. Charles fled to the Scots, and was by them, in a manner which
+did not much exalt their national character, delivered up to his English
+subjects.
+
+But while the Houses were employing their authority thus, it suddenly
+passed out of their hands. It had been obtained by calling into
+existence a power which could not be controlled. In the summer of 1647,
+about twelve months after the last fortress of the Cavaliers had
+submitted to the Parliament, the Parliament was compelled to submit to
+its own soldiers.
+
+Thirteen years followed, during which England was, under various names
+and forms, really governed by the sword. Never before that time, or
+since that time, was the civil power in our country subjected to
+military dictation.
+
+To keep down the English people was no light task even for that army. No
+sooner was the first pressure of military tyranny felt, than the nation,
+unbroken to such servitude, began to struggle fiercely. Insurrections
+broke out even in those counties which, during the recent war, had been
+the most submissive to the Parliament. Indeed, the Parliament itself
+abhorred its old defenders more than its old enemies, and was desirous
+to come to terms of accommodation with Charles at the expense of the
+troops. In Scotland, at the same time, a coalition was formed between
+the Royalists and a large body of Presbyterians, who regarded the
+doctrines of the Independents with detestation. At length the storm
+burst. There were risings in Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Wales. The
+fleet in the Thames suddenly hoisted the royal colors, stood out to sea,
+and menaced the southern coast. A great Scottish force crossed the
+frontier and advanced into Lancashire. It might well be suspected that
+these movements were contemplated with secret complacency by a majority
+both of the Lords and of the Commons.
+
+But the yoke of the army was not to be so shaken off. While Fairfax
+suppressed the risings in the neighborhood of the capital, Oliver routed
+the Welsh insurgents, and, leaving their castles in ruins, marched
+against the Scots. His troops were few when compared with the invaders;
+but he was little in the habit of counting his enemies. The Scottish
+army was utterly destroyed. A change in the Scottish government
+followed. An administration, hostile to the king, was formed at
+Edinburgh; and Cromwell, more than ever the darling of his soldiers,
+returned in triumph to London.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+England had already ceased to struggle; but the two other kingdoms which
+had been governed by the Stuarts were hostile to the new republic. The
+Independent party was equally odious to the Roman Catholics of Ireland
+and to the Presbyterians of Scotland. Both these countries, lately in
+rebellion against Charles I., now acknowledged the authority of Charles
+II.
+
+But everything yielded to the vigor and ability of Cromwell. In a few
+months he subjugated Ireland as Ireland had never been subjugated
+during the five centuries of slaughter which had elapsed since the
+landing of the first Norman settlers. He resolved to put an end to that
+conflict of races and religions which had so long distracted the island,
+by making the English and Protestant population decidedly predominant.
+For this end he gave the rein to the fierce enthusiasm of his followers,
+waged war resembling that which Israel waged on the Canaanites, smote
+the idolaters with the edge of the sword, so that great cities were left
+without inhabitants, drove many thousands to the Continent, shipped off
+many thousands to the West Indies, and supplied the void thus made, by
+pouring in numerous colonists of the Anglo-Saxon blood and of the
+Calvinistic faith. Strange to say, under that iron rule the conquered
+country began to wear an outward face of prosperity. Districts which had
+recently been as wild as those where the first white settlers of
+Connecticut were contending with the red men, were in a few years
+transformed into the likeness of Kent and Norfolk. New buildings, roads,
+and plantations were everywhere seen. The rent of estates rose fast; and
+soon the English land-owners began to complain that they were met in
+every market by the products of Ireland, and to clamor for protecting
+laws.
+
+From Ireland the victorious chief, who was now in name, as he had long
+been in reality, lord-general of the armies of the commonwealth, turned
+to Scotland. The young king was there. He had consented to profess
+himself a Presbyterian, and to subscribe the Covenant; and, in return
+for these concessions, the austere Puritans who bore sway at Edinburgh
+had permitted him to hold, under their inspection and control, a solemn
+and melancholy court in the long-deserted halls of Holyrood. This mock
+royalty was of short duration. In two great battles Cromwell annihilated
+the military force of Scotland. Charles fled for his life, and, with
+extreme difficulty, escaped the fate of his father. The ancient kingdom
+of the Stuarts was reduced, for the first time, to profound submission.
+Of that independence, so manfully defended against the mightiest and
+ablest of the Plantagenets, no vestige was left. The English Parliament
+made laws for Scotland. The English judges held assizes in Scotland.
+Even that stubborn Church, which has held its own against so many
+governments, scarce dared to utter an audible murmur.
+
+Thus far there had been at least the semblance of harmony between the
+warriors who subjugated Ireland and Scotland, and the politicians who
+sat at Westminster; but the alliance which had been cemented by danger
+was dissolved by victory. The Parliament forgot that it was but the
+creature of the Army. The Army was less disposed than ever to submit to
+the dictation of the Parliament. Indeed, the few members who made up
+what was contemptuously called the Rump of the House of Commons, had no
+more claim than the military chiefs to be esteemed the representatives
+of the nation. The dispute was soon brought to a decisive issue.
+Cromwell filled the house with armed men. The speaker was pulled out of
+his chair, the mace taken from the table, the room cleared, and the door
+locked. The nation, which loved neither of the contending parties, but
+which was forced, in its own despite, to respect the capacity and
+resolution of the general, looked on with patience, if not with
+complacency.
+
+King, Lords, and Commons had now, in turn, been vanquished and
+destroyed, and Cromwell seemed to be left the sole heir of the powers of
+all three. Yet were certain limitations still imposed on him by the very
+army to which he owed his immense authority. That singular body of men
+was, for the most part, composed of zealous republicans. In the act of
+enslaving their country, they had deceived themselves into the belief
+that they were emancipating her. The book which they most venerated
+furnished them with a precedent which was frequently in their mouths. It
+was true that the ignorant and ungrateful nation murmured against its
+deliverers; even so had another chosen nation murmured against the
+leader who brought it, by painful and dreary paths, from the house of
+bondage to the land flowing with milk and honey. Yet had that leader
+rescued his brethren in spite of themselves; nor had he shrunk from
+making terrible examples of those who contemned the proffered freedom,
+and pined for the flesh-pots, the task-masters, and the idolatries of
+Egypt. The object of the warlike saints who surrounded Cromwell was the
+settlement of a free and pious commonwealth. For that end they were
+ready to employ, without scruple, any means, however violent and
+lawless. It was not impossible, therefore, to establish by their aid a
+monarchy absolute in effect; but it was probable that their aid would be
+at once withdrawn from a ruler who, even under strict constitutional
+restraints, should venture to assume the regal name and dignity.
+
+The sentiments of Cromwell were widely different. He was not what he had
+been; nor would it be just to consider the change which his views had
+undergone as the effect merely of selfish ambition. When he came up to
+the Long Parliament, he brought with him from his rural retreat little
+knowledge of books, no experience of great affairs, and a temper galled
+by the long tyranny of the government and of the hierarchy. He had,
+during the thirteen years which followed, gone through a political
+education of no common kind. He had been a chief actor in a succession
+of revolutions. He had been long the soul, and at last the head, of a
+party. He had commanded armies, won battles, negotiated treaties,
+subdued, pacified, and regulated kingdoms. It would have been strange
+indeed if his notions had been still the same as in the days when his
+mind was principally occupied by his fields and his religion, and when
+the greatest events which diversified the course of his life were a
+cattle-fair, or a prayer-meeting at Huntingdon. He saw that some schemes
+of innovation for which he had once been zealous, whether good or bad in
+themselves, were opposed to the general feeling of the country, and
+that, if he persevered in those schemes, he had nothing before him but
+constant troubles, which must be suppressed by the constant use of the
+sword. He therefore wished to restore, in all essentials, that ancient
+constitution which the majority of the people had always loved, and for
+which they now pined. The course afterward taken by Monk was not taken
+by Cromwell. The memory of one terrible day separated the great regicide
+forever from the house of Stuart. What remained was that he should mount
+the ancient English throne, and reign according to the ancient English
+polity. If he could effect this, he might hope that the wounds of the
+lacerated state would heal fast. Great numbers of honest and quiet men
+would speedily rally round him. Those Royalists, whose attachment was
+rather to institutions than to persons, to the kingly office than to
+King Charles I. or King Charles II., would soon kiss the hand of King
+Oliver. The peers, who now remained sullenly at their country houses,
+and refused to take any part in public affairs, would, when summoned to
+their House by the writ of a king in possession, gladly resume their
+ancient functions. Northumberland and Bedford, Manchester and Pembroke,
+would be proud to bear the crown and the spurs, the sceptre and the
+globe, before the restorer of aristocracy. A sentiment of loyalty would
+gradually bind the people to the new dynasty, the royal dignity might
+descend with general acquiescence to his posterity.
+
+The ablest Royalists were of opinion that these views were correct, and
+that, if Cromwell had been permitted to follow his own judgment, the
+exiled line would never have been restored. But his plan was directly
+opposed to the feelings of the only class which he dared not offend. The
+name of king was hateful to the soldiers. Some of them were, indeed,
+unwilling to see the administration in the hands of any single person.
+The great majority, however, were disposed to support their general, as
+elective first magistrate of a commonwealth, against all factions which
+might resist his authority; but they would not consent that he should
+assume the regal title, or that the dignity, which was the just reward
+of his personal merit, should be declared hereditary in his family.[16]
+All that was left to him was to give to the new republic a constitution
+as like the constitution of the old monarchy as the army would bear.
+That his elevation to power might not seem to be his own mere act, he
+convoked a council, composed partly of persons on whose support he could
+depend, and partly of persons whose opposition he might safely defy.
+This assembly, which he called a Parliament, and which the populace
+nicknamed, from one of the most conspicuous members, Barebones's
+Parliament, after exposing itself during a short time to the public
+contempt, surrendered back to the general the powers which it had
+received from him, and left him at liberty to frame a plan of
+government.
+
+         [Footnote 16: It is said that it was largely by the warnings
+         and entreaties of his daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, whom he
+         tenderly loved, that Cromwell was persuaded not to claim the
+         crown.]
+
+How Oliver's Parliaments were constituted, however, was practically of
+little moment; for he possessed the means of conducting the
+administration without their support, and in defiance of their
+opposition. His wish seems to have been to govern constitutionally, and
+to substitute the empire of the laws for that of the sword; but he soon
+found that, hated as he was both by Royalists and Presbyterians, he
+could be safe only by being absolute. The first House of Commons which
+the people elected by his command questioned his authority, and was
+dissolved without having passed a single act. His second House of
+Commons, though it recognized him as Protector, and would gladly have
+made him king, obstinately refused to acknowledge his new lords. He had
+no course left but to dissolve the Parliament. "God," he exclaimed,
+at parting, "be judge between you and me!"
+
+[Illustration: Cromwell's daughter entreats him to refuse the crown.]
+
+Yet was the energy of the Protector's administration in nowise relaxed
+by these dissensions. Those soldiers who would not suffer him to assume
+the kingly title stood by him when he ventured on acts of power as high
+as any English king has ever attempted. The government, therefore,
+though in form a republic, was in truth a despotism, moderated only by
+the wisdom, the sober-mindedness, and the magnanimity of the despot. The
+country was divided into military districts; these districts were placed
+under the command of major-generals. Every insurrectionary movement was
+promptly put down and punished. The fear inspired by the power of the
+sword in so strong, steady, and expert a hand, quelled the spirit both
+of Cavaliers and Levellers. The loyal gentry declared that they were
+still as ready as ever to risk their lives for the old government and
+the old dynasty, if there were the slightest hope of success; but to
+rush at the head of their serving-men and tenants on the pikes of
+brigades victorious in a hundred battles and sieges, would be a frantic
+waste of innocent and honorable blood. Both Royalists and Republicans,
+having no hope in open resistance, began to revolve dark schemes of
+assassination; but the Protector's intelligence was good; his vigilance
+was unremitting; and, whenever he moved beyond the walls of his palace,
+the drawn swords and cuirasses of his trusty body-guards encompassed him
+thick on every side.
+
+Had he been a cruel, licentious, and rapacious prince, the nation might
+have found courage in despair, and might have made a convulsive effort
+to free itself from military domination; but the grievances which the
+country suffered, though such as excited serious discontent, were by no
+means such as impel great masses of men to stake their lives, their
+fortunes, and the welfare of their families against fearful odds. The
+taxation, though heavier than it had been under the Stuarts, was not
+heavy when compared with that of the neighboring states and with the
+resources of England. Property was secure. Even the Cavalier, who
+refrained from giving disturbance to the new settlement, enjoyed in
+peace whatever the civil troubles had left him. The laws were violated
+only in cases where the safety of the Protector's person and government
+were concerned. Justice was administered between man and man with an
+exactness and purity not before known. Under no English government since
+the Reformation had there been so little religious persecution. The
+unfortunate Roman Catholics, indeed, were held to be scarcely within the
+pale of Christian charity; but the clergy of the fallen Anglican Church
+were suffered to celebrate their worship on condition that they would
+abstain from preaching about politics. Even the Jews, whose public
+worship had, ever since the thirteenth century, been interdicted, were,
+in spite of the strong opposition of jealous traders and fanatical
+theologians, permitted to build a synagogue in London.
+
+The Protector's foreign policy at the same time extorted the ungracious
+approbation of those who most detested him. The Cavaliers could scarcely
+refrain from wishing that one who had done so much to raise the fame of
+the nation had been a legitimate king; and the Republicans were forced
+to own that the tyrant suffered none but himself to wrong his country,
+and that, if he had robbed her of liberty, he had at least given her
+glory in exchange. After half a century, during which England had been
+of scarcely more weight in European politics than Venice or Saxony, she
+at once became the most formidable power in the world, dictated terms of
+peace to the United Provinces, avenged the common injuries of
+Christendom on the pirates of Barbary, vanquished the Spaniards by land
+and sea, seized one of the finest West India islands, and acquired on
+the Flemish coast a fortress which consoled the national pride for the
+loss of Calais. She was supreme on the ocean. She was the head of the
+Protestant interest. All the Reformed churches scattered over Roman
+Catholic kingdoms acknowledged Cromwell as their guardian. The Huguenots
+of Languedoc, the shepherds who, in the hamlets of the Alps, professed a
+Protestantism older than that of Augsburg, were secured from oppression
+by the mere terror of that great name. The Pope himself was forced to
+preach humanity and moderation to popish princes; for a voice which
+seldom threatened in vain had declared that, unless favor were shown to
+the people of God, the English guns should be heard in the Castle of St.
+Angelo. In truth, there was nothing which Cromwell had, for his own sake
+and that of his family, so much reason to desire as a general religious
+war in Europe. In such a war he must have been the captain of the
+Protestant armies. The heart of England would have been with him. His
+victories would have been hailed with a unanimous enthusiasm unknown in
+the country since the rout of the Armada, and would have effaced the
+stain which one act, condemned by the general voice of the nation, has
+left on his splendid fame. Unhappily for him, he had no opportunity of
+displaying his admirable military talents except against the inhabitants
+of the British Isles.
+
+While he lived his power stood firm, an object of mingled aversion,
+admiration, and dread to his subjects. Few indeed loved his government;
+but those who hated it most, hated it less than they feared it. Had it
+been a worse government, it might, perhaps, have been overthrown in
+spite of all its strength. Had it been a weaker government, it would
+certainly have been overthrown in spite of all its merits. But it had
+moderation enough to abstain from those oppressions which drive men mad;
+and it had a force and energy which none but men driven mad by
+oppression would venture to encounter.
+
+It has often been affirmed, but apparently with little reason, that
+Oliver died at a time fortunate for his renown, and that, if his life
+had been prolonged, it would probably have closed amid disgraces and
+disasters. It is certain that he was, to the last, honored by his
+soldiers, obeyed by the whole population of the British Islands, and
+dreaded by all foreign powers; that he was laid among the ancient
+sovereigns of England with funeral pomp such as London had never before
+seen, and that he was succeeded by his son Richard as quietly as any
+king had ever been succeeded by any Prince of Wales.
+
+
+
+
+FREDERICK, THE GREAT ELECTOR
+
+(1620-1688)
+
+[Illustration: Frederick. [TN]]
+
+
+Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg surnamed the Great Elector,
+was the son of the Elector George William. In the distracted state of
+Germany, during the Thirty Years' War, and the necessary absence of his
+father with the army, the young prince saw but little of the splendor
+and indulgences of a court, passing the first years of his life in
+retirement with his tutors, who were men of learning and experience, and
+with his mother, first at the castle of Litzlingen, in the forests of
+the Altmark, and afterward at Custrin. The adventures and the singular
+fortunes of the family of his mother (who was sister of Frederick, King
+of Bohemia, husband of the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of
+England), the cruel and barbarous manner in which the war was carried
+on, and the dangers to which he and his family were exposed, necessarily
+made a deep impression on his mind. At the age of fifteen he was sent to
+the University at Leyden, where he especially devoted himself to the
+classics and to history. Of modern languages he was a proficient in
+French, Dutch, and Polish. He was afterward in the camp of Frederick
+Henry, Prince of Orange, during the siege of Breda, and was much noticed
+by the prince for his amiable manners and exemplary conduct, as well as
+for his sound understanding. About this time a widely known society of
+young persons of both sexes (called Media Nocte) endeavored to draw the
+prince into its circle at The Hague; but his friend and tutor, the Baron
+Schulenberg, making him aware of the immoral nature of the society, the
+prince abruptly left one of their convivial meetings, and resolved
+immediately to quit The Hague. The Prince of Orange was much surprised
+at this self-command, and when the prince arrived in the camp before
+Breda, said to him, "Cousin, your flight is a greater proof of heroism
+than if I took Breda; he who so early knows how to command himself will
+always succeed in great deeds." These words, as he himself owned, made a
+deep impression on him.
+
+His father dying in 1640, the young prince found his dominions reduced
+to a most deplorable condition by war and bad government. The exactions
+of Wallenstein in Altmark alone were estimated at twenty millions of
+gold florins; and in a memorial of the magistrate of Prenzlau, it is
+stated that the inhabitants are reduced to such dreadful extremities
+that they not only eat dogs, cats, and even carrion, but that, both in
+the town and country, they attack and kill each other for food. He
+commenced his government with a degree of prudence and wisdom rarely
+found in so young a sovereign. His first care was to correct many crying
+abuses and to restore order in the finances. His attention was then
+directed to foreign affairs. In 1642 he received the investiture of
+Prussia from the King of Poland; in 1643 he concluded a peace with the
+Swedes, on condition of their evacuating the greater part of his
+dominions. At the peace of Munster he was not able to enforce his claims
+to Pomerania and Silesia, but obtained Magdeburg, Wallenstadt, Minden,
+and part of Pomerania.
+
+It is highly to his credit that it was chiefly owing to him, that the
+principle of equal rights and privileges for the two great divisions of
+the Protestant Church was admitted in that famous treaty. Charles
+Gustavus, King of Sweden, appearing emulous of rivalling Gustavus
+Adolphus, the elector concluded an alliance with Holland, and sought the
+friendship of Cromwell and Louis XIV. He was, however, obliged to make
+in 1655 a treaty with the Swedes, in consequence of which he joined in
+the invasion of Poland, and greatly contributed to the victory at
+Warsaw. Austria, Holland, and Poland vehemently protested against this
+alliance with Sweden. Cromwell, however, who believed the Protestant
+cause to be in danger from the King of Poland, sent William Jepson as
+his ambassador to the elector, whom in letters he compliments in the
+highest terms for his service to the Protestant religion. But Russia and
+Austria declaring in favor of Poland, he, by the mediation of Austria,
+concluded a convention with Poland at Wehlau, by one of the stipulations
+of which he obtained the entire sovereignty of Prussia, and in 1678
+completed the conquest of all Pomerania by the taking of Griefswald and
+Stralsund. The death of Charles Gustavus freed him from an adversary who
+would probably have endeavored to prevent the execution of this treaty,
+which was confirmed by the treaty of Oliva. Frederick, now at peace with
+his neighbors, directed all his attention to promote the welfare of his
+subjects by favoring all internal improvements; the ruined towns and
+villages were rebuilt, new roads made, waste lands cultivated, commerce
+encouraged, and many useful establishments founded.
+
+[Illustration: The Great Elector withdraws from the association of the
+Dutch nobility.]
+
+In 1672, however, Holland being threatened by Louis XIV., he concluded a
+treaty with the republic, engaging to furnish 20,000 men for its
+defence. He also contributed to induce the emperor: Denmark, Hesse
+Cassel, and several German princes to join him against France. But
+though his advance into Westphalia induced the French to quit Holland,
+the campaign was rendered unsuccessful by the slowness of the Austrian
+general, and he was forced to abandon Westphalia to the enemy. The
+Austrians leaving him, and the Dutch neglecting to send him subsidies,
+he was obliged to make a convention with France in 1673. The French were
+to evacuate Westphalia and pay him 800,000 livres, he promising to
+withdraw from his alliance with Holland, and not to support the enemies
+of France; yet he reserved to himself the right of assisting the German
+emperor in case of attack. This happened in 1674, when he invaded Alsace
+with 16,000 men, and joined the Imperial army; but the Austrian general,
+Bournonville, avoided a battle, contrary to the advice of Frederick, and
+Turenne receiving reinforcements obliged the Germans to quit Alsace.
+In order to free themselves from Frederick, the French instigated the
+Swedes to invade Pomerania and Altmark, which they attacked in December,
+1674, with 16,000 men. Frederick hastened to his dominions, and
+proceeding with great rapidity and secrecy at the head of only 5,000
+men, he totally defeated 11,000 Swedes at Fehrbellin in 1675, and freed
+his dominions from the enemy. Following up his successes, he took
+Stettin. In January, 1679, he crossed the Frische Haff and the Gulf of
+Courland with his army on sledges over the ice, and surprising the
+Swedes in their winter quarters, compelled them to quit Prussia. He did
+not reap any real advantage from his success, for Louis XIV. insisted
+that he should make peace with Sweden and give up all his conquests; and
+on his refusal, sent an army of 30,000 men to lay waste the duchy of
+Cleves, and city of Minden, so that he was forced to conclude the treaty
+of St. Germain, by which he restored all his conquests to Sweden; the
+French withdrew from his Westphalian dominions, and paid him 300,000
+crowns.
+
+After this, we do not find Frederick again in the field. He was indeed
+engaged in various negotiations; was involved in disputes with France on
+account of its seizure of Strasbourg and Luxembourg; and in consequence
+of his reception of 20,000 French Protestants, who left their country on
+the repeal of the edict of Nantes. Frederick, who had previously
+obtained from his ambassador, von Spanheim, notice of the intended
+measure, had made preparations to receive the fugitives, and sent funds
+to his agents at Frankfort, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, for their
+assistance. In like manner he protected the proscribed Waldenses. Having
+in vain interceded for them in a very affecting letter to the Duke of
+Savoy, he offered to receive 2,000 of them into his dominions. He sent
+8,000 men, in 1686, to assist the emperor against the Turks; having in
+the year preceding renewed his alliance with Holland, when Prince
+William of Orange was preparing for his expedition to England, Frederick
+assisted him with several regiments and Marshal von Schomberg, who
+became so great a favorite with William, and was eventually killed at
+the battle of the Boyne. As another proof of Frederick's enterprising
+spirit, it deserves to be noticed that Spain neglecting to pay him the
+arrears of a subsidy promised him for his co-operation against France,
+he resolved to commence a war by sea against that power; he fitted out
+eight frigates which had been employed against Sweden, and sent them in
+1680 to capture Spanish ships, and they actually took some rich
+merchantmen.
+
+We have not space, nor is it necessary, to detail the proceedings of
+this great prince in consolidating the prosperity of his dominions and
+the welfare of his subjects. He died in April, 1688, leaving to his son
+a much enlarged and highly cultivated territory, a well-filled treasury,
+and an army of 30,000 excellent troops. He was twice married: first, in
+1647, to Louisa Henrietta, Princess of Orange, an amiable and
+accomplished person, author of the celebrated German hymn "Jesus meine
+Zuversicht." She died in 1667. In the following year Frederick married
+Dorothea, Duchess Dowager of Brunswick Lueneberg; but though an excellent
+and virtuous princess, she was not liked by the people, chiefly because
+she was on ill terms with her step-children, especially the
+crown-prince. The character of Frederick, both in public and private
+life, has always been highly esteemed. He was kind, generous, fond of
+society, and, though rather quick in his temper, extremely placable. He
+was the real founder of the Prussian monarchy; and as a sovereign he
+appears to have justly merited the surname of the Great Elector.
+
+
+
+
+LOUIS XIV.[17]
+
+By OLIVER OPTIC
+
+(1638-1715)
+
+         [Footnote 17: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Louis XIV. [TN]]
+
+
+On September 16, 1638, Paris was in a state of intense excitement and
+rejoicing. The booming of cannon resounded through the city, the people
+gave thanks in their churches, all the palaces of the nobility were
+illuminated, and so brilliant were the bonfires and torches in the
+evening that one could see to read on both sides of the Seine. The poor
+were feasted as never before, and there was no limit to the enthusiasm.
+
+The occasion of this unbounded rejoicing was the birth of an heir to the
+throne of France. Louis XIII., the son of Henry IV., the first of the
+Bourbons, was king. He had married the daughter of Philip III. of Spain,
+who was called Anne of Austria, after her mother. She was one of the
+most beautiful women of her time; but for twenty-two years she had lived
+nearly in a state of separation from her husband, and no living heir to
+the throne had been born. The king and the queen were not harmonious;
+and after the lapse of this long period, the birth of a son was regarded
+as an extraordinary, if not a miraculous event, especially by the devout
+people of the nation, who called the child the "God-given."
+
+Louis XIII. was personally a brave man, and had some good qualities; but
+as a ruler he was weak and incapable of governing his kingdom. He
+admitted Cardinal Richelieu to his cabinet, and the astute politician
+became his prime-minister, and was the actual ruler of France. The king
+fully appreciated the vast abilities of his great minister, even while
+he feared, if he did not hate him, and became but a pliant tool in the
+hands of the greatest statesman of his time.
+
+It is said that Richelieu was fascinated by the beauty and grace of Anne
+of Austria, and that she made a bitter enemy of the minister by
+repelling his courtesies. Be this as it may, they were never friends,
+except so far as the relations of state compelled them to be such. He
+died in 1642, naming Cardinal Mazarin as his successor. Before his death
+he had built up the power of France, and won for her an influential
+position among the governments of Europe. But he had repressed
+constitutional liberty, and severely burdened the people with taxation
+to carry on the wars he advocated.
+
+Two years after the birth of the Dauphin, as the heir to the throne was
+then called, another son was born to the king, the Duke of Anjou, who
+afterward became the Duke of Orleans. The brother of the king is called
+"Monsieur" in France, by courtesy; and he is so designated in various
+works of the time. Louis XIII. died when his two sons were respectively
+five and three years old, naming the queen as regent during the minority
+of the young king. Richelieu had died the year before, and Mazarin had
+been installed in his place.
+
+The Palais-Royal, which claims the attention of every visitor in Paris
+at the present time, was built by Richelieu for his own residence, and
+was called the Palais-Cardinal. At his death he bequeathed it to the
+king, and it became the residence of Anne of Austria and her two
+children. The official in charge of the palaces represented that it was
+not proper for the king to live in the mansion of a subject, and the
+inscription bearing the former name was removed, and that of the present
+day was substituted for it; which seemed to many to be an act of
+ingratitude to the statesman who had presented it to the crown. The
+chamber which had been occupied by Richelieu was given to Louis, then
+only five years old. It was a small apartment, for the cardinal built
+more for effect upon the world than for his own personal comfort; but it
+was conveniently located for the proper care of the young king, for
+whose sake alone the name of the palace had been changed.
+
+The Palais-Royal, as enlarged and beautified from time to time by its
+first occupant, who was ambitious to be more magnificently lodged than
+the nominal sovereign at the Louvre, was the most splendid royal
+residence of the time. Corneille, the greatest tragic poet of France,
+said of it in one of his poems, that "the entire universe cannot present
+the equal of the magnificent exterior of the Palais-Cardinal;" though,
+as the stranger looks upon it to-day, the praise of the French
+Shakespeare seems to be extravagant.
+
+The apartments of the queen-regent were vastly more extensive and
+elegant than those of his little majesty, and she caused a great deal of
+money and good taste to be expended in their further ornamentation.
+Cardinal Mazarin also went to reside with the royal family in this
+luxurious palace, and his rooms looked out upon the Rue des Bons Enfants
+(the street of the Good Children), though the name was hardly applicable
+to those who dwelt in the place. Louis was provided with the
+surroundings of royalty on a small scale, such as valets, and young
+nobles as children of honor, even while the young king was pinched in
+his personal comforts and luxuries. Until he was seven years old Louis
+was mostly in the hands of the feminine portion of the household, like
+other children. At this age the governor appointed to take charge of
+him, the sub-governor, the preceptor, and the valets, entered upon their
+special functions; the king was practically emancipated from the
+nursery.
+
+Laporte, a valet who had long been on duty in the royal family, and had
+served a term in the Bastille for his fidelity, desired to read to the
+king, when he went to bed, something besides fairy tales; if his
+juvenile majesty went to sleep the reading would be lost; if not,
+something instructive would be retained in his memory. He read the
+history of France, and his charge was interested in it. Permission had
+been obtained of the preceptor, but Mazarin did not approve of the
+reading. One evening, to escape from the crowd, the cardinal passed
+through the room during the reading. Louis closed his eyes and pretended
+to be asleep. He had already taken a strong aversion to the minister,
+like the greater portion of the people in general.
+
+On one occasion he called the cardinal "the Grand Turk," and the remark
+was reported to his mother, who sent for him and scolded him severely
+for it. The queen-regent did not share the general dislike of the
+minister, for they were on the most intimate terms of friendship. It was
+not a matter of record, but it was believed by many, that Mazarin had
+been privately married to Anne of Austria. The minister had brought his
+relatives to Paris, where he was in a situation to advance their
+fortunes. One of his youngest nephews had been appointed an _enfant
+d'honneur_ of the king, who did not confine his dislike to the minister,
+but extended it to his family. Two of these were designated to remain
+with his majesty when he went to bed, and Laporte had been instructed by
+the queen to give each of them a stand with two candles in it, as an
+emblem of office and a token of honor. The king had the selection, and
+he forbade Laporte to give it to the young Mazarin.
+
+The minister was one of the most adroit and cunning diplomats of his
+time, or any time. He was an Italian by birth, and had been in the
+military and diplomatic service of the Pope, in which capacity he had
+been recognized as a man of transcendent abilities by Richelieu, who had
+retained him in France, where he became a naturalized Frenchman. He was
+the most obsequious of courtiers, and he made himself indispensable to
+the queen, who nominally wielded the executive power of the government.
+He filled one of the most difficult political positions imaginable, and
+did it with consummate skill, though he very nearly sacrificed himself
+to the indignation of the people and the nobility in the accomplishment
+of his purposes.
+
+Richelieu had deprived the representatives of the people of many of
+their powers and liberties, and the Parliament had attempted to recover
+them under Mazarin. He caused their leaders to be arrested, which
+initiated the war of the Fronde, consisting more of a series of riots
+than of organized warfare. This disturbance compelled the court to
+retire to St. Germain, where Louis was born. The young king was conveyed
+there under the protection of the Royal Guard, which forms an exciting
+scene in the series of Dumas, Pere, "Les Trois Mousquetaires." Though
+humiliated and banished, Mazarin triumphed in the end. He had the
+hardihood to arrest the Great Conde, who had made the rebellion a
+success at one time. The minister was driven from the seat of his power
+into exile; but diplomacy accomplished what soldiers could not, and
+after an absence of a year he returned, and established himself so
+securely that he held his office to the day of his death.
+
+Under Mazarin's direction and skilful intriguing at home and abroad, the
+influence of France was largely increased beyond her own borders, and
+the way was paved for triumphs to be achieved after he had himself
+passed away. In the family, as it were, of such a statesman and such an
+intriguer, were passed the earliest years of the life of Louis XIV. As
+the skilful diplomat had overcome the people and the nobility, changing
+them from the bitterest foes to at least the semblance of friends, so
+the hatred of the young king was buried under his respect for the vast
+ability of the minister.
+
+Louis was brought up in the midst of political storms and in the turmoil
+of civil war. Mazarin was avaricious, and carried his economical notions
+in household matters to a ridiculous extent, limiting the young king's
+wardrobe, furniture, garments for underwear and bed use, so that some of
+the latter did not half cover the limbs of the growing boy, and he was
+compelled to sleep on a bed covered with ragged sheets. He was a bright
+boy, and being a king, he realized that he was not supported in the
+style that became his exalted condition. He was inclined to military
+recreations and to athletic exercises. He came very early to an
+understanding of what was necessary to support his character as the
+ruler of a great nation, and as a boy he cultivated the graces of social
+life, and was always a gentleman. He was a good horseman, and delighted
+in this exercise.
+
+The civil war had "hunted him from pillar to post," and it was not till
+he was a dozen years old that he was permanently settled down in Paris.
+All these events of his early life had left a powerful impression upon
+his mind. It was the custom for the children of honor and the king to
+exchange little presents among themselves. One of these gifts to the
+juvenile monarch was a golden cannon drawn by a flea, which seemed to
+indicate a knowledge of his tastes. Another present was a case of
+surgical instruments, containing all the implements, but weighing only a
+few grains; and doubtless it suggested the horrors of the battle-field.
+Another present was a miniature sword of agate, ornamented with gold and
+rubies. These were all given to him by the same young noble; in return
+for them Louis was willing to lend the giver the cross-bow of which he
+made use himself.
+
+"Kings give what they lend, sire," interposed a governess; and then
+Louis presented it to him, wishing it was something more valuable; for
+his pocket-money evidently did not permit him to indulge in such
+expensive gifts as those he had received; but such as they were, he gave
+them with his whole heart. The recipient of the gift kept it, and
+regarded it as vastly more valuable than if it had been covered with
+gold and diamonds from another.
+
+September 7, 1651, was a memorable day in the annals of France, and if
+it was not marked by the popular rejoicings which had greeted the birth
+of the king, it was because the people were worn out by the war of the
+Frondeurs. The grand master of ceremonies had notified the Parliament
+that Louis XIV. would take the "seat of justice," the place of the
+monarch in this body on solemn and important occasions, on that day, for
+the purpose of declaring his majority, and assuming the government.
+There was a great deal of simple fiction in the formalities, for his
+majesty was only a boy of fourteen, with far less education than is
+usually obtained by one of that age at the present time, and was
+incapable of ruling over a great nation.
+
+There was even some fiction in regard to his age, for though he had
+entered his fourteenth year, he was hardly thirteen years old. If a boy
+of that age were transferred from his place in school to the presidency
+of the United States to-day, the cases would be parallel. The education
+of the juvenile king had been neglected, perhaps intentionally, by
+Mazarin for his cunning purposes, and though he had been instructed in
+all the forms and ceremonials of the court, he was deficient in his
+knowledge of the solid branches of learning, even for one in his sphere
+at that age. But the government, so far as he was concerned, was all a
+fiction. It was to be carried on in his name in the future as it had
+been in the name of his mother, the queen-regent, before, though neither
+of them was the actual ruler. Mazarin was more than "the power behind
+the throne;" he was practically the throne itself.
+
+At seven o'clock in the morning, six heralds, clothed in crimson velvet
+covered with _fleurs de lis_, the royal emblem of France, mounted on
+elegantly caparisoned horses, led the court to the palace where the
+Parliament assembled. The king's trumpeters came next to the heralds,
+and they were followed by the governors of provinces, two hundred of the
+nobility, and the officers of the royal household, escorted and flanked
+by several companies of light horsemen. Pages and valets had been
+dressed in new liveries, and the spectacle was as magnificent as the
+occasion required.
+
+Then came the boy-king, as a chronicler of the period describes him,
+"with his august countenance beaming with a gentle dignity truly royal,
+and with his natural politeness, calling forth from the assembled
+multitude that lined the streets redoubled good wishes for his health
+and prosperity." The youth who played the principal part in this great
+ceremonial was dressed in elegant garments, so covered with gold
+embroideries that the color and material could hardly be discerned. He
+was mounted on a beautiful and high-spirited horse, which pranced and
+curvetted as if aware that he bore a king; and Louis managed him so
+skilfully and gracefully that he won the admiration of the spectators.
+
+The king was received at the entrance of the palace chapel, where the
+court attended divine service, by the Bishop of Bayeux, who made an
+address to him, to which he listened, apparently in a thoughtful mood,
+and then ushered him into the chapel, where he heard low mass. Then he
+took his place in the hall of parliament. The minutest particulars of
+the scene that surrounded him when he took his seat are given in the
+memoirs of some who were present. Seated, and with his head covered,
+which was alone his privilege, the young king addressed the assembled
+representatives of the people:
+
+"Gentlemen, I have come before my Parliament to inform you that, in
+obedience to the law of my kingdom, I desire to take upon myself the
+government of my country; and with the blessing of God, I trust that it
+will be conducted with justice and piety. My chancellor will state to
+you more particularly my intentions."
+
+The official indicated returned to his place and eloquently enlarged
+upon the address of his majesty in a long discourse. The queen-mother
+then spoke to him, telling him that she had taken charge of his
+education and of the government in accordance with the expressed wish of
+the late king, her honored lord, and in obedience to the law she passed
+over to him the government of the kingdom, and hoped that the grace of
+God, with his own power and prudence, would render his reign a happy
+one. The king thanked her for the care she had given to his education
+and the government of the kingdom, and begged her to continue to give
+him her good counsels, saying that she should be his chief adviser.
+
+His brother, the Duke of Anjou, then approached him, kneeled, kissed his
+hand, and protested his fidelity. The Duke of Orleans then followed the
+example of his nephew, as did a multitude of princes, dukes, marshals,
+ecclesiastics, and all the officers of state. The royal party returned
+to the Palais-Royal amidst the unanimous acclamations of the multitude,
+and the cries of "Vive le roi" continued all night, with bonfires and
+illuminations. The boy of fourteen was now actually the king, so far as
+forms could make him so, though he was to remain not much more than a
+cipher for several years to come.
+
+The war of the Fronde lasted about eight years, and was carried on in
+the interest of the people against the court, which had overburdened
+them with taxes. The word "_fronde_" means a sling, and was applied to
+those who criticised the government then and in later years. The
+Parliament refused to impose the taxes required by the regent, which
+meant Mazarin, and some of its members were arrested and imprisoned.
+Some of the most distinguished nobles in France were implicated with the
+opposition, including the great Conde, the king's uncle. Mazarin's
+politic yielding, which alone saved him from destruction, assisted in
+restoring peace. Conde was in arms against the government, but he was
+defeated by Turenne. The people and the nobles were tired of the strife,
+and a general amnesty was proclaimed in 1653.
+
+Though Louis was well instructed in his religious duties, was entirely
+familiar with court etiquette, and knew enough about military affairs to
+enable him to review his troops, he knew little or nothing about the
+politics of his kingdom, for he had been purposely kept in ignorance of
+affairs of state. But he manifested a sound judgment and considerable
+discernment even at this early age. He accompanied Turenne in a campaign
+against Conde, and was present at the siege of Arras, which put an end
+to the Fronde contests. Some of the Frondeurs had injudiciously called
+in the aid of Spain to their cause, and that brought on war between the
+two nations. Peace was made in 1659, and one of the articles of the
+treaty stipulated the marriage of Louis XIV. and Marie Therese,
+daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, and they were married a year later.
+This princess was good-natured and beautiful, but this was about all
+that could be said of her, for she was rather weak in intellect, and was
+not such a queen as "Louis the Great" needed. His majesty was not
+attached to her, though he invariably treated her with the most
+ceremonious respect, and extended to her the utmost kindness and
+consideration.
+
+Though the king had a certain respect for the proprieties of his
+position, he lived in a period of the greatest immorality and license,
+while he attended strictly to his formal religious duties. Judged by any
+standard of the morals of more modern times, the verdict of average
+citizens would be against him. He was surrounded by dissolute men, and
+some, who ought to have protected him from the assaults of vice, placed
+him in its way. He was no worse in this respect than even Richelieu and
+Mazarin, not to mention his mother and many of the most noted men of his
+time. This is not the place to detail the king's gallantries, for they
+would fill a volume.
+
+When Louis was twenty-three years of age, Cardinal Mazarin died, having
+ruled the nation for eighteen years; but ten of them were after the king
+had come to his majority, and the minister had discovered that he had a
+will of his own, incompetent as he then was to hold the reins of
+government. Louis went to see him in his final hours, and asked him for
+his last counsels. "Sire," replied the dying cardinal, "see that you
+respect yourself, and others will respect you; never have another first
+minister; employ Colbert in all things in which you need the services of
+an intelligent and devoted man." And the king followed this advice, and
+perhaps Mazarin gave it because he understood so well the inclination of
+Louis.
+
+Mazarin died possessed of an immense fortune, which was not generally
+believed to have been honestly acquired. He was a usurer, though he
+could be very liberal when his policy demanded. On his death-bed his
+confessor warned him that he was eternally lost if he did not restore
+whatever wealth he had fraudulently accumulated; but the dying cardinal
+declared that he had nothing which had not been bestowed upon him by the
+bounty of the king. His fortune was estimated at fifty millions of
+francs, or about ten millions of dollars, a vast sum for that time. He
+gave the bulk of it to his nieces and nephews, with presents to members
+of the royal family, and eighteen large diamonds to the crown, called
+"the Mazarins."
+
+Like Richelieu, he had built a palace on the Seine, which he gave to the
+State, and the Palais Mazarin is now occupied by the French Academy.
+This act and the creation of a dukedom were to perpetuate his name. He
+was the owner of one of the original twenty-five Bibles printed by
+Gutenberg, which is called by Mazarin's name, and was once sold for
+about twenty thousand dollars.
+
+[Illustration: Moliere at breakfast with Louis XIV.]
+
+After the death of the great minister, officials of the government
+desired to know to whom they were to apply for instructions, and the
+king promptly replied that they were to address themselves to him. Louis
+had hitherto devoted himself almost wholly to the pleasures of his
+dissolute age, and he astonished his people and the nations of Europe by
+assuming in reality the entire control of the affairs of state, which he
+retained to the end of his life. He proceeded at once to examine into
+the finances of the nation, and appointed Colbert, as Mazarin had
+advised, minister of this department. He succeeded Fouquet, a brilliant
+man who had amassed enormous wealth by robbing the treasury. Louis was
+firm and resolute in carrying out his will, and he caused the arrest of
+the peculating minister immediately after a magnificent fete he had
+given in honor of his sovereign. He was convicted and sentenced to
+imprisonment for life.
+
+Colbert did not disappoint the king, and the measures recommended by him
+at once improved the finances, stimulated the commerce of the country,
+established extensive manufactures, and filled the treasury. France was
+in the highest degree prosperous as a nation. Louis was arbitrary and
+absolute. His most notable saying, "_L'etat c'est moi_" (I am the
+State), was fully realized in his administration. He made war and made
+peace at his own pleasure, and, as monarchs are measured, he was
+entitled to the appellation of Louis le Grand, chiselled on the
+triumphal arches of Paris to perpetuate his glory. In the later years of
+his reign his wars made serious inroads upon the treasury, and they were
+not always successful. The building of the immense and extravagant
+palace of Versailles, with its surroundings, costing a billion francs,
+was an act of folly often condemned, and was one of the burdens which
+broke down the treasury of the nation. Colbert was dead, and the king,
+with Louvois, his over-liberal minister, dissipated the resources he had
+collected.
+
+Marie Therese, the queen, died in 1683. He afterward married Madame de
+Maintenon, then the widow of the lame and deformed poet Scarron, who had
+rescued her from poverty. She had a powerful influence over the king,
+which was unfortunate for him, for she was a bigot, though a better
+woman than most of those who had been his intimates. Throughout his
+reign Louis maintained the most severe system of court etiquette. He
+regarded himself as the absolute owner of his realm, and the arbiter of
+the existence of all his subjects. His habits were methodical. He rose
+at eight, and was dressed by his valets in the presence of many
+courtiers, after he had performed his devotions. He breakfasted at ten,
+and dined alone at one, waited upon by the highest officers of the
+court. His presence awed those who came before him.
+
+He patronized and encouraged poets, authors, and artists; and Moliere,
+both author and actor, was a great favorite with him, and appears to
+have been the only man of his profession who was ever admitted to the
+honor of dining with the king. Though Louis was not known to make a joke
+himself, he greatly enjoyed the witty conversation of Moliere, who is
+commemorated in Paris by a fountain and street named after him.
+
+The last years of the reign of Louis XIV. are in strong contrast with
+the glorious period of the zenith of his prosperity. Several bloody
+defeats of his armies darkened the military splendor of his reign, the
+treasury was well-nigh bankrupt, and his court for the speedy trial and
+punishment of offenders, political or otherwise, had estranged the
+people; but he remained arbitrary and absolute to the end. At the age of
+seventy-seven he died, after intense suffering, in 1715. He died a great
+king, but not a great man.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+WILLIAM PENN
+
+(1644-1718)
+
+[Illustration: William Penn. [TN]]
+
+
+William Penn was born in London, October 14, 1644. He was the son of a
+naval officer of the same name, who served with distinction both in the
+Protectorate and after the Restoration, and who was much esteemed by
+Charles II. and the Duke of York. At the age of fifteen he was entered
+as a gentleman-commoner at Christchurch, Oxford. He had not been long in
+residence, when he received, from the preaching of Thomas Loe, his first
+bias toward the doctrines of the Quakers; and in conjunction with some
+fellow-students he began to withdraw from attendance on the Established
+Church, and to hold private prayer-meetings. For this conduct Penn and
+his friends were fined by the college for non-conformity: and the former
+was soon involved in more serious censure by his ill-governed zeal, in
+consequence of an order from the king that the ancient custom of wearing
+surplices should be revived. This seemed to Penn an infringement of the
+simplicity of Christian worship; whereupon he, with some friends, tore
+the surplices from the backs of those students who appeared in them. For
+this act of violence, totally inconsistent, it is to be observed, with
+the principles of toleration which regulated his conduct in after life,
+he and they were very justly expelled.
+
+Admiral Penn, who, like most sailors, possessed a quick temper and high
+notions of discipline and obedience, was little pleased with this event,
+and still less satisfied with his son's grave demeanor, and avoidance of
+the manners and ceremonies of polite life. Arguments failing, he had
+recourse to blows, and as a last resource, he turned his son out of
+doors; but soon relented so far as to equip him, in 1662, for a journey
+to France, in hope that the gayety of that country would expel his
+new-fashioned and, as he regarded them, fanatical notions. Paris,
+however, soon became wearisome to William Penn, and he spent a
+considerable time at Saumur, for the sake of the instruction and company
+of Moses Amyrault, an eminent Protestant divine. Here he confirmed and
+improved his religious impressions, and at the same time acquired, from
+the insensible influence of those who surrounded him, an increased
+polish and courtliness of demeanor, which greatly gratified the admiral
+on his return home in 1664.
+
+Admiral Penn went to sea in 1664, and remained two years on service.
+During this time the external effects of his son's residence in France
+had worn away, and he had returned to those grave habits, and that rule
+of associating only with religious people, which had before given his
+father so much displeasure. To try the effect of absence and change of
+associates, Admiral Penn sent William to manage his estates in Ireland,
+a duty which the latter performed with satisfaction both to himself and
+his employer. But it chanced that, on a visit to Cork, he again attended
+the preaching of Thomas Loe, by whose exhortations he was deeply
+impressed. From this time he began to frequent the Quakers' meetings;
+and in September, 1667, he was imprisoned, with others, under the
+persecuting laws which then disgraced the statute-book. Upon application
+to the higher authorities, he was soon released. Soon after the admiral
+again turned him out of doors.
+
+In 1668, he began to preach, and in the same year he published his first
+work, "Truth Exalted, etc." We cannot here notice his very numerous
+works, of which the titles run, for the most part, to an extraordinary
+length; but "The Sandy Foundation Shaken," published in the same year,
+claims notice as having led to his first public persecution. He was
+detained in prison for seven months, and treated with much severity. In
+1669 he had the satisfaction of being reconciled to his father. He was
+one of the first sufferers by the passing of the Conventicle Act, in
+1670. He was imprisoned in Newgate, and tried for preaching to a
+seditious and riotous assembly in Gracechurch Street; and this trial is
+remarkable and celebrated in criminal jurisprudence for the firmness
+with which he defended himself, and still more for the admirable courage
+and constancy with which the jury maintained the verdict of acquittal
+which they pronounced.
+
+In the same year died Sir William Penn, in perfect harmony with his son,
+toward whom he in the end felt the most cordial regard and esteem, and
+to whom he bequeathed an estate computed at L1,500 a year--a large sum
+in that age. Toward the end of the year he was again imprisoned in
+Newgate for six months, the statutable penalty for refusing to take the
+oath of allegiance, which was maliciously tendered to him by a
+magistrate. This appears to have been the last absolute persecution for
+religion's sake which he endured. Though his poor brethren continued to
+suffer imprisonment in the stocks, fines, and whipping, as the penalty
+of their peaceable meetings for divine worship, the wealthy proprietor,
+though he travelled largely, both in England and abroad, and labored
+both in writing and in preaching, as the missionary of his sect, both
+escaped injury, and acquired reputation and esteem by his
+self-devotion. To the favor of the king and the Duke of York he had a
+hereditary claim, which appears always to have been cheerfully
+acknowledged; and an instance of the rising consideration in which he
+was held appears in his being admitted to plead, before a committee of
+the House of Commons, the request of the Quakers that their solemn
+affirmation should be admitted in the place of an oath.
+
+Penn married in 1672, and took up his abode at Rickmansworth, in
+Hertfordshire. In 1677 we find him removed to Worminghurst, in Sussex,
+which long continued to be his place of residence. His first engagement
+in the plantation of America was in 1676, in consequence of being chosen
+arbitrator in a dispute between two quakers who had become jointly
+concerned in the colony of New Jersey.
+
+In these transactions he had the opportunity of contemplating the
+glorious results which might be hoped for from a colony founded with no
+interested views, but on the principles of universal peace, toleration,
+and liberty; and he felt an earnest desire to be the instrument in so
+great a work, more especially as it held out a prospect of deliverance
+to his persecuted Quaker brethren in England, by giving them a free and
+happy asylum in a foreign land. Circumstances favored his wish. The
+crown was indebted to him L16,000 for money advanced by the late admiral
+for the naval service. Accordingly, Penn received, in 1681, a grant by
+charter of that extensive province, named Pennsylvania by Charles
+himself, in honor of the admiral.
+
+He immediately drew up and published "Some Account of Pennsylvania,
+etc.;" and then "Certain Conditions or Concessions, etc.," to be agreed
+on between himself and those who wished to purchase land in the
+province. These having been accepted by many persons, he proceeded to
+frame the rough sketch of a constitution, on which he proposed to base
+the charter of the province. The price fixed on land was forty
+shillings, with the annual quit-rent of one shilling, for one hundred
+acres; and it was provided that no one should, in word or deed, affront
+or wrong any Indian without incurring the same penalty as if the offence
+had been committed against a fellow-planter; that strict precautions
+should be taken against fraud in the quality of goods sold to them; and
+that all differences between the two nations should be adjudged by
+twelve men, six of each. And he declares his intention "to leave myself
+and my successors no power of doing mischief; that the will of one man
+may not hinder the good of a whole country." It was this constitution,
+substantially, which Burke, in his "Account of the European Settlements
+in America," describes as "that noble charter of privileges, by which he
+made them as free as any people in the world, and which has since drawn
+such vast numbers of so many different persuasions and such various
+countries to put themselves under the protection of his laws. He made
+the most perfect freedom, both religious and civil, the basis of his
+establishment; and this has done more toward the settling of the
+province, and toward the settling of it in a strong and permanent
+manner, than the wisest regulations could have done on any other plan."
+
+In 1682 a number of settlers, principally Quakers, having been already
+sent out, Penn himself embarked for Pennsylvania, leaving his wife and
+children in England. On occasion of this parting, he addressed to them a
+long and affectionate letter, which presents a very beautiful picture of
+his domestic character, and affords a curious insight into the minute
+regularity of his daily habits. He landed on the banks of the Delaware
+in October, and forthwith summoned an assembly of the freemen of the
+province, by whom the frame of government, as it had been promulgated in
+England, was accepted. Penn's principles did not suffer him to consider
+his title to the land as valid without the consent of the natural owners
+of the soil. He had instructed persons to negotiate a treaty of sale
+with the Indian nations before his own departure from England; and one
+of his first acts was to hold that memorable assembly, to which the
+history of the world offers none alike, at which this bargain was
+ratified, and a strict league of amity established. We do not find
+specified the exact date of this meeting, which took place under an
+enormous elm-tree, near the site of Philadelphia, and of which a few
+particulars only have been preserved by the uncertain record of
+tradition. Well and faithfully was that treaty of friendship kept by the
+wild denizens of the woods; "a friendship," says Proud, the historian of
+Pennsylvania, "which for the space of more than seventy years was never
+interrupted, or so long as the Quakers retained power in the
+government."
+
+Penn remained in America until the middle of 1684. During this time much
+was done toward bringing the colony into prosperity and order. Twenty
+townships were established, containing upward of seven thousand
+Europeans; magistrates were appointed; representatives, as prescribed by
+the constitution, were chosen, and the necessary public business
+transacted. In 1683 Penn undertook a journey of discovery into the
+interior: and he has given an interesting account of the country in its
+wild state, in a letter written home to the Society of Free Traders to
+Pennsylvania. He held frequent conferences with the Indians, and
+contracted treaties of friendship with nineteen distinct tribes. His
+reasons for returning to England appear to have been twofold; partly the
+desire to settle a dispute between himself and Lord Baltimore,
+concerning the boundary of their provinces, but chiefly the hope of
+being able, by his personal influence, to lighten the sufferings and
+ameliorate the treatment of the Quakers in England. He reached England
+in October, 1684. Charles II. died in February, 1685. But this was
+rather favorable to Penn's credit at court; for beside that James
+appears to have felt a sincere regard for him, he required for his own
+church that toleration which Penn wished to see extended to all alike.
+The same credit, and the natural and laudable affection and gratitude
+toward the Stuart family which he never dissembled, caused much trouble
+to him after the Revolution. He was continually suspected of plotting to
+restore the exiled dynasty; was four times arrested, and as often
+discharged in the total absence of all evidence against him. During the
+years 1691, 1692, and part of 1693, he remained in London, living, to
+avoid offence, in great seclusion; in the latter year he was heard in
+his own defence before the king and council, and informed that he need
+apprehend no molestation or injury.
+
+The affairs of Pennsylvania fell into some confusion during Penn's long
+absence. Even in the peaceable sect of Quakers there were ambitious,
+bustling, and selfish men; and Penn was not satisfied with the conduct
+either of the representative Assembly, or of those to whom he had
+delegated his own powers. He changed the latter two or three times,
+without effecting the restoration of harmony; and these troubles gave a
+pretext for depriving him of his powers as governor, in 1693. The real
+cause was probably the suspicion entertained of his treasonable
+correspondence with James II. But he was reinstated in August, 1694, by
+a royal order, in which it was complimentarily expressed that the
+disorders complained of were produced entirely by his absence. Anxious
+as he was to return, he did not find an opportunity till 1699; the
+interval was chiefly employed in religious travel through England and
+Ireland, and in the labor of controversial writing, from which he seldom
+had a long respite. His course as a philanthropist on his return to
+America is honorably marked by an endeavor to ameliorate the condition
+of Negro slaves. The society of Quakers in Pennsylvania had already come
+to a resolution, that the buying, selling, and holding men in slavery
+was inconsistent with the tenets of the Christian religion; and
+following up this honorable declaration, Penn had no difficulty in
+obtaining for the negroes free admission into the regular meetings for
+religious worship, and in procuring that other meetings should be holden
+for their particular benefit. The Quakers, therefore, merit our respect
+as the earliest, as well as some of the most zealous, emancipators.
+
+The governor returned to England in 1701, to oppose a scheme agitated in
+Parliament for abolishing the proprietary governments and placing the
+colonies immediately under royal control; the bill, however, was dropped
+before he arrived. He enjoyed Anne's favor, as he had that of her father
+and uncle, and resided much in the neighborhood of the court, at
+Kensington and Knightsbridge. In his religious labors he continued
+constant, as heretofore. He was much harassed by a lawsuit, the result
+of too much confidence in a dishonest steward; which being decided
+against him, he was obliged for a time to reside within the Rules of the
+Fleet Prison. This, and the expenses in which he had been involved by
+Pennsylvania, reduced him to distress, and in 1709 he mortgaged the
+province for L6,600. In 1712 he agreed to sell his rights to the
+government for L12,000, but was rendered unable to complete the
+transaction by three apoplectic fits, which followed each other in quick
+succession. He survived, however, in a tranquil and happy state, though
+with his bodily and mental vigor much broken, until July 30, 1718, on
+which day he died at his seat at Rushcomb, in Berkshire, where he had
+resided for some years.
+
+His first wife died in 1693. He married a second time in 1696; and left
+a family of children by both wives, to whom he bequeathed his landed
+property in Europe and America. His rights of government he left in
+trust to the Earls of Oxford and Powlett, to be disposed of; but no sale
+being ever made, the government, with the title of Proprietaries,
+devolved on the surviving sons of the second family.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 3 of 8, by Various
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