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+Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8
+       A series of pen and pencil sketches of the lives of more
+       than 200 of the most prominent personages in History
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Charles F. Horne
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26422]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT MEN, FAMOUS WOMEN, VOL. 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine P. Travers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Captions marked with [TN] and the table of contents have been added
+while producing this file.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Repulsed at Torgau--Frederick waiting for morning.]
+
+
+
+
+GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN
+
+
+_A Series of Pen and Pencil Sketches of_
+
+THE LIVES OF MORE THAN 200 OF THE MOST PROMINENT PERSONAGES IN HISTORY
+
+
+VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1894, BY SELMAR HESS
+
+edited by Charles F. Horne
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's arm.]
+
+New-York: Selmar Hess Publisher
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
+
+
+  SUBJECT                          AUTHOR                         PAGE
+
+  CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN,     _General John Mitchell,_             211
+  ROBERT, LORD CLIVE,         _W. C. Taylor, LL.D.,_               244
+  STEPHEN DECATUR,            _Edward S. Ellis, A.M.,_             318
+  GEORGE DEWEY,               _Major-General Joseph Wheeler,_      402
+  PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY,     _G. P. R. James,_                    223
+  DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT,     _L. P. Brockett, A.M.,_              379
+  FREDERICK THE GREAT,        _Major-General John Mitchell,_       237
+  GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI,                                              389
+  ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT,      _Oliver Optic,_                      343
+  SAM HOUSTON,                _Amelia E. Barr,_                    331
+  THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON,    _Marion Harland,_                    373
+  PAUL JONES,                                                      301
+  FRANÇOIS KELLERMANN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE,                          251
+  JAMES LAWRENCE,                                                  313
+  ROBERT EDMUND LEE,          _General Viscount Wolseley,_         363
+  Letter from Lee to his son on the subject of "Duty,"             372
+  FRANCIS MARION,                                                  296
+  JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH,  _L. Drake,_                          217
+  FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT VON MOLTKE,                                  395
+  NAPOLEON BONAPARTE,         _Colonel Clayton, R.A.,_             262
+  LORD HORATIO NELSON,                                             279
+  MICHEL NEY, MARSHAL OF FRANCE,
+                              _Louise Chandler Moulton,_           255
+  OLIVER HAZARD PERRY,                                             325
+  DAVID DIXON PORTER,                                              387
+  ISRAEL PUTNAM,                                                   284
+  WINFIELD SCOTT,             _Hon. Theodore Roosevelt,_           338
+  PHILIP HENRY SHERIDAN,                                           358
+  WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN,   _Elbridge S. Brooks,_                352
+  TECUMSEH,                   _James A. Green,_                    308
+  MARSHAL TURENNE,                                                 205
+  ANTHONY WAYNE,              _O. C. Bosbyshell,_                  289
+  ARTHUR, DUKE OF WELLINGTON, _L. Drake,_                          272
+  GENERAL JAMES WOLFE,        _L. Drake,_                          231
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+
+PHOTOGRAVURES
+
+  ILLUSTRATION                               ARTIST            TO FACE
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+  REPULSED AT TORGAU--FREDERICK
+    WAITING FOR MORNING,                _R. Warthmüller_  Frontispiece
+  THE MARSEILLAISE,                     _Gustave Doré_             252
+  NAPOLEON AND THE SPHINX,              _Jean Léon Gérôme_         264
+  SHERIDAN'S RIDE,                      _T. Buchanan Read_         362
+  FARRAGUT AT MOBILE BAY,               _W. H. Overend_            386
+  ADMIRAL DEWEY AT MANILA
+    BAY,                                _H. T. See_                402
+  THE DEWEY TRIUMPHAL ARCH,                                        406
+
+
+WOOD-ENGRAVINGS AND TYPOGRAVURES.
+
+
+  TURENNE AT THE BATTLE OF THE DUNES,   _Larivière_                208
+  CHARLES XII. AND AN UNWILLING
+    RECRUIT,                            _Thure von Cederström_     212
+  PRINCE EUGENE AND THE MARSHAL DE
+    VILLARS,                            _P. Philippoteaux_         226
+  GENERAL WOLFE LANDING AT LOUISBURG,   _Wild_                     232
+  FREDERICK AND THE AUSTRIANS AFTER
+    LEUTHEN,                            _A. Kampf_                 242
+  MARSHAL NEY RETURNING THE CAPTURED
+    COLORS,                             _Meynier_                  256
+  A REVIEW OF THE BRITISH ARMY BY WELLINGTON,                      274
+  NELSON AT TRAFALGAR,                  _W. H. Overend_            282
+  MARION CROSSING THE PEDEE,            _W. Ranney_                300
+  PAUL JONES AND LADY SELKIRK,          _W. H. Overend_            304
+  TECUMSEH DEFENDS THE WHITES AT FORT
+    MEIGS,                              _Chapin_                   310
+  "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP,"             _Alonzo Chappel_           316
+  DECATUR'S CONFLICT WITH THE ALGERINE
+    AT TRIPOLI                          _Alonzo Chappel_           322
+  JACKSON AT CHANCELLORSVILLE,          _A. R. Ward_               378
+  MEETING OF VICTOR EMMANUEL AND
+    GARIBALDI,                          _C. Ademollo_              394
+  MOLTKE AT VERSAILLES, 1870,           _Anton von Werner_         400
+  ADMIRAL DEWEY LOVING CUP,                                        404
+
+
+
+
+MARSHAL TURENNE
+
+(1611-1675)
+
+[Illustration: Turenne. [TN]]
+
+
+Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne, esteemed, after
+Napoleon, the greatest of French generals, was born September 16,
+1611. He was the second son of the Duc de Bouillon, Prince of Sedan,
+and of Elizabeth of Nassau, daughter of the celebrated William of
+Orange, to whose courage and talents the Netherlands mainly owed their
+deliverance from Spain. Both parents being zealous Calvinists, Turenne
+was of course brought up in the same faith. Soon after his father's
+death, the duchess sent him, when he was not yet thirteen years old,
+into the Low Countries, to learn the art of war under his uncle,
+Maurice of Nassau, who commanded the troops of Holland in the
+protracted struggle between that country and Spain. Maurice held that
+there was no royal road to military skill, and placed his young
+relation in the ranks, as a volunteer, where for some time he served,
+enduring all hardships to which the common soldiers were exposed. In
+his second campaign he was promoted to the command of a company, which
+he retained for four years, distinguished by the admirable discipline
+of his men, by unceasing attention to the due performance of his own
+duty, and by his eagerness to witness, and become thoroughly
+acquainted with, every branch of service. In the year 1630, family
+circumstances rendered it expedient that he should return to France,
+where the Court received him with distinction, and invested him with
+the command of a regiment.
+
+Four years elapsed before Turenne had an opportunity of distinguishing
+himself in the service of his native country. His first laurels were
+reaped in 1634, at the siege of the strong fortress of La Motte, in
+Lorraine, where he headed the assault, and, by his skill and bravery,
+mainly contributed to its success. For this exploit he was raised, at
+the early stage of twenty-three, to the rank of Maréchal de Camp, the
+second grade of military rank in France. In the following year, the
+breaking out of war between France and Austria opened a wider field of
+action. Turenne held a subordinate command in the army, which, under
+the Cardinal de la Valette, marched into Germany to support the
+Swedes, commanded by the Duke of Weimar. At first fortune smiled on
+the allies; but, ere long, scarcity of provisions compelled them to a
+disastrous retreat over a ruined country, in the face of the enemy. On
+this occasion the young soldier's ability and disinterestedness were
+equally conspicuous. He sold his plate and equipage for the use of the
+army; threw away his baggage to load the wagons with those stragglers
+who must otherwise have been abandoned; and marched on foot, while he
+gave up his own horse to the relief of one who had fallen, exhausted
+by hunger and fatigue. These are the acts which win the attachment of
+soldiers, and Turenne was idolized by his.
+
+Our limits will not allow of the relation of those campaigns in which
+the subject of this memoir filled a subordinate part. In 1637-38 he
+again served under La Valette, in Flanders and Germany, after which he
+was made Lieutenant-general, a rank not previously existing in France.
+The three following years he was employed in Italy and Savoy, and in
+1642 made a campaign in Roussillon, under the eye of Louis XIII. In
+the spring of 1643 the king died; and in the autumn of the same year
+Turenne received from the queen-mother and regent, Anne of Austria, a
+marshal's baton, the appropriate reward of his long and brilliant
+services. Four years a captain, four a colonel, three Maréchal de
+Camp, five lieutenant-general, he had served in all stations from the
+ranks upward, and distinguished himself in them not only by military
+talent, but by strict honor and trustworthiness; rare virtues in those
+turbulent times, when men were familiar with civil war, and the great
+nobility were too powerful to be peaceful subjects.
+
+Soon after his promotion he was sent to Germany, to collect and
+reorganize the French army, which had been roughly handled at
+Duttlingen. It wanted rest, men, and money, and he settled it in good
+quarters, raised recruits, and pledged his own credit for the
+necessary sums. The effects of his exertions were soon seen. He
+arrived in Alsace, December, 1643, and in the following May was at the
+head of 10,000 men, well armed and equipped, with whom he felt strong
+enough to attack the Imperial army, and raise the siege of Fribourg.
+At that moment the glory which he hoped for, and was entitled to
+obtain, as the reward of five months' labor, was snatched from him by
+the arrival of the celebrated Prince de Condé, at that time Duc
+d'Enghien, to assume the command. The vexation which Turenne must have
+felt was increased by the difference of age (for the prince was ten
+years his junior), and of personal character. Condé was ardent and
+impetuous, and flushed by his brilliant victory at Rocroi the year
+before; Turenne, cool, calculating, and cautious, unwearied in
+preparing a certainty of success beforehand, yet prompt in striking
+when the decisive moment was come. The difference of their characters
+was exemplified upon this occasion. Merci, the Austrian commander, had
+taken up a strong position, which Turenne said could not be forced;
+but at the same time pointed out the means of turning it. Condé
+differed from him, and the second in command was obliged to submit. On
+two successive days two bloody and unsuccessful assaults were made;
+on the third Turenne's advice was taken, and on the first
+demonstration of this change of plan Merci retreated. In the following
+year, ill supplied with everything, and forced to separate his troops
+widely to obtain subsistence, Turenne was attacked at Mariendal, and
+worsted by his old antagonist, Merci. This, his first defeat, he felt
+severely; still he retained his position, and was again ready to meet
+the enemy, when he received positive orders from Mazarin to undertake
+nothing before the arrival of Condé. Zealous for his country and
+careless of personal slights, he marched without complaint under the
+command of his rival; and his magnanimity was rewarded at the battle
+of Nordlingen, in 1645, where the centre and right wing having failed
+in their attack, Turenne, with the left wing, broke the enemy's right,
+and falling on his centre in flank, threw it into utter confusion. For
+this service he received the most cordial and ample acknowledgments
+from Condé, both on the field and in his despatches to the Queen
+Regent. Soon after, Condé, who was wounded in the battle, resigned his
+command into the hands of Turenne. The following campaigns of
+1646-47-48 exhibited a series of successes, by means of which he drove
+the Duke of Bavaria from his dominions, and reduced the emperor to
+seek for peace. This was concluded at Munster in 1648, and to
+Turenne's exertions the termination of the Thirty Years' War is mainly
+to be ascribed.
+
+The repose of France was soon broken by civil war. Mazarin's
+administration, oppressive in all respects, but especially in fiscal
+matters, had produced no small discontent throughout the country, and
+especially in Paris, where the Parliament openly espoused the cause of
+the people against the minister, and was joined by several of the
+highest nobility, urged by various motives of private interest or
+personal pique. Among these were the Prince of Conti, the Duc de
+Longueville, and the Duc de Bouillon. Mazarin, in alarm, endeavored to
+enlist the ambition of Turenne in his favor, by offering the
+government of Alsace, and the hand of his own niece, as the price of
+his adherence to the Court. The viscount, pressed by both parties,
+avoided declaring his adhesion to either; but he unequivocally
+expressed his disapprobation of the cardinal's proceedings, and, being
+superseded in his command, retired peaceably to Holland. There he
+remained till the convention of Ruel effected a hollow and insincere
+reconciliation between the Court and one of the jarring parties of
+which the Fronde was composed. That reconciliation was soon broken by
+the sudden arrest of Condé, Conti, and the Duc de Longueville. Turenne
+then threw himself into the arms of the Fronde, and, at the head of
+eight thousand men, found himself obliged to encounter the royal army,
+twenty thousand strong. In the battle which ensued, he distinguished
+his personal bravery in several desperate charges; but the disparity
+was too great; and this defeat of Rhetel was of serious consequence to
+the Fronde party. Convinced at last that his true interest lay rather
+on the side of the Court, then managed by a woman and a priest, where
+he might be supreme in military matters, than in supporting the cause
+of an impetuous and self-willed leader, such as Condé, Turenne gladly
+listened to overtures of accommodation, and passed over to the support
+of the regency.
+
+The value of his services was soon made evident. Twice, at the head of
+very inferior troops, he checked Condé in the career of victory; and
+again compelled him to fight under the walls of Paris; where, in the
+celebrated battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine, the prince and his army
+narrowly escaped destruction. Finally, he re-established the Court at
+Paris, and compelled Condé to quit the realm. These important events
+took place in one campaign of six months in 1652.
+
+In 1654 he again took the field against his former friend and
+commander, Condé, who had taken refuge in Spain, and now led a foreign
+army against his country. The most remarkable operation of the
+campaign was the raising the siege of Arras, which the Spaniards had
+invested, according to the most approved fashion of the day, with a
+strong double line of circumvallation, within which the besieging army
+was supposed to be securely sheltered against the sallies of the
+garrison cooped up within, and the efforts of their friends from
+without. Turenne marched to the relief of the place. This could only
+be effected by forcing the enemy's entrenchments; which were
+accordingly attacked, contrary to the opinion of his own officers, and
+carried at all points, despite the personal exertions of Condé. The
+Spaniards were forced to retreat. It is remarkable that Turenne, not
+long after, was himself defeated in precisely similar circumstances,
+under the walls of Valenciennes, round which he had drawn lines of
+circumvallation. Once more he found himself in the same position at
+Dunkirk. On this occasion he marched out of his lines to meet the
+enemy, rather than wait, and suffer them to choose their point of
+attack; and the celebrated battle of the Dunes, or Sandhills, ensued,
+in which he gained a brilliant victory over the best Spanish troops,
+with Condé at their head. This took place in 1657. Dunkirk and the
+greater part of Flanders fell into the hands of the French in
+consequence; and these successes led to the treaty of the Pyrenees,
+which terminated the war in 1658.
+
+When war broke out afresh between France and Spain, in 1667, Louis
+XIV. made his first campaign under Turenne's guidance, and gained
+possession of nearly the whole of Flanders. In 1672, when Louis
+resolved to undertake in person the conquest of Holland, he again
+placed the command, under himself, in Turenne's hands, and disgraced
+several marshals who refused to receive orders from the viscount,
+considering themselves his equals in military rank. How Le Grand
+Monarque forced the passage of the Rhine when there was no army to
+oppose him, and conquered city after city, till he was stopped by
+inundations, under the walls of Amsterdam, has been said and sung by
+his flatterers, and need not be repeated here. But after the king had
+left the army, when the princes of Germany came to the assistance of
+Holland, and her affairs took a more favorable turn under the able
+guidance of the Prince of Orange, a wider field was offered for the
+display of Turenne's talents. In the campaign of 1673 he drove the
+Elector of Brandenburg, who had come to the assistance of the Dutch,
+back to Berlin, and compelled him to negotiate for peace. In the same
+year he was opposed, for the first time, to the imperial general,
+Montecuculi, celebrated for his military writings as well as for his
+exploits in the field. The meeting of these two great generals
+produced no decisive results.
+
+[Illustration: Turenne at the battle of the Dunes.]
+
+Turenne returned to Paris in the winter, and was received with the
+most flattering marks of favor. On the approach of spring he was sent
+back to take command of the French army in Alsace, which, amounting to
+no more than ten thousand men, was pressed by a powerful confederation
+of the troops of the Empire, and those of Brandenburg, once again in
+the field. Turenne set himself to beat the allies in detail, before
+they could form a junction. He passed the Rhine, marched forty French
+leagues in four days, and came up with the Imperialists, under the
+Duke of Lorraine, at Sintzheim. They occupied a strong position, their
+wings resting on mountains; their centre protected by a river and a
+fortified town. Turenne hesitated: it seemed rash to attack; but a
+victory was needful before the combination of the two armies should
+render their force irresistible; and he commanded the best troops of
+France. The event justified his confidence. Every post was carried
+sword in hand. The Marshal had his horse killed under him, and was
+slightly wounded. To the officers, who crowded round him with
+congratulations, he replied, with one of those short and happy
+speeches which tell upon an army more than the most labored harangues,
+"With troops like you, gentlemen, a man ought to attack boldly, for he
+is sure to conquer." The beaten army fell back behind the Neckar,
+where they effected a junction with the troops of Brandenburg; but
+they dared attempt nothing further, and left the Palatinate in the
+quiet possession of Turenne. Under his eye, and, as it appears from
+his own letters, at his express recommendation, as a matter of policy,
+that wretched country was laid waste to a deplorable extent. This
+transaction went far beyond the ordinary license of war, and excited
+general indignation even in that unscrupulous age. It will ever be
+remembered as a foul stain upon the character of the general who
+executed, and of the king and minister who ordered or consented to it.
+
+Having carried fire and sword through that part of the Palatinate
+which lay upon the right or German bank of the Rhine, he crossed that
+river. But the Imperial troops, reinforced by the Saxons and Hessians
+to the amount of sixty thousand men, pressed him hard; and it seemed
+impossible to keep the field against so great a disparity of force;
+his own troops not amounting to more than twenty thousand. He
+retreated into Lorraine, abandoning the fertile plains of Alsace to
+the enemy, led his army behind the Vosges Mountains, and crossing them
+by unfrequented routes, surprised the enemy at Colmar, beat him at
+Mulhausen and Turkheim, and forced him to recross the Rhine. This is
+esteemed the most brilliant of Turenne's campaigns, and it was
+conceived and conducted with the greater boldness, being in opposition
+to the orders of Louvois. "I know," he wrote to that minister, in
+remonstrating, and indeed refusing to follow his directions, "I know
+the strength of the Imperialists, their generals, and the country in
+which we are. I take all upon myself, and charge myself with whatever
+may occur."
+
+Returning to Paris at the end of the campaign, his journey through
+France resembled a triumphal progress; such was the popular enthusiasm
+in his favor. Not less flattering was his reception by the king, whose
+undeviating regard and confidence, undimmed by jealousy or envy, is
+creditable alike to the monarch and to his faithful subject. At this
+time Turenne, it is said, had serious thoughts of retiring to a
+convent, and was induced only by the earnest remonstrances of the
+king, and his representations of the critical state of France, to
+resume his command. Returning to the Upper Rhine, he was again opposed
+to Montecuculi. For two months the resources and well-matched skill of
+the rival captains were displayed in a series of marches and
+countermarches, in which every movement was so well foreseen and
+guarded against, that no opportunity occurred for coming to action
+with advantage to either side. At last the art of Turenne appeared to
+prevail; when, not many minutes after he had expressed the full belief
+that victory was within his grasp, a cannon-ball struck him while
+engaged in reconnoitring the enemy's position, previous to giving
+battle, and he fell dead from his horse, July 27, 1675. The same shot
+carried off the arm of St. Hilaire, commander-in-chief of the
+artillery. "Weep not for me," said the brave soldier to his son; "it
+is for that great man that we ought to weep."
+
+His subordinates possessed neither the talents requisite to follow up
+his plans, nor the confidence of the troops, who perceived their
+hesitation, and were eager to avenge the death of their beloved
+general. "Loose the piebald," so they named Turenne's horse, was the
+cry; "he will lead us on." But those on whom the command devolved
+thought of anything rather than of attacking the enemy; and after
+holding a hurried council of war, retreated in all haste across the
+Rhine.
+
+The Swabian peasants let the spot where he fell lie fallow for many
+years, and carefully preserved a tree under which he had been sitting
+just before. Strange that the people who had suffered so much at his
+hands should regard his memory with such respect!
+
+The character of Turenne was more remarkable for solidity than for
+brilliancy. Many generals may have been better qualified to complete a
+campaign by one decisive blow; few probably have laid the scheme of a
+campaign with more judgment, or shown more skill and patience in
+carrying their plans into effect. And it is remarkable that, contrary
+to general experience, he became much more enterprising in advanced
+years than he had been in youth. Of that impetuous spirit, which
+sometimes carries men to success where caution would have hesitated
+and failed, he possessed little. In his earlier years he seldom
+ventured to give battle, except where victory was nearly certain; but
+a course of victory inspired confidence, and trained by long practice
+to distinguish the difficult from the impossible, he adopted in his
+later campaigns a bolder style of tactics than had seemed congenial to
+his original temper. In this respect he offered a remarkable contrast
+to his rival in fame, Condé, who, celebrated in early life for the
+headlong valor, even to rashness, of his enterprises, became in old
+age prudent almost to timidity. Equally calm in success or in defeat,
+Turenne was always ready to prosecute the one, or to repair the other.
+And he carried the same temper into private life, where he was
+distinguished for the dignity with which he avoided quarrels, under
+circumstances in which lesser men would have found it hard to do so,
+without incurring the reproach of cowardice. Nor must we pass over his
+thorough honesty and disinterestedness in pecuniary matters; a quality
+more rare in a great man then than it is now.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN
+
+By GENERAL JOHN MITCHELL
+
+(1682-1718)
+
+[Illustration: Charles XII. [TN]]
+
+
+Charles XII., against whom it has been made a fault that he carried
+virtues to extremes, was born at Stockholm, on June 27, 1682, during a
+storm that
+
+  "Rived the mighty oak, and made
+   The ambitious ocean swell, and rage, and foam,
+   To be exalted with the threatening clouds."
+
+Astrologers observed that the star called the "Lion's Heart"
+predominated at his nativity, and that the "Fox" was on the
+decline--omens and prodigies well suited to announce the birth of a
+prince who was himself a living tempest. Charles's infancy has nothing
+very remarkable. His education was strictly attended to, and he proved
+an attentive scholar. He acquired considerable knowledge of history,
+geography, mathematics, and the military sciences, and became
+perfectly familiar with several languages, though he never, after his
+accession to the throne, spoke any but Latin, Swedish, or German. The
+gallant Charles Stewart, the same who afterward led the king across
+the Duna, was his instructor in the art of war, and is said to have
+communicated to the young prince much of the fiery spirit for which he
+was himself distinguished. In his fifteenth year Charles ascended the
+throne, and, contrary to usual assertion, already evinced considerable
+ability and application to business, though no particular predilection
+for military affairs, unless his bear-hunting expeditions may be so
+considered, for they were more than "faint images of war," being
+attended with great danger. No arms were used in these encounters; the
+sportsman was provided only with a single doubly-pointed stick and a
+cast-net, like the one perhaps, used by the ancient gladiators. The
+object of these fierce combats was to capture and bind the bear, and
+to carry him in triumph from the scene of action! Charles was, it
+seems, a great proficient in this dangerous sport.
+
+At the age of eighteen Charles was obliged to take the field against
+the four greatest powers of the North. Forced to contend with small
+means against vastly superior foes, he made genius and courage supply
+the place of numbers. Heroism was never more nobly displayed than by
+this gallant monarch and his followers. What men could do was done.
+For nine years he triumphed over constantly augmenting enemies. And
+when the "unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain" fell at last,
+crushed by the weight of masses, fortune more than shared with his
+innumerable adversaries the honor of his overthrow.
+
+It was during the Polish campaign of 1703 that Max Emanuel of
+Wirtemberg, then only fourteen years of age, joined Charles. When
+introduced, the king asked him whether he wished to go to Stockholm
+for a time, or to remain with the army. The prince, of course,
+preferred the latter. "Well, then," said Charles, "I will bring you up
+in my own way," and immediately placed the boy, tired as he was from
+his journey, on horseback, and led him a long and fatiguing ride. From
+this period to the battle of Pultowa, Max continued to be his constant
+companion, shared his dangers, and attended him in all his adventures,
+many of which border almost on the fabulous. The affectionate kindness
+evinced by Charles toward his pupil could not be surpassed. When the
+boy, as sometimes happened, was worn down by sickness and fatigue, the
+monarch attended him with parental care; and when on one occasion he
+fell speechless from his horse, and his recovery was despaired of, the
+king never left his couch till he was pronounced out of danger.
+
+The adventures they encountered together were endless. On inspecting
+the regiments before the opening of the campaign of 1706, they rode
+five hundred miles in six days, were never in bed, and hardly ever out
+of the saddle, and frequently reduced to milk and water as their only
+nourishment--
+
+  "Alike to Charles was tide or time,
+   Moonless midnight or matin prime."
+
+Having on another occasion lost their road and escort during a stormy
+night, they arrived in the midst of a tempest before the town of
+Tousha. Neither calling nor firing brought any one to the gates. The
+king at last dismounted and sought for an entrance, while the prince
+held the horses in the pelting rain. An entrance having at last been
+discovered, they took possession of a hut in which was a fire. The
+king threw himself, booted and spurred, on a bundle of straw, and fell
+fast asleep. The prince, less hardy, took off his boots, filled them
+with straw, and placed them by the fire. While sleeping, the flame
+caught and consumed the valuable gambodoes. The prince was next day
+obliged to get a pair of peasant's boots, in which he rode about for
+eight days; a proof that the princely wardrobe was but slenderly
+furnished.
+
+And yet the camp was not without its gayeties either; for while the
+head-quarters were wintering at Rawitcz, the town became the scene of
+great festivities; balls and parties succeeding each other as rapidly
+as battles had done before. Charles was usually present, was always
+very polite, but made only a short stay, and retired as soon as he
+could.
+
+[Illustration: Charles XII. and an unwilling recruit.]
+
+During the stay of the army in this place, a fire broke out and
+consumed several houses. The king flew to aid in extinguishing the
+flames. He ascended to the top of a house that was already on fire,
+and continued working till the building was sinking under him. He
+escaped with difficulty, was thrown down by one of the beams, and for
+a moment believed to be dead. "It was discovered two years afterward,"
+says Bardili, "that the place was set on fire by an incendiary bribed
+by Augustus II. to slay the king of Sweden in the confusion;" and a
+man actually came forward and denounced himself as the intended
+assassin, declaring that some unknown power had prevented him from
+stabbing the king when he got near his person. Charles said the man
+was mad, and sent him about his business. Napoleon would have sent him
+before a military commission and had him shot, as he caused the
+student at Schönbrunn to be shot.
+
+We regret that we cannot give a sufficient account of the Duke of
+Marlborough's visit to Charles's head-quarters at Altranstadt; for
+what Voltaire says on the subject is but an idle fable. That the
+English general should easily have penetrated the views of the Swedish
+conqueror, which the latter took no pains to conceal, is sufficiently
+probable; but that the conversation between two such men should have
+turned principally on the king's large boots, which, as Voltaire says,
+Charles told Marlborough "he had not quitted for seven years," is of
+course a mere puerility. Besides, we find from Max's "Memoirs," that
+Charles was not so coarse in his dress as is usually represented, for
+his clothes were made of fine materials. He always wore a plain blue
+coat with gilt buttons, buff waistcoat and breeches, a black crape
+cravat, and a cocked hat; a waist-belt, and a long cut-and-thrust
+sword. He never disfigured himself by the full-bottomed wig of the
+period, but always wore his own brown hair, combed back from his
+forehead. His camp-bed consisted of a blue silk mattress, pillow and
+coverlid; materials that would have suited even a dandy guardsman.
+
+The invasion of Saxony occasioned great uneasiness at Vienna,
+Charles's arrival being considered alike dangerous to the Catholic
+states of the Empire and to the success of the Grand Alliance. It
+happened, under these unpleasant feelings, that at a party the Swedish
+Minister, Count Stralenghielm, proposed his master's health as a
+toast. An imperial chamberlain, a Count Zabor, a magnate of Hungary,
+refused to drink it, declaring that "no honest man ought to drink the
+health of the Turk, the devil, and of a third person." The Swede
+struck the offender, and swords were drawn; but the adversaries were
+of course separated. The ambassador demanded satisfaction for the
+insult; and Zabor was arrested, and sent in irons to Stettin, and
+delivered up to the Swedes. Charles instantly set him at liberty,
+simply desiring him to "be more guarded in his speeches for the
+future."
+
+The Saxon nobility (Ritterschaft, chivalry) having been taxed to aid
+in defraying the Swedish contributions, applied to Charles, claiming
+their privilege of exemption from all taxation, except that of
+furnishing horses for the chivalry engaged in defence of the country.
+"Had the Saxon chivalry," said Charles, "acted up to the duties to
+which they owe their privilege, I should not have been here."
+
+The King of Sweden left Saxony, and set out on his Russian expedition
+at the head of 43,000 men. Of these 8,000 remained in Poland; so that
+he undertook the march to Moscow with only 35,000--a force amounting
+to about one-fifteenth part of the army with which Napoleon set out on
+a similar expedition. The Russians followed the same system they
+afterward employed against the French, retiring and laving waste the
+country. The difficulties the Swedes had to encounter, in consequence
+of bad roads and want of provisions, are almost incredible. The
+soldiers were forced to contend, not only against the enemy, but
+against the localities also; roads for the advance of the army had to
+be opened through forests and morasses before the least progress could
+be made; and it often happened that a league a day was the greatest
+extent of march gained after immense toil. But nothing checked the
+ardor of these gallant soldiers. The Russians attempted to defend the
+passage of rivers and swamps that impeded the march of the foe. Their
+efforts were vain; no superiority of numbers, no strength of position,
+could arrest the indomitable valor of Charles and his troops. And the
+actions performed during this march would be deemed absolutely
+fabulous, were they not recorded on authority which cannot be doubted.
+
+During the severe winter of 1709, the army suffered dreadfully from
+want and cold. When, early in spring, the thaw set in, the whole of
+those flat countries were overflowed, and long marches had to be made
+through complete inundations, by which quantities of stores were lost,
+and the powder greatly damaged. It was, as we now find, in consequence
+of the losses thus sustained that Charles accepted Mazeppa's proposal
+of marching into the Ukraine. Finding his army too much weakened to
+penetrate further into Russia, and not wishing to fall back upon
+Livonia, which he thought would look like a retreat and encourage his
+enemies, he determined to march to the south, and there await the
+supplies and reinforcements which his generals were to bring up.
+
+The loss of the convoy which General Lewenhaupt was conducting to the
+army rendered further delay necessary, and obliged the king to
+undertake the siege of Pultowa, in order to gain a firm footing in the
+country, and to secure the supplies which the place contained. The
+Swedish battering-train was weak, the powder not only bad from having
+been frequently injured by the wet and dried again, but very scarce
+besides. Still, courage and energy were making progress, when, June
+27th, on his very birthday, Charles, in repulsing a sally, was struck
+by a musket-ball that entered his left foot, above the root of the
+toes, and went out at the heel. The king continued in the field for an
+hour afterward, giving his orders as usual; but when he retired to his
+quarters, the leg was so much swelled that the boot had to be cut off,
+and the wound had so unfavorable an appearance as greatly to alarm the
+attendants.
+
+Charles behaved heroically, as usual. He held his leg to the surgeon
+with his own hands, nor did a single groan escape him during the
+terrible operation which the cutting away of some of the fractured
+bones rendered necessary. At one time his life was despaired of, and
+a general panic seized the army, but though the wound proved decisive
+of his fate, the unhappy monarch had what may well be termed the
+misfortune to recover.
+
+The foe drew near. The Czar, well aware of the importance of Pultowa,
+advanced to its relief with an army of 80,000 men, besides 40,000
+irregulars, Kalmucks and Tartars. He brought 150 pieces of artillery
+along with him. Even with this vast superiority, and after the
+training of a nine years' war, the Russians did not venture to attack
+the Swedes, but drew closer and closer around them, till they began at
+last to intrench themselves within a league of the king's camp.
+Charles's illness gave them but too much leisure.
+
+A hostile fortress on one side, a hostile army on the other, nothing
+but a victory could save the Swedes; and on the morning of the 8th of
+July, only ten days after Charles had been wounded, they marched out
+to battle. Their whole army did not amount to 20,000 men, 4,000 of
+whom were left in the trenches and with the baggage. Their artillery
+consisted of four field-pieces; and their powder was so bad that it
+did not, as Count Poniatowsky and Lewenhaupt both affirm, throw the
+musket-balls more than thirty yards from the muzzles of the pieces.
+And yet these brave soldiers balanced fortune even against such
+overwhelming numbers. Three out of the seven Russian redoubts were
+taken; on the left wing the cavalry were victorious, and it is really
+difficult to say what the result would have proved, had Charles been
+able to exert his usual energy and activity. Certain it is that errors
+were committed which could not have happened under his immediate
+command; for the cavalry of the left wing did not follow up their
+success, and the cavalry of the right wing lost their direction, and
+took no share in the action. The king, who was carried on a litter
+between two horses, was present in the hottest of the fire, and
+exerted himself as much as was possible for a man in such a situation.
+A shot broke the litter, and the wounded monarch was for some time
+left alone on the ground. A lifeguardsman brought him a horse, and he
+endeavored to rally the yielding troops. The steed was shot under him,
+and--
+
+                   "Gierta gave
+  His own, and died the Russian slave."
+
+Having assembled and re-formed the remnants of his broken host round
+the forces which had been left for the protection of the baggage, the
+fainting monarch was placed in Count Piper's carriage, and conveyed
+toward the Turkish frontier. The exertions of the wounded Charles to
+rally his army at Pultowa contrast singularly with the total want of
+any such exertion displayed by the unwounded Napoleon at Waterloo. We
+take this want of exertion for granted, because had any been
+displayed, the world's echoes would have rung with praise bestowed
+upon the heroic effort.
+
+The first result of the battle of Pultowa--its ultimate results are
+only now becoming apparent--was the entire destruction of the Swedish
+army, the famished and exhausted remains of which were some days
+afterward obliged to lay down their arms on the banks of the Dnieper,
+which they had no means of crossing.
+
+With this battle, which opens a new era in European history, the
+history of Charles XII. may be said to end; for his subsequent career
+was only a succession of disappointments, his poor and thinly peopled
+country not affording him the means of recovery from a single
+'defeat'.
+
+On his arrival at Bender, the king learned of the death of his sister,
+the Duchess of Holstein; and he who had calmly supported the loss of
+his fame and his army yielded to the most impassioned burst of sorrow,
+and was during four days unable to converse with his most intimate
+attendants--a proof how unjust are the accusations of want of feeling
+so often brought against him. His long stay in Turkey is certainly
+evidence of obstinacy, or of that pride which could not brook the
+thought of returning, a vanquished fugitive, to his native land, which
+had done so much for him, and which his best efforts had failed to
+protect from unjust violence. In Charles's high and noble countenance
+it is seen at once that he was endowed with--
+
+                  "The glance that took
+  Their thoughts from others at a single look."
+
+He knew the worthlessness of his enemies; and it is doubly galling to
+the generous and the brave when fortune, in her base fancies, obliges
+them to succumb to mean and malicious adversaries. And such was the
+fate of Charles. His defeat was no sooner known than Denmark, Poland,
+and Saxony again flew to arms. Hanover and Prussia joined the unworthy
+league against the fallen monarch, who had been so dreaded, and was
+therefore so much hated; for Charles had injured no one--he was the
+aggrieved from first to last. His return to Sweden, the defence of
+Stralsund, the invasion of Norway, call for no particular attention.
+He was killed at the siege of Frederickshall, in Norway, on November
+30, 1718, under circumstances that long gave currency to the belief
+that he had been assassinated. Schott and Bardili positively assert
+the fact; but we are on this point disposed to agree with Voltaire,
+who, to save the honor of his countrymen, as positively denies it.
+After evening service, the king went out as usual to visit the
+trenches. He was attended by two French engineers, Megret and Siquier.
+A heavy fire was kept up by the enemy. Near the head of the _boyau_,
+or zigzag, he kneeled down, and, leaning against the parapet, looked
+toward the fortress. As he remained motionless for a long time, some
+one approached and found him perfectly dead, a ball having entered his
+right temple and passed through his head. Even in death the gallant
+hand had grasped the hilt of his sword; and this probably gave rise to
+the belief in the murder, which was afterward confirmed by Siquier's
+own confession. But this confession was only made while the pretended
+criminal labored under an attack of brain fever, and was retracted as
+soon as he recovered.
+
+Thus fell, in the thirty-sixth year of his age, one of the most
+extraordinary men that ever acted a part on the great stage of the
+world. Endowed by nature with a noble person, "a frame of adamant, a
+soul of fire," with high intellectual powers, dauntless bravery,
+kingly sentiments of honor, and a lofty scorn of all that was mean
+and little, he became, from the very splendor of these gifts, perhaps
+one of the most unhappy men of his time. Less highly gifted, he would
+have been less hated and less envied; of humbler spirit, he would have
+been more pliant, and might possibly have been more successful.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH
+
+By L. DRAKE
+
+(1650-1722)
+
+[Illustration: A standing man behind a sitting woman. [TN]]
+
+
+About noon, on June 24, 1650, John Churchill, afterward Duke of
+Marlborough, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire. His school-days were
+soon over; for his father, Sir Winston Churchill, having established
+himself at court soon after the restoration of Charles the Second, was
+anxious to introduce his children early into life, and obtained for
+his son the situation of page of honor to the Duke of York, at the
+same time that his only daughter, Arabella, became maid of honor to
+the duchess.
+
+While at school, young Churchill had discovered in the library an old
+book on military subjects. This he read frequently, and conceived such
+a taste for a martial life, that he longed to distinguish himself as a
+soldier.
+
+The Duke of York held frequent reviews of the guards. Churchill had
+not long been his page, before the duke noticed his eagerness to be
+present on these occasions. Pleased with this indication of military
+ambition, the duke suddenly inquired one day, "What can I do for you,
+Churchill, as a first step to fortune?"
+
+The page threw himself on his knees before the duke. "I beseech your
+Royal Highness," he entreated, with clasped hands, "to honor me with a
+pair of colors."
+
+"Well, well," said the duke, smiling at the lad's earnestness, "I will
+grant your request by and by;" and his young favorite had not long to
+wait before he got the post for which he had petitioned.
+
+The youthful ensign, scarce fifteen years of age, first embarked for
+Tangiers; and although his stay was short, yet in the sallies and
+skirmishes with the Moors he showed that even now he possessed that
+courage and ability which in after years placed him at the head of all
+the heroes of his time.
+
+Before the year in which he left England had expired, he was again in
+his native country. He then accompanied the Duke of Monmouth to the
+continent, to assist France against Holland. The Prince of Condé and
+Marshal Turenne, the greatest generals of that time, commanded the
+French army, so that Churchill had very favorable opportunities of
+improving his military talent and genius.
+
+A French officer, during the siege of Nimeguen, had failed to retain a
+post of consequence, which he had been appointed to defend. The news
+of its loss was brought to Turenne.
+
+"I will bet a supper and a dozen of claret," instantly exclaimed the
+marshal, "that my handsome Englishman will recover the post with half
+the number of men that the officer commanded who lost it."
+
+Churchill was despatched with a small company, and, after a short but
+desperate struggle, retook the post, won the marshal his wager, and
+gained for himself the applause and admiration of the whole army.
+
+Next year, at the siege of Maestricht, Captain Churchill again
+distinguished himself. At the head of his own company, he scaled the
+ramparts, and planted the banner of France on the very summit,
+escaping with a slight wound. Louis XIV. was so highly pleased with
+his conduct that he thanked him at the head of the army, and soon made
+him lieutenant-colonel. The Duke of Monmouth afterward confessed to
+the king, that he was indebted for his life, on this occasion, to our
+hero's gallantry and discretion.
+
+On his return to England, he was made gentleman of the bedchamber and
+master of the robes to his earliest patron, the Duke of York. At this
+period he was captivated by the beauty of Miss Sarah Jennings,
+daughter of a gentleman of ancient family, and maid of honor to the
+duchess. Their marriage took place in 1678.
+
+The services Colonel Churchill continued to yield the royal brothers
+did not pass unrewarded. He was created Baron Churchill of Agmouth, in
+Berwickshire; and a friendship sprung up between Lady Churchill and
+the Princess (afterward queen) Anne, who, when she married Prince
+George of Denmark, got her friend appointed lady of her bedchamber.
+
+The day after James II. was proclaimed, he made his favorite,
+lieutenant-general. The battle of Sedgemoor, in which the ill-fated
+Duke of Monmouth with his rebel army was defeated, was won chiefly by
+Churchill's courage and decision. Till the closing scene of James's
+reign, there is little stated of Lord Churchill, although it is known
+that he used his influence with his royal master to prevent the
+arbitrary system of government the king endeavored to introduce.
+Finding the monarch determined to persist in his encroachments, Lord
+Churchill felt it his duty, however painful, to go over to the Prince
+of Orange, by whom he was received with distinguished marks of
+attention and respect; and, two days before his coronation, the prince
+raised him to the dignity of Earl of Marlborough.
+
+The affection the earl still felt toward his late benefactor, the
+ex-king, led him into a correspondence with him. This, being
+discovered, brought the displeasure of King William upon him, and for
+some time he was deprived of all his appointments. At length a
+governor being wanted for the young Duke of Gloucester, son of the
+Princess Anne, the king, as an earnest of his returning favor,
+conferred this honor on Marlborough. "Teach him, my lord," said his
+majesty, "to be what you are yourself, and he will not want
+accomplishments."
+
+On the accession of Queen Anne, Marlborough was made captain-general,
+master of the ordnance, and a knight of the garter. Soon after, he was
+sent to Holland to aid the Dutch against the French. He was appointed
+by them generalissimo of the forces, with a salary of £10,000 a year.
+With his army he crossed the river Meuse, and advanced to the siege of
+Rheinberg. "I hope soon to deliver you from these troublesome
+neighbors!" he exclaimed to the Dutch deputies who accompanied him on
+a reconnoitring party; and had it not been for the timidity of the
+Dutchmen he would have fulfilled his intentions. He however, took
+three towns out of the hands of the French, and the campaign ended by
+the taking of Liége.
+
+Marlborough soon returned to England, when the queen created him
+Marquis of Blandford and Duke of Marlborough, an honor he reluctantly
+accepted, and chiefly because it would give him more consideration if
+again called upon to serve his country abroad.
+
+In 1703 the duke was once more in Flanders, leading operations against
+the French with his usual success.
+
+The celebrated Prince Eugene was appointed his colleague; and the
+first time these two generals met, they conceived that mutual esteem
+and confidence, which afterward rendered them partners in the same
+glory.
+
+At the head of a noble army, the two generals penetrated into the
+heart of Germany, driving the Elector of Bavaria before them, ere his
+French allies could join him. It would take too much space to describe
+all the victories, and relate the details of the burning of three
+hundred towns, villages, and castles! These stern necessities of war
+were far from pleasing to Marlborough, who grieved to see the poor
+people suffering from their master's ambition. The Elector shed tears
+when he heard of these devastations, and offered large sums to prevent
+military execution on the land. "The forces of England," replied the
+duke, "are not come into Bavaria to extort money, but to bring its
+prince to reason and moderation. It is in the power of the Elector to
+end the matter at once by coming to a speedy accommodation."
+
+But the Elector knew that Marshal Tallard, with a powerful French
+army, was approaching; and, buoyed up by expectation, replied, "Since
+you have compelled me to draw the sword, I have thrown away the
+scabbard!"
+
+Prince Eugene had hastened from the Rhine to join Marlborough, with a
+force of eighteen thousand men, and reached the plains of Hochstadt by
+the time Tallard joined the Elector. As the prince and Marlborough
+proceeded to survey the ground, previous to taking up their position,
+they perceived some squadrons of the enemy at a distance. The two
+generals mounted the steeple of a church close by, and, with their
+glasses, discovered the quarter-masters of the enemy marking out a
+camp between Blenheim and Lützingen. Charmed beyond measure, they
+resolved to give battle before the enemy could strengthen themselves
+in their new position. Some officers, who knew the strength of the
+ground selected by the enemy, ventured to remonstrate, and to advise
+that no action should be hazarded. "I know the dangers of the case,"
+said Marlborough, who had not made up his mind without due
+consideration, "but a battle is absolutely necessary; and as for
+success, I rely on the hope that the discipline and courage of the
+troops will make amends for all disadvantages." Orders being issued
+for a general engagement, the whole army commenced preparations with
+cheerfulness and alacrity.
+
+Marlborough showed that he was resolved to conquer or to die in the
+attempt. Part of the night he passed in prayer, and toward morning
+received the sacrament. Then, after taking a short sleep, he concerted
+the arrangements for the action with Prince Eugene, particularly
+pointing out to the surgeons the proper place for the wounded.
+
+The forces of the duke and the prince formed an army of 33,500
+infantry and 18,400 cavalry. They were opposed by a force of 56,000
+men.
+
+About six o'clock in the morning, Marlborough and Eugene took their
+station on a rising ground, and calling all the generals, gave the
+directions for the attack. The army then marched into the plain; and
+being formed in order of battle, the chaplains performed service at
+the head of each regiment.
+
+The morning being hazy, the French and Bavarians did not even suspect
+the approach of their enemies, and were completely taken by surprise.
+A large gun boomed forth the signal for the onset; and as great a
+battle was fought as the memory of man ever heard of. A panic seized
+the whole of the troops which composed the right of the French army,
+and they fled like a flock of sheep before the victorious
+English,--deaf to the threats and entreaties of their commanders, and
+without observing whither their flight led them. A body of cavalry,
+the best and most renowned in the whole army, seized with fear,
+hurried away Marshal Tallard with them in their flight; and, void of
+all thought, threw themselves by squadrons into the Danube, men and
+horses, officers and troopers together. Some escaped; but the greater
+portion, who had sought to avoid an uncertain death on the field of
+battle and honor, found a certain and shameful death in the river. The
+poor marshal, after vainly endeavoring to stem this torrent of
+despair, was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner of war with
+several other general officers in his company. The defeat then became
+complete. Of all the infantry the marshal had brought to the
+assistance of the Elector, only two battalions escaped; eight and
+twenty battalions were taken prisoners; and ten were entirely
+destroyed!
+
+The French, for many years, had never sustained any considerable
+defeat; and in consequence, had looked upon themselves, and had been
+regarded by other countries, almost as invincible. But now the charm
+was broken.
+
+After the battle, when Marshal Tallard was brought into the duke's
+tent, the marshal exclaimed with emphasis, "Your grace has beaten the
+best troops in the world!"
+
+"I hope," quickly rejoined the duke, "that you except the troops which
+defeated them."
+
+The news caused great joy in England, except to a discontented party,
+who considered that "it would no more weaken the power of the French
+king, than taking a bucket of water out of a river." Marlborough's
+answer, when he heard this, was, "If they will allow me to draw one or
+two such buckets more, we may then let the river run quietly, and not
+much apprehend its overflowing, and destroying its neighbors." Queen
+Anne, however, as a monument of victory, commanded a splendid palace
+to be built for the duke, at her own expense, to be called Blenheim.
+
+It would fill a large volume to relate all the victories of the Duke
+of Marlborough, none of which, however, exceeded the Battle of
+Blenheim in importance. One, some years afterward, called the Battle
+of Malplaquet, was a better contested fight, and perhaps ranks next;
+in truth, after this battle, France never again ventured to meet
+Marlborough in the field.
+
+At three o'clock in the morning of September 11, 1709, the
+confederated troops (for Eugene, with his army, was still with
+Marlborough) began to raise their batteries, under cover of a thick
+fog, which lasted till half-past seven. When it cleared away, the
+armies found themselves close together, each having a perfect view of
+the other. Marshal Villars commanded the French army. He was adored by
+his troops, who placed unbounded confidence in him; and as he now rode
+along their ranks the air rang with "Long live the king!" "Long live
+Marshal Villars!" The right wing was commanded by Marshal Boufflers.
+
+A discharge of fifty pieces of cannon from the confederates was the
+signal for battle, which commenced a little after eight. Each army had
+between ninety and one hundred thousand men, and the battle raged for
+some time with unexampled bravery. All the duties of a skilful general
+were performed by Marlborough; and late in the day the French army
+left the field in the possession of the allies, both armies having
+fought with almost incredible valor. The loss of the French was
+fourteen thousand men; the allies, though victory was on their side,
+lost nearly twenty thousand.
+
+An officer of distinction in the French army, writing an account of
+this battle said: "The Eugenes and Marlboroughs ought to be well
+satisfied with us during that day; since, till then, they had not met
+with resistance worthy of them. They may say, with justice, that
+nothing can stand before them; for what shall be able to stem the
+rapid course of these two heroes, if an army of one hundred thousand
+of our best troops--posted between two roads, trebly entrenched, and
+performing their duty as well as brave men could do--were not able to
+stop them one day? Will you not, then, own with me, that they surpass
+all the heroes of former ages?"
+
+With his usual humanity, Marlborough's first care, at the close of the
+action, was the relief of the wounded. Three thousand Frenchmen who lay
+on the field shared his attention, with the wounded of his own army; and
+he immediately arranged means for conveying them away. Still, next
+morning--the day set apart for burying the slain--notwithstanding his
+care, when riding over the field he saw among the heaps which covered
+the plain, not only the numerous bodies of the slain, but of the dying
+also. Nor did he feel only for the sufferings of his companions in arms;
+the groans of wounded enemies, and the sight of their mangled limbs,
+equally awakened his compassion. Learning also, that many French
+officers and soldiers had crept into the neighboring houses and woods,
+wounded, and in a miserable condition for want of assistance, he ordered
+them every possible relief, and despatched a messenger with a letter to
+the French marshal, humanely proposing; a conference to arrange the
+means of removing these wretched sufferers. By this humanity the larger
+portion of not fewer than thirty thousand men, to whose sufferings death
+would soon have put an end, were saved. The officers gave their word
+that they would not serve against the allies till they were regularly
+exchanged; and the common soldiers were to be considered as prisoners of
+war, for whom an equal number of allied troops were to be returned.
+
+Many, many battles, too numerous to mention, were gained by this great
+commander. When he came back to England, at the peace, he for some
+time distinguished himself as an able statesman; but incurring the
+displeasure of the queen, and that of the party then in power, he
+found his situation so painful, that he determined to leave the
+country till the course of events should again run in his favor. He
+left Dover without any honors, as a private passenger, in a
+packet-boat; but on its arriving off Ostend, as soon as the
+townspeople knew that the Duke of Marlborough was on board, they made
+a salute of all the cannon toward the sea; and when the vessel entered
+the harbor, they fired three rounds of all the artillery on the
+ramparts. The people crowded round him, and shed tears at the
+ingratitude of his nation. Some, full of astonishment at the sight of
+him, said, "His looks, his air, his address, were full as conquering
+as his sword." Even a Frenchman exclaimed, "Though the sight is worth
+a million to my king, yet I believe he would not, at such a price,
+have lost the service of so brave a man."
+
+Marlborough remained at Aix-la-Chapelle till the death of the queen.
+On August 1, 1714, the day George the First was proclaimed, the duke
+and duchess landed at Dover. Marlborough's reception was truly a
+contrast to his departure. Now the artillery thundered forth a
+welcome; while thousands of spectators hailed the return of the
+voluntary exile. Passing on to London, he was met at Southwark by a
+large body of the burgesses, who escorted him into the city; and
+thence, joined by many of the first merchants, the nobility, and
+gentry, he proceeded to St. James's, amid the joyful acclamations of
+the crowd, "Long live the king!" "Long live the Duke of Marlborough!"
+
+Old age had now laid his withering hand on the duke. For nearly two
+years he continued to enjoy the favor and confidence of the new king,
+who, on one occasion, said, "Marlborough's retirement would give me as
+much pain as if a dagger should be plunged in my bosom." But he soon
+was obliged to retreat to Blenheim, where he spent six years of
+declining life among his family and friends. At length, after a
+violent attack of palsy, the disease from which he suffered, he lay
+for several days expecting death. Early in the morning of June 15,
+1722, he resigned his spirit, with Christian calmness, into the hands
+of his Creator.
+
+The duke was nearly seventy-three when he died. His remains were
+interred with every honor in Westminster Abbey, but soon after were
+taken up, and conveyed to the chapel at Blenheim, and laid in a
+magnificent monument, which the duchess had erected for this honorable
+purpose.
+
+
+
+
+PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY
+
+By G. P. R. JAMES
+
+(1663-1736)
+
+[Illustration: Prince Eugene. [TN]]
+
+
+Prince Eugene, the most famed of Austrian generals, was the son of
+Eugene Maurice of Savoy (by the mother's side Count of Soissons) and
+of Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. His father intrigued,
+and was banished from the court of France; and his mother also quitted
+Paris not many years after, suspected of many vices of which she was
+very probably innocent; and guilty of a thousand follies, which were
+more strictly scrutinized than her crimes. Eugene was originally
+destined for the Church, and, according to a scandalous custom, then
+common in France as well as other Catholic countries, he obtained
+several benefices while but a child, of which he was eager to divest
+himself as soon as his mind was capable of discriminating between one
+profession and another. He seems soon to have felt within himself that
+ardent desire for military service, which is sometimes a caprice and
+some times an inspiration; but Louis XIV., at whose court he still
+remained, positively forbade his throwing off the clerical habit,
+notwithstanding all the entreaties of the young abbé, and by so doing,
+incurred the enmity of one who inherited from his mother no small
+faculty of hatred.
+
+At length, various circumstances with which he was in no degree
+connected, brought about a change in the affairs of Europe that
+afforded him an opportunity of escaping from the restraint placed upon
+his inclinations, and of turning the genius they had despised against
+those who had contemned him. France and Austria had long been either
+secretly or openly at strife; but now the dilapidated state of the
+German empire, after tedious and expensive wars, together with the
+combination of external foes and internal insurrection, threatened the
+nominal successor of the Roman Cæsars with utter destruction. The
+Hungarians in revolt, joined with the Turkish forces which they had
+called to their assistance, marched into Germany and laid siege to
+Vienna. Louis XIV. had hitherto taken care to foment the spirit of
+insurrection, and to aggravate the more pressing dangers of Germany;
+but at this moment, to cover the encouragement he had held out
+privately to the rebels, he permitted the nobility of his court to
+volunteer in defence of Christendom, which the fall of Vienna would
+have laid open to Infidels. A large body of young men set out
+immediately for Austria, among whom Prince Eugene contrived to effect
+his departure in secret. The famous, but unamiable minister Louvois,
+when he heard of the young abbé's escape remarked with a sneer, "So
+much the better, it will be long before he returns."
+
+The speech was afterward repeated to Eugene, who replied, "I will
+never return to France but as a conqueror;" and he kept his word, one
+of the few instances in which history has been able to record that a
+rash boast was afterward justified by talents and resolution.
+
+On arriving at Vienna, Eugene cast away the gown forever, and his rank
+instantly procured him a distinguished post near the person of the
+Duke of Lorraine, then commanding the imperial forces.
+
+Shortly after he had joined the army, John Sobieski, the valiant King
+of Poland, advanced to the assistance of the emperor, and the Turks
+were forced to raise the siege of the Austrian capital. In the
+campaign that followed against the Infidels, Eugene distinguished
+himself greatly, both by a sort of light unthinking courage, and by a
+degree of skill and judgment, which seemed to show that the levity he
+was somewhat too fond of displaying, though perhaps a confirmed habit
+from his education in an idle and frivolous court, was no true type of
+the mind within. It was the empty bubble dancing on the bosom of a
+deep stream. This was felt by those who surrounded him; and promotion
+succeeded with astonishing rapidity. Before the end of three months he
+was in command of a regiment of horse.
+
+Continual battles, sieges, and skirmishes, now inured Eugene to all
+the hardships and all the dangers of war, and at the same time gave
+him every opportunity of acquiring a thorough knowledge of his new
+profession, and of obtaining higher and higher grades in the service.
+In the course of a very few years he had been wounded more than once
+severely; but at the same time he had aided in the taking of
+Neuhausel, Vicegradt, Gran, and Buda; was the first who entered sword
+in hand into the intrenched camp of the Turks at Hersan; and had
+received a commission as Lieutenant-general in the Austrian service.
+The storming of Belgrade was the next great event in which Eugene was
+called to act; and here, in command of a body of reserve, he attacked
+the walls, after the first parties had been repulsed, and succeeded in
+forcing his way into the city. The regiments which had failed at first
+now rallied; and the path being open, the Imperial forces poured in in
+all directions, and Belgrade was taken after a most obstinate defence.
+
+Victor Amadæus, Duke of Savoy, was shortly after this persuaded by his
+cousin Eugene to embrace the interests of the house of Austria; and to
+enter into the great alliance which had been formed for the purpose of
+depressing France.
+
+The vast power which Louis XIV. had acquired, and the evident
+disposition he displayed to extend that power to the utmost, had armed
+the fears of all the monarchs of Europe against him. At the same time,
+the armies which had conquered for him were dispersed, and the
+generals who had led them to victory had in most instances fallen into
+the grave. Perhaps these considerations might lead the Duke of Savoy
+to withdraw from an alliance which promised little support, and
+eminent danger; but he had soon reason to repent of having done so.
+Marshal Catinat, the best of Louis's living officers, was ordered to
+act against him; the whole of Piedmont quickly fell into the hands of
+the French; and on August 18th the duke was completely defeated by the
+adverse general. Eugene, who was present, though wounded with a spent
+ball, covered the retreat of the troops of Savoy; but the battle was
+nevertheless completely lost, and influenced for long the fate of
+Piedmont.
+
+After various campaigns in Italy, where little was effected but a
+diversion of the French forces from his scene of war in Germany and
+the Netherlands, Eugene prevailed upon his cousin the Duke of Savoy,
+to lead his troops into France and to draw the French army from Italy,
+by carrying the war into their own country. The scheme was a bold one,
+but it proved most successful, and Embrun, Quilestre, and Gap, having
+fallen, the allied army, under Victor Amadæus and Eugene, advanced
+rapidly into Dauphiny. Terror and consternation spread before them;
+and in revenge for the devastation committed by the French in the
+Palatinate, they now ravaged the whole of Dauphiny, burning the
+villages and hamlets, and laying the cities under heavy contributions.
+The heart of France was open to the invading army; but, fortunately
+for that country, a severe illness put a stop to the proceedings of
+Victor Amadæus. Returning to Turin in haste, he left his army to the
+command of Prince Eugene; but the Italian generals contrived, by
+hesitation in their obedience, and opposition to his wishes, to defeat
+Eugene's best schemes, so that he was glad, by a rapid retreat, to
+bring his army in safety to Savoy.
+
+Eugene was now created Field-marshal; and received the order of the
+Golden Fleece; but his gratification at these marks of approbation was
+bitterly alloyed by a severe defeat which he suffered near Pignerol,
+in company with his cousin the Duke of Savoy, who madly engaged the
+French forces in a position where his own discomfiture was a certain
+consequence.
+
+Few movements of any import took place in Italy for some years after
+this, in which Eugene was concerned. Victor Amadæus, partly from
+caprice, partly from fear, withdrew from his alliance with Austria,
+and, once more signed a treaty of neutrality with France. The Imperial
+troops, unable singly to keep the field against the French, abandoned
+Savoy; and Eugene, though his efforts had proved unsuccessful, was
+received at Vienna with the highest distinction.
+
+The emperor, probably judging rightly in this instance, that the
+prince had failed from his energies being crippled by a divided power,
+now gave him the sole command of the army opposed to the Turks in
+Hungary.
+
+Eugene immediately found himself menaced by the whole force of the
+Turkish Empire; but after some masterly manoeuvres he saved the city
+of Peterwaradin, on which the Ottoman forces were marching; and then,
+though with very inferior power, approached the intrenchments of the
+Grand Vizier, at Zeuta, with the intention of forcing him from his
+camp. At the very moment, however, that the army had advanced too far
+to retreat, a courier arrived, bearing the emperor's commands to
+Eugene, on no account to risk a battle. Eugene's measures were already
+taken; he put the letter in his pocket, attacked the Turks, defeated
+them completely, left twenty thousand Mussulmen dead on the field, and
+ten thousand drowned in the Danube; pursued his victory by burning
+Serai and securing the frontier line of fortresses, and then returned
+to Vienna in expectation of reward and honor.
+
+The emperor received him coldly, and before the day was over he was
+put under arrest for disobedience of orders. The clamor, however, of
+the people, and some feeling of shame in the bosom of the proud, weak
+Leopold, soon caused him to restore Eugene to his rank, and to send
+him once more against the Turks. Success, however, did not follow the
+prince through the succeeding campaign; and before the season brought
+it naturally to a close, peace had been determined on between Austria
+and the Porte.
+
+Some time previous to the period of which we now speak, Louis XIV. had
+endeavored to tempt Eugene back to his Court, by the offer of a
+Marshal's rank in the French army, the government of Champagne, and a
+considerable yearly pension. Eugene, who felt that, however flattering
+to himself, the offer originated alone in the selfishness of an
+ambitious monarch, refused it in terms sufficiently galling to the
+proud King of France. Nevertheless, after the peace of Westphalia,
+Villars, who was sent as ambassador to Vienna, is supposed to have
+been again charged with a mission of the same nature to Eugene. The
+fact, however, is not only doubtful, but very improbable, from the
+character of all parties concerned. Eugene was not a man to leave
+himself the possibility of changing; Louis was not a man meanly to
+solicit where he had once been refused; and Villars was not a man to
+undertake a mean commission, even for a king. It is probable that the
+courtesy which the prince evinced toward Marshal de Villars from a
+sense of his personal merit, at a time when the haughty Court of
+Vienna was mean enough to treat even an ambassador with cold
+disrespect, was the sole origin of the report. However that might be,
+Eugene remained for a length of time at Vienna, filling up his
+inactivity by trifling with many arts and many enjoyments, till at
+length the War of the Succession, as it was called, breaking out, he
+was appointed to the command of the army in Italy.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Eugene and the Marshal de Villars.]
+
+At length a general engagement took place at Luzara, at which Philip
+of Spain was present. The forces of the French have been estimated at
+forty thousand, those of the Imperial general did not much exceed
+one-half that number. The battle was long and fierce; and night only
+terminated the contest. Both parties of course claimed the victory.
+The French sung a Te Deum, but retreated; the Imperial army retained
+their ground.
+
+Nevertheless, the fruits of victory were gathered by the French. Their
+immense superiority of numbers gave them the power of overrunning the
+whole country; and the Imperial court, either from indolence,
+heedlessness, or intrigue, failed to take any step to support its arms
+in Italy; so that all which Eugene had taken, sooner or later fell
+into the enemy's hands, and he himself, disgusted with the neglect he
+had met with, left his army under the command of another, and set out
+to see whether he could not procure some reinforcement, or at least
+some supply of money to pay or provide for his forces. At Vienna he
+found good reason to suspect that Count Mansfield, the minister of
+war, had by some means been gained to the interest of France. But, in
+the meanwhile Eugene was appointed minister of war; and sometime
+after, in this capacity, proceeded to confer with Marlborough on the
+united interests of England and Austria.
+
+This negotiation was most successful; and here seems to have been
+concerted the scheme which Marlborough afterward so gloriously pursued
+for carrying on the war against France on the side of Germany, and of
+thus freeing the Empire. In a military point of view, also, Eugene's
+efforts, though supported by no great army, and followed by no great
+victory, were wise and successful. He foiled the Hungarian rebels in
+their bold attack upon Vienna, checked them in their progress
+everywhere, and laid the foundation of their after subjugation. Soon
+after this, Eugene took the command of the Imperial army on the Rhine;
+and after considerable manoeuvring singly, to prevent the junction of
+the French army with that of the Duke of Bavaria, finding it
+impossible, he effected his own junction with the Duke of Marlborough,
+and shared in the glories of the field of Blenheim.
+
+Eugene was here always in the thickest of the fight, yet never for a
+moment forgot that he was called upon to act as a general rather than
+a soldier. His operations were planned as clearly and commanded as
+distinctly in the midst of the hottest conflict, as if no tumult had
+raged around him, and no danger had been near to distract his
+attention; yet his horse was killed under him in the early part of the
+battle; and at one moment, a Bavarian dragoon was seen holding him by
+the coat with one hand, while he levelled a pistol at his head with
+the other. One of the Imperialists, however, coming up at the moment,
+freed his general from this unpleasant situation; and Eugene
+proceeded to issue his orders, without the least sign of discomposure.
+
+The following year Eugene returned to Italy, and once more began the
+war against Vendome. Notwithstanding all his skill and activity,
+however, the superiority of the French numbers, and the distinguished
+military genius of their chief, prevented Eugene from meeting with any
+very brilliant success. He surprised various detachments, relieved
+several towns, was successful in many skirmishes; but he failed in
+drawing the French out of Savoy, and was totally repulsed in
+endeavoring to pass the Adda.
+
+In the attempt to do so, many men and several valuable officers were
+lost on both sides. The battle was long and furious. Both Vendome and
+Eugene displayed all their skill to foil each other; and perhaps so
+bravely contested a field was as honorable to each as a great victory.
+Neither, however, could fairly claim the battle as won; for though
+Eugene failed in passing the river, the French were the greatest
+sufferers in the contest, and they did not succeed in compelling the
+Germans to fly, though they prevented them from advancing to join the
+Duke of Savoy. Eugene, with his wonted reckless courage, exposed
+himself more than even was necessary, and in the very commencement of
+the engagement was wounded severely in the neck, notwithstanding which
+he remained a considerable length of time on horseback, till a second
+musket-ball, in the knee, forced him to absent himself for a time from
+the field. These wounds probably decided the failure of his attempt;
+but they did not prevent him from securing his army in good winter
+quarters, and checking all active operations on the part of Vendome.
+
+The next campaign was more successful. Vendome, after defeating a body
+of Imperial troops at Calemato, was recalled, and the command of the
+French forces given to the Duke of Orleans and the Maréchal de Marsin,
+who with an army of eighty thousand men invested Turin, the last hold
+of the Duke of Savoy.
+
+Eugene immediately marched to form his junction with the duke; and no
+longer opposed by the genius of Vendome, passed the Adige unattacked,
+crossed the Tanaro, and the Po, joined his cousin near Carmagnola, and
+advanced to the succor of Turin. The French were dispirited; and
+uncertainty and divided councils pervaded their camp. On September
+7th, the allied army, with less than half their numerical force,
+attacked them in their intrenchment, forced their position in every
+direction, and after one of the severest conflicts ever known,
+completely defeated them, and raised the siege of Turin. The battle,
+however, was at one time nearly lost to the allies by an accident
+which befell Eugene. In rallying a body of Imperial cavalry, the
+prince's horse received a ball in his chest, fell with the rider, and
+threw him into a ditch, where, stunned with the fall, he lay for
+several minutes among the dead and dying. The report spread through
+the army that he was killed; a general alarm was the consequence; and
+the infantry were beginning to give way, when, suddenly starting up,
+Eugene commanded the nearest German regiment to fire upon the French
+cavalry that were coming up to the charge. The effect was tremendous;
+the French went to the right about; and, though they rallied again and
+returned to the charge, the Imperial troops continued gradually to
+force their way on, till their adversaries fled in confusion.
+
+The consequence of this victory was the evacuation of the north of
+Italy by the French. Eugene was now everywhere successful for some
+time. He forced the passage of the Col de Tende, carried the French
+intrenchments on the Var, and laid siege to Toulon. Here, however, he
+failed; the defence was long and obstinate, reinforcements arrived at
+the French city, and Eugene, together with the Duke of Savoy, agreed
+to raise the siege once more, and retire into Piedmont.
+
+Eugene was now again called to join Marlborough, in company with whom
+he fought and conquered at Oudenarde, took Lille (where he was again
+severely wounded), Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, and Mons; and forced the
+French lines at Malplaquet, after a severe and long-protracted
+struggle, in which two hundred thousand men were engaged, and nearly
+sixty thousand fell.
+
+If the victories of Blenheim and Oudenarde might more fairly be
+attributed to Marlborough than to Eugene, the success at Malplaquet
+was chiefly obtained by the prince, who had forced the intrenchments,
+taken the wood of Sart, and turned the enemy's flank, before
+Marlborough had made much progress against the other wing.
+
+Eugene had strongly counselled the battle, though opposed by the
+States of Holland, and had in a measure taken the responsibility upon
+himself. On all occasions Eugene's impetuosity led him to expose his
+person more than mere duty required, and now, having staked his fame
+on the success of his attempt, he seems to have resolved not to
+survive a defeat. In the very first attack he received a severe wound
+behind the ear, which bled so profusely that all his staff pressed him
+to retire for the purpose of having it dressed.
+
+"If I am beaten," replied Eugene, "it will not be worth while; and if
+we beat the enemy, I shall have plenty of time to spare for that."
+
+After some short repose, we soon find Eugene once more acting against
+the Turks in Hungary. No sooner was war determined, than Achmet III.
+marched an immense force down to the frontiers of Hungary, to act
+against Eugene, who had just taken the command of the German forces at
+Peterwaradin. The Vizier Hali, commanding the Ottoman troops, full of
+confidence in his own skill, and in his immense superiority of
+numbers, advanced rapidly upon Eugene, and crossed the Save, which
+formed the boundary of the two countries, determined to crush his
+adversary by one great battle. Eugene was as desirous of such an event
+as the vizier, and therefore the troops were soon engaged, almost
+under the walls of Peterwaradin. The Turks fought bravely for many
+hours, and the battle was long undecided; but at length, Eugene's
+superior skill prevailed, and the enemy fled in every direction. The
+Grand Vizier struggled to the last, with long and desperate bravery,
+but after having received two severe wounds, he was borne away by the
+fugitives to Carlowitz, where he died the next day, muttering to the
+last imprecations against the Christians.
+
+After the death of Hali from the wounds he had received at
+Peterwaradin, the command of the Turkish army was given to the Pacha
+of Belgrade, one of the most skilled officers in the Ottoman service.
+But Eugene was destined to destroy the Turkish power in Hungary. The
+campaign of the next year commenced with the siege of the
+often-captured Belgrade; and it was soon completely invested and
+reduced to sore distress. The Porte, however, was not unmindful of its
+preservation; and, in the beginning of August, the pacha appeared on
+the mountains surrounding the town, with an army of near two hundred
+thousand men. Thus shut up between a strong fortress and an immense
+army, with the dysentery in his camp, and his forces enfeebled by long
+and severe labors, Eugene's situation was as difficult as it is
+possible to conceive. Notwithstanding every disadvantage, his usual
+bold course of action was pursued in the present instance, and met
+with that success which is almost always sure to attend the
+combination of daring and skill. After a short delay, to enable
+himself to employ all his energies (having been himself greatly
+debilitated by the camp fever), he attacked the Turkish army in their
+intrenchments, and at the end of a very short but severe struggle,
+succeeded in defeating a force more than three times the number of his
+own.
+
+Belgrade surrendered immediately; and the next year, without any great
+military event, put an end to the war.
+
+After the conclusion of peace, Eugene, who had been appointed governor
+of the Austrian Netherlands, resigned that office, which he had never
+personally filled, and was appointed vicar-general for the emperor in
+his Italian dominions.
+
+For many years after this Eugene spent his days in peace and
+tranquillity, endeavoring to raise up a spirit of commerce among the
+Germans, and to improve the finances of his sovereign, by whom he was
+appreciated and loved. His greatest efforts were in favor of Trieste,
+which he changed from a petty town to a great commercial city, and
+which remains to the present day the best and the noblest fruit of all
+his talents and all his exertions.
+
+At first, everything promised that the old age of Eugene would have
+passed in peace, uninterrupted by any warlike movements; but he was
+once more called from his calmer occupations by the short war which
+broke out with France in 1733.
+
+Perhaps, in point of military skill, the two campaigns which followed
+were the most brilliant of Eugene's life; but with only thirty
+thousand men, opposed to a force of double that number, he could alone
+act upon the defensive.
+
+He did so, however, with more success than the scantiness of his
+resources promised. He prevented the French from penetrating into
+Swabia; and, though Philipsburg was taken notwithstanding all his
+efforts, he contrived, by turning the course of the neighboring
+rivers, to inundate the country on the German side of that city, and
+to render its possession unprofitable to France.
+
+Peace soon succeeded, and with these two campaigns ended Eugene's life
+as a commander. He lived for some time after this, indeed, amusing
+himself with the embellishments of his palace and gardens, and
+employing a great many mechanics and laborers, during all seasons of
+dearth or scarcity; but the battle-field never saw him more. His
+health gradually and slowly declined, and on April 21, 1736, in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, he was found dead in his bed, after
+having been slightly indisposed the night before.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL JAMES WOLFE
+
+By L. DRAKE
+
+(1726-1759)
+
+[Illustration: James Wolfe. [TN]]
+
+
+General Edward Wolfe, an officer who distinguished himself under the
+Duke of Marlborough, was the father of James Wolfe, conqueror of
+Quebec. He was the eldest son of the general, and was born at
+Westerham, a small town in Kent, on November 6, 1726. As liberal an
+education as could be acquired before the early age of fourteen, was
+given to the future hero. He then went with his father to Flanders to
+study the profession of an officer amid active warfare; and, thus
+engaged, seven years soon passed. During this novitiate, he was not
+without opportunities of distinguishing himself; his name was on
+several occasions mentioned with honor; till at length, at the battle
+of Laffeldt, his courage and skilful conduct attracted the notice of
+his commander, the Duke of Cumberland, who, at the close of the day,
+thanked him in the presence of the army; and from that time he was
+marked out "as an officer of extraordinary merit and promise."
+
+His merit, rather than any favor, brought Wolfe the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel when he was barely twenty-two. The battalion he
+commanded was soon distinguished by many and striking improvements in
+discipline, so that its superiority at exercise, and in the order of
+its quarters, gave sure proof of ability and temper in its young
+commander. "The men," it is said, "adored while they profoundly
+respected him; and his officers esteemed his approbation as much as
+they dreaded his displeasure."
+
+Canada, with a portion of New Brunswick, and also the islands of St.
+John and Cape Breton, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, were at this
+time possessed by the French; while Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
+belonged to the English. The latter also claimed the tract of land
+called New England, lying (as will be seen on looking at a map of
+North America) to the west of New Brunswick, and south of the river
+St. Lawrence. The French, however, disputed their claim to this
+country; and constant quarrels arose between the rival settlers about
+their right to land, of which, in reality, the poor Indians were the
+proprietors. In virtue of a grant of parliament in 1750, a large body
+of English took possession of this "debatable ground;" but scarcely
+had they done so, when a superior force of French and Indians attacked
+them, and killing some, made prisoners of others, and drove the rest
+back. Many vigorous but unsuccessful efforts were made on the part of
+the colonists and their neighbors, during eighteen months, to regain
+their territory. A body of troops was then sent from England under
+General Braddock, but this attempt also failed; and, the struggle
+having now assumed some importance, an army of not less than sixteen
+thousand men, under Lord Loudon, renewed the contest of 1755 against
+the army under the Marquis de Montcalm, a most able and enterprising
+officer. His superiority as a commander had been shown in several
+instances, till, the slur which was being cast on the reputation of
+our country's arms having excited attention at home, Lord Loudon was
+recalled, and the army then in America was intrusted to General
+Abercrombie (not the celebrated Abercromby). At the same time a fresh
+force was raised at home, which put to sea in February, 1757. Wolfe
+accompanied this expedition as brigadier under Major-General Amherst.
+Its object was to reduce Cape Breton, the possession of which island,
+commanding as it does the grand entrance of the St. Lawrence, was felt
+to be of the greatest importance.
+
+The town of Louisburg stands upon a small tongue of land, and at this
+period was carefully fortified, having heavy batteries toward the sea,
+and a strong defence of regular works on its land sides. Its harbor,
+which is considered the most magnificent in the world, was carefully
+guarded by five ships of the line extending quite across the mouth.
+Goat Island formed one extremity of the entrance, and Lighthouse Point
+the other; both these were surmounted by strong redoubts, having the
+largest cannon and mortars used in war; while a garrison of 3,000
+soldiers, with 2,500 seamen to man the intrenchments, seemed to
+present an insuperable obstacle to a successful descent.
+
+Four miles westward of the town, however, there was a little creek,
+called Freshwater Cove; and, after much deliberation, it was resolved
+to attempt a landing at this point. The frigates and lighter vessels
+accordingly moved thither as soon as the weather moderated, and
+anchored there one evening, with the wind still boisterous, and the
+surf running very high. Next morning, at daybreak, the first division
+of the troops entered their boats, Wolfe at their head.
+
+The seamen had scarcely dipped their oars a second time, when a sudden
+glancing of arms amid the sand-hills warned the troops to expect
+opposition. The French had foreseen the probability of such an attempt
+as the present, and had prepared to oppose it by throwing up
+breastworks, placing field-pieces in the hollows, and stationing a
+considerable force to dispute a landing.
+
+[Illustration: General Wolfe landing at Louisburg.]
+
+Gallantly the boats pressed onward; while the frigates, which had
+approached within half-cannon shot of the shore, opening their fire,
+swept the beach with a shower of round shot. The flotilla was now
+within musket range, when the French all at once poured in a volley of
+small-arms. Wolfe ordered his men not to fire in return; but, trusting
+to the broadsides from the frigates, which, ploughing up the sand,
+threw it high in the air, and thus kept the beach open, he urged his
+rowers to their utmost strength, passed through a heavy surf, though
+not without some loss, and made good his landing. Company by company,
+as the men arrived, they quickly formed, and pushing on, after a sharp
+encounter, forced the French to abandon their works, and retreat
+within the walls of Louisburg.
+
+The terrible surf proved the more formidable enemy. Above one hundred
+boats, with a large number of their crews, were lost in attempting to
+pass through to the shore. But officers and men were too enthusiastic
+to be disheartened. In a short time all the troops were landed; guns,
+stores, work-tools, ammunition, and provisions, followed quickly; and,
+ere the enemy had learned that real danger at last threatened them,
+the business of the siege was begun.
+
+General Amherst invested the place without delay on the land side,
+and, having opened his trenches before it, despatched Wolfe with the
+light infantry and a body of Highlanders to attack the battery on
+Lighthouse Point. Before dawn one morning, he reached the outposts,
+drove them in, and followed with such rapidity, that, ere the enemy
+could form, and almost before they had got under arms, they were
+completely routed. The guns were immediately turned with terrible
+accuracy upon the harbor and town. The five ships of war now found
+their position very hazardous; one was soon on fire, and blew up; the
+flames spread to two others, and the remaining two were attacked and
+captured by boats. The breaching batteries shook the ramparts of the
+town to their foundations, while the shells carried ruin and death
+into the streets. On July 26th, the enemy, finding it impossible to
+resist any longer, surrendered; the garrison became prisoners of war,
+and the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward fell into the hands
+of the English.
+
+Wolfe's part in this campaign was now over, for domestic matters
+summoned him to England. He had not, however, been long at home, when
+he was informed from head-quarters, that his brilliant services as a
+subaltern had caused the king to select him to conduct an enterprise
+of still greater hazard and honor. It had been proposed in Council, as
+the speediest mode of putting an end to the transatlantic war, that
+the reduction of Quebec, the enemy's colonial capital, should be
+effected. Competent authorities declared the attempt to be not
+impracticable; it was therefore resolved on, and Wolfe was nominated
+to the command of an armament to invest the town. An attack, to be
+made on three other points, was determined as a commencement of the
+campaign.
+
+The armament set sail early in February, 1759. Admiral Saunders
+commanded the fleet, which comprised twenty-two line-of-battle ships,
+and an equal number of frigates. The whole came within sight of
+Louisburg April 21st. The harbor being still choked with ice, the
+vessels could not get in; and the delays which occurred prevented
+Wolfe from entering the St. Lawrence till June. The ships reached the
+Isle of Orleans by the end of the month; and, casting anchor,
+possession was taken. The land was in a high state of cultivation,
+affording abundant supplies to soldiers and sailors.
+
+The Marquis of Montcalm, now an old but still energetic man, occupied
+Quebec and the adjoining district with an army of five thousand
+regular troops, and the same number of militia and Indians. He made
+preparations for the defence with great judgment; the mass of his army
+was in the town, which he had further protected by intrenchments
+extending nearly eight miles to the west, till they reached the
+Montmorency River. Montreal was also well garrisoned; and, twenty
+miles above Quebec, a body of two thousand men lay encamped to attack
+in flank any force which might attempt to land in that direction.
+
+Many skirmishes took place at first between the Indians and British
+troops; and one attack of more importance, on the intrenchments near
+the St. Charles, was headed by Wolfe in person. It completely failed;
+but it taught him the strength of the enemy's position, and clearly
+showed that it would require stratagem to accomplish his design of
+reducing the town itself.
+
+A council was summoned, when it was found that disease and the petty
+combats in which they had been engaged, had reduced the troops to five
+thousand effective men. Insufficient as this army seemed, Wolfe
+determined to remain idle no longer; and a plan of attack on the town
+was agreed upon. Accordingly, the following morning (September 11th),
+the ships of the line, with the exception of two or three, and all the
+frigates, suddenly hoisted sail, and, exposed to a cannonade from all
+the batteries, sailed up the river past Quebec. The troops had
+previously been landed on the southern side of the river, and in perfect
+safety they marched in the same direction. When they had proceeded about
+nine miles, they found the fleet riding at anchor, already beyond the
+reach or observation of the enemy. The point of attack Wolfe had chosen
+lay within a mile and a half of Quebec, and consequently this march had
+no other purpose in view than to mislead the enemy as to his intentions.
+No sooner had the tide turned, and evening set in, than the surface of
+the river suddenly swarmed with boats, which had secretly been brought
+to this distant mustering-place. Then the signal for the ships to sail
+was hung out, and they immediately began proudly to descend the channel,
+leaving the flotilla boats behind them.
+
+Before midnight, the fleet had reached its first anchorage, and the
+troops up the river could hear the thundering of their guns, as they
+cannonaded at long shot the fortifications below the St. Charles. The
+cheering sound told them that the ships had repassed the town safely;
+while the French naturally concluded, that from the ships a descent
+was about to be attempted.
+
+During the interval, the troops had silently and in complete order
+taken their places in the boats; and, as soon as it became quite dark,
+like a huge flock of waterfowl, they glided down the stream. Not a
+word was spoken; the soldiers sat upright and motionless; and the
+sailors scarcely dipped their oars, lest the splash should reach the
+ears of the French placed along the shore at short distances. Wolfe
+sat in the leading boat, surveying attentively each headland, to
+prevent the hazard of shooting beyond the point at which he purposed
+landing. Unobserved, he gained the little cove which has since borne
+his name, and shortly before midnight all the men were landed.
+
+The troops now stood upon a narrow beach. Above them rose a precipice,
+nearly perpendicular, to the height of two hundred and fifty feet. A
+winding path, broad enough to admit four men abreast, led to the
+summit; and here lay one of the large plains, or table-lands, which
+distinguish the heights of Abraham, on a level with the upper town of
+Quebec. A battery of four guns, and a strong party of infantry,
+defended this important pass. Vigilance, however, was not one of the
+qualities of this guard; for the leading files of the British, under
+Colonel Howe, were close upon the station of the French sentinel ere
+he challenged. Replying with a hearty cheer, they sprung forward. An
+irregular volley poured upon them; but the next instant they were high
+on the ground, and at close bayonets with the French guard, who
+immediately fled in terror, leaving Colonel Howe quietly in possession
+of their redoubt and artillery.
+
+Long before dawn, all the troops had gained this ground. Leaving two
+companies in charge of the redoubt, Wolfe hastened forward with the
+rest toward Quebec. He halted when within a mile of the town, and
+there the men lay down with their arms in readiness for the first
+alarm. A communication by small parties, called videttes, was kept up
+with the companies at the redoubt.
+
+A trooper, with his horse covered with foam, appeared in the French
+camp at Beau Point, as the morning sky began to redden. He brought
+Montcalm the first intelligence of the landing the English had
+effected, and the unwelcome news was soon confirmed by the appearance
+of some of the fugitive soldiers from the redoubt. The camp was
+instantly in commotion; but the marquis gave his orders coolly, and
+before an hour the entire army had crossed the river, and were in full
+march for the Heights of Abraham.
+
+About eleven in the forenoon, a large body of Indians and Canadian
+riflemen were seen issuing from a wood on one side of the plain on
+which the English were stationed. They were soon hidden again by a
+thicket; and dexterously spreading themselves among the bushes, they
+opened a smart skirmishing fire on the pickets. This was the first
+warning that the long-wished-for event was at hand--a general conflict
+might now be confidently expected.
+
+Without delay, Wolfe drew up his men in two lines, placing a few light
+companies in skirmishing order in front, and retaining one regiment
+(the 47th) in divisions, as a reserve. The French skirmishers were
+quickly engaged with the light troops, whom they compelled to fall
+back on the line; while a heavy column advancing on the left, obliged
+Wolfe to wheel round three battalions to strengthen that side. But ere
+the column bore down, a fresh body of skirmishers appeared, and under
+their cover it silently withdrew; then, suddenly appearing on the
+right, it came down impetuously upon the irregular troops which Wolfe
+had there stationed. These did their duty nobly; the fierce attack of
+the enemy failed to break their order, or make them even flinch for a
+moment. The skirmishers, meantime, continued to gall the light
+infantry with their desultory fire, which acted also as a vail to
+conceal the intended movements of the main body of the enemy. As the
+light troops, however, hastily fell back, they caused a slight dismay
+among their supporters. Wolfe instantly rode along the line, and
+assured the men that these were only obeying instructions in order to
+draw the French onward. "Be firm, my lads!" said he; "do not return a
+shot till the enemy is within forty yards of the muzzles of your
+pieces; then you may fire!"
+
+The men replied by a shout; and, shouldering their muskets, they
+remained as though on parade, while the French continued to press
+nearer and nearer. At length they were within the appointed distance.
+Every gun was now levelled--a crashing volley passed from left to
+right--a dense smoke followed the discharge, and hid its effects for a
+minute. The breeze soon carried this off, and then the huge gaps in
+the enemy's line exceeded all expectation. In the rear, the ground
+appeared crowded with wounded men hurrying or being borne from the
+conflict; while the army, which had just advanced so confidently, now
+wavered, and then stood still. Seeing the irresolution of the enemy,
+Wolfe cheered his men to charge. A moment after, a musket-ball struck
+his wrist. He paused only to wrap his handkerchief round the wound,
+and again pressed on. He received a second ball in his body, but still
+continued to issue his orders without evincing any symptom of pain,
+when a third bullet pierced his breast.
+
+Wolfe fell to the ground; he was instantly raised and borne to the
+rear, where the utmost skill of the surgeons was put forth in a vain
+attempt to save his life. While they were engaged in examining his
+wounds, Wolfe continued to raise himself, from time to time, to watch
+the progress of the battle. His eyesight beginning to fail, he leaned
+backwards upon one of the grenadiers who had supported him from the
+field, and his heavy breathing and an occasional groan, alone showed
+that life remained.
+
+"See how they run!" exclaimed an officer, beside the dying general.
+
+"Who run?" cried Wolfe, instantly raising himself on his elbow, and
+looking up, as if life were returning with full vigor.
+
+"The French," answered the officer; "they are giving way in all
+directions."
+
+"Run, one of you," said the general, speaking with great firmness,
+"run to Colonel Burton; tell him to march Webb's regiment down to
+Charles River with all speed, so as to secure the bridge, and cut off
+the enemy's retreat."
+
+His orders were obeyed, and after a short pause, he continued, "Now,
+God be praised, I shall die happy!" He fell back at these words,
+turned convulsively on his side and expired.
+
+Montcalm had also fallen in the battle; the enemy was totally routed,
+and, five days after, Quebec capitulated to General Townshend.
+
+The body of the gallant and high-minded Wolfe was conveyed home in a
+ship of war. When the hero's remains arrived at Portsmouth,
+minute-guns were fired, the flags half struck, and a body of troops,
+with reversed arms, received the coffin on the beach, and followed the
+hearse. Parliament voted Wolfe a monument in Westminster Abbey, and
+in that venerable pile would have been his last resting-place; but a
+mother claimed the ashes of her son, and laid them beside those of his
+father, in a vault of the parish church of Greenwich.
+
+
+
+
+FREDERICK THE GREAT
+
+By GENERAL JOHN MITCHELL
+
+(1712-1786)
+
+[Illustration: Frederick the Great. [TN]]
+
+
+How shall we describe the "Incomparable," the extraordinary compound
+of so many brilliant and repulsive qualities? How is he to be
+depicted, who was great as a king, and little as a man,--always
+admired in his public, never beloved in his private, character;--a
+just, generous, and laborious prince,--a vain, avaricious, and
+cold-hearted individual; luxurious by temperament, temperate in
+practice; a selfish epicurean, and affecting the harshness of the
+cynic;--peacefully disposed, and cultivating the arts of peace, yet
+exercising the arts of war in their direst form;--a man of letters,
+ignorant of the beauties, and disdaining the language of his
+country;--magnificent and mean; the builder of palaces, theatres,
+libraries and museums, and dying, literally, without a whole shirt in
+which he could be buried;--and, lastly, the most brilliant and
+successful soldier of his time,--and almost destitute of the soldier's
+first quality, personal courage?
+
+Frederick, by general acclamation surnamed "The Great," was born on
+January 24, 1712. His education was principally military; his very
+toys were miniature implements of war suited to his age; and no sooner
+was he able to handle a musket than he was sent to drill, and forced,
+like all the Prussian officers of the period, to perform the duties
+and submit to the privations of a private soldier,--obliged even to
+stand sentinel before the palace in all the severities of a northern
+winter. Though rather feeble of constitution, he soon became a
+proficient in martial exercises. The different branches of science
+bearing on the art of war he was forced to study; but his leisure
+hours were devoted to reading French verses, and playing on the
+flute--pursuits that greatly displeased his royal father, who
+frequently threw the books into the fire, and the flutes out of the
+window.
+
+Frederick William,--the original founder of the pipe-clay science of
+tactics, and the stick-and-starvation system of organization,--the
+first inventor of pauper armies, dressed in martial uniforms,--became
+gradually estranged from his poetical son; and often declared that the
+dandy, "_Der Stutzer_" as he styled him, "would ruin everything." He
+consequently treated him with so much severity, that the young prince
+attempted to escape, intending to fly to England. The tragical result
+of the adventure is well known. Frederick was thrown into prison; and
+his friend and adviser, Katt, beheaded under his window, while
+soldiers held the prince's head toward the scaffold on which the deed
+of death was acting. What impression this dreadful scene made on his
+mind is not known; but it ought to have been a deep and a lasting one.
+
+It was the king's wish to follow up this execution by the trial of his
+own son; but the remonstrances of the cabinet of Vienna, of his own
+council, and, above all, of the upright and honest chaplain, Dr.
+Reinbeck, reluctantly induced him to forego the intention. It is not
+probable that he actually intended to put the prince to death, but
+only to force him to resign his right to the throne in favor of his
+second brother, William; a proposal to which Frederick constantly
+refused to assent.
+
+But though not tried, Frederick was severely punished, for he was
+confined to the fortress of Küstrin, where he was obliged to perform
+the duties of a commissary of finance, and write the reports, and make
+out the returns with his own hand. All this was, no doubt, of
+advantage to the future sovereign. On condition of marrying the
+Princess Elizabeth of Brunswick-Bevern, he was, at the end of eighteen
+months, released from confinement, and allowed to reside in the small
+town of Rheinsberg, where he resumed his flute and his French poets,
+to which the study of French philosophers and French translations from
+the classics was added. It was during his stay at Rheinsberg that his
+correspondence with foreign men of letters commenced; and it was here
+also that, with a party of friends, he formed an order of chivalry
+termed the "Order of Bayard," the motto of the knights being, "Without
+fear, and without reproach." But these were vain attempts at
+knighthood, for there was nothing chivalrous in the character of
+Frederick.
+
+Two short journeys performed with his father, and a visit to the army
+which Prince Eugene commanded on the Rhine in 1734, formed the only
+interruption to the tranquil and philosophical life of Rheinsberg.
+
+The first appearance in the field of the army bequeathed by Frederick
+William to his son, forms an era in modern history; for a belief in
+its efficiency was the mainspring that urged on the young king to
+attack the Austrians; and its excellence became the lever with which
+he ultimately raised his poor and secondary kingdom to the rank of a
+first-rate European power. The history of the rise and formation of
+this army, though a very curious one, would necessarily exceed our
+limits; but no one will be able to write the life of Frederick, and do
+full justice to the subject, without giving the reader a proper idea
+of the nature and origin of the engine which helped so mainly to
+render him great and famous. He had, no doubt, other claims to
+greatness besides those which his military actions conferred upon
+him; but it was the splendor of these actions that brought his other
+merits to light; and little enough would have been heard of the
+"Philosopher of Sans-Souci," had not the victor of so many fields made
+him known to the world.
+
+Frederick, while crown-prince, had not shown any great predilection
+for military affairs; he was rather pacifically disposed; was even a
+little taken with the philosophy of Wolf; and greatly captivated by
+French literature, and by French poetry in particular. It is probable,
+therefore, that the high opinion generally entertained of the
+newly-formed army, and the favorable opportunity that fortune offered
+on his accession to the throne, were the spurs "that pricked him on"
+to the field.
+
+The Emperor Charles VI., the last male descendant of the house of
+Hapsburg, died in October, 1741, leaving his daughter, Maria Theresa,
+to retain, if possible, his extensive dominions against the various
+claimants who had not acknowledged the Pragmatic Sanction: an act by
+which the emperor had bequeathed to her all the possessions of his
+house. Frederick William had not acknowledged this deed, so that
+Frederick was not bound by it; and having some well-grounded claims on
+the duchies of Silesia, prepared to make them good--by force of arms,
+if necessary--the moment the emperor died. The desire "to be spoken
+of" was, as he himself confesses, one of his principal motives for
+action on this occasion.
+
+The young king resolved to lead the army he had inherited, personally
+into the field; and as the Austrians were totally unprepared for the
+visit, the principalities were occupied without resistance. It was not
+till April 10, 1741, that an Austrian force, under General Neipperg,
+came to give him the meeting; and there was but little wanting to have
+rendered the battle of Molwitz, the first of Frederick's fields, the
+last also. The ground was covered with snow. Both parties were of
+about equal strength, and took up their ground, as the king himself
+tells us, in a manner alike unskilful; but, on the part of the
+tactician, this very want of skill tended to gain the battle; for
+three battalions of the first line, not finding room to form up, were
+thrown back _en potence_ on the extremity of the right wing, and, as
+we shall see, repulsed the Austrian cavalry by their fire at the most
+critical moment of the battle. The Austrians had been very merry at
+the expense of the Prussian system of tactics, and had promised to
+beat the pipe-clay out of their jackets at the first meeting; and now
+the words of scorn were to be made good.
+
+After the usual salutation of artillery, the Imperial cavalry,
+practised in the Turkish wars, fell at full gallop upon the Prussian
+cavalry of the right wing, and overthrew them in an instant; for, like
+the infantry, they had been taught only to fire. Following up their
+success, the Austrian horsemen dashed at the flank of the Prussian
+infantry; but here the three battalions already mentioned as thrown
+back _en potence_, presented a steady front, and by their rapid fire
+repulsed the assailants, who, having their commander killed, seeing
+the despised and pipe-clayed warriors standing immovably in their
+ranks, from which a fire of never-heard rapidity was pouring out in
+all directions, soon dispersed, leaving their comrades of the
+infantry to try their fortune against these well-drilled foes. The
+infantry were not more fortunate than the cavalry. The Prussians stood
+firm as rocks, and fired three shots to their one; and as both were
+equally unskilful in the use of arms, the quantity of shots fired
+naturally decided the day. After a combat of several hours, the
+Austrians retired from the field, leaving the victory and
+battle-ground in the hands of the Prussians.
+
+But where was he, the chieftain of that gallant host, the claimant of
+dukedoms and principalities, the victor for whose brows a splendid
+wreath of laurel had been so nobly gained by the blood of the brave?
+Will blushing glory hide the tale of shame? Alas, no!--vain were the
+courtly attempts made to conceal the truth, and history is forced to
+confess that "Frederick the Great from Molwitz deigned to run." In the
+scene of death, tumult, and confusion, which followed on the overthrow
+of the Prussian cavalry, the king completely lost his presence of
+mind, and fled as far as Oppeln, where the Austrian garrison,
+unfortunately for their cause, received him with a fire of musketry,
+that made him take another direction. He passed the night in great
+anxiety at a small country inn twenty miles from the field. On the
+following morning an aide-de-camp of the Prince of Dessau brought the
+fugitive king back to his victorious army. "Oh, Frederick," says
+Berenhorst, "who could then have foretold the glory thou wert destined
+to acquire and to merit as well as any conqueror and gainer of battles
+ever did?"
+
+The war of the Austrian Succession having been now kindled, and Maria
+Theresa been attacked on all the points of her extensive dominions,
+Frederick made peace, left his allies to shift for themselves, and,
+having obtained the principalities of Silesia, retired from the
+contest. That he made good use of the time and additional sources of
+strength gained, it is needless to say.
+
+The splendid success of the Austrian arms against France, the rapid
+preponderance that Maria Theresa was acquiring, alarmed him, however,
+for his late conquests; and he determined again to take the field
+before the strength of the house of Austria should outgrow his power
+to repress it. Voltaire negotiated for France on this occasion, and
+represented the danger with rather more than diplomatic ability. On
+both sides the protocols were as often written in verse as in prose;
+and Frederick, who hated George II., having told the poet, "Let France
+declare war against England, and I march," the latter instantly set
+out for Versailles, and thus gave the signal for the second Silesian
+War. This was in 1744. The Prussian troops were again victorious in
+battle, but the general result was not so much in their favor. The
+king, after taking Prague, was forced to evacuate Bohemia and part of
+Silesia; and though afterward brilliantly successful, particularly in
+the fields of Hohenfriedberg, he did not hesitate to make a separate
+peace the moment a fair opportunity offered. On taking the field, he
+told the French ambassador, "I am going to play your game, and if the
+trumps fall to my share, we'll go halves." The best part of the
+promise was soon forgotten, and the French, Spaniards, and Bavarians
+left, as before, to fight their own battle, the King of Prussia
+having, in December, 1745, amicably concluded all his differences
+with Saxony and Austria. The young and fortunate conqueror now
+proceeded to improve and adorn his dominions; and it is almost
+impossible to speak in too high terms of the great things he effected
+with comparatively small means.
+
+At this period of his life Frederick was singularly beloved and
+admired by the new court and world with which he had surrounded
+himself. His wit, fortune, and activity--a figure marked by
+distinguished bearing, by beauty of a peculiar kind, even by dress and
+apparel--a total of personal appearance that impressed itself
+singularly on the eyes of the beholder, excited general enthusiasm.
+Imitation is a proof and consequence of it; and many an orthodox
+believer, who trembled in private, ridiculed religion in public,
+because he had heard that the king was an atheist; and many a gallant
+soldier, who hated the sight and smell of snuff, disfigured his nose
+and lip with rappee, because such was the royal fashion. As a general,
+he was looked upon as the first of his time. The feeble moment at
+Molwitz had not become generally known; and the few who had witnessed
+the unpleasant affair, were too loyal and well-disposed to call it
+back to their recollection.
+
+The king certainly did everything to deserve the favorable opinion
+entertained of him. Arts, science, commerce, and agriculture were
+encouraged; more than one hundred and thirty villages sprang up on
+newly drained lands along the banks of the Oder; men of letters and
+talents were brought to Berlin; theatres, operas, ballets, were
+established; a sort of German Versailles arose amid the sands of
+Brandenburg; and the "Garden House outside the gate," which was
+Frederick William's summer residence and place of recreation, soon
+sank down to the humble rank of a gardener's lodge to his son's
+palace! The machinery of government was never carried on with such
+perfect regularity. The king superintended the whole himself, and that
+without any regular intercourse with his ministers, some of whom, it
+is said, he never saw in his life. They furnished him every morning
+with abridged statements of the business to be transacted, and he
+wrote his order on the margin of the paper; the affairs of state were
+all settled in a couple of hours. Literary compositions, in prose and
+verse, military reviews, meals, and conversation, filled up the rest
+of the day. "Frederick," says Voltaire, in his vile and mischievous
+"Mémoires," "governed without court, council, or religious
+establishment" (_culte_). It was during this brilliant period of the
+king's reign that the French poet passed some time at Berlin.
+
+The Austrians, who had ridiculed the drilling and powdering, had paid
+for their folly in many a bloody field, but had profited by the
+lesson, and could now move as accurately and fire as quickly as their
+neighbors. The first combat of the great Seven Years' War, which began
+in 1756, already proved this to the conviction of all parties. The
+Prussians purchased a slight advantage by a great loss of blood; and
+on the very battle-field the general remark was, "These are no longer
+the old Austrians." On the capture of the Saxon army, which
+surrendered at Pirna, Frederick, who exacted such unlimited allegiance
+from his subjects and soldiers, gave a strange proof of inconsistency,
+and of that contempt with which he seemed to treat the feelings of
+other men; for, without so much as asking their consent, he ordered
+all the prisoners to be incorporated into the ranks of his army, and
+expected to make loyal Prussians of them by merely changing their
+uniforms. As was to be expected, they deserted immediately.
+
+The progress of the war is out of our province. Spoiled by success,
+Frederick, after gaining the dearly purchased victory of Prague,
+attempted to reduce a city which he could not invest, and in which an
+army was concentrated. The Austrians advanced with 60,000 men to raise
+the siege; and the presumptuous king did not hesitate to rush upon
+them with less than half the number of Prussians; a total defeat, the
+first he had yet sustained, was the consequence. From this day it is
+allowed that the Prussian infantry had no longer any superiority over
+their enemies; henceforth the genius of their sovereign, the
+confidence he inspired, and the dread entertained of him by his
+adversaries, are the only advantages they have to depend upon. In the
+second year of the war he writes to La Motte Fouqué,--"Owing to the
+great losses sustained, our infantry is very much degenerated from
+what it formerly was, and must not be employed on difficult
+undertakings." In the third year he says to the same,--"Care must be
+taken not to render our people timid; they are too much so by nature
+already."
+
+Of this battle of Collin we must here report an anecdote
+characteristic of what Frederick _then_ was. The left wing of the
+Prussian army was obliquing in admirable order to the left, and
+already gaining the right of the Austrians, according to the
+prescribed disposition, when the king, at once losing patience in the
+most unaccountable manner, sent directions to Prince Maurice of
+Dessau, who commanded the infantry, ordering him to wheel up and
+advance upon the enemy. The prince told the officer that the proposed
+points had not yet been attained, and recommended that the oblique
+march should still be continued. The king immediately came up in
+person, and in haughty and overbearing style repeated the order, and,
+when the Prince of Dessau attempted to explain, drew his sword, and in
+a fiery and threatening tone exclaimed, "Will he (_er_) obey, and
+immediately wheel up and advance?" The officers present were
+terrified, fancying from his excited manner that he would be guilty of
+some act of violence; but the prince, of course, bowed and obeyed,
+and--the battle was soon lost.
+
+Frederick, as an absolute king and commander, had, no doubt, many
+advantages over the ill-combined coalition by which he was assailed;
+but the mass of brute force was so great on the part of his
+adversaries, that he was more than once on the very eve of being
+crushed. At one time, indeed, he contemplated the commission of
+suicide.
+
+[Illustration: Frederick and the Austrians after Leuthen.]
+
+The wonderful battles of Rossbach and Leuthen[1] reconciled him to
+life. The former was not, as is well known, his work, as it was
+almost gained before he well knew what was going on: it was due
+principally to the indomitable bravery of Zeidlitz and the cavalry.
+His conduct at Leuthen could not be surpassed; and his manner of
+promoting General Prince Maurice of Dessau, who had most nobly aided
+him in the battle, was highly characteristic. "I congratulate you on
+the victory, _Field-marshal_," said Frederick, when they met on the
+field. The prince was still so much occupied with what was going
+forward, that he did not mark the exact words the king had used, till
+the latter again called out, "Don't you hear, _Field-marshal_, that I
+congratulate you on the victory gained?" when the newly promoted made
+due acknowledgments in course. Frederick, in his great contest, was
+assisted by an English, Hessian, and Hanoverian army, as well as by
+English subsidies; but, making full allowance for the value of these
+auxiliaries, it must still be admitted that great genius and courage
+were required to enable a King of Prussia to resist the combined
+forces of France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Frederick effected
+this, and his conduct deservedly obtained for him the name of "Great."
+
+         [Footnote 1: It was the evening succeeding this battle of
+         Leuthen that Frederick, himself leading the advance after the
+         flying Austrians, entered the little town of Lissa, where a
+         body of the enemy, never dreaming the pursuit could reach so
+         far, were resting for the night. Frederick was as surprised
+         as they when, on entering a room of the principal inn, he
+         found it filled with Austrian officers. He had but a handful
+         of troops with him, and, had his enemies known it, was their
+         prisoner. But with the utmost coolness he saluted them,
+         "Good-evening, gentlemen. Is there still room for me, think
+         you?" Whereon the frightened Austrians, thinking themselves
+         surrounded by the whole Prussian army, decamped in wild
+         haste, and getting their troops together as they could, fled
+         from the dangerous neighborhood.]
+
+During his first two wars, and till the period of the battle of
+Rossbach in the third war, he always kept at a distance from the
+scene, which may be allowed in a commander who has to overlook the
+whole, and is not called upon to defend posts or lead attacks in
+person. After the above period, however, and when he perceived that
+the nature of the contest, and public opinion itself, demanded greater
+exertions from him, he several times, on due deliberation, exposed
+himself to the danger of an ordinary brigadier. Several occasions of
+this kind might be specified. At the Battle of Kunersdorf, when
+attempting to assemble some remnants of the infantry, who were still
+holding their ground here and there, his horse was shot under him. At
+Liegnitz, a spent ball struck him on the calf of the leg. At Torgau
+again, when a newly advanced brigade began to give way, like all its
+predecessors, he rode into the heaviest fire of musketry, and received
+a shot on the breast, which penetrated his shirt, and for some moments
+deprived him so completely of all power of breathing, that he was
+believed to be dead.[2]
+
+         [Footnote 2: This battle of Torgau, Frederick planned to win
+         by a flank attack; but the flanking column was delayed in its
+         march, and at evening the king found himself everywhere
+         beaten back. His last chance of success against his many
+         opponents seemed lost: and he spent the night seated in the
+         church at Elsnig, in such mood as may be imagined. During the
+         night the flanking column at last arrived, fell on the enemy,
+         and crushed them. This was the last of Frederick's great
+         battles.]
+
+Frederick outlived his last great war for twenty-three years, and died
+in 1786, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Every hour of this
+last period of his life was assiduously occupied, almost to the hour
+of his death, in zealous exertions to improve his country and
+ameliorate the condition of his people. He certainly effected great
+things, but left much that he might have achieved totally unattempted.
+Living in the solitude which his dazzling fame had cast around him,
+separated from all immediate intercourse with his species by the very
+barrier his glory had interposed between him and other men, he acted
+his part to admiration before the crowds who, from far and near, came
+to behold him; but, blinded by the halo that encompassed him, he saw
+little, and deemed less, perhaps, of mankind and their doings. In the
+mass they may possibly not be deserving of high admiration, but
+Frederick had never done them even justice; and in the latter years of
+his life, he entirely lost sight of the direction they were taking; he
+formed an ideal world to himself, and governed his country and
+subjects accordingly. He was the admired wonder of the age; a
+brilliant, if not spotless sun, that cast far aloft its vivid beams,
+indeed, but remained stationary and concentrated within itself, while
+all surrounding nature was in motion and in progress.
+
+
+
+
+ROBERT, LORD CLIVE
+
+By W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D.
+
+(1725-1774)
+
+[Illustration: Lord Clive. [TN]]
+
+
+The history of British India is without a parallel in the annals of
+mankind. It is little over a hundred years ago since "the company of
+British merchants trading with the East Indies" possessed nothing more
+than a few ports favorably situated for commerce, held at the will, or
+rather the caprice, of the native princes, and defended against
+commercial rivals by miserable fortifications, which could not have
+resisted any serious attack. Now British sovereignty in India extends
+over an empire greater than that possessed by Alexander or the Cæsars,
+and probably superior to both in the amount of its wealth and
+population. The chief agent in raising the East India Company from a
+trading association to a sovereign power was Lord Clive, whose own
+elevation was scarcely less marvellous than that of the empire which
+he founded.
+
+Robert Clive was born September 29, 1725; his father was a country
+gentleman, of moderate fortune and still more moderate capacity, who
+cultivated his own estate in Shropshire. When a boy, the future hero
+of India distinguished himself chiefly by wild deeds of daring and
+courage, neglecting the opportunities of storing his mind with
+information, the want of which he bitterly felt in after-life. His
+violent temper, and his neglect of study, led his family to despair of
+his success at home, and, in his eighteenth year, he was sent out as a
+"writer," in the service of the East India Company, to the Presidency
+of Madras. In our day such an appointment would be considered a fair
+provision for a young man, holding out, besides, a reasonable prospect
+of obtaining competency, if not fortune; but when Clive went to the
+East the younger "writers," or clerks, were so badly paid, that they
+could scarcely subsist without getting into debt, while their seniors
+enriched themselves by trading on their own account. The voyage out,
+from England to Madras, which is now effected in three or four weeks,
+occupied, at that time, from six months to a year. Clive's voyage was
+more than usually tedious; the ship was detained for a considerable
+period at the Brazils, where he picked up some knowledge of
+Portuguese, and contracted some heavy debts. This apparent misfortune
+had the good effect of compelling him to reflect on his situation. He
+avoided all amusements and dissipation, but availed himself of the
+resources of the governor's library, which was liberally opened to him
+in his hours of leisure. He, however, felt himself unhappy, for his
+occupations were unsuited to his tastes, and he longed for an
+opportunity of finding a mode of life more congenial to his
+disposition.
+
+The war of the Austrian Succession, in which George II. took the side
+of the empress, while the French king supported her competitor,
+extended to the Eastern World. Labourdonnais, the governor of the
+French colony in the Mauritius, suddenly appeared before Madras, and,
+as the town and fort were not prepared for defence, both were
+surrendered on honorable terms. But Dupleix, the French governor of
+Pondicherry, denying the right of Labourdonnais to grant any terms,
+refused to ratify the capitulation, and directed Madras to be razed to
+the ground. With still greater disregard for public faith, he led the
+English who had capitulated through the town of Pondicherry, as
+captives gracing his triumphal procession, in the presence of 50,000
+spectators. Clive escaped this outrage by flying from Madras in
+disguise; he took refuge at Fort St. David, a settlement subordinate
+to Madras, where he obtained from Major Lawrence, one of the best
+officers then in India, an ensign's commission in the service of the
+company.
+
+Peace between England and France having been established, Madras was
+restored to its former owners. Clive, however, did not return to his
+civil pursuits; he occasionally acted as a writer, but he was more
+frequently employed as a soldier in the petty hostilities which arose
+between the English and the natives. Events, however, were now in
+progress, which made the French and English East India companies
+competitors for an empire, though neither understood the value of the
+prize for which they contended; and Clive, fortunately for his country
+and himself, was almost forced to take the position of a military
+commander.
+
+To explain fully the position of India, at this period, would take far
+more pages than we can afford lines; a very brief sketch, may,
+however, help our readers to comprehend the course of events. India,
+in its entire extent, was nominally governed by the Emperor of Delhi,
+or, as he was generally, though absurdly, called in Europe, "the Great
+Mogul." Under him were several viceroys, each of whom ruled over as
+many subjects as any of the great sovereigns of Europe; and the
+delegates of these viceroys had a wider extent of territory than is
+included in most of the minor states of Germany. This empire began to
+lose its unity toward the close of the seventeenth century. The
+different viceroys, while professing a nominal allegiance to the crown
+of Delhi, established a substantial independence; several of their
+immediate vassals treated them as they had done the emperor; and
+several warlike tribes took advantage of this disorganization to
+plunder the defenceless provinces. Of these the most formidable were
+the Mahrattas, whose name was long the terror of the peninsula.
+
+Dupleix, whose name has already been mentioned as the French governor
+of Pondicherry, was the first who conceived the possibility of
+establishing a European dominion on the ruins of the Delhi empire;
+and, for this purpose, he wisely resolved to attempt no direct
+conquest, but to place at the head of the different principalities,
+men who owed their elevation to his aid, and whose continuance in
+power would be dependent on his assistance. With this view he
+supported a claimant to the viceroyalty of the Deccan, and another to
+the subordinate government of the Carnatic; or, as the Indians term
+it, a rival nizam, and a rival nabob, against the princes already in
+possession of these territories. His efforts were equally splendid and
+successful; the competitors whom he had selected became masters of the
+kingdom, and he, as the bestower of such mighty prizes, began to be
+regarded as the greatest authority in India. The English were struck
+with astonishment, and, as there was peace with France, they were at a
+loss to determine on the line of conduct that they ought to pursue.
+Mohammed Ali, whom the English recognized as Nabob of the Carnatic,
+was reduced to the possession of the single town of Trichinopoly, and
+even that was invested by Chunda Sahib, the rival nabob, and his
+French auxiliaries. Under these circumstances Clive proposed to the
+Madras authorities the desperate expedient of seizing on Arcot, the
+capital of the Carnatic, and thus recalling Chunda Sahib from the
+siege of Trichinopoly. With a force of 200 Europeans and 300 Sepoys,
+under eight officers, four of whom had been taken from the
+counting-house, Clive surprised Arcot in the midst of a terrific
+storm, and the garrison fled without striking a blow. Being reinforced
+by large bodies of troops, the expelled garrison, swelled to the
+number of 3,000 men, formed an encampment near the town; but Clive
+took them by surprise in the night, slew great numbers, put the rest
+to flight, and returned to his quarters without a single casualty.
+
+Chunda Sahib sent 10,000 men, including 150 French soldiers, under his
+son, Rajah Sahib, to recover Arcot. Clive's little garrison endured a
+siege of fifty days against this disproportionate force, and against
+the pressure of famine, which was early and severely felt. Nothing in
+history is equal to the proof of devotion which the native portion of
+this gallant little band gave to their beloved commander; the Sepoys
+came to Clive with a request that all the grain should be given to the
+Europeans, who required more nourishment than the natives of Asia,
+declaring that they would be satisfied with the thin gruel which
+strained away from the rice. Rajah Sahib at length made an attempt to
+take the place by storm; he was defeated with great loss, principally
+by Clive's personal exertions, upon which he abandoned the siege,
+leaving behind him a large quantity of military stores.
+
+Clive followed up his victory with great vigor, and the government of
+Madras, encouraged by his success, resolved to send him with a strong
+detachment to reinforce the garrison of Trichinopoly. Just at this
+conjuncture, however, Major Lawrence returned from England and assumed
+the chief command. If Clive was mortified by the change, he soon
+overcame his feelings; he cheerfully placed himself under the command
+of his old friend, and exerted himself as strenuously in the second
+post as when he held the chief command. The French had no leaders fit
+to cope with the two friends, and the English triumphed everywhere.
+The besiegers of Trichinopoly were themselves besieged, and compelled
+to capitulate. Chunda Sahib fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, and
+was put to death at the instigation of his rival. The forts of
+Covelong and Chingleput were taken by Clive, though his forces
+consisted of raw recruits, little better than an undisciplined rabble.
+Dupleix, however, was not driven to despair, but still sought means of
+renewing the contest.
+
+After the capture of Chingleput, Clive returned to Madras, where he
+married Miss Maskelyne, sister to the Astronomer Royal, and
+immediately after returned to England. He was received with great
+honors by the Court of Directors, and, through the influence of Lord
+Sandwich, obtained a seat in Parliament; but his election having been
+set aside, he again turned his thoughts toward India, where both the
+company and the government were eager to avail themselves of his
+services. The directors appointed him governor of Fort St. David; the
+king gave him the commission of a lieutenant-colonel in the British
+army; and thus doubly authorized, he returned to Asia in 1755.
+
+The first service on which he was employed after his return to the
+East was the reduction of the stronghold of Gheriah. This fortress,
+built on a craggy promontory, and almost surrounded by the ocean, was
+the den of a pirate named Angria, whose ships had long been the terror
+of the Arabian seas. Admiral Watson, who commanded the English
+squadron, burned Angria's fleet, while Clive attacked the fastness by
+land. The place soon fell, and a booty of a hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds sterling was divided among the conquerors.
+
+About two months after Clive had entered on his government at Fort St.
+David, intelligence was received of the destruction of the English
+settlement at Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, the Nabob of Bengal.
+Although scarcely any resistance had been made, the English prisoners,
+146 in number, were all thrust into a close and narrow apartment
+called the Black Hole, which, in such a climate, would have been too
+close and too narrow for a single prisoner. Their sufferings during
+the dreadful night, until death put an end to the misery of most,
+cannot be described; 123 perished before morning, and the survivors
+had to be dug out of the heap formed by the dead bodies of their
+companions.
+
+The authorities at Madras, on receiving this intelligence, resolved to
+avenge the outrage; 900 Europeans and 1,500 Sepoys, under the command
+of Clive, were embarked on board Admiral Watson's squadron; the
+passage was rendered tedious by adverse winds, but the armament
+arrived safely in Bengal. Clive proceeded with his usual promptitude;
+he routed the garrison which the nabob had placed in Fort William,
+recovered Calcutta, and took Hoogly by storm. Surajah Dowlah, who was
+as cowardly as he was cruel, now sought to negotiate peace, but at the
+same time he secretly urged the French to come to his assistance. This
+duplicity could not be concealed from Clive and Watson. They
+determined accordingly to attack Chandernagore, the chief possession
+of the French in Bengal, before the force there could be strengthened
+by new arrivals either from the South of India or Europe. Watson
+directed the expedition by water; Clive by land. The success of the
+combined movements was rapid and complete. The fort, the garrison, the
+artillery, the military stores, all fell into the hands of the
+English, and nearly five hundred European troops were among the
+prisoners.
+
+Soon after, Clive marched to attack Surajah Dowlah near Plassey. At
+sunrise on the morning of June 23, 1757, the army of the nabob,
+consisting of 40,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry, supported by fifty
+pieces of heavy ordnance, advanced to attack the English army, which
+did not exceed three thousand men in all, and had for its artillery
+but a few field-pieces. But the nabob had no confidence in his army,
+nor his army in him; the battle was confined to a distant cannonade,
+in which the nabob's artillery was quite ineffective, while the
+English field-pieces did great execution. Surajah's terror became
+greater every moment, and led him to adopt the insidious advice of a
+traitor, Meer Jaffier, and order a retreat. Clive saw the movement,
+and the confusion it occasioned in the undisciplined hordes; he
+ordered his battalions to advance, and, in a moment, the hosts of the
+nabob became a mass of inextricable confusion. In less than an hour
+they were dispersed, never again to reassemble; though only five or
+six hundred fell; their camp, guns, baggage, with innumerable wagons
+and cattle, remained in the hands of the victors. With the loss of
+only 22 soldiers killed and 50 wounded, Clive had dispersed an army of
+60,000 men, and conquered an empire larger and more populous than
+Great Britain. Surajah Dowlah fled from the field of battle to his
+capital, but, not deeming himself safe there, he tried to escape by
+the river to Patna. He was subsequently captured, and barbarously
+murdered by the son of Meer Jaffier. In the meantime Clive led Meer
+Jaffier in triumph to Moorshedabad, and installed him as nabob.
+
+Immense sums of money were given to the servants of the company; Clive
+received for his share between two and three hundred thousand pounds.
+Nor was this all: Shah Alum, the son of the Emperor of Delhi, having
+invaded Bengal, Clive delivered Meer Jaffier from this formidable
+enemy, and was rewarded with the jaghire or estate of the lands south
+of Calcutta, for which the company were bound to pay the nabob a
+quit-rent of about thirty thousand pounds annually. But the gratitude
+of Meer Jaffier did not last long; weary of his dependence on the
+English, he sought an alliance with the Dutch, who had a factory at
+Chinsurah. The authorities of this place sent earnest letters to their
+countrymen in Batavia, urging them to take this opportunity of
+raising a rival power to the English in India, and their advice was
+taken. Seven large ships from Java, having on board 1,500 troops,
+appeared unexpectedly in the Hoogly. Though England was at peace with
+Holland, Clive resolved to attack them without delay. The ships were
+taken and the army routed. Chinsurah was invested by the conquerors,
+and was only spared on the condition that no fortifications should be
+built, and no soldiers raised, beyond those that were necessary for
+the police of the factories.
+
+Three months afterward he returned to England, where he was received
+with a profusion of honors; he was raised to the Irish peerage, and
+promised an English title. George III., who had just ascended the
+throne, received him with marked distinction, and the leading
+statesmen of the day vied with each other in showing him attention. By
+judicious purchases of land he was enabled to acquire great
+parliamentary influence, and by large purchases of India stock he was
+enabled to form a strong party in the Court of Proprietors. The value
+of such support was soon shown; the Court of Directors, instigated by
+Mr. Sullivan, the personal enemy of Lord Clive, withheld the rent of
+the jaghire that he had received from Meer Jaffier, and it was
+necessary to institute a suit in chancery to enforce payment.
+
+But Clive's greatest strength was derived from the misconduct of his
+successors in the government of Bengal. "Rapacity, luxury, and the
+spirit of insubordination," says a late writer, "spread from the civil
+service to the officers of the army, and from the officers to the
+soldiers. The evil continued to grow till every messroom became the
+seat of conspiracy and cabal, and till the Sepoys could only be kept
+in order by wholesale executions." Individuals were enriched, but the
+public treasury was empty, and the government had to face the dangers
+of disordered finances, when there was war on the frontiers and
+disaffection in the army. Under these circumstances it was generally
+felt that Clive alone could save the empire which he had founded.
+
+Lord Clive felt the strength of his position. He refused to go to
+India so long as his enemies had preponderating power in the Court of
+Directors; an overwhelming majority of the proprietors seconded his
+wishes, and the Sullivan party, lately triumphant, was deprived of
+power. Having been nominated governor-general and commander-in-chief
+of the British possessions in Bengal he sailed for India, and reached
+Calcutta in May, 1765. He at once assembled the council, and announced
+his determination to enforce his two great reforms--the prohibition of
+receiving presents from the natives, and the prohibition of private
+trade by the servants of the Company. The whole settlement seemed to
+be set, as one man, against these measures; but Clive declared that if
+the functionaries in Calcutta refused obedience, he would send for
+some civil servants from Madras to aid him in conducting the
+administration. As he evinced the strength of his resolution by
+dismissing the most factious of his opponents, the rest became alarmed
+and submitted to what was inevitable.
+
+Scarcely had the governor-general quelled the opposition of the civil
+service when he had to encounter a formidable mutiny of the officers
+of the army, occasioned by a diminution of their field allowances. Two
+hundred English officers engaged in a conspiracy to resign their
+commissions on the same day, believing that the governor-general would
+submit to any terms rather than see the army, on which the safety of
+the empire rested, left without commanders. They were mistaken in
+their calculations; Clive supplied their places from the officers
+round his person; he sent for others from Madras; he even gave
+commissions to some mercantile agents who offered their support at
+this time. Fortunately the soldiers, and particularly the Sepoys, over
+whom Clive had unbounded influence, remained steadfast in their
+allegiance. The leaders were arrested, tried, and dismissed from the
+service; the others, completely humbled, besought permission to
+withdraw their resignations, and Clive exhibited lenity to all, save
+those whom he regarded as the contrivers of the plot.
+
+In his foreign policy he was equally successful. The Nabob of Oude,
+who had threatened invasion, sought for peace as soon as he heard of
+Clive's arrival in India; and the Emperor of Delhi executed a formal
+warrant, empowering the Company to collect and administer the revenues
+of Bengal, Bahar, and Oussa; that is, in fact, to exercise direct
+sovereignty over these provinces. Never had such a beneficial change
+been wrought in the short space of eighteen months. The
+governor-general set a noble example of obedience to his own
+regulations; he refused the brilliant presents offered him by the
+native princes, and when Meer Jaffier left him a legacy of sixty
+thousand pounds, he made the whole over to the Company, in trust, for
+the officers and soldiers invalided in their service.
+
+At the close of January, 1767, the state of his health compelled Lord
+Clive to return to England. His reception at home was far from being
+gratifying; his old enemies in the India House, reinforced by those
+whose rapacity he had checked in Bengal, assailed him publicly and
+privately; the prejudices excited against those who had suddenly made
+large fortunes in India, were concentrated against him who was the
+highest, both in rank and fortune; while his ostentatious display of
+wealth and grandeur increased the unfavorable impression on the public
+mind. The dreadful famine which desolated Bengal in 1770, was, with
+strange perversity, attributed to Lord Clive's measures, and his
+parliamentary influence was greatly weakened by the death of George
+Grenville. Such was his position in the session of 1772, when the
+state of India was brought before Parliament, and all the evils of its
+condition made subjects of charge against the best of its rulers.
+Clive met the storm with firmness. Lord Chatham declared that the
+speech in which he vindicated himself at an early stage of the
+proceedings was one of the finest ever delivered in the House of
+Commons; his answers, when subjected to a rigid examination before a
+committee of inquiry, were equally remarkable for their boldness and
+candor. But there were some of his deeds which could not be justified,
+and a vote of moderate censure on his conduct was sanctioned by the
+House of Commons. This was a disgrace, for which the favor of his
+sovereign, though it never varied, afforded him no consolation; his
+constitution, already weakened by a tropical climate, began to give
+way; to soothe the pains of mind and body he had recourse to the
+treacherous aid of opium, which only aggravated both; at length, on
+November 22, 1774, he died by his own hand.
+
+That Clive committed many faults cannot be denied; and it is not
+sufficient excuse to say that they were necessary to the founding of
+the British empire in India. But his second administration, the
+reforms he introduced into the government, and the system of wise
+policy which he established, may well atone for his errors; indeed, it
+has done so in India, where the natives not only respect his memory as
+a conqueror, but venerate it as a benefactor.
+
+
+
+
+FRANÇOIS KELLERMANN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE
+
+(1735-1820)
+
+[Illustration: François Kellermann. [TN]]
+
+
+François Christopher Kellermann, who with a little army of raw
+recruits defeated the forces of united Europe at Valmy, and saved
+France from destruction, was born of a respectable family at
+Strasbourg, then part of France, on May 28, 1735. At the age of
+seventeen, he became a cadet in the regiment of Lowendalh; and passing
+through the grades of ensign and lieutenant in 1753 and 1756, became
+captain of dragoons, in which rank he served in the Seven Years' War
+until 1762, and was favorably mentioned in the reports of the battle
+of Bergen. A brilliant charge of cavalry, against a corps commanded by
+General Scheider, procured him, in the last year, the distinction of
+the cross of St. Louis, then an honor of the highest esteem. After the
+peace of 1763, he passed with the same rank into the legion of
+Conflans, and in 1765 and 1766 was charged by the king with the
+execution of some important commissions in Poland. In 1771, the
+increasing troubles in Poland furnished a pretext for the invasion of
+that country by the united troops of France and the Germanic
+confederation; and Kellermann was appointed to accompany the French
+commander-in-chief of the expedition, Baron de Vioménil; and in 1772,
+he was placed at the head of a native corps of cavalry which he had
+been concerned in organizing. His conduct in the retreat from the
+castle of Cracow, in 1772, elevated his character for dexterity and
+courage. In 1780, he became lieutenant-colonel of hussars; on January
+1, 1784, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier, and in 1788,
+received the rank of major-general. In 1790, under the National
+Assembly, he was placed in command of both departments of Alsace, and
+so approved were his services in placing that frontier in a state of
+defence against the threatened invasion of combined Europe, that, in
+1792, he received the cordon rouge of the order of St. Louis, and was
+appointed lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the forces
+assembled at Neukirch, and afterward, on August 28th, in the same
+year, of the army of the Moselle.
+
+It was at this time that the formidable invasion under the Duke of
+Brunswick, consisting of 138,000 men, of whom 66,000 were under the
+King of Prussia in person, and 50,000 were Austrians under Prince
+Hohenlohe and Marshal Clairfait, marched to France, and menaced
+Dumouriez, who occupied the defiles of Varennes, with very inferior
+forces. Against this mighty invasion the French nation rose as one
+man. Recruits poured to the borderland singing the Marseillaise, their
+newly adopted national hymn. Rapidly reducing this motley force to
+order, Kellermann, with 22,000 men, marched from Metz, on September
+4th, for Chalons with the utmost celerity, reached Bar before the
+Prussians, saved the magazines on the upper Saone and Marne, and put
+himself in a situation to communicate with Dumouriez. The latter
+general was attacked on September 16th, and immediately ordered
+Kellermann to take a designated position on his left, which was,
+accordingly, accomplished on the 19th. No sooner had Kellermann
+arrived here, than he perceived that the position was altogether
+defective. A pond on his right separated him from Dumouriez; the
+marshy river of the Auve, traversed by a single narrow bridge, cut off
+his retreat in the rear; and the heights of Valmy commanded his left.
+While he was shut up in this isolated position, the enemy might march
+upon the magazines at Dampierre and Voilmont, cut both the French
+armies off from Chalons, and then fall upon each of them in
+succession. Kellermann instantly resolved to rectify this error in the
+disposition of the troops; and by four o'clock on the following
+morning, his army was in motion by its rear upon Dampierre and
+Voilmont. But the Prussians, equally alive to the disadvantage in
+which Kellermann had been placed, were already in movement to attack
+him, and it became impracticable to pass the Auve. Leaving his
+advanced-guard and his reserve to check the Prussians on the plain,
+Kellermann drew off the rest of his army to the heights of Valmy, and
+placing a battery of eighteen pieces near the mill of Valmy, at seven
+in the morning was drawn up in a strong position to receive the attack
+of the enemy. The King of Prussia, who commanded in person, drew up
+his army in three columns on the heights of La Lune, and advancing in
+an oblique direction a vehement fire was kept up on both sides for two
+hours. About nine, a new battery on the enemy's right suddenly opened
+in the direction of the mill, near which Kellermann and his escort,
+with the reserve cuirassiers, were stationed, and produced the utmost
+confusion. Most of the escort were killed or wounded, and Kellermann
+had a horse shot under him, while about the same time the explosion of
+two caissons of ammunition near the mill added to the alarm.
+Kellermann, however, quickly disposed a battery so as to return the
+fire, and the battle was restored on that side. After some time, two
+of the Prussian columns, flanked by powerful cavalry, advanced in
+formidable array toward the mill, while the third remained in reserve.
+Kellermann drew up his men in column by battalions, and advancing
+his reserved artillery to the front of his position, waited the
+advance of the enemy, who approached in silence. When they were within
+range of a destructive fire, Kellermann, waving his hat upon the end
+of his sabre, shouted, "Vive la Nation!" to which the whole army
+responded with enthusiastic cries, and at the same moment, the
+artillery opened a tremendous fire. The Prussians halted; the heads of
+their columns melted away under the galling discharges; and they
+retreated, in good order, to their original position after sustaining
+a serious loss. The fire, however, continued on both sides with
+spirit; and about four o'clock in the afternoon the Prussians renewed
+their attack in column, but were again repulsed, even more decidedly,
+and by six in the evening were in full retreat. The victory was thus
+decided in favor of the French; but the safety of the magazines at
+Dampierre and Voilmont was still not secured.
+
+[Illustration: The Marseillaise.]
+
+Kellermann allowed his army about two hours' repose, and then, leaving
+large fires lighted along his whole line, and some regiments of light
+cavalry to defend the position, if the enemy should attempt an attack,
+he quietly drew off about nine o'clock at night, and reached Dampierre
+without the enemy being aware of his movement. About six o'clock the
+next morning, the Prussians marched for the same point, and were not a
+little astonished to find Kellermann's army drawn up in line of battle
+on the heights of Dampierre, in a position which rendered it
+impracticable to attack. They immediately retreated, and their
+retiring columns suffered severely from a fire opened by the French
+artillery. This operation raised the reputation of Kellermann to an
+exalted height. The allies soon afterward retreated from France, and
+Kellermann desired to attack their rear; but Dumouriez would not allow
+the movement to be made.
+
+In recompense of these services Kellermann was made commander-in-chief
+of the army of the Alps; but incurring the jealousy of the ruling
+faction, he was thrown into prison in June, 1793, and lingered there
+for thirteen months, until the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) restored
+him to liberty. In 1795 the army of Italy was reincorporated with the
+army of the Alps, from which it had been separated in the beginning of
+1793; and the command of the united force was given to Kellermann at
+the close of that month. On his way to Nice to take the command, he
+met Napoleon at Marseilles, who, having been displaced by the
+reconstruction of the army, was now visiting his mother at that place
+on his way to Paris. Napoleon gave much valuable information
+respecting the seat of war; and Kellermann, continuing his journey,
+reached head-quarters at Nice on May 9, 1795. His operations during
+the campaign that followed diminished the reputation which he had
+previously acquired. "Throughout the conduct of this war," says
+Napoleon, "he was constantly committing errors." On June 23d General
+Devins, at the head of the Austrian and Piedmontese armies, advanced
+against his positions; and after a series of engagements on the 25th,
+26th, and 27th, Kellermann was driven out of all the posts in which
+Napoleon's arrangements had placed him in the preceding October, and
+falling back to the line of the Borghetto, wrote to the Directory
+that, unless he was speedily reinforced, he would be obliged even to
+quit Nice. The government were now satisfied that the command of the
+army of Italy was beyond Kellermann's abilities; and again separating
+the army of the Alps from it, they placed Kellermann at the head of
+the latter as a reserve, and intrusted the army of Italy to General
+Scherer, and sometime afterward to Napoleon.
+
+After the conquest of Milan, the Directory, either jealous of Napoleon
+or elated by success, decided to divide his army, and to place 20,000
+men under Kellermann to cover the siege of Mantua, and to direct the
+rest under Napoleon upon Rome. Napoleon immediately resigned his
+command, and wrote to the Directory: "I will not serve with a man who
+considers himself the best general in Europe; it is better to have one
+bad general than two good ones." The Directory, in alarm, abandoned
+their design; Kellermann was left at Chambéry, and Napoleon was
+allowed to follow his own plans.
+
+In 1797, Kellermann was made inspector-general of the cavalry of the
+army of England and of that of Holland; and in 1799, he took his place
+in the Senate, and was elected president on August 1, 1801. In 1804,
+he was created a Marshal of the Empire, and in the following year,
+received the grand eagle of the Legion of Honor. In 1803, he commanded
+the third corps of the army of reserve on the Rhine; and, in 1806, was
+placed at the head of the whole of that army; to which authority the
+command of the army of reserve in Spain was added in 1808; and in the
+same year, in honor of the great victory of his more vigorous days, he
+was created Duke of Valmy.
+
+In 1809, he commanded the army of reserve on the Rhine, the army of
+observation of the Elbe, the fifth, twenty-fifth, and twenty-sixth
+military divisions, and the army of reserve of the North. In 1812, he
+was charged with the duty of organizing the cohorts of the national
+guard in the first military division; he afterward commanded the
+twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth divisions. In 1813, he was at first
+provisional commander of the corps of observation on the Rhine, and
+then received the command of the second, third, and fourth military
+divisions. After the battle of Leipsic, he performed a valuable
+service in reconducting to France a body of about six thousand
+soldiers, who had been wounded in the affairs about Dresden.
+
+Upon the restoration of Louis XVIII., Marshal Kellermann received the
+command of the third and fourth divisions, and took no part in the
+events of the "hundred days." Upon the second restoration, he was
+placed at the head of the fifth division, received the grand cross of
+the order of St. Louis, and was made a peer of France.
+
+He died at Paris, on September 13, 1820, aged eighty-five years. He
+left a son, the celebrated general who made the decisive charge at
+Marengo, and distinguished himself in Spain and at Waterloo, and who
+died on June 2, 1835; and a daughter, married to General de Léry.
+
+
+
+
+MICHEL NEY, MARSHAL OF FRANCE[3]
+
+By LOUISE CHANDLER MOULTON
+
+(1769-1815)
+
+         [Footnote 3: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Michel Ney. [TN]]
+
+
+Among the marshals of the great Napoleon, Ney has always held in my
+mind the place of honor. "The Bravest of the Brave" was the sobriquet
+bestowed on him by the men of his own nation and his own time; and the
+briefest record of his life cannot fail to prove how well the title
+was deserved. I could wish for a larger canvas on which to paint his
+portrait; but the space allotted to me here will at least suffice to
+reveal his character, and chronicle the main events of his career.
+
+Michel Ney was born on January 10, 1769, in the small town of
+Sarre-Louis, in Lorraine, which province had at that time only
+recently been annexed to France. He was in reality, therefore, more
+German than French. His father was a working cooper by trade, but he
+wished his son to be something better, and arranged for him to study
+law. Life at a desk, however, had no interest for the future marshal,
+who, even then, had no doubt as to what should be his future career.
+In 1787 he enlisted, at Metz, as a private hussar. His rise was rapid
+from the first. He greatly distinguished himself in the Netherlands,
+where revolutionary France, under Dumouriez and others was holding her
+own against allied Europe. He became lieutenant in 1793, and captain
+in 1794. In 1796, after a brilliant conflict under the walls of
+Forchheim, which resulted in the taking of that town, and on the field
+of battle, he was made General of Brigade.
+
+Next year, in trying to save a gun from capture, he was taken prisoner
+by the Austrians; but General Hoche, who was then commanding the army
+of the Sambre and Meuse, soon effected his exchange. In 1798 he served
+with great distinction under Masséna, in Switzerland, and was made
+general of division.
+
+In 1799 he was transferred to the army of the Rhine, which he
+commanded for some time, fighting with varying success, but with
+unvarying energy and courage. He fought under Moreau at the famous
+battle of Hohenlinden, and at the peace of Lunéville was appointed
+inspector-general of the cavalry.
+
+In 1802 Napoleon having discovered that Switzerland "could not settle
+her intestine divisions except by the interposition of France," sent
+Ney, with 20,000 men, to dissolve the Diet and disband its forces.
+This mode of settling intestine divisions did not commend itself to
+the Swiss. It is generally admitted, however, that Ney acted with as
+much moderation as his odious task permitted; and he doubtless
+welcomed his recall to take a command in the army which was being
+collected at Boulogne, ostensibly for the invasion of England.
+
+When Napoleon was proclaimed emperor Ney was made a marshal, "for a
+long succession of heroic actions," and when the army, instead of
+crossing the Channel, turned back to crush Austria and the coalition,
+Ney commanded the sixth corps. By October 14, 1805, Napoleon had
+surrounded Mack and his army in Ulm, and on that day Ney carried the
+heights of Elchingen after a terrific combat. It was from this
+achievement that his title of Duke of Elchingen was derived. After the
+capitulation of Ulm Ney had, at Innsprück, the proud satisfaction of
+restoring to the seventy-sixth regiment the flags of which they had
+been despoiled. He was sent into the Tyrol in pursuit of the Archduke
+John, whose rear-guard he caught and cut to pieces at the foot of
+Mount Brenner, at the same time that Napoleon, at Austerlitz, brought
+the war to a close.
+
+After the peace of Presburg Ney remained in Suabia until the rupture
+with Prussia. The day of Jena found him so anxious for the fray that
+he attacked the enemy without waiting for orders, and brought the
+whole Prussian cavalry upon his small division of some three thousand
+men, and held them at bay until Napoleon sent him assistance. Though
+Prussia was practically annihilated by the battles of Jena and
+Auerstadt, Russia was still to be reckoned with. Napoleon invaded
+Poland, and found himself forced into a winter campaign at a
+formidable distance from France. Marching and countermarching through
+mud and snow the whole army was subjected to horrible suffering; but
+even then Ney's impetuous energy was unabated. Napoleon even rebuked
+him for "fool-hardiness;" and more than once his only salvation from
+destruction was in the slowness and density of the Russians. He took
+little part in the dreadful and indecisive battle of Eylau, after
+which Napoleon remained for eight days without making any movement;
+but it was to him that, at Friedland, Napoleon allotted the post of
+honor and of danger, saying, as the marshal went off proud of his
+task, "That man is a lion."
+
+Napoleon about this time discovered that "the interposition of France
+was necessary in the affairs of Spain;" and after the peace of Tilsit
+Ney was only allowed to remain in France long enough to recruit his
+forces, before being sent to the Peninsula. A few months later in the
+year, when Napoleon visited Spain, Ney was given the command of the
+sixth corps there, but he was destined to reap few Spanish laurels,
+and it is said that he endeavored to persuade the emperor to
+relinquish the hopeless struggle against an entire people. While Soult
+was engaged in the difficult task of forcing the English from the
+Peninsula by way of Corunna, Ney held Galicia and the Asturias,
+destroyed guerilla bands, defeated Sir Robert Wilson, and intercepted
+the enemy's convoys; but the whole country was in arms against the
+French, who after six months' unceasing struggle, were compelled to
+retreat.
+
+[Illustration: Marshal Ney returning the captured Colors.]
+
+When Masséna was sent to Portugal with orders from Napoleon to drive
+the "English leopards and their Sepoy general into the sea," Ney,
+acting under his directions, took Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida. At
+Busaco, on September 27, 1810, he differed from his commander-in-chief
+as to the advisability of attacking the English position in front,
+which was strong. Masséna suffered a severe repulse; and Ney was
+undoubtedly right, since the fact remains that after the battle
+Wellington's position was easily turned, and he was compelled to fall
+back. He retreated upon the famous lines of Torres Vedras, before
+which Masséna sat helplessly for months, until famine forced him to
+break up his camp. Ney was intrusted with the command of the
+rear-guard, and the universal opinion of military critics is that his
+management of this retreat was one of his most splendid feats of arms.
+On one occasion he confronted, with 5,000 men, Wellington and his army
+of 30,000, and delayed them for many hours, while the sick and
+wounded, the baggage wagons, and the main body of the French army made
+good their retreat. While Ney was in front of him Wellington knew no
+repose, nor, for all his efforts, did he succeed, during the whole
+pursuit, in capturing an ammunition wagon or even a single gun. But
+when Masséna--with a view to saving his military reputation, which had
+been gravely compromised by his want of success--proposed again to
+advance upon Lisbon, Ney flatly refused to obey him, and after a
+violent quarrel, was ordered by Masséna to relinquish his command and
+retire into the interior of Spain to await the decision of the
+emperor. Napoleon recalled him to France, and gave him the command of
+the third corps of that avalanche of men--men of so many nations and
+kindreds and peoples--which he was preparing to hurl upon Russia.
+
+The Grand Army crossed the Niemen in June, 1812, and followed an
+ever-retreating foe to Smolensk, where the Russian general, Barclay de
+Tolly, had received positive orders from Alexander to give battle, and
+where he had placed a garrison of 30,000 men. On August 14th Ney
+cleared the neighboring town of Krasnoi at the point of the bayonet,
+and during the next two days the Russians were slowly forced back
+under the walls of Smolensk. On the 17th a general attack was ordered,
+and Ney was directed to take the citadel. But so obstinate was the
+Russian defence that when night came no entrance had been effected.
+However, an hour after midnight the Russian general set fire to the
+town, and abandoned it, having lost 12,000 men in the defence. At a
+council of war which followed the capture of the place, Ney strongly
+recommended that the Grand Army should establish itself upon the banks
+of the Dwina and the Dnieper, and occupying Smolensk and its environs
+with a vanguard, there await the Russian attack. His advice was
+overruled, however, and he was forced to follow the retreating foe
+upon the road to Moscow. But Russia was thoroughly dissatisfied with
+the way in which the war had so far been carried on, and Barclay de
+Tolly was at this juncture superseded by Kutusof, who, having
+intrenched himself strongly near the little village of Borodino,
+prepared to dispute the farther progress of the invaders. The battle
+which followed, on September 7th, was one of the most obstinate and
+sanguinary of modern times. It lasted from early morning till late at
+night, and more than eighty thousand men were killed or wounded. Ney
+fought like a common soldier in the very thickest of the conflict. The
+Russian positions were at last carried, and Ney sent to the emperor
+for reinforcements with which to complete the victory. The emperor had
+only his guard in reserve, and refused this request. "If there should
+be another battle to-morrow," he said, "with what am I to fight it?"
+"Let him go back to Paris, and play at emperor, and leave fighting to
+us," cried Ney, scornfully, when he heard this message. Had his
+request been granted, and the Imperial Guard been hurled into the
+conflict at the right moment, it seems probable that the Russian army
+would have been entirely destroyed. As it was, they drew off in good
+order, under cover of night, and Kutusof even had the effrontery to
+claim a victory. For his services during this memorable day Ney
+received the title of Prince of the Moskowa.
+
+The result of the battle of Borodino was to leave Moscow at the mercy
+of the invaders, and a barren prize indeed it proved to them. In the
+horror of the fearful retreat from the ruined city the fame of Ney
+reached its highest point. Nothing in all history surpasses the record
+of his indomitable courage and cheerfulness in the most hopeless
+situations, and amid the most frightful hardships. As in Spain, he had
+the command of the rear-guard, and the soldiers, preyed upon alike by
+the Cossacks and the cold, died in the path like flies. Without
+artillery and without cavalry, they yet succeeded, day after day, in
+obstructing their pursuers. Ney was on foot in the midst of them,
+carrying a musket and fighting like the humblest private. But at
+Smolensk--where the army expected to find everything, and really found
+nothing--they stayed too long, and on resuming their march found the
+Russians barring their path. Napoleon and the Imperial Guard cut their
+way through. The first and fourth corps succeeded, after a desperate
+conflict, in evading their enemies, but Ney, who had received orders
+to blow up the fortifications of Smolensk before leaving the town,
+found himself with some eight thousand men cut off from the main body
+of fugitives by an army of 50,000 Russians. He attacked them as though
+the numbers were equal, lost in a short time nearly half his little
+force, and was obliged to fall back. Being called upon to surrender,
+he answered, proudly, "A Marshal of France never surrenders," and gave
+the order, as night approached, to retreat toward Smolensk, which was
+indeed the only way open to him. The soldiers were in despair. Ney
+alone did not lose heart. In the gathering dusk they came upon a small
+rivulet. The marshal broke the ice and watched the flow of the current
+beneath. "This must be a feeder of the Dnieper," he said. "We will
+follow it, and put the river between us and our enemies." This they
+succeeded in doing; but were obliged to leave their wounded, their
+artillery, and their baggage upon the other side. Ney had left
+Smolensk on November 17th, with about eight thousand men. On the 20th
+he joined Napoleon, who had given him up for lost--with somewhere
+about one thousand. Napoleon, hearing that he was come, fairly leaped
+and shouted for joy, exclaiming, "I have three hundred millions of
+francs in the Tuileries--I would have given them all rather than have
+lost such a man."
+
+A few days afterward Ney was fighting madly on the shores of the fatal
+Beresina to clear the way for the surging and almost frenzied crowd of
+soldiers, stragglers, women and children, who, under the merciless
+fire of the Russian batteries were streaming across the river on the
+rickety bridges improvised by the French engineers. The Grand Army was
+by this time only a crowd of wretched and undisciplined fugitives. Ney
+managed to preserve the semblance of a rear-guard, and if it had not
+been for his unceasing efforts it seems probable that hardly a single
+soldier would ever have seen again the shores of France. As it was,
+when he crossed the Niemen on December 13th, himself the last man to
+leave Russian territory--his rear-guard had vanished, and he had with
+him only his aides-de-camp, while of about five hundred thousand men
+who had crossed the river five months before scarcely fifty thousand
+returned.
+
+No sooner did this catastrophe become known than Europe--so long
+ground under his heel--rose against Napoleon, who at once called upon
+France for fresh levies. Ney was given the command of the first Corps.
+On April 29, 1813, he drove the allies from Weissenfels toward
+Leipsic. On May 1st he again compelled a retrograde movement; and on
+May 2d he commanded the French centre at the battle of Lutzen, where,
+indeed, he bore the brunt of the fighting. The allies were compelled
+to retire, but they did not consider themselves beaten, and they
+fought again at Bautzen a few days afterward. Lutzen and Bautzen were
+both dubious victories, but at Dresden the allies were defeated with
+great loss.
+
+This victory, however, was annulled by the defeat of Vandamme, who was
+taken prisoner in Bohemia, after losing 10,000 men. When Napoleon
+heard of this disaster he at once sent Ney to replace Oudinot in the
+command of the Northern army, with the object of pushing on to Berlin;
+but for once Ney's evil stars were in the ascendant, for on September
+5th he was totally defeated by Bernadotte, at Dennewitz, losing 10,000
+prisoners and eighty guns. "The Bravest of the Brave" was
+inconsolable. For some days he took no food, and scarcely spoke. He
+wished to give up his command and fight as a grenadier. "If I have not
+blown out my brains," he said, "it is only because I want to rally my
+army before dying."
+
+And now came the catastrophe at Leipsic--the three days' battle of the
+Nations--where, on the first day, Ney was defeated by Blücher, after a
+desperate struggle in which he lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and
+upward of two thousand prisoners. On the third day, after the
+defection of the Saxons, he held out for five hours with 5,000 men
+against 20,000, and retired fighting to the end. Through the whole of
+the succeeding campaign of France, he was at the emperor's side; and
+when, in spite of all the genius of Napoleon, and all the bravery of
+his soldiers, Paris capitulated, Ney was one of three marshals sent by
+the defeated Emperor of the French to negotiate with the Emperor of
+Russia for his abdication in favor of his son, the King of Rome.
+
+This mission failed of any result--Napoleon went to Elba, and Louis
+XVIII. reigned over France in his stead. Ney accepted the new order of
+things, and was created a peer of France, knight of St. Louis, and
+governor of the sixth Military Division. But the world was for the
+time at peace; and Ney's occupation was gone. He had been a fighter
+all his life--he could not turn courtier at the end. He had married,
+in 1810, Mlle Auguié, who had been brought up in the court of Louis
+XVI., was a friend of Hortense Beauharnais, and naturally fond of
+gayety and society. The great marshal was a simple and rather
+illiterate man, who had had no time to cultivate fashionable graces,
+so it happened that when Madame la Maréchal gave a banquet or a ball,
+Ney used not to appear, but dined by himself, in his own apartments,
+as far removed as possible from the noise of the festival. It is said
+that outside the field of battle he was one of the timidest of men,
+and even submitted quite tamely to the insolence of his own servants.
+
+In January, 1815, he departed for his country-seat of Coudreaux, near
+Chateaudun, where he lived in the simplest possible fashion, till on
+March 6th, an aide-de-camp of the Minister of War brought him an order
+to return at once to the head-quarters of the Military Division of
+which he was commander. Instead of going directly to his post, he went
+by way of Paris, where he heard for the first time of the landing of
+Napoleon.
+
+"It is a great misfortune," said he. "Whom can we send against him?"
+
+Then, having visited the king, and assured him of his devotion to the
+monarchy, he went to his command at Besançon. Next morning he heard
+that Grenoble had declared for the emperor, and that the occupation of
+Lyons was inevitable. He could observe for himself the dissatisfaction
+of the troops by whom he was surrounded. On the 12th he was at
+Lons-le-Saulnier, organizing his troops, and writing to the minister
+of war for ammunition and horses. But he soon saw that resistance was
+hopeless. The Bourbons had managed, as usual, to make themselves
+hated. The king's brother and Marshal Macdonald had been obliged to
+flee from Lyons when Napoleon appeared. All the soldiers were
+delighted at the thought of having their "Little Corporal" back again.
+On the night of the 13th Ney received an emissary from Napoleon. What
+memories must have stirred in his heart, of old perils and old
+glories! How could he resist the mighty spell of the past? On the 14th
+he announced to his troops that the house of Bourbon had ceased to
+reign, and proclaimed Napoleon.
+
+"It was a grievous fault, and grievously did Cæsar answer it." From
+this moment Ney knew no more peace of mind. So bitter was his remorse
+that he could not face his fellow-soldiers, and obtained Napoleon's
+permission to retire for a time into the country. When he returned,
+Napoleon said, banteringly, "I heard you had emigrated." "Ah, sire,"
+answered Ney, "I ought to have done so long ago, but it is too late
+now."
+
+The approach of war revived his spirits to some extent, and when, a
+few days before the battle of Waterloo, he joined the army in
+Flanders, he looked like the Ney of old. At Quatre Bras, on June 16th,
+despite an obstinate combat, he failed to drive Wellington from his
+position, and the next day he does not appear to have discovered that
+the English had fallen back upon Waterloo until some hours after their
+departure. At the great battle of Waterloo, on June 18th, he fought
+with the same reckless bravery as ever. He had five horses killed
+under him, and his clothing was riddled with bullets. Napoleon said,
+not without truth, that he behaved like a madman. After his fifth
+horse was shot he fought on foot until forced from the field by the
+rush of fugitives. He had done his best to die on the field of battle,
+but almost miraculously he escaped without a wound.
+
+After the second restoration of the Bourbons Ney retired into the
+country, meaning to escape to the United States, and was provided by
+Fouché with a passport for this purpose. He delayed, for some reason,
+to use it; and on August 3d he was arrested at the house of a
+relative. A council of war was appointed to try him, composed of
+Marshals Masséna, Augereau, Mortier, and three lieutenants. It would
+have been better for Ney had he submitted himself to their verdict;
+but he unwisely denied their competence, and demanded, as a peer of
+the realm, to be tried by his peers, and it was a tribunal which
+showed him no mercy. It does not appear that the king desired his
+death; but Talleyrand declared that it would be a grand example, and
+the royalists generally thirsted for his blood. He was condemned, by a
+majority of 139 to 17, to be shot for high treason.
+
+On December 7th his wife and four children were admitted to his prison
+in the early morning, to take leave of him. But neither in this
+painful ordeal nor at any time afterward, did the condemned marshal
+show any sign of weakness. At eight o'clock he was taken in a carriage
+to the place of execution, outside the garden gates of the Luxembourg.
+The officer who commanded the firing party wished to bandage his eyes,
+but Ney said, quietly--"Are you ignorant that for twenty-five years I
+have been accustomed to face both balls and bullets?" Then, raising
+his voice, he cried, "I protest against my condemnation. I wish that I
+had died for my country in battle. But here is still the field of
+honor. _Vive la France!_"
+
+The officer in command, to his credit be it said, was dumb. He seemed
+incapable of giving the word to fire; and Ney himself, taking off his
+hat, and striking his breast, cried, in a loud voice--"Soldiers, do
+your duty--fire!"
+
+Thus died, in his forty-seventh year, "The Bravest of the Brave."
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
+
+By COLONEL CLAYTON, R.A.
+
+(1769-1821)
+
+[Illustration: "The coronation of Joséphine". [TN]]
+
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, the second son of Charles Bonaparte and his wife,
+Letizia de Ramolino, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, on August 15,
+1769. In 1779 he entered the Royal Military School of Brienne le
+Château; there he remained till the autumn of 1784, when he was
+transferred to the Military School of Paris, according to the usual
+routine. An official report on him by the Inspector of Military
+Schools in this year speaks highly of his conduct, and notifies his
+great proficiency in mathematics and fair knowledge of history and
+geography, but says he is not well up in ornamental studies or in
+Latin, and, curiously enough, adds that he will make an excellent
+sailor. Napoleon lost his father in 1785, and the same year he was
+commissioned as second-lieutenant of artillery, in which capacity he
+served at Valence and other garrisons. He spent his periods of leave
+in Corsica, and appears to have wished to play the leading part in the
+history of his native island, showing the first signs of his ambitious
+and energetic character. During the critical times following the first
+French Revolution, he at first joined the moderate party of Paoli;
+but, trying for military power, though by untiring activity and
+reckless audacity he succeeded in being elected lieutenant-colonel of
+the National Volunteers of Ajaccio, he failed in an attempt to seize
+that town and was obliged to return to France. The French Government
+soon made an endeavor to crush Paoli and do away with Corsican
+privileges, and the islanders rallied round the patriot. Napoleon now
+turned against him and attempted to seize the citadel of Ajaccio for
+the French; but failing again, with all his relatives he fled a second
+time to France.
+
+From this time onward Napoleon looked to France for his career. The
+narrow horizon of his native island was no longer wide enough for him,
+but from its bracing mountain air and from the quick blood of his race
+he drew a magnetic force, which imparted to his decisions and actions
+a rapidity and energy that carried all before them, while at the same
+time a power of calm calculation, of industry, and of self-control
+enabled him to employ his genius to the best advantage. The force of
+his personality was so overwhelming that in considering his career the
+regret must ever be present that the only principle that remained
+steadfast with him, and is the key to his conduct throughout, should
+have been the care for his own advancement, glory, and power. Napoleon
+now joined the army under Carteaux, which acted against the
+Marseillais who had declared against the National Convention and
+occupied Avignon. At this time he became attached to the younger
+Robespierre, who was a commissioner with the army, and embraced his
+Jacobin principles. He was shortly promoted chef de bataillon, and
+commanded the artillery at the siege of Toulon, where he highly
+distinguished himself, and is generally believed to have been the
+author of the plan of attack which led to the fall of the place. He
+was then promoted general of brigade.
+
+On the fall of the Robespierres, Napoleon incurred serious danger, but
+was saved by powerful influence enlisted in his favor. He was,
+however, ordered to take command of an infantry brigade in the Army of
+the West. This he considered would stifle his military career, and
+neglecting to obey the order, he was in consequence removed from the
+list of employed general officers. Disgusted with his apparent lack of
+prospects, he was now anxious to be sent to Turkey to reorganize the
+Turkish artillery. But on the eve of the 13th Vendémiaire (October 5,
+1795) he was appointed second in command of the Army of the Interior
+under Barras, and did the National Convention good service next day in
+repelling the attack of the Sections of Paris. Influenced partly by
+fear and partly by appreciation of his talents, the Directory
+appointed General Bonaparte to the command of the Army of Italy, on
+February 23, 1796. On March 9th he married Joséphine Tascher de la
+Pagerie, widow of General Vicomte Alexandre de Beauharnais, and left
+Paris for Italy two days later.
+
+On joining the army Bonaparte inaugurated a new era in the wars of the
+Republic. Previously the leading motives had been pure patriotism and
+love of liberty; Bonaparte for the first time, in his proclamation on
+taking command, invoked the spirit of self-interest and plunder, which
+was to dominate the whole policy of France for the next twenty years.
+Evil as were the passions which he aroused, Napoleon's great military
+genius flashed forth in its full brilliancy in this his first
+campaign. His power lay in the rapidity and boldness of his decisions,
+and in the untiring energy with which he carried them out, confounding
+his enemies by the suddenness and lightning rapidity of his blows,
+which never gave them time to recover. He found the French army about
+thirty-six thousand strong, distributed along the crests of the
+mountains from Nice to Savona, and opposing 20,000 Piedmontese under
+Colli and 38,000 Austrians under Beaulieu. These two generals had,
+however, differing interests: Colli's main object was to protect
+Piedmont, Beaulieu's to cover Lombardy. Hence, if Bonaparte could
+penetrate the point of junction of the two armies, it was probable
+they would separate in their retreat, and could be beaten singly. He
+therefore attacked the centre of the allied line, and, driving back
+the Austrians from Montenotte on April 12th, turned against the
+Piedmontese and defeated them at Millesimo the next day. Losing no
+time he left a division under Augereau to keep the Piedmontese in
+check, and led the bulk of his army against the Austrians, defeating
+them heavily at Dego on the 14th. The allied armies then retreated in
+diverging directions as expected, and Bonaparte, following the
+Piedmontese, beat them at Ceva and Mondovi, and forced the King of
+Sardinia to sign the armistice of Cherasco, leaving him free to deal
+with the Austrians. He crossed the Po at Piacenza on May 7th, and
+obliged the Austrians to retreat to the Adda. Following them he forced
+the bridge of Lodi on May 11th, and entered Milan amid the rejoicings
+of the people on the 15th. But his ill-omened proclamation had done
+its work; violence and pillage were rampant in the French army, and he
+could do little to restrain them. Indeed, he himself showed an example
+of plundering, though under more organized forms. Heavy contributions
+were exacted, curiosities and works of art were demanded wholesale and
+despatched to France; and the Directory, demoralized by the
+unaccustomed wealth that flowed in upon them, became fully as eager as
+Napoleon for fresh conquests and their accruing spoils.
+
+The Austrians still held Mantua, which Napoleon now besieged,
+occupying himself at the same time in consolidating his conquests. The
+Austrians made strenuous efforts to save the fortress. They were much
+superior in number to the French, but were defeated again and again by
+the rapidity and genius of their opponent. Finally, at the end of
+October, an Austrian army of 50,000, but mostly recruits, advanced
+under Alvinzi. Then followed the three days' battle of Arcola, during
+which Napoleon had a very narrow escape, but which ended in Alvinzi's
+defeat and retreat on Tyrol. From Arcola Napoleon dated his firm
+belief in his own fortune. Once again, in January, 1797, Alvinzi tried
+to relieve Mantua. But Napoleon moved in full force on Rivoli, and won
+a decisive battle there on January 14th, the Austrian detachment on
+the Lower Adige having to lay down their arms next day at Roverbella.
+Würmser capitulated at Mantua on February 2d, Napoleon treating him
+with generosity. This first Italian campaign was perhaps the most
+skilful of all those of Napoleon. Everything was done accurately and
+rapidly, and without throwing away chances. Some of his later
+campaigns, though equally brilliant, show him acting more with the
+gambler's spirit, running unnecessary risks with almost a blind
+reliance upon his star, in the hope of obtaining results which should
+dazzle the world.
+
+In political matters during this time Napoleon was acting less as a
+servant of the French Directory than as an independent ruler. He
+entirely ignored the instructions he received from Paris, levying
+contributions, entering into negotiations, and deposing princes at his
+own will, and writing that he is not fighting "for those rascals of
+lawyers."
+
+[Illustration: Napoleon and the Sphinx.]
+
+Napoleon returned to Paris on December 5, 1797. The Directory, fearing
+his ambition, thought they could only keep him quiet by employing him,
+and gave him command of the so-called Army of England. But he was bent
+on the conquest of Egypt. He appears to have had something visionary
+in his temperament, and to have dreamed of founding a mighty empire
+from the stand-point of the East, the glow and glamour of which seem
+always to have had a certain fascination for him. He therefore
+employed the resources of the Army of England to prepare for an
+expedition to Egypt, and the Directory yielded to his wishes, partly
+no doubt, through the desire of getting him away from France. But
+their aggressive policy was at the same time fast bringing on another
+European war. The expedition sailed from Toulon on May 19, 1798,
+captured Malta from the Knights of St. John by treachery, and,
+escaping by great luck from the British fleet under Nelson, arrived at
+Alexandria on June 30th. The army was disembarked in haste, for fear
+lest Nelson should arrive, and on July 8th Napoleon marched on Cairo.
+He defeated the Mamelukes at Chebreïss and the Pyramids, and entered
+Cairo on July 24th. He then occupied himself with organizing the
+government of Egypt, but his position was rendered very hazardous by
+the destruction of the French fleet on August 1st by Nelson at the
+battle of the Nile, and he saw that his dream of founding an empire in
+the East could not be realized. He thought, however, that he might
+create a revolution in Syria, by the aid of which he might overthrow
+the Turkish power, and march in triumph back to Europe through Asia
+Minor and Constantinople. He accordingly entered Syria in February,
+1799, with 12,000 men, but was brought to a standstill before St. Jean
+d'Acre. Failing to capture that fortress, supported as it was by the
+British squadron under Sir Sidney Smith, in spite of the most
+desperate efforts, he was obliged to return to Egypt. After his
+return, Napoleon defeated a Turkish army which had landed at Aboukir,
+but learning the reverses that had been suffered by the French arms in
+Europe, he resolved to leave Egypt and return to France. He embarked
+secretly on August 22d, leaving a letter placing Kléber in command of
+the Army of Egypt, and landed in France six weeks later.
+
+He found matters at home in great confusion. The wars had been
+mismanaged, Italy was almost lost, and the government, in consequence,
+was in very bad odor. The revolution of the 18th Brumaire followed
+(November 9, 1799), when the legislature was forcibly closed, and a
+provisional executive of three consuls, Siéyès, Roger-Duclos, and
+Bonaparte, formed to draw up a new constitution. This was promulgated
+on December 13th; the executive was vested in three consuls,
+Bonaparte, Cambacérès, and Lebrun, of whom Bonaparte was nominated
+First Consul for ten years. He was practically paramount, the two
+remaining consuls being ciphers, and the other institutions being so
+organized as to concentrate power in the executive. Siéyès became
+president of the Senate. The governmental crisis being settled,
+energetic steps were taken with regard to the civil war in the west. A
+proclamation was issued promising religious toleration at the same
+time that decided military action was taken, and these measures were
+so successful that all was quiet at home by the end of February, 1800.
+Then Napoleon turned his attention abroad. He made overtures for peace
+to England and Austria, now the only belligerents, as he wished to
+lull suspicion by posing as the friend of peace, not as a military
+ruler; but he inwardly rejoiced when they rejected his overtures.
+
+The situation of the belligerents on the Continent was this: the Army
+of the Rhine under Moreau, more than one hundred thousand strong, was
+distributed along the Rhine from the Lake of Constance to Alsace,
+opposed to Kray, whose head-quarters were at Donaueschingen in Baden;
+while Masséna, with the Army of Italy, was on the Riviera and at
+Genoa, opposed to an Austrian army under Melas. Napoleon intended to
+gain himself the chief glory of the campaign; so, giving Moreau orders
+to cross the Rhine, but not to advance beyond a certain limit, and
+leaving Masséna to make head as best he could against Melas, with the
+result that he was besieged in Genoa and reduced to the last
+extremity, he prepared secretly an army of reserve near the Swiss
+frontier, to the command of which Berthier was ostensibly appointed.
+Outside, and even inside France, this army of reserve was looked upon
+as a chimera. Moreau crossed the Rhine on April 24th, and drove Kray
+to Ulm, but was there checked by Napoleon's instructions, according to
+which he also sent a division to co-operate with the army of reserve.
+Napoleon himself went to Geneva on May 9th, and assuming command of
+this army crossed the St. Bernard, and reached the plains of Italy
+before Melas had convinced himself of the existence even of the army
+of reserve, and while his troops were scattered from Genoa to the Var.
+Napoleon's obvious course would now have been to move straight on
+Genoa, relieve Masséna, and beat in detail as many of Melas's troops
+as he could encounter. But this would not have been a sufficiently
+brilliant triumph, as the bulk of the Austrian army might have
+escaped; and trusting in his star, he resolved to stake the existence
+of his army on a gambler's cast. Leaving Masséna to be starved out, he
+moved to the left on Milan, and occupied the whole line of the Ticino
+and Po as far as Piacenza, so as to cut off entirely the retreat of
+the Austrians. He then crossed the Po, and concentrated as many troops
+as he could spare at Stradella. The strategy was brilliant, but the
+risk run excessive. His army was necessarily scattered, while Melas
+had had time to concentrate, and he was besides ignorant of the
+Austrian position. He sent Desaix with a column to seek information,
+and moved himself on Alessandria, where he found Melas. Next day, June
+14th, Melas marched out to attack the French on the plains of Marengo,
+and despite all Napoleon's efforts, had actually defeated them, when
+fortunately, Desaix returned, and his advance, together with a cavalry
+charge by Kellermann, changed defeat into victory. Melas, losing his
+head, signed a convention next day, giving up almost all North Italy,
+though Marmont says that if he had fought another battle he must have
+won it. Napoleon returned to Paris with the glories of this
+astonishing campaign; but peace did not follow till Moreau, when his
+liberty of action was restored to him, had won the battle of
+Hohenlinden on December 3, 1800. Then followed the treaty of Lunéville
+with Germany, in February, 1801, the concordat with Rome, in July,
+1801, and the treaty of Amiens with England, in March, 1802, so that
+Napoleon was able to figure as the restorer of peace to the world. He
+then devoted himself to the reconstruction of the civil institutions
+of France, employing in this great work the best talent that he could
+find, and impressing on their labors the stamp of his own genius. The
+institutions then created, which still remain for the most part, were
+the restored Church, the judicial system, the codes, the system of
+local government, the University, the Bank of France, and the Legion
+of Honor.
+
+France at this period, sick of the failure of republican government,
+was gradually veering toward monarchy, and Napoleon knew how to take
+advantage of events to strengthen his position, and in due time
+establish his own dynasty.
+
+Preparations for the invasion of England had been steadily proceeding,
+but Napoleon's aggressive demeanor after becoming emperor alarmed the
+European cabinets, so that Pitt was able to revive the coalition, and
+in 1805 Napoleon found himself at war with Russia and Austria, as well
+as with England. Forced by England's naval supremacy to abandon the
+notion of invasion, he suddenly changed front in August, 1805, and led
+his armies through Hanover and the smaller German states, disregarding
+the neutrality even of Prussia herself, and reached the Danube in rear
+of the Austrian army under Mack, which was at Ulm. The surprise was
+complete; Mack surrendered October 19th, and Napoleon then marched on
+Vienna, which he entered November 13th. But his position was critical.
+The Archduke Charles was approaching from Hungary, a Russian army was
+entering Moravia, and Prussia, incensed at the violation of her
+territory, joined the coalition. A short delay would have surrounded
+Napoleon with his enemies, but the czar was impatient, and the Russian
+army, with a small contingent of Austrians, encountered Napoleon at
+Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, and was signally defeated. This caused
+the break-up of the coalition; the Holy Roman Empire came to an end,
+the Confederation of the Rhine was formed under French protection, and
+the Napoleonic empire was firmly established. Napoleon then entered
+into negotiations for peace with Russia and England, endeavoring to
+conciliate those powers at the expense of Prussia. The negotiations
+failed, but Prussia was mortally offended, and mobilized her army in
+August, 1806, about which time Russia finally rejected the treaty with
+France. Napoleon acted with his usual promptitude, and advanced
+against Prussia before she could get help either from England or
+Russia. Although the rank and file of the Prussian armies was good,
+their generals were antiquated, and Napoleon crushed them at Jena and
+Auerstadt, October 14th, and entered Berlin on the 27th. He had then
+to carry on a stubbornly contested campaign with Russia. An indecisive
+battle at Eylau was followed by a hardly earned French victory at
+Friedland, June 14, 1807, and the peace of Tilsit ensued, by which
+Prussia lost half her territory, and had to submit to various
+humiliating conditions, while Russia escaped easily, and indeed got a
+share of the spoils.
+
+Napoleon was now at the zenith of his power; he was the arbiter of
+Europe and the paramount head of a confederation of princes, among
+whom the members of his own family occupied several thrones. To reward
+his partisans he at this time created a new noblesse, and lavished
+upon them the public money. He sent an army under Junot to Portugal,
+and another to Spain, which, under Murat, took Madrid. Napoleon then
+procured the abdication of the King of Spain and placed his brother
+Joseph on the vacant throne. But he did not foresee the consequences.
+The spirit of the nation was roused, and a formidable insurrection
+broke out, while a British army, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed in
+Portugal, defeated Junot at Vimiera, and forced him to sign the
+Convention of Cintra, evacuating Portugal. So began the Peninsular
+War, which for the future was to paralyze half Napoleon's strength.
+
+In Germany also a spirit of revolt against his tyranny was rising,
+Austria at first taking the lead, and this brought on the war of 1809
+against that power. Prussia, already beginning to recover her strength
+under the military system of Scharnhorst and Stein, was hostile to
+Napoleon in sentiment, but was kept down by the pressure of Russia.
+Napoleon declared war on the pretext that Austria was arming, and
+marching through Bavaria drove the Austrians out of Ratisbon, and
+entered Vienna May 13th. Eugene Beauharnais, at the head of the Army
+of Italy, drove the Austrians before him into Hungary, defeated them
+at Raab, and joined Napoleon. The emperor then tried to cross the
+Danube, but was checked at Aspern and obliged to retire to the island
+of Lobau. Five weeks of preparation then followed, the peasant war
+under Hofer being carried on in Tyrol, and then Napoleon made a fresh
+and successful attempt to cross the Danube, and won the battle of
+Wagram July 5th. This was followed by the armistice of Znaim and the
+treaty of Schönbrunn, October 20, 1809, by which he obtained a heavy
+indemnity in money and considerable accession of territory in
+Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, and Galicia. But he mortally offended
+the czar by giving a large portion of the ceded territory of Galicia
+to the Duchy of Warsaw--i.e., to Poland.
+
+On December 16, 1809, Napoleon, desirous of an heir, divorced
+Joséphine, who was childless, and married, April 1, 1810, the
+Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria. He had no doubt the wish also to
+get a footing in the circle of the legitimate reigning families of
+Europe. A son, to whom the title of King of Rome was given, was born
+March 20, 1811.
+
+Still bent on the humiliation of England, Napoleon now tried to effect
+his purpose by increasing the stringency of the Continental System,
+but this ended in bringing him into conflict with Russia. He first
+annexed the kingdoms of Holland and Westphalia, to give him command of
+their seaboards, and then prohibited English trade even when carried
+in neutral bottoms. The czar, already estranged by Napoleon's alliance
+with Austria and his conduct as regards Poland, refused to adopt this
+policy, and the relations between them gradually became so strained
+that war was inevitable, and Napoleon took the momentous resolve to
+invade Russia. With Maria Louisa, he arrived at Dresden May 16, 1812,
+and was there greeted by the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia,
+and other sovereigns. His army for this gigantic enterprise numbered
+about six hundred thousand, including French, Germans, and Italians.
+He crossed the Niemen on June 24th, reaching Vilna, which was
+evacuated by the Russians, on the 28th; and remained at Vilna till
+July 16th, hesitating to take the final resolution to invade the heart
+of Russia. He made overtures for peace to the czar, who refused to
+treat as long as an enemy remained on Russian soil. Foiled here
+Napoleon at last decided to go on with his enterprise; so he
+advanced, and at first the Russians were in no condition to meet him,
+their forces being scattered. If Napoleon could have advanced rapidly
+to Smolensk, he might have cut the Russian forces in two, but his vast
+host appears to have been unmanageable. Barclay de Tolly and Bagration
+succeeded in uniting at Smolensk, but were driven from it on August
+18th, after an obstinate defence. At Smolensk Napoleon again hesitated
+as to whether he should go into winter-quarters, but eventually
+decided to press on to Moscow, trusting to the moral effect of the
+fall of the ancient capital. It seems as if, while his superstitious
+belief in his star still remained, bodily ailments had caused a
+deterioration in his power of rapid decision and in his energy of
+action. Meanwhile, great discontent had been caused in Russia by the
+continued retreat of the armies. Kutusoff was appointed to the chief
+command, and stood to fight at Borodino on September 6th. Napoleon won
+the battle, but with unwonted and misplaced caution refused to engage
+his Guard, and the victory was almost fruitless.
+
+He entered Moscow on September 14th, and fire broke out the next
+night, the first effect of which was still further to alarm the
+Russians, who believed it to be the work of the French. The fire raged
+fiercely till the 20th, and a great part of the city was burned to the
+ground. Had the victory of Borodino been more decisive the czar might
+now have yielded; but as it was he listened to the advice of Stein and
+Sir R. Wilson and refused to treat, thus putting Napoleon in a
+dilemma. His plans were always made on the basis of immediate success,
+and the course to be adopted in case of failure was not considered.
+Again he hesitated, with the result that when at last he resolved to
+retire from Moscow, the winter, coming earlier than usual, upset his
+calculations, and the miseries of that terrible retreat followed. He
+left Moscow on October 18th, and, reaching the Beresina with but
+12,000 men, was joined there by Oudinot and Victor, who had been
+holding the line of the Dwina, with 18,000. His passage of the river
+was opposed, but he succeeded in crossing, and on December 6th the
+miserable remnant of the Grand Army reached Vilna. Macdonald, Reynier,
+and Schwarzenberg, with 100,000 men, on the Polish frontier and in the
+Baltic provinces, were safe; but this was the whole available remnant
+of the 600,000 with which the campaign commenced.
+
+All Europe now united against him. The French armies were discouraged,
+and the allies enthusiastic; but the latter had difficulties to
+contend with from their heterogeneous composition and diversity of
+interests. The campaign opened with varying fortune. A blow at Berlin
+was parried by Bülow at Gross Beeren on August 23d. Napoleon himself
+forced Blücher back to the Katzbach, but had to retire again to defend
+Dresden from the Austrians; and his lieutenant, Macdonald, was
+defeated in the battle of the Katzbach on August 26th. Napoleon
+inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austrians before Dresden on the
+27th, but, while preparing to cut off their retreat, was disturbed by
+the news of Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach and by sudden illness, and
+at Kulm lost Vandamme with 20,000 men. September was spent in
+fruitless marches, and toward the end of the month the allies began
+their converging march on their preconcerted rendezvous at Leipsic. At
+the same time the Confederation of the Rhine began to dissolve. The
+kingdom of Westphalia was upset on October 1st, and on the 8th
+Bavaria joined Austria. The toils were closing round Napoleon, and
+between October 14th and 19th he was crushed in that battle of the
+Titans at Leipsic, and, brushing aside the Bavarians, who tried to
+stop him at Haynau, on November 1st, led back the remnant of his army,
+some 70,000 strong, across the Rhine at Mainz.
+
+The allies now made overtures for peace on the basis of natural
+frontiers, which would have left France the fruits of the first
+Revolution, viz., Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, and
+Nice; but Napoleon could not be content with such curtailment of his
+power. Evading at first the proposal, he would have accepted it, but
+with suspicious qualifications, when too late. The invasion of France
+followed. The allies issued a manifesto on December 1st, saying they
+were waging war against Napoleon alone, and advanced with three
+separate armies. Schwarzenberg led the Austrians through Switzerland,
+Blücher crossed the Middle Rhine toward Nancy, while the northern army
+passed through Holland. Napoleon had yet hopes of success on account
+of the forces he still had in the German fortresses, the mutual
+jealousies of the allies, his connection with the Emperor of Austria,
+and the patriotism which would be aroused in France by invasion. But
+the allies gave him no time to utilize these influences, and Paris was
+not fortified. Napoleon carried on a campaign full of genius, gaining
+what advantage he could from the separation of his enemies. He
+attacked Blücher and won four battles in four days at Champaubert
+(February 10, 1814), Montmirail (11th), Château-Thierry (12th), and
+Vauchamps (13th). These successes would have enabled him to make a
+reasonable peace, but his personal position forbade this, and he tried
+subterfuge and delay. The allies, however, were not to be trifled
+with, and in the beginning of March signed the treaty of Chaumont,
+which bound them each to keep 150,000 men on foot for twenty years.
+The battles of Craonne and Laon followed, in which Napoleon held his
+own, but saw his resources dwindle. On March 18th the conferences at
+Chatillon came to an end, and on the 24th the allies determined to
+march on Paris. Marmont and Mortier, with less than thirty thousand
+men, could make no head against them, while Napoleon himself tried a
+fruitless diversion against their communications. Joseph Bonaparte
+withdrew Maria Louisa and the King of Rome to Tours. On March 30th the
+allies attacked Paris on three sides, and in the afternoon the French
+marshals offered to capitulate. Napoleon, when he learned the real
+state of affairs, hurried up in rear of the allies, but was too late,
+and had to fall back to Fontainebleau. His position was desperate, and
+to add to his difficulties Wellington, whose career of success had
+gradually cleared the French out of the Peninsula, had now led his
+victorious army across the Pyrenees into France itself.
+
+Napoleon therefore at first offered to abdicate in favor of his son,
+but, when he found that would not be sufficient, he signed an
+unconditional abdication on April 11, 1814. He was given the
+sovereignty of the island of Elba, and the Bourbons, in the person of
+Louis XVIII., were restored to the throne of France. But the condition
+of affairs was very precarious. The return of the Bourbons was most
+unpopular. It indeed restored the parliament, but it unsettled the
+position of public men and the title to estates. The army was
+disgusted at the appointment to commands of emigrés who had fought
+against France. The Church began to cause alarm to the holders of
+national property; and by the release of prisoners and the return of
+the garrisons of German fortresses, very large numbers of Napoleonic
+soldiers became dispersed over France. The coalition, too, broke up,
+and fresh alliances began to be sought with a view to check the
+aggressive spirit which Russia seemed inclined to manifest. Altogether
+affairs in Europe and France were in such a state as to make it not
+impossible that the magic of Napoleon's name might replace him in
+power. He accordingly resolved on making the attempt, left Elba on
+February 26, 1815, and landed on the French coast on March 1st. On the
+20th he entered Paris, having been joined by the army.
+
+Europe had declared war against him, and a new coalition had been
+formed, but only two armies were immediately ready to take the field;
+a mixed force under the Duke of Wellington in Belgium, and a Prussian
+army under Blücher in the Rhine provinces. The English army had its
+base on the sea, and the Prussian on the Rhine, so that they had
+diverging lines of operation. Napoleon's idea was to strike suddenly
+at their point of junction before they could concentrate, push in
+between them, drive them apart, and then defeat each separately. The
+plan was unexceptionable, resembling that of his first campaign in
+1796, and the opening moves were successfully carried out. Napoleon
+left Paris on June 12th, his army being then echeloned between Paris
+and the Belgian frontier, so that the point where the blow would fall
+was still doubtful. On the 15th he occupied Charleroi, and was between
+the two allied armies, and on the 16th he defeated Blücher at Ligny
+before Wellington could come to his assistance. So far all had gone
+well with him; but now, apparently, his energy was not sufficient to
+cope rapidly with the difficulties that no doubt beset him through the
+shortcomings of his staff, and the spirit of mutual distrust that
+reigned among his officers. He did nothing till the morning of the
+17th, and it was not till 2 P.M. that he sent Grouchy with 33,000 men
+to follow the Prussians in the supposed direction of their retreat
+toward Liége, and keep them at a distance while he turned against
+Wellington. But he had lost his opportunity; the wasted hours had
+enabled the Prussians to disappear, and he did not know the fact that
+Blücher had taken the resolution to move on Wavre, giving up his own
+communications in order to reunite with Wellington. The latter had
+retired to a previously chosen position at Mont St. Jean, and received
+Blücher's promise to lead his army to his assistance. So on the 18th,
+when Napoleon attacked the duke, unknown to him the bulk of the
+Prussian army was hastening up on his right flank, while Grouchy was
+fruitlessly engaged with the Prussian rear-guard only. This led to the
+crowning defeat of Waterloo, where Napoleon's fortunes were finally
+wrecked. He fled to Paris, and abdicated for the last time on June
+22d; and, finding it impossible to escape from France, he surrendered
+to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, at Rochefort, on July 15th.
+He was banished by the British Government to St. Helena, where he
+arrived on October 15, 1815, and died there of cancer of the stomach
+on May 5, 1821.
+
+
+
+
+ARTHUR, DUKE OF WELLINGTON
+
+By L. DRAKE
+
+(1769-1852)
+
+[Illustration: Duke of Wellington. [TN]]
+
+
+Arthur Wellesley, the fourth son of the Earl of Mornington, was born
+on May 1, 1769, at Dungan Castle, in Ireland. Although exhibiting no
+decided inclination for the profession of arms, a soldier's career was
+chosen for him at an early age; and after some preparatory years spent
+at Eton, he was sent to Angers, in France, to learn in its ancient
+military school those lessons in the art of war which he was destined
+in after-life again and again so gloriously to surpass.
+
+Unlike his contemporary Napoleon, the genius of Wellington did not
+display itself beyond enabling him to attain a fair and creditable
+proficiency at Angers. On his return to England he was gazetted to an
+ensigncy early in 1787; and five years later, having passed through
+the intermediate degrees, he obtained a troop in the Eighteenth Light
+Dragoons.
+
+His first appearance in public life was as a statesman, having been
+returned to the Irish Parliament for the borough of Trim. His military
+career of active service commenced by his being ordered, with his
+regiment, to join the army in the Netherlands. Ere he reached it, the
+tide of victory was running against the British arms; and his opening
+campaign, while it gave him much experience, brought him but little
+glory. He had now obtained the rank of colonel; and, as commander of
+the rear-guard of the army, he steadily covered its retreat before the
+advancing troops of the French republic, till they crossed the
+frontiers of the Low Countries; when, after a kindly welcome and a
+short stay with the Bremeners, they returned home.
+
+The worn-out regiments were immediately recruited; and in April, 1796,
+Colonel Wellesley sailed with his corps for the East Indies, where he
+arrived in February the following year.
+
+The fall of Seringapatam, and the death of Tippou-Saib in its defence,
+are well-known events.
+
+The principal command of the army in India was soon intrusted to
+Colonel Wellesley, and early next year he was gazetted major-general.
+The nature of this sketch will not admit of a detailed account of the
+rest of the campaign, although it proved a "short but brilliant
+one"--one which ended in the entire submission of the Mahratta
+potentates who continued the struggle after Tippou's fall, and
+completely established the reputation of the future hero of Waterloo.
+
+A staff command awaited Major-General (and now Sir Arthur) Wellesley's
+return to England; and soon afterward he married Catherine, the third
+daughter of the Earl of Longford.
+
+The command of a detachment of the army sent against the French in
+Spain and Portugal, was confided to Sir Arthur, in June, 1808, when
+without delay he proceeded to Corunna. The successes of the earlier
+portion of the campaign, owing to the admirable conduct of Sir Arthur,
+were so well appreciated at home that the king raised him to the
+peerage. Through many difficulties Lord Wellington still continued to
+lead the allied army on from victory to victory, to relate which, even
+briefly, would alone fill a volume, till he found himself ready for
+the last grand struggle at Ciudad Rodrigo, which was now occupied by
+the French. It was early in January, 1811, yet notwithstanding the
+coldness of the weather, and the dangers to which the army was
+exposed, in case of the sudden rising of the river Agueda, which runs
+nearly in front of the town, the preliminaries of the siege were
+successfully conducted. One afternoon, the breaching batteries,
+comprising twenty-seven large guns, opened their fire on the wall of
+the town. In five days the breaches were practicable, and a summons to
+surrender was sent to the governor. This he declined doing.
+Wellington, having personally examined the breaches, felt convinced
+that an assault had every prospect of success. Ordering the fire of
+the guns to be directed against the cannon on the ramparts, he sat
+down on an embankment, and wrote the order of assault which was to
+seal the doom of the town, beginning with the emphatic sentence--"The
+attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo must be made this evening at seven
+o'clock."
+
+Spain and Portugal conferred honors on the conqueror of Rodrigo; and
+at home he was raised to the earldom of Wellington, with an increased
+annuity of £2,000 a year.
+
+The French army, under Marshal Soult, had at length been compelled to
+quit Spain, and with such speed, that in four days they passed over
+ground which it took the allied armies seven days to traverse. During
+the retreat the two armies approached each other several times; and on
+one occasion, when the French army was crossing the plains of Ger, its
+pursuers followed so closely, that had it not been for the thick woods
+through which they had to pass, Soult's retreat would have been
+seriously endangered by the British cavalry.
+
+When Bonaparte had quitted Fontainebleau, and had embarked on board
+the Undaunted frigate for Elba, Lord Wellington felt he might safely
+leave the army for a time; and, setting out for Paris, he reached it
+May 4th. He met with an enthusiastic reception from all classes; while
+the unqualified praises of each of the allied sovereigns showed how
+much the successful issue of the struggle to restore liberty to Europe
+was due to his talents and constancy of purpose. The restored Spanish
+king, Ferdinand, sent him a letter of gratitude; and the Crown Prince
+of Sweden gave him the Order of the Sword. England at the same time
+conferred upon him the dukedom he so long enjoyed, and raised five of
+his lieutenants to peerages.
+
+Once more the "loud shrill clarion" of war aroused Europe to arms. Ten
+short months after his abdication, Napoleon, escaped from Elba, was
+again in Paris, resolved to incur all risks in order to gain the
+greatest prize in Europe--the crown he had so lately relinquished. The
+magic influence of his name spread through France, which became one
+vast camp; and in an incredibly short space of time Napoleon found
+himself ready to take the field with an army of one hundred and fifty
+thousand men, of whom twenty thousand were highly disciplined cavalry.
+The whole army was perfectly equipped, while three hundred pieces of
+cannon formed an overpowering artillery. To oppose this well-appointed
+force, the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blücher had collected an
+army of one hundred and eighty thousand men. But although the allied
+armies thus exceeded Napoleon's in numbers, his consisted of veteran
+troops of one nation, while theirs were composed, for the most part,
+of raw levies. That under the duke was "the weakest and the worst;" at
+no time did it reach eighty thousand men, and on one-half of these
+only could reliance be placed in the day of battle.
+
+"I am going to have a brush with Wellington," said Napoleon, on the
+evening of June 11, 1815; and next morning before daybreak he set out
+to join his army on the frontiers, taking every precaution to conceal
+from Wellington that he was coming. Napoleon's object was to separate
+Blücher from Wellington, then to deal with each singly, and thus to
+crush them forever. Then France, rejoicing to see glory once more
+resting on her eagles, would again hail him as her emperor.
+
+While at dinner, Wellington received the first news of the advance of
+Napoleon. Thinking that this was merely a feint to draw the allies
+toward Ligny, while a serious attempt was made upon Brussels,
+Wellington, who had already prepared himself for any emergency,
+determined to wait till Napoleon's object was more fully displayed;
+while, therefore, he gave orders that the troops should be in
+readiness to march at a moment's notice, he, with his officers, joined
+in the festivities of a ball given that evening by the Duchess of
+Richmond.
+
+Blücher's second courier arrived before twelve o'clock, and the
+despatches were delivered to the duke in the ball-room. While he was
+reading them, he seemed completely absorbed by their contents; and
+after he had finished, for some minutes he remained in the same
+attitude of deep reflection, totally abstracted from every surrounding
+object, while his countenance was expressive of fixed and intense
+thought. He was heard to mutter to himself, "Marshal Blücher
+thinks"--"It is Marshal Blücher's opinion;"--and after remaining thus
+abstracted a few minutes, and having apparently formed his decision,
+he gave his usual clear and concise orders to one of his staff
+officers, who instantly left the room, and was again as gay and
+animated as ever; he stayed to supper, and then went home.
+
+[Illustration: A review of the British Army by Wellington.]
+
+The trumpet's loud call awoke every sleeper in the city of Brussels a
+little after midnight. Then it became known that the French had
+advanced to Charleroi, which they had taken, and that the English
+troops were ordered to advance and support the Prussians. Instantly
+the place resounded with martial preparations; and as soldiers were
+quartered in every house, the whole town became one bustling scene.
+
+At daylight the troops were under arms, and at eight o'clock set out
+for Quatre Bras, the expected scene of action in advance of Charleroi;
+the fifth division taking the direct road through the forest of
+Soignies.
+
+Early in the afternoon, Marshal Ney attacked the Prince of Orange, and
+by an overwhelming superiority of troops was driving him back through
+a thick wood called "Le Bois de Bossen," when the leading columns of
+the English reached Quatre Bras. Wellington's eye at once saw the
+critical condition of his ally; and, though the troops had marched
+twenty miles under a sultry sky, he knew their spirit was indomitable,
+and gave the welcome order that the wood must be immediately regained.
+
+On came Ney's infantry, doubling that of his opponents' in number,
+supported by a crashing fire of artillery, quickly followed by the
+cavalry, which, dashing through the rye crops, more than breast high,
+charged the English regiments as soon as they reached the
+battle-ground.
+
+Yet, though unable properly to establish themselves, they formed
+squares, and roughly repelled the enemy. Fierce and frequent were the
+efforts of the French to break the squares. Showers of grape poured
+upon them; and the moment an opening appeared, on rushed the lancers.
+But the dead were quickly removed; and, though the squares were
+lessened, they still presented an unbroken line of glittering
+bayonets, which neither the spears of the lancers, nor the long swords
+of the cuirassiers could break through. A division of the Guards from
+Enghien, coming up at this crisis, gallantly charged the enemy, and in
+half an hour cleared the wood of them completely. This exploit was
+remarkable, achieved as it was by young soldiers after a toilsome
+march of fifteen hours, during which time they had been without
+anything to eat or drink. The fire of the French artillery, and the
+charges of cavalry, obliged these gallant fellows, although now joined
+by the Brunswickers, in some measure to keep the shelter of the wood.
+They, however, sallied out at intervals, until Ney, finding himself
+shaken, sent for his reserve. This force Napoleon had unexpectedly
+removed to support his attack on the Prussians at Ligny; yet the
+marshal maintained his position to the close of the day, when he fell
+back on the road to Frasnes, while the British and their brave allies
+lighted fires, and securing such provisions as they could, after a
+scanty meal, piled arms, and lay down to rest on the battle-field.
+
+Napoleon's simultaneous attack on the Prussians at Ligny was for a
+long time doubtful. Both Blücher and Napoleon were compelled to bring
+their reserves into action; and when night closed, Blücher still,
+"like a wounded lion," fought with ferocity. But the darkness enabled
+Napoleon to wheel a division of French infantry on the rear of the
+Prussians, while a dense body of cuirassiers forced Ligny on the other
+side, and not till then did Blücher fall back.
+
+Wellington was prepared to accept battle at daybreak next morning;
+but, hearing of Blücher's retreat, he also resolved to fall back, so
+as to keep a lateral communication with the right wing of the
+Prussians, and by this movement also prevent Bonaparte from placing
+himself between the two armies, when at his choice he might turn his
+forces against either, in which case the inferiority of numbers would
+have entailed certain defeat.
+
+Napoleon expected to find the English army still upon the ground it
+had occupied on the 16th. Great was his surprise when, on reaching the
+heights above Frasnes, he saw that the troops at the entrance of the
+wood were only a strong rear-guard, and that the retreat toward
+Brussels was already half effected. He bitterly rebuked Ney for his
+supposed negligence, though Wellington's own officers did not imagine
+they were to retreat till the moment it began; and the duke, by
+dexterously wheeling his troops round the wood, part of which could
+only be seen by the French, gave their marshal the idea that he was
+bringing up large reinforcements instead of drawing off his troops.
+The French squadrons immediately commenced the pursuit, but were so
+rudely handled by the Life Guards under Lord Uxbridge, who protected
+the rear, that, after several attacks, in the last of which the French
+hussars were charged and nearly cut to pieces, the pursuit was so
+severely checked as to give the infantry ample time to take up the
+ground appointed them on the heights of Mont St. Jean, covering the
+approach to Brussels by the great road from Charleroi.
+
+"Here it was that the duke had determined to make his final stand,
+staking the glory of many years on the issue of a single battle."
+
+When day broke, and Napoleon beheld his opponents, whom he feared
+would have escaped him during the night, fearlessly occupying their
+position of the evening before, and evidently prepared to defend it, a
+flush of joy overspread his face, while he exclaimed confidently,
+"Bravo! I have them then--these English!"
+
+By nine o'clock the weather moderated, the sun shone out, fires were
+kindled, the men dried and cleaned their arms, and, ammunition being
+served out, provisions were distributed, and the men breakfasted "with
+some degree of comfort."
+
+Since daybreak occasional shots had been fired; but not till eleven
+o'clock did the battle begin. A body of light troops left the French
+line, and, descending the hill at a sling trot, broke into scattered
+parties, keeping up an irregular fire as they advanced toward the
+Château of Hougoumont. These were closely followed by three divisions
+nearly thirty thousand strong; and the dropping fire was soon changed
+into one continued roll of musketry. As the English skirmishers fell
+back, two brigades of British artillery opened on the advancing
+columns of the French, each shot plunging and tearing through their
+masses, while the shells from the howitzers fell so truly that the
+shaken columns drew back. But now a powerful artillery opened from the
+French heights, fresh troops poured forward, and for more than an hour
+the line of each army remained spectators of the terrific attack on
+the château, surrounded by a dense cloud of smoke, through which
+glared forth the flashes of the artillery. The French guns had found
+their range; every shot told upon the old walls of the mansion; and
+crashing masonry, burning rafters falling, mingled with the yell of
+battle, added a frightful interest to the scene. At length the Nassau
+sharpshooters were driven back, and the French troops began to
+penetrate the orchard; but, ere they could occupy it the squadrons of
+English cavalry, under Lord Saltoun, bore down upon them, and drove
+them back. Wheeling round, they then attempted the rear of the
+château, but being received unflinchingly, were obliged to retire.
+Despairing of success, the French artillery now discharged shells upon
+Hougoumont; the tower and chapel were soon in a blaze, and in these
+many wounded men met a dreadful fate. Still, though surrounded by
+flames and bursting shells, with the heavy shot ploughing through wall
+and window, the Guards held their post, nor could Hougoumont be taken.
+
+"How beautifully these English fight! But they must give way,"
+exclaimed Napoleon to Marshal Soult. But evening came, and yet they
+held their ground. The men, maddened by seeing their comrades falling
+around them, longed ardently for the moment to advance; but Wellington
+felt that the crisis was not yet come. It required all his authority
+to restrain the troops; but he knew their powers of endurance.
+
+"Not yet, my brave fellows," said the duke; "be firm a little longer,
+and you shall have at them by-and-by." This homely appeal kept each
+man in his place in the ranks. But now the superior officers
+remonstrated, and advised a retreat.
+
+"Will the troops stand?" demanded Wellington.
+
+"Till they perish!" was the reply.
+
+"Then," added the duke, "I will stand with them to the last man."
+
+Yet Wellington was not insensible of the critical nature of his
+position, and longed for night or Blücher. It was now seven, and the
+Prussians had been expected at three. In less than an hour, the sound
+of artillery was heard in the expected direction, and a staff officer
+brought word that the head of the Prussian column was at Planchenoit,
+nearly in the rear of the French reserve. Bonaparte, when told of
+their advance, maintained that it was Grouchy's long-expected force
+coming up; but when he saw them issue from the wood, and perceived the
+Prussian colors, he turned pale, but uttered not a word.
+
+Napoleon's Imperial Guards--his veteran troops--were now advancing,
+covered by a tempest of shot and shells, toward the ridge behind which
+lay the British infantry to gain a shelter from the fire. Wellington
+eagerly watched the dense cloud as it approached; and when it arrived
+within a hundred yards, advancing on horseback to the brow of the
+ridge, he exclaimed, "Up, Guards, and at them!"
+
+In a moment the men were on their feet--the French closed on them,
+when a tremendous volley drove the whole mass back; but the old
+Imperial Guard recovered, yet only to receive a second volley as
+deadly as the first, followed by a bold charge with the bayonet, which
+forced them down the slope, and up the opposite bank. In vain the
+French attempted to support them by taking the Guards in flank. Lord
+Hill brought forward the extreme right of the army, in the form of a
+crescent, which overlapping the horsemen, they were crushed as in a
+serpent's folds, while the infantry fell back, re-formed, and occupied
+their former place on the ridge.
+
+Wellington's quick eye already detected the confusion caused by the
+Prussian attack under General Bülow on the French rear. Hastily
+closing his telescope, he exclaimed, "The hour is come! Now every man
+must advance!"
+
+Forming into one long line, four men deep, the whole infantry
+advanced, with a loud cheer, the sun at the instant streaming out as
+if to shed his last glories on the conquerors of that dreadful day.
+Headed by the duke, with his hat in hand, the line advanced with
+spirit and rapidity, while the horse-artillery opened a fire of
+canister-shot on the confused masses.
+
+For a few minutes they stood their ground gallantly; and, even when
+the allied cavalry charged full upon them, four battalions of the Old
+Guard formed squares, and checked its advance. As the grapeshot tore
+through the ranks of the veterans, they closed up again, and, to every
+summons to surrender, gave the stern reply, "The Guard never
+surrender--they die!"
+
+Napoleon had already fled. Finding all hope of victory gone, he at
+first threw himself into one of the squares of the Old Guard,
+determined to die with them, but when the Prussians gained on their
+rear, and he was in danger of being made prisoner, he exclaimed, "For
+the present it is finished. Let us save ourselves!" and, turning his
+horse's head, he fled with ten or twelve of his immediate attendants.
+
+It was now half-past nine at night, and the moon rose with more than
+ordinary splendor. The French, now a mass of fugitives, were closely
+pursued by both armies, and a fearful slaughter ensued between
+Waterloo and Genappe. At the latter place the British discontinued the
+pursuit; but the Prussians, comparatively fresh, pursued without
+intermission; their light-horse putting no limit to their revenge.
+Many of the poor fugitives sought shelter in the villages on their
+route; but at the sound of a Prussian trumpet they fled again, only to
+be overtaken and cut down.
+
+Wellington re-crossed the field of Waterloo to sup at Brussels. The
+moonlight revealed all the horrors of the scene--his stern nature gave
+way--and, bursting into tears, he exclaimed, "I have never fought such
+a battle, and I hope never to fight such another."
+
+He never did. Waterloo was his last battle, though he lived for nearly
+forty years afterward, a leader in English politics, and died in 1852,
+a national hero, a worthy twin figure to the immortal Nelson.
+
+
+
+
+LORD HORATIO NELSON
+
+(1758-1805)
+
+[Illustration: Lord Nelson. [TN]]
+
+
+Horatio Nelson was born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, September 29,
+1758. His father, the rector of that parish, was burdened with a
+numerous family; and it is said to have been more with a view to
+lighten that burden than from predilection for the service, that at
+the age of twelve he expressed a wish to go to sea, under the care of
+his uncle, Captain Suckling. Of his early adventures it is unnecessary
+to speak in detail. In 1773 he served in Captain Phipps's voyage of
+discovery in the Northern Polar seas. His next station was the East
+Indies; from which, at the end of eighteen months, he was compelled to
+return by a very severe and dangerous illness. In April, 1777, he
+passed his examination, and was immediately commissioned as second
+lieutenant of the Lowestoffe frigate, then fitting out for Jamaica.
+
+Fortunate in conciliating the good-will and esteem of those with whom
+he served, he passed rapidly through the lower ranks of his
+profession, and was made post-captain, with the command of the
+Hinchinbrook, of twenty-eight guns, June 11, 1779, when not yet of
+age. In 1782 he was appointed to the Albemarle, twenty-eight; and in
+1784 to the Boreas, twenty-eight, in which he served for three years
+in the West Indies, and though in time of peace, gave signal proof of
+his resolution and strict sense of duty, by being the first to insist
+on the exclusion of the Americans from direct trade with the British
+colonies, agreeably to the terms of the Navigation Act. He had no
+small difficulties to contend with; for the planters and the colonial
+authorities were united against him, and even the admiral on the
+station coincided with their views, and gave orders that the Americans
+should be allowed free access to the islands. Still Nelson persevered.
+Transmitting a respectful remonstrance to the admiral, he seized four
+of the American ships, and after a long and tedious process at law, in
+which he incurred much anxiety and expense, he succeeded in procuring
+their condemnation by the Admiralty Court. Neither his services in
+this matter, nor his efforts to expose and remedy the peculations and
+dishonesty of the government agents, in almost all matters connected
+with naval affairs in the West Indies, were duly acknowledged by the
+Government at home; and in moments of spleen when suffering under
+inconveniences which a conscientious discharge of his duty had brought
+on him, he talked of quitting the service of an ungrateful country. In
+March, 1787, he married Mrs. Nisbet, a West-Indian lady, and in the
+same year returned to England. He continued unemployed till January,
+1793; when, on the breaking out of the French wars, he was appointed
+to the Agamemnon, sixty-four, and ordered to serve in the
+Mediterranean under the command of Lord Hood.
+
+An ample field for action was now open to him. Lord Hood, who had
+known him in the West Indies, and appreciated his merits, employed him
+to co-operate with Paoli in delivering Corsica from its subjection to
+France; and most laboriously and ably did he perform the duty
+intrusted to him. The siege and capture of Bastia was entirely owing
+to his efforts; and at the siege of Calvi, during which he lost an
+eye, and throughout the train of successes which brought about the
+temporary annexation of Corsica to the British crown, his services,
+and those of the brave crew of the Agamemnon, were conspicuous. In
+1795 Nelson was selected to co-operate with the Austrian and Sardinian
+troops in opposing the progress of the French in the north of Italy.
+The incapacity, if not dishonesty, and the bad success of those with
+whom he had to act, rendered this service irksome and inglorious; and
+his mortification was heightened when orders were sent out to withdraw
+the fleet from the Mediterranean, and evacuate Corsica and Elba. These
+reverses, however, were the prelude to a day of glory. On February 13,
+1797, the British fleet, commanded by Sir John Jervis, fell in with
+the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. In the battle which ensued,
+Nelson, who had been raised to the rank of Commodore, and removed to
+the Captain, seventy-four, bore a most distinguished part.
+Apprehensive lest the enemy might be enabled to escape without
+fighting, he did not hesitate to disobey signals, and executed a
+manoeuvre which brought the Captain into close action at once with
+three first-rates, an eighty, and two seventy-four gun ships. Captain
+Trowbridge, in the Culloden, immediately came to his support, and they
+maintained the contest for near an hour against this immense disparity
+of force. One first-rate and one seventy-four dropped astern disabled;
+but the Culloden was also crippled, and the Captain was fired on by
+five ships of the line at once; when Captain Collingwood, in the
+Excellent, came up and engaged the huge Santissima Trinidad, of one
+hundred and thirty-six guns. By this time the Captain's rigging was
+all shot away; and she lay unmanageable abreast of the eighty-gun
+ship, the San Nicolas. Nelson seized the opportunity to board, and was
+himself among the first to enter the Spanish ship. She struck after a
+short struggle; and, sending for fresh men, he led the way from his
+prize to board the San Josef, of one hundred and twelve guns,
+exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey or victory." The ships immediately
+surrendered. Nelson received the most lively and public thanks for his
+services from the admiral, who was raised to the peerage by the title
+of Earl St. Vincent. Nelson received the Order of the Bath; he had
+already been made Rear-Admiral, before tidings of the battle reached
+England.
+
+During the spring, Sir Horatio Nelson commanded the inner squadron
+employed in the blockade of Cadiz. He was afterward despatched on an
+expedition against Teneriffe, which was defeated with considerable
+loss to the assailants. The admiral himself lost his right arm, and
+was obliged to return to England, where he languished more than four
+months before the cure of his wound was completed. His services were
+rewarded by a pension of £1,000. On this occasion he was required by
+official forms to present a memorial of the services in which he had
+been engaged; and as our brief account can convey no notion of the
+constant activity of his early life, we quote the abstract of this
+paper given by Mr. Southey. "It stated that he had been in four
+actions with the fleets of the enemy, and in three actions with boats
+employed in cutting out of harbor, in destroying vessels, and in
+taking three towns; he had served on shore with the army four months,
+and commanded the batteries at the sieges of Bastia and Calvi; he had
+assisted at the capture of seven sail of the line, six frigates, four
+corvettes, and eleven privateers; taken and destroyed near fifty sail
+of merchant vessels, and actually been engaged against the enemy
+upward of a hundred and twenty times; in which service he had lost his
+right eye and right arm, and been severely wounded and bruised in his
+body."
+
+Early in 1798 Nelson went out in the Vanguard to rejoin Lord St.
+Vincent off Cadiz. He was immediately despatched with a squadron, into
+the Mediterranean, to watch an armament known to be fitting out at
+Toulon, the destination of which excited much anxiety. It sailed May
+20th, attacked and took Malta, and then proceeded, as Nelson supposed,
+to Egypt. Strengthened by a powerful reinforcement, he made all sail
+for Alexandria; but there no enemy had been seen or heard of. He
+returned in haste along the north coast of the Mediterranean to
+Sicily, refreshed the fleet, and again sailed to the eastward. On
+nearing Alexandria the second time, August 1st, he had the pleasure of
+seeing the object of his toilsome cruise moored in Aboukir Bay, in
+line of battle. It appeared afterward that the two fleets must have
+crossed each other on the night of June 22d.
+
+The French fleet consisted of thirteen ships of the line and four
+frigates; the British of the same number of ships of the line, and one
+fifty-gun ship. In number of guns and men the French had a decided
+superiority. It was evening before the British fleet came up. The
+battle began at half-past six; night closed in at seven, and the
+struggle was continued through the darkness--a magnificent and awful
+spectacle to thousands who watched the engagement with eager anxiety.
+Victory was not long doubtful. The first two ships of the French line
+were dismasted in a quarter of an hour; the third, fourth, and fifth
+were taken by half-past eight; about ten, the L'Orient, Admiral
+Bruey's flag-ship, blew up. By daybreak the two rear ships, which had
+not been engaged, cut their cables and stood out to sea, in company
+with two frigates, leaving nine ships of the line in the hands of the
+British, who were too much crippled to engage in pursuit. Two ships of
+the line and two frigates were burnt or sunk. Three out of the four
+ships which escaped were subsequently taken; and thus, of the whole
+armament, only a single frigate returned to France.
+
+This victory, the most complete and most important then known in naval
+warfare, raised Nelson to the summit of glory, and presents and honors
+were showered on him from all quarters. The gratitude of his country
+was expressed, inadequately in comparison with the rewards bestowed on
+others for less important services, by raising him to the peerage, by
+the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, with a pension of £2,000. The
+Court of Naples, to which the battle of Aboukir was as a reprieve from
+destruction, testified a due sense of its obligation by bestowing on
+him the dukedom and domain of Bronte, in Sicily.
+
+The autumn of 1798, the whole of 1799, and part of 1800, Nelson spent
+in the Mediterranean, employed in the recovery of Malta, in protecting
+Sicily, and in co-operating to expel the French from the Neapolitan
+continental dominions. In 1800 various causes of discontent led him to
+solicit leave to return to England, where he was received with the
+enthusiasm due to his services.
+
+Soon afterward he separated himself formally from Lady Nelson. In
+March, 1801, he sailed as second in command of the expedition against
+Copenhagen, led by Sir Hyde Parker. The dilatoriness with which it was
+conducted increased the difficulties of this enterprise, and might
+have caused it to fail, had not Nelson's energy and talent been at
+hand to overcome the obstacles occasioned by this delay. The attack
+was intrusted to him by Sir Hyde Parker, and executed April 2d, with
+his usual promptitude and success. After a fierce engagement, with
+great slaughter on both sides, the greater part of the Danish line of
+defence was captured or silenced. Nelson then sent a flag of truce on
+shore, and an armistice was concluded. He bore honorable testimony to
+the gallantry of his opponents. "The French," he said, "fought
+bravely, but they could not have supported for one hour the fight
+which the Danes had supported for four." May 5th Sir Hyde Parker was
+recalled, and Nelson appointed Commander-in-chief; but no further
+hostilities occurred, and suffering greatly from the climate, he
+almost immediately returned home. For this battle he was raised to the
+rank of Viscount.
+
+At this time much alarm prevailed with respect to the meditated
+invasion of England; and the command of the coast from Orfordness to
+Beachy Head was offered to him, and accepted. But he thought the alarm
+idle; he felt the service to be irksome; and gladly retired from it at
+the peace of Amiens. When war was renewed in 1803, he took the command
+of the Mediterranean fleet. For more than a year he kept his station
+off Toulon, eagerly watching for the French fleet. In January, 1805,
+it put to sea, and escaped the observation of his lookout ships. He
+made for Egypt, and failing to meet with them, returned to Malta,
+where he found information that they had been dispersed in a gale, and
+forced to put back to Toulon. Villeneuve put to sea again, March 31st,
+formed a junction with the Spanish fleet in Cadiz, and sailed for the
+West Indies. Thither Nelson followed him, after considerable delay for
+want of information and from contrary winds; but the enemy still
+eluded his pursuit, and he was obliged to retrace his anxious course
+to Europe, without the longed-for meeting, and with no other
+satisfaction than that of having frustrated by his diligence their
+designs on the English colonies. June 20, 1805, he landed at
+Gibraltar, that being the first time that he had set foot ashore
+since June 16, 1803. After cruising in search of the enemy till the
+middle of August, he was ordered to Portsmouth, where he learned that
+an indecisive action had taken place between the combined fleets
+returning from the West Indies, and the British under Sir Robert
+Calder.
+
+[Illustration: Nelson at Trafalgar.]
+
+He had not been many days established at home before certain news
+arrived that the French and Spanish fleets had entered Cadiz. Eager to
+gain the reward of his long watchings, and laborious pursuit, he again
+offered his services, which were gladly accepted. He embarked at
+Portsmouth, September 14, 1805, on board the Victory, to take the
+command of the fleet lying off Cadiz, under Admiral Collingwood, his
+early friend and companion in the race of fame. The last battle in
+which Nelson was engaged was fought off Cape Trafalgar, October 21,
+1805. The enemy were superior in number of ships, and still more in
+size and weight of metal. Nelson bore down on them in two lines,
+heading one himself, while Collingwood, in the Royal Sovereign, led
+the other, which first entered into action. "See," cried Nelson, as
+the Royal Sovereign cut through the centre of the enemy's line, and
+muzzle to muzzle engaged a three-decker, "see how that noble fellow
+Collingwood carries his ships into action." Collingwood, on the other
+hand, said to his captain, "Rotherham, what would Nelson give to be
+here?" As the Victory approached an incessant raking fire was directed
+against her, by which fifty of her men were killed and wounded before
+a single gun was returned. Nelson steered for his old opponent at Cape
+St. Vincent, the Santissima Trinidad, distinguished by her size, and
+opened his fire at four minutes after twelve, engaging the Redoubtable
+with his starboard, the Santissima Trinidad and Bucentaur with his
+larboard guns.
+
+About a quarter past one, a musket-ball, fired from the mizzen-top of
+the Redoubtable, struck him on the left shoulder, and he fell. From
+the first he felt the wound to be mortal. He suffered intense pain,
+yet still preserved the liveliest interest in the fate of the action;
+and the joy visible in his countenance as often as the hurrahs of the
+crew announced that an enemy had struck, testified how near his heart,
+even in the agonies of death, was the accomplishment of the great work
+to which his life had been devoted. He lived to know that his victory
+was complete and glorious, and expired tranquilly at half-past four.
+His last words were, "Thank God, I have done my duty."
+
+He had indeed done his duty, and completed his task; for thenceforth
+no hostile fleet presumed to contest the dominion of the sea. It may
+seem mournful that he did not survive to enjoy the thanks and honors
+with which a grateful country would have rejoiced to recompense this
+crowning triumph. But he had reached the pinnacle of fame; and his
+death in the hour of victory has tended far more than a few years of
+peaceful life, to keep alive his memory in the hearts of a people
+which loved, and a navy which adored him.
+
+
+
+
+ISRAEL PUTNAM
+
+(1718-1790)
+
+[Illustration: Men searching in rocks. [TN]]
+
+
+Israel Putnam, the redoubtable hero of Indian and French adventure in
+the old colonial wars, the survivor of many a revolutionary fight, was
+born at Salem, Mass., January 7, 1718. His grandfather, from the south
+of England, was one of the first settlers of the place. The boy was
+brought up with his father on the farm. He had little education in
+literature; much in the development of a hardy, vigorous constitution,
+in his contest with the soil and the actual world about him. He was
+fond of athletic exercises, an adept in running and wrestling, in
+which he proved himself more than a match for his village companions.
+The story is told of his being insulted for his rusticity, on his
+first visit to Boston, by a youth of twice his size, when he taught
+the citizen better manners by a sound flogging.
+
+Before he was of age, he was married to the daughter of John Pope, of
+Salem, and presently removed with his wife to a farm in the town of
+Pomfret, in Eastern Connecticut. His rugged powers were, no doubt,
+sufficiently taxed in the ordinary labors of the field. In those days
+the farmer had enemies to encounter, which have since vanished from
+the land.
+
+The well-known fable of Æsop, of the boy and the wolf, had then a
+literal application. Every child in the days of our fathers knew the
+story of Putnam, and the she-wolf which he dragged from its den. This
+and similar tales go far to make up the popular reputation of the
+hero, and it was as a man of the people that Putnam first appears upon
+the public scene.
+
+On the breaking out of the old French war, as it was termed, at the
+age of thirty-seven, he drew together a band of his neighbors and
+reported himself with the Connecticut contingent before Crown Point.
+He appears to have been employed in this service under Major Rogers,
+the celebrated partisan "ranger," whose life he is said to have saved
+in an encounter with a stalwart Frenchman. Putnam conducted himself as
+a man of resources and valor in this mixed species of warfare, in
+achieving a reputation which brought him, in 1757, the commission of a
+major from the Connecticut Legislature. It was the year of the
+memorable massacre of Fort William Henry. Putnam was with the forces
+whose head-quarters were at the neighboring Fort Edward, under command
+of General Webb, and made several vigorous attempts to assist in the
+support of the beleaguered fortress, but his efforts were not seconded
+by the commander, who ungenerously left the fort a prey to Montcalm
+and the Indians. These adventures of Putnam displayed his personal
+courage, in approaching the enemy on Lake George, and subsequently in
+command of his Rangers in rescuing a party of his fellow-soldiers from
+an Indian ambuscade at Fort Edward.
+
+The year 1758 saw Major Putnam again in the field, under the command
+of Abercrombie, at the scene of his former labors, in the vicinity of
+Lake George. In the early movements of the campaign, Putnam
+distinguished himself in an ambuscade, by a destructive night attack
+upon a party of the enemy at Wood Creek. When the main line advanced
+toward Ticonderoga, he was, with the lamented Lord Howe, in the front
+of the centre, when that much-loved officer was slain upon the march.
+It was the first meeting, after landing from Lake George, with the
+advance of the French troops. There was some skirmishing, which
+attracted the attention of the officers. Putnam advanced to the spot,
+accompanied, contrary to his dissuasions, by Lord Howe, who fell at
+the first fire. The party of Putnam, enraged by this disaster, fought
+with gallantry, and inflicted a heavy loss upon their opponents. The
+result of this miserably conducted expedition, however, made no amends
+for the loss of the gallant Howe. Two thousand men were blunderingly
+sacrificed before Ticonderoga, and the threatened siege was abandoned.
+
+The life of Putnam is full of perilous encounters incident to border
+service against the Indians. In one of these he narrowly avoided
+capture by the savages on the Hudson, near Fort Miller. He escaped
+only by shooting the rapids with his boat, a marvellous adventure,
+which is said to have wakened a superstitious veneration for him in
+the minds of his Indian assailants.
+
+Not long afterward, however, the barbarians had an opportunity of
+treating him with less respect. It was in the month of August of this
+year that he was engaged with a reconnoitring party in company with
+the partisan Rogers, near Ticonderoga. They had been employed in
+watching the movements of the enemy, and were on their return to Fort
+Edward when the attention of the French partisan officer, Molang, who
+was on the lookout, was attracted to them by a careless shooting-match
+between Rogers and a fellow British officer. A confused hand-to-hand
+action ensued in the woods, in the course of which Putnam, his gun
+missing fire, "while the muzzle was pressed against the breast of a
+large and well-proportioned savage," was captured and bound to a tree
+by that formidable personage. The English party now rallying, drove
+their pursuers backward, which brought the unfortunate Putnam to a
+central position between two fires. "Human imagination," well says
+Colonel Humphreys, "can hardly figure to itself a more deplorable
+situation." Putnam remained more than an hour deprived of all power
+save that of hearing and vision, as the musket-balls whizzed by his
+ears and a ruthless savage aimed his tomahawk repeatedly, with the
+infernal dexterity of a Chinese juggler, within a hair's breadth of
+his person. This amusement was succeeded by the attempt of a French
+petty-officer to put an end to his life by discharging his musket
+against his breast. It happily missed fire. The action was now brought
+to an end in favor of the Provincials; but Putnam was carried off in
+the retreat by his Indian captor. He was now destined to witness one
+of those scenes, since so well described by Cooper, of the peculiar
+tortures inflicted by the Indians upon their prisoners in war; but
+unhappily with less complacent feelings than the reader of the skilful
+novelist experiences, whose terrors are tempered by the delightful art
+of the narrator. With Putnam the spectator and the sufferer were the
+same. He has been bound on the march with intolerable thongs, he has
+almost perished under his burdens, he has been tomahawked in the face;
+he is now to be roasted alive. A dark forest is selected for the
+sacrifice; stripped naked, he is bound to a tree, and the inflammable
+brushwood piled around him. Savage voices sound his death-knell. Fire
+is applied, when a sudden shower dampens the flame, to burst forth
+again with renewed strength. Though securely fastened, the limbs of
+the victim are left some liberty to shrink from the accursed heat. He
+has thought his last thought of home, of wife and children, when the
+desperate French partisan, Molang, the commander of the savage hordes,
+hearing of the act, rushes upon the scene and rescues him from his
+tormentors. Putnam is now restored to the guardianship of the Indian
+chief by whom he had been captured, and from whom he was separated
+during these hours of agony, when he had fallen into the hands of the
+baser fellows of the tribe. The party now reach Ticonderoga, where
+Putnam is delivered to Montcalm, and thence courteously conducted by a
+French officer to Montreal.
+
+There he found himself within reach of a benevolent American officer,
+then a prisoner in the city, Colonel Peter Schuyler, who generously
+ministered to his necessities, and who was instrumental in procuring
+his release from the French commander, when he himself was exchanged
+after the capture of Frontenac. Putnam, on his return home, gallantly
+conducted through the wilderness the sorely tried Mrs. Howe and her
+children, whose adventures in Indian captivity and among the French,
+equal the inventive pages of romance.
+
+The next year, in Amherst's great campaign, Putnam returned to
+Montreal under better auspices. He was with that commander in his
+onward movement, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and rendered
+efficient service in the passage down the St. Lawrence, by his bravery
+and ingenuity. When the fort of Oswegatchie was to be attacked, and
+two armed vessels were in the way, he proposed to silence the latter
+by driving wedges to hinder the movement of their rudders, and to
+cross the abatis of the fortification by an attack from boats, armed
+with long planks, which were to be let down when the vessels,
+protected by fascines, were placed alongside of the work. A timely
+surrender anticipated both of these expedients. The dying Wolfe had
+conquered Canada at Quebec, making victory easy elsewhere in the
+province. Montreal surrendered to the allied forces without a blow.
+Putnam, it is recorded, availed himself of the opportunity to look up
+the Indian chief who had taken him prisoner, and exchange civilities
+and hospitalities, now that the tables were turned.
+
+We next find Putnam in charge of a Connecticut regiment, in a novel
+field of warfare, on the coast of Cuba, in Lord Albemarle's attack
+upon Havana, in 1762. He was in considerable danger in a storm, when
+the transport in which he embarked with his men was wrecked on a reef
+of the island; a landing was effected by rafts, and a fortified camp
+established on the shore. He was again fortunate in escaping the
+dangers of a climate so fatal to his countrymen. On his return home,
+he was engaged in service against the Indians, with the title of
+colonel. The war being now over, he retired to his farm, which he
+continued to cultivate till he was again called into the field by the
+stirring summons of Lexington.
+
+In the preliminary scenes of the war, he fairly represented the
+feeling of the mass of his countrymen, as it was excited by the
+successive acts of parliamentary aggression. As a soldier of the old
+French war, he had learned the weakness of British officers in
+America, and the strength of a hardy, patriotic peasantry. "If," he
+said, "it required six years for the combined forces of England and
+her colonies to conquer such a feeble colony as Canada, it would, at
+least, take a very long time for England alone to overcome her own
+widely extended colonies, which were much stronger." Another anecdote
+is characteristic of the blunt farmer. Being once asked whether he did
+not seriously believe "that a well-appointed British army of five
+thousand veterans could march through the whole continent of America,"
+he replied, "no doubt, if they behaved civilly, and paid well for
+everything they wanted; but--if they should attempt it in a hostile
+manner, though the American men were out of the question, the women,
+with their ladles and broomsticks, would knock them all on the head
+before they had got half way through."
+
+The news of Lexington--the war message--transmitted from hand to hand
+till village repeated it to village, the sea to the backwoods, "found
+the farmer of Pomfret, two days after the conflict, like Cincinnatus,
+literally at the plough." He unyoked his team and hastened in his rude
+dress to the camp. Summoning the forces of Connecticut, he was placed
+at their head, with the rank of Major-General, and stood ready at
+Cambridge for the bloody day of Bunker's Hill. He was in service in
+May, in the spirited affair checking the British supplies from
+Noddle's Island, in Boston Harbor, and resolutely counselled the
+occupation of the heights of Charlestown. When the company of Prescott
+went forth on the night of June 16th, to their gallant work, he was
+with them, taking no active command, but assisting where opportunity
+served. He was seen in different parts of the field, but his chief
+exertions appear to have been expended upon the attempted
+fortification of Bunker's Hill, where he met the fugitives in the
+retreat, and conducted "such of them as would obey him," says
+Bancroft, to the night's encampment at Prospect Hill.
+
+Putnam's was one of the first Congressional appointments, ten days
+before the battle, when the rank of Major-General was conferred upon
+him. He continued to serve at the siege of Boston, and when the
+theatre of operations was changed by the departure of the British to
+New York, was placed by Washington, in 1776, in command in that city
+until his own arrival. He employed himself during this short period,
+with several devices for the safety of the harbor. In August, on the
+landing of Howe, he was, upon the sudden illness of Greene, who had
+directed the fortifications, and after the arrival of the British,
+left in command at the battle of Long Island, and much censure has
+been thrown upon him for the neglect of the passes by which the
+American left was turned. In the actual combat there appears to have
+been a divided authority.
+
+The abandonment of New York next followed, with the retreat to
+Westchester and the passage through the Jerseys. Putnam was then, in
+January, 1777, ordered to Philadelphia to make provision for its
+defence. In May, he was put in command of the post at the Highlands,
+to secure its defences, and observe, from that central position, the
+movements of the enemy. In the summer of this year, Sir Henry Clinton,
+at New York, sent up the river a flag of truce to claim one Edmund
+Palmer, who had been taken in the American camp, as a lieutenant in
+the British service. This drew forth from Putnam a reply which has
+been often quoted:
+
+                                   "HEADQUARTERS, August 7, 1777.
+
+"Edmund Palmer, an officer in the enemy's service, was taken as a spy
+lurking within our lines; he has been tried as a spy, condemned as a
+spy, and shall be executed as a spy, and the flag is ordered to depart
+immediately.
+
+                                   "ISRAEL PUTNAM.
+
+"P.S.--He has been accordingly executed."
+
+In September, a portion of Putnam's command was withdrawn by
+Washington for the support of the army in Pennsylvania, by a
+peremptory order which, it is said, put an end to a plan formed by
+Putnam for a separate attack on the enemy at New York. Forts
+Montgomery and Clinton, at the entrance to the Highlands, fell into
+the hands of Clinton by a surprise shortly after, but the conquest of
+this important position was neutralized by the victory of Gates, at
+Saratoga. The British remained at Fort Montgomery but twenty days.
+Putnam seems still to have entertained some project in connection with
+New York, which led him to withhold troops called for by the imperious
+necessities of Washington. The neglect of these orders brought a
+pointed letter from Hamilton, and an equally significant rebuke from
+Washington himself. In the following spring, Putnam was relieved of
+his command in the Highlands by the appointment of General McDougal to
+the post, and was ordered to Connecticut to superintend the raising of
+the new levies. He was stationed the following winter at Danbury, when
+the famous descent of the precipice at Horse Neck occurred, one of the
+latest marvels of Putnam's anecdotical career. While he was on a visit
+to one of his outposts at Horse Neck, Governor Tryon of New York,
+advanced upon the place with a considerable body of troops. Putnam
+planted his small force on the hill, but was speedily compelled to
+provide for the safety of his men by a retreat, and for his own, by
+plunging down a formidable rocky steep by the roadside.
+
+In 1779, he was again in the Highlands, superintending the defences
+then erected at West Point, one of which, the fort now in ruins, bore
+his name. In the winter, he visited his family in Connecticut, and as
+he was returning to the army, at Morristown, was struck with
+paralysis. His right side was enfeebled, and his active career ceased,
+though he enjoyed the cheerful, tranquil pursuits of age. His memory
+remained unimpaired. One of his amusements was to relate to his friend
+and military companion, Colonel Humphreys, those events of his varied
+life, which that officer wrought into the pleasing narrative
+appropriately addressed to the State Society of the Cincinnati in
+Connecticut, and published by their order. The dedication of the work
+to Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth, bears date June 4, 1788, about two
+years before the decease of the hero of the story. General Putnam died
+at Brookline, Conn., May 29, 1790, in his seventy-third year.
+
+
+
+
+ANTHONY WAYNE[4]
+
+By O. C. BOSBYSHELL
+
+(1745-1796)
+
+         [Footnote 4: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Anthony Wayne. [TN]]
+
+
+Across the pages of history recording mighty conflicts that rock
+nations and governments to their foundations, flash certain grand
+characters whose career adds a charm to the dreary and often prosaic
+narrative. Some bright particular star, whose lustre flings romance
+over dry facts, firing the hearts of all patriots with enthusiasm and
+national fervor. Honoring the great commanders of the wars of the ages
+for their noble deeds, here and there sparkles out the brilliant
+genius of a warrior with less responsibility, but whose name inspires
+the ardor of men, the love of women, and the fervor of the poet and
+novelist. Such a character, such a man, was "Mad" Anthony Wayne, an
+able, fearless soldier of the American Revolution, so thoroughly
+patriotic such an earnest, honest believer in the righteous cause for
+which he fought, that he was mad indeed with all found arrayed against
+the interests of the Colonists, or with those who, having donned the
+Continental uniform, were indisposed to fight.
+
+Anthony Wayne was born in Waynesborough, Easttown Township, Chester
+County, Penn., on January 1, 1745. He sprang from good English stock.
+His grandfather resided in Yorkshire, England, but during the reign of
+Charles II. purchased an estate in the County Wicklow, Ireland, and
+settled on it. Being a thorough Protestant he espoused the cause of
+King William III., and in the service of that monarch fought in the
+Battle of the Boyne, as a captain of dragoons. In 1722 he came to
+America with his four sons, and procured some one thousand six hundred
+acres of land in Chester County, Penn., upon which he settled in 1724.
+His youngest son, Isaac, the father of Anthony Wayne, received as his
+share of his father's estate five hundred acres of land near Paoli.
+Born and brought up amid the charming surroundings of this most
+beautiful country, it is easily understood why Anthony Wayne became so
+thoroughly imbued with tastes for the beautiful. His neatness in
+dress, and earnest advocacy of a brilliant uniform for the officers
+and men of the Revolutionary Army, had its foundation in the very
+atmosphere he lived in, this magnificent Chester Valley. "Dandy" Wayne
+indeed, but only so far as neatness in dress and delicacy of taste
+were concerned, for a nobler-minded, more unselfish patriot never
+entered the army of a nation. Wayne was educated at the Philadelphia
+Academy, and he became a surveyor of some note. He attended closely,
+however, to his magnificent farm, and took a lively interest in all
+affairs affecting his fellow-citizens. In 1765 and 66, only just of
+age, he was sent to Nova Scotia to survey some lands belonging to
+Benjamin Franklin and others.
+
+In May, 1766, he married Mary, the daughter of Bartholomew Penrose, a
+Philadelphia merchant, and settled down to the life of a farmer. He
+was a stirring man in his neighborhood, fond of an active and out-door
+life. He was filled with military impulses; his choice of a
+profession, that of surveyor, evidently arose from his taste for
+exploration, and for the excitement incident to plunging into
+trackless wastes of forests and mapping out new boundaries. His love
+of military pursuits led him to study all the great works on the art
+of war, and when the time came he was prepared, as few soldiers of the
+revolution were, for the conflict with the trained soldiers of Great
+Britain. He formed companies with the men in his neighborhood, and
+drilled them assiduously. This gave him prominence and popularity, so
+that he is found a member of the Pennsylvania Legislature in 1774-75.
+Wayne seemed to have prescience of what was coming, and when the
+conflict came he was ready. In September, 1775, he raised a regiment
+of soldiers, of which he became the colonel in the January following,
+and joined General Sullivan's command in Canada in the spring of 1776.
+At the battle of Three Rivers, May, 1776, Wayne displayed remarkable
+military knowledge, and was enabled to extricate his command from
+difficulties that seemed almost insurmountable. In a letter to Dr.
+Franklin and others he gives a graphic description of this engagement.
+Of his men engaged he says, "I have lost more than the one-quarter
+part, together with a slight touch in my right leg, which is partly
+well already." This was Wayne's first battle. He displayed such
+remarkable coolness and excellent judgment throughout this engagement,
+as to command the respect and admiration of all in the army; his
+entire career during this unfortunate Canadian campaign exhibited
+clearly his soldierly qualifications. Recognizing these, General
+Schuyler, in November, 1776, appointed Colonel Wayne to the command of
+Fort Ticonderoga and Mt. Independence, which military post Wayne
+considered the second most important in the country. While stationed
+here, Wayne busied his men in rendering the place as nearly
+impregnable as possible, and by warm, fervid letters implored the
+"powers that be" in Pennsylvania, to send proper clothing, food, and
+arms to the men of that State serving in his army. So negligent did
+the State seem to the needs of its men, that this warm-hearted,
+high-spirited warrior, seriously thought of resigning his commission,
+being unable to longer witness the impoverished condition of his
+troops.
+
+Colonel Wayne was appointed Brigadier General in February, 1777, and
+ordered to join General Washington's army at Morristown, N. J., in
+April of the same year. He was given command of the "Pennsylvania
+Line" consisting of two brigades of four regiments each, with a total
+strength of about 1,700 men. His activity and alertness during the
+summer, in harassing and annoying the enemy, went far toward ridding
+the State of that enemy, and gained for him the praise of Washington,
+who publicly acknowledged his "bravery and good conduct." The British,
+unable to force their way through New Jersey, determined to go around
+by sea to Philadelphia, and after embarking at Staten Island were next
+heard from within the Chesapeake Bay. Washington moved his army to
+Wilmington, Wayne having been sent ahead to organize the militia
+rendezvousing in Chester County, Penn. He rejoined the army at
+Germantown and marched with it to Wilmington.
+
+In the battle of Brandywine, September 11, 1777, Wayne was
+particularly distinguished. He occupied the left of the American line
+at Chad's Ford, and had opposed to his forces, the Hessians commanded
+by Baron von Knyphausen. He fought all day, holding his ground
+tenaciously, repelling every effort made by the enemy to cross the
+ford and worrying them by repeated attacks of his light infantry,
+which he frequently sent over the creek for the purpose. The right
+wing of the enemy having been turned, Wayne, at sunset, retreated in
+good order, without the loss of any artillery or stores. On the
+evening of September 20th, Wayne, with a detachment of twelve hundred
+men, was suddenly and impetuously attacked at Paoli Tavern by a very
+large force of the rear guard of the British army, which rear guard he
+had been sent to annoy. By the betrayal of Tory spies at the time of
+the attack, the forces "were not more than ten yards distant."
+Notwithstanding the impetuosity of the attack, by largely overwhelming
+numbers, Wayne succeeded in extricating his command without loss of
+artillery, ammunition, or stores. Some sixty-one Americans were
+killed. A court of inquiry was instituted to inquire into Wayne's
+conduct of this affair, which resulted so distastefully to him that he
+demanded a court martial. This court acquitted "him with the highest
+honors," a conclusion approved by General Washington.
+
+Wayne's residence was searched by the British immediately after the
+Paoli fight, with the hope of capturing the general. The officer, in
+his zeal, ripped open a feather-bed with his sword. Mrs. Wayne
+indignantly exclaimed, "Did you expect to find General Wayne in a
+feather-bed? Look where the fight is the thickest!"
+
+Wayne led the right wing at the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777,
+and forced the enemy back a distance of two miles. The British claim
+that "this was the first time we had ever retreated from the
+Americans." The balance of the army, failing to accomplish the end
+desired, Wayne was compelled to retreat, but this he did in good
+order, and when General Howe, who "could not persuade himself that we
+had run from victory," as Wayne puts it, followed the Americans, Wayne
+drew up in line. "When he advanced near we gave him a few cannon shot
+with some musketry--which caused him to break and run with the utmost
+confusion." Wayne lost a horse in this engagement, and received slight
+wounds in the hand and foot. The memorable winter at Valley Forge
+followed. General Wayne, ever active, devoted his time to procuring
+necessary supplies for the army. His earnest appeals to the State
+authorities and men of influence, for the welfare of the brave men at
+Valley Forge, tell a tale of suffering and endurance hard to realize.
+Early in the spring of 1778 he successfully raided the British lines,
+carrying off horses, cattle, forage, and other supplies. After the
+evacuation of Philadelphia, Wayne kept up a constant annoyance around
+the rear of the British army, fighting whenever the opportunity came.
+
+The American army re-entered New Jersey in June, 1778, and moved
+across that State in a line parallel with the route taken by the
+British army. These lines encountered each other on June 28th, at
+Monmouth; an engagement fought, in the main, on a plan suggested to
+General Washington by General Wayne. General Charles Lee's
+half-hearted action, to call it no more severe name, resulted in the
+battle of Monmouth being less of a disaster to the British army than
+it promised. Wayne did his part gloriously. Lee, who with his own
+command was in full retreat when he should have earnestly supported
+Wayne, ordered Wayne to retire. This the latter did, chagrined and
+mortified, until the mortification was turned into delight upon
+meeting the Commander-in-Chief, who immediately ordered Wayne to
+advance to the attack again. This was just what Wayne wanted, and with
+three Pennsylvania regiments, one from Maryland, and one from
+Virginia, he stayed the assaults of the flower of the English army,
+the _corps d'élite_, and successfully held his line, causing the enemy
+to retire with great loss. General Washington commended General Wayne
+in the highest terms for his "good conduct and bravery through the
+whole action." Writing of this engagement to the Secretary of War,
+Wayne says, "Tell the Phila ladies that the heavenly, sweet, pretty
+red coats--the accomplished Gent-n of the Guards and Grenadiers have
+humbled themselves on the plains of Monmouth."
+
+The enemy retreated to New York and remained in that city the balance
+of the year. Wayne occupied the time in urging active operations and
+trying to infuse a more aggressive spirit into the management of
+affairs. At this time public affairs were very much hampered by a
+feeling of indifference as well as an illusive notion that peace would
+soon follow. This affected the nation and the army. Wayne baffled
+these false ideas with all his powers. He urged the Government to
+forward needed supplies of clothing and food. He could not be
+inactive; fervid, earnest, and aggressive, he must be ever doing. The
+American Army kept a close watch upon the movements of the British in
+New York during the summer and fall of 1779. General Washington
+organized a Light Infantry Corps and put General Wayne in command. It
+was considered one of the finest bodies of troops attached to the
+Continental Army, and was composed, besides "the choicest sons of
+Pennsylvania," of two Connecticut and one Virginia regiment. The
+Commander-in-Chief was extremely desirous of driving the British from
+the forts commanding King's Ferry on the Hudson, at Stony Point, on
+the western bank of the river, and at Verplanck's Point, directly
+opposite. This dangerous business was confided to Wayne and his Light
+Infantry Corps, the plan of operations being carefully prepared by
+General Washington. This plan was followed by Wayne, except in one
+particular, which change Washington declared to be an "improvement on
+his own plan." Wayne, after the most careful preparations, moved to
+the assault on Stony Point, a fortification strongly built on a rocky
+eminence, one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, at 12
+o'clock at night, on July 16, 1779. Wayne's report to Washington tells
+the story of the fight most graphically--he says he "gave the troops
+the most pointed orders not to attempt to fire, but put their whole
+dependence on the Bayonet--which was most faithfully and Literally
+Observed--neither the deep Morass, the formidable and double rows of
+abatis or the high and strong works in front and flank could damp the
+ardor of the troops--who in the face of a most tremendous and
+Incessant fire of Musketry and from Artillery loaded with shells and
+Grape-shot forced their way at the point of the Bayonet thro' every
+Obstacle, both Columns meeting in the Center of the Enemy's works
+nearly at the same Instant." Before entering the fort Wayne was struck
+in the head by a musket-ball; he fell stunned, but soon rallied, and
+by the assistance of two of his aides, was helped into the
+fortification and shared the capture with his troops. The Stony Point
+achievement roused the patriotic spirit of the Americans. It was
+deemed the most brilliant affair of the war. Congratulations from the
+Commander-in-Chief, and all the prominent generals, as well as
+foremost citizens and Assemblies, were heaped upon Wayne, and Congress
+voted him a gold medal to commemorate his gallant conduct, besides
+thanking him "for his brave, prudent, and soldier-like conduct in the
+well-conducted attack on Stony Point."
+
+After the treachery of Arnold, in 1780, the charge of the fort at West
+Point was committed to General Wayne. He marched his division over the
+mountain in a dark night, a distance of sixteen miles, in four hours,
+"without a single halt or a man left behind." In January, 1781, owing
+to the broken promises of Congress, a large number of the men in the
+Pennsylvania line mutinied, an event that threatened serious
+consequences to the American Army. This defection was suppressed
+peaceably, mainly through the excellent tact of General Wayne. He was
+idolized by his soldiers, who knew him as the soul of honor, and who
+placed implicit trust in his statements. Washington in a letter
+certifies to his "great share in preventing worse extremities" and
+thanks him for his exertions. In February, 1781, Wayne was ordered to
+join General Greene's Army, then operating in South Carolina, but upon
+Lord Cornwallis' rapidly transferring his forces to Virginia, this
+order was changed, and Wayne was directed to reinforce Lafayette.
+This he did at Fredericksburg in June. The enemy seemed intent upon
+destroying all military stores they could reach, and for this purpose
+continually sent raiding parties through the State. The efforts of
+Wayne were ever put forth to suppress these raids. Believing, on July
+6, 1781, that Cornwallis's forces were divided by the James River,
+Wayne was sent forward to attack them at Green Springs. He found a
+great force of the British Army in his front. Too late to retreat,
+Wayne with true soldierly instinct, having faith in the courage and
+discipline of his men, boldly charged a force five times as large as
+his own, threw them into disorder and safely brought his men away
+under cover of the enemy's confusion.
+
+Cornwallis hastened to Yorktown, the investiture and siege of which
+Wayne aided in furthering, first, by occupying the ground south of the
+James River to prevent the enemy's reaching North Carolina; and then
+in opening the first parallel with six regiments on October 6, 1781. A
+few days afterward he, with two battalions, covered the Pennsylvania
+and Maryland troops while they began the second parallel. Wayne, with
+the Pennsylvania regiments, supported the French troops in the attack
+of the 14th, and was present at the surrender on the 19th.
+Notwithstanding a wound in the fleshy part of the leg, early in the
+siege, caused by a sentry mistaking him, Wayne remained active, and
+participated in the glory of the capture of Cornwallis and his army.
+This operation over, Wayne joined the army of General Nathaniel
+Greene, in South Carolina, in January, 1782, and was instrumental in
+quelling the disturbances in that section. A very large force of
+Indians threatened the destruction of his command on the night of June
+23, 1782. These Indians were skilfully handled by a noted Creek Chief,
+as well as by a British officer. They surrounded Wayne's forces and
+held his artillery. Wayne fiercely attacked, using only the bayonet,
+and so impetuous was his onslaught, that he broke the lines of the
+Indians, and routed them completely. The dead body of the Creek
+leader, who, it is said, was felled by Wayne's own sword, was found on
+the ground the next day.
+
+Wayne commanded the forces that took possession of Savannah and
+Charleston, after their evacuation by the British. Having freed the
+South from all marauders, Wayne returned, much shattered in health
+from the effect of a low fever, to his old home in Pennsylvania, and
+settled down to civil life, desiring, as he puts it, "to pass many
+happy hours in domestic felicity with a few of our friends, unfettered
+by any public employ and consequently unenvied." He was, however, made
+a member of the Council of Censors, and in 1784 represented his county
+in the General Assembly of Pennsylvania. He was likewise, in 1787, a
+member of the Convention of the State called to ratify the
+Constitution of the United States.
+
+To better look after an estate given him by the State of Georgia, in
+recognition of the services he rendered that State, Wayne settled
+there, and was elected a member of Congress on January 3, 1791. He
+served from October, 1791, to March, 1792, when, a contest being made,
+Congress decided his election illegal and declared his seat vacant.
+Almost immediately after this action, on April 3, 1792, President
+Washington appointed Wayne Commander-in-Chief of the United States
+Army, with the rank of Major-General; an appointment confirmed by the
+Senate on the same day. No more signal act could have marked the
+approval of Wayne's great services to the nation in the War of the
+Revolution, than this great mark of approbation conferred by his
+illustrious Chief. To him was intrusted the settlement of the
+difficulties then existing with the Indians in the Northwestern
+Territory. These savages, stirred up by the British, armed with
+British guns, and often led by British officers, continued the warfare
+on the Americans after peace had been declared between the contending
+countries. Efforts to subjugate them under Generals Harmar and St.
+Clair had failed.
+
+General Wayne, whose entire life clearly shows a man prepared for what
+may come, wisely drilled the force he collected to undertake this
+work, for a year. He knew the value of a well-drilled and disciplined
+army. Having perfected his troops, he, by easy stages, advanced into
+the disturbed territory, establishing posts at various points, which
+he cleverly fortified, and upon every occasion and opportunity offered
+the savages peace. These offers were as often rejected. From Fort
+Defiance, a fort he built and named, at the junction of the Miami and
+Le Glaize rivers, he, in August, 1794, went down the Miami River, with
+about one thousand men, until he came close to a British post, at the
+foot of the rapids of the river. Here he sent a last overture to the
+Indians, promising peace if they would lay down their arms. Upon their
+rejecting this, he, on August 20th, moved to the head of the rapids,
+and attacked them with such vigor, using again his favorite weapon,
+the bayonet, that their defeat was overwhelming. The entire
+surrounding country was laid waste. The army advanced to the junction
+of the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers, where a strong fort was
+built and named Fort Wayne. The present flourishing city of that name
+in Indiana now stands upon this spot. The winter was spent in
+Greeneville, at which place the Indians, on August 3, 1795, against
+the wishes of their leaders and English allies, signed a treaty of
+peace, in which twelve tribes took part--a peace which was never
+broken, and by which an immense territory was ceded to the United
+States and opened up for settlement. Wayne returned early in 1796, on
+a short visit to Pennsylvania, and everywhere _en route_ received the
+plaudits of his fellow-citizens. His reception in Philadelphia was
+exceedingly brilliant. The unsettled condition of affairs in the
+Northwest, however, made his stay brief. Having been appointed sole
+commissioner to treat with the disaffected parties there, and directed
+to take possession of all forts held by the British in that country,
+he returned in June of the same year. With great tact he performed
+wisely and well the difficult mission intrusted to him. In November he
+left Detroit to visit the last of the posts included in his orders.
+This was then called Presque Isle, but is now the site of the city of
+Erie. When within a short sail of this post a severe and sudden attack
+of the gout came on. He was carried into the block-house at Presque
+Isle, in a dying condition, and lingered in great agony until December
+15, 1796, when he died. By his own desire he was buried "at the foot
+of the flag-staff on a high hill called 'Garrison Hill,' north of the
+present Soldiers' Home." (Stille, 343.) In 1809, his son, Colonel
+Isaac Wayne, removed the body to the family burying-ground at St.
+David's Church, Radnor, Penn., where, on July 4th of the same year,
+the Society of the Cincinnati erected a monument in his honor.
+
+So lived, so died, Anthony Wayne; gentleman, soldier, statesman,
+patriot. "Mad," "Dandy," "Black Snake," "Tornado." Angry with
+traitors--Neat-Courageous--Irresistible. None can study his life
+without feeling the nobleness of his character. Courtly in manners,
+honorable to a degree, high in aspirations, unselfishly for country,
+magnanimous in victory, loyal to authority, affectionate to family,
+pure in morality, and earnest for the right, Anthony Wayne's life is a
+bright example and legacy to the American youth of all times.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIS MARION
+
+(1732-1795)
+
+[Illustration: Francis Marion. [TN]]
+
+
+Francis Marion, the partisan general of South Carolina, was of
+Huguenot descent, the first American settlers of the name being
+Benjamin Marion and Judith Balnet, his wife, who came from France in
+1690, and established themselves in a plantation on one of the
+tributaries of the Cooper River, near Charleston. Gabriel, the son of
+Benjamin, married Esther Cordes. These were the parents of Francis
+Marion. He was born, it would appear, in St. John's Parish, Berkeley
+County, probably in 1732. His early life was passed, till his
+twenty-seventh year, in agricultural pursuits, when we first hear of
+him in connection with military matters in the period of the old
+French war. He took the field with Moultrie, and fought gallantly by
+the side of that officer in the Cherokee country against the savages
+at the battle of Etchoee. He then returned to his farm, near Eutaw
+Springs, ripening for the work of the Revolution, which found him at
+the height of manhood, at the age of forty-three. The people of his
+district relied upon his understanding, for we find them sending him
+as their delegate to the Provincial Congress of 1775, when he was
+appointed captain in the regiment of his former superior officer,
+Colonel Moultrie. His first duty was to gather a company, which he
+speedily effected in the Eastern region, where he was well known. He
+was then employed in the neighborhood of Charleston; being engaged in
+the occupation of Fort Johnson and the command of Dorchester.
+
+He was with Moultrie, at Sullivan's Island in May, 1776, during that
+fierce day of battle when the British were driven from the southern
+colonies, and particularly distinguished himself in the gallant
+defence.
+
+At the ill-managed attack upon Savannah, by the combined forces of
+D'Estaing and Lincoln, which ended so disastrously for the Americans,
+Marion was present with his regiment, which did much by its gallantry
+to redeem the honor, if not the fortunes, of the day. Next came, in
+the winter of 1780, the siege of Charleston, by Sir Henry Clinton. It
+was evident from the beginning that the city must fall, and it has
+been a point much discussed whether Lincoln should have attempted to
+defend it, whether it would not have been better for the cause that he
+should withdraw his troops, and besiege the British from the open
+country. This was what afterward took place when the conquerors were
+reduced almost to starvation. An accident which happened to Marion has
+been esteemed a piece of singular good fortune to the cause, in saving
+him from surrender. He was in command of the small body of light
+troops, outside of the city, when he was called to aid in the defence.
+During the first days of the very deliberate investment, he was dining
+with some friends in the town, when, according to a custom not unusual
+in those hard-drinking times, the door was locked that no one should
+avoid his share of the conviviality. Determined to escape the
+infliction, he threw himself from the window into the street. The fall
+fractured his ankle and incapacitated him from service. In obedience
+to an order of Lincoln, commanding all officers unfit for duty to
+retire from the city, he left while the country was still open, and
+took refuge in his native region of St. John. His freedom was thus
+preserved for the service of his country.
+
+Now came the incursions of Tarleton and the devastating warfare of
+Cornwallis--a policy of savage extermination which would have driven a
+people with less capability of exertion to despair. But it happened,
+as it has before, that the very means employed to crush, excited the
+spirit of resistance, and deliverers were raised up for the oppressed.
+It was a peculiar species of warfare which was now entered upon,
+requiring novel resources both for attack and defence. A thinly
+inhabited country was the scene of operations, cut up in all
+directions by rivers and their branches, and innumerable swamps. Large
+bodies of troops could move only with difficulty; it was a service for
+small parties of cavalry always in movement, making up by rapidity for
+want of numbers. On the side of the British, Lieutenant-Colonel
+Tarleton, an officer of spirit, whose fiery youth has been vividly
+handed down to us in the portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, was the
+leading representative of this method of warfare, harrying the land
+with his mounted troops, and overcoming by his activity and
+unscrupulousness. Success added terror to his name, as he gained
+victory after victory, and seemed destined to sweep the land of its
+patriot defenders. He was the right arm of Cornwallis, in his
+movements in the interior, and began to be deemed invincible, when his
+course was arrested by Morgan, the Virginian, and his resolute
+companies of native defenders of the State, at the battle of Cowpens.
+But it was in Marion that the chief spirit of resistance was
+incorporated. On the arrival of Gates from the North, in command of
+the Southern army, having partially recovered from his lameness, he
+presented himself before the hero of Saratoga, on his march toward the
+fatal field of Camden. American commanders were accustomed to odd
+sights of dress and equipment in the patriot soldiery who enlisted
+under their banners, and Gates must have been used to appearances with
+which the eye of Washington himself was but too familiar. The little
+band of Marion, however, seems to have astonished even their American
+brethren-in-arms. As for the well-equipped British, they always held
+the ragged American regiments in contempt, till they were soundly
+flogged by them. An intelligent looker-on at the camp, Colonel Otho
+Williams, in his narrative of the campaign, speaks of Colonel Marion's
+arrival, "attended by a very few followers, distinguished by small
+leather caps and the wretchedness of their attire; their number did
+not exceed twenty men and boys, some white, some black, and all
+mounted, but most of them miserably equipped. Their appearance was, in
+fact, so burlesque, that it was with much difficulty the diversion of
+the regular soldiery was restrained by the officers; and the general
+himself was glad of an opportunity of detaching Colonel Marion, at his
+own instance, toward the interior of South Carolina, with orders to
+watch the motions of the enemy, and furnish intelligence."
+
+It was while Marion was engaged on this service, that the battle of
+Camden was fought; but luckily, he had no share in the misadventure.
+He was employed, in fact, in quite an independent career of his own,
+organizing his own forces and acting at his own discretion. He was at
+the head of that system of partisan warfare, which, in its
+developments, was to rid the State of the foreign foe. His present
+command, "Marion's Brigade," was formed from the hardy spirited
+population of Irish descent, settled between the Santee and the Pedee,
+in the territory of Williamsburg. They were convinced of the
+intentions of the British rulers at Charleston to reduce them to
+political servitude; they knew their rights, and knowing, dared to
+maintain them. Their movement was voluntary, as they gathered their
+small but resolute force of picked men, and called Marion to its
+command. He had already assumed it, and caused the Tories to feel his
+new authority when the defeat of Gates took place. It roused him at
+once to a new effort to redeem the fortunes of war. He was already in
+the neighborhood of the field, and hearing that a British guard was on
+its way with a considerable body of prisoners, he determined to arrest
+the party on its march. Two days after the battle, he concerted an
+attack, and with the loss of but one man, killed and took 22 regulars
+and 2 Tories prisoners, and retook 150 continentals of the Maryland
+line. He was now a recognized leader in the field, and the British
+commander-in-chief directed his efforts to his overthrow. "I most
+sincerely hope," wrote Cornwallis to Tarleton, "that you will get at
+Mr. Marion." But Mr. Marion was not so easily to be caught. On the
+appearance of a superior force, under the command of Tarleton, which
+it would have been vain to resist, the skilful partisan turned his
+forces in another direction, to the borders of North Carolina, where
+he overawed the Scotch Tories in that disaffected region. The ruthless
+conduct of the British whom he had left behind, now raised the South
+Carolinians to fresh resistance, when Marion, ever mindful of his
+opportunity, returned to the State with speed, accomplishing sixty
+miles in one day, and in a bold night attack, defeated a large body of
+Tories on the Black Mingo. Following this up with some smaller
+successes of the kind, he again attracted the attention of Tarleton,
+who issued out of Charleston in force for his capture, and when he was
+fairly on his heels, wearied out and perplexed by the windings of his
+foe, gave up the chase, it is said, with the exclamation, "Come, my
+boys! let us go back. We will soon find the Game Cock [Marion's
+brother partisan, Sumter], but as for this damned Swamp-fox, the devil
+himself could not catch him."
+
+The tide was now turning, as the people felt their strength. King's
+Mountain, in the autumn of this memorable 1780, brought a vast
+accession of strength to the popular cause, in the proof that the best
+British troops were not invincible before an aroused yeomanry; but
+there was much yet to be done before the day of final deliverance was
+secured. It was a slow, weary, harassing policy which was to be
+pursued, of surprises and escapes, of self-denial and endurance, of
+the watchful, unyielding virtue of Marion and his men. They took post
+in an island fortress of wooded swamp land, at the junction of the
+Pedee and Lynch's Creek, known as the "camp of Marion," where he
+recruited his forces, husbanded his strength, and sallied forth on his
+raids against the foe. This is the spot where the popular admiration
+of Marion finds its home and centre. "His career as a partisan," says
+his faithful biographer, the novelist Simms, "in the thickets and
+swamps of Carolina, is abundantly distinguished by the picturesque;
+but it was while he held his camp at Snow's Island that it received
+its highest colors of romance. In this snug and impenetrable fortress,
+he reminds us very much of the ancient feudal baron of France and
+Germany, who, perched on a castled eminence, looked down with the
+complacency of an eagle from his eyrie, and marked all below him for
+his own. The resemblance is good in all respects but one. The plea and
+justification of Marion are complete. His warfare was legitimate." It
+is in this place the scene is laid of an interview with the British
+officer, so familiar to the public in popular narratives and pictorial
+illustration. A flag from the enemy, at the neighboring post of
+Georgetown, is received with the design of an exchange of prisoners.
+The officer is admitted blindfold into the encampment, and on the
+bandage being taken from his eyes, is surprised equally at the
+diminutive size of the General and the simplicity of his quarters. He
+had expected, it is said, to see some formidable personage of the sons
+of Anak of the standard military figure, which, as Mr. Simms remarks,
+averaged, in the opposing generals during the war, more than two
+hundred pounds. On the contrary, he saw "a swarthy, smoke-dried
+little man, with scarcely enough of threadbare homespun to cover his
+nakedness, and instead of tall ranks of gay-dressed soldiers, a
+handful of sunburnt, yellow-legged militiamen, some roasting potatoes,
+and some asleep, with their black firelocks and powder-horns lying by
+them on the logs." This is Weems's narrative, a little colored with
+his full brush, but true enough as to detail. The improvement which he
+works up from the plain potato presented as a dinner to the officer,
+is equally sound as a moral, though we will not vouch for the exact
+expression of the sentiment. As a specimen of Weems, it is
+characteristic; but certainly Marion never talked in the fashion of
+this zealous biographer.
+
+The Briton, however, entrenched at Charleston, and with his double line
+of forts encompassing the interior, was not all at once driven out. When
+he was compelled to leave, it was by the slow process of an exhaustion,
+to which even victory contributed; for every British conquest in that
+region was as costly as a defeat. Greene came with his Fabian policy,
+acquired in the school of Washington, to repair the errors of Gates. It
+was a course with which the policy of Marion was quite in agreement,
+attacking the enemy when they were vulnerable; at other moments
+retreating before them. Both officers knew well how to drain the
+vitality of the British army. Greene appreciated Marion. "I like your
+plan," he wrote to him, "of frequently shifting your ground. We must
+endeavor to keep up a partisan war." He sent Lieutenant-Colonel Lee to
+his aid, and together they attempted the capture of Georgetown in a
+night attack, which was but partially successful, in consequence of a
+loss of time and the want of artillery. Though not fully carried out, it
+served as a diversion and alarm in the rear of Cornwallis, who now,
+after the defeat of an important portion of his force under Tarleton,
+was advancing rapidly through North Carolina at the heels of Greene. Lee
+was recalled to join his commander, and Marion continued his partisan
+warfare in South Carolina. He was after a while reinforced by Greene on
+his return to the State, and assisted that general greatly in the
+movements which resulted in imprisoning the enemy in Charleston. After a
+brilliant affair with the British, in conjunction with Lee and Sumter,
+and other bold spirits, he hastened to Greene in time for the battle of
+Eutaw, in which engagement he commanded the right of the South Carolina
+militia, and gallantly sustained the fierce attack of the enemy. Toward
+the close of the war, he took his seat in the Legislative Assembly which
+met at Jacksonborough, as the representative of St. John, Berkeley. He
+was engaged in one or two further conflicts with the enemy, and the
+struggle which he had so manfully sustained was at an end.
+
+He now retired to his plantation, to find it broken up by the
+incursions of the British. While engaged in its restoration, he was
+sent as representative of the district to the Senate of the State. It
+is recorded to his credit that he displayed in this situation a ready
+magnanimity toward Tory offenders in preserving their lands from
+confiscation.
+
+[Illustration: Marion crossing the Pedee.]
+
+"It was war, then," said he; "it is peace now. God has given us the
+victory. Let us show our gratitude to heaven, which we shall not do by
+cruelty to man." In the same lofty spirit, he refused to receive
+any advantages from a bill exempting the soldiers of the militia from
+prosecution for acts committed in the service. He felt that his
+conduct needed no shelter. The Legislature rewarded him with thanks,
+and the more substantial appointment of Commandant of the Port of
+Charleston, a nominal office, with the salary of £500, which were cut
+down to dollars. A timely marriage, however, with a wealthy lady of
+Huguenot descent, Miss Mary Videau, a spinster of fifty, who was
+attracted by the hero, relieved him of pecuniary anxieties, leaving
+him an old age of ease in agricultural pursuits. He still represented
+his parish in the State Senate, and sat in 1790 in the Convention for
+forming the Constitution. In 1794 he resigned his military commission
+given to him by Rutledge, and the following year, yielding to a
+gradual decline, expired on February 27th, at the age of sixty-three.
+
+Marion was a true, unflinching patriot--a man of deeds, and not of
+words; a prudent, sagacious soldier, not sudden or quick in quarrel,
+but resolute to the end; a good disciplinarian, and beloved by his
+men, who came at his call.
+
+There was no power of coercion, such as restrains the hired soldier,
+in his little band; it was held together only by the cohesive force of
+patriotism and attachment to the leader. We hear of no acts of cruelty
+to stain the glory of his victories, but much of his magnanimity.
+
+
+
+
+PAUL JONES
+
+(1747-1792)
+
+[Illustration: Paul Jones. [TN]]
+
+
+Paul Jones, the popular naval hero of the Revolution, the son of John
+Paul, a gardener in Scotland, was born July 6, 1747, at a cottage on
+the estate of his father's employer, Mr. Craik, at Arbigland, in the
+parish of Kirkbean. His parents belonged to a respectable class of the
+population of the country. The boy, as is wont with Scottish boys,
+however humble, received the elements of education, but could not have
+advanced very far with his books, since we find him at the age of
+twelve apprenticed to the sea. The situation of Kirkbean, on the shore
+of the Solway, naturally gave a youth of spirit an inclination to life
+on the ocean; and he had not far to seek for employment in the
+trading-port of Whitehaven, in the opposite county of Cumberland.
+Paul's first adventure--the appendix of Jones was an after-thought of
+his career--was in the service of Mr. Younger, a merchant in the
+American trade, who sent his apprentice on a voyage to Virginia, where
+an elder brother of Paul had profitably established himself at
+Fredericksburg. This gave him an early introduction to the country
+with which the fame of the future soldier of fortune was to be
+especially identified.
+
+The apprenticeship of Paul was of short duration. The failure of his
+employer threw the youth upon his own resources; but he lost no time
+in taking care of himself. His studies on shipboard had already
+qualified him for the higher duties of the mercantile service; the
+slave-trade, the active pursuit of those days, offered him an
+engagement; he sailed for the African coast in the King George, a
+vessel engaged in this infamous traffic, out of Whitehaven, and in his
+nineteenth year was trusted as chief mate of the Two Friends, another
+vessel of the trade, belonging to Jamaica. Having carried his human
+cargo to the island, sickening of the pursuit, he sailed as a
+passenger to Kirkcudbright, in his native district. Opportunities are
+always presenting themselves to the watchful and the initiated. The
+chief officers of the vessel died of the fever; Paul took command and
+carried the ship in safety to the owners. They put him in command of
+the brig, the John, on another West India voyage.
+
+Finally, in 1771, he left Scotland never to return to it, save to
+carry terror among its population. He proceeded to London; found
+employment in the West India trade, and in 1773 settled himself for a
+while in Virginia on the estate of his brother, to whom he had now
+become heir. This was a grand turning-point of his career, and to
+signalize it properly, Paul, who was somewhat of a fanciful turn,
+added the name Jones to his proper appellation, John Paul.
+
+On the organization of the infant navy of the United States, in 1775,
+John Paul Jones, as he is henceforth to be called, received the
+appointment of first of the first lieutenants in the service, in
+which, in his station on the flag-ship Alfred, he claimed the honor of
+being the foremost, on the approach of the commander-in-chief,
+Commodore Hopkins, to raise the new American flag. This was the old
+device of a rattle-snake coiled on a yellow ground, with the motto,
+_Don't tread on me_, which is yet partially retained in the seal of
+the war-office.
+
+The first service of the new squadron was the attack upon the island
+of New Providence, in which Jones rendered signal assistance. On the
+return voyage, the unsatisfactory encounter with the Glasgow occurred,
+which afterward resulted in the dismissal of one of the American
+officers, and Jones's appointment in his place to the command of the
+Providence, of twelve guns and seventy men. His exploits in this
+vessel gained him his first laurels. He now received the rank of
+captain, and sailed on various expeditions, transporting troops,
+conveying merchantmen, out-sailing British frigates, and greatly
+harassing the enemy's commercial interests. His success in these
+enterprises induced Commodore Hopkins to put him in command of the
+Alfred and other vessels on an expedition to the eastward, which
+resulted in the capture of various important prizes of transport and
+other ships, and extensive injury to the fisheries at Canso. On his
+return, he was superseded in the command of the Alfred, his seniority
+in the service being set aside, a grievance which led to remonstrance
+on his part, and a correspondence with the Committee of Congress, in
+the course of which Jones made many valuable suggestions as to the
+service, and gained the friendship of that eminent business man of the
+old Confederacy, Robert Morris. There appear to have been several
+appointments for him in progress, when his somewhat unsettled position
+became determined by the resolve of Congress to send him to France for
+the purpose of taking command of a frigate to be provided for him by
+the Commissioners at Paris. By the resolution of June 14, 1777, he was
+appointed to the Ranger, newly built at Portsmouth, and--a second
+instance of the kind--had the honor of hoisting for the first time the
+new flag of the stars and stripes; at least he claimed the
+distinction, for the bristling vanity of Jones made him punctilious in
+these accidental matters of personal renown.
+
+It took some time to prepare the Ranger for sea, but Jones got off on
+his adventure in November, made a couple of prizes by the way, and at
+the end of a month reached Nantes. Disappointed in obtaining the large
+vessel which he expected, and obliged to be contented with the Ranger,
+he employed his time in making acquaintance with the French navy at
+Quiberon Bay, and offering valuable suggestions for the employment of
+D'Estaing's fleet on the American coast. He soon determined to put to
+sea on an adventure of spirit. On April 10, 1778, he sailed from Brest
+on a cruise in British waters. Directing his course to the haunts of
+his youth, he captured a brigantine off Cape Clear, and a London ship
+in the Irish Channel; planned various bold adventures on the Irish
+coast, which he was not able to carry out from adverse influences of
+wind and tide, but well-nigh succeeded in burning a large fleet of
+merchantmen in the docks of Whitehaven. In this last adventure, he
+made a landing at night, and advanced to the capture of the
+town-batteries, leaving his officers to fire the ships, of which there
+were about two hundred in the port. His orders were not obeyed, either
+from insufficient preparations or the relenting of his agents, when he
+himself set fire to one of the largest of the vessels. It was now day,
+and the people were warned by a deserter from his force, but Jones
+managed to hold the whole town at bay till he made good his retreat.
+This daring affair was an impromptu of Jones's genius, justified in
+his view by similar depredations of the British on the American coast;
+but it had an ugly look of ingratitude to the place which had
+sheltered his youth, and first given him promotion in the world.
+
+Nor was this all. He immediately crossed to his native shore of
+Scotland, with the intention of seizing the Earl of Selkirk, at his
+seat on the promontory of St. Mary's Isle, on the Solway, near
+Kirkcudbright. Landing at the spot he ascertained that the earl was
+from home. Disappointed in his object, he would have returned, when
+the officers in his boat insisted upon a demand for the family plate.
+Jones demurred, but yielded with the proviso that the thing was to be
+done in the most delicate manner possible. His lieutenant, Simpson,
+undertook the business, and introduced himself to Lady Selkirk, who
+was, conveniently enough for his purposes, engaged at breakfast. She
+had at first taken the party for a press-gang, and had offered them
+refreshments; on being informed of the nature of their visit, their
+request, backed by the armed crew at the door, was complied with.
+
+It is said that Jones apologized personally to Lady Selkirk, and we
+shall presently find him, at the first interval of leisure, taking
+measures to repair the act. For the moment, however, he had more
+serious work on hand. In his upward voyage along the Irish coast, he
+had looked into Belfast Lough, after his Majesty's sloop-of-war Drake,
+of twenty guns, which he attempted to board in a night attack by a
+bold manoeuvre, which came within an ace of success. Immediately after
+the affair of St. Mary's, he ran across the channel and had the
+fortune to meet the Drake coming out of Carrickfergus. She was getting
+to sea to check the exploits of the Ranger, which had now alarmed the
+whole region. Jones desired nothing more than an encounter. As the
+ship drew up she hailed the Ranger. Jones gave the reply through his
+sailing-master: "The American continental ship Ranger. We are waiting
+for you. Come on. The sun is little more than an hour high, and it is
+time to begin!" A broadside engagement commenced, and continued at
+close quarters for an hour, when the Drake surrendered. Her captain
+and first lieutenant were mortally wounded, her sails and rigging
+terribly cut up, and hull much shattered. The loss of the Ranger was 2
+killed and 6 wounded; that of the Drake, 42. The Drake had two guns
+the advantage of her adversary. The action took place on April 24th;
+on May 8th, Jones having traversed the channel, carried his prize
+safely into Brest.
+
+His first thought now was to make some amends to Lady Selkirk and his
+own reputation for the plundering visit of his lieutenant. He
+therefore addressed to her, the very day of his landing, an
+extraordinary letter--Jones was fond of letter-writing--full of
+high-sounding phrases, and professions of gallantry and esteem, in the
+midst of which he failed not to recite the splendid victory of the
+Ranger. He drew a picture of the terrors inflicted by the British in
+America; and in respect to that unfortunate plate, expressed his
+intention to purchase it, in the sale of the prize, and restore it at
+his own expense to the family. This, after delays and obstacles, he
+finally accomplished some years later, when we are told it was all
+returned as it was taken, the very tea-leaves of the parting breakfast
+clinging to the tea-pot.
+
+[Illustration: Paul Jones and Lady Selkirk.]
+
+The affair of the Ranger, so brilliantly conducted, the short,
+energetic cruise in narrow seas, so near the British naval stations,
+gave Jones a great reputation for gallantry in Paris. The delays and
+difficulties, however, incidental to the wretched state of the
+American finances abroad, and the imperfect relation of his country
+with the French court, were well calculated to cool any enthusiasm
+excited by his conquest; and a man of less vivacity and perseverance
+than Jones might have dropped the service. He persevered. His
+lieutenant, Simpson, after various refractory proceedings, had sailed
+home in the Ranger, when an arrangement was finally made with Le Ray
+de Chaumont, the negotiator of the French court, to furnish a jointly
+equipped and officered fleet, of which Jones was to take command. Five
+vessels were thus provided, including the American frigate Alliance.
+An old Indiaman, the Duke de Duras, fell to the lot of Jones. In
+compliment to Dr. Franklin, one of the commissioners, and especially
+in gratitude for a hint which he had accidentally lighted upon in an
+odd number of that philosopher's almanac, to the effect that whoever
+would have his business well done must do it himself--a suggestion by
+which Jones had greatly profited in giving a final spur to his
+protracted negotiations--he changed the name of his vessel, by
+permission of the French Government, to the Bon Homme Richard.
+
+Jones at length set sail, on August 14th, with his squadron. Landais,
+an incompetent Frenchman in the American service, was in command of
+the Alliance. It was altogether a weak, mongrel affair. The Bon Homme
+Richard was unseaworthy, her armament was defective, and in her motley
+crew Englishmen and foreigners outnumbered the Americans. The plan of
+the cruise was to sail round the British Islands from the westward. At
+Cape Clear the commander parted with two of the smaller vessels of the
+squadron, which now consisted of his own ship, the Alliance, the
+Pallas, and the Vengeance. The service was, however, far more impaired
+by the insubordination of Landais, who evinced great jealousy of his
+superior. Several prizes were taken, one of them by Jones off Cape
+Wrath, at the extremity of Scotland. Traversing the eastern coast, he
+arrived, with the Pallas and the Vengeance, at the Firth of Forth, and
+entertained the bold idea of attacking the armed vessels at the
+station, and putting not only Leith, but possibly the capital,
+Edinburgh itself, under contribution. He would certainly have made the
+attempt--indeed, it was in full progress--when it was defeated by a
+violent gale of wind.
+
+Jones now continued his course southwardly, casting longing eyes upon
+Hull and Newcastle, when, having been joined by the Alliance, the
+squadron suddenly, off Flamborough Head, fell in with the Baltic
+cruisers, the Serapis, forty-four. Captain Pearson, and the Countess
+of Scarborough, twenty, Captain Piercy, convoying a fleet of
+merchantmen. Jones at once prepared for action. The combat which
+ensued, between the Serapis and the Bon Homme Richard, is one of the
+most remarkable in the annals of naval warfare, for the circumstances
+under which it was fought, the persistence of the contest, and the
+well-matched valor of the commanders. The engagement was by moonlight,
+on a tranquil sea, within sight of the shore, which was crowded with
+spectators, who thronged the promontory of Flamborough Head and the
+piers of Scarborough. After various preliminary manoeuvres on the part
+of the English commander to shelter the merchantmen, the engagement
+began at half-past seven in the evening, with a series of attempts of
+the Bon Homme Richard to come to close quarters with her antagonist.
+At the first broadside of Jones's vessel, two of the old
+eighteen-pounders mounted in her gun-room burst, with fearful
+destruction to the men. This accident compelled the closing of the
+lower ports, and produced a still greater inequality between the
+combatants than at the start, for the Serapis was not only a
+well-constructed, well-furnished man-of-war, thoroughly equipped,
+while the Bon Homme Richard had even-disadvantage in these respects:
+but the absolute weight of metal was, at the outset, greatly in favor
+of the Englishman. The Richard then passed to windward of the Serapis,
+receiving her fire, which did much damage to the rotten hull of the
+old Indiaman. Jones next attempted a movement to get into position to
+rake his antagonist from stem to stern, which resulted in a momentary
+collision. There was an effort to board the Serapis, which was
+repulsed, when Captain Pearson called out, "Has your ship struck?" and
+Jones instantly replied, "I have not yet begun to fight." The ships
+then separating, were brought again to a broadside encounter, when
+Jones, feeling the superior force of the Serapis, and her better
+sailing, was fully prepared to take advantage of the next position as
+the ships fell foul of one another, to grapple with his opponent. He
+himself assisted in lashing the jib-stay of the Serapis to the
+mizzenmast of the Richard.
+
+The ships became now closely entangled for their full length on their
+starboard sides; so near were they together, that the guns of one
+touched the sides of the other, and in some places where the
+port-holes met, the guns were loaded by passing the rammers into the
+opposite vessel. Every discharge in this position was of course most
+deadly, and told fearfully upon the rotten hull of the Richard. To add
+to Jones's embarrassment, he was repeatedly fired upon by Landais,
+from the Alliance, which always kept her position with the Richard
+between her and the enemy. This extraordinary circumstance is only to
+be accounted for by an entire lack of presence of mind in the
+confusion, or by absolute treachery. The Serapis poured in her fire
+below from a full battery, while the Richard was confined to three
+guns on deck. She had efficient aid, however, in clearing the deck of
+the Serapis, from the musketry and hand-grenades of her men in the
+tops. One of these missiles reached the lower gun-deck of the Serapis,
+and there setting fire to a quantity of exposed cartridges, produced a
+destruction of life, an offset to the fearful loss of the Richard by
+the bursting of her guns in the opening of the engagement. The injury
+to the Richard, from the wounds inflicted upon her hull, was at this
+time so great that she was pronounced to be sinking, and there was a
+cry among the men of surrender; not, however, from Jones, who was as
+much himself at this extremity as ever. Seeing the English prisoners,
+who had been released below, more than a hundred in number, rushing
+upon deck, where in a moment they might have leaped into the Serapis,
+and put themselves under then country's flag, he coolly set them to
+working the pumps, to save the sinking ship. Human courage and
+resolution have seldom been more severely tried than in the exigencies
+of this terrible night on board the Richard. Jones continued to ply
+his feeble cannonade from the deck, levelled at the mainmast of the
+adversary. Both vessels were on fire, when, at half-past ten, the
+Serapis struck.
+
+The loss in this extraordinary engagement, which outstrips and
+exaggerates the usual vicissitudes of naval service, was of course
+fearful. The entire loss of the Richard is estimated by Cooper at one
+hundred and fifty, nearly one-half of all the men she had engaged.
+Captain Pearson reported at least one hundred and seventeen
+casualties. The Bon Homme Richard was so riddled by the enemy's fire,
+and disembowelled by the gun-room explosion, that she could not be
+saved from sinking. When the wind freshened, the day after the
+victory, she became no longer tenable; her living freight was taken
+from her, and Jones, in the forenoon of the 25th, "with inexpressible
+grief," saw her final plunge into the depths of the ocean.
+
+While the engagement of the Richard and Serapis was going on, the
+Pallas, better officered than the Alliance, captured the other English
+vessel, the Countess of Scarborough. The two prizes were carried to
+the Texel, where the squadron enjoyed the uneasy protection of
+Holland. Jones himself had a more satisfactory reception in an
+enthusiastic greeting on the Exchange at Amsterdam, and a brilliant
+triumph, illuminated by the smiles of the fair sex, shortly after in
+Paris. In October, 1780, he left for America in the Ariel, bearing
+with him a gift from the king, a gold-mounted sword, with the
+inscription on the blade: _Vindicati Maris Ludovicus XVI. Remunerator
+Strenuo Vindici_--"Louis XVI., rewarder, to the valiant defender of a
+liberated sea." The voyage was interrupted, at its outset, by a severe
+storm off the harbor, in which Jones displayed his usual heroism. The
+vessel was refitted, and after a partial action on the high seas with
+a mysterious stranger, reached Philadelphia in February, 1781.
+
+In 1787 he left America with the intention of serving under Louis.
+When he reached Paris, he was met by a proposition to enter the
+service of Catherine of Russia, in which he was induced to engage by
+prospects of rank and glory. On his journey to St. Petersburg, he had
+a characteristic adventure in his passage from Stockholm to Revel,
+which he made while the navigation was interrupted by ice, traversing
+the sea, with great hardihood, in an open boat, extorting the labors
+of the boatmen by his threats of violence. He was well received by the
+Empress, who forwarded him to Potemkin, then in command on the Black
+Sea, in a war with the Turks. It is not necessary to recount the
+movements of a small squadron, with a divided command and jealous
+counsels, presided over by a whimsical, despotic court favorite. Many
+as were the vexations encountered by Jones in the inefficient
+resources, the shifts and expedients of foreign allies, and the
+straits of the American commissioners, they were light compared with
+the stifling restraints of Russian tyranny. Jones did much fighting,
+in his command of the Wolodomer, on the Black Sea, against the Pasha,
+but retired with little glory. Persecution followed at St.
+Petersburg--there was an assault upon his moral character, which was
+triumphantly disproved--various projects flitted through his teeming
+mind, and his connection with the country closed after a residence of
+fifteen months. It is sad to watch the last years of Paul Jones, not,
+indeed, of age, but of growing weariness and disease, as he renews his
+broken Russian hopes, and revives the old, faded, pecuniary claims on
+the French court. A gleam of sunshine appears in his aspirations to
+serve his country--for he still looked across the Atlantic--in the
+removal of the chains from the American sailors imprisoned at Algiers.
+His country listened to his cry; he was charged to treat with the
+Regency for their ransom, but before the commission reached him, he
+had passed to that land where the weary cease from sighing, and
+prisoners are at rest. Here, with Mercy bending over the scene, let
+the curtain fall. Paul Jones died at Paris, at the age of forty-five,
+of a dropsical affection, July 18, 1792.
+
+The person of Paul Jones is well known by the numerous prints devoted
+to his brilliant exploits. You will see him, a little active man of
+medium height, not robust but vigorous, a keen black eye, lighting a
+dark, weather-beaten visage, compact and determined, with a certain
+melancholy grace.
+
+He was one of nature's self-made men; that is, nature gave the genius,
+and he supplied the industry, for he knew how to labor, and must have
+often exerted himself to secure the attainments which he possessed. He
+was a good seaman, as well as a most gallant officer; sagacious in the
+application of means; vain, indeed, and expensive, but natural and
+generous; something of a poet in verse, much more in the quickness and
+vivacity of his imagination, which led him to plan nobly; an
+accomplished writer; and as he was found worthy of the warm and
+unchanging friendship of Franklin, that sage who sought for excellence
+while he looked with a kindly eye upon human infirmity, we, too, may
+peruse the virtues of the man and smile upon his frailties.
+
+
+
+
+TECUMSEH[5]
+
+By JAMES A. GREEN
+
+(1776-1813)
+
+         [Footnote 5: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Indians. [TN]]
+
+
+It would be a difficult matter for a well-read American to recall the
+names of more than four or five notable Indians, leaving, of course,
+contemporaneous red men out of the question. The list might comprise
+Pocahontas, best known, probably, for something she did not do;
+Powhatan, that vague and shadowy Virginian chief; King Philip, who had
+a war named after him and so succeeded in having his name embalmed in
+history; Pontiac, whose great conspiracy Parkman has made immortal,
+and Tecumseh. But, of them all, Tecumseh is easily foremost. He was a
+man who, had he been born to great position among civilized nations,
+would have stamped his name and fame upon the world. He was not a mere
+savage of the ordinary type, bloodthirsty, brutal beyond description,
+going upon one aimless raid after another to glut his passion for
+rapine and murder. These savage traits were not his, though all the
+good qualities of the Indian he possessed in double measure. He was
+fearless, he was untiring, and when once started toward an end he knew
+no rest until he had accomplished his design. He had a primitive
+dignity of thought and expression that marked him as a great orator.
+At the famous council at Vincennes, when Tecumseh had finished his
+speech and was about to sit down with his braves, the interpreter,
+pointing to General W. H. Harrison, said, "Your father wishes you to
+take a chair." But the ordinary courtesy of calling the white Governor
+the father of the red men was repugnant to Tecumseh, and with lofty
+mien and unpremeditated eloquence he declined the proffered seat.
+"No," he exclaimed, "the sun is my father, the earth is my mother, and
+I will rest on her bosom." And he sat down on Mother Earth with his
+assembled warriors, this act and fiery speech more than ever binding
+them to his fortunes.
+
+Tecumseh was in reality the first of the great Ohio men. He was a
+Shawnee Indian, and his tribe, in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, had emigrated from Florida to what is now the State of Ohio,
+Tecumseh being born in what is now Clarke County, near the present
+city of Springfield, in an Indian town that bore the name of Piqua.
+This must not be confounded with the present Ohio town of Piqua, which
+is in another county altogether, the birthplace of Tecumseh now being
+the site of a straggling village bearing the name, West Boston. In his
+boyhood there was nothing unusual. He grew up in the stirring times
+when Daniel Boone, Simon Kenton, and the other hardy Kentucky
+pioneers. Long Knives the Indians called them--were leading their
+forces into the West. It was a time when the Indians were constantly
+fighting. They did not live in Kentucky, but they regarded the fertile
+woods and prairies south of the Ohio River as their hunting-grounds,
+and they attacked with savage cruelty all the whites that dared to
+encroach upon this territory. The whites in turn crossed the Ohio in
+reprisal, burnt the Indian towns, tomahawked women and children,
+destroyed corn-fields, and were as unrelenting and barbarous in their
+revenge as their savage foes.
+
+Tecumseh was born about 1776, and in 1780 the village of Piqua was
+attacked by a party of 1,000 Kentuckians, who, after a fierce battle,
+drove out the Indians and destroyed the place. It was amid such scenes
+that the Indian boy grew to manhood. In that wild time, war was the
+only science, and butchery the only trade that an Indian could follow.
+One of the favorite Indian pursuits of the day was the capture of
+parties of emigrants and traders who came floating down the Ohio in
+canoes or "broadhorns." For miles the Indians would secretly follow
+such a party, and then when their opportunity came would strike their
+deadly blow. When a boy of seventeen Tecumseh was in a party making an
+attack on some boats near the present site of Maysville, Ky. The boats
+were captured and all the people in them slaughtered on the spot
+except one person, who was spared and later burnt alive. The horror of
+the spectacle so impressed Tecumseh that he then and there said he
+would never again be guilty of such cruelty, and the vigorous manner
+in which he protested against it so moved his companions that they
+agreed with him to not repeat the act. This resolution Tecumseh never
+altered; time and time again he protected women and children from his
+infuriated followers. At the battle of Fort Meigs a party of Americans
+was captured by the British and Indians. Though they had surrendered
+as prisoners of war, yet the savages were firing into them
+promiscuously, or selecting such as they chose to tomahawk in cold
+blood. This dreadful scene was interrupted by Tecumseh, who came
+spurring up and, springing from his horse to the ground, dashed aside
+two Indians who were about to murder an American, threatening to slay
+anyone who would dare to injure another prisoner. Turning to the
+British General, Proctor, he asked why such a massacre had been
+permitted. "Sir," said Proctor, "your Indians cannot be commanded."
+"Begone," was the angry reply of the outraged Tecumseh, "you are unfit
+to command. Go, put on petticoats." This was only one incident of many
+showing how far he was above the ordinary Indian in magnanimity of
+character. At the already mentioned Vincennes conference Tecumseh
+agreed with General William Henry Harrison--his unrelenting foe and
+who judged him as harshly as any of the frontiersmen who feared and
+hated him--that in case of an outbreak of hostilities the women and
+children on both sides were to be protected and respected. Certain it
+is that General Harrison would have made no such agreement had he not
+believed that his adversary would keep it.
+
+[Illustration: Tecumseh defends the Whites at Fort Meigs.]
+
+To understand the life and work of Tecumseh it is necessary to look
+into the history of his times. His career was embraced between the
+period of the Revolution and our second war with Great Britain. The
+destiny of the Great West was not then assured. Ohio and Kentucky were
+frontier States, vastly farther from the seat of government than is
+the most remote of our Western outposts to-day. They could be reached
+only by a toilsome journey over the Alleghanies and a trip down the
+Ohio. A journey to-day to the Yellowstone, or to the regions beyond
+the Black Hills, does not mean, in the way of time, danger, or
+adventure, one-tenth what a journey to Fort Washington (Cincinnati)
+meant in 1800. Indiana was a Territory, and the Territorial Governor,
+first of the Northwest, and then of Indiana, was William Henry
+Harrison, a born fighter, a palaverer, and who, in the difficult
+position which he occupied in dealing with unruly settlers on the one
+hand and turbulent Indians on the other hand, displayed singular tact
+and ability. He was eminently the right man in the right place. But in
+spite of the claims the United States made of the West, the country
+was but little known, nor was its real importance even suspected. That
+the Mississippi Valley would one day be peopled by millions, and be
+the greatest, wealthiest, and most productive part of the country, was
+not thought of even by the most sanguine of Americans. The Eastern
+States in those days had affairs enough of their own on hand, and the
+Western frontier was not regarded as essentially important. The
+national idea--the Nation with a big N, as recent humorous newspaper
+writers have put it--had not been evolved. It was difficult for even a
+man of the persuasive powers of General Harrison, to induce the
+General Government to furnish half enough troops to adequately guard
+the outposts. If there was serious work to do the settlers had to
+do it themselves. There was little grumbling over this state of
+affairs, however, as the Kentuckians and Westerners generally had been
+brought up to do their own fighting and not to wait for the Government
+at Washington to do it for them. In those days British agents were
+actively at work among the Northern Indians to keep them in a state of
+disaffection toward the United States. Meanwhile, the Indians were in
+the midst of the great tragedy that has been enacted since the days of
+Columbus. They were the victims of traders who sold them fire-water,
+and for poor and cheap weapons, demanded furs whose value was out of
+all proportion to that given in return. Many of their women married
+white renegades who corrupted the morals of the tribes. They were
+being dispossessed of the finest homes and best hunting grounds in
+America, for the buffalo was then found in Kentucky in great herds,
+and their position was thoroughly unhappy. They had then--and happily
+this is not wholly the case at present--no rights that a white man was
+bound to respect. But the Indians were still many and the settlers
+were few. To a great leader, who of course could not take into account
+the mighty force behind the Anglo-Saxon ranks that first marched over
+the Alleghenies, it would still seem practical to band the red men
+together in a vast confederation and drive the invaders back again
+beyond the Ohio and the mountains. This was Tecumsch's splendid plan.
+This was the design to which he devoted his life, and which he pursued
+with such ardor and genius as to do what an Indian had never before
+accomplished. Pontiac, it is true, at the siege of Detroit gathered a
+number of tribes under his leadership, but he never dreamed of a
+continental confederacy, as did Tecumseh. In this vast design he was
+materially aided by his brother, best known by the name of the
+Prophet, who, while lacking in judgment, was none the less a man of
+extraordinary force of character. He proclaimed that he had received
+power from the Great Spirit to confound the enemies of the Indians,
+stay the march of disease and death, and that he was the Messiah to
+lead his people to new and greater things. But as conditions to
+success the Indians must stop drinking fire-water, they must cease
+intermarrying with the whites or trading with them, and they must hold
+all things as the property of all. They must return to their original
+dress and manners, and forget that they had ever seen or known the
+"pale faces." The fame and influence of the Prophet spread with almost
+miraculous rapidity, and young men and warriors came from afar in
+crowds to receive inspiration from him. Tecumseh with rare ability
+turned this influence to advance his own plans. And of course this
+constant stream of visitors to his brother, enabled the chief to
+spread his racial idea far and wide. One of the things that Tecumseh
+maintained was that the Indians held the land in common, that no one
+tribe owned this or that territory, but that the Great Spirit had
+given it equally to all. This he said at the conference at Vincennes,
+but General Harrison ridiculed the idea and stated that if the Great
+Spirit had intended to make one nation of the Indians, he would not
+have put different languages into their heads, but would have taught
+them all to speak alike. Tecumseh bitterly replied that no one tribe
+had the right to give away what was the joint property of all, and
+not until the United States agreed to cease purchasing lands from the
+Indians and restored the lands recently bought, would peace be
+possible. Pointing to the moon that had risen on the council, Governor
+Harrison said that the moon would sooner fall to earth than the United
+States would give up anything fairly acquired. "Then," said Tecumseh,
+"I suppose that you and I will have to fight it out."
+
+But these councils ended in nothing except a manly and impressive
+statement by Tecumseh of his position, and a strong and terribly just
+indictment of the whites for their treatment of the Indians. Tecumseh
+was constantly on the move. Now on the Lakes, now on the Wabash, then
+on the Mississippi or the plains to the westward, then on the Ohio or
+the hills that roll to the south from it. Everywhere the Indians
+received him graciously. But an accident destroyed his plans, and one
+defeat dashed his confederation to pieces. During his absence Governor
+Harrison, alarmed at the gathering of warriors at the Prophet's town
+of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River, in Indiana, marched against it.
+There was no necessity for a battle. It might easily have been
+avoided. Toward the close of day the Americans reached Tippecanoe. The
+Indians disclaimed any hostile ideas, and it was settled that the
+terms of peace were to be arranged the next day. That night, however,
+the Indians treacherously attacked the Americans. The conflict was
+fierce and bloody. The Indian braves were animated by the promises of
+the Prophet, who declared that they would be victorious and that he
+had rendered the bullets of the white men of no avail. During the
+battle he stood on a neighboring hill and chanted a war song, to
+further fill his warriors with courage and enthusiasm. But though the
+red men fought gallantly, they were doomed to defeat. They were
+scattered up and down the Wabash, their town was burnt, and the power
+of the Western Indians was by this one blow shattered. So complete was
+the victory and so far-reaching in its effects, that General Harrison
+at once became the popular idol, and the glorification of the battle
+of Tippecanoe, a generation later carried him into the Presidential
+chair. It was this battle that gave the West to the whites.
+
+As for Tecumseh, he returned suddenly from the West to find that
+despite his commands, the Prophet had permitted a battle. In his rage
+and disappointment he took his brother, now fallen and disgraced, by
+the hair and shook him. But no longer was it possible to hold his
+tribes together. The victory of the United States at Tippecanoe took
+the ardor for battle and resistance quite out of them. There were
+hundreds of them, however, who in the war of 1812, which broke out
+immediately, followed Tecumseh into the British service, in which he
+was commissioned as a major-general. In that service he was doomed to
+continued disaster. The English commander. General Proctor, was
+incompetent and, in all the qualities of real manhood, the inferior of
+his savage ally. After the battle of Put-in-Bay, on Lake Erie, he
+started to retreat. Tecumseh protested, and was induced to go on only
+by the promise that winter supplies would be delivered a few miles up
+the Thames. It was on this stream that Proctor finally determined to
+make a stand, but at the outset of the action he, coward-like,
+retreated with his red coats, leaving the Indians to bear the brunt
+of the battle. Tecumseh had gone into the fight saying that he would
+be killed, and his prediction was verified. But how he died no one can
+say with certainty. No less than four Americans claimed the honor of
+having killed him. Among the slain, in that time of fierce pursuit and
+confusion, his body was not even identified. But there it was, on the
+banks of that quiet Canadian stream, some thirty-five miles from
+Detroit, that the greatest Indian in statecraft, diplomacy, devotion
+to his people, and in dignity of thought and intellectual gifts, found
+his unmarked grave. No one yet has written a biography of him that
+does full justice to his great abilities and lofty character. But his
+name is the most familiar of all Indian names, and he is the only
+Indian after whom Western fathers and mothers have ever named their
+sons. The late General of the United States Army, William Tecumseh
+Sherman, bore his name, as have hundreds of other boys born in Ohio,
+Kentucky, and the great States that roll westward from them.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+JAMES LAWRENCE
+
+(1781-1813)
+
+[Illustration: James Lawrence. [TN]]
+
+
+Captain James Lawrence was one of that band of chivalrous spirits who,
+concentrating all their life in the work, with insufficient means, in
+the face of powerful enemies, raised our infant navy in an instant, as
+it were, to an honored rank in the world. The force and energy of the
+free national development were felt in the spontaneous movement that
+placed so many ardent, courageous spirits at the service of the
+country. These men, Barry, Barney, Decatur, Bainbridge, Perry, Somers,
+and the rest--the list is a long one--were volunteers in the cause,
+fighting more for glory than for pay. Such spirits were not to be
+hired--theirs was no mercenary service. It was limited by no
+prudential considerations. They went forth singly or united, the
+commissioned champions of the nation, with their lives in their hands,
+ready to sacrifice themselves in that cause. Punctilious on all
+points of honor, they sought but one reward--victory. There was but
+one thing for them to do--to conquer; and, failing that, to die. Of
+these fiery-souled heroes, who carried their country in their hearts,
+the men of courtesy and courage, of equal humanity and bravery, true
+sons of chivalry, Lawrence will ever be ranked among the noblest.
+
+He was born October 1, 1781, at Burlington, on the banks of the
+Delaware, in New Jersey. His father, John Lawrence, was an eminent
+counsellor at law at that place. The death of his mother, shortly
+after his birth, threw the charge of the child upon his elder sisters,
+by whom he was tenderly cared for. His disposition answered to this
+gentle culture. The boy was dutiful and affectionate, amiable in
+disposition and agreeable in manners. Such a soil is peculiarly
+favorable to the growth of the manly virtues where nature has assisted
+by her generous physical gifts. The bravest men have often been the
+gentlest. It is the union of the two conditions which, as in Sir
+Philip Sidney, makes the perfect warrior.
+
+Young Lawrence early showed a liking for the sea, and would have led a
+life on the waters from the age of twelve, had not his father firmly
+turned his attention to books and education. It was his intention to
+prepare him for his own profession, the law, and his desire that he
+should enjoy the usual preparatory finished education. This was,
+however, prevented by his pecuniary misfortunes, and the youth passed
+from his primary school at once to the law office of his brother, John
+Lawrence, then residing at Woodbury. He spent two years in this
+situation, between thirteen and fifteen, or thereabout, vainly
+endeavoring to reconcile his humors to the onerous duties of the
+unwelcome position. The death of his father left him, in a measure,
+free to follow his own inclinations, and his brother, perceiving his
+strong bent for the sea, placed him under the care of a Mr. Griscomb,
+at Burlington, to study navigation, evidently with a view to enter the
+naval service of the country, for we find him, after a brief three
+months' instruction, in possession of a midshipman's warrant. This was
+dated September 4, 1798, the year when Congress seriously directed its
+attention to the protection of our commerce, then so wantonly pillaged
+by the two great belligerents of Europe, by the creation of a distinct
+navy department, and the enlargement of our naval force. The movement
+was specially directed to the French aggressions on the Atlantic and
+in the Mediterranean. Indeed, in all but the name, war existed with
+France. It was called a quasi war.
+
+Lawrence's first service was a cruise to the West Indies, in the
+Ganges, a twenty-four gun ship, then commanded by Captain Tingey. He
+showed in this and other voyages such aptitude for his duties that he
+was made an acting lieutenant by his commander previous to his
+receiving his commission from Government. In 1802 he was appointed
+first lieutenant in the Enterprise, of twelve guns, one of the fleet
+of Commodore Morris, sent to the Mediterranean to prosecute the war
+with Tripoli. He particularly distinguished himself in that service,
+by his adventures with Lieutenant David Porter, of the New York, in an
+attack in open day on certain coasters or feluccas laden with wheat,
+which took refuge in Old Tripoli, where they were defended by a land
+force. The attack was made in boats, at close quarters, under a heavy
+fire of the enemy.
+
+Lawrence had a second opportunity of distinguishing himself in this
+war in an action likely to be better remembered by the public, the
+glorious adventure of Decatur, in the destruction of the wrecked and
+captured Philadelphia, in the harbor of Tripoli, in February, 1804.
+Lawrence was the first lieutenant of that officer in this brilliant
+adventure, and shared its full dangers and glories.
+
+Lawrence was also engaged in the Enterprise, in Preble's bombardment
+of Tripoli, the same year. He returned in the winter to the United
+States, with that commodore, in the John Adams. In the following
+spring of 1805, Lawrence successfully carried across the Atlantic one
+of the fleet of gunboats, No. 6, of which he was commander, destined
+for service in the Mediterranean. It was a small vessel, mounting two
+guns, not at all adapted for ocean navigation. The voyage was looked
+upon as a marvel. When near the Western Islands, Mr. Cooper, in his
+"Naval History" tells, he "fell in with the British frigate Lapwing,
+28, Captain Upton which ran for him, under the impression that the
+gunboat was some wrecked mariners on a raft, there being a great show
+of canvas and apparently no hull."
+
+After the war with Tripoli was ended, Lawrence returned to the United
+States, and in the interval, when the war with England, after the
+affair with the Leopard and Chesapeake, was daily becoming more
+imminent, we find him, in 1808, appointed first lieutenant of the
+Constitution. About the same time he married Miss Montaudevert, the
+daughter of a respectable merchant of New York. He was on duty in the
+Vixen, Wasp, and Argus; and, at the commencement of the war of 1812,
+was promoted to the command of the Hornet. While in this last vessel
+he sailed with Bainbridge, who had the flag-ship Constitution, on a
+cruise along the coast of South America, and, having occasion to look
+in at the port of San Salvador, found there the British sloop-of-war,
+Bonne Citoyenne, of eighteen guns, ready to sail for England with a
+large amount of specie. Lawrence, whose ship mounted an equal number
+of guns, was exceedingly anxious to engage with this vessel. He sent a
+challenge to its commander, Captain Green, through the American
+consul, inviting him to "come out," and pledging his honor that
+neither the Constitution, nor any other American vessel, should
+interfere, which Commodore Bainbridge seconded by promising to be out
+of the way, or at least non-combatant. The English captain, however,
+declined.
+
+It was an unhappy precedent which Lawrence thus established, injurious
+to the service and destined to act fatally against himself in the end,
+when from the challenger he became the challenged.
+
+The Constitution meanwhile sailed away, to close the year with her
+brilliant engagement with the Java, leaving the Hornet engaged in the
+blockade of the Bonne Citoyenne. Eighteen days since the departure of
+the flag-ship had passed while her consort was thus engaged, waiting
+till her expected prize should issue from the harbor, when the Hornet
+was robbed of her chances of victory by the arrival of his majesty's
+seventy-four, the Montague. Escape now became the policy of Lawrence,
+who luckily managed to get from the harbor in safety, and turned his
+course to the northward, along the coast. While cruising in this
+direction, after capturing a small English brig, he fell in with, on
+February 24, 1813, off the mouth of the Demerara, two brigs of war,
+with one of which, the Peacock, Captain Peake, he speedily became
+engaged. The American vessel on this occasion had somewhat the
+advantage in armament. In the words of Lawrence's dispatch, which
+gives a modest and forcible account of the affair, after mentioning
+his attempt to get at the first vessel he discovered at anchor off the
+bar, he says: "At half-past three P.M., I discovered another sail on
+my weather quarter, edging down for us. At twenty minutes past four
+she hoisted English colors, at which time we discovered her to be a
+large man-of-war brig; beat to quarters and cleared ship for action;
+kept close by the wind, in order if possible, to get the weather gage.
+At ten minutes past five, finding I could weather the enemy, I hoisted
+American colors and tacked. At twenty minutes past five, in passing
+each other, exchanged broadsides within half pistol shot. Observing
+the enemy in the act of wearing, I bore up, received his starboard
+broadside, ran him close on board on the starboard quarter, and kept
+up such a heavy and well-directed fire, that in less than fifteen
+minutes he surrendered, being literally cut to pieces, and hoisted an
+ensign, union down, from his fore-rigging, as a signal of distress."
+
+The hull of the Peacock was so riddled that she sank, while every
+exertion was made by her captors to save her by throwing over her guns
+and stopping the shot-holes. Nine of her crew went down with her, and
+three of the Hornet's men. Captain Peake was found dead on board. The
+loss of the Hornet was trifling compared with that of her adversary;
+but one man killed and four wounded or injured, one of whom afterward
+died. This superiority is attributed by Cooper, who sums up the
+testimony, "to the superior gunnery and rapid handling of the Hornet."
+
+This victory brought Lawrence a harvest of honors, public and private.
+Before he sailed, he had felt called upon to protest to the Secretary
+of the Navy against what he thought an injustice done him in the
+promotion of a younger officer to a captaincy, while he remained
+simply lieutenant-commander. He now found that the promotion had been
+conferred upon him in his absence, and was offered the command of the
+Constitution. He would have been pleased to sail in this vessel, but,
+much to his annoyance, immediately after receiving the appointment was
+ordered to the Chesapeake, then lying at Boston.
+
+Captain Lawrence took the command of the Chesapeake at Boston toward
+the end of May, 1813. The Shannon frigate, Captain Broke, a superior
+vessel of the British navy, had been for some time off the port, and
+her commander, assured of his strength, was desirous of a conflict.
+"You will feel it as a compliment," he wrote, "if I say that the
+result of our meeting may be the most grateful service I can render to
+my country; and I doubt not that you, equally confident of success,
+will feel convinced that it is only by triumphs in equal combats that
+your little navy can now hope to console your country for the loss of
+that trade it can no longer protect."
+
+[Illustration: "Don't give up the ship."]
+
+It would be complimenting the valor of Lawrence at the expense of his
+judgment, if we were to pronounce him ardent for the fight, with the
+circumstances under which it took place. In fact, as Mr. Cooper
+states, "he went into the engagement with strong reluctance, on
+account of the undisciplined state of his crew, to whom he was
+personally unknown." The challenging vessel, on the contrary, carried
+a picked crew, with every advantage of discipline and equipment. The
+presumption, of course, is that he was fully prepared. The armament of
+the two vessels was about equal, mounting forty-nine guns each.
+
+At noon, then, on June 1st, Lawrence weighed anchor and left his
+station in the bay to proceed to sea with a southwesterly breeze. The
+Shannon was in sight, and the two ships stood off the shore till about
+half-past four in the afternoon, when the Chesapeake fired a gun,
+which was the signal for a series of manoeuvres, bringing the vessels
+within range of each other about a quarter before six. The Shannon
+hove to, and the Chesapeake bore down toward her. It was Lawrence's
+intention to bring his ship fairly alongside of the enemy for a full
+discharge of his battery. He consequently first received the enemy's
+fire from the cabin guns, as, the wind having freshened, his ship came
+up to measure her length with her antagonist, which lay with her head
+to the southeast. Then the Chesapeake poured in her full fire,
+inflicting considerable damage, which was repeated in the successive
+discharges for several minutes. In this commencement of the action it
+was considered that the Shannon received most injury, particularly in
+her hull. Unhappily, the Chesapeake in turn lost the command of her
+sails. The ship was consequently brought up into the wind, and fell
+aboard of the enemy, with her mizzen rigging foul of the Shannon's
+fore-chains. This accident exposed the Chesapeake to a raking fire,
+which swept her deck, and, as she was already deprived of the services
+of the officers who had fallen in the first discharges, her guns in
+turn were deserted by the men. Captain Lawrence had already received a
+wound in the leg; his first lieutenant, Ludlow, was wounded; the
+sailing-master was killed, and other important officers were mortally
+wounded. As the ships became entangled, Lawrence gave orders to summon
+the boarders, who were ready below; but unhappily, the negro whose
+duty it was to call them up by his bugle, was too much frightened to
+sound a note. A verbal message was sent, and before it could be
+executed Lawrence was a second time struck, receiving a grapeshot in
+his body. The deck was thus left with no officer above the rank of a
+midshipman. The men of the Shannon now poured in and gained possession
+of the vessel. As Lawrence was borne below, mortally wounded, his
+dying thoughts were of his command, uttering his order not to strike
+the flag of his ship, or some equivalent expression, which is handed
+down in the popular phrase, "Don't give up the ship!" He lingered and
+died of his wounds on board on June 6th. The Chesapeake was carried
+into Halifax, and there the remains of her gallant captain were borne
+from the frigate with military honors, with every mark of respect
+which a generous enemy could pay to a fallen hero.
+
+
+
+
+STEPHEN DECATUR[6]
+
+By EDWARD S. ELLIS, A.M.
+
+(1779-1820)
+
+         [Footnote 6: Copyright 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Stephen Decatur. [TN]]
+
+
+Stephen Decatur was born on the eastern shore of Maryland, Worcester
+County, January 5, 1779. The family was of French extraction in the
+paternal line, and of Irish on the maternal side. The grandfather was
+a native of La Rochelle, in France, and married a lady of Newport, R.
+I., where Stephen, the son of the commodore, was born. When a very
+young man he removed to Philadelphia and married the daughter of an
+Irish gentleman named Pine. Decatur was bred to the sea and commanded
+a merchantman out of the port of Philadelphia, until appointed to the
+sloop-of-war, Delaware. Upon the completion of the frigate
+Philadelphia, the command of it was given to him.
+
+The elder Decatur had one daughter and three sons. The daughter was
+twice married, her first husband having been killed in a duel. The
+sons were Stephen, James, and John P., all of whom grew to manhood.
+The boys were educated at the old Philadelphia Academy in Fourth
+Street. Admiral Charles Stewart attended the same school and was an
+intimate friend of Decatur through life. Many of the incidents of this
+sketch were received by the writer from Stewart, who fully appreciated
+the manliness, courage, and nobility of the sailor, now accepted as
+the foremost type of the heroes and founders of the American navy.
+
+"Decatur was a born fighter," said Stewart; "I never knew a boy so
+fond of a bout as he. I sat near him at school and have known weeks to
+pass, without a single day in which he did not arrange a contest with
+one of the boys. We generally adjourned to the Quaker burying-ground
+opposite, and had it out among the tombs. Decatur despised meanness of
+every description, and rarely was beaten in a fight. When only
+fifteen, he half killed a partially intoxicated man who insulted his
+mother and refused to apologize. He never knew when he was whipped,
+but would hang on like a bull-dog. I was a few months older than he,
+but we were appointed midshipmen in the same year, 1798. Our intimacy
+was never broken by the slightest incident."
+
+Upon entering the navy, in March of the year named, Decatur joined the
+frigate United States, under command of Commodore Barry, who had
+obtained the warrant for him. He served with Barry until promoted to a
+lieutenancy. The United States needed repairs, and not wishing to stay
+in port, Decatur applied for orders to join the brig Norfolk, then
+bound to the Spanish Main. After one cruise he returned again to port
+and resumed his station on the United States, where he stayed until
+our naval troubles with France terminated. He was next ordered to the
+Essex and sailed with Commodore Dale's squadron to the Mediterranean.
+Returning home once more, he was appointed to the New York, one of the
+second squadron under command of Commodore Morris. When he again came
+back, he was ordered to command the Argus, to proceed with her to join
+Commodore Preble's squadron in the Mediterranean, and on his arrival
+there to resign the Argus to Lieutenant Hull and take charge of the
+schooner Enterprise, then commanded by that officer.
+
+The exchange being made, Decatur sailed to Syracuse where the squadron
+was to rendezvous. There he learned of the disaster to the
+Philadelphia. That frigate, as the reader will recall, ran aground
+while blockading Tripoli (with which country we were at war), and was
+captured by the Turks. Commodore Bainbridge and his crew of more than
+three hundred, among whom were Porter, Jones, and Biddle, were made
+prisoners and immured in a gloomy dungeon. Decatur quickly formed a
+plan for capturing or destroying the frigate. Preble, to whom the
+proposal was submitted, refused at first to give his consent, but his
+impetuous lieutenant won him over and was allowed to lead the
+expedition.
+
+Decatur selected the ketch Intrepid, which he had captured a few weeks
+before, and manned her with seventy volunteers, chiefly his own crew.
+He sailed from Syracuse, February 3, 1804, accompanied by the United
+States brig Siren, Lieutenant Stewart, who was to aid with his boats
+and to receive the crew of the ketch, should it be found expedient to
+use her as a fireship.
+
+The weather was so tempestuous that it required fifteen days to reach
+the harbor of Tripoli. It was arranged by Decatur and Stewart that the
+ketch should enter the harbor about ten o'clock that night, attended
+by the boats of the Siren. A change of wind threw the Siren six or
+eight miles away from the Intrepid, and, fearing to wait for the
+boats, Decatur decided to adventure alone in the harbor, which he did
+about eight o'clock.
+
+The Philadelphia lay within one-half gunshot of the Bashaw's castle
+and of the principal battery; two of the enemy's cruisers were only a
+couple of cables' length away on the starboard quarter, and their
+gunboats were within one-half gunshot on the starboard bow. All the
+guns of the frigate were mounted and loaded.
+
+Although it was only three miles from the entrance of the harbor to
+the frigate, the wind was so light that the Intrepid did not get
+within hail until eleven o'clock. At the distance of two hundred
+yards, the frigate hailed the ketch and ordered her to anchor under
+threat of being fired into. Decatur's Maltese pilot, by his direction,
+replied they had lost their anchor in a gale of wind off the coast and
+were unable to do as commanded. When within fifty yards Decatur sent a
+small boat with a rope to make fast to the frigate's fore-chains. This
+was done and the Americans began warping the ketch alongside. Not
+until that moment did the Tripolitans suspect the character of the
+Intrepid. They were thrown into confusion, during which the two
+vessels came together. Decatur was the first to leap aboard, followed
+immediately by Midshipman Charles Morris. A minute passed before their
+companions could join them, but the Turks were too terrified to sweep
+the daring officers from the deck, as they might have done in the
+twinkling of an eye.
+
+As soon as Decatur could form a line equal to that of the enemy, the
+charge was made. Twenty of the Turks were killed, many jumped
+overboard, and the rest scurried to the main deck whither they were
+pursued and driven into the hold.
+
+The Americans had hardly gained possession of the frigate, when a
+number of launches were seen hurrying about the harbor. Decatur
+decided that the best defence could be made by staying on the frigate,
+and he prepared to receive their attack. Meanwhile, the enemy had
+opened fire from the batteries and the castle and from two corsairs
+lying near. As the launches did not approach, the lieutenant ordered
+the ship to be set on fire in several places. The flames spread so
+fast that it was with the utmost difficulty the Americans were able to
+reach the ketch. At that critical moment, a propitious breeze sprang
+up and carried the Intrepid out of the harbor. She had not lost a man,
+only four being wounded.
+
+For this exploit, Decatur was promoted to the rank of post captain,
+there being no intermediate grade. The honor was specially gratifying,
+since the promotion was made with the consent of every officer over
+whose head he was raised. It should be stated that at that time the
+rank of captain was the highest in the navy. A commodore was simply
+the senior officer of a squadron and might be a master, commandant, a
+lieutenant, or midshipman.
+
+It was decided some weeks later to make an attack on Tripoli. The King
+of Naples loaned six gunboats and two lombards to Commodore Preble.
+These were formed in two divisions, Decatur commanding one and
+Lieutenant Somers the other. The squadron which sailed from Syracuse
+included the frigate Constitution, the brig Siren, the schooners
+Nautilus and Vixen, and the gunboats. Adverse winds deferred the
+attack for several days. Finally, on the morning of August 3d, the
+weather being favorable, the signal was given from the commodore's
+vessel to prepare for action. This signal to open the bombardment was
+made at nine o'clock. The gunboats were cast off and advanced in a
+line ahead, led by Captain Decatur and covered by the frigate
+Constitution and the brigs and schooners. The enemy's gunboats were
+moored along the harbor under the batteries and within musket-shot.
+Their sails had been taken from them and they were ordered to sink
+rather than abandon their position. They were aided and covered also
+by a brig of sixteen and a schooner of ten guns.
+
+Before entering into close action, Decatur went alongside each of the
+boats and directed them to unship their bowsprits and follow him, as
+it was his intention to board the enemy's boats. Lieutenant James
+Decatur commanded one of the boats belonging to Commodore Preble's
+division, but being farther to the windward than the rest of his
+division, he joined and took orders from his brother.
+
+When Captain Decatur in the leading boat came within range of the
+batteries, they and the gunboats opened fire. He returned it and
+pushed his way among the boats. At this juncture, Commodore Preble,
+fearing the results of Decatur's rashness, ordered the signal to be
+made for retreat. This command brought to light the singular fact,
+that in making out the signals before going into battle, no one had
+thought of that which ordered a retreat. It was impossible, therefore,
+to recall the daring Decatur.
+
+The enemy's gunboats contained forty men each and ours the same.
+Decatur had twenty-seven Americans and thirteen Neapolitans. On
+boarding the enemy, the latter held back, but our countrymen charged
+eagerly forward. Ten minutes sufficed to clear the deck. Eight of the
+Turks plunged into the hold, some fell while fighting, and others
+leaped into the sea. Only three of the Americans were wounded.
+
+As Decatur was about to withdraw with his prize, his brother's boat
+came under the stern. The men called to him that they had engaged and
+captured one of the enemy, but her commander, after surrendering, had
+treacherously shot Lieutenant James Decatur, pushed off while the crew
+were recovering the body, and was at that moment making all haste for
+the harbor.
+
+Decatur was infuriated on hearing this and resolved that the miscreant
+should not escape. With his single boat he pressed with all possible
+speed within the enemy's line, and running aside the offending boat,
+bounded over the gunwale, followed by eleven Americans, all that were
+left to him. Then followed the most desperate hand to hand fight
+conceivable, the issue being in doubt for twenty minutes.
+
+There have been many accounts of Decatur's exploit on this Tripolitan
+gunboat, with considerable variation as to particulars. That which
+follows is the story as it was told to me by Admiral Stewart, who
+received it from Decatur himself, immediately after the fight. Decatur
+presented the weapon, called an espontoon, to Stewart, and I naturally
+examined it with great interest. The handle was of ivory and the blade
+perhaps eight or ten inches long, being very narrow and curved like a
+scimetar. It had no edge, was sharply pointed, and evidently made for
+thrusting.
+
+Nothing could stay the fury of Decatur. He easily identified the
+commander by his immense size and gorgeous uniform. He eagerly sought
+out the American and they instantly came together in the fight to the
+death. Decatur had a cutlass, and the Turk a pike. The latter
+inflicted a slight wound on Decatur's breast, and in parrying the
+stroke his sword broke off at the hilt. Flinging the weapon aside, the
+American sprang like a tiger at his antagonist. The two fell to the
+deck, Decatur under, and flat on his back. The Turk had the weapon I
+have described in the front of his sash and attempted to withdraw it
+to give the finishing thrust. Decatur flung his legs over his back and
+with one arm held his enemy so tight against his body that he could
+not force his hand between. In this position, Decatur with his free
+arm drew a pistol from near his hip, reached over the back of the Turk
+and fired downward, directly toward himself.
+
+"It was just like Decatur," said Stewart; "the chances were ten to one
+that the bullet would pass through both their bodies, but luckily it
+met a bone and the huge barbarian rolled off dead. The two were
+half-smothered by others fighting and tumbling over them, and it was
+with the utmost difficulty that Decatur freed himself from them and
+rose to his feet."
+
+While this fierce struggle was going on, a Turk fought his way forward
+and aimed a fearful blow at Decatur, who was not aware of his danger.
+Reuben Jones, an American sailor, so desperately wounded that he could
+not use his arms, flung himself between them and received the blow on
+his skull, which was fractured. It is a pleasure to record, however,
+that the brave fellow finally recovered and lived many years on a
+pension from his government.
+
+Decatur succeeded in withdrawing with both prizes, and the next day
+was honored with the highest commendation in general orders from
+Commodore Preble. When the latter was superseded in command of the
+squadron, he gave the command of the Constitution to Decatur, who had
+some time before received his commission. From that ship he was
+removed to the Congress, returning home on her on the conclusion of
+peace with Tripoli.
+
+Decatur was next employed as superintendent of gunboats, and March 6,
+1806, was married to Miss Susan Wheeler of Norfolk, the only child of
+wealthy and cultured parents. The union was a most happy one, though
+no children were born to the couple.
+
+In the month of June, 1807, the British frigate Leopard, while
+cruising off the coast of Virginia, poured several broadsides into the
+American frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Barron.
+England, as will be remembered, insisted on the "right of search," and
+the British Captain Humphreys claimed that the American had several
+English deserters on board. The Chesapeake had three men killed and
+eighteen wounded, and being unprepared for action, struck her colors.
+
+Captain Barron was court-martialed and sentenced to five years'
+suspension without pay from the service, for what was deemed a
+cowardly act on his part. Commodore Decatur succeeded him in command
+of the ship, being transferred to the United States, when she was
+again put in commission.
+
+October 25, 1812, in latitude 29° N., longitude 29° 30' W., Decatur
+fell in with the British ship Macedonian, of 49 carriage guns (the odd
+one shifting). This frigate was the largest of her class, two years
+old, four months out of dock, and reputed one of the best sailers in
+the English service. Taking advantage of the wind, the enemy fought at
+her own distance. The battle lasted one hour and fifty minutes. The
+United States poured such an incessant fire into the Macedonian that
+the shouts of her crew were plainly heard. She lost her mizzenmast,
+fore and main topsails and main yard, and was much damaged in the
+hull. Her official list was, 36 killed and 48 wounded, that of the
+Americans being 5 killed and 7 wounded. Decatur could have continued
+his cruise, but was obliged to accompany his crippled prize into port,
+where she was equipped as an American frigate. The young officer, as
+may be supposed, was hailed by the country as its foremost naval hero.
+Congress and several of the States voted him valuable testimonials for
+his gallantry.
+
+[Illustration: Decatur's conflict with the Algerine at Tripoli.]
+
+The following year, Decatur attempted to gain the open sea from New
+York, through Long Island Sound, with the Macedonian and Hornet. A
+British squadron of superior force, however, compelled him to run into
+the Thames River in Connecticut, and he lay off New London for months
+unable to get to sea. He was naturally impatient at being thus cooped
+up, and bitterly complained that traitors on shore, by means of "blue
+lights," warned the enemy whenever at night he prepared to break out
+of his imprisonment. He sent a challenge to Commander Sir Thomas Hardy
+of the blockading squadron, offering to fight two of the British
+frigates with two of his own, but the offer was declined and Decatur's
+frigates were afterward dismantled.
+
+Returning to New York, he assumed command of a squadron bound for the
+East Indies, and put to sea in the President. January 14, 1815,
+through the blunder of his pilot, his ship heavily grounded while
+going out. The next morning, Decatur discovered the British squadron
+in pursuit, consisting of the Majestic razee, the Endymion, Tenedos,
+and Pomona frigates and a brig. Of these the Endymion was the
+fleetest. After drawing her away from the rest, Decatur turned and
+attacked her. She was crippled and her battery silenced, when the
+American resumed her flight. By this time, however, the other ships
+had come up and opened fire. Escape was impossible and Decatur
+surrendered to the British squadron.
+
+Returning to the United States under parole, he was despatched to the
+Mediterranean, on the conclusion of peace, to punish the Algerine
+pirates that were preying upon our commerce. He did his work
+thoroughly and well, compelling the Dey to sign the most humiliating
+treaty ever made with a Christian nation. He obtained similar redress
+at Tunis and Tripoli.
+
+Decatur was subsequently created Navy Commissioner and made his
+residence in Washington at Kalorama, formerly occupied by Joel Benton.
+
+Commodore Barron's suspension began February 8, 1808. He resorted to
+the merchant service, and was abroad when war was declared. His
+suspension terminated about eight months afterward, some time after
+which he reported himself to the navy department, by letter, for duty,
+the war continuing two years after his becoming available for command.
+He did not return to the United States until the close of 1818. He
+declared that he had used every effort to reach home before during
+hostilities, but was prevented. A court, presided over by Captain
+Charles Stewart, afterward declared its judgment that such effort had
+not been made by Barron.
+
+The latter felt resentful toward Decatur, and called him to account
+for certain expressions he had been told were used by him reflecting
+upon his conduct as an officer. When appealed to, Decatur, as Navy
+Commissioner, declared that he held no personal enmity toward Barron;
+he deemed it unjust to other officers of the navy that his request to
+be restored to command should be granted.
+
+Barron opened a sharp correspondence with Decatur, which continued
+nearly a year. Mutual friends, or rather enemies, fanned the trouble
+between them, which ended in a challenge from Barron which was
+promptly accepted by Decatur. The duel took place at Bladensburg, on
+the morning of March 22, 1820, Commodore Bainbridge was Decatur's
+second, and Captain Jesse D. Elliott served Barron in a similar
+capacity. Decatur chivalrously surrendered his right to name the
+distance, which Barron made the shortest possible, eight paces, on
+account of his defective eyesight. Decatur was without a superior as a
+pistol shot, and, declaring that he did not wish the life of his
+antagonist, said he would only wound him in the hip.
+
+At the word "two," both fired so exactly together, that only one
+report was heard. Barron was struck in the right hip, as Decatur
+intended, and sank to the ground. Decatur stood erect a moment and was
+seen to turn pale, compress his lips, and press his hand against his
+side. Then he fell, the ball having passed through his abdomen.
+
+"I am mortally wounded," he said, "and wish that it had been in the
+defence of my country." His attendants helped him to his feet, and
+started slowly toward the waiting carriage. His pain was so great that
+after a few paces he sank exhausted, near where Barron was stretched
+on the ground. While the two thus lay near each other, waiting to be
+carried off, they shook hands, and each freely forgave the other.
+
+Decatur was lifted into the carriage, which reached Washington at
+half-past ten. He would not allow himself to be carried into his home
+until his wife and two nieces were sent to the upper floor where they
+could not see the dreadful sight. Wishing to save the distracted ones
+from the grief of witnessing his suffering, he refused them permission
+to enter the room where he lay.
+
+The news caused consternation and sorrow in Washington, where no man
+was more honored and loved than he. He thanked his friends for their
+sympathy, told them he had not long to live, and signed his will. "I
+am a dying man," said he, "and only regret that my wound was not
+received on the quarter-deck in the service of my country."
+
+When the surgeons proposed to probe for the bullet, he said it was not
+worth while as it had done all the harm it could. He remarked that he
+did not believe it possible for a person to suffer so much pain and
+yet live. But not once did he utter a groan. His agony was beyond
+description and did not cease until half-past ten, when he died.
+
+It seemed as if the whole male population of Washington and the
+adjacent county were present at the funeral, besides most of the
+officers of the government, members of Congress, and resident foreign
+ministers. The _National Intelligencer_, in an extra, said: "A hero
+has fallen. Commodore Stephen Decatur, one of the first officers of
+our navy, the pride of his country, the gallant and noble-hearted
+gentleman, is no more. He expired a few minutes ago, of the mortal
+wound received in the duel this morning. Mourn, Columbia! for one of
+thy brightest stars is set! A son without fear and without reproach,
+in the fulness of his fame, in the prime of his usefulness, has
+descended into the tomb."
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+OLIVER HAZARD PERRY
+
+(1785-1819)
+
+[Illustration: Oliver Hazard Perry. [TN]]
+
+
+Oliver Hazard Perry was born in Rhode Island, August 23, 1785. The
+late Commodore Mackenzie, of the navy, who possessed what we may term
+a fine biographical faculty, has traced in his interesting narrative
+of the Life of Perry, with fond minuteness, the early incidents of the
+boy's career. The chief characteristics, he tells us, "were an
+uncommon share of beauty, a sweetness and gentleness of disposition
+which corroborated the expression of his countenance, and a perfect
+disregard of danger, amounting to apparent unconsciousness." This
+biographer gives some curious anecdotes of his school days.
+
+Suffice it to say, that the family removing to Newport about this
+time, Perry found good opportunities of education at that place, and
+availed himself of them in a manly spirit. He was especially
+instructed in mathematics, and their application to navigation and
+nautical astronomy. As proof of the boy's ingenuousness, and the
+interest he excited in intelligent observers, it is related that Count
+Rochambeau, the son of the General of the Revolution, then residing at
+Newport, was particularly attracted to him, and that Bishop Seabury,
+on his visitation, marked him as a boy of religious feeling. These are
+traits which shape the man; we shall find them reappearing in the
+maturity of Perry's life, in his worth, humanity, and refinement.
+
+The boy was but thirteen when his father, in 1798, was called into the
+naval service of his country in the spirited effort made by President
+Adams to resist the aggressions of France upon the ocean. He took the
+command of a small frigate, built under his direction in Rhode Island,
+named the General Greene, and carried with him to sea his son Oliver
+as a midshipman, at the express solicitation of the youth. The General
+Greene was actively employed in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico,
+giving all its officers abundant opportunity for practice in the
+infant service. The French war flurry after a while blew over, as the
+Directory, the mainspring of these aggressions, lost power; peace was
+patched up, and Jefferson shortly after inaugurated an unwholesome
+pacific policy by a sweeping reduction of the navy, as if it were not
+small enough already. In this mutilating operation the elder Perry was
+dropped, the younger one fortunately retained.
+
+The navy, however, was soon revived by the demands of the nation to
+resist the iniquitous and insulting depredations upon life and
+property inflicted by the Barbary powers. The United States had borne
+far too patiently with these injuries, though she had the honor of
+being in advance of the old powers of Europe in resisting them. The
+Mediterranean became the scene of many a chivalrous exploit of our
+early officers, a score of whom, headed by Preble, Bainbridge,
+Decatur, Somers, and others of that stamp of fiery and indomitable
+valor, gained immortal laurels by their deeds of daring in conflict
+with the infidel.
+
+The young Perry served as midshipman in the frigate Adams, which
+sailed from Newport, in 1802, to join Commodore Morris' command at
+Gibraltar. His ship was for some time employed in blockading a
+Tripolitan at that port; a tedious but instructive service in
+manoeuvring, at the close of which Perry, in consequence of his
+accomplishments, was promoted by his captain to the duties of a
+lieutenant. The frigate was then employed as a convoy, making the tour
+of the northern ports. This gave Perry an opportunity to study scenes
+of the old world, which can never lose their influence in the
+formation of the man of education and refinement.
+
+In 1809, Perry got to sea in command of an armed schooner, the
+Revenge, which was employed on the coast service. While on the
+southern coast, he had an opportunity to gain distinction, which he
+did not fail to avail himself of, in cutting out a stolen American
+vessel from under the guns of a British ship in Spanish waters, off
+Florida. Conveying his prize off the coast, he was threatened by his
+Majesty's ship Gore, of double his force, when, having, as Mackenzie
+says, "no idea of being 'Leopardized,'" he put his little schooner in
+readiness for boarding at a moment's notice--a spirited resolution of
+great bravery, which he would no doubt have carried out, had the
+British vessel insisted upon overhauling the Revenge. While engaged in
+cruising off Connecticut and Rhode Island, in the beginning of 1811,
+he unfortunately lost his vessel, through an error of the pilot, on
+the Watch Hill Reef, opposite Fisher's Island, as he was sailing from
+Newport to New London. Every seamanlike effort was made to save the
+vessel, and when all was unavailing, Perry showed equal skill and
+resolution in landing the crew in a heavy January swell, with a
+violent wind. He was himself the last to leave the vessel. He was not
+merely acquitted of neglect, but his conduct was extolled by a court
+of inquiry.
+
+He was, of course, thrown temporarily out of command by the loss of
+his vessel; an interval of repose which he hastened to turn to account
+by forming a matrimonial alliance with Miss Elizabeth Champlin Mason,
+of an influential family at Newport, to whom he had become engaged
+several years before, on his arrival from the Mediterranean. The
+wedding took place in May, 1811, affording him ample opportunity for
+the honeymoon, previous to the actual outbreak of the war impending
+with England.
+
+This event found him at Newport, with the rank of master commandant,
+in charge of the flotilla of gunboats keeping watch in the harbor. It
+was a service not altogether adapted to satisfy the ambitious spirit
+of a young officer, but it was important in itself, and became, in
+Perry's hands, a step to future eminence. His course, at this time,
+illustrates a valuable truth, that no honorable employment is
+profitless to a man of genius. He will in some way turn it to
+account. Constructing gunboats, and recruiting men in port, were
+services not calculated to make any great blaze in a despatch, but
+they conducted Perry to his glorious bulletins of victory, and the
+resounding praises of the nation.
+
+He saw the new field of military operations opening on the lakes, and
+his experienced eye must have seen as well the certain difficulties,
+as the possible honors of the situation. It was not the post which an
+officer with the claims of Perry would have sought, while brilliant
+victories were being won, in the eye of the world, on the vast theatre
+of the ocean. Others, however, were before him on that element.
+
+Despairing of a command at sea, he offered himself to Commodore
+Chauncey, who had recently been placed at the head of the lake
+service. His character was understood by this officer, and the proffer
+accepted. The necessary communications were made to the Government,
+and in the middle of February, in 1813, he was ordered to join
+Chauncey at Sackett's Harbor, with the picked men of his Newport
+flotilla. He lost no time in reporting himself at the appointed spot.
+His destination was Lake Erie, where he was to supervise the
+construction of two vessels to be employed in the next campaign, and
+he was anxious to get to the work; but Chauncey, who felt the need of
+his aid, detained him for a while on Lake Ontario. He, however, toward
+the end of March, reached Erie, where the vessels were building.
+
+His experience in constructing gunboats at Newport was now of avail to
+him. He put the defence of the works, which had been greatly
+neglected, in a state of efficiency, and set himself to the collection
+of supplies, workmen, and an armament: no easy matter at that day and
+in that place in the wilderness; for such, as compared with our own
+time, it then was. The labors of Perry in this work of preparation
+were, in fact, of the most arduous character. They should not be
+forgotten as a heavy item to his credit in the sum total of his
+victory. Three gunboats and two brigs were launched and equipped in
+May.
+
+It was at this time that he received advices that Chauncey was about
+to make an attack on the British post of Fort George, at the mouth of
+the Niagara River. He had been promised a share in this adventure, and
+hastened to the scene. The incidents of this journey show the spirit
+of the man. In his own words, in a letter describing this passage of
+his life: "On the evening of May 23d, I received information, about
+sunset, that Commodore Chauncey would in a day or two arrive at
+Niagara, when an attack would be made on Fort George. He had
+previously promised me the command of the seamen and marines that
+might land from the fleet. Without hesitation I determined to join
+him. I left Erie about dark in a small four-oared open boat. The night
+was squally and very dark. After encountering headwinds and many
+difficulties, I arrived at Buffalo on the evening of the 24th,
+refreshed, and remained there until daylight; I then passed the whole
+of the British lines in my boat, within musket-shot. Passing
+Strawberry Island, several people on our side of the river hailed and
+beckoned me on shore. On landing they pointed out about forty men on
+the end of Grand Island, who, doubtless, were placed there to
+intercept boats. In a few moments I should have been in their hands. I
+then proceeded with more caution. As we arrived at Schlosser, it
+rained violently. No horse could be procured. I determined to push
+forward on foot; walked about two miles and a half, when the rain fell
+in such torrents I was obliged to take shelter in a house at hand. The
+sailors whom I had left with the boat, hearing of public horses on the
+commons, determined to catch one for me. They found an old passing one
+which could not run away, and brought him in, rigged a rope from the
+boat into a bridle, and borrowed a saddle without either stirrup,
+girth, or crupper. Thus accoutred they pursued me, and found me at the
+house where I had stopped. The rain ceasing, I mounted; my legs hung
+down the sides of the horse, and I was obliged to steady the saddle by
+holding by the mane. In this style I entered the camp, it raining
+again most violently. Colonel Porter being the first to discover me,
+insisted upon my taking his horse, as I had some distance to ride to
+the other end of the camp, off which the Madison lay."
+
+Having thus reached head-quarters, arrangements were rapidly made, and
+the landing of the troops assigned to Perry. In the ignorance or
+inexperience of some of the officers, there was considerable confusion
+in directing the boats in the river, which was remedied by Perry's
+vigilance and decision. He was everywhere, in the midst of danger,
+guiding and directing; the unexpected attack of the British was met by
+his energy, the landing effected, and the object of the expedition
+accomplished. This victory opened the port of Black Rock, where
+several American vessels were collected, which Perry undertook to get
+into Lake Erie against the strong current of the river, a feat which
+was accomplished with extraordinary fatigue; so that he returned to
+his station at Erie, with a respectable addition of five vessels to
+his own newly launched little fleet in that harbor. The American force
+was composed of the brigs Lawrence and Niagara, of twenty guns each,
+and seven smaller vessels, numbering in all fifty-four guns. Captain
+Barclay, commander of the British forces on the lake, had the Detroit,
+of nineteen guns, the Queen Charlotte, Lady Provost, and three other
+vessels, numbering altogether sixty-three guns. The range of the
+enemy's guns gave them the advantage at a distance, when the
+corresponding American fire was ineffectual. The Americans, too, were
+under a disadvantage in the enfeebled state of the crews, by the
+general illness which prevailed among them. The British force had
+undoubtedly the superiority in trained men, as compared with Perry's
+extemporized miscellaneous command, and untried junior officers. The
+latter proved, however, to be of the right material.
+
+On the morning of the engagement the American fleet was among the
+islands off Malden at Put in Bay, when the British fleet bore up.
+There was some difficulty at first in clearing the islands, and the
+nature of the wind seemed likely to throw Perry upon the defensive,
+when a southeast breeze springing up, enabled him to bear down upon
+the enemy. This was at ten o'clock of a fine autumnal morning. Perry
+arranged his vessels in line, taking the lead in his flag-ship, the
+Lawrence, on which he now raised the signal for action, a blue flag,
+inscribed in large white letters, with the words of the dying
+Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" He accompanied this movement with
+an appeal to his men. "My brave lads, this flag contains the last
+words of Captain Lawrence. Shall I hoist it?" "Ay, ay, sir!" was the
+willing response. In this way he cheered the men in the awful pause,
+"a dead silence of an hour and a half," preceding the action, for in
+the light breeze the vessels were long in overcoming the intermediate
+distance of several miles.
+
+Perry, who knew the perils of the day, prepared his papers as if for
+death. He leaded the public documents in readiness to be cast
+overboard, and--a touching trait of these moments--gave a hurried
+perusal to his wife's letters, and tore them to pieces lest they
+should be read by the enemy.
+
+The awful silence is suddenly broken by a bugle sounded on board the
+Detroit, and the cheers of the British seamen. A shot from that vessel
+fell short of its mark. The Lawrence bears on to meet the fire,
+accompanied by the other vessels of the command in appointed order,
+each destined for its appropriate antagonist. At noon the British fire
+from the superior long guns, was telling fearfully on the American
+force, when Perry made all sail for close quarters, bringing the
+Lawrence within reach of the Detroit. He maintained a steady,
+well-directed fire from his carronades, assisted by the Scorpion and
+Ariel. The destruction on the deck of the Lawrence was fearful. Out of
+100 well men, says Mackenzie, who had gone into action, 22 were killed
+and 61 wounded. We shall not insult the humanity of the reader by the
+details of this fearful carnage. It has probably never been exceeded
+in the terrors of the "dying deck," in naval warfare.
+
+In the midst of this storm of conflict, Perry, finding his ship
+getting disabled, and seeing the Niagara uninjured at a safe distance,
+resolved to change his flag to that vessel. He had half a mile to
+traverse, exposed to the fire of the enemy, in an open boat. Nothing
+deterred, with the exclamation, "If a victory is to be gained I'll
+gain it," he made the passage, part of the time standing as a target
+for the hostile guns. Fifteen minutes were passed exposed to this
+plunging fire, which splintered the oars and covered the boat with
+spray. The Lawrence, stripped of her officers and men, was compelled
+to surrender.
+
+Perry instantly bore up to the Detroit, the guns of which were plied
+resolutely, when she became entangled with her consort, the Queen
+Charlotte, and the Niagara poured a deadly fire into both vessels.
+This cannonade decided the battle in seven minutes, when the enemy
+surrendered. The American loss in this engagement was 27 killed and 96
+wounded; that of the British 41 killed and 94 wounded. Gallant actions
+were performed and noble men fell on both sides. It was every way a
+splendid victor, placing the genius of Perry and his magnanimous,
+spirited conduct throughout, in the highest rank of naval exertion.
+
+The memorable letters, brief, at once eloquent and modest, which he
+wrote that afternoon announcing his victory, are too characteristic to
+be omitted in any personal account of the man. Addressing General
+Harrison, he writes: "Dear General--We have met the enemy and they
+are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop. Yours,
+with very great respect and esteem. O. H. Perry." The other was to the
+Secretary of the Navy: "Sir, it has pleased the Almighty to give to
+the arms of the United States a signal victory over their enemies on
+this lake. The British squadron, consisting of two ships, two brigs,
+one schooner, and one sloop, have this moment surrendered to the force
+under my command, after a sharp conflict. I have the honor to be, sir,
+very respectfully, your obedient servant. O. H. Perry." In consonance
+with this simple eloquence, the mark of a master-mind, was his
+chivalrous care of his wounded and conduct toward his prisoners.
+
+The victory having been gained, and the lake thus cleared of the foe,
+Perry was enabled to act in concert with General Harrison in driving
+the British from Michigan, and when his fleet was of no avail to
+follow them in their rapid flight, he joined that officer's land
+expedition, and was present, acting as his aid, at the battle of the
+Thames. "The appearance of the brave commodore," writes Harrison in
+his official report, "cheered and animated every heart." Perry also
+gained the gratitude of the Moravians, in whose district the contest
+took place, by his care in relieving the inevitable evils of war. He
+met everywhere on his homeward route with complimentary toasts and
+resolutions, gathering volume as he reached his native State, where he
+was received at Newport with military and civic honors. The city of
+New York paid him a grateful attention in a request communicated by De
+Witt Clinton, then mayor, to sit for his portrait for the civic
+gallery. The portrait was painted by Jarvis, representing him in the
+act of boarding the Niagara, and is preserved in the City Hall. He was
+created an honorary member of the Cincinnati; Congress voted him a
+medal and money; he was dined and feasted, and "blazed the comet of
+the season."
+
+Perry's next service was in August, 1814, in command of the Java, 44,
+a frigate recently built at Baltimore. He was, however, not able to
+get to sea, in consequence of the blockade by the enemy. On the
+conclusion of peace he sailed in this vessel to join Commodore Shaw's
+squadron in the Mediterranean. In 1819 he sailed as commodore in
+command of the John Adams, for the West Indies, bound for the State of
+Venezuela, to carry on an armed negotiation for the protection of
+American commerce from aggressions in that quarter. Arriving at the
+mouth of the Orinoco, he shifted his flag to the Nonsuch, and ascended
+the river to the capital, Angostura, where he remained twenty days
+transacting his business, in the height of the yellow-fever season.
+His vessel had hardly left the river, on her way to Trinidad, when he
+was attacked. For nearly a week he suffered the progress of the
+terrible disease on board the small schooner, under a tropical sun,
+when he reached the station whither he had sent his flag-ship, the
+Adams. But he reached port only to die at sea, within a mile of the
+anchorage, on August 23, 1819, when he had just completed his
+thirty-fourth year. Such and so early was the fate of the gallant
+Perry. His remains were interred from the John Adams at Port Spain,
+with every attention by the English governor. Subsequently they were
+brought home in a national vessel by order of Congress, and
+reinterred at the public expense in the cemetery at Newport. The
+country also provided for the support of his family. If ever America
+produced a man whom the nation delighted to honor it was Perry.
+
+
+
+
+SAM HOUSTON[7]
+
+By AMELIA E. BARR
+
+(1793-1863)
+
+         [Footnote 7: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Sam Houston. [TN]]
+
+
+The builders of the American Commonwealth were all great and
+individual men, but the most grandly picturesque, the most heroic,
+figure among them, is that of General Sam Houston. Neither modern
+history, nor the scrolls of ancient Greece or Rome, can furnish a tale
+of glory more thrilling and stirring than the epic Sam Houston wrote
+with sword and pen, as a Conqueror of Tyranny and a Liberator of Men.
+
+His life is a romance, and even his antecedents have the grandeur and
+glamour of military glory, for his ancestors, as "Sons of Old Gaul,"
+had drawn their long swords in every battle for Scottish liberty, and
+his own father died while on military duty in the Alleghanies. He had
+also a mother worthy of the son she bore; a grand, brave woman, who
+put the musket into his boyish hands with the words, "My doors are
+ever open to the brave, Sam, but are eternally closed to cowards."
+
+This was in the year 1813, when there was promise of a war with
+England, and Sam was not then twenty years old--a tall, slender,
+wonderfully handsome youth, with the air and manner of a prince. But
+nothing of this bearing was due to schools or schoolmasters, he was
+not of any man's moulding, although he had been educated for his
+future in a noble manner. For to escape the drudgery of measuring tape
+and molasses, he fled to the Indians when but a lad, and was adopted
+by their chief, and with the young braves he learned to run and leap,
+and hunt and ride, and find his way through pathless woods with all
+their skill. This was his practical education; he had only one book
+for mental enlargement, but this was Pope's translation of "The
+Iliad." He read and re-read this volume till he could recite it from
+beginning to end; till the words were living, and the spectral heroes
+were his friends and companions. So that when he joined General
+Jackson's battalion, he had the heart of a Greek demi-god and the
+physical skill and prowess of a Cherokee Indian chief.
+
+He made a glorious record in this war, and, being severely wounded,
+both by arrows and gunshot, he returned to his home to be nursed by
+his mother. When he was able to rise again peace was assured and he
+resolved to become a lawyer. He was told that eighteen months' hard
+study would be necessary, but in six months he passed a searching
+examination, and was admitted to the bar of Tennessee with _éclat_.
+Then honor after honor came as naturally to him as a tree bears fruit
+or flower--first Adjutant-General of the State with the rank of
+Colonel; then District Attorney--Major-General--Member of
+Congress--Governor of the State of Tennessee. All these places and
+honors were awarded him by large majorities during a period of nine
+years. Indeed, between A.D. 1818 and 1827, the records of Tennessee
+read like some political romance, of which the handsome and beloved
+Sam Houston was the hero.
+
+This was his second school. He was learning during these years those
+great principles of government which enabled him afterward to
+legislate so wisely for the land he conquered. And as soon as he was
+ready for his destiny, an event happened which drove him back again to
+the wilderness. Concerning this event no human being has the right to
+speak authoritatively; it was an affair strictly between himself and
+his bride of hardly three months. But whatever occurred, shattered his
+life to pieces. He separated from his wife, resigned his office as
+governor, and in the presence of a vast and sorrowing multitude, bid
+adieu to all his friends and honors, and set his face resolutely to
+his Indian father, who was then king of the Cherokees in Arkansas.
+
+He began, in fact, his journey to Texas, the theatre of the great work
+for which his previous life had been a preparation. The thought of
+Texas was not a new one to him. No man had watched the hitherto futile
+efforts of that glorious land for freedom with greater interest; and
+there is little doubt that Andrew Jackson was a sharer in all
+Houston's Texan enthusiasms, and that he also quietly encouraged and
+aided the efforts for its Americanization. Indeed, at that day Texas
+was a name full of romance and mystery. Throughout the South and West,
+up the great highway of the Mississippi, on the busy streets of New
+York, and among the silent hills of New England, men spoke of the
+charmed city of San Antonio as Europeans in the eighteenth century
+spoke of Delhi and Agra and the Great Mogul. French traders went there
+with fancy goods from New Orleans, and Spanish Dons from the wealthy
+cities of Central Mexico came there to buy. From the villages of
+Connecticut, from the woods of Tennessee, and the lagoons of the
+Mississippi, adventurous Americans entered the Spanish-Texan Territory
+at Nacogdoches, going through the land buying horses, and lending
+their stout hearts and ready rifles to every effort for freedom which
+the Texans made. For though the Americans were few in number and much
+scattered, they were like the salt in a pottage, and men caught fire
+and the idea of "freedom" from them.
+
+Texas was at this time a territory of the Empire of Mexico, and Mexico
+was making constant, though as yet ineffectual, efforts to become
+independent. Twenty years before Houston entered Texas, a number of
+Americans joined the priest Hidalgo in his struggle to make Mexico
+free. They were all shot, but this did not hinder Magee and Bernardo,
+with 1,200 Americans, raising the standard of liberty two years later.
+This party took San Antonio, and the fame of their deeds brought young
+Americans by hundreds to their aid; though they received no money, the
+love of freedom and the love of adventure being their motive and their
+reward.
+
+But these brave paladins were soon followed by men who bought land and
+made homes, and in 1821 Austin, with the sanction of the Spanish
+Viceroy, introduced three hundred families, who received every
+reasonable guarantee from the Spanish Government. They were scarcely
+settled ere there was another Mexican revolt against Spain. This time
+the Mexicans under Santa Anna achieved the independence of their
+country, and a Mexican Republic was formed, with a constitution so
+liberal that it was gladly accepted by the American colonists. But its
+promises were fallacious. For ten years Santa Anna was engaged in
+fighting for his own supremacy, and when he had subdued all opposition
+he had forgotten the traditions of freedom for which he first drew his
+sword, and assumed the authority of a dictator.
+
+In the meantime the American element had been steadily increasing, and
+Santa Anna was, not unnaturally, afraid of its growing strength and
+influence. In order to weaken it, he substituted for the constitution
+under whose guarantee they had settled, military and priestly laws of
+the most oppressive kind; and the complaints and reprisals at length
+reached such a pitch, that all Americans were ordered to deliver up
+their arms to the Mexican authorities. It was simply an order to
+disarm them in the midst of their enemies. Now the rifle is to the
+frontier American a third limb, and in Texas it was also necessary for
+the supply of food for the family, and vital for their protection from
+the Indians. The answer to this demand was a notice to Santa Anna
+posted on the very walls of the Alamo Fortress:
+
+"_If you want our arms--take them! Ten thousand Americans._" This was
+a virtual declaration of war, but the American Texans were by no means
+unprepared for the idea, nor yet for its translation into practice.
+
+Austin--who had been sent with a remonstrance to Santa Anna--was in
+the dungeons of the Inquisition in Mexico; but Houston, Lamar,
+Burleson, Burnet, Bowie, Crockett, Sherman, and many another name able
+to fire an army, were on the ground. Besides which, the sympathy of
+the whole land was with the little band of heroes. For the idea of
+Texas had been carried in the American heart for two generations. As
+far back as 1819, President Adams had wanted Texas, and Henry Clay
+would have voted three millions for it. Van Buren told Poinsett to
+offer five millions. Jackson added an additional half-million for the
+Rio Grande territory; but Jackson had more faith in Houston and the
+American settlers in Texas than in money. His brave old heart was on
+fire for the wrongs and cruelties inflicted by Santa Anna on his
+countrymen; and he was inclined to make Mexico give Texas as an
+atonement for the insults offered them. There is little doubt that the
+defiance posted on the walls of the Alamo thrilled him with a similar
+defiance, and that he instinctively put his hand on the spot where he
+had been used to wear his sword.
+
+The first step of the American-Texans was to set a civil government in
+motion. Declarations and manifestoes had to be made, and loans raised
+in order to maintain an army in the field. There were many fine
+fighters, but Houston was the only statesman; and to him the arduous
+duty naturally fell. In the meantime Lamar and Burleson with 200
+picked men attacked the Alamo Fortress. It was defended by General Cos
+with 1,000 men and forty-eight cannon; but on the afternoon of the
+third day's fighting surrendered to the Americans. This was but the
+first act in the drama, for as soon as the news reached Mexico, Santa
+Anna with a large "army of subjugation" was on the road to Texas.
+
+The Alamo was taken by the Americans during the first day of December,
+1835; on March 2, 1836, Texas was declared by the Convention assembled
+at the settlement of Washington, to be an independent republic, and 55
+out of 56 votes elected Houston commander in chief. Houston
+immediately set out for the Alamo, but when he reached Gonzales he
+heard that every man in it had died fighting, and that Santa Anna had
+made a huge hecatomb of their bodies and burned them to ashes. Houston
+immediately sent an express to Fannin, who was defending Goliad, to
+blow up the fortress of Goliad, and unite with him on the Guadalupe.
+Fannin did not obey orders. He wrote to Houston that "he had named the
+place _Fort Defiance_, and was resolved to defend it." This decision
+distressed Houston, for Fannin's men were of the finest
+material--young men from Georgia and Alabama, fired with the idea of
+freedom and the spread of Americanism, or perhaps with the fanaticism
+of religious liberty of conscience. After reading Fannin's letter,
+Houston turned to Major Hockley, and said, as he pointed to the little
+band of men around him, "Those men are the last hope of Texas; with
+them we must achieve our independence, or perish in the attempt."
+
+He immediately sent wagons into all the surrounding country to gather
+the women and the children, for he anticipated the atrocities which
+would mark every mile of Santa Anna's progress through the country;
+and he was determined that these helpless non-combatants should be
+placed in comparative safety in the eastern settlements. Then
+commenced one of the grandest and most pathetic "retreats" history has
+any record of. Encumbered by hundreds of women and children in every
+condition of helplessness, the bravery, tenderness, and patience of
+these American soldiers is as much beyond credence as it is beyond
+praise. The whole weeping, weary company were to guard, and to forage
+for; yet the men were never too weary to help mothers still more
+exhausted, or to carry some child whose swollen feet could no longer
+bear its weight. On this terrible march many children were lost, many
+died, and many were born; and the whole company suffered from
+deprivations of every kind.
+
+On March 23d Houston wrote to General Rusk, "Before my God, I have
+found the darkest hours of my life! For forty-eight hours I have
+neither eaten nor slept!" And just at this time came the news that
+Fannin with 500 men had been massacred, after fighting until their
+ammunition gave out, and surrendering as prisoners of war under
+favorable terms of capitulation. This news was answered by a
+passionate demand for vengeance, and Houston, gathering his men around
+him, spoke words which inspired them with an unconquerable courage.
+His large, bright face, serious but hopeful, seemed to sun the camp,
+and his voice, loud as a trumpet with a silver tone, set every heart
+to its loftiest key.
+
+"They live too long," he cried, "who outlive freedom, and I promise
+you a full cup of vengeance!" But in words not to be gainsayed, he
+told them they _must_ put their women and children in safety first of
+all. Then he explained the advantages they were gaining by every mile
+they made the enemy follow them--how the low Brazos land, the
+unfordable streams, the morasses, and the pathless woods were
+weakening, separating, and confusing the three great bodies of
+Mexicans behind. He declared the freedom of Texas to be sure and
+certain, and bid them prepare to achieve it.
+
+When they arrived at Harrisburgh they found Santa Anna had burned the
+place. It was evident then, that the day and the hour was at hand.
+Houston transported the two hundred families he had in charge across
+the Buffalo Bayou, which was twenty feet deep, and the very home of
+alligators. He then destroyed the only bridge across the dangerous
+stream, and wrote the following letter, now in the archives of the
+Texas Republic:
+
+"This morning we are in preparation to meet Santa Anna. We will only
+be about seven hundred to march, besides the camp guard. But we go to
+conquest. The troops are in fine spirits, and now is the time for
+action. I leave the results in the hands of an all-wise God, and I
+rely confidently in His Providence.
+
+                                   "SAM HOUSTON."
+
+Both armies were on the field of San Jacinto, and Santa Anna had with
+him nearly two thousand men, against the 700 with General Houston.
+Houston advanced to the attack at three o'clock in the afternoon, with
+the war cry of "_Remember the Alamo!_" It was taken up by 700 men with
+such a shout of vengeance as mortal ears never heard before. With it
+on their lips they advanced close to the Mexican lines, while a storm
+of bullets went over their heads. Houston and his horse were both
+wounded, but both being of the finest metal, they pressed on
+regardless of wounds. The Americans did not answer the volley until
+they could pour their lead into the bosoms of their foes. They never
+thought of reloading, but clubbing their rifles until they broke, they
+then flung them away, and fired their pistols into the very eyes of
+the Mexicans. When nothing else remained, they drew their bowie knives
+and cut their way through the walls of living flesh.
+
+Nothing comparable to that charge for freedom was ever made. Men said
+afterward that the unseen battalions--the mighty dead as well as the
+mighty living--won the battle. "Poor Fannin!" exclaimed General
+Sherman, "he has been blamed for disobeying orders; but I think he
+obeyed orders to-day!" Men fought like spirits, impetuous, invincible,
+as if they had cast off flesh and blood. The battle began at three
+o'clock in the afternoon of April 21, 1836, and after the Americans
+reached the Mexican line, it lasted _just eighteen minutes_. At four
+o'clock the whole Mexican army was flying, and the pursuit and
+slaughter continued until dark. It was a military miracle, for the
+American loss was only eight killed and seventeen wounded. Of the
+Mexicans, 630 were left dead on the field; multitudes perished in the
+bayou and morass; and there were nearly eight hundred prisoners. Only
+seven men are known to have escaped either death or capture. Santa
+Anna was found hiding in coarse clothing, and Houston had the greatest
+difficulty to save his life. For Houston knew that the lives of all
+the Americans in Mexico were in danger, besides which, he was needed
+to secure the peace and independence of Texas. It required Houston's
+influence, however, to convince men whose fathers and brothers and
+sons had been brutally massacred at Goliad and the Alamo, that their
+private vengeance must give way to the public good.
+
+Just about the time that the battle of San Jacinto was fought,
+President Jackson was one day found by Mr. Buchanan studying earnestly
+the map of Texas. He was tracing Houston's plan of retreat--of which
+he had doubtless received information--and putting his finger upon San
+Jacinto he said, "Here is the place! If Sam Houston is worth one
+bawbee, he will make a stand here, and give them a fight!" A few days
+after this declaration, news was received in Washington that the fight
+had been given and won on that very spot.
+
+The annexation of Texas was now publicly, as it had long been
+privately, the hope and goal of the Government; and for this end
+Jackson, says Mr. Parton, "displayed an energy and pugnacity seldom
+exhibited before or since, by a politician in his seventy-seventh
+year." But "failure" was a word not in Jackson's vocabulary; he
+annexed Texas, and dying as the measure was accomplished, talked only
+in his last moments of Texas and Houston.
+
+Houston was elected President of the new Republic by acclamation, and
+he served the State two terms in this capacity. Both were marked by
+the finest statesmanship; and during them the Texans suffered little
+from the ferocious Apache, Comanche, and other Indian tribes. For
+Houston fearlessly slept in their camps, and treated them as brethren;
+and his Indian "Talks" have an Ossianic poetry about them. Thus he
+writes to the Indian Chief Linney: "The red brothers know that my
+words to them have never been forgotten by me. They have never been
+swallowed up in darkness, nor has the light of the sun consumed them.
+Truth cannot perish, but the words of a liar are as nothing. Talk to
+all the red men, and tell them to make peace. War cannot make them
+happy. It has lasted too long. Let it now be ended and cease forever,"
+etc., etc.
+
+After the annexation of Texas, Houston represented the State for three
+terms in the United States Senate; but in 1859 he failed of
+re-election, because he refused to go with the South on the fatal
+subject of Secession. Yet so great was the confidence of the people in
+his honor and ability, that they elected him Governor of Texas in the
+same year; and he entered on the office in December, 1859. The
+election of Mr. Lincoln in 1860 precipitated events; and though
+Houston used all his mighty personal influence, and all his charmful,
+potent eloquence to keep Texas in _the Union_, he failed, and was
+deposed from the Governorship on his refusal to sign the Ordinance of
+Secession.
+
+Then he calmly withdrew from the scene, and there are many living who
+remember his pathetic parting words. "I have seen," he said, "the
+statesmen and patriots of my youth gathered to their fathers, and the
+government which they had reared rent in twain, and none like them are
+now left to reunite it again. I stand almost the last of a race who
+learned from them the lessons of human freedom!"
+
+These events inflicted a mortal wound upon his great spirit, and when
+he heard the roar of the cannon announcing the secession of Texas, he
+turned to his wife and said, "My heart is broken!" The words were only
+too true; for two years he lingered a sad and solemn old man, mourning
+for the woes of his country and for the defection of his eldest son
+Sam, who had joined the Confederates, and been taken prisoner by the
+Northern army. He was also suffering from the wounds received both in
+the war of 1812 and also at San Jacinto; and it was evident that he
+had come to the close of life. He himself looked forward to the event
+without fear, and with a wise and well-grounded hope.
+
+On March 2, 1863, Houston was seventy, and in response to an ovation
+in his own city of Houston, he made a short, broken little speech. It
+was his last public effort, and from it he went back home to
+Huntsville, to die. His last days were spent in incessant and
+heart-broken prayers for his country and for his family; and on July
+26, 1863, three weeks after the fall of Vicksburg, he breathed his
+last to the words "_Texas! Texas!_"
+
+So honestly and unselfishly had this great man lived that he died in
+poverty, needing many comforts; this hero, who by his valor and
+statesmanship had increased the territory of the United States by more
+than _eight hundred thousand square miles_, or about the equivalent of
+_the thirteen original States_! But the splendor of his name is not to
+be touched by such an accident as poverty; to the people of Texas,
+Houston will ever be a beloved memory; and on the Roll of Fame he
+shines forth, the noblest, the most princely, the most picturesque and
+chivalrous character in American history.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+WINFIELD SCOTT[8]
+
+By HON. THEODORE ROOSEVELT
+
+(1786-1866)
+
+         [Footnote 8: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Winfield Scott. [TN]]
+
+
+Winfield Scott was born at Petersburg, Virginia, on June 13, 1786. His
+father was a gallant Revolutionary soldier, his mother one of the
+well-known Virginia family of Masons. He attended the schools in his
+neighborhood, and graduated at the then famous college of William and
+Mary; and upon graduation began his career as a lawyer. All his tastes
+were military, however, and in 1807 he joined a volunteer organization
+to watch the coasts, which were menaced by the British frigates; there
+being then great excitement over the Leopard and Chesapeake affair.
+When this flurry subsided he went down to practice in South Carolina.
+Soon after his arrival there was another alarm of war, and back went
+Scott post-haste for Washington, again abandoning his law, with the
+hope of getting a commission in the army. Yet again, in 1808, the
+chances of war once more retiring to the background, he tried his
+fortune at the bar, this time in Virginia. Alarms of war were frequent
+during the next four years, however, and Scott rigidly confined his
+practice as a lawyer to the intervals when it was not deemed possible
+that there could be danger from abroad.
+
+In 1808 he was made a captain of light artillery, and was sent with
+his company to New Orleans. Scott was always frank in announcing his
+utter contempt for Jefferson's foreign policy as President, and his
+abhorrence of the men whom Jefferson got into the army at this period.
+West Point had only just started. Its few graduates did well in the
+war of 1812, but most of the other officers of the army were men
+appointed by political influence at the time, or else old officers who
+in their youth had had some experience in the Revolutionary War, but
+who were disabled by age, drunkenness, and long lack of acquaintance
+with military matters. Among the officers themselves there were savage
+factions, and Scott got into one or two scrapes in consequence of his
+advocacy of one of the parties. In May, 1812, the long-delayed
+hostilities were evidently close at hand, and Scott left New Orleans
+for Washington.
+
+In September, Scott, now made a lieutenant-colonel, reached Niagara,
+only to share in the humiliating though petty defeats with which the
+land war opened on our northern frontier. His first serious affair was
+at the abortive effort to storm the Heights of Queenstown. When Van
+Rensselaer, who had led the attack, was wounded so as to be unable to
+take further part, Scott himself assumed the command. At this time
+about a fourth of the American militia had crossed and were attacked
+by slightly superior numbers of British regulars and Indians. Their
+remaining companions, utterly undisciplined and with no leaders, were
+struck by panic cowardice and refused to cross to the assistance of
+their fellows. Scott behaved with distinguished personal bravery,
+rallying his raw troops and leading them in a charge with the bayonet,
+always a favorite weapon with him. Nevertheless his forces soon fell
+into disorder and were driven over the cliffs to the edge of the
+water, where, from lack of boats, most of the men were made prisoners,
+Scott among the number. Much difficulty was experienced by the British
+officers in preventing the Indians from massacring the prisoners.
+Scott was a man of gigantic proportions. This fact, and the reckless
+courage with which he had fought, had attracted the attention of the
+Indians. Some of them came into the room where he was confined and
+attempted to murder him, and only his great strength and quickness
+enabled him to beat them off until he was rescued by a British
+officer.
+
+Soon after his capture he was exchanged, and promoted to the rank of
+colonel. He joined the American armies as chief of staff to the
+major-general commanding, and being about the only man in the army who
+had any knowledge of tactical manuals and military treatises
+generally, he was kept busy from morning till night in organizing the
+staff service, drilling the officers, and the like. These duties,
+however, did not interfere with his leading and commanding his troops
+in battle. He led the advance guard in the successful assault on Fort
+George in May, 1813, took part in a number of skirmishes, and served
+with gallantry in Wilkinson's unsuccessful campaign.
+
+Early in the spring of 1814 a camp of instruction for officers and men
+was formed, with Scott in command, near Buffalo. Up to this time the
+imbecility of the administration (and of the people whom the
+administration represented) in not preparing for the war, had been
+well matched by the supineness with which they carried it on. During
+the eighteen months that had elapsed since the beginning of the
+contest, only the navy, built by the Federalists when in power fifteen
+years before, had saved the country from complete disgrace, the armies
+generally being utterly inadequate in number, and moreover models of
+all that troops ought not to be. Even in 1814 this remained true of
+the forces intrusted with the defence of the Capital itself; but on
+the northern frontier Scott, and his immediate superior, Brown, by
+laborious work succeeded in turning the inefficient mob of the first
+two campaigns into as admirable a weapon of offence and defence as
+ever was handled by a general officer.
+
+In July the little army of skeleton regiments, thus carefully drilled,
+was ready for the invasion of Canada. On July 5th the fight at
+Chippewa took place. The battle was practically between Scott's wing
+of Brown's army and Riall's British troops, the numbers being almost
+exactly equal. There was very little manoeuvring. After a tolerably
+heavy artillery fire and some skirmishing between the light troops and
+Indians on each side, in the woods, the British regulars and Scott's
+American regulars advanced against each other in line across the
+plain, occasionally halting to fire. It was noticed that the fire of
+the Americans was the more deadly; their line was thinner and more
+extended than that of the British. When within sixty or seventy paces
+of one another the two sides charged; there was a clash of bayonets;
+then the thinner American line, outflanking the more solid British
+column, closed in at the extremities, and the British broke and fled
+immediately.
+
+This was not only a needed victory for the Americans, but it was the
+first occasion for a generation that British regulars had been faced
+in the open, on equal terms, with the bayonet and defeated. At this
+very time the British had just brought to a close the terrible war
+with the French in the Peninsula. Their troops had been pitted
+successfully against the best marshals and the best troops of what was
+undoubtedly the foremost military power of Continental Europe; and now
+the American regulars, trained by Scott and under his leadership,
+performed a feat which no French general and no French troops had ever
+been able to place to the credit of their nation.
+
+Three weeks later the British and American forces again came together
+at the bloody battle of Lundy's Lane. The most desperate fighting on
+this occasion took place during the night, the Americans and British
+charging in turn with the bayonet, and the artillery of both sides
+being captured and recaptured again and again. The Americans were
+somewhat inferior in numbers to the British, and the slaughter was
+very great, considering the number of men engaged, amounting to nearly
+a third of the total of both forces. In the end the fight ceased from
+exhaustion, the armies drawing off from one another and leaving the
+field of battle untenanted; but the result was virtually a victory for
+the British, for the next day they advanced, and the Americans retired
+to Fort Erie. Scott, who had exposed himself with the reckless
+personal courage he always showed when under fire, was dismounted and
+badly injured by the rebound of a cannon ball in the early part of the
+battle, and about midnight, just before the close of the actual
+fighting, received a musket ball in the body which disabled him.
+
+Scott did not recover from his wound in time to take part in the
+remaining scenes of the war. After its close he went abroad, visiting
+London and Paris, and being very well received, returning in 1816, and
+again taking up his duties in the army. He indulged himself in the
+luxury of a sharp quarrel with Andrew Jackson, a luxury which any man
+could easily obtain by the way, but which was too much for any man not
+possessing Scott's abundant capacity to take care of himself in any
+conflict. He interested himself greatly in improving the tactics of
+the army, and went out to take command in the Black Hawk war, where he
+had no opportunity to distinguish himself. At the time of the
+nullification outbreak in South Carolina he was appointed to see to
+the interests of the United States in Charleston, where he acquitted
+himself with equal tact and resolution. He commanded in the Seminole
+war, but again had no opportunity to distinguish himself; and in the
+winter of 1837-38 was stationed on the northern frontier, where he
+succeeded in preventing invasions of Canada by American sympathizers
+with the then existing Canadian rebellion. Soon after this he
+superintended the removal of the Cherokees from Georgia, doing
+everything in his power for the Indians, who, in defiance of the
+pledged faith of the United States, were being driven out of that
+State.
+
+For the next few years Scott was comparatively inactive. He had a
+great taste for politics, and could not forbear meddling with them,
+although he was at the time general-in-chief of the army. He was a
+very sincere Union man, and was an outspoken Whig, though with a
+strong latent leaning to the Know-nothing party; for he distrusted
+both foreigners and Catholics. He would not own slaves, and
+disbelieved in slavery, but he also utterly disapproved of the actions
+of the political abolitionists of the day. He was not only a very
+ambitious but a very vain man, and at times his desire for civic
+honors led him to try for success on fields where he did not show to
+such advantage as on the field of battle.
+
+When the Mexican war broke out, the President, Polk, whom Scott
+detested, was reluctant to see Scott given a chance to make a record,
+in view of his being a pronounced Whig, and of the probability that a
+successful general, if nominated on the Whig ticket, would sweep the
+country. However, toward the end of 1846, it became impossible longer
+to pass by Scott's demands for active service, and, moreover, the
+administration felt the less reluctance inasmuch as Taylor, another
+Whig, had achieved much credit by his victories along the Rio Grande.
+Accordingly Scott was despatched with a fine army to attack Mexico
+from the seaboard of the Gulf and to penetrate to the capital of the
+country.
+
+Early in March of 1847 he landed near the city of Vera Cruz, with
+12,000 men. Trenches were opened, a bombardment begun, and the castle
+of San Juan de Ulloa surrendered on the 27th, 5,000 prisoners and four
+hundred pieces of artillery falling to the victors. Scott lost in all
+but sixty-four men killed and wounded. As soon after this victory as
+he could gather horses and mules the army started for the interior,
+and on April 18th encountered the Mexican army, about the same in
+numbers as Scott's, under Santa Anna, strongly posted at Cerro Gordo.
+Scott made his plans with great skill, and the battle is remarkable
+because of the closeness with which the methods and results of the
+actual attacks followed the outline which Scott gave of what he wished
+accomplished, in his general orders of the day previous. The Americans
+attacked with resolution. In places the Mexicans defended themselves
+well, but in other places, where their troops were raw, they gave way
+very quickly, and, as a result, the whole force was speedily routed
+and driven in headlong flight, with great loss of artillery and
+prisoners. Scott pushed closely after them, but almost immediately was
+halted by the necessity of discharging four thousand volunteers whose
+terms of service had expired. After waiting in vain for
+reinforcements, the Americans again marched forward, and halted some
+time at Puebla, where the long-looked-for additional troops finally
+arrived in August.
+
+The army had suffered a good deal from sickness, and Scott was anxious
+to bring it into contact with the enemy as soon as possible.
+Accordingly he pushed straight for Mexico. The Mexican armies,
+numerically about equal in strength to his own, occupied very strong
+positions, from which they were driven only by desperate fighting at
+Contreras, San Antonio, and Buena Vista, the Americans losing 1,000
+men killed and wounded, but capturing 3,000 of their adversaries and
+thirty-seven pieces of artillery. An armistice followed, but the
+negotiations came to nothing, and in September hostilities were
+resumed. The strong outworks of Molino Del Rey and Chapultepec were
+stormed with great loss to the Americans; for they were places of
+formidable strength, the Mexicans defended themselves well, and the
+assailants were few in numbers. The bravery of the victors, under
+these circumstances, showed that Scott had not forgotten the art which
+enabled him to turn the raw troops of 1812 into men who, alone among
+the troops of civilized nations, could meet the British infantry in
+the open on equal terms.
+
+The City of Mexico fell immediately after the storming of Chapultepec,
+and Scott marched in. There was no further fighting of consequence,
+although bands of guerillas and brigands of all kinds had to be
+dispersed. Scott treated them with proper severity. The campaign ended
+unhappily for Scott in one way, for he became embroiled with the
+administration and some of its partisans among the high officers of
+the army, the intrigues which caused this embroilment being instigated
+chiefly by Democratic jealousy of the Whig general. However, he was
+thanked by Congress.
+
+This was the end of Scott's active service. He again plunged into
+political life, and in 1852 ran for the presidency on the Whig ticket,
+but was hopelessly defeated. He continued general-in-chief of the army
+until 1861, when he retired from the command. He was too old to take
+the field and do his part toward the suppression of the rebellion, but
+he remained stanchly loyal to the flag upon which his victories had
+conferred such glory, and to which he himself had owed so much. Even
+when his State seceded it did not affect him or cause him to waver in
+his allegiance to the country for which he had so often drawn his
+sword. He died May 29, 1866.
+
+Scott had many little vanities, and peculiarities of temper and
+disposition, at which it is easy to laugh; but these are all of small
+moment in estimating the man's character and the worth of his
+services. He was a fearless, honest, loyal, and simple-hearted
+soldier, who served the nation with entire fidelity and devotion. He
+was very successful in battle, and, not only his crowning campaign
+against Mexico, but the way in which he trained and led his troops in
+the Canadian campaign against the British, show him to have possessed
+military abilities of a high order. His name will always stand well up
+on the list of American worthies.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT[9]
+
+By OLIVER OPTIC
+
+(1822-1885)
+
+         [Footnote 9: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Ulysses Grant. [TN]]
+
+
+Napoleon I. was a genius; General Grant was not. But the earnest,
+persistent, and determined efforts of men only moderately endowed by
+nature with intellectual gifts, sometimes surpass what is accomplished
+by the spasmodic flashes of those born to be conquerors. So far as the
+successful career of the most prominent hero of the War of the
+Rebellion may be used to "point a moral," it forcibly emphasizes the
+results of energy, perseverance, and a determination to succeed in
+spite of all obstacles. As a military strategist he was doubtless
+surpassed by others who were engaged in the gigantic struggle with
+him; but he accomplished, by adding to his soldierly abilities, his
+personal attributes, which seemed not to have been within the power of
+any other of the able commanders associated with him in the mighty
+conflict.
+
+It is not claimed that General Grant was born into the world with
+brilliant, or even superior, intellectual powers, and his greatness
+was in the combination of his individual qualities, and the fact that,
+like Wellington, he was "rich in saving common-sense." He was a
+soldier in the most comprehensive sense; and if he did not overtop his
+colleagues in a knowledge of the science of war, he was at least their
+equal. The career of its greatest hero illustrates the manner in which
+the loyal nation gave to posterity a victorious Union.
+
+Grant was born in humble circumstances at Point Pleasant, a village on
+the Ohio River, and there were no accidents of family to gild or cloud
+his coming into the world. He was descended from Puritan stock, and
+one of his ancestors, a captain in the Old French War, was killed in
+battle. The general's grandfather served through the Revolutionary
+War. His father was a tanner in Ohio, but his son was not inclined to
+follow that occupation, though he was willing to do so if his father
+insisted upon it until he was of age, but not a day longer. He stated
+his preferences in regard to his future employment, desiring to be a
+farmer, a trader on the river, or to obtain an education. The first
+was not practicable, and the second was not regarded as very
+reputable. His father wrote to the representative of his district in
+Congress, who obtained for the young man a nomination to the Military
+Academy at West Point.
+
+All the education the young candidate for military honors had was only
+such as he had obtained at the district school, and the examination
+for admission was considered a very trying ordeal, though it included
+only the branches taught in the common schools. He "brushed up" his
+studies, and as he was always cool and self-possessed, he did not fail
+from embarrassment, as many do on such occasions, but was passed and
+admitted. Of the class of eighty-seven only thirty-nine were
+graduated. In rank Grant was the twenty-first, indicating about the
+average ability.
+
+As a cadet he was popular with his comrades. He was honest, fair, and
+square, and was especially careful of the rights of others. The horse
+had been a favorite with him from his early childhood, and at the
+Academy he was distinguished as a bold and fearless rider. He was
+sober and rather dignified in his manner. The name given to him by his
+parents was "Hiram Ulysses;" but the Congressman had made a mistake in
+presenting the nomination, and at West Point he was known as "Ulysses
+Sidney." Failing to correct the error, he accepted the initial S., but
+made it stand for "Simpson," after his mother. The first name was
+suggested by an elderly female relative, who appears to have read the
+Odyssey, and appreciated its hero. The initials of his name as it
+finally stood had a national significance, which the newspapers were
+not tardy in using at the time of his first decided victory.
+
+He was graduated in 1843, and appointed brevet second lieutenant in
+the Fourth Regiment of Infantry. The engineers and the cavalry are
+considered more desirable arms of the service than the infantry, and
+the best scholars at the Military Academy are assigned to them.
+Grant's rank placed him in the latter. His regiment was sent to
+Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis. Frederick T. Dent, his classmate, was
+in the same command, and resided in the vicinity. He was invited to
+the house of the Dents, where he made the acquaintance of Miss Julia
+T. Dent, who became his wife five years later.
+
+In 1845, the events which led to the Mexican War assumed form, and
+Grant's regiment was ordered to Corpus Christi, where he was
+commissioned as a full second lieutenant. His post was situated at the
+mouth of the Rio Nueces, between which and the Rio Grande was a
+triangular section of territory claimed by both governments; and this
+was the nominal subject of dispute between the United States and
+Mexico. General Taylor, commanding about four thousand troops, was
+ordered to move his force to the Rio Grande, on which the Mexicans had
+concentrated an army. A body of United States dragoons, commanded by
+Captain Thornton, was surprised by an overwhelming force of the enemy,
+and all of them killed, wounded, or captured. This event fired the
+blood of the soldiers, as well as of the people of the country, and
+Taylor crossed the river with the main body of his little army.
+
+The Mexican generals declared that the advance of Taylor into the
+disputed territory was an act of war, and active hostilities had
+commenced. While the general was hastening to reinforce one of the
+forts attacked, he came upon the Mexicans drawn up in order of battle
+at Palo Alto. An action, mostly with artillery, followed, and the
+enemy were defeated and driven from the field. It was the first battle
+fought in thirty-one years with any foe other than Indians, by
+American soldiers. Grant was in that first conflict of half a century,
+as he was in the last ones.
+
+The Mexicans had fled from this first considerable battle of the war
+to Resaca de la Palma, where they had established themselves in a
+strong position. Taylor attacked them the next day, and though their
+force was triple that of their assailants, they were again defeated
+and routed. The Mexicans fought with dogged courage, however they may
+be judged from the events of the war. Three months later, General
+Taylor marched upon Monterey with an army reinforced to 6,000 men. It
+was strongly fortified, but the city was captured after a hard-fought
+battle.
+
+In the midst of the conflict in the town, while the Mexicans were
+disputing its possession from the windows of the strongly constructed
+houses, the ammunition of the brigade to which Grant was attached was
+exhausted, and it became necessary to send for a fresh supply. It was
+a service of extreme peril, and a volunteer was called for to perform
+it. Grant was a bold rider, and he promptly offered himself to execute
+the dangerous mission. Mounting a very spirited horse, he resorted to
+the Indian fashion of hanging at the side of his steed so that the
+body of the animal protected him against the shots from the windows,
+and he passed safely through the street. With a sufficient escort he
+succeeded in conveying a load of ammunition to the point where it was
+needed.
+
+Soon after the battle of Monterey, Grant's regiment was sent to Vera
+Cruz to reinforce the larger army that was to march under General
+Scott to the "Halls of the Montezumas." Lieutenant Grant, as a
+careful, substantial, and energetic officer, was selected for the
+important position of quartermaster of the Fourth Regiment. The army
+proceeded on its uninterrupted career of victory till the capital of
+Mexico was in its possession. The heights of Cerro Gordo were stormed
+and carried, and Grant, as usual, was in the thickest of the fight.
+
+The first considerable obstacle after the capture of Vera Cruz having
+been removed, the army proceeded on its march to the City of Mexico,
+occupying Jalapa and Castle Perote on the way; but at Puebla the
+forces were so reduced by sickness, death, and the expiration of
+enlistments as to compel a halt. For three months General Scott was
+compelled to wait for reinforcements; but when he could muster 11,000
+effective men, a very small number for the conquest of a country, he
+resumed his march, and in August arrived in the vicinity of the
+capital. Outside of the causeways leading to the city were the
+strongholds of Chapultepec and Cherubusco, and batteries mounting a
+hundred guns.
+
+Chapultepec was a fortification one hundred and fifty feet above the
+average level of the ground. A front of nine hundred feet bristled
+with cannon. Behind it was a mill called El Molino del Rey, fortified
+and garrisoned, which defended the approach to the castle. The capture
+of this work was assigned to General Worth, to whose command the
+Fourth Regiment belonged. The assault was a desperate one, for it was
+"the last ditch" of the Mexicans; but it was carried, though the
+assailing force lost one-fourth of its number in the assault. "Second
+Lieutenant Grant behaved with distinguished gallantry," is the
+official report of his conduct. Though custom and the precedents of
+the service permitted the quartermaster to remain at a safe distance
+from actual fighting in charge of the baggage trains, Grant never
+availed himself of this immunity from personal peril, but retained his
+place with the regiment.
+
+When the strong places which defended the city fell, Scott and his
+army marched into the capital. The Mexican forces fled, and the United
+States flag floated over the "Halls of the Montezumas." The country
+was conquered, and the war was ended. Grant had been engaged in all
+the battles near the Rio Grande, and in most of them from Vera Cruz to
+the City of Mexico, and he had won the brevet rank of captain for his
+gallantry.
+
+After the ratification of the treaty of peace, by which California was
+acquired, the army evacuated Mexico, and Captain Grant was sent to New
+York with his regiment. Its companies were separated and sent to
+various military stations. After serving at Detroit and Sackett's
+Harbor, the Fourth Infantry was sent to Oregon in 1851, the discovery
+of gold in California having attracted an immense immigration to the
+shores of the Pacific. The battalion of which Grant's company was a
+part was stationed at Fort Dallas, and had some experience in Indian
+warfare. In 1848 he had been married to Miss Dent; but in the wilds of
+Oregon he was separated from his family. There was nothing there to
+satisfy his reasonable ambition, no hope of rising in his profession,
+and he became discontented. In 1853 he was commissioned as a full
+captain; but this did not reconcile him to his situation, and he
+resigned his position in the army to enter upon an untried life as a
+civilian.
+
+Grant was now thirty-two years of age; he had a wife and two children,
+and it was necessary for him to provide for their support. His first
+choice of an occupation had been that of a farmer, and he went back to
+that in the present emergency. His wife owned a farm about nine miles
+from St. Louis, and Grant located himself there. He built a house upon
+it of hewn logs, working upon it with his own hands. He was not a
+"gentleman farmer" in any sense, for he drove one of his teams with
+wood to the city. He wore an old felt hat, a seedy blouse, and tucked
+his trousers' legs into the tops of his boots. His habits were very
+simple, and the lack of means compelled him to live on the most
+economical scale.
+
+The retired captain was not successful as a farmer; but he was known
+as an honest, upright man, faithful in all his obligations. In his
+need of a remunerative occupation he applied for the position of city
+engineer in St. Louis; but he failed to obtain it. As a real estate
+agent and as a collector he was equally unsuccessful, and his fortunes
+were at a very low ebb. He obtained a place in the custom-house, but
+at the end of two months the death of the collector compelled him to
+retire. But while fortune seemed to have completely deserted him,
+subjecting him to the fate of thousands of others in the struggle to
+live and care for his family, it was more propitious to his father,
+who was in comparatively easy circumstances, and had established
+himself in the leather business in Galena, Ill. It seemed to be
+incumbent upon him to do something for the relief of his oldest son,
+and in 1860 the ex-captain became a member of the firm of "Grant &
+Sons." This was the position in which the opening of the War of the
+Rebellion found him.
+
+For years the military spirit of the North had been repressed and
+discouraged. Sober and dignified people regarded the soldier as
+unnecessary, and military parades were looked upon as childish, and
+classed in the category with circus shows. But suddenly, when the
+cannon of the Rebellion began to resound in the South, the people were
+awakened from their dream of security, and the profession of arms,
+which had been disparaged and had almost fallen into disrepute, became
+in the highest degree honorable, for the safety of the nation depended
+upon it. Millions were ready to fight for the Union, but there were
+very few trained officers to organize and command those who were eager
+to uphold the flag and save the nation. Except here and there one who
+had served in the Mexican or Indian wars, there was not a soldier in
+the land who had any experience of actual warfare.
+
+To Galena came the intelligence that Fort Sumter had been bombarded,
+and with it the proclamation of President Lincoln calling for 75,000
+volunteers. Grant was profoundly moved by the situation of the
+country, and without seeking for or thinking of the honors and
+emoluments that might be reaped, he patriotically desired to serve his
+country in the present terrible emergency. The nation had educated him
+for military service, and though he had fought with honor through one
+war, he did not regard the debt as paid. He was a soldier, but he did
+not boast of what he had done, or even claim the rank in the gathering
+armies to which his experience entitled him.
+
+In less than a week he was drilling a company in Galena, whose members
+wished to make him their captain; but another citizen wanted the
+place, and he declined it. He consented to go to Springfield, the
+capital of the State, with the company. On the way he met the Hon.
+Elihu B. Washburn, and by him was presented to Governor Yates, who,
+however, did not appear to be greatly impressed, and did not take much
+notice of him. Then Grant wrote to the adjutant-general of the army at
+Washington, stating that he had been educated at West Point at the
+public expense, and considered it his duty to tender his services to
+the Government. He did not apply for the commission of a
+brigadier-general; but was willing to serve in any capacity where he
+might be needed.
+
+No response came to this modest offer, and Grant visited Cincinnati,
+where George B. McClellan, who had been appointed major-general of
+volunteers by the governor of Ohio, was organizing the forces. Both
+had served in Worth's brigade in Mexico; and Grant thought his former
+friend might tender him a position on his staff. Though he called upon
+him several times, he failed to find him, and returned to Springfield.
+While he was waiting at the capital, Governor Yates sent for him, and
+asked him if he knew how many men belonged in a company, how many
+companies in a regiment, and similar questions concerning details
+which were very perplexing to a civilian.
+
+Grant assured him that he was a graduate of West Point, had served
+eleven years in the regular army, and knew all about such matters.
+This reply helped the governor out of his embarrassment, and the
+soldier was invited to take a seat in the State House, and act as
+adjutant-general. One who knew Grant better than others suggested to
+the governor that he should appoint him to the command of a regiment.
+This advice was acted upon, and the patriotic seeker for military
+employment was appointed colonel of the Twenty-first Regiment of
+Illinois Infantry. Grant promptly accepted the commission, and
+hastened to Mattoon, where the regiment was encamped, and assumed the
+command.
+
+His command was a body of three months' troops, composed of excellent
+material, but in rather a demoralized condition when the colonel
+assumed command, for the men were American citizens, jealous of their
+rights as such, and military discipline was new and strange to them.
+Grant marched them to Caseyville, where he drilled them for four
+weeks, and transformed them from a mob of independent citizens into
+one of the best-disciplined bodies of troops in the country, which
+became noted for its orderly and excellent bearing. The change was
+effected so skilfully that no man believed he had sacrificed his
+citizenship. The strong will of the colonel, dignified by the genuine
+principle of patriotism, overcame the prevailing idea of equality, and
+his command was a unit. The men were proud of the leadership of a
+regular army officer, and admired him to such a degree that they
+re-enlisted for three years.
+
+While Colonel Grant was at Caseyville it was reported that Quincy, on
+the Mississippi, was menaced by rebel guerillas from Missouri, and he
+was ordered to the exposed point. In the absence of transportation he
+marched his regiment one hundred and twenty miles of the distance.
+From this point his command was sent into Missouri, where the
+discipline and the morals of the body were improved by quiet and
+judicious measures. Guarding railroads was the service in which the
+regiment was employed; and when serving with other commands Grant was
+the acting brigadier-general, though he was ranked by all the other
+colonels.
+
+In July of the opening year of the war Grant became a
+brigadier-general of volunteers. The appointment was obtained by Mr.
+Washburn, who had befriended him before. The Western Department was at
+this time under the command of General Fremont. Grant's district was a
+part of Missouri, with Western Kentucky and Tennessee, and he
+established his head-quarters at Cairo, a point of the utmost military
+importance as a depot of supplies and a gunboat rendezvous. Kentucky
+had proclaimed a suspicious neutrality, and near Cairo, on the other
+side of the river, were the three termini of a railroad from the
+South. A Confederate force seized two of them, and Grant hastened to
+secure Paducah, the third. The enemy hurriedly retired as he landed
+his force, and Grant issued a temperate and judicious proclamation,
+for he was on the soil of the enemy. He had acted without orders from
+his superior, and returning to Cairo after an absence of less than a
+day, he found Fremont's order, already executed, awaiting him. He also
+took possession of Smithland, at the mouth of the Cumberland River.
+
+With a force of 3,100 men General Grant made an incursion into
+Missouri to break up a rebel camp at Belmont, where he fought his
+first battle in the Rebellion. He had accomplished his purpose, when
+the enemy was reinforced from Columbus, on the other side of the
+river, and though he brought off his command in safety he narrowly
+escaped capture himself. Fremont was superseded by Halleck, and for
+the next two months Grant was employed in organizing and drilling
+troops. Columbus, with 140 cannon and full of men and material, closed
+the Mississippi. The Confederate line of defence against the invasion
+of the South extended from this point across the country, including
+Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, the
+latter mounting forty guns, with quarters for 20,000 soldiers.
+
+Grant was studying this line of defence, devising a plan to break
+through it. By order of General Halleck he had sent out a
+reconnoissance in force, under General Smith, who reported to him that
+the capture of Fort Henry was practicable. Grant forwarded this report
+to the commander of the department, and asked for permission to attack
+it. This was refused in sharp and curt terms. A written application,
+earnestly seconded by Commodore Foote, who had brought the gunboat
+service up to a state of efficiency in the West, secured the desired
+order. With 17,000 men, in connection with 7 gunboats under the
+command of the commodore, Grant started upon his mission the day after
+he received the order. Fort Henry was captured, though the army was
+not engaged. The main body of the Confederate force escaped to Fort
+Donelson.
+
+The capture of Fort Henry cheered the army and the people. Grant
+telegraphed the result of the attack to Halleck, and announced his
+intention to proceed against Fort Donelson. Leaving 2,500 men to
+garrison the fort, Grant marched with 15,000 from Fort Henry, while a
+considerable addition to his force came up the river. The
+fortification was invested, and after three days of persistent
+fighting in cold, snow, and hunger, the fort surrendered. The gunboats
+were severely handled by the water batteries of the enemy, and the
+commodore was badly wounded, so that most of the work fell upon the
+army.
+
+It was a brilliant victory, and the loyal nation resounded with the
+praises of Grant. This was the pointer to the fame he afterward
+achieved. His reply to the rebel general, "I propose to move
+immediately on your works," was repeated all over the country, and the
+initials of his name came to mean "Unconditional Surrender," the terms
+he had demanded of the commander of the fort.
+
+The strategetic line of the Confederates was broken, and new
+dispositions of their forces became necessary on account of this
+important victory; Columbus was abandoned, and its men and material
+sent to Island No. 10. The battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, as
+it is called in the South, followed under Grant's command. It was a
+bloody and hotly contested action, and not as decisive as that of
+Donelson. The ground was held, and the arrival of Buell with
+reinforcements caused the Confederates to retire. Sherman had a
+command in this battle under Grant, and the strong friendship between
+these two great commanders, which subsisted to the end, had its origin
+about this time.
+
+Not such were the relations between Halleck and Grant, for the latter
+was practically thrown into the shade by the former; but the hero of
+Fort Donelson continued to do his duty faithfully, making no issue
+with his superior. At this time he was in command of the Army of the
+Tennessee. While he remained in this position the Union army and navy
+had made decided progress in the West and the South; but no real
+advance was made in the direction of the rebel capital. Then McClellan
+was removed from his position of general-in-chief, and Halleck was
+appointed in his place. Grant seemed to be forgotten for the time, or
+his operations were overshadowed by those in the East. But he had
+driven the enemy out of West Tennessee, and was turning his attention
+toward Vicksburg.
+
+When he had sufficiently informed himself in regard to the situation,
+he proposed to the general-in-chief a movement upon Vicksburg, which
+was really the Gibraltar of the Mississippi, and he was invested with
+full powers to carry out his own plans. Constantly and earnestly
+supported by Sherman, he battered against this strong fortress for six
+months. Various expedients were resorted to for the reduction of the
+place, without success. With the written protest of four of his ablest
+generals in his pocket, Grant moved his army to a point four miles
+below Grand Gulf, fought several battles on his way, and came to the
+rear of Vicksburg. The Confederate engineers were doubtless as skilful
+as any in the world, and seemed to be justified in regarding the
+fortress, with its surrounding batteries, fortifications, swamps, and
+tangled jungles, as impregnable.
+
+Following up his regular siege operations, Grant exercised his
+indomitable will against those tremendous defences, and Vicksburg
+fell. The news of its surrender was spread all over the loyal nation
+with that of the great victory of Gettysburg. The Confederacy had been
+cut in two, and a decided turn in the struggle for the Union was
+clearly indicated. The name of the victorious general was again upon
+the lips of all the people. Grant himself seemed to be the only man
+who remained unmoved. President Lincoln sent him an autograph letter,
+acknowledging that Grant was right while he was wrong; and even
+Halleck was magnanimous enough to send him a very handsome letter of
+congratulation. The fortunate general had been made a major-general of
+volunteers after his victory at Donelson; and he was now promoted to
+the rank of major-general in the regular army.
+
+A new department had been created for Major-General Grant, covering
+nearly all the territory south of the Ohio. He was worn out and sick
+after the severe exertions of the summer; but when informed that
+Rosecrans was shut up and closely besieged by Bragg, in Chattanooga,
+he set out for this point with only his personal staff. On the way he
+used the telegraph and the mails, and suggested or ordered such steps
+as would relieve the place, for the Army of the Cumberland, shut off
+from supplies, was in desperate straits, sick and famished.
+Reinforcements were hurried, and the result of his preparations was
+the decided victory of the battle of Chattanooga and Missionary Ridge.
+In this battle General Sheridan came to his notice for the first time.
+
+General Grant was thanked, and presented with a gold medal by
+Congress. He had become the idol of the loyal nation; but he bore his
+honors very meekly. The grade of lieutenant-general was revived, and
+conferred upon him. All the armies of the United States were now under
+his command. He was called to Washington, and it is not possible even
+to mention the honors that were showered upon him. In due time he took
+his place at the head of the Army of the Potomac, and fought some of
+the most terrible battles of the war. Richmond was his first objective
+point, and failing in the direct approach to the capital of the
+Confederacy, he moved upon it from the south. It was a long struggle,
+but in the end Richmond fell.
+
+At Appomattox Court House Grant received the surrender of General Lee,
+granting the most magnanimous terms to the defeated army. The other
+armies of the Confederacy soon followed the example of the Army of
+Virginia, and the long and terrible conflict of over four years was
+ended in a victorious Union. As soon as the surrender was effected,
+General Grant, without any pomp or parade, proceeded to Washington,
+not even taking in Richmond on his way, and reported in person to
+President Lincoln. He advised the immediate reduction of the army,
+sustained at an enormous expense, and no longer needed.
+
+The war was ended! Perhaps no man ever stood higher in the estimation
+of his country than Grant, and it was inevitable that he should become
+a candidate for the Presidency. He had been a Democrat in politics
+before the war; but he was elected to the first office in the nation
+by the people, though the candidate of the Republican party. He was
+hardly as successful in this office as he had been in the field; but
+he carried with him the respect and admiration of the people to the
+day of his death. He was re-elected to the Presidency; and the
+objections of the people to a third term more than anything else,
+prevented his third nomination.
+
+After his return to private life he visited nearly every country in
+Europe, and was everywhere honored as no citizen of the Republic had
+ever been before. In the last years of his life he engaged in a
+financial and banking business, by which he lost all his property.
+About the same time an insidious disease was wearing away his life. He
+had been approached before to write a history of his military life, to
+which he would not listen. In his financial strait he accepted an
+offer, and wrote the work, in two octavo volumes, while suffering from
+the weakness and pain of his malady. He was doing it for his family,
+for his own days were numbered; and there is nothing on record more
+heroic than his struggle to finish this task.
+
+Four days after he had finished his literary labor of love, he died of
+the disease which had been the burden of his last days. He passed away
+at Mount McGregor, N. Y., July 23, 1885. The loyal people mourned him
+as the saviour of the nation from disruption, and even those who had
+been his enemies in war were his friends in death. The whole nation
+was present in spirit at his obsequies. His remains were interred at
+Riverside Park, New York, and only await the imposing monument which
+the metropolis of the nation he saved is to rear above his tomb.
+
+His character can never be as prominent as the victories he won for
+his imperilled country; but his honesty, his unsullied honor, and his
+self-abnegation entitle him to another crown of glory.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN[10]
+
+By ELBRIDGE S. BROOKS
+
+(1820-1891)
+
+         [Footnote 10: A Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: William Sherman. [TN]]
+
+
+Achievement wins applause. And when the steps toward achievement are
+tinged with mystery, romance, or daring, the applause is irresistible
+and continuous. So it has come to pass that by the side of Xenophon's
+masterly "retreat of the Ten Thousand," of Cortes's burning his ships
+at Vera Cruz, and of Marlborough's bold march through the heart of
+Germany to the victory at Blenheim, stands Sherman's March to the Sea
+and his "Christmas Gift" of captured Savannah. And yet this brilliant
+leader of men had never seen a hostile shot fired until he was
+forty-one, and his first battle was the defeat at Bull Run.
+
+The March to the Sea, upon which Sherman's fame as a soldier so
+largely rests, was by no means the greatest or most significant of his
+many achievements. His record as a soldier is filled with examples of
+his courage, his shrewdness, and his tenacity, while his mingling of
+gentle ways and grim determination, of restlessness and calm, of
+forethought, fearlessness, and frankness, make him at once a unique
+and central figure in the decade of war and reconstruction that forms
+so important a chapter in the story of the United States of America.
+
+William Tecumseh Sherman was born on February 8, 1820, in the town of
+Lancaster, the county-seat of that fair and fertile section known as
+Fairfield County, in the southern part of the State of Ohio--the busy
+commonwealth that furnished 300,000 men to the armies of the Union,
+and gave to the Civil War its three greatest generals; for Grant and
+Sherman were Ohio born, and Sheridan's boyhood was spent in the same
+State.
+
+But Sherman's ancestors were of stout Puritan stock, dating back
+almost to the days of the Mayflower. His first American "forebear" was
+a Puritan minister, Rev. John Sherman, an emigrant to the Connecticut
+colony from Essex in England. Of one of the collateral branches was
+Roger Sherman, drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence.
+The father of the soldier was Judge Sherman, of the Ohio Supreme
+Court; his mother was "a Hoyt of New England."
+
+William Tecumseh Sherman was the sixth of eleven children, a younger
+brother being the lad who, later, became Senator John Sherman of Ohio.
+Judge Sherman, the father of the boys, died in 1829, and William was
+adopted into the family of Senator Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, a resident
+of Lancaster, and a notable figure in American history, for he was
+senator and cabinet minister for nearly forty years.
+
+Sherman's training was that of a soldier from boyhood. At sixteen, he
+was entered as a cadet at the Military Academy at West Point, from
+which he graduated in 1840, standing sixth in a class of 42.
+Engineering was his favorite study, but devotion to his books seems
+not to have kept him out of mischief. He was not, he himself admitted
+later, "a Sunday-school cadet," his record for behavior being 124 in
+the Academy standard--not so very far from the foot. But Grant, it
+must be remembered, ranked even lower in his behavior record, standing
+at 149.
+
+The twenty years that followed Sherman's graduation from West Point
+were variously spent. He was commissioned second lieutenant in the
+Third Artillery, July 1, 1840, and ordered to Florida to face the
+hostile Seminoles. He was promoted to be first lieutenant November 30,
+1841, and in 1842 was ordered to Fort Morgan, in Alabama. From 1843 to
+1846 he was stationed at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor (where
+the afterward famous Major Robert Anderson was his superior officer),
+at Bellefontaine, Alabama, and at Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, on
+recruiting service. When the war with Mexico was declared, Lieutenant
+Sherman was sent to California, then a debatable land. He reached
+Monterey Bay, by way of "the Horn," in January, 1847, and spent three
+years in California, returning east as bearer of despatches to the War
+Department in 1850. In May, 1850, he married Miss Ellen Ewing,
+daughter of Senator Ewing, then Secretary of the Interior under
+President Taylor, and in September following he was commissioned as
+captain and sent to St. Louis.
+
+It was at this time, so Sherman notes in his "Memoirs," that he felt a
+great disappointment to think that the war with Mexico was fought to a
+finish without his having been "in it," and he adds, "of course, I
+thought it was the last and only chance in my day, and that my career
+as a soldier was at an end." It was at an end for a time, for after
+garrison duty at St. Louis and New Orleans, he resigned from the army,
+and, in 1853, sought to make his fortune in business.
+
+He first went to California as manager of the San Francisco branch of
+a St. Louis bank, but the ill success of the enterprise drove him east
+again in 1857, when he engaged in the banking business in New York
+City. To this enterprise, however, the famous panic of 1857 put an
+early end, and in 1858 he was embarked in the law, with an office at
+Leavenworth, Kan. This, too, failing to supply sufficient bread and
+butter, he tried farming in Ohio for a while, and then applied for a
+government position in Washington. Instead of this, however, he
+secured an appointment as Superintendent and Professor of Engineering
+in a new military college just started at Alexandria, in Louisiana. He
+entered upon the duties of his position on the 1st of January, 1860,
+when the mutterings of rebellion were already abroad; and just as he
+had put the academy into good working order the war-cloud became so
+black that Sherman, in a manly letter to Governor Moore, of Louisiana,
+declared his intention of maintaining his allegiance to "the old
+constitution as long as a fragment of it survives," resigned his
+office, and returned to Ohio. In April, 1861, he accepted the
+presidency of a St. Louis street railway company. Then Sumter was
+fired on, the war fever filled the land, troops were hurried to the
+front, and Sherman signified to the Secretary of War his desire to
+serve his country "in the capacity for which I was trained." On May
+14, 1861, he was appointed colonel of the Thirteenth United States
+Infantry, and assigned to inspection duty in Washington under General
+Scott, the commander-in-chief; and then the real story of his life
+began.
+
+At first fate seemed to be against him. He was too outspoken and
+hard-headed to suit the reckless and effusive boasters of those early
+days of the war, which he insisted would be long and bloody, unless
+the whole military power of the Republic was put into the field to
+crush the rebellion before it could grow into a revolution. He was as
+disgusted as Washington had been in revolutionary times, with
+short-service enlistments, and refused point-blank to go to Ohio to
+enlist "three-months men," saying, in his blunt way, "You might as
+well try to put out fire with a squirt gun as expect to put down this
+rebellion with three-months troops." He was assigned to the command of
+the Third Brigade of the First Division of McDowell's army, and had
+his "baptism of fire" upon the disastrous field of Bull Run, which he
+has characterized as "one of the best planned and worst fought battles
+of the war." That famous "skedaddle," as it was the fashion to call
+it, he frankly admitted, in his official report, began among the men
+of his brigade, and the "disorderly retreat" speedily became a
+humiliating rout, which only a few cool-headed officers, such as
+Colonel Sherman, could check or control.
+
+The chagrin over the stampede at Bull Run was so great, that the more
+conscientious Union officers expected to be held responsible for it
+and duly court-martialed; but to Colonel Sherman's surprise, his
+superiors saw beyond the demoralization of the moment, and in August,
+1861, he was made brigadier-general of volunteers and transferred to
+the Department of the Cumberland, with head-quarters at Louisville,
+Ky. From thenceforth all his fighting and all his fame was associated
+with the armies of the West.
+
+At once he saw the desperate condition of affairs in Kentucky--a
+border State, only to be held for the Union by prompt and decisive
+measures. He called for reinforcements frequently and emphatically,
+and when the Secretary of War visited him on a tour of inspection, and
+asked his views on the situation, Sherman paralyzed him by asserting
+that for the defence of Kentucky, 60,000 men were needed at once, and
+that 200,000 would be necessary there before the war in that State
+could be ended. This was so out of proportion to the Secretary's
+estimate that Sherman was declared crazy; he was deprived of his
+command at the front and relegated to a camp of instruction near St.
+Louis.
+
+But so shrewd and correct an observer, so energetic a leader, and so
+determined a fighter, could not long be left in retirement, and in
+February, 1862, General Sherman was ordered to assume command of the
+forces at Paducah, Ky. Desperate fighting soon followed. The battle of
+Shiloh (sometimes called Pittsburg Landing) showed of what stuff the
+"crazy Sherman," as the newspapers had called him, was made, and from
+Shiloh's bloody field in 1862, to Johnston's surrender at Raleigh in
+1865, Sherman's fame rose steadily, until it left him one of the three
+greatest generals of the Civil War, and one of the famous commanders
+of the century.
+
+From Shiloh to Raleigh, Sherman stood, in a measure, as Grant's right
+hand, for, even when Grant was "hammering away" in Virginia, Sherman,
+by his strategy, shrewdness, and daring in the West was giving him
+material support and help. In the three years of fighting, from 1862
+to 1865, these events stand prominently out in Sherman's military
+record--the tenacity with which he held the right of the line at
+Shiloh, the faithful service he rendered as commander of the left
+before Vicksburg, his rapid relief of Knoxville, his brilliant capture
+of Atlanta, his daring and famous march to the sea and the capture of
+Savannah, his equally daring march through the Carolinas to the help
+of Grant, and his final capture of Johnston's army, which was the real
+close of the war.
+
+In all these events the peculiar traits of character that made Sherman
+so conspicuous a success stood out in bold relief--his coolness in
+danger, his bravery in action, his daring in devices, his readiness of
+invention, his electric surprises, his scientific strategy, his
+ruthlessness in destruction, his courtesy to the conquered, his
+devotion to his soldiers, his loyalty to his superior in command, his
+restlessness, his energy, his determination to succeed. These all
+contributed to the result that made "Sherman's army" famous the world
+over, and stamped him as the hero of a campaign that, according to
+military critics, "stands alone in the history of modern warfare."
+
+His scientific fencing with General Joseph E. Johnston, the
+Confederate leader, was as masterly as it was effective. He forced his
+rival from the stand he had taken as warder of the gateways to the
+South's supply land, fighting him step by step from Dalton backward to
+Atlanta, and capturing that stronghold of the Confederacy by
+persistent and desperate fighting. Then, when Atlanta was won,
+Sherman's ability to cut the Gordian knot, as no other man dared, was
+displayed with especial force. Instead of frittering away his precious
+time by simply holding Atlanta, or wasting strength unnecessarily by
+hunting up a baffled and elusive foe, or devoting all his energy to
+keeping open his long line of communication and supply, he determined
+to strike a disastrous blow at the Confederacy, swiftly and
+unexpectedly. Cutting loose from his connection with the West, he
+would live on the enemy and lay waste the storehouse of the
+Confederacy--or, as he expressed it in outlining his plans to General
+Grant, "move through Georgia, smashing things, to the sea."
+
+The boldness of this desperate measure at first attracted, as it
+afterward alarmed, the authorities at Washington. Consent was given
+and then recalled, but, before the recall could reach him Sherman had
+acted quickly, fearing this same countermand. Upon receipt of the
+order consenting to his march, he cut the telegraph wires to the
+north, then he burned his bridges, tore up the railroad that connected
+him with the West, and, with his army reduced to its actual available
+fighting strength of 60,000 men, with banners streaming, gun-barrels
+glistening in the sun, bands playing, and the men singing lustily
+"Glory, glory, hallelujah!" Atlanta was left behind, and "Sherman's
+army" set its face eastward and commenced its memorable march to the
+sea.
+
+In two parallel columns the army of invasion and destruction moved
+through the fertile land, cutting a swath of desolation forty miles
+wide, and crippling the Confederacy by dissipating its most cherished
+resources. For fully a month the army was practically lost, so far as
+communication with the North was concerned. Then it struck the sea at
+Savannah, captured that beautiful city, and, in the celebrated
+despatch which actually reached President Lincoln on Christmas Eve,
+General Sherman presented to the President and the country "the city
+of Savannah, as a Christmas gift."
+
+Savannah taken, the more difficult march northward was determined
+upon, so as to make a junction with Grant before Richmond, and end the
+war by one final and tremendous stroke. The "Campaign of the
+Carolinas," as this northward march was called, was a really greater
+achievement than the march to the sea, for it was against more
+formidable natural odds, and was done in midwinter. The distance
+covered, from Savannah to Goldsboro, in North Carolina, was four
+hundred and twenty-five miles; five large rivers were crossed, three
+important cities were captured, and the Stars and Stripes were once
+more flung to the breeze above the ruins of Fort Sumter. And yet, in
+fifty days from the start, the army reached Goldsboro, "in superb
+order," and concluded what Sherman himself designates as "one of the
+longest and most important marches ever made by an organized army in a
+civilized country." It was a great achievement, but it was without the
+novelty, the mystery, and the dramatic qualities of the earlier
+cross-country campaign, and so it has come to pass that the first has
+been the most famous, and Sherman's march to the sea has gone into
+history as one of the romances and glories of the War of the
+Rebellion.
+
+The campaign of the Carolinas fitly ended, as had the march to the
+sea, in victory; and the successes at Averysboro and Burtonville
+culminated on April 26, 1865, in the surrender, near Raleigh, of
+Johnston, and the last organized army of the Confederacy.
+
+The war was over. Sherman's army marched northward to Washington,
+where, on May 24, 1865, on the second day of the famous Grand Review,
+General Sherman and his victorious army marched past the presidential
+reviewing stand--"sixty-five thousand men," says General Sherman, "in
+splendid physique, who had just completed a march of nearly two
+thousand miles in a hostile country." Then came the disbandment;
+Sherman bade his "boys" good-by in a ringing farewell order; the men
+departed to their waiting homes, and the splendid "Army of the West"
+was a thing of the past.
+
+After the conclusion of the war General Sherman was, for four years,
+stationed at St. Louis, as Commander of the Military Division of the
+Mississippi. He was a notable public character, with a reputation for
+bravery that none dare assail, and a record as a soldier that made him
+one of the nation's heroes. He stood next to Grant in position, merit,
+and popularity; and when, in 1869, General Grant was elected to the
+presidency, Sherman, who had been named lieutenant-general in 1866,
+was promoted to the vacant post as general of the army, with
+head-quarters at Washington.
+
+He visited Europe in 1871-72 and, both because of his own brilliant
+record, and his official position as head of the American army, he was
+everywhere received with honor and distinction. Returning home he
+wrote his "Memoirs;" they were published in 1875, and stamped him, in
+the opinion of critics, as "by far the ablest writer among America's
+military men."
+
+On February 8, 1884, he was placed upon the retired list--"turned out
+to grass," as he expressed it, "and told I could spend the rest of my
+days in peace and retirement." As an especial mark of the nation's
+pride in his record, he was, as the order stated, "placed upon the
+retired list of the army, without reduction in his current pay and
+allowances," and the President in the same order publicly put on
+record the gratitude of the American people "for the services of
+incalculable value rendered by General Sherman in the War for the
+Union, which his great military genius and daring did so much to end."
+It was a fitting tribute to the man who had worn the uniform of his
+country for forty years, faithful to every trust and equal to every
+emergency, and who had risen through every grade from a cadetship and
+a lieutenancy, to the proud eminence of General of the Armies of the
+United States.
+
+The twenty-six years that were his after the close of the great
+struggle in which he had been one of the central figures, were filled
+with a quiet enjoyment of life and a wide personal popularity.
+Wherever he went he was a living hero, welcomed and honored as such by
+the people who owed so much to his wise brain and his unsheathed
+sword. He could have been President of the United States, had he been
+willing to accept the nomination that was offered him; instead, he
+declined with peremptory and characteristic bluntness, and he is, it
+is believed, the only man who ever did refuse that high office.
+
+After his retirement he made his home, first in St. Louis and then in
+New York, where the last five years of his life were passed, and where
+he speedily became one of the great city's familiar, honored, and
+notable figures. Here, too, the final call came to him. On February
+14, 1891, when he had just passed his seventy-first birthday, sounded
+the order "parade is dismissed," and Sherman died in his own home, in
+West Seventy-first Street, mourned by an entire nation. He was buried
+in St. Louis by the side of his wife, who had died in 1890.
+
+William Tecumseh Sherman was, in the strictest sense of the word, a
+soldier. His bearing and presence told of camp and uniform. With a
+military education and military environments, he could not understand,
+and could not calmly brook, the cautious conservatism of the civilian,
+which would often temporize when swift, determined action seemed
+necessary, and which was often boastful at home, and timorous in the
+field. Able in action, fierce in assault, unerring in judgment,
+watchful in detail; with a sagacity and foresight that amounted almost
+to genius, and a memory that was marvellous, General Sherman was a
+great military leader, and one who, when the opportunity came, rode
+straight into fame and reputation. As determined as he was daring, as
+magnanimous as he was impulsive, as clear-headed as he was energetic,
+and as gentle-hearted in peace as he was ruthless in war, he was
+indeed a unique figure in America's history, and, as time goes on, his
+name will stand as that of one of the great Republic's most famous men
+and most cherished memories.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+PHILIP HENRY SHERIDAN
+
+(1831-1888)
+
+
+Philip Henry Sheridan, Commander-in-chief of the United States Army,
+and the last and most brilliant of the great generals of the North,
+was born at Albany, N. Y. March 6, 1831. He had few advantages of
+early education and training, but in 1848 he obtained a cadetship at
+West Point. Sheridan's hot blood and impulsive temperament were
+manifested even in his student days, and a quarrel with a comrade
+resulted in his suspension for a year. He was consequently unable to
+graduate in 1852, as he should have done, but in the following year he
+concluded his studies and was appointed a brevet second lieutenant of
+infantry. In 1854 he was assigned to the First Infantry in Texas, and
+the same year he received his commission as second lieutenant of the
+Fourth Infantry. With the latter regiment he served during the next
+six years in Washington Territory and Oregon. In the attack upon the
+Indians at the Cascades, Washington Territory, in April, 1856, the
+United States troops landed under fire, and routed and dispersed the
+enemy at every point. General Scott drew special attention to
+Sheridan's bravery on this occasion.
+
+[Illustration: Philip Henry Sheridan. [TN]]
+
+But it was the great Civil War which developed Sheridan's talents, as
+in the case of many other distinguished officers, and made promotion
+rapid. The resignation of commanders with Southern sympathies and the
+creation of new regiments secured Sheridan a first lieutenancy in the
+Fourth Infantry in March, 1861, and a captaincy in the Thirteenth
+Infantry in the following May. Yet that memorable year in the history
+of the United States "brought him little employment and no laurels."
+After various minor services he was commissioned as colonel of the
+Second Michigan Cavalry on May 25, 1862. He at once engaged with the
+regiment in Elliot's raid against the railroad, which was destroyed at
+Booneville. During the month of June he commanded the Second Cavalry
+Brigade in several skirmishes, and on July 1st gained a brilliant
+victory at Booneville over a superior cavalry force. His appointment
+as brigadier-general of volunteers dated from this action. In the
+autumn of 1862 Sheridan received the command of the Eleventh Division
+of the Army of the Ohio, under General Buell. Moving out of Louisville
+with Buell, against Bragg, he took part, on October 8th, in the
+stoutly contested battle of Perryville, where he manoeuvred his
+division with conspicuous skill and effect, holding the key of the
+Northern position, and using the point to its utmost advantage.
+
+At the famous battle of Murfreesboro, which was one of the bloodiest
+and most prolonged of the campaign, Sheridan held the key-point for
+several hours in the first day's fighting, "displaying superb tactical
+skill and the greatest gallantry." After repulsing four desperate
+assaults his ammunition unfortunately gave out. He then ordered a
+bayonet charge and withdrew his lines from the field; but by his
+obstinate resistance invaluable time had been gained by his chief,
+General Rosecrans, to make new dispositions. Sheridan's commission as
+major-general followed upon these services. From this time little of
+interest occurred until September 19 and 20, 1863, when Sheridan again
+distinguished himself at the battle of Chickamauga, rescuing his
+division from a perilous position. General Thomas was transferred to
+the command of Rosecrans' besieged army at Chattanooga, and thither
+General Grant arrived with reinforcements from Vicksburg. Grant was
+determined to dislodge the Southern commander, Bragg, who was posted
+on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Hooker carried Lookout
+Mountain and Thomas captured the Ridge on November 25th. In the latter
+operation Sheridan's division was the first to cross the crest, and it
+pressed the enemy's rear-guard until long after dark, seizing wagons
+and artillery. By his successful conduct in the West, Sheridan had now
+thoroughly established his military reputation.
+
+Grant, who had now become lieutenant-general, established his
+head-quarters in Virginia in March, 1864. He was very badly off for an
+energetic commander of cavalry there, and discussed the matter with
+General Halleck. The latter at once suggested Sheridan, remembering
+his splendid dash and bravery at Missionary Ridge. "The very man!"
+exclaimed the laconic Grant, and Sheridan accordingly became commander
+of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Sheridan's progress
+during the campaign of 1864 was like a whirlwind. His troops covered
+the front and flanks of the infantry through the battle of the
+"Wilderness" until May 8th, when the greater part of the force was
+withdrawn, and next morning Sheridan started on a raid against the
+enemy's points of communication with Richmond. Getting within the
+Confederate lines he dashed upon the outworks of Richmond itself,
+where he took one hundred prisoners, and thence moved to Haxall's
+Landing, from which point he returned to the Northern army, having
+destroyed many miles of railroad track, besides trains and a great
+quantity of rations, and liberated Union soldiers. This expedition
+included repulses of the enemy at Beaver Dam and Meadow Bridge, and
+the defeat of the enemy's cavalry at Yellow Tavern, where their best
+cavalry leader, J. E. B. Stuart, was killed. From May 27th to June
+24th Sheridan was engaged in almost daily engagements and skirmishes,
+harassing the enemy, and, with that good fortune which sometimes
+attends the most daring soldiers, resisting all attempts to defeat or
+capture him.
+
+The Middle Department and the Department of West Virginia, Washington,
+and Susquehanna were constituted the "Middle Military Division" in
+August, 1864, and General Grant put Sheridan in command of the same.
+He chafed for opportunities of further distinguishing himself and
+justifying his appointment; but the enemy, under General Early, had
+been reinforced, and for six weeks Sheridan was kept on the defensive
+near Harper's Ferry. At length, when Early's forces had been
+diminished, Sheridan expressed such confidence of success if he were
+allowed to attack, that Grant gave him permission in only two words of
+instruction, "Go in!" Sheridan went in, attacking Early with great
+vigor, on September 19th, at the crossing of the Opequan. After a
+severe battle the enemy was routed; Sheridan captured three thousand
+prisoners and five guns, and sent Early, as he expressed it, "whirling
+through Winchester." Next day President Lincoln, on Grant's
+recommendation, appointed the victorious soldier a brigadier-general
+in the regular army. Taking up the pursuit of Early in the Shenandoah
+Valley, Sheridan found him on the 20th strongly posted on Fisher's
+Hill, just beyond Strasburg. Quietly moving Crook's command through
+the wood, he turned the enemy's left on the 22d, and drove him from
+his stronghold, capturing sixteen guns.
+
+The losses of Sheridan and those of Early in these two battles were
+almost precisely equal, being about fifty-four hundred men each; but
+the Northern general had captured many guns and small arms. Sheridan
+continued the pursuit up the valley, but finding it impracticable to
+proceed either to Lynchburg or Charlottesville, he returned through
+the valley, devastating it on his way and rendering it untenable for
+an enemy's army. By Sheridan's successes Grant obtained the
+unobstructed use of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and the Chesapeake &
+Ohio Canal, whereas his defeat would have exposed Maryland and
+Pennsylvania to invasion.
+
+Sheridan's next operations, however, were the most important, as they
+have become the most renowned, in his career. Passing through
+Strasburg, he posted his troops on the further bank of Cedar Creek,
+while he himself, on October 16th, went to Washington, in response to
+a request from Secretary Stanton, for consultation. Before the sun
+rose on the morning of the 19th, Early, who had been reinforced,
+surprised, during a fog, the left of the Union army and uncovered the
+position also of the Nineteenth Corps, capturing twenty-four guns and
+about fourteen hundred prisoners. General Wright succeeded in
+retaining his grasp on the turnpike by moving the Sixth Corps to its
+western side and the cavalry to its eastern; but the whole army in the
+process had been driven back beyond Middletown.
+
+Sheridan was at Winchester at this time, on his return from
+Washington. Hearing the noise of battle, he dashed up the turnpike
+with an escort of twenty men, rallying the fugitives on his way, and
+after a ride of a dozen miles reached the army, where he was received
+with indescribable enthusiasm. This famous incident gave rise to
+Buchanan Read's stirring poem of Sheridan's ride, now one of the most
+popular pieces in the repertories of public readers, both in England
+and the United States. After the lapse of a few hours, spent in
+preparing his forces, Sheridan ordered an advance, and literally swept
+the enemy from the field in one of the most overwhelming and decisive
+engagements of the war. All the lost Union guns were retaken, and
+twenty-four Confederate guns and many wagons and stores were captured.
+Congress passed a vote of thanks to Sheridan and his troops for the
+"brilliant series of victories in the valley," and especially the one
+at Cedar Creek. Sheridan was appointed by the President a
+major-general in the army "for the personal gallantry, military skill,
+and just confidence in the courage and patriotism of your troops," as
+the order expressed it, "displayed by you on October 19th."
+
+On February 27, 1865, Sheridan, with his cavalry, 10,000 strong, moved
+up the valley, destroying the Virginia Central Railroad, the James
+River Canal, and immense quantities of supplies, and defeating Early
+again at Waynesboro. He then made his way toward Grant's army and
+arrived at the White House on March 19th. In subsequent operations he
+acted immediately under General Grant. The final campaign of the war
+began, and on March 31st Sheridan was attacked by a heavy force of
+Lee's infantry, under Picket and Johnson; but on the following day,
+being reinforced by Warren, he entrapped and completely routed Picket
+and Johnson's forces at Five Forks, taking thousands of prisoners.
+Sheridan displayed great tactical skill and generalship on this
+occasion, and the decisive battle of Five Forks compelled General Lee
+to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. Lee was soon in flight, but
+Sheridan was speedily on his trail, and, far away in the Northern van,
+he constantly harassed the enemy. Overtaking the flying army at
+Sailor's Creek, he captured sixteen guns and four hundred wagons, and
+detained the enemy until the Sixth Corps could come up, when a
+combined attack resulted in the capture of more than six thousand
+prisoners.
+
+On April 8th Sheridan again engaged the Confederates at Appomattox
+Station. Early on the morning of the 9th the enemy endeavored to break
+through, but abandoned the attempt when Sheridan, moving aside,
+disclosed the infantry behind. Sheridan mounted his men and was about
+to charge, when the white flag betokening surrender was displayed in
+his front. This brought the war in Virginia to a close, though in
+Alabama and other districts the conflict continued to a somewhat later
+period. The Confederate power, however, was broken by the surrender at
+Appomattox Court-house, which practically ended the Civil War.
+
+Sheridan subsequently conducted an expedition into North Carolina. On
+June 3, 1865, he took command of the Military Division of the
+Southwest, at New Orleans, and was appointed to the Fifth Military
+District (Louisiana and Texas) in March, 1867. President Johnson,
+being dissatisfied with his administration, relieved him of his
+appointment during the reconstruction troubles in Louisiana, and
+transferred him to the Department of the Missouri. He continued in
+command until March 4, 1869, when he was promoted to the rank of
+lieutenant-general, and assigned the command of the Division of the
+Missouri, with head-quarters at Chicago.
+
+During the Franco-German War of 1870-71 General Sheridan visited
+Europe, and was present as a spectator with the German forces at
+several celebrated engagements. He was held in high esteem by Prince
+Bismarck and Count Von Moltke. After the sanguinary battle of
+Gravelotte, which Sheridan witnessed, Bismarck returned with the King
+to Pont-à-Mousson, and on the evening of the next day the German
+Chancellor entertained at dinner General Sheridan and his American
+companions, "with whom he talked eagerly in good English, while
+champagne and porter circulated." At one point of the Franco-German
+War, when Bismarck was at Versailles, anxiously desiring a French
+government with which he could conclude a durable peace, "it almost
+seemed," says Mr. Lowe, in his "Life of Bismarck," "as if he had no
+other resource but to pursue the war on the principles laid down by
+General Sheridan." The American soldier had said to the Chancellor:
+"First deal as hard blows at the enemy's soldiers as possible, and
+then cause so much suffering to the inhabitants of the country that
+they will long for peace and press their government to make it.
+Nothing should be left to the people but eyes to see and lament the
+war."
+
+[Illustration: Sheridan ride.]
+
+In 1875, during the political disturbances in Louisiana, General
+Sheridan was sent to New Orleans, returning to Chicago on quiet being
+restored. On the retirement of General Sherman, in March, 1884, he was
+appointed Commander-in-chief of the Army of the United States. He
+died August 5, 1888. General Sheridan was the most brilliant cavalry
+officer whom America has produced. In addition to conspicuous personal
+bravery, he had an eagle eye for piercing through the designs of an
+enemy and for detecting at a glance all their weak points. He
+possessed wonderful energy, remained undepressed in the presence of
+overwhelming odds, and had a superb confidence in moments of the
+greatest danger. His career was one of the most romantic and
+adventurous called forth by the great American civil struggle.
+
+
+
+
+ROBERT EDMUND LEE
+
+By GENERAL VISCOUNT WOLSELEY
+
+(1807-1870)
+
+[Illustration: Robert Lee. [TN]]
+
+
+It is my wish to give a short outline of General Lee's life, and to
+describe him as I saw him in the autumn of 1862, when at the head of
+proud and victorious troops he smiled at the notion of defeat by any
+army that could be sent against him. I desire to make known to the
+reader not only the renowned soldier, whom I believe to have been the
+greatest of his age, but to give some insight into the character of
+one whom I have always considered the most perfect man I ever met.
+
+As a looker-on, I feel that both parties in the war have so much to be
+proud of that both can afford to hear what impartial Englishmen, or
+foreigners, have to say about it. Inflated and bubble reputations were
+acquired during its progress, few of which will bear the test of time.
+The idol momentarily set up, often for political reasons, crumbles in
+time into the dust from which its limbs were perhaps originally
+moulded. To me, however, two figures stand out in that history,
+towering above all others, both cast in hard metal that will be
+forever proof against the belittling efforts of all future detractors:
+one, General Lee, the great soldier; the other, Mr. Lincoln, the
+far-seeing statesman of iron will, of unflinching determination. Each
+is a good representative of the genius that characterized his country.
+As I study the history of the secession war, these seem to me the two
+men who influenced it most, and who will be recognized as its greatest
+heroes when future generations of American historians record its
+stirring events with impartiality.
+
+General Lee came from the class of landed gentry that has furnished
+England at all times with her most able and distinguished leaders. The
+first of his family who went to America was Richard Lee, who, in 1641,
+became Colonial Secretary to the Governor of Virginia. The family
+settled in Westmoreland, one of the most lovely counties in that
+historic State, and members of it from time to time held high
+positions in the government. Several of the family distinguished
+themselves during the War of Independence, among whom was Henry, the
+father of General Robert E. Lee. He raised a mounted corps known as
+"Lee's Legion," in command of which he obtained the reputation of
+being an able and gallant soldier. He was nicknamed by his comrades
+"Light-Horse Harry." He was three times Governor of his native State.
+To him is attributed the authorship of the eulogy on General
+Washington, in which occurs the so-often quoted sentence, "First in
+war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen,"
+praise that with equal truth might have been subsequently applied to
+his own distinguished son.
+
+The subject of this slight sketch, Robert Edmund Lee, was born January
+9, 1807, at the family place of Stratford, in the county of
+Westmoreland, State of Virginia. When only a few years old, his
+parents moved to the small town of Alexandria, which is on the right
+bank of the Potomac River, nearly opposite Washington, but a little
+below it.
+
+He was but a boy of eleven when his father died, leaving his family in
+straitened circumstances. Like many other great commanders, he was in
+consequence brought up in comparative poverty, a condition which has
+been pronounced by the greatest of them as the best training for
+soldiers. During his early years he attended a day-school near his
+home in Alexandria. He was thus able in his leisure hours to help his
+invalid mother in all her household concerns, and to afford her that
+watchful care which, owing to her very delicate health, she so much
+needed. She was a clever, highly gifted woman, and by her fond care
+his character was formed and stamped with honest truthfulness. By her
+he was taught never to forget that he was well born, and that, as a
+gentleman, honor must be his guiding star through life. It was from
+her lips he learned his Bible, from her teaching he drank in the
+sincere belief in revealed religion which he never lost. It was she
+who imbued her great son with an ineradicable belief in the efficacy
+of prayer, and in the reality of God's interposition in the every-day
+affairs of the true believer. No son ever returned a mother's love
+with more heartfelt intensity. She was his idol, and he worshipped her
+with the deep-seated inborn love which is known only to the son in
+whom filial affection is strengthened by respect and personal
+admiration for the woman who bore him. He was her all in all, or, as
+she described it, he was both son and daughter to her. He watched over
+her in weary hours of pain, and served her with all that soft
+tenderness which was such a marked trait in the character of this
+great, stern leader of men.
+
+He seems to have been throughout his boyhood and early youth perfect
+in disposition, in bearing, and in conduct--a model of all that was
+noble, honorable, and manly. Of the early life of very few great men
+can this be said. Many who have left behind the greatest reputations
+for usefulness, in whom middle age was a model of virtue and perhaps
+of noble self-denial, began their career in a whirlwind of wild
+excess. Often, again, we find that, like Nero, the virtuous youth
+develops into the middle-aged fiend, who leaves behind him a name to
+be execrated for all time. It would be difficult to find in history a
+great man, be he soldier or statesman, with a character so
+irreproachable throughout his whole life as that which in boyhood,
+youth, manhood, and to his death, distinguished Robert Lee from all
+contemporaries.
+
+He entered the Military Academy of West Point at the age of eighteen,
+where he worked hard, became adjutant of the cadet corps, and finally
+graduated at the head of his class. There he mastered the theory of
+war and studied the campaigns of the great masters in that most
+ancient of all sciences. Whatever he did, even as a boy, he did
+thoroughly, with order and method. Even at this early age he was the
+model Christian gentleman in thought, word, and deed; careful and
+exact in the obedience he rendered his superiors, but remarkable for
+that dignity of deportment which all through his career struck
+strangers with admiring respect.
+
+He left West Point when twenty-two, having gained its highest honors,
+and at once obtained a commission in the engineers. Two years
+afterward he married the granddaughter and heiress of Mrs. Custis,
+whose second husband had been General Washington, but by whom she left
+no children. It was a great match for a poor subaltern officer, as his
+wife was heiress to a very extensive property and to a large number of
+slaves. She was clever, very well educated, and a general favorite; he
+was handsome, tall, well made, with a graceful figure, and a good
+rider; his manners were at once easy and captivating. These young
+people had long known one another, and each was the other's first
+love. She brought with her as part of her fortune General Washington's
+beautiful property of Arlington, situated on the picturesque wooded
+heights that overhang the Potomac River, opposite the capital to which
+the great Washington had given his name. In talking to me of the
+Northern troops, whose conduct in Virginia was then denounced by every
+local paper, no bitter expression passed his lips, but tears filled
+his eyes as he referred to the destruction of his place, that had been
+the cherished home of the father of the United States. He could
+forgive their cutting down his trees, their wanton conversion of his
+pleasure-grounds into a graveyard, but he could never forget their
+reckless plunder of all the camp equipment and other relics of General
+Washington that Arlington House had contained.
+
+Robert Lee first saw active service during the American war with
+Mexico in 1846, where he was wounded, and evinced a remarkable talent
+for war that brought him prominently into notice. He was afterward
+engaged in operations against hostile Indians, and obtained the
+reputation in the army of being an able officer of great promise.
+General Scott, then the general of greatest repute in the United
+States, was especially attracted by the zeal and soldierly instinct of
+the young captain of engineers, and frequently employed him on distant
+expeditions that required cool nerve, confidence, and plenty of
+common sense. It is a curious fact that throughout the Mexican War
+General Scott in his despatches and reports made frequent mention of
+three officers--Lee, Beauregard, and McClellan--whose names became
+household words in America afterward, during the great Southern
+struggle for independence. General Scott had the highest opinion of
+Lee's military genius, and did not hesitate to ascribe much of his
+success in Mexico as due to Lee's "skill, valor, and undaunted
+energy." Indeed, subsequently, when the day came that these two men
+should part, each to take a different side in the horrible contest
+before them, General Scott is said to have urged Mr. Lincoln's
+Government to secure Lee at any price, alleging he "would be worth
+fifty thousand men to them." His valuable services were duly
+recognized at Washington by more than one step of brevet promotion: he
+obtained the rank of colonel and was given command of a cavalry
+regiment shortly afterward.
+
+I must now pass to the most important epoch of his life, when the
+Southern States left the Union and set up a government of their own.
+Mr. Lincoln was in 1860 elected President of the United States in the
+abolitionist interest. Both parties were so angry that thoughtful men
+soon began to see that war alone could end this bitter dispute.
+Shipwreck was before the vessel of state which General Washington had
+built and guided with so much care during his long and hard-fought
+contest. Civil war stared the American citizen in the face, and Lee's
+heart was well-nigh broken at the prospect. Early in 1861 the seven
+Cotton States passed acts declaring their withdrawal from the Union,
+and their establishment of an independent republic, under the title of
+"The Confederate States of America." This declaration of independence
+was in reality a revolution; war alone could ever bring all the States
+together.
+
+Lee viewed this secession with horror. Until the month of April, when
+Virginia, his own dearly cherished State, joined the Confederacy, he
+clung fondly to the hope that the gulf which separated the North from
+the South might yet be bridged over. He believed the dissolution of
+the Union to be a dire calamity not only for his own country, but for
+civilization and all mankind. "Still," he said, "a Union that can only
+be maintained by swords and bayonets, and in which strife and civil
+war are to take the place of brotherly love and kindness, has no charm
+for me." In common with all Southerners he firmly believed that each
+of the old States had a legal and indisputable right, by its
+individual constitution, and by its act of union, to leave at will the
+great Union into which each had separately entered as a sovereign
+State. This was with him an article of faith of which he was as sure
+as of any divine truths he found in the Bible. This fact must be kept
+always in mind by those who would rightly understand his character, or
+the course he pursued in 1861. He loved the Union for which his father
+and family in the previous century had fought so hard and done so
+much. But he loved his own State still more. She was the sovereign to
+whom in the first place he owed allegiance, and whose orders, as
+expressed through her legally constituted government, he was, he felt,
+bound in law, in honor, and in love to obey without doubt or
+hesitation. This belief was the mainspring that kept the Southern
+Confederacy going, as it was also the corner-stone of its
+constitution.
+
+In April, 1861, at Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, the first shot was
+fired in a war that was only ended in April, 1865, by the surrender of
+General Lee's army at Appomattox Court House, in Virginia. In duration
+it is the longest war waged since the great Napoleon's power was
+finally crushed at Waterloo. As the heroic struggle of a small
+population that was cut off from all outside help, against a great,
+populous, and very rich republic, with every market in the world open
+to it, and to whom all Europe was a recruiting ground, this secession
+war stands out prominently in the history of the world. When the vast
+numbers of men put into the field by the Northern States, and the
+scale upon which their operations were carried on, are duly
+considered, it must be regarded as a war fully equal in magnitude to
+the successful invasion of France by Germany in 1870. If the mind be
+allowed to speculate on the course that events will take in centuries
+to come, as they flow surely on with varying swiftness to the ocean of
+the unknown future, the influence which the result of this Confederate
+war is bound to exercise upon man's future history will seem very
+great. Think of what a power the re-United States will be in another
+century! Of what it will be in the twenty-first century of the
+Christian era! If, as many believe, China is destined to absorb all
+Asia and then to overrun Europe, may it not be in the possible future
+that Armageddon, the final contest between heathendom and
+Christianity, may be fought out between China and North America? Had
+secession been victorious, it is tolerably certain that the United
+States would have broken up still further, and instead of the present
+magnificent and English-speaking empire, we should now see in its
+place a number of small powers with separate interests.
+
+Most certainly it was the existence of slavery in the South that gave
+rise to the bitter antagonism of feeling which led to secession. But
+it was not to secure emancipation that the North took up arms,
+although during the progress of the war Mr. Lincoln proclaimed it, for
+the purpose of striking his enemy a serious blow. Lee hated slavery,
+but, as he explained to me, he thought it wicked to give freedom
+suddenly to some millions of people who were incapable of using it
+with profit to themselves or the State. He assured me he had long
+intended to gradually give his slaves their liberty. He believed the
+institution to be a moral and political evil, and more hurtful to the
+white than to the black man. He had a strong affection for the negro;
+but he deprecated any sudden or violent interference on the part of
+the State between master and slave. Nothing would have induced him to
+fight for the continuance of slavery; indeed, he declared that had he
+owned every slave in the South he would willingly give them all up if
+by so doing he could preserve the Union. He was opposed to secession,
+and to prevent it he would willingly sacrifice everything except honor
+and duty, which forbade him to desert his State. When in April, 1861,
+she formally and by an act of her Legislature left the Union, he
+resigned his commission in the United States army with the intention
+of retiring into private life. He endeavored to choose what was right.
+Every personal interest bade him throw in his lot with the Union. His
+property lay so close to Washington that it was certain to be
+destroyed and swept of every slave, as belonging to a rebel. But the
+die was cast; he forsook everything for principle and the stern duty
+it entailed. Then came that final temptation which opened out before
+him a vista of power and importance greater than that which any man
+since Washington had held in America. General Long's book proves
+beyond all further doubt that he was offered the post of
+commander-in-chief of the Federal army. General Scott, his great
+friend and leader, whom he loved and respected, then commanding that
+army, used all his influence to persuade him to throw in his lot with
+the North, but to no purpose. Nothing would induce him to have any
+part in the invasion of his own State, much as he abhorred the war
+into which he felt she was rushing. His love of country, his unselfish
+patriotism, caused him to relinquish home, fortune, a certain future,
+in fact, everything, for her sake.
+
+He was not, however, to remain a spectator of the coming conflict; he
+was too well known to his countrymen in Virginia as the officer in
+whom the Federal army had most confidence. The State of Virginia
+appointed him major-general and commander-in-chief of all her military
+forces. In open and crowded convention he formally accepted this
+position, saying, with all that dignity and grace of manner which
+distinguished him, that he did so "trusting in Almighty God, an
+approving conscience, and the aid of my fellow-citizens." The scene
+was most impressive. There were present all the leading men of
+Virginia, and representatives of all the first families in a State
+where great store was attached to gentle birth, and where society was
+very exclusive. General Lee's presence commanded respect, even from
+strangers, by a calm, self-possessed dignity the like of which I have
+never seen in other men. Naturally of strong passions, he kept them
+under perfect control by that iron and determined will, of which his
+expression and his face gave evidence. As this tall, handsome soldier
+stood before his countrymen, he was the picture of the ideal patriot,
+unconscious and self-possessed in his strength; he indulged in no
+theatrical display of feeling; there was in his face and about him
+that placid resolve which bespoke great confidence in self, and which
+in his case--one knows not how--quickly communicated its magnetic
+influence to others. He was then just fifty-four years old, the age of
+Marlborough when he destroyed the French army at Blenheim. In many
+ways and on many points these two great men much resembled each other.
+Both were of a dignified and commanding exterior; eminently handsome,
+with a figure tall, graceful, and erect, while a muscular,
+square-built frame bespoke great activity of body. The charm of manner
+which I have mentioned as very winning in Lee, was possessed in the
+highest degree by Marlborough. Both, at the outset of their great
+career of victory, were regarded as essentially national commanders.
+Both had married young, and were faithful husbands and devoted
+fathers. Both had in all their campaigns the same belief in an
+ever-watchful Providence, in whose help they trusted implicitly, and
+for whose interposition they prayed at all times. They were gifted
+with the same military instinct, the same genius for war. The power of
+fascinating those with whom they were associated, the spell which they
+cast over their soldiers, who believed almost superstitiously in their
+certainty of victory, their contempt of danger, their daring courage,
+constitute a parallel that is difficult to equal between any other two
+great men of modern times.
+
+From the first Lee anticipated a long and bloody struggle, although
+from the bombastic oratory of self-elected politicians and patriots
+the people were led to believe that the whole business would be
+settled in a few weeks. This folly led to a serious evil, namely, the
+enlistment of soldiers for only ninety days. Lee, who understood war,
+pleaded in favor of the engagement being for the term of war, but he
+pleaded in vain. To add to his military difficulties, the politicians
+insisted upon the officers being elected by their men. This was a
+point which, in describing to me the constitution of his army, Lee
+most deplored.
+
+The formation of an army with the means alone at his disposal was a
+colossal task. Everything had to be created by this extraordinary man.
+The South was an agricultural, not a manufacturing, country, and the
+resources of foreign lands were denied it by the blockade of its ports
+maintained by the fleet of the United States. Lee was a thorough man
+of business, quick in decision, yet methodical in all he did. He knew
+what he wanted. He knew what an army should be, and how it should be
+organized, both in a purely military as well as an administrative
+sense. In about two months he had created a little army of fifty
+thousand men, animated by a lofty patriotism and courage that made
+them unconquerable by any similarly constituted army. In another month
+this army, at Bull Run, gained a complete victory over the Northern
+invaders, who were driven back across the Potomac like herds of
+frightened sheep.
+
+The Confederates did not follow up their victory at Bull Run. A rapid
+and daring advance would have given them possession of Washington,
+their enemy's capital. Political considerations at Richmond were
+allowed to outweigh the very evident military expediency of reaping a
+solid advantage from this their first great success. Often afterward,
+when this attempt to allay the angry feelings of the North against the
+act of secession had entirely failed, was this action of their
+political rulers lamented by the Confederate commanders.
+
+In this article, to attempt even a sketch of the subsequent military
+operations is not to be thought of. Both sides fought well, and both
+have such true reason to be proud of their achievements that they can
+now afford to hear the professional criticisms of their English
+friends in the same spirit that we Britishers have learned to read of
+the many defeats inflicted upon our arms by General Washington.
+
+As a student of war I would fain linger over the interesting lessons
+to be learned from Lee's campaigns; of the same race as both
+belligerents, I could with the utmost pleasure dwell upon the many
+brilliant feats of arms on both sides; but I cannot do so here.
+
+The end came at last, when the well-supplied North, rich enough to pay
+recruits, no matter where they came from, a bounty of over five
+hundred dollars a head, triumphed over an exhausted South, hemmed in
+on all sides, and even cut off from all communication with the outside
+world. The desperate, though drawn battle of Gettysburg was the
+death-knell of Southern independence; and General Sherman's splendid
+but almost unopposed march to the sea showed the world that all
+further resistance on the part of the Confederate States could only be
+a profitless waste of blood. In the thirty-five days of fighting near
+Richmond which ended the war in 1865, General Grant's army numbered
+190,000, that of Lee only 51,000 men. Every man lost by the former was
+easily replaced, but an exhausted South could find no more soldiers.
+"The right of self-government," which Washington won and for which Lee
+fought, was no longer to be a watchword to stir men's blood in the
+United States. The South was humbled and beaten by its own flesh and
+blood in the North, and it is difficult to know which to admire most,
+the good sense with which the result was accepted in the so-called
+Confederate States, or the wise magnanimity displayed by the victors.
+The wounds are now healed on both sides; Northerners and Southerners
+are now once more a united people, with a future before them to which
+no other nation can aspire. If the English-speaking people of the
+earth cannot all acknowledge the same sovereign, they can, and I am
+sure they will, at least combine to work in the interests of truth and
+of peace for the good of mankind. The wise men on both sides of the
+Atlantic will take care to chase away all passing clouds that may at
+any time throw even a shadow of dispute or discord between the two
+great families into which our race is divided.
+
+Like all men, Lee had his faults; like all the greatest of generals,
+he sometimes made mistakes. His nature shrank with such horror from
+the dread of wounding the feelings of others, that upon occasions he
+left men in positions of responsibility to which their abilities were
+not equal. This softness of heart, amiable as that quality may be,
+amounts to a crime in the man intrusted with the direction of public
+affairs at critical moments. Lee's devotion to duty and great respect
+for obedience seem at times to have made him too subservient to those
+charged with the civil government of his country. He carried out too
+literally the orders of those whom the Confederate constitution made
+his superiors, although he must have known them to be entirely
+ignorant of the science of war. He appears to have forgotten that he
+was the great revolutionary chief engaged in a great revolutionary
+war, that he was no mere leader in a political struggle of parties
+carried on within the lines of an old, well-established form of
+government. It was very clear to many at the time, as it will be
+commonly acknowledged now, that the South could only hope to win under
+the rule of a military dictator. If General Washington had had a Mr.
+Davis over him, could he have accomplished what he did? It will, I am
+sure, be news to many that General Lee was given the command over all
+the Confederate armies a month or two only before the final collapse;
+and that the military policy of the South was all throughout the war
+dictated by Mr. Davis as President of the Confederate States. Lee had
+no power to reward soldiers or to promote officers. It was Mr. Davis
+who selected the men to command divisions and armies. Is it to be
+supposed that Cromwell, King William the Third, Washington, or
+Napoleon could have succeeded in the revolutions with which their
+names are identified, had they submitted to the will and authority of
+a politician as Lee did to Mr. Davis?
+
+Lee was opposed to the final defence of Richmond that was urged upon
+him for political, not military, reasons. It was a great strategic
+error. General Grant's large army of men was easily fed and its daily
+losses easily recruited from a near base; whereas if it had been drawn
+far into the interior after the little army with which Lee endeavored
+to protect Richmond, its fighting strength would have been largely
+reduced by the detachments required to guard a long line of
+communications through a hostile country. It is profitless, however,
+to speculate upon what might have been, and the military student must
+take these campaigns as they were carried out. No fair estimate of Lee
+as a general can be made by a simple comparison of what he achieved
+with that which Napoleon, Wellington, or Von Moltke accomplished,
+unless due allowance is made for the difference in the nature of the
+American armies, and of the armies commanded and encountered by those
+great leaders. They were at the head of perfectly organized,
+thoroughly trained, and well disciplined troops; while Lee's soldiers,
+though gallant and daring to a fault, lacked the military cohesion and
+efficiency, the trained company leaders, and the educated staff which
+are only to be found in a regular army of long standing. A trial heat
+between two jockeys mounted on untrained horses may be interesting,
+but no one would ever quote the performance as an instance of great
+racing speed.
+
+Who shall ever fathom the depth of Lee's anguish when the bitter end
+came, and when, beaten down by sheer force of numbers, and by
+absolutely nothing else, he found himself obliged to surrender! The
+handful of starving men remaining with him laid down their arms, and
+the proud Confederacy ceased to be. Surely the crushing, maddening
+anguish of awful sorrow is only known to the leader who has so failed
+to accomplish some lofty, some noble aim for which he has long striven
+with might and main, with heart and soul, in the interests of king or
+of country. A smiling face, a cheerful mien, may conceal the sore
+place from the eyes, possibly even from the knowledge of his friends;
+but there is no healing for such a wound, which eats into the very
+heart of him who has once received it.
+
+General Lee survived the destruction of the Confederacy for five
+years, when, at the age of sixty-three, and surrounded by his family,
+life ebbed slowly from him. Where else in history is a great man to be
+found whose whole life was one such blameless record of duty nobly
+done? It was consistent in all its parts, complete in all its
+relations. The most perfect gentleman of a State long celebrated for
+its chivalry, he was just, gentle, and generous, and childlike in the
+simplicity of his character. Never elated with success, he bore
+reverse, and at last, complete overthrow, with dignified resignation.
+Throughout this long and cruel struggle his was all the
+responsibility, but not the power that should have accompanied it. The
+fierce light which beats upon the throne is as that of a rush-light
+in comparison with the electric glare which our newspapers now focus
+upon the public man in Lee's position. His character has been
+subjected to that ordeal, and who can point to any spot upon it? His
+clear, sound judgment, personal courage, untiring activity, genius for
+war, and absolute devotion to his State mark him out as a public man,
+as a patriot to be forever remembered by all Americans. His amiability
+of disposition, deep sympathy with those in pain or sorrow, his love
+for children, nice sense of personal honor, and genial courtesy
+endeared him to all his friends. I shall never forget his sweet,
+winning smile, nor his clear, honest eyes, that seemed to look into
+your brain. I have met many of the great men of my time, but Lee alone
+impressed me with the feeling that I was in the presence of a man who
+was cast in a grander mould, and made of different and of finer metal
+than all other men. He is stamped upon my memory as a being apart and
+superior to all others in every way: a man with whom none I ever knew,
+and very few of whom I have read, are worthy to be classed. I have met
+but two men who realize my ideas of what a true hero should be: my
+friend Charles Gordon, was one, General Lee was the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following beautiful letter was written by Lee to his son in
+1860:[11]
+
+         [Footnote 11: Copied, with the kind permission of the
+         publisher, G. W. Dillingham, from John Esten Cooke's Life of
+         Lee.]
+
+"You must study to be frank with the world; frankness is the child of
+honesty and courage. Say just what you mean to do on every occasion,
+and take it for granted you mean to do right. If a friend asks a
+favor, you should grant it, if it is reasonable; if not, tell him
+plainly why you cannot; you will wrong him and wrong yourself by
+equivocation of any kind. Never do a wrong thing to make a friend or
+keep one; the man who requires you to do so, is dearly purchased at a
+sacrifice. Deal kindly, but firmly, with all your classmates; you will
+find it the policy which wears best. Above all, do not appear to
+others what you are not. If you have any fault to find with anyone,
+tell him, not others, of what you complain; there is no more dangerous
+experiment than that of undertaking to be one thing before a man's
+face and another behind his back. We should live, act, and say,
+nothing to the injury of anyone. It is not only best as a matter of
+principle, but it is the path to peace and honor.
+
+"In regard to duty, let me, in conclusion of this hasty letter, inform
+you that, nearly a hundred years ago, there was a day of remarkable
+gloom and darkness--still known as 'the dark day'--a day when the
+light of the sun was slowly extinguished, as if by an eclipse. The
+Legislature of Connecticut was in session, and as its members saw the
+unexpected and unaccountable darkness coming on, they shared in the
+general awe and terror. It was supposed by many that the last day--the
+day of judgment--had come. Someone, in the consternation of the hour,
+moved an adjournment. Then there arose an old Puritan legislator,
+Davenport, of Stamford, and said that, if the last day had come, he
+desired to be found at his place doing his duty, and therefore, moved
+that candles be brought in, so that the House could proceed with its
+duty. There was quietness in that man's mind, the quietness of
+heavenly wisdom and inflexible willingness to obey present duty. Duty,
+then, is the sublimest word in our language. Do your duty in all
+things, like the old Puritan. You cannot do more, you should never
+wish to do less. Never let me and your mother wear one gray hair for
+any lack of duty on your part."
+
+
+
+
+THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON[12]
+
+By MARION HARLAND
+
+(1826-1863)
+
+         [Footnote 12: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Thomas Jackson. [TN]]
+
+
+In 1842 a young man from Lewis County, Va., "dropped" discouraged out
+of his class in West Point, after a few weeks' trial of drill and
+curriculum, and returned home.
+
+The story of his defeat was canvassed freely in the neighborhood
+smithy, the head-quarters of provincial gossip, and was under
+discussion one May day while Cummins Jackson, a planter and bachelor,
+waited to have a horse shod.
+
+"There's a chance for Tom Jackson!" observed the blacksmith, with
+friendly officiousness.
+
+The early life of Cummins Jackson's nephew was well known to speaker
+and bystanders. Left an orphan at seven years of age, he, with his
+brother, older than himself, and their little sister, were thrown upon
+the charity of uncles and aunts. "Tom" was accounted steady and
+industrious, yet there was a serious break in his record. The brothers
+had run away to seek their fortunes in company when Warren was
+fourteen, Tom but twelve years old, going down the Ohio to the
+Mississippi and maintaining themselves by cutting wood for passing
+steamboats until disabled by malarial fever. Thomas took the lead in
+the juvenile prodigals' return to relatives and respectability, and
+was kindly received by his bachelor uncle. Since then he had worked in
+Cummins Jackson's mill and upon his farm as diligently as he sought to
+"get an education" in the "old field school" nearest to his home.
+
+His imagination took fire at his uncle's report of the blacksmith's
+suggestion. Armed with a letter of introduction signed by leading
+citizens of the county, to the Congressman from the district, he went
+in person to Washington and through the kindness of the
+representative obtained an interview with the Secretary of War.
+
+"Gruff and heroic with the grit of Old Hickory himself" was the
+cabinet-officer's opinion of the country lad. He commended him to the
+West Point Board of Examiners in terms that secured him admission to
+the Military Academy in spite of certain grave deficiencies in his
+early education.
+
+The story of the wrestle with these and other disabilities during the
+next four years is interesting and instructive. Three extracts from a
+list of rules for his personal conduct, set down at this time in a
+private note-book, sound the keynote of his subsequent career:
+
+"_Sacrifice your life rather than your word._
+
+"_Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you
+resolve._
+
+"_You may be whatever you resolve to be._"
+
+He was respected by all his classmates, known and liked by a few. He
+was too reserved by nature, too busy in practice, to be a general
+favorite. His labors were unremitting, his recreations few and simple.
+With no prevision of the destinies awaiting them, Jackson, McClellan,
+A. T. Hill, Reno, Picket, Foster, and Maury, as beardless boys,
+studied and were drilled side by side for four terms and were
+graduated upon the same day. There were seventy in this remarkable
+class, and the name of Thomas Jonathan Jackson stood seventeenth upon
+the roll of merit.
+
+"If we had to stay here one year more, old Jack would be at the head,"
+the witnesses of the fierce ordeal of his West Point training used to
+say.
+
+The class of '46 was ordered forthwith to the seat of war in Mexico.
+Jackson's first engagement was the siege of Vera Cruz; his next the
+battle of Cherubusco. The official report of this last mentions him
+favorably. As second lieutenant, he was called upon early in the
+action to take the place of the next in rank above him, the first
+lieutenant having fallen in the charge. After the battle Jackson was
+further promoted to the rank of brevet captain. His "devotion,
+industry, talent, and gallantry" were noted officially after
+Chapultepec, not only by his colonel, but by Generals Pillow and
+Worth, and by the Commander-in-chief, Winfield Scott.
+
+What he afterward confessed as the "one wilful lie he ever told" is
+thus reported by a brother-officer:
+
+"Lieutenant Jackson's section of Magruder's battery was subjected to a
+plunging fire from the Castle of Chapultepec. Horses were killed or
+disabled, and the men deserted the guns and sought shelter behind wall
+or embankment. Lieutenant Jackson remained at the guns, walking back
+and forth and kept saying, 'See, there is no danger; _I_ am not hit!'
+While standing with his legs wide apart, a cannon-ball passed between
+them.... No other officer in the army in Mexico was promoted so often
+for meritorious conduct, or made so great a stride in rank."
+
+After peace was declared in 1848, he was stationed for two years at
+Fort Hamilton, and six months at Fort Meade in Florida; in 1851 he was
+elected Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and
+Artillery Tactics in the Virginia Military Institute, situated in
+Lexington, Va. In the decade succeeding this event, he was to the
+casual eye the least striking figure in the group of professors who
+taught the art of war in the beautiful mountain-girt "West Point of
+the South."
+
+"I should have said that he was the least likely of our family to make
+a noise in the world," said his sister-in-law in 1862, when the
+popular voice was ranking him with Bayard, Roland, Sidney, and
+Napoleon.
+
+"I knew that what I willed to do, I could do," he had said of his
+recovery from physical weaknesses which made his acceptance of the
+Lexington professorship of doubtful expediency, in the judgment of
+friends.
+
+He never willed to be eloquent in the lecture-room or brilliant in
+society in his life as teacher, church official, and neighbor there
+was no evidence of the personal magnetism which was to make him the
+soul and genius of the Confederate army. While carrying into every
+detail of daily existence the military law of system and fidelity, he
+was aggressive in nothing. The grave, quiet gentleman who was never
+late in class, never negligent of the minutest professional duty, who
+was always punctual at religious services, and never missed a meeting
+of the Faculty of the V. M. I., or of the deacons of the Presbyterian
+Church, was reckoned a good Christian and upright citizen, exemplary
+in domestic and social relations--perhaps a trifle ultra-conscientious
+in some particulars. But for the prevalency of orthodoxy in "the
+Valley" he would have been considered eccentric in his religious views
+and practice. He established a Sunday-school for the negroes and
+superintended it in person; he gave a tenth of his substance to the
+church; he "weighed his lightest utterances in the balances of the
+sanctuary;" he would not pick up an apple in a neighbor's orchard
+unless he had permission to take it; he never wrote or read letters on
+Sunday, or mailed one that must travel on that day to reach its
+destination; used neither tobacco, tea, nor coffee, and during the war
+was "more afraid of a glass of wine than of Federal bullets." His
+reverence for women was deep and unfeigned; he was gentleness itself
+to little children; bowed down before the hoary head, and never sank
+the lover in the husband. All that he had and all he was, belonged
+first to GOD, then to his wife.
+
+"His person was tall, erect, and muscular.... His bearing was
+peculiarly English, and in the somewhat free society of America was
+regarded as constrained. Every movement was quick and decisive; his
+articulation was rapid, but distinct and emphatic, and often made the
+impression of curtness. He practised a military exactness in all the
+courtesies of society.... His brow was fair and expansive; his eyes
+blue-gray, large, and expressive; his nose Roman and well-chiselled,
+his cheeks were ruddy and sunburned; his mouth, firm and full of
+meaning; his beard was brown"--is a pen-picture drawn by a brother
+officer.
+
+On December 2, 1859, a corps of cadets was sent to Charlestown, Va.,
+to secure law and order during the execution of John Brown. Major
+Jackson's graphic description of the scene in a letter to his wife
+contains this passage:
+
+"I was much impressed with the thought that before me stood a man in
+the full vigor of health, who must in a few moments enter eternity. I
+sent up the petition that he might be saved."
+
+An officer upon duty, he saw the terrible spectacle with Cromwellian
+composure, but the man behind the impassive mask was upon his knees in
+prayer for the human soul. Under date of January 21, 1860, he writes:
+
+"Viewing things at Washington from human appearances we have great
+reason for alarm, but my trust is in God. I cannot think that He will
+permit the madness of men to interfere so materially with the
+Christian labors of this country at home and abroad."
+
+She who, of all the world, knew him best records:
+
+"He never was a secessionist and maintained that it was better for the
+South to fight for her rights in the Union than out of it.... At this
+time (March 16, 1861) he was strongly for the Union. At the same time,
+he was a firm State's rights man."
+
+At dawn, April 21st, he received an order from the Governor of
+Virginia to report to him immediately at Richmond, bringing the corps
+of cadets with him. At 1 o'clock P.M. he bade a final farewell to home
+and Lexington.
+
+On June 4th he writes incidentally to his "Little One" from Harper's
+Ferry:
+
+"The troops here have been divided into brigades, and the Virginia
+forces under General Johnston constitute the First Brigade, of which I
+am in command."
+
+This brigade was to share with the commanding officers the _sobriquet_
+by which he is known better than under his real name. In the battery
+attached to it were forty-nine graduates of colleges, besides nineteen
+divinity students.
+
+From the first victory of Manassas (June 21, 1861), when General Bee
+turned the tide of battle by shouting to the wavering lines, "Look at
+Jackson, standing like a stone wall! Rally behind the Virginians!" to
+the fatal blunder of May 2, 1863, "Stonewall" Jackson was the flashing
+star that guided the Confederate armies to glorious success. His faith
+in the God of armies was so blended with the conviction that he was a
+chosen instrument in the Omnipotent hand to repel invasion and secure
+an honorable peace for his beloved State, that his sublime confidence
+infused officers and men.
+
+A fragment of a camp ballad, popular in 1862, will give a faint idea
+of the enthusiasm excited by the "praying fighter:"
+
+  Silence! ground arms! kneel all! caps off!
+    Old Blue-light's going to pray.
+  Strangle the fool that dares to scoff!
+    Attention! 'tis his way!
+  Appealing from his native sod
+    In _forma pauperis_ to God;
+  "Lay bare Thine arm--stretch forth Thy rod!
+    Amen!" _That's_ Stonewall's way.
+
+Love-letters to his "only sweetheart," written in camp, in the saddle,
+from smoking battle-fields, red with the blood of the slain, reveal a
+heart as tender as it was stout, faith that never failed, the courage
+of a lion, the unspoiled simplicity of a child.
+
+Our last extract from war papers is significant of what might have
+been but for the fall of the South's greatest chieftain at the most
+critical period of the struggle:
+
+"Jackson alone stands forth the one advocate of 'ceaseless invasion'
+as our 'safest hope,' the first conviction of his mind and a policy in
+accord with Southern feeling."
+
+Mrs. Jackson joined her husband at his quarters near Fredericksburg,
+bringing with her the baby-girl he had never seen until then, on April
+20, 1863. On the 23d the little one, held in the proud father's arms,
+was baptized by the regimental chaplain. Nine golden days followed the
+reunion of the loving family before Hooker crossed the Rappahannock in
+force. Wife and baby were hurried off to Richmond after "a hasty,
+tender adieu," and the battle of Chancellorsville began.
+
+"From the opening of this campaign," says Jackson's biographer, "it
+was observed that a wondrous change came over him. From the quiet,
+patient, but arduous laborer over his daily tasks, he seemed
+transformed into a thunderbolt of war."
+
+During the three awful days of Chancellorsville "the thunderbolt"
+seemed omnipresent to the Confederate soldiers, oftenest in the
+hottest of the fight, always where he was most sorely needed.
+
+On the afternoon of May 2d, in making his way from one part of the
+field to another with his staff and couriers, they were mistaken for
+Federal cavalry, and a volley of musketry was poured in upon them,
+wounding General Jackson mortally.
+
+On the way to the rear a second disaster overtook the doomed band. A
+Federal battery opened a fire across the road, and the devoted
+attendants, laying the wounded chief in a shallow ditch, covered him
+with their own bodies while the tempest of shot tore up the earth on
+all sides of them. The danger was averted by a change in the range of
+the guns, and the mournful march was resumed. Meeting a North Carolina
+general who "feared," in reply to Jackson's eager questions, "that his
+troops could not maintain their position," the hero spoke out, in the
+accustomed tone of command:
+
+"You _must_ hold your ground, General Pender! you must hold your
+ground, sir!"
+
+It was his last military order. Some hours later he lay in his tent,
+weak from pain and loss of blood, one arm gone, and his other wounds
+dressed, when a messenger arrived in haste from General J. E. B.
+Stuart, relating that he was contending against fearful odds in the
+field, and asking for counsel from the friend who would never more
+ride forth at his side. At the tidings of Stuart's extremity, General
+Jackson aroused himself to interrogate the bearer of the message,
+query succeeding query with characteristic impetuosity. Suddenly the
+martial fire faded ashily, his eyes dulled into mournfulness.
+
+"I don't know. I can't tell--" as if groping for thought or words.
+"Tell General Stuart to do what _he_ thinks best."
+
+The "resolve" he and others had thought invincible, the iron nerve
+that had not quivered in the shock of fifty engagements, failed him.
+Yet he rallied as the cannonading jarred his bed and insisted upon
+receiving reports from hour to hour.
+
+"Good! good!" he ejaculated, when told how his own brigade was
+behaving. "The men will some day be proud to say to their children, 'I
+was one of the Stonewall brigade.' The name belongs to them, not to
+me. It was their steadfast heroism at First Manassas that earned it.
+They are a noble body of men."
+
+His wife and child were recalled in season to be with him for two days
+immediately preceding his death. Although confident up to the dawn of
+his last day on earth, that GOD still had work for him to do, and
+would raise him up to do it, he received the news of his approaching
+dissolution with perfect calmness.
+
+"He preferred the will of GOD to his own;" he "would be infinitely the
+gainer by the translation from earth to heaven." He gave his wife
+instructions as to his burial and her future home; smiled radiantly,
+in murmuring "Little darling! sweet one!" as the baby he had named for
+his mother was lifted for the father's last kiss.
+
+"Jackson must recover," General Lee had exclaimed upon hearing of his
+condition. "God will not take him from us now that we need him so
+much. Say to him that he has lost his left arm, _I my right!_"
+
+Men who had not blenched when brought face to face with death that
+menaced themselves, bowed to the earth, weeping like women, as mortal
+weakness stole upon the strong right arm of the Confederacy. Without
+the tent "the whole army was praying for him," while incoherent
+sentences of command and inarticulate murmurings fell from his
+lips--fainter with each utterance. The watchers thought speech and
+consciousness gone forever, when the voice that had pealed like the
+blast of Roland in charge and rally, sounded through the hushed
+chamber, sweet, distinct, and full of cheer, but in dreamy
+inflections:
+
+_"Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees!_"
+
+Forced march, and midnight raid, and mad rush of battle were over.
+Victorious Greatheart slept upon the field.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+[Illustration: Jackson at Chancellorsville.]
+
+
+
+
+DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT
+
+By L. P. BROCKETT, A.M.
+
+(1801-1870)
+
+[Illustration: David Farragut. [TN]]
+
+
+Heroes have not been wanting in the history of maritime warfare, at
+any time in these last three hundred years. Holland points with pride
+to her gallant DeRuyter and Van Tromp, who made the little republic
+among the marshes and canals that yield tribute to the Zuyder Zee,
+famous the world over. England glories in her Blake, her Collingwood,
+and most of all, in her Nelson, the model naval hero of all her
+history; and we cannot suppress our admiration of the daring of the
+reckless John Paul Jones, the matchless patriotism of Lawrence, and
+the gallant bearing and extraordinary success of Perry, Bainbridge,
+Decatur, and the elder Porter; while in the War of the Rebellion the
+heroic Foote, Dupont, Winslow, D. D. Porter, and Rogers, covered their
+names with glory.
+
+But among all these illustrious names there is none which so
+thoroughly awakens our enthusiasm, or so readily calls forth our
+applause, as that of Farragut. With all of Nelson's courage and
+daring, he had more than his executive ability and fertility of
+resource, a wider and more generous intellectual culture, and a more
+unblemished, _naïve_, frank, and gentle character.
+
+He bore in his veins some traces of the best blood of Spain, his
+father, George Farragut, having been a native of Citadella, the
+capital of the island of Minorca, and a descendant of an ancient and
+honorable Catalonian family. The father came to this country in 1776,
+and united most heartily in our struggle for independence, attaining
+during the war the rank of major. After the conclusion of the war,
+Major Farragut married Miss Elizabeth Shine, of North Carolina, a
+descendant of the old Scotch family of McIven, and settled as a farmer
+at Campbell's Station, near Knoxville, Tenn. Here, on July 5, 1801,
+his illustrious son was born. The father seems to have been not
+altogether contented with a farmer's life in that mountainous region,
+for not long after we hear of him as a sailing-master in the navy, and
+an intimate friend of the father of Commodore David D. Porter, who
+then held a similar rank. Young Farragut inherited his father's love
+for the sea, and though brought up so far inland, among the Cumberland
+Mountains, he had hardly reached the age of nine and a half years,
+when the longing for a sailor's life possessed him so strongly, that
+his father consented; and after some little delay, a midshipman's
+warrant was procured for him.
+
+His first cruise was under the command of Captain (then
+master-commandant) Porter, who, in July, 1812, was promoted to the
+rank of captain, and soon after sailed in the Essex for the South
+American coast and the Pacific. To this famous frigate the young
+midshipman was ordered before her departure, and he remained on her
+through the eventful two years that followed, when she drove the
+British commerce out of the Pacific. When on March 28, 1814, the
+British frigate Phoebe, thirty-six guns, and sloop-of-war Cherub,
+twenty-eight guns, without scruple attacked the Essex in the harbor of
+Valparaiso, in violation of the rights of a neutral nation, there
+ensued one of the fiercest naval battles on record. Though fighting
+against hopeless odds, the two British vessels having twice the number
+of guns and men of the Essex, Commodore Porter, with the reckless
+daring which was so marked a trait of his character, refused to strike
+his colors till his ship had been three or four times on fire, and was
+in a sinking condition, with her rigging shot away, the flames
+threatening her magazine, and 152, out of her crew of 255, killed,
+wounded, or missing. The battle had lasted two and a half hours. On
+his surrender, the Essex Junior, a whaling-ship which he had converted
+into a sloop-of-war, but which had been unable to take any part in the
+battle, was sent home with the prisoners on parole. The young
+midshipman, then a boy under thirteen, was in the hottest of the
+fight, and was slightly wounded during the action. Before the loss of
+the Essex, he had served as acting-lieutenant on board the Atlantic,
+an armed prize.
+
+On his return to the United States, Commodore Porter placed him at
+school at Chester, Pa., where he was taught, among other studies, the
+elements of military and naval tactics; but in 1816 he was again
+afloat and on board the flag-ship of the Mediterranean squadron, where
+he had the good fortune to meet in the chaplain, Rev. Charles Folsom,
+an instructor to whom he became ardently attached, and to whose
+teachings he attributed much of his subsequent usefulness and success.
+
+This pleasant period of instruction passed all too quickly, and the
+boy, now grown to man's estate, after some further service in the
+Mediterranean, was, on January 1, 1821, at the age of nineteen and a
+half years, promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and ordered to duty on
+the West India station. In 1824 he was assigned to duty at the Norfolk
+navy-yard; and with the exception of a two years' cruise in the
+Vandalia, on the Brazil station, remained at Norfolk till 1833. Here
+he married a lady of highly respectable family, and during the long
+years of suffering through which she was called to pass, from a
+hopeless physical malady, he proved one of the most tender and
+affectionate of husbands, never wearying of administering all the
+relief and comfort to the sufferer in his power. When death at last
+terminated her protracted distress, he mourned her tenderly and long.
+He subsequently married another lady of Norfolk, Miss Virginia Loyall,
+the daughter of one of the most eminent citizens of that city.
+
+In 1860 he had spent nearly nineteen years afloat--eighteen years and
+four months on shore duty, and ten years and ten months either
+waiting orders or on leave of absence. Forty-eight of his fifty-eight
+years had been spent in the naval service.
+
+In April, 1861, came the rebellion. Captain Farragut was at his home
+in Norfolk, surrounded by those who were sympathizers with the
+rebellion, and who were already maturing plans for the seizure of the
+Government property and its conversion to rebel uses. No more loyal
+heart ever beat than his, and in frank and manly terms he denounced
+the whole proceedings of the traitors, and gave expression to his
+abhorrence of them. This roused all the hatred of the plotters of
+treason, and they told him at once, in tones of menace, that he could
+not be permitted to live there if he held such sentiments. "Very
+well," was his prompt reply, "then I will go where I can live and hold
+such sentiments." Returning to his home, he informed his family that
+they must leave Norfolk for New York in a few hours. They immediately
+made their preparations, and the next morning, April 18, 1861, bid
+adieu to Norfolk. The Navy Department was, however, anxious to give
+him employment, and in default of anything else he served for a time
+as a member of the Naval Retiring Board, which shelved the incompetent
+officers of the navy, and promoted the active, loyal, and deserving.
+
+Meantime, the Government had resolved on the capture of New Orleans,
+and entered with zeal upon the work of fitting out a squadron, as well
+as an army, for its reduction. The squadron was to consist of a fleet
+of armed steamers, and twenty bomb-schooners, each carrying gigantic
+mortars, fifteen-inch shells.
+
+The bomb-fleet was to be under the command of Commander David D.
+Porter, but he was to report to Flag-officer Farragut, who was to have
+charge of the entire squadron. Selecting the Hartford as his
+flag-ship, and having made all possible preparations for his
+expedition, Flag-officer Farragut received his orders on January 20,
+1862, and on February 3d sailed from Hampton Roads. Arriving at Ship
+Island on February 20th, he organized the West Gulf Blockading
+Squadron, and in spite of difficulties of all sorts--the delay in
+forwarding coal, naval stores, hospital stores, ammunition, etc., the
+labor of getting vessels drawing twenty-two feet over the bars at Pass
+L'Outre and Southwest Pass, where the depth was but twelve and fifteen
+feet, the ignorance and stupidity of some of the officers, and every
+other obstacle he had to encounter--made steady progress. The
+difficulties were not all surmounted until April 18th, when the
+bombardment of Fort Jackson, the lowermost of the two forts defending
+the passage of the Mississippi, was commenced. These forts were
+seventy-five miles below New Orleans and possessed great strength. A
+continuous bombardment was maintained for six days, by which the forts
+were considerably damaged, but they still held out stoutly. A heavy
+iron chain had been stretched across the river, supported by large
+logs, to obstruct the passage of vessels, and was placed at a point
+where the fire of the two forts could be most effectively
+concentrated. Above this chain lay the rebel fleet of sixteen gunboats
+and two iron-clad rams. Along the banks of the river were land
+batteries, mounting several guns each.
+
+Finding that the forts were not likely to yield to the bombardment,
+Flag-officer Farragut called a council of war, and after hearing
+their opinions, which were somewhat discordant, issued his general
+order of April 20th, in which the spirit of the hero gleams out. This
+was his language: "The flag-officer having heard all the opinions
+expressed by the different commanders, is of the opinion _that
+whatever is to be done will have to be done quickly_. When, in the
+opinion of the flag-officer, the propitious time has arrived, the
+signal will be made to weigh, and advance to the conflict.... He will
+make the signal for close action, _and abide the result--conquer or be
+conquered_."
+
+After further and severe bombardment of the forts, the flag-officer
+gave notice to the steam-vessels of the squadron, of his determination
+to break the chain and run past the forts, engage the rebel fleet, and
+having defeated it, ascend the river to New Orleans, and capture that
+city. It was a most daring movement. The chain had previously been
+broken, and the mortar-vessels moved up and anchored ready to pour in
+their fire as soon as the forts should open. The steam-fleet moved up
+in two columns, one led by Flag-officer Farragut in person, in the
+Hartford, the other by Captain Theodorus Bailey, as second in command,
+in the Cayuga. The left column (Farragut's) was composed of the
+Hartford, Brooklyn, Richmond, Sciota, Iroquois, Kennebec, Pinola,
+Itasca, and Winona; the right (Bailey's), of the Cayuga, Pensacola,
+Mississippi, Oneida, Varuna, Katahdin, Kineo, and Wissahickon. The
+right column was to engage Fort St. Philip; the left, Fort Jackson.
+The fleet were fairly abreast of the forts before they were
+discovered, and fire opened upon them; but from that moment the firing
+was terrible, and the smoke, settling down like a pall upon the river,
+produced intense darkness, and the ships could only aim at the flash
+from the forts, the forts at the flash from the ships. A fire-raft,
+pushed by the ram Manassas against the flag-ship (the Hartford), set
+it on fire, and at the same instant it ran aground; but by the prompt
+and disciplined exertions of the men the flame was extinguished in a
+few minutes and the ship got afloat, never ceasing its fire upon the
+enemy. At times the gunboats passed so near the forts as to be able to
+throw their broadsides of shrapnel, grape, and canister with most
+destructive force into their interior; and the forts, in the endeavor
+to depress their guns sufficiently to strike the vessels, lost their
+shot, which rolled into the ditches. They were nearly past the forts
+when the rebel fleet came down upon them, the iron-clad ram Manassas
+among them. Several of these gunboats were iron-clad about the bow,
+and had iron beaks or spurs. The Cayuga, Captain Bailey's flag-ship,
+was the first to encounter these; and soon after the Varuna, commanded
+by Captain Boggs, found itself in a nest of rebel steamers, and moved
+forward, delivering its broadsides, port and starboard, with fearful
+precision, into its antagonists, four of which were speedily disabled
+and sunk by its fire. The Varuna was finally attacked by the Morgan
+and another rebel gunboat, both iron-clad at the bow, which crushed in
+her sides; but crowding her steam, she drew them on, while still fast,
+and poured broadsides into both, which drove them ashore crippled and
+in flames. Running his own steamer on shore as speedily as possible,
+the gallant Boggs fought her as long as his guns were out of water,
+and then brought off his men, who were taken on board the Oneida and
+other gunboats of the fleet. Several of the gunboats were considerably
+injured, but none of them lost except the Varuna. The Itasca, Winona,
+and Kennebec were disabled and obliged to fall back. Thirteen of the
+seventeen vessels composing Flag-officer Farragut's squadron were able
+to pass in safety these forts, and had defeated a rebel fleet,
+destroying thirteen of their gunboats and rams, and the iron-clad
+Manassas, and compelling the remainder to shelter themselves under the
+guns of the forts. The entire loss of the Union squadron was but 36
+killed and 135 wounded.
+
+The gallant flag-officer now ascended the river, encountering slight
+opposition from the Chalmette batteries, about three miles below New
+Orleans; but they were silenced in twenty minutes, and at noon of
+April 25th, he lay in front of the city, and demanded its surrender.
+Four days later the forts were surrendered to Captain Porter, and
+General Butler came up the river to arrange for landing his troops,
+and taking possession of the conquered city. Meantime, Farragut had
+ascended the river above the city to Carrolton, where had been erected
+some strong works to oppose the progress of Flag-officer Foote, should
+he descend the river. These, on the approach of the gunboats, were
+abandoned, and their guns spiked. They were destroyed.
+
+New Orleans being safely in the possession of the Union forces,
+Flag-officer Farragut ascended the Mississippi, and on June 27th ran
+his vessels safely past the rebel batteries at Vicksburg, and
+communicated with Flag-officer Davis, then commanding the Mississippi
+squadron, and arranged for a joint attack upon Vicksburg. The attack
+failed, because the bluffs at Vicksburg were too high to be
+effectively bombarded by the gunboats, and the capture of the city
+required the co-operation of a land force. He therefore repassed the
+batteries in safety on July 15th, and descending the river, made
+Pensacola the head-quarters of his squadron. On July 11th, the rank of
+rear-admiral, having been created in accordance with the
+recommendation of a committee of Congress, Captain Farragut was
+advanced to that rank, and placed first on the list for his
+meritorious conduct in the capture of New Orleans. He also received
+the thanks of both houses of Congress. In the autumn of 1862 he
+directed the naval attacks on Corpus Christi, Sabine Pass, and
+Galveston, which resulted in the capture of those points. In his
+duties as the commander of a blockading and guarding squadron, there
+was much of detail: attacks of guerillas along the river shores, to be
+parried and punished; surprises of the weaker vessels of the squadron
+to be chastised and revenged; expeditions against rebel towns on or
+near the coast, to be aided and sustained; and careful lookout to be
+kept for blockade-runners, who sought their opportunities to slip into
+the ports of Mobile, Galveston, and Aransas. These occupied much of
+his time during the autumn and winter of 1862-63.
+
+The admiral had long desired to attack the defences of Mobile, and
+thus effectually check the blockade-running, which it was impossible
+wholly to prevent while that port was left unmolested. But it was not
+until August 5, 1864, that the assault was finally made.
+
+The fleet which was to take part in the attack consisted of fourteen
+sloops-of-war and gunboats, and four iron-clad monitors. The admiral
+arranged them for the attack as follows: the Brooklyn and Octorara
+were lashed together, the Brooklyn being on the starboard side,
+nearest Fort Morgan--the Brooklyn being, much against the admiral's
+wishes, allowed the lead; next the Hartford and Metacomet, followed by
+the Richmond and Port Royal, the Lackawanna and Seminole, the
+Monongahela and Kennebec, the Ossipee and Itasca, and the Oneida and
+Galena. The four monitors were arranged in the following order, to the
+right or starboard of the gunboats: the Tecumseh, Commander T. R. M.
+Craven, taking the lead, and followed by the Manhattan, Commander
+Nicholson; the Winnebago, Commander Stevens; and the Chickasaw,
+Lieutenant-commander Perkins.
+
+The rebels, in addition to three forts all manned with large
+garrisons, had a squadron consisting of the iron-clad ram Tennessee,
+regarded by them as the most formidable armed vessel ever constructed,
+and three powerful gunboats, the Selma, Morgan, and Gaines.
+
+The fleet steamed steadily up the channel, the Tecumseh firing the
+first shot at 6.47 A.M. The rebels opened upon them from Fort Morgan
+at six minutes past seven, and the Brooklyn replied, after which the
+action became general. The Brooklyn now paused, and for good
+reason--the Tecumseh, near her, careened suddenly and sank almost
+instantly, having struck and exploded a torpedo; and her gallant
+commander and nearly all her crew sank with her.
+
+Directing the commander of the Metacomet to send a boat instantly to
+rescue her crew, Admiral Farragut determined to take the lead in his
+own flag-ship, the Hartford, and putting on all steam, led off through
+a track which had been lined with torpedoes by the rebels; but he
+says, "Believing that, from their having been some time in the water,
+they were probably innocuous, I determined to take the chance of their
+explosion."
+
+Turning to the northwestward to clear the middle ground, the fleet
+were enabled to keep such a broadside fire on the batteries of Fort
+Morgan as to prevent them from doing much injury. After they had
+passed the fort, about ten minutes before eight o'clock, the ram
+Tennessee dashed out at the Hartford; but the admiral took no further
+notice of her than to return her fire. The rebel gunboats were ahead,
+and annoyed the fleet by a raking fire, and the admiral detached his
+consort, the Metacomet, ordering her commander, Lieutenant-commander
+Jouett, to go in pursuit of the Selma, and the Octorara was detached
+to pursue one of the others. Lieutenant-commander Jouett captured the
+Selma, but the other two escaped under the protection of the guns of
+Fort Morgan, though the Gaines was so much injured that she was run
+ashore and destroyed. The combat which followed between the Tennessee
+and the Union fleet, and resulted in the surrender of that formidable
+iron-clad vessel, is best described in the admiral's own words:
+
+"Having passed the forts and dispersed the enemy's gunboats, I had
+ordered most of the vessels to anchor, when I perceived the ram
+Tennessee standing up for this ship. This was at forty-five minutes
+past eight. I was not long in comprehending his intentions to be the
+destruction of the flag-ship. The monitors and such of the wooden
+vessels as I thought best adapted for the purpose, were immediately
+ordered to attack the ram, not only with their guns, but bows on at
+full speed; and then began one of the fiercest naval combats on
+record.
+
+"The Monongahela, Commander Strong, was the first vessel that struck
+her, and in doing so carried away her own iron prow, together with the
+cutwater, without apparently doing her adversary much injury. The
+Lackawanna, Captain Marchand, was the next vessel to strike her, which
+she did at full speed; but though her stem was cut and crushed to the
+plank-ends for the distance of three feet above the water's edge to
+five feet below, the only perceptible effect on the ram was to give
+her a heavy list.
+
+"The Hartford was the third vessel that struck her; but, as the
+Tennessee quickly shifted her helm, the blow was a glancing one, and,
+as she rasped along our side, we poured our whole port broadside of
+nine-inch solid shot within ten feet of her casement.
+
+"The monitors worked slowly, but delivered their fire as opportunity
+offered. The Chickasaw succeeded in getting under her stern, and a
+fifteen-inch shot from the Manhattan broke through her iron plating
+and heavy wooden backing, though the missile itself did not enter the
+vessel.
+
+"Immediately after the collision with the flag-ship, I directed
+Captain Drayton to bear down for the ram again. He was doing so at
+full speed, when, unfortunately, the Lackawanna ran into the Hartford
+just forward of the mizzenmast, cutting her down to within two feet of
+the water's edge. We soon got clear again, however, and were fast
+approaching our adversary, when she struck her colors and ran up the
+white flag.
+
+"She was at this time sore beset; the Chickasaw was pounding away at
+her stern, the Ossipee was approaching her at full speed, and the
+Monongahela, Lackawanna, and this ship were bearing down upon her,
+determined upon her destruction. Her smoke-stack had been shot away,
+her steering-chains were gone, compelling a resort to her
+relieving-tackles, and several of her port shutters were jammed.
+Indeed, from the time the Hartford struck her, until her surrender,
+she never fired a gun. As the Ossipee, Commander Le Roy, was about to
+strike her, she hoisted the white flag, and that vessel immediately
+stopped her engine, though not in time to avoid a glancing blow.
+
+"During this contest with the rebel gunboats and the ram Tennessee,
+which terminated by her surrender at ten o'clock, we lost many more
+men than from the fire of the batteries of Fort Morgan."
+
+The rebel Admiral Buchanan was severely wounded, and subsequently lost
+a leg by amputation. Admiral Farragut, as humane in his feelings
+toward a wounded foe as he was gallant and daring in action,
+immediately addressed a note to Brigadier-General Page, the commander
+of Fort Morgan, asking permission to send the rebel admiral and the
+other wounded rebel officers by ship, under flag of truce, to the
+Union hospitals at Pensacola, where they could be tenderly cared for.
+This request was granted, and the Metacomet despatched with them.
+
+The admiral had stationed himself "in an elevated position in the main
+rigging, near the top," a place of great peril, but one which enabled
+him to see much better than if he had been on deck, the progress of
+the battle; and from thence he witnessed, and testified with great
+gratification to the admirable conduct of the men at their guns,
+throughout the fleet; and, in this connection, gives utterance to a
+sentiment which shows most conclusively his sympathy and tenderness:
+"Although," he says, "no doubt their hearts sickened, as mine did,
+when their shipmates were struck down beside them, yet there was not a
+moment's hesitation to lay their comrades aside and spring again to
+their deadly work."
+
+It is said that at the moment of the collision between the Hartford
+and Lackawanna, when the men called to each other to save the admiral,
+Farragut, finding the ship would float at least long enough to serve
+his purpose, and thinking of that only, called out to his
+fleet-captain, "Go on with speed! Ram her again!"
+
+The results of this victory were the destruction of the rebel fleet;
+the capture of the armored ship Tennessee, and of 230 rebel officers
+and men; the abandonment on the next day of Fort Powell, with 18 guns;
+the surrender on the 8th of Fort Gaines, with 56 officers, 818 men,
+and 26 guns; and on August 23d, after a further bombardment of
+twenty-four hours, of Fort Morgan, with 60 guns and 600 prisoners. By
+these captures the port of Mobile was hermetically sealed against
+blockade-runners, and a serious blow given to the rebel cause.
+
+Rear-admiral Farragut remained in command of the West Gulf squadron
+till November, 1864, when he requested leave of absence, and was
+called to Washington for consultation in regard to future naval
+operations. Soon after the opening of Congress, a resolution of thanks
+to him for his brilliant victory at Mobile was passed, and the rank of
+vice-admiral, corresponding to that of lieutenant-general in the army,
+was created, and on January 1, 1865, David Glascoe Farragut promoted
+to it. This appointment made him the virtual chief commander of the
+naval forces of the United States.
+
+The West Gulf blockading squadron, during all the time Admiral
+Farragut was in command of it, had had more fighting and less prizes
+than any other blockading squadron on the coast; and while Admirals
+Dupont, Lee, Porter, and Dahlgren had accumulated immense fortunes by
+their shares of prize-money, Admiral Farragut had received little
+beyond his regular pay. The merchants of New York, understanding this,
+and recognizing the great services he had rendered to commerce and to
+the nation, subscribed the sum of fifty thousand dollars, which was
+presented to him in United States 7.30 Treasury notes, in January,
+1865, in testimony of their appreciation of his ability and success as
+a naval commander. Until 1866 the rank of vice-admiral was the highest
+known in the navy In July of that year the office of admiral was
+specially created and bestowed on Farragut. He saw no further
+important service, but died quietly at Portsmouth, N. H., August 14,
+1870.
+
+[Illustration: Farragut at Mobile Bay.]
+
+Even the English _Army and Navy Gazette_ speaks of Admiral Farragut as
+"the doughty admiral whose feats of arms place him at the head of his
+profession, and certainly constitute him the first naval officer of
+the day, as far as actual reputation won by skill, courage, and hard
+fighting goes."
+
+
+
+
+DAVID DIXON PORTER
+
+(1814-1891)
+
+[Illustration: David Porter. [TN]]
+
+
+Among the coincidences of naval and military command in the war for
+the Union, the association of the names of Farragut and Porter, in the
+important series of operations on the Mississippi, has not escaped
+attention.
+
+The former, as the reader has seen in the previous sketch, was
+introduced to the service in his childhood, under the care and
+protection of Commodore David Porter, and boy as he was, fully shared
+the adventures and perils of his famous cruise in the Pacific. Nearly
+fifty years after that event Captain Farragut, in command of the
+Department of the Gulf, entered the Mississippi in concert with the
+son of his old commander of the Essex, to vindicate the national honor
+by the restoration of New Orleans to the Union--a service which was to
+prove the ability of both officers, and lead them to the highest rank
+known to the naval service of the United States. Looking into the
+future, Commodore Porter, the hero of the War of 1812, would hardly
+have dreamt that the "boy midshipman, who had been introduced to him
+at New Orleans, would, with two of his own sons, at the end of half a
+century, receive the highest honors of their country, the reward of
+the most arduous and perilous services against a domestic foe on the
+Mississippi."
+
+Of these sons of Commodore Porter, thus distinguished in this field of
+duty, William D. Porter, the elder, on more than one occasion, in
+command of the gunboat Essex, recalled not merely the name of his
+father's vessel, but the courage and patriotism, the spirit and
+success which had given the old ship her reputation. The younger,
+David D. Porter, the subject of this notice, born in Philadelphia,
+entered the navy as midshipman in the year 1829. His first cruise was
+in the Mediterranean, under Commodore Biddle, till 1831. After a
+year's leave of absence, he returned to that station, which has ever
+proved, in its liberal intercourse with the men of other nations, and
+its undying associations of nature and art, a most important school in
+the education of the young naval officers of the United States. Having
+passed his examination in 1835, young Porter was attached to the coast
+survey service from 1836 to 1841, when he was promoted to a
+lieutenancy and was ordered to the frigate Congress, in which he
+sailed for four years on the Mediterranean and South American
+stations. In 1845, we find him attached to the National Observatory at
+Washington in special service. During the Mexican war which succeeded,
+he was in charge of the naval rendezvous at New Orleans, was
+subsequently again employed on the coast survey, and from 1849 to 1853
+was, by permission of the department, in command of the California
+mail steamers Panama and Georgia, running from New York to Aspinwall,
+a rising commercial service of national importance, to which his
+experience and personal character were of great value. After this he
+was in various home services, till 1861, when he was promoted to the
+rank of commander, and placed in command of the steam-sloop Powhatan,
+in which he joined the Gulf Blockading squadron off Pensacola. He had
+thus, at the outbreak of the Rebellion, been thirty-two years in the
+service, over nineteen of which had been spent at sea and nine on
+shore duty.
+
+A special service of great importance was presently intrusted to him.
+When in the beginning of 1862, an expedition was set on foot to open
+the Mississippi River to New Orleans, he was assigned to the command
+of a fleet of bomb-vessels to co-operate with the squadron of Captain
+Farragut in that enterprise--a service which he carried out with
+distinguished ability.
+
+After the capture of New Orleans, Commander Porter continued to
+co-operate with Captain Farragut on the Mississippi, being engaged in
+the movement on Vicksburg in May. In the following October he was
+placed in command of the Mississippi squadron, with the rank of acting
+rear-admiral, and when, in the ensuing year, operations were actively
+resumed for the capture of Vicksburg, his squadron, in concert with
+the victorious army of General Grant, was constantly employed in the
+most hazardous and honorable service.
+
+It was he who forwarded to the Secretary of the Navy at Washington the
+brief and authoritative announcement: "Sir, I have the honor to inform
+you that Vicksburg surrendered to the United States forces on July
+4th." This was the first bulletin to the country and to the world of
+this memorable event. Simultaneously with the victory of General Mead
+over Lee at Gettysburg, it was hailed as the crowning disaster to the
+Rebellion. As a reward for his services on the Mississippi, Porter was
+promoted to the full rank of rear-admiral.
+
+In December, 1864, he commanded the fleet which bombarded Fort Fisher.
+After a terrific assault the fort was captured January 13, 1865, and
+Wilmington, the last Confederate port, was closed. Porter received
+another, his fourth, vote of thanks from Congress, and in 1866 was
+made vice-admiral. On Farragut's death, in 1870, he was immediately
+appointed to succeed him as admiral, and held the rank until his
+death, on February 13, 1891.
+
+
+
+
+GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI
+
+(1807-1882)
+
+[Illustration: Guiseppe Garibaldi. [TN]]
+
+
+Garibaldi has not left the world without some account of his birth,
+parentage, and early life. Not a little of his great, naïve, and
+enthusiastic character may be studied in those Memoirs, of which his
+eccentric friend, Alexander Dumas, published a free translation. He
+was born July 22, 1807. He was a native of Nice, a city inhabited by a
+mongrel race, but himself sprung from a purely Italian family The name
+of Garibaldi, common enough throughout North Italy, betokens old
+Lombard descent. He first saw light, as he states, in the very house
+and room where, forty-nine years before, Masséna was born. His father,
+Domenico, had come from Chiavari, in the Riviera di Levante; he gives
+his mother's name Rosa Raguindo. Garibaldi's father and grandfather
+were seamen, and he took to the sea as his native element, developing
+great strength and skill as a swimmer, an accomplishment which enabled
+him to save drowning men on several memorable occasions. For what book
+learning he had he seems to have been indebted to the desultory
+lessons of priestly schoolmasters under the direction of his mother.
+Of this latter he always spoke with great tenderness, acknowledging
+that "to her inspiration he owed his patriotic feelings," and stating
+that "in his greatest dangers by land and sea his imagination always
+conjured up the picture of the pious woman prostrated at the feet of
+the Most High interceding for the safety of her beloved."
+
+In early life he embarked in his father's merchant vessel, a brig, and
+in that and other craft he made frequent voyages to Odessa, Rome, and
+Constantinople. Soon after the revolutionary movements of 1831 he was
+at Marseilles, where he fell in with Mazzini, busy at that time with
+the organization of "Young Italy," and with the preparations for an
+invasion of Italy by sea, which, upon Mazzini's expulsion from
+Marseilles, was attempted at Geneva, and directed against the Savoy
+frontier. The Savoy expedition turned out an egregious failure, the
+blame of which Garibaldi, on Mazzini's statement, throws on the Polish
+General Ramorino's treachery. Garibaldi himself, who had embarked on
+board the royal frigate Eurydice to gain possession of that vessel by
+a mutiny of the crew, being off Genoa, and hearing of a plot to storm
+the barracks of the Carabinieri, landed in the town to join it; but
+the attack upon the barracks miscarried, and he, not daring to go back
+to his ship, saw himself irreparably compromised, fled to Nice, and
+thence crossed the Var and found himself an exile at Marseilles. Here
+he betook himself again to his sea life, sailed for the Black Sea and
+for Tunis, and at last on board the Nageur, of Nantes, for Rio de
+Janeiro.
+
+In the commentaries before alluded to Garibaldi gives the fullest
+particulars of the exploits by which he rose to distinction beyond the
+Atlantic during the twelve years elapsing from his leaving Europe in
+1836 to his return to Italy in 1848. It is the romance of his career,
+and will some day be wrought into an epic blending the charms of the
+Odyssey with those of the Iliad--a battle and a march being the theme
+of the eventful tale almost from beginning to end.
+
+Garibaldi took service with the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul, a vast
+territory belonging to Brazil, then in open rebellion and war against
+that empire. He took the command of a privateer's boat with a crew of
+twelve men, to which he gave the name of Mazzini, and by the aid of
+which he soon helped himself to a larger and better-armed vessel, a
+prize taken from the enemy. In his many encounters with the Imperial
+or Brazilian party the hero bought experience both of wonderfully
+propitious and terribly adverse fortune, and had every imaginable
+variety of romantic adventure and hair-breadth escapes. He was
+severely wounded, taken prisoner, and in one instance at Gualeguay, in
+the Argentine territory, he found himself in the power of one Leonardo
+Millan, a type of Spanish South American brutality, by whom he was
+savagely struck in the face with a horsewhip, submitted to several
+hours' rack and torture, and thrown into a dungeon in which his
+sufferings were soothed by the ministration of that "angel of
+charity," a woman, by name Madame Alleman.
+
+Escaping from his tormentor by the intervention of the Governor of
+Gualeguay, Paolo Echague, Garibaldi crossed from the territories of
+the Plate into those of the Rio Grande, and faithful to the cause of
+that republic, he fought with better success, winning battles,
+storming fortresses, standing his ground with a handful of men, or
+even single-handed, against incredible odds, beating strong squadrons
+with a few small vessels, giving through all proofs of the rarest
+disinterestedness, humanity, and generosity, disobeying orders to sack
+and ravage vanquished cities, and exercising that mixture of authority
+and glamour over his followers which almost enabled him to dispense
+with the ties of stern rule and discipline. At last, after losing a
+flotilla in a hurricane on the coast of Santa Caterina, where he
+landed wrecked and forlorn, having seen his bravest and most cherished
+Italian friends shot down or drowned, he fell in with his Anita--not,
+apparently, the first fair one for whom he had a passing fancy--with
+whom he united his destinies, for better for worse, in life and till
+death, in some off-hand manner, about which he is reticent and
+mysterious. Anita turned out almost as great and daring and
+long-enduring a being as her heroic mate, and was by his side in all
+fights by land and sea, till the fortunes of the Republic of Rio
+Grande declined, when, after giving birth to her first-born, Menotti
+Garibaldi, September 16, 1840, she went with that infant and his
+father through unheard of hardships and dangers in the disastrous
+retreat of Las Antas; when at last, Garibaldi, beginning to feel the
+responsibilities of a growing family, and despairing of the issues of
+an ill-conducted war, took leave of his Republican friends at Rio
+Grande and went for a short respite in his adventurous career to
+Montevideo.
+
+After trying on the journey to find employment as a cattle-driver,
+Garibaldi settled at Montevideo in the capacity of a general broker
+and teacher of mathematics; but war having broken out between the
+Republic of the Uruguay and Buenos Ayres, the Condottiere was
+solicited to draw his sword for the former state which afforded him
+hospitality, and was trusted with the command of a little squadron
+destined to operate on the Parana River against a largely superior
+Argentine force. This expedition was contrived by enemies high in
+power in the Montevidean Government, who, jealous of the reputation
+won by Garibaldi at Rio Grande, vainly plotted to have him
+assassinated with his friend Anzani, and hoped to rid themselves of
+him by exposing him to dangers from which it seemed impossible that he
+could extricate himself. Garibaldi, however, made the best of his
+desperate position, and escaped, not only with his life, but also with
+"honor--the only thing that was not lost."
+
+Presently, danger pressing sorely on the republic, he organized his
+Italian Legion, which behaved well through a new series of land and
+sea combats, its band of only 400 combatants often beating the enemy's
+corps 600 men strong, at the close of which exploits its soldiers
+refused grants of land offered to them by a grateful state, "the
+stimulus of their exertions," as their commander said, "being only the
+triumph of the Republican cause." The legion was afterward as a mark
+of honor, allowed precedence over all the other troops of the
+republic. The war continued, and under the auspices of their commander
+the soldiers of the Italian Legion rose to such distinction that at
+the affairs of the Boyada and of Salto Sant' Antonio, February, 1846,
+Garibaldi was empowered to write to the government of the republic
+that the brilliant successes of those deeds of arms were entirely due
+to their gallantry.
+
+Meanwhile, however, news from Europe came to turn the attention of
+Italian patriots to the momentous events which were rapidly changing
+the conditions of the peninsula. Years had passed. Pius IX. was Pope;
+Sicily had risen in open and successful revolt; a republic had been
+proclaimed in France; Constitutions were being wrested from the
+reluctant hands of most European despots. Austria was convulsed with
+insurrectionary attempts; the Milanese drove Radetsky from their city
+after five days' fighting, and Charles Albert unfurled the national
+standard and crossed the Ticino.
+
+The theatre of the exploits of the hero of Montevideo was soon
+changed. All who had a heart and soul in Italy were up and doing, and
+could Italy's greatest heart and soul remain beyond the seas?
+Garibaldi, on the first reports of the Pope's liberal leanings, wrote
+to the Nuncio Bedini at Montevideo, October 17, 1847, offering the
+services of the Italian Legion to his Holiness, who was now almost on
+the eve of a war with Austria, "although," the letter said, "the
+writer was well aware that St. Peter's throne rests on a solid basis,
+proof against all human attacks and needing no mortal defenders." The
+Nuncio returned thanks and praises and referred Garibaldi's tender to
+the Pontifical Government at Rome. But Garibaldi, never well disposed
+to losing time, after vainly waiting for further communication from
+Pope or Nuncio, brooked no longer delay. With incredible difficulty he
+scraped together money and means, and embarked with his brave friend,
+Anzani (who died at Genoa soon after landing), having with him only 85
+men and two cannon, and leaving the remainder of his legion to follow
+when and how it could.
+
+He crossed the ocean, landed at Nice, proceeded to Genoa and Milan,
+and when Charles Albert, defeated at Custozza, withdrew from the
+Lombard city and accepted an armistice, which saved Piedmont from
+invasion, August, 1848, Garibaldi passed over to Mazzini, and at the
+head of a volunteer force, of which Mazzini was the standard-bearer,
+issued a manifesto in which he proclaimed the Sardinian king a
+traitor, and declared that "the royal war was at an end, and that of
+the people was now to begin." That proclamation was, however, only an
+idle bravado. Mazzini, even if he had the spirit, lacked the physical
+strength of a fighting man. The Garibaldians, on hearing the news of
+the fall of Milan, lost heart, and many crossed over the frontier to
+Switzerland. With thinned and dispirited bands, Garibaldi, aided by
+his friend Medici, ventured on a few desultory fights near Luino, on
+Lake Maggiore, but soon fell back and withdrew to Lugano in the Canton
+Ticino, his health, it is said, breaking down, and his immediate
+followers being reduced to some three hundred.
+
+A few months later Pius IX., fallen from his popularity and pressed
+hard by his disaffected subjects, who murdered his minister and almost
+stormed him in his palace at the Quirinal, ran away to Gaëta, and a
+Roman Republic was proclaimed, of which Mazzini, in a triumvirate with
+two others, mere men of straw, became the head. Attacked by the French
+in flagrant violation of all rights of nations, Rome undertook to
+defend itself, and whatever Italy could boast of generous hearts,
+regardless of party differences, rallied round Garibaldi, who drove
+back the French from Porta Pancrazia, April 29 and 30, 1849, defeated
+the Neapolitans in that campaign of Velletri, which was like the farce
+contrasting with the tragic drama soon to be acted at Rome, and
+withstood a three months' siege, in which many of the noblest
+champions of the Italian cause lavished their lives in a hopeless,
+yet, as it proved, not a fruitless struggle.
+
+The French having gained possession of the city July 13, 1849,
+Garibaldi left it with a band of devoted volunteers, retired via Terni
+and Orvieto, gathering together about 2,000 men in his progress,
+crossed the Apennines, and pressed by the Austrians with overwhelming
+forces, sought a refuge at San Marino, gave the enemy the slip in the
+night, embarked at Cesenatico for Venice, which was still withstanding
+the Austrian siege, was met by four Austrian men-of-war, which
+compelled him to put back and land on the coast near Ravenna, and
+wandered ashore in the woods, where Anita, his inseparable companion
+in this disastrous march, succumbed to the fatigues of the journey,
+and expired in the hero's arms. Garibaldi's devoted friends Ugo Bassi
+and Ciceruacchio, falling into the hands of the Austrians, were shot
+by them without any forms of trial and by an act of barbarism which no
+human or divine law could justify. The heart-broken hero, with a few
+trusty men, made his way from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, was
+arrested by the Sardinian Carabinieri at Chiaveri, conveyed to Genoa,
+where La Marmora was in command, and there embarked for Tunis; hence,
+finding nowhere a refuge, he proceeded to the Island of La Maddalena,
+off the shore of Sardinia, and hence again to Gibraltar and Tangier.
+
+La Marmora received the heart-broken fugitive as a brother, supplied
+him with ample means for his journey to Tunis, and obtained for him
+from the Turin Government the assignment of an honorable pension,
+which Garibaldi did not in his straits disdain to accept. But, in his
+opinion, all seemed now over for Italy; Charles Albert's son, Victor
+Emmanuel, after the defeat of Navara, had made his peace with Austria
+in March, 1849. Venice had succumbed after heroic sufferings in
+August, and Garibaldi, again crossing the ocean, settled at New York
+as a tallow chandler, and only came back to Europe in 1855.
+
+When Garibaldi returned from America he did not look out for Mazzini
+or his Republicans in England or Switzerland, but sought a home in
+Piedmont, a Constitutional State, which allowed him an obscure but
+peaceful retreat in his hermitage at Caprera, an island rock on the
+Sardinian coast near the Maddalena, and conveyed to him a hint that
+the time might soon come in which his country's cause would summon him
+from retirement. And, truly, four years later (1859) the destinies of
+Italy were nearing their fulfilment. France and Piedmont took the
+field against Austria. Garibaldi, leaving his island home, was met and
+highly welcomed by Victor Emmanuel, to whom he swore fealty as the
+only hope of Italy. He now took the command of the Chasseurs des
+Alpes, aided the royal army in its defence of the territory previous
+to the arrival of its great French auxiliary, and, following in the
+upper region a line parallel to that kept in the plain by the conquest
+of Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino, beat the Austrians at Varese and
+San Fermo, bewildered his adversary Urban, by the rashness of his
+movements on the mountains above Como, advanced upon Bergamo and
+Brescia, and pushed on to the Valtellina up to the very summit of the
+Stelvia Pass. Here the peace of Villafranca put an end to the
+struggle, and Garibaldi, afflicted by the arthritic pains to which he
+was a martyr all his life, travelled for a few days' rest to Tuscany
+and Genoa.
+
+At Genoa, during the autumn and winter, Garibaldi, hospitably
+entertained by his friend Augusto Vecchi outside the city, busied
+himself with that expedition of "the Thousand" which made one state of
+the south and north of Italy. He embarked on May 11, 1860, at Genoa,
+landed in Sicily, at Marsala, beat the Neapolitans at Calatafimi,
+followed up his success to Palermo, and, aided by the insurgent city,
+compelled the garrison to surrender. He again routed the Bourbon
+troops at Milazzo, and had soon the whole island at his discretion
+with the exception of the citadel of Messina. He then crossed over
+into Calabria, and, almost without firing a shot, drove the Neapolitan
+king's troops before him all over the mainland, compelled the king to
+abandon the strong pass of La Cava and to withdraw his forces from
+his capital, where Garibaldi, with only a few of his staff, made his
+triumphal entry on September 7, 1860.
+
+After a few days' rest Garibaldi followed the disheartened king to
+Capua, obtained new signal successes on the Volturno, at Santa Maria,
+and Caserta; but would probably have been unable to accomplish the
+enterprise had not the Piedmontese, whose government had aided
+Garibaldi's expedition while pretending to oppose it, overrun the
+Marches, beaten Lamoricière and the Papal forces at Castel Fidardo,
+and, crossing the frontier and the Apennines, besieged and reduced the
+strong places of Capua and Gaëta. Garibaldi, who, as a dictator, had
+with doubtful success endeavored to establish something like rule in
+the Two Sicilies, aware of the arduousness of a task which would have
+exceeded many wiser men's powers, met Victor Emmanuel at Naples,
+delivered the two kingdoms into his hands, and, declining all the
+proffered honors and emoluments for himself, took leave of his
+sovereign and embarked for the solitude of his rock-farm at Caprera.
+
+Rome alone now remained outside of the United Italian Kingdom, and
+Garibaldi, raising bands of adventurers, made two or three attempts to
+capture it, but was repulsed by its French garrison, and it was not
+until 1870 that, the French troops being recalled to their own sorely
+distressed country, the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel became an
+accomplished fact, though in the great liberator's absence. Garibaldi
+once more was seen in Rome, April, 1879. He was supposed to be
+proposing great purchases of arms, to be enlisting hosts of
+volunteers, to be planning thorough reforms and preparing formidable
+expeditions against Austria. But Garibaldi, away from Caprera, could
+not fail to have his good as well as his evil angels about him. He saw
+the king; he listened to General Medici, his own right arm in so many
+campaigns, and now first aide-de-camp to King Humbert, as he had
+before been to King Victor Emmanuel. He listened, while they showed
+him the folly of further war, and, though not convinced, he was
+silenced. Although too proud to acknowledge the absurdity of his
+schemes in words, he was too wise not to give them up in deeds. He
+withdrew from the vain popular acclamation; shut his door against the
+crowd of his visitors, and although he announced his intention to take
+up his domicile in Rome, he pleaded indisposition as an excuse for
+inaction and retirement. Unfortunately there was only too much ground
+in the plea. The arthritic pains, of which symptoms had manifested
+themselves as early as during the Lombard campaign of 1849, had been
+seriously aggravated by his toils, and the sight of his helplessness
+in Rome as he hobbled up the steps of Montecitorio in 1874, was
+saddening to all beholders, and prepared his friends for that end
+which, however, was to be put off for several years. The fatigue of
+the voyage from Caprera in 1879, and still more the excitement of
+incessant calls, objectless conferences, and endless exhibitions soon
+entirely prostrated the hero, and before the backward spring had fully
+set in it became evident that Garibaldi's life could only be a
+lingering agony.
+
+[Illustration: Meeting of Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi.]
+
+His life, if life it may be called, and at all events his sufferings,
+were prolonged yet a few years. He left home in the spring of 1881 on
+a mad scheme of liberating, "by force if necessary," his
+son-in-law, Canzio, who had been arrested as a plotter for the
+republic. But having obtained the man's release from the king's
+government as a favor, he once more sought the peace of his hermitage
+where he died, June 2, 1882.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT VON MOLTKE
+
+(1800-1891)
+
+[Illustration: Count von Moltke. [TN]]
+
+
+Suddenly, but quietly and painlessly, on the evening of April 24,
+1891, passed away one of the most remarkable men of the present
+century. Hellmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke was born, October 26, 1800,
+at Parshim, in Mecklenburg, where his father, previously a captain in
+the Prussian army, had retired, impoverished in circumstances, to an
+estate which he inherited. When little Hellmuth was three years old,
+his father, Baron Moltke, settled at the free town of Lubeck, the once
+famous head of the Hanseatic League. Here, in 1806, on the retreat
+from the disastrous battle of Jena, Marshal Blücher, who like Von
+Moltke was of Mecklenburg origin, sought refuge with his shattered
+troops; and little Moltke was a witness of the sack and plunder of the
+town by the troops of Napoleon, his father's house being one of those
+that suffered most severely. It is said that the incidents of this
+event made a lasting impression upon the mind of the boy. At the age
+of nine, with his elder brother Fritz, young Hellmuth was placed under
+the care of Pastor Knickbein, at Hohenfelde, near Horst, a scholarly
+man of a kindly and genial disposition, for whom he always retained a
+deep regard. His sense of indebtedness appears in the inscription
+which he wrote on the title-page when forwarding to him a copy of his
+first work, his "Letters from Turkey;" "To my dear teacher and
+fatherly friend to whom I owe so much, I send this, my first work, as
+a slight testimony of respect."
+
+The favorite recreation of the two brothers while here at school was
+playing at war, as perhaps was natural at such a period. They were
+accustomed to collect the peasant boys of the village and divide them
+into two rival armies, Fritz commanding the one, and Hellmuth the
+other. Once, when the mimic warfare was at its height, the weaker
+force of Hellmuth was routed, and some were taken prisoners. Called
+upon to surrender, Hellmuth cried out, "All is not lost!" and hastily
+rallying his men he marched them straight to a pond in Pastor
+Knickbein's garden, and hurried them to a little island which the boy
+himself had constructed with great labor, and accessible only by a
+single plank. Facing the enemy with a few of his strongest men, he
+kept them at bay until all his troops had passed into the fortress, he
+himself being the last to enter. Then the drawbridge was raised and
+the victory won. The island, preserved by the good pastor, long since
+gone to his rest, still exists, and is pointed out with great pride by
+the villagers to curious visitors as the scene of one of the early
+exploits of Germany's greatest strategist.
+
+His experiences at the Royal Academy at Copenhagen, to which he was
+sent at the age of twelve, were not of the happiest. Relating his
+reminiscences of that period, in reply to the question, "Do you retain
+pleasant recollections of cadet life?" he remarked, "I have little
+reason to do so. Without relations or acquaintances in a strange city,
+we spent a joyless youth. The discipline was strict, even hard, and
+now, when my judgment of it is unprejudiced, I must say that it was
+too strict, too hard. The only benefit we received from this treatment
+was that we became accustomed to deprivations."
+
+Passing over the period of his service in the Danish army, and his
+entrance into that of Prussia, we find him, after making heroic
+efforts on his scanty pay to acquire foreign languages, in which he
+attained in after-life so remarkable a proficiency, attached to a
+commission for topographical surveys in Silesia and the Grand Duchy of
+Posen.
+
+Consolidating and extending his knowledge of military science and of
+foreign peoples, as in the case of his visits to the East, Russia,
+Rome, and elsewhere, Moltke rose steadily in his profession. In 1845,
+he became aide-de-camp to the invalid Prince Henry of Prussia, uncle
+of the king; and subsequently, after holding commands of increasing
+importance, he was made first aide-de-camp to the Crown Prince
+Frederick. Ultimately, in 1859, he was appointed permanent chief of
+the staff. His later military career, and brilliant successes against
+the Danes, Austrians, and the French, and the various honors accorded
+him, are so well known and have been so often and so recently
+narrated, that any further reference to them in this present sketch is
+unnecessary, the purpose of our notice being to briefly indicate some
+of the leading points of the great field-marshal's character. One fact
+is memorable, that he had passed the age when men frequently retire
+from the public service before the time of his greater achievements.
+His splendid career began to the eye of the world at sixty-five.
+
+The guiding principle of his life is well illustrated by the ancient
+motto of his family, _Caute et candide_ (warily and gently), and by
+his own favorite maxim, _Erst wägen, dann wagen_ (first weigh, then
+venture). He was slow, cautious, and careful in laying his plans, but
+having formed his design, he was bold, daring even to the verge of
+apparent recklessness in its execution. The same calm, immovable
+spirit characterized him even in moments when most ordinary
+mortals--he was a man _sui generis_--might, with some show of reason,
+be perturbed or excited. Even in the most critical period of the
+Franco-German war his unruffled quietness remained the same, sterner
+perhaps in look, more silent than ever. Though the warrior king,
+amidst the carnage of the battle-field might feel depressed; though
+Bismarck, man of "iron and blood," might be anxious at the progress
+of events, Moltke, seated on his great black horse, calmly surveyed,
+telescope in hand, the movements of the troops, or later, resting
+quietly in his room at Versailles, awaited the result undismayed. When
+war was declared, a friend met him with the remark: "You must indeed
+be overworked at present." "No," replied the General, "the work was
+done beforehand; all orders are gone out; I really have nothing to
+do."
+
+Married in 1842, shortly after his return home from the East, to Miss
+Burt, an English lady, he lived with her in the bonds of a rare union
+of happiness, concord, and mutual sympathy. On the occasion of her
+death, which took place Christmas Eve, 1868, he withdrew still more
+from public life, and found in quiet, studious, and laborious life
+some slight relief for his grief. Very touching was his devotion to
+the memory of his wife. Upon his estate at Kreisau he built a little
+mausoleum, situated on a beautiful eminence, embowered in foliage.
+This little chapel, constructed of red brick and sandstone, was lined
+inside with black and white marble, and in front of the altar was
+placed the simple oak coffin in which the remains of his wife reposed,
+covered at all seasons of the year with wreaths. Sculptured in the
+apse was a finely carved figure of our Lord in an attitude of
+blessing, copied from Thorwaldsen. Above were inscribed the words of
+St. Paul, "Love is the fulfilment of the Law." When at his
+country-seat the aged warrior visited the tomb morning and evening.
+Now at her side slumbers the veteran, awaiting with her the signal of
+the resurrection.
+
+Of his bearing in the time of his bereavement, the following incident
+was related by the late Mr. George Bancroft, the distinguished
+historian, at that period United States Minister at Berlin. Mr.
+Bancroft was one of the favored few who were accustomed to accompany
+Von Moltke in his daily rides in the Thiergarten or to the Grunewald.
+Seeing the general on horseback, "my first impulse," said Mr.
+Bancroft, "was to trot into another lane. On second thoughts, however,
+I turned my horse alongside his, remembering that it was for him to
+talk or be silent. To my surprise, he forthwith began a lively
+conversation, describing the happiness with which Miss Burt had
+blessed her husband, and expatiating upon her manifold virtues as one
+crushed by an overwhelming, irreparable loss. Then of a sudden he grew
+silent, as if a new current of thought had carried him sheer away. 'Do
+you know,' he said, when his lips were again opened, 'it has just been
+brought home to me that, after all, perhaps it was better that this
+happened now than at another time? You see, I am convinced that a
+French invasion is impending; it will burst upon us sooner or later,
+whatever the plea may eventually be. Now think if the fortune of war
+was to be adverse to our arms! Why, her grief over the country's
+adversities must have cut her life short. No, no; that would have been
+worse!'"
+
+Von Moltke was a passionate lover of children, and is said to have
+been quite the slave to the caprices of his little grandnephew, the
+son of Major Hellmuth von Moltke, the aide-de-camp of the count, whom
+the emperor, as a special mark of his royal favor, immediately after
+the funeral of his chief, made one of his own aides-de-camp.
+
+As far as Count von Moltke's religious views could be ascertained,
+they were of a simple type, and characterized by a strict adherence to
+the path of duty and virtue. Daily was he accustomed to read his
+Bible, one of ancient date, its well-marked pages indicating how
+frequently its owner was in the habit of consulting its inspired
+pages. An extract from a letter the aged field-marshal wrote on the
+eve of his eightieth birthday is peculiarly interesting. "I stand,"
+said he, "close upon the end of my life; but how different from that
+here will be the measure in a future world according to which our
+earthly actions will be judged! Not the brilliancy of success, but the
+purity of our endeavors and faithful perseverance in duty, even when
+the result was scarcely visible, will decide as to the value of a
+man's life. What a wonderful displacement of high and low will be
+witnessed at that great review! We do not even know ourselves what we
+have to ascribe to ourselves, to others, or to a higher will. It will
+be well not to set too great a value on externals." In a passage in
+one of his books, referring to our Lord's life here upon earth, he
+remarks: "His life was humble. He was the descendant of a people in
+bondage, and He had not a place where to lay His head. To the
+fishermen He talked in parables about God; He healed the sick, and
+died the death of an evil-doer. And yet there has never been anything
+on this earth that could be purer, more elevated, and also--even seen
+from the worldly point of view--more successful than His conduct, His
+teaching, and His death."
+
+The old soldier's habits of life were, like those of the majority of
+really great men, extremely simple and singularly free from
+ostentation of any kind. Very characteristic of the late field-marshal
+are the following data of his life, written by himself on the occasion
+of his ninetieth birthday. An Austrian Association for the Promotion
+of Popular Knowledge addressed a number of interrogatories to various
+European celebrities of great age, which were to explain the
+circumstances and conditions under which an exceptionally long life
+might be attained. The answers received were collected in a book and
+subsequently published.
+
+Field-Marshal von Moltke answered the questions submitted to him in
+his own peculiarly laconic manner, as follows:
+
+_Q._ In which year of your life and on which date did you begin to
+learn, and for how many hours a day?--_A._ 1808, in my eighth year,
+with four; after 1810, with ten hours a day.
+
+_Q._ Was your health in your youth delicate or robust?--_A._ Tough
+nature.
+
+_Q._ Did you grow up in the country or in town?--_A._ Up to my tenth
+year in the country.
+
+_Q._ How many hours did you spend in the open air? Regularly?--_A._
+Irregularly, and but few hours.
+
+_Q._ Did you cultivate hardening games and other exercises?--_A._ Not
+methodically.
+
+_Q._ How many hours did you sleep in childhood?--_A._ Ten hours.
+
+_Q._ Special remarks?--_A._ Joyless youth, scanty nourishment, absence
+from the paternal home.
+
+_Q._ Where did you complete your studies--in town or in the
+country?--_A._ In town.
+
+_Q._ How many hours a day do you devote to mental work?--_A._ Very
+different.
+
+_Q._ Do you attribute to any particular habit of your life a favorable
+influence upon your health?--_A._ Moderation in all habits of life. In
+all weathers exercise in the open air. No day altogether at home.
+
+_Q._ How long did you sleep at a mature age?--_A._ From eight to nine
+hours on an average.
+
+_Q._ What alterations have you made at an advanced age in your mode of
+life?--_A._ None.
+
+_Q._ How long did you work daily in your fiftieth, sixtieth,
+seventieth, eightieth years?--_A._ Quite as circumstances required it;
+often, therefore, very long.
+
+_Q._ What were your recreations?--_A._ Riding on horseback up to my
+eighty-sixth year.
+
+_Q._ How many hours do you spend in the open air?--_A._ Now, in summer
+on my estate, half the day.
+
+_Q._ How long do you sleep at present?--_A._ Always eight hours still.
+
+_Q._ What are your habits with regard to eating, etc.?--_A._ I eat
+very little, and take concentrated food.
+
+_Q._ To what circumstances do you particularly attribute your stalwart
+old age (which may God long preserve!)?--_A._ To God's grace and
+temperate habits.
+
+An interesting anecdote is related, apropos of his dislike to display,
+on the occasion of the opening of new barracks at Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
+to which, as the oldest and most distinguished officer of the regiment
+in which he first served, he was invited. His acceptance of the
+invitation was accompanied by the stipulation that no ceremony should be
+made; but the officers, desiring to do honor to their illustrious guest,
+had provided the best carriage that the town afforded to meet him at the
+station. On his arrival, the field-marshal thanked the officer in
+waiting, took a common cab, and with his nephew, who was with him as
+aide-de-camp, drove off to the barracks, to the astonishment of the
+honest burghers.
+
+His favorite recreations were chess, in which he excelled; music,
+especially that of the school of Schubert and Mozart--he entertained
+very decided opinions about the "music of the future"--and whist,
+which he rarely missed playing after dinner, even when at the seat of
+war. The count was an authority on the culture of roses, and at
+Kreisau, where he spent most of his time after his retirement from
+more active service, he possessed one of the finest and most unique
+collections of roses in Germany, a fact which lends an additional
+grace to the tribute of respect paid to the field-marshal's memory,
+when, the day after his death, the empress visited the head-quarters
+of the General Staff and placed a magnificent wreath of his favorite
+flower upon the bed of the departed hero.
+
+Had not his reputation as a military strategist overshadowed his other
+gifts, the count would have gained distinction in the world of
+letters. In the twenties, while engaged in the Topographical
+Department, he wrote a pamphlet, published at Berlin, entitled
+"Holland and Belgium," by H. von Moltke, in which he calls the
+attention of Europe to the Belgian Revolution; this was followed, in
+1845, by a critical military work of great merit, "The Russo-Turkish
+Campaign of 1828-29 in European Turkey," which created a deep
+impression in military circles, and proved of considerable service in
+the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. Moltke's pithy and laconic
+style was founded on the model of his chief, General von Müffling, his
+instructor in practical and theoretical tactics, in which the members
+of the German General Staff are required to excel. He was a graphic
+writer and shrewd observer of men and things, as his charming letters
+from Russia, France, Turkey, and other places show. Especially
+sagacious were his observations on the Turks, made to his sister,
+married to Mr. John Burt, an Englishman settled at Holstein, in which
+he affirms that the kingdom is rotten, that Turkey had fallen under a
+ban, and that ban the Koran, which teaches so warped a doctrine that
+its laws and decrees must of necessity oppose all social progress. His
+views on Russia, as indicated in his letters written in the form of a
+diary to his wife on the occasion of his visit in 1856, when
+accompanying Prince Frederick William at the coronation of the Czar
+Alexander II. at Moscow, show the same keen powers of observation. He
+considered that Russia had a great future before her, but this could
+only be realized when her officials became more honest. "Honesty among
+Russian officials," he thinks, "can only be brought about by many
+years of iron severity." Of the difficulty of governing the French
+nation, he wrote, when visiting the court of Napoleon III.: "It would
+be as impossible to allow the liberty of the press in France as to
+admit discussion of the orders given by generals to their armies when
+in the field." We have not the advantage of knowing his views on
+England and the English on the three occasions, in 1856, 1858, and
+1861, when he visited the country in company with the crown prince to
+be present at his betrothal and marriage to the princess royal, and
+again at the funeral of the prince consort. How highly his opinion as
+an authority was esteemed as early as 1867, is seen by an incident
+which occurred during the Universal Exhibition, when Count Moltke, in
+company with King William of Prussia and Count Bismarck, dined with
+Napoleon III. at St. Cloud. Subsequently, the emperor and Moltke
+engaged in an animated conversation apart from the rest. At this
+moment Marshal Randon, Minister of War, walked across the room, and
+the emperor, noticing him, raised his voice, saying, "Come here,
+marshal. General Moltke says that with the needle-gun he would be
+strong enough to fight even the French army." Marshal Randon drew
+near, and, turning toward Moltke, said, in a tone loud enough to be
+heard by all in the room, "Pardon me, general; but, in spite of the
+high opinion I have of your judgment, I cannot share your belief. I
+venture to affirm, that even with the needle-gun, the French army
+would not suffer the fate of the Austrian army;" and the conversation
+continued without the bystanders being able to follow it. But after
+the departure of the King of Prussia and his suite, Napoleon III.,
+struck by these words, energetically busied himself in overhauling
+the equipment of the French army. He examined various models of guns
+that were submitted to him, and among these the Martini rifle, which
+he found excellent, but which was after all rejected for the
+Chassepôt. The making of this gun was pushed forward so actively that
+the French army was provided with it by 1870.
+
+[Illustration: Moltke at Versailles, 1870.]
+
+In respect of his literary efforts, as of his military achievements,
+Moltke was singularly modest. Herr G. von Bunsen tells us how,
+"meeting the general one day at a dinner-party, I expressed my regret
+at his having neglected to write some letter-press to accompany his
+well-known map of the environs of Ancient Rome. 'But a companion book
+for it was written,' he replied; 'or rather,' correcting himself, 'he
+had begun writing one at Rome, and was prevented from finishing the
+MS. when the Government ordered him to convey Prince Henry's body to
+Berlin, and there set him engrossing tasks to do.' Hereupon I ventured
+to ask him for a loan of this fragment. Of course he believed it to be
+lost; but, as a matter of course likewise, it was brought to my door
+by an orderly at an early hour next morning. When returning the MS., I
+advised the publication of parts of it, which would be found
+acceptable independently of his being the author; and if my humble
+advice should be followed, would he accept my humble services as
+editor? His reply," adds Herr von Bunsen, "has been carefully
+preserved. Its purport was that he must lay down three conditions:
+First, I must omit what I pleased; secondly, transpose at my pleasure;
+and thirdly, _alter the text_ wherever it seemed desirable." "Will any
+editor in the world," Herr von Bunsen pithily remarks, "hesitate to
+confirm my belief that no MS. of the last unfledged stripling of an
+author was ever offered on similar conditions?"
+
+Fitting tributes of respect and admiration were paid to the aged
+field-marshal on the occasion of his celebrating his ninetieth
+birthday, on October 26, 1890. Telegrams from all sorts and conditions
+of men poured in upon him, including, among the princes and sovereigns
+of Europe, one from Queen Victoria, who held Count von Moltke in high
+esteem. The 26th falling upon Sunday, the schools throughout the
+length and breadth of Germany were closed on the previous Saturday to
+enable the scholars to add their quota to the general rejoicing. In
+Berlin a torchlight procession of vast extent, composed of 20,000
+students, artists, members of trades and guilds, marched with banners
+and groups of historically dressed personages and impersonifications,
+from the old gray Schloss down the Linden, through the Brandenburg
+Gate to the Königsplatz, where are situated the buildings of the Grand
+Staff. Here addresses were presented to Von Moltke.
+
+On the following day, in the Conference Hall of the General Staff, the
+emperor, surrounded by the military magnates of the Reichsrath, the
+generals of the twenty army corps specially summoned to be present,
+the officers of the General Staff, Chancellor von Caprivi, successor
+to Prince Bismarck, the King of Saxony, the grand dukes and the Duke
+of Connaught, addressed the marshal in the following terms:
+
+"I thank you in the name of those who have fought together with you,
+and whose most faithful and devoted servant you have been. I thank
+you for all you have done for my House and for the greatness of the
+Fatherland. We greet in you not only a Prussian leader who has won for
+the army the reputation of being invincible, but one of the founders
+of the German Empire. The presence of the King of Saxony, who has made
+a point of personally congratulating you, recalls the time when he and
+you fought for Germany's greatness. The distinctions conferred upon
+you by my grandfather leave nothing in which I can personally show my
+thanks to you.... I call upon all those present to express their
+feelings of gratitude that Field-Marshal von Moltke has known how not
+to stand alone in his greatness, but to form a school of leaders of
+the army for time to come, and for all future generations, by giving
+cheers for his excellency."
+
+This, the last occasion on which public honors were accorded to the
+field-marshal during his life, appropriately emphasized the universal
+esteem in which "Father Moltke," as he was affectionally designated by
+the army, was held as one of the founders of the German Empire.
+
+
+
+
+GEORGE DEWEY
+
+By MAJOR-GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER
+
+(Born 1837)
+
+[Illustration: George Dewey. [TN]]
+
+
+Every occasion finds a _man_ to meet the exigencies of the hour, every
+conflict brings forth its hero, and every war educates soldiers for a
+war to come. War begets the warrior. Washington came out of the French
+and Indian wars, Jackson from the Creek wars; Scott and Taylor both
+emerged from Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, Grant and Lee from Mexico. So,
+George Dewey came out of the fierce internecine strife of our Civil
+War. He came, too, from one of the great sources of the best elements
+of our American population. The Puritans of New England and the
+Cavaliers of Virginia sprung from the same soil and a common ancestry,
+worked side by side, in a widely different manner, but to the same
+end; and from these two classes have sprung nearly all our great
+soldiers, statesmen, and authors. From the former came the great naval
+hero of the Spanish-American War.
+
+[Illustration: Admiral Dewey at Manila Bay.]
+
+George Dewey was born in Montpelier, Vermont, on December 26, 1837, of
+direct descent, in the ninth generation, from Thomas Dewey, who came
+from Sandwich, England, to Dorchester, in the Massachusetts Bay
+Colony, in 1633.
+
+His father, Dr. Julius Dewey, was a physician, eminent in his
+profession, and loved and respected, not only for his ability but for
+his innate nobility of character; and his mother was Mary Perrin. His
+ancestors on both sides were patriots in the days that tried men's
+souls, the hard and bitter days of the Colonial and Revolutionary
+Wars. He was the third of four children, and even in his boyhood he
+was a leader among his fellows. His breaches of discipline culminated
+in his heading an insurrection against the village school-master; but
+the pedagogue came off victorious, and administered a severe flogging
+to the young rebel, which punishment his father is said to have
+reinforced with some home-brewed medicine. The lesson was well
+learned, for we hear of no more insurrections.
+
+George Dewey entered the Naval Academy September 23, 1854, and was
+graduated fifth in a class of fourteen. He was attached to the frigate
+Wabash of the Mediterranean Squadron, and after his two years' cruise
+as a midshipman passed his final examination, in which he stood number
+one, gaining a final rating of three in his class. War was already
+imminent, and rapidly passing through the next grades he was on April
+19th attached as lieutenant to the Mississippi, belonging to the West
+Gulf Squadron. Early in 1862 Commodores Farragut and Porter prepared
+to capture New Orleans. Throughout this campaign Lieutenant Dewey
+distinguished himself by his cool courage, quick perception, and ready
+skill, winning the praise of Commodore Farragut. In running by the
+forts, he stood upon the bridge of the Mississippi, unmoved amid a
+storm of shot and shell, and unerringly guided her up the river,
+although he knew not a foot of the channel. The next year he was
+attached to one of Farragut's gunboats, and later to the Monongahela,
+which he commanded temporarily. In 1864, attached to the Colorado, he
+again distinguished himself in the attack on Fort Fisher, by a display
+not only of great courage, but of marked tactical skill, and by the
+fighting of his ship, which, though a junior, he really directed, and
+won the enthusiastic congratulations of his superior officers. Made
+lieutenant-commander March 3, 1865, Dewey emerged from the Civil War a
+matured naval officer at the age of twenty-seven, ripe in experience
+and ready for any service or sacrifice for the welfare of his country.
+
+His career from this time until the close of the year 1897, although
+important in his development and replete with valuable services in all
+directions, must be summed up in a few words.
+
+For two years subsequent to the war, he served with the European
+Squadron, first on the Kearsarge, later on the Colorado. 1867 found
+him at the Naval Academy. Promoted commander, April 13, 1872, he was
+assigned to the Narragansett until 1875. After seven years of bureau
+duty in the Navy Department, October 18, 1882, he commanded the
+Juniata of the Asiatic Squadron, and then learned the topography of
+Manila Bay, where he gave his first lesson to the Spaniard in the
+person of the Port Captain of Manila, who impudently proposed that he
+"parade his crew," so that some sailors accused of riot might be
+identified, Dewey's reply being: "The deck of this vessel is United
+States territory, and I'll parade my men for no foreigner that ever
+drew breath."
+
+Dewey's health broke down, and in 1884 he was at the Navy Department,
+but September 27th was commissioned captain and took command of the
+Dolphin, one of the "White Squadron," the beginning of our "New Navy."
+He reached the rank of commodore February 28, 1896. On shore he has
+served as a member of the Lighthouse Board, Chief of the Bureau of
+Equipment, and Chief of the Board of Inspection and Survey. Late in
+the year 1897 it became necessary to select a commander of the Asiatic
+Station. War with Spain was a possibility. It was therefore essential
+that the Asiatic Station be in command of an able and experienced
+officer.
+
+It has been said that Commodore Dewey, as also the other commodores,
+sought the North Atlantic and European Stations, believing that the
+Atlantic would be "the theatre of the war," and that he was averse to
+service in the Asiatic. It has also been said that the appointment of
+Dewey was a mere chance, a matter of routine. I think that these
+statements are not correct. I believe that Commodore Dewey was too old
+a sailor, too good a sailor, and too experienced a sailor to attempt
+to dictate his own orders. Furthermore, in a conversation with the
+President, this subject being mentioned, the President told me that he
+had carefully considered the appointment of an officer to command the
+Asiatic Station and had finally determined upon Dewey--that he wrote
+upon a card which he sent to the Secretary, of the Navy: "Appoint
+Dewey to Asiatic Squadron."
+
+In pursuance of the President's action, Commodore George Dewey was
+detached on November 30th from Bureau work and ordered to the Asiatic
+Station, of which he took command on January 3, 1898. The opportunity
+came, and the right man was in the right place.
+
+Commodore Dewey's squadron was composed of four protected cruisers,
+two gunboats, and a despatch-boat, as follows: The Olympia
+(flag-ship), a protected cruiser of 5,870 tons, mounting fourteen
+guns, Captain Gridley and flag-officer, Captain Benjamin P. Lamberton;
+the Baltimore, a protected cruiser of 4,413 tons and ten guns, Captain
+Nehemiah M. Dyer; the Raleigh, a protected cruiser of 3,213 tons and
+eleven guns, Captain Joseph B. Coghlan; the Boston, a protected
+cruiser of 3,000 tons and eight guns, Captain Frank Wildes; the
+Concord, a gunboat of 1,710 tons and six guns, Commander Asa Walker;
+the Petrel, a gunboat of 892 tons and four guns, Commander Wood; and
+the revenue cutter McCulloch, despatch-boat. Also the transports
+Zaffiro and Nanshan with provisions and coal. There was no armored
+vessel in the squadron.
+
+[Illustration: Admiral Dewey Loving Cup. [TN]]
+
+From the day Commodore Dewey took command of the Asiatic Station until
+April 24th, active preparations for war were going forward. The ships
+were kept stored to their full capacity with provisions, coal, and
+ammunition, and there was a continuous round of drill, target
+practice, manoeuvres, and evolutions. Dewey would be ready when
+action should become necessary. On April 24th the British authorities
+notified the American commander that he must quit Hong Kong within
+twenty-four hours. Dewey moved his squadron to Mirs Bay immediately.
+At six o'clock on the evening of April 25th, he received the following
+despatch:
+
+                                   "WASHINGTON, April 24, 1898.
+
+"Dewey, Hong Kong:
+
+"War has commenced between the United States and Spain. Proceed at
+once to the Philippine Islands. Commence operations at once,
+particularly against the Spanish fleet. You must capture vessels or
+destroy. Use utmost endeavors.
+
+                                   LONG."
+
+These orders were all sufficient for Dewey. Even without them he had
+no alternative. Obliged to leave British, he would soon be debarred
+from Chinese, waters; he was nearly 8,000 miles from a home-port, and
+Honolulu, his nearest coaling station, was 6,000 miles away.
+
+The following day was spent in consultation with his commanders in
+final preparation for his campaign, and waiting for the arrival from
+Manila of Williams, the American Consul, until the evening of the
+27th, when at two o'clock he sailed out of Mirs Bay to find the fleet
+of Spain. Proceeding across the China Sea, the squadron sighted Cape
+Bolinas one hundred and fifteen miles north of the entrance to Manila
+Bay, at 3.30 A.M., on Saturday, April 30th. About thirty miles north
+of the entrance, a conference of commanders was held. Dewey announced
+his plans. Rumors of mines and torpedoes had no terrors for Dewey,
+and, steaming slowly into Manila Bay, his squadron passed between
+Corregidor and Caballos about midnight.
+
+They arrived opposite Cavite about five o'clock, and, as daylight
+increased, the Spanish fleet could be seen in the harbor. This fleet,
+under Admiral Montejo, comprised ten vessels, viz.: The Reina Maria
+Cristina, a protected cruiser of 3,520 tons; the Castilla, a wooden
+cruiser of 3,340 tons; the Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don Juan de Austria,
+and Velasco, steel cruisers of 1,152 tons each; the Isla de Luzon and
+Isla de Cuba, gunboats of 1,040 tons each; the General Lezo and El
+Correo, gun vessels of 524 tons each; and the Marques del Duero,
+despatch-boat of 500 tons; besides tugs, transports, and launches, the
+latter used as torpedo-boats. There was no armored vessel in this
+fleet.
+
+Though counting more fighting vessels, the Spanish fleet was inferior
+to the American squadron in size and armament. The Spanish vessels
+mounted 116 guns, the American 135. But the Spanish fleet was
+protected by land batteries and forts armed with modern guns. The
+Spaniards were, therefore, much superior to the Americans in force and
+armament.
+
+At ten minutes past five the battle began, the Spaniards opening fire
+from ships and forts, at a distance of more than four miles. Two great
+mines were exploded in the path of the Olympia, but too far away to
+cause damage.
+
+At twenty-three minutes past five Dewey said to Captain Gridley: "You
+may fire when ready." Almost instantly an eight-inch gun roared out
+American defiance. As with one voice the blue-jackets of the squadron
+gave forth the American war-cry, "Remember the Maine!" and the battle
+was on.
+
+The Castilla lay moored head and stern under the protection of the
+guns, and surrounded by barges, which made it impossible to strike her
+below the water-line. The Reina Cristina, Admiral Montejo's flag-ship,
+and the other vessels of his fleet moved out to the battle protected
+by the forts and batteries. The Olympia in the lead, followed by the
+other vessels of the American squadron, headed straight for the centre
+of the Spanish line; then changing course, ran parallel to the Spanish
+line at a distance of four thousand yards. After passing the Spanish
+position the American squadron turned and again passed the Spanish
+line, decreasing the distance. The Spaniards were in strong position
+and fighting with consummate courage, but it soon became apparent that
+nothing could withstand the effects of American gunnery. Still, the
+Spaniards, knowing the exact distance of our vessels, were doing some
+damage. Early in the battle a shot struck and passed clean through the
+Baltimore, and another disabled a six-inch gun and exploded a box of
+ammunition, wounding eight men but killing no one. The Olympia was
+struck by a shell which, exploding outside, did little damage, and the
+signal halyards were cut out of the flag-officer's hands. The lines
+were immediately replaced by a blue-jacket. The Boston was struck by
+three shells, one starting a fire in a stateroom and another in the
+hammock-netting, while a third passed through the foremast near
+Captain Wildes. The squadron passed four times before the enemy,
+slightly decreasing the distance on each run, and on the fifth,
+believing that the depth of water was greater than he had supposed,
+Dewey took the Olympia closer, until on this last run he was within
+two thousand yards of the enemy. The Spaniards were suffering terribly
+and fought with courage and desperation. Admiral Montejo on the Reina
+Cristina sallied forth alone and made straight for the Olympia at full
+speed, but the concentrated fire of the whole American squadron drove
+him back to the protection of the breakwater, and as the flag-ship
+sped away, a shell from the Olympia struck her, passed through her
+entire length, and set her on fire.
+
+Captain Cadarso was mortally wounded. Admiral Montejo in an open boat
+transferred his flag to the gunboat Isla de Cuba. The Castilla was
+repeatedly hit and was soon burning fiercely. The Don Juan de Austria
+was blown up by a shell entering the magazine. The other Spanish
+vessels and all the forts and batteries maintained a terrific firing.
+The heavy guns of Manila took part in the fight until Dewey sent a
+message to Governor-General Augusti, that unless they were immediately
+silenced he would shell the city. The message had its effect. Two
+small launches or torpedo-boats started out from the Castilla, headed
+for the Olympia, but the danger to her was averted by the concentrated
+fire of the squadron, and they hasted in their backward flight. A
+shell struck and sank one; the other was disabled. A Spanish gunboat
+slipping out of line made for the McCulloch, lying off with the
+transports, but nothing escaped the eagle eye on the bridge of the
+Olympia, and a hail of shells sent the adventurer scurrying back to
+cover.
+
+[Illustration: The Dewey triumphal Arch.]
+
+It was half-past seven; the battle had raged incessantly for two
+hours, during which Commodore Dewey with his flag-officer had remained
+exposed on the bridge of the Olympia. The men had been undergoing a
+constant strain for twenty-four hours and had been served only with
+coffee, so at a quarter before eight the Olympia ceased firing, and
+the Commodore ordered the squadron to retire. It was time for "Dewey's
+Breakfast."
+
+When the marvellous news was signalled from ship to ship: "No damage,
+not a man killed," the joy and enthusiasm was unbounded.
+
+The Spanish Admiral, not comprehending the meaning of the American
+withdrawal, wired to Madrid a report of a wonderful victory. The
+Minister of Marine replied with fulsome compliments. This was the last
+news sent out of Manila by cable, and for a week the American people
+were in painful suspense.
+
+In the meantime a sumptuous breakfast was served aboard the American
+squadron and a conference of commanders held. The two functions
+consumed more than three hours, and at a quarter after eleven the
+battle was renewed. The big guns at Cavite were hard at work, and the
+Baltimore was ordered to silence them. This she speedily accomplished,
+destroying the entire battery. The Olympia and other ships soon took
+part, and in an hour nothing was left of the Spanish fleet except
+sunken and burning hulks. More than a thousand of the enemy were
+killed and drowned and six hundred wounded. At half-past twelve the
+Americans ceased to fire, and at twelve-forty the Spanish flag was
+lowered and the white flag of surrender took its place.
+
+Commodore Dewey immediately requested Governor-General Augusti to
+allow him to cable to Washington. On the Governor-General's refusal
+the Commodore promptly cut the cable to Hong Kong. The only means of
+communication left to him was by despatch-boat to Hong Kong, but he
+was unable to start the McCulloch for several days, when he sent two
+despatches, one penned on the day of battle, the other on May 4th.
+These two telegrams, announcing what Captain Mahan has characterized
+as "the greatest naval victory recorded in history," reached Hong Kong
+on the 8th of May, one week after the battle, and were received in
+Washington on the same evening. The intense anxiety which had pervaded
+America and the whole English-speaking world, from the day Dewey
+sailed from Mirs Bay, was changed to enthusiasm and gratification.
+These two despatches, which will go down in history alongside Perry's
+from Lake Erie, formed the clearest and most concise account of the
+Battle of Manila and its immediate results.
+
+The first despatch: "May 1st.--Squadron arrived at Manila at daybreak
+this morning. Immediately engaged the enemy and destroyed the
+following vessels: Reina Cristina, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa,
+Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marques del Duero, Correo,
+Velasco, Isla de Mindanao, a transport and a water battery. The
+squadron is uninjured, and only a few men are slightly wounded. Only
+means of telegraphing is to American Consul at Hong Kong. Shall
+communicate with him.
+
+                                   DEWEY."
+
+The second despatch: "Cavite, May 4th.--I have taken possession of
+naval station at Cavite on Philippine Islands. Have destroyed the
+fortifications at bay entrance, paroling garrison. I control bay
+completely and can take city at any time. The squadron is in excellent
+health and spirits. The Spanish loss not fully known, but very heavy;
+one hundred and fifty killed, including captain of Reina Cristina. Am
+assisting in protecting Spanish sick and wounded; two hundred and
+fifty sick and wounded in hospitals within our lines. Much excitement
+at Manila. Will protect foreign residents.
+
+                                   DEWEY."
+
+Cavite in his possession, Dewey now entered upon the most difficult
+part of his enterprise. Although to take possession of Manila would be
+comparatively easy, to hold it with his force would be another matter.
+He had to cope with Spanish deceit and Malay craft, with the
+ill-concealed antagonism of the German and the unexpressed jealousy of
+Japan. Not knowing when to expect another Spanish fleet, he was
+obliged to force the representative of Germany to observe the decorum
+and etiquette demanded by the situation. Hence the friction with Von
+Diederich, when Dewey demanded to know whether his country and ours
+were at war, for if so, he was ready to do his part of the fighting.
+By July 31st troops in sufficient numbers, under General Merritt, had
+arrived; and on August 13th the city was assaulted and surrendered.
+
+The grade of Admiral has been revived by Congress and bestowed upon
+Dewey. Never was enacted a more dramatic scene in the House of
+Representatives than that when Mr. Moody of Massachusetts, fearing
+that in the hurry of the latter days of the Fifty-fifth Congress the
+bill passed by the Senate might be overlooked, offered it as a new
+section of the Naval Appropriation Bill then under consideration. The
+suggestion was received with bursts of applause and acted upon
+immediately. A few days afterward the senate bill was passed by the
+House.
+
+Only twice before has the grade of Admiral been conferred on an
+officer of the United States Navy. Farragut and Porter earned it by
+their work in the Civil War. Numerous as are the heroes of our naval
+history, none surpass Dewey, and the country is grateful to the
+President and Congress that his worth has been recognized.
+
+The fighting in the Philippines is not over, and Dewey remains to
+secure the territory won by his fearless entry into Manila Bay and the
+magnificent plan of battle that made him victorious on that first May
+morning of 1898.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8, by Various
+
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+<html lang="en">
+
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of Great Men and Famous Women, Vol. 2. Editor: Charles F. Horne.</title>
+
+
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+
+body {font-size: 1em; text-align: justify; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;}
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8
+       A series of pen and pencil sketches of the lives of more
+              than 200 of the most prominent personages in History
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Charles F. Horne
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26422]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT MEN, FAMOUS WOMEN, VOL. 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine P. Travers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="tn">Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.</p>
+
+<a id="img001" name="img001"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="400" height="591" alt="" title="">
+<p>Repulsed at Torgau--Frederick waiting for morning.</p></div>
+
+<h1>GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN</h1>
+
+<p class="noindent center italic">A Series of Pen and Pencil Sketches of</p>
+
+<p class="center noindent">THE LIVES OF MORE THAN 200 OF THE MOST PROMINENT PERSONAGES IN HISTORY</p>
+
+<p class="center noindent">Vol. II.</p>
+
+<a id="img002" name="img002"></a>
+<div class="p2 figcenter">
+<img src="images/img002.jpg" width="400" height="481" alt="Frontpage." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 noindent center"><span class="smaller">Copyright, 1894, BY SELMAR HESS</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">edited by Charles F. Horne</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center noindent smaller"><span class="smcap">New-York: Selmar Hess Publisher</span><br>
+Copyright, 1894, by <span class="smcap">Selmar Hess</span>.</p>
+
+<a id="toc" name="toc"></a>
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.</h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>SUBJECT
+<span class="ralign85">AUTHOR</span>
+<span class="ralign95">PAGE</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Major-General John Mitchell,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page211">211</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ROBERT, LORD CLIVE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">W. C. Taylor, LL.D.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page244">244</a></span></li>
+
+<li>STEPHEN DECATUR,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Edward S. Ellis, A.M.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page318">318</a></span></li>
+
+<li>GEORGE DEWEY,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Major-General Joseph Wheeler,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page402">402</a></span></li>
+
+<li>PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">G. P. R. James,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page223">223</a></span></li>
+
+<li>DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">L. P. Brockett, A.M.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page379">379</a></span></li>
+
+<li>FREDERICK THE GREAT,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Major-General John Mitchell,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page237">237</a></span></li>
+
+<li>GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page389">389</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Oliver Optic,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page343">343</a></span></li>
+
+<li>SAM HOUSTON,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Amelia E. Barr,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page331">331</a></span></li>
+
+<li>THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Marion Harland,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page373">373</a></span></li>
+
+<li>PAUL JONES,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page301">301</a></span></li>
+
+<li>FRANÇOIS KELLERMANN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page251">251</a></span></li>
+
+<li>JAMES LAWRENCE,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page313">313</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ROBERT EDMUND LEE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">General Viscount Wolseley,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page363">363</a></span></li>
+
+<li><span class="italic">Letter from Lee to his son on the subject of "Duty,"</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page372">372</a></span></li>
+
+<li>FRANCIS MARION,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page296">296</a></span></li>
+
+<li>JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">L. Drake,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page217">217</a></span></li>
+
+<li>FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT VON MOLTKE,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page395">395</a></span></li>
+
+<li>NAPOLEON BONAPARTE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Colonel Clayton, R.A.,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page262">262</a></span></li>
+
+<li>LORD HORATIO NELSON,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page279">279</a></span></li>
+
+<li>MICHEL NEY, MARSHAL OF FRANCE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Louise Chandler Moulton,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page255">255</a></span></li>
+
+<li>OLIVER HAZARD PERRY,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page325">325</a></span></li>
+
+<li>DAVID DIXON PORTER,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page387">387</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ISRAEL PUTNAM,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page284">284</a></span></li>
+
+<li>WINFIELD SCOTT,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Hon. Theodore Roosevelt,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page338">338</a></span></li>
+
+<li>PHILIP HENRY SHERIDAN,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page358">358</a></span></li>
+
+<li>WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">Elbridge S. Brooks,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page352">352</a></span></li>
+
+<li>TECUMSEH,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">James A. Green,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page308">308</a></span></li>
+
+<li>MARSHAL TURENNE,
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page205">205</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ANTHONY WAYNE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">O. C. Bosbyshell,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page289">289</a></span></li>
+
+<li>ARTHUR, DUKE OF WELLINGTON,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">L. Drake,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page272">272</a></span></li>
+
+<li>GENERAL JAMES WOLFE,
+<span class="ralign85 italic">L. Drake,</span>
+<span class="ralign95"><a href="#page231">231</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<p class="center noindent">VOLUME II.</p>
+<p class="p2 noindent center">PHOTOGRAVURES</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Illustration list">
+<colgroup>
+    <col width="60%">
+    <col width="30%">
+    <col width="10%">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td>ILLUSTRATION</td>
+<td class="right">ARTIST</td>
+<td class="right">To face<br>
+page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>REPULSED AT TORGAU--FREDERICK WAITING FOR MORNING,</td>
+<td class="italic right">R. Warthmüller</td>
+<td class="italic right"><a href="#img001">Frontispiece</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>THE MARSEILLAISE,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Gustave Doré</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img016">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>NAPOLEON AND THE SPHINX,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Jean Léon Gérôme</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img020">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>SHERIDAN'S RIDE,</td>
+<td class="italic right">T. Buchanan Read</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img043">362</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>FARRAGUT AT MOBILE BAY,</td>
+<td class="italic right">W. H. Overend</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img048">386</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ADMIRAL DEWEY AT MANILA BAY,</td>
+<td class="italic right">H. T. See</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img055">402</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>THE DEWEY TRIUMPHAL ARCH,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img057">406</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="p2 noindent center">WOOD-ENGRAVINGS AND TYPOGRAVURES.</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Illustration list">
+<colgroup>
+    <col width="60%">
+    <col width="30%">
+    <col width="10%">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td>TURENNE AT THE BATTLE OF THE DUNES,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Larivière</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img004">208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>CHARLES XII. AND AN UNWILLING RECRUIT,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Thure von Cederström</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img006">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>PRINCE EUGENE AND THE MARSHAL DE VILLARS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">P. Philippoteaux</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img009">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>GENERAL WOLFE LANDING AT LOUISBURG,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Wild</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img011">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>FREDERICK AND THE AUSTRIANS AFTER LEUTHEN,</td>
+<td class="italic right">A. Kampf</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img013">242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MARSHAL NEY RETURNING THE CAPTURED COLORS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Meynier</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img018">256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A REVIEW OF THE BRITISH ARMY BY WELLINGTON,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img022">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>NELSON AT TRAFALGAR,</td>
+<td class="italic right">W. H. Overend</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img024">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MARION CROSSING THE PEDEE,</td>
+<td class="italic right">W. Ranney</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img028">300</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>PAUL JONES AND LADY SELKIRK,</td>
+<td class="italic right">W. H. Overend</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img030">304</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>TECUMSEH DEFENDS THE WHITES AT FORT MEIGS,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Chapin</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img032">310</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>"DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP,"</td>
+<td class="italic right">Alonzo Chappel</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img034">316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>DECATUR'S CONFLICT WITH THE ALGERINE AT TRIPOLI</td>
+<td class="italic right">Alonzo Chappel</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img036">322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>JACKSON AT CHANCELLORSVILLE,</td>
+<td class="italic right">A. R. Ward</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img046">378</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MEETING OF VICTOR EMMANUEL AND GARIBALDI,</td>
+<td class="italic right">C. Ademollo</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img051">394</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MOLTKE AT VERSAILLES, 1870,</td>
+<td class="italic right">Anton von Werner</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img053">400</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ADMIRAL DEWEY LOVING CUP,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#img056">404</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>(p. 205)</span> MARSHAL TURENNE<br>
+(1611-1675)</h3>
+
+<a id="img003" name="img003"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="250" height="261" alt="Turenne." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne, esteemed, after
+Napoleon, the greatest of French generals, was born September 16,
+1611. He was the second son of the Duc de Bouillon, Prince of Sedan,
+and of Elizabeth of Nassau, daughter of the celebrated William of
+Orange, to whose courage and talents the Netherlands mainly owed their
+deliverance from Spain. Both parents being zealous Calvinists, Turenne
+was of course brought up in the same faith. Soon after his father's
+death, the duchess sent him, when he was not yet thirteen years old,
+into the Low Countries, to learn the art of war under his uncle,
+Maurice of Nassau, who commanded the troops of Holland in the
+protracted struggle between that country and Spain. Maurice held that
+there was no royal road to military skill, and placed his young
+relation in the ranks, as a volunteer, where for some time he served,
+enduring all hardships to which the common soldiers were exposed. In
+his second campaign he was promoted to the command of a company, which
+he retained for four years, distinguished by the admirable discipline
+of his men, by unceasing attention to the due performance of his own
+duty, and by his eagerness to witness, and become thoroughly
+acquainted with, every branch of service. In the year 1630, family
+circumstances rendered it expedient that he should return to France,
+where the Court received him with distinction, and invested him with
+the command of a regiment.</p>
+
+<p>Four years elapsed before Turenne had an opportunity of distinguishing
+himself in the service of his native country. His first laurels were
+reaped in 1634, at the siege of the strong fortress of La Motte, in
+Lorraine, where he headed the assault, and, by his skill and bravery,
+mainly contributed to its success. For this exploit he was raised, at
+the early stage of twenty-three, to the rank of Maréchal de Camp, the
+second grade of military rank in France. In the following year, the
+breaking out of war between France and Austria opened a wider field of
+action. Turenne held a subordinate command in the army, which, under
+the Cardinal <span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>(p. 206)</span> de la Valette, marched into Germany to support
+the Swedes, commanded by the Duke of Weimar. At first fortune smiled
+on the allies; but, ere long, scarcity of provisions compelled them to
+a disastrous retreat over a ruined country, in the face of the enemy.
+On this occasion the young soldier's ability and disinterestedness
+were equally conspicuous. He sold his plate and equipage for the use
+of the army; threw away his baggage to load the wagons with those
+stragglers who must otherwise have been abandoned; and marched on
+foot, while he gave up his own horse to the relief of one who had
+fallen, exhausted by hunger and fatigue. These are the acts which win
+the attachment of soldiers, and Turenne was idolized by his.</p>
+
+<p>Our limits will not allow of the relation of those campaigns in which
+the subject of this memoir filled a subordinate part. In 1637-38 he
+again served under La Valette, in Flanders and Germany, after which he
+was made Lieutenant-general, a rank not previously existing in France.
+The three following years he was employed in Italy and Savoy, and in
+1642 made a campaign in Roussillon, under the eye of Louis XIII. In
+the spring of 1643 the king died; and in the autumn of the same year
+Turenne received from the queen-mother and regent, Anne of Austria, a
+marshal's baton, the appropriate reward of his long and brilliant
+services. Four years a captain, four a colonel, three Maréchal de
+Camp, five lieutenant-general, he had served in all stations from the
+ranks upward, and distinguished himself in them not only by military
+talent, but by strict honor and trustworthiness; rare virtues in those
+turbulent times, when men were familiar with civil war, and the great
+nobility were too powerful to be peaceful subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his promotion he was sent to Germany, to collect and
+reorganize the French army, which had been roughly handled at
+Duttlingen. It wanted rest, men, and money, and he settled it in good
+quarters, raised recruits, and pledged his own credit for the
+necessary sums. The effects of his exertions were soon seen. He
+arrived in Alsace, December, 1643, and in the following May was at the
+head of 10,000 men, well armed and equipped, with whom he felt strong
+enough to attack the Imperial army, and raise the siege of Fribourg.
+At that moment the glory which he hoped for, and was entitled to
+obtain, as the reward of five months' labor, was snatched from him by
+the arrival of the celebrated Prince de Condé, at that time Duc
+d'Enghien, to assume the command. The vexation which Turenne must have
+felt was increased by the difference of age (for the prince was ten
+years his junior), and of personal character. Condé was ardent and
+impetuous, and flushed by his brilliant victory at Rocroi the year
+before; Turenne, cool, calculating, and cautious, unwearied in
+preparing a certainty of success beforehand, yet prompt in striking
+when the decisive moment was come. The difference of their characters
+was exemplified upon this occasion. Merci, the Austrian commander, had
+taken up a strong position, which Turenne said could not be forced;
+but at the same time pointed out the means of turning it. Condé
+differed from him, and the second in command was obliged to submit. On
+two successive days two bloody and unsuccessful assaults were made;
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>(p. 207)</span> on the third Turenne's advice was taken, and on the first
+demonstration of this change of plan Merci retreated. In the following
+year, ill supplied with everything, and forced to separate his troops
+widely to obtain subsistence, Turenne was attacked at Mariendal, and
+worsted by his old antagonist, Merci. This, his first defeat, he felt
+severely; still he retained his position, and was again ready to meet
+the enemy, when he received positive orders from Mazarin to undertake
+nothing before the arrival of Condé. Zealous for his country and
+careless of personal slights, he marched without complaint under the
+command of his rival; and his magnanimity was rewarded at the battle
+of Nordlingen, in 1645, where the centre and right wing having failed
+in their attack, Turenne, with the left wing, broke the enemy's right,
+and falling on his centre in flank, threw it into utter confusion. For
+this service he received the most cordial and ample acknowledgments
+from Condé, both on the field and in his despatches to the Queen
+Regent. Soon after, Condé, who was wounded in the battle, resigned his
+command into the hands of Turenne. The following campaigns of
+1646-47-48 exhibited a series of successes, by means of which he drove
+the Duke of Bavaria from his dominions, and reduced the emperor to
+seek for peace. This was concluded at Munster in 1648, and to
+Turenne's exertions the termination of the Thirty Years' War is mainly
+to be ascribed.</p>
+
+<p>The repose of France was soon broken by civil war. Mazarin's
+administration, oppressive in all respects, but especially in fiscal
+matters, had produced no small discontent throughout the country, and
+especially in Paris, where the Parliament openly espoused the cause of
+the people against the minister, and was joined by several of the
+highest nobility, urged by various motives of private interest or
+personal pique. Among these were the Prince of Conti, the Duc de
+Longueville, and the Duc de Bouillon. Mazarin, in alarm, endeavored to
+enlist the ambition of Turenne in his favor, by offering the
+government of Alsace, and the hand of his own niece, as the price of
+his adherence to the Court. The viscount, pressed by both parties,
+avoided declaring his adhesion to either; but he unequivocally
+expressed his disapprobation of the cardinal's proceedings, and, being
+superseded in his command, retired peaceably to Holland. There he
+remained till the convention of Ruel effected a hollow and insincere
+reconciliation between the Court and one of the jarring parties of
+which the Fronde was composed. That reconciliation was soon broken by
+the sudden arrest of Condé, Conti, and the Duc de Longueville. Turenne
+then threw himself into the arms of the Fronde, and, at the head of
+eight thousand men, found himself obliged to encounter the royal army,
+twenty thousand strong. In the battle which ensued, he distinguished
+his personal bravery in several desperate charges; but the disparity
+was too great; and this defeat of Rhetel was of serious consequence to
+the Fronde party. Convinced at last that his true interest lay rather
+on the side of the Court, then managed by a woman and a priest, where
+he might be supreme in military matters, than in supporting the cause
+of an impetuous and self-willed leader, such as Condé, Turenne gladly
+listened to overtures of accommodation, and passed over to the support
+of the regency.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>(p. 208)</span> The value of his services was soon made evident. Twice, at
+the head of very inferior troops, he checked Condé in the career of
+victory; and again compelled him to fight under the walls of Paris;
+where, in the celebrated battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine, the
+prince and his army narrowly escaped destruction. Finally, he
+re-established the Court at Paris, and compelled Condé to quit the
+realm. These important events took place in one campaign of six months
+in 1652.</p>
+
+<p>In 1654 he again took the field against his former friend and
+commander, Condé, who had taken refuge in Spain, and now led a foreign
+army against his country. The most remarkable operation of the
+campaign was the raising the siege of Arras, which the Spaniards had
+invested, according to the most approved fashion of the day, with a
+strong double line of circumvallation, within which the besieging army
+was supposed to be securely sheltered against the sallies of the
+garrison cooped up within, and the efforts of their friends from
+without. Turenne marched to the relief of the place. This could only
+be effected by forcing the enemy's entrenchments; which were
+accordingly attacked, contrary to the opinion of his own officers, and
+carried at all points, despite the personal exertions of Condé. The
+Spaniards were forced to retreat. It is remarkable that Turenne, not
+long after, was himself defeated in precisely similar circumstances,
+under the walls of Valenciennes, round which he had drawn lines of
+circumvallation. Once more he found himself in the same position at
+Dunkirk. On this occasion he marched out of his lines to meet the
+enemy, rather than wait, and suffer them to choose their point of
+attack; and the celebrated battle of the Dunes, or Sandhills, ensued,
+in which he gained a brilliant victory over the best Spanish troops,
+with Condé at their head. This took place in 1657. Dunkirk and the
+greater part of Flanders fell into the hands of the French in
+consequence; and these successes led to the treaty of the Pyrenees,
+which terminated the war in 1658.</p>
+
+<p>When war broke out afresh between France and Spain, in 1667, Louis
+XIV. made his first campaign under Turenne's guidance, and gained
+possession of nearly the whole of Flanders. In 1672, when Louis
+resolved to undertake in person the conquest of Holland, he again
+placed the command, under himself, in Turenne's hands, and disgraced
+several marshals who refused to receive orders from the viscount,
+considering themselves his equals in military rank. How Le Grand
+Monarque forced the passage of the Rhine when there was no army to
+oppose him, and conquered city after city, till he was stopped by
+inundations, under the walls of Amsterdam, has been said and sung by
+his flatterers, and need not be repeated here. But after the king had
+left the army, when the princes of Germany came to the assistance of
+Holland, and her affairs took a more favorable turn under the able
+guidance of the Prince of Orange, a wider field was offered for the
+display of Turenne's talents. In the campaign of 1673 he drove the
+Elector of Brandenburg, who had come to the assistance of the Dutch,
+back to Berlin, and compelled him to negotiate for peace. In the same
+year he was opposed, for the first time, to the imperial general,
+Montecuculi, celebrated for his military writings as well as for his
+exploits in the field. The meeting of these two great generals
+produced no decisive results.</p>
+
+<a id="img004" name="img004"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="" title="">
+<p>Turenne at the battle of the Dunes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>(p. 209)</span> Turenne returned to Paris in the winter, and was received
+with the most flattering marks of favor. On the approach of spring he
+was sent back to take command of the French army in Alsace, which,
+amounting to no more than ten thousand men, was pressed by a powerful
+confederation of the troops of the Empire, and those of Brandenburg,
+once again in the field. Turenne set himself to beat the allies in
+detail, before they could form a junction. He passed the Rhine,
+marched forty French leagues in four days, and came up with the
+Imperialists, under the Duke of Lorraine, at Sintzheim. They occupied
+a strong position, their wings resting on mountains; their centre
+protected by a river and a fortified town. Turenne hesitated: it
+seemed rash to attack; but a victory was needful before the
+combination of the two armies should render their force irresistible;
+and he commanded the best troops of France. The event justified his
+confidence. Every post was carried sword in hand. The Marshal had his
+horse killed under him, and was slightly wounded. To the officers, who
+crowded round him with congratulations, he replied, with one of those
+short and happy speeches which tell upon an army more than the most
+labored harangues, "With troops like you, gentlemen, a man ought to
+attack boldly, for he is sure to conquer." The beaten army fell back
+behind the Neckar, where they effected a junction with the troops of
+Brandenburg; but they dared attempt nothing further, and left the
+Palatinate in the quiet possession of Turenne. Under his eye, and, as
+it appears from his own letters, at his express recommendation, as a
+matter of policy, that wretched country was laid waste to a deplorable
+extent. This transaction went far beyond the ordinary license of war,
+and excited general indignation even in that unscrupulous age. It will
+ever be remembered as a foul stain upon the character of the general
+who executed, and of the king and minister who ordered or consented to
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Having carried fire and sword through that part of the Palatinate
+which lay upon the right or German bank of the Rhine, he crossed that
+river. But the Imperial troops, reinforced by the Saxons and Hessians
+to the amount of sixty thousand men, pressed him hard; and it seemed
+impossible to keep the field against so great a disparity of force;
+his own troops not amounting to more than twenty thousand. He
+retreated into Lorraine, abandoning the fertile plains of Alsace to
+the enemy, led his army behind the Vosges Mountains, and crossing them
+by unfrequented routes, surprised the enemy at Colmar, beat him at
+Mulhausen and Turkheim, and forced him to recross the Rhine. This is
+esteemed the most brilliant of Turenne's campaigns, and it was
+conceived and conducted with the greater boldness, being in opposition
+to the orders of Louvois. "I know," he wrote to that minister, in
+remonstrating, and indeed refusing to follow his directions, "I know
+the strength of the Imperialists, their generals, and the country in
+which we are. I take all upon myself, and charge myself with whatever
+may occur."</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Paris at the end of the campaign, his journey through
+France resembled a triumphal progress; such was the popular enthusiasm
+in his favor. Not less flattering was his reception by the king, whose
+undeviating regard and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>(p. 210)</span> confidence, undimmed by jealousy or
+envy, is creditable alike to the monarch and to his faithful subject.
+At this time Turenne, it is said, had serious thoughts of retiring to
+a convent, and was induced only by the earnest remonstrances of the
+king, and his representations of the critical state of France, to
+resume his command. Returning to the Upper Rhine, he was again opposed
+to Montecuculi. For two months the resources and well-matched skill of
+the rival captains were displayed in a series of marches and
+countermarches, in which every movement was so well foreseen and
+guarded against, that no opportunity occurred for coming to action
+with advantage to either side. At last the art of Turenne appeared to
+prevail; when, not many minutes after he had expressed the full belief
+that victory was within his grasp, a cannon-ball struck him while
+engaged in reconnoitring the enemy's position, previous to giving
+battle, and he fell dead from his horse, July 27, 1675. The same shot
+carried off the arm of St. Hilaire, commander-in-chief of the
+artillery. "Weep not for me," said the brave soldier to his son; "it
+is for that great man that we ought to weep."</p>
+
+<p>His subordinates possessed neither the talents requisite to follow up
+his plans, nor the confidence of the troops, who perceived their
+hesitation, and were eager to avenge the death of their beloved
+general. "Loose the piebald," so they named Turenne's horse, was the
+cry; "he will lead us on." But those on whom the command devolved
+thought of anything rather than of attacking the enemy; and after
+holding a hurried council of war, retreated in all haste across the
+Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>The Swabian peasants let the spot where he fell lie fallow for many
+years, and carefully preserved a tree under which he had been sitting
+just before. Strange that the people who had suffered so much at his
+hands should regard his memory with such respect!</p>
+
+<p>The character of Turenne was more remarkable for solidity than for
+brilliancy. Many generals may have been better qualified to complete a
+campaign by one decisive blow; few probably have laid the scheme of a
+campaign with more judgment, or shown more skill and patience in
+carrying their plans into effect. And it is remarkable that, contrary
+to general experience, he became much more enterprising in advanced
+years than he had been in youth. Of that impetuous spirit, which
+sometimes carries men to success where caution would have hesitated
+and failed, he possessed little. In his earlier years he seldom
+ventured to give battle, except where victory was nearly certain; but
+a course of victory inspired confidence, and trained by long practice
+to distinguish the difficult from the impossible, he adopted in his
+later campaigns a bolder style of tactics than had seemed congenial to
+his original temper. In this respect he offered a remarkable contrast
+to his rival in fame, Condé, who, celebrated in early life for the
+headlong valor, even to rashness, of his enterprises, became in old
+age prudent almost to timidity. Equally calm in success or in defeat,
+Turenne was always ready to prosecute the one, or to repair the other.
+And he carried the same temper into private life, where he was
+distinguished for the dignity with which he avoided quarrels, under
+circumstances in which lesser men would have <span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>(p. 211)</span> found it hard
+to do so, without incurring the reproach of cowardice. Nor must we
+pass over his thorough honesty and disinterestedness in pecuniary
+matters; a quality more rare in a great man then than it is now.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN<br>
+By <span class="smcap">General John Mitchell</span><br>
+(1682-1718)</h3>
+
+<a id="img005" name="img005"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="250" height="282" alt="Charles XII." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Charles XII., against whom it has been made a fault that he carried
+virtues to extremes, was born at Stockholm, on June 27, 1682, during a
+storm that</p>
+
+<p class="poem10">
+<span class="add2em">"Rived the mighty oak, and made</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">The ambitious ocean swell, and rage, and foam,</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">To be exalted with the threatening clouds."</span></p>
+
+<p>Astrologers observed that the star called the "Lion's Heart"
+predominated at his nativity, and that the "Fox" was on the
+decline&mdash;omens and prodigies well suited to announce the birth of a
+prince who was himself a living tempest. Charles's infancy has nothing
+very remarkable. His education was strictly attended to, and he proved
+an attentive scholar. He acquired considerable knowledge of history,
+geography, mathematics, and the military sciences, and became
+perfectly familiar with several languages, though he never, after his
+accession to the throne, spoke any but Latin, Swedish, or German. The
+gallant Charles Stewart, the same who afterward led the king across
+the Duna, was his instructor in the art of war, and is said to have
+communicated to the young prince much of the fiery spirit for which he
+was himself distinguished. In his fifteenth year Charles ascended the
+throne, and, contrary to usual assertion, already evinced considerable
+ability and application to business, though no particular predilection
+for military affairs, unless his bear-hunting expeditions may be so
+considered, for they were more than "faint images of war," being
+attended with great danger. No arms were used in these encounters; the
+sportsman was provided only with a single doubly-pointed stick and a
+cast-net, like the one perhaps, used by the ancient gladiators. The
+object of these fierce combats was to capture and bind the bear, and
+to carry him in triumph from the scene of action! Charles was, it
+seems, a great proficient in this dangerous sport.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>(p. 212)</span> At the age of eighteen Charles was obliged to take the field
+against the four greatest powers of the North. Forced to contend with
+small means against vastly superior foes, he made genius and courage
+supply the place of numbers. Heroism was never more nobly displayed
+than by this gallant monarch and his followers. What men could do was
+done. For nine years he triumphed over constantly augmenting enemies.
+And when the "unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain" fell at last,
+crushed by the weight of masses, fortune more than shared with his
+innumerable adversaries the honor of his overthrow.</p>
+
+<p>It was during the Polish campaign of 1703 that Max Emanuel of
+Wirtemberg, then only fourteen years of age, joined Charles. When
+introduced, the king asked him whether he wished to go to Stockholm
+for a time, or to remain with the army. The prince, of course,
+preferred the latter. "Well, then," said Charles, "I will bring you up
+in my own way," and immediately placed the boy, tired as he was from
+his journey, on horseback, and led him a long and fatiguing ride. From
+this period to the battle of Pultowa, Max continued to be his constant
+companion, shared his dangers, and attended him in all his adventures,
+many of which border almost on the fabulous. The affectionate kindness
+evinced by Charles toward his pupil could not be surpassed. When the
+boy, as sometimes happened, was worn down by sickness and fatigue, the
+monarch attended him with parental care; and when on one occasion he
+fell speechless from his horse, and his recovery was despaired of, the
+king never left his couch till he was pronounced out of danger.</p>
+
+<p>The adventures they encountered together were endless. On inspecting
+the regiments before the opening of the campaign of 1706, they rode
+five hundred miles in six days, were never in bed, and hardly ever out
+of the saddle, and frequently reduced to milk and water as their only
+nourishment&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+  "Alike to Charles was tide or time,<br>
+  Moonless midnight or matin prime."</p>
+
+<p>Having on another occasion lost their road and escort during a stormy
+night, they arrived in the midst of a tempest before the town of
+Tousha. Neither calling nor firing brought any one to the gates. The
+king at last dismounted and sought for an entrance, while the prince
+held the horses in the pelting rain. An entrance having at last been
+discovered, they took possession of a hut in which was a fire. The
+king threw himself, booted and spurred, on a bundle of straw, and fell
+fast asleep. The prince, less hardy, took off his boots, filled them
+with straw, and placed them by the fire. While sleeping, the flame
+caught and consumed the valuable gambodoes. The prince was next day
+obliged to get a pair of peasant's boots, in which he rode about for
+eight days; a proof that the princely wardrobe was but slenderly
+furnished.</p>
+
+<p>And yet the camp was not without its gayeties either; for while the
+head-quarters were wintering at Rawitcz, the town became the scene of
+great festivities; balls and parties succeeding each other as rapidly
+as battles had done before. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>(p. 213)</span> Charles was usually present,
+was always very polite, but made only a short stay, and retired as
+soon as he could.</p>
+
+<a id="img006" name="img006"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="600" height="485" alt="" title="">
+<p>Charles XII. and an unwilling recruit.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the stay of the army in this place, a fire broke out and
+consumed several houses. The king flew to aid in extinguishing the
+flames. He ascended to the top of a house that was already on fire,
+and continued working till the building was sinking under him. He
+escaped with difficulty, was thrown down by one of the beams, and for
+a moment believed to be dead. "It was discovered two years afterward,"
+says Bardili, "that the place was set on fire by an incendiary bribed
+by Augustus II. to slay the king of Sweden in the confusion;" and a
+man actually came forward and denounced himself as the intended
+assassin, declaring that some unknown power had prevented him from
+stabbing the king when he got near his person. Charles said the man
+was mad, and sent him about his business. Napoleon would have sent him
+before a military commission and had him shot, as he caused the
+student at Schönbrunn to be shot.</p>
+
+<p>We regret that we cannot give a sufficient account of the Duke of
+Marlborough's visit to Charles's head-quarters at Altranstadt; for
+what Voltaire says on the subject is but an idle fable. That the
+English general should easily have penetrated the views of the Swedish
+conqueror, which the latter took no pains to conceal, is sufficiently
+probable; but that the conversation between two such men should have
+turned principally on the king's large boots, which, as Voltaire says,
+Charles told Marlborough "he had not quitted for seven years," is of
+course a mere puerility. Besides, we find from Max's "Memoirs," that
+Charles was not so coarse in his dress as is usually represented, for
+his clothes were made of fine materials. He always wore a plain blue
+coat with gilt buttons, buff waistcoat and breeches, a black crape
+cravat, and a cocked hat; a waist-belt, and a long cut-and-thrust
+sword. He never disfigured himself by the full-bottomed wig of the
+period, but always wore his own brown hair, combed back from his
+forehead. His camp-bed consisted of a blue silk mattress, pillow and
+coverlid; materials that would have suited even a dandy guardsman.</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of Saxony occasioned great uneasiness at Vienna,
+Charles's arrival being considered alike dangerous to the Catholic
+states of the Empire and to the success of the Grand Alliance. It
+happened, under these unpleasant feelings, that at a party the Swedish
+Minister, Count Stralenghielm, proposed his master's health as a
+toast. An imperial chamberlain, a Count Zabor, a magnate of Hungary,
+refused to drink it, declaring that "no honest man ought to drink the
+health of the Turk, the devil, and of a third person." The Swede
+struck the offender, and swords were drawn; but the adversaries were
+of course separated. The ambassador demanded satisfaction for the
+insult; and Zabor was arrested, and sent in irons to Stettin, and
+delivered up to the Swedes. Charles instantly set him at liberty,
+simply desiring him to "be more guarded in his speeches for the
+future."</p>
+
+<p>The Saxon nobility (Ritterschaft, chivalry) having been taxed to aid
+in defraying the Swedish contributions, applied to Charles, claiming
+their privilege of exemption from all taxation, except that of
+furnishing horses for the chivalry engaged in defence of the country.
+"Had the Saxon chivalry," said Charles, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>(p. 214)</span> "acted up to the
+duties to which they owe their privilege, I should not have been
+here."</p>
+
+<p>The King of Sweden left Saxony, and set out on his Russian expedition
+at the head of 43,000 men. Of these 8,000 remained in Poland; so that
+he undertook the march to Moscow with only 35,000&mdash;a force amounting
+to about one-fifteenth part of the army with which Napoleon set out on
+a similar expedition. The Russians followed the same system they
+afterward employed against the French, retiring and laving waste the
+country. The difficulties the Swedes had to encounter, in consequence
+of bad roads and want of provisions, are almost incredible. The
+soldiers were forced to contend, not only against the enemy, but
+against the localities also; roads for the advance of the army had to
+be opened through forests and morasses before the least progress could
+be made; and it often happened that a league a day was the greatest
+extent of march gained after immense toil. But nothing checked the
+ardor of these gallant soldiers. The Russians attempted to defend the
+passage of rivers and swamps that impeded the march of the foe. Their
+efforts were vain; no superiority of numbers, no strength of position,
+could arrest the indomitable valor of Charles and his troops. And the
+actions performed during this march would be deemed absolutely
+fabulous, were they not recorded on authority which cannot be doubted.</p>
+
+<p>During the severe winter of 1709, the army suffered dreadfully from
+want and cold. When, early in spring, the thaw set in, the whole of
+those flat countries were overflowed, and long marches had to be made
+through complete inundations, by which quantities of stores were lost,
+and the powder greatly damaged. It was, as we now find, in consequence
+of the losses thus sustained that Charles accepted Mazeppa's proposal
+of marching into the Ukraine. Finding his army too much weakened to
+penetrate further into Russia, and not wishing to fall back upon
+Livonia, which he thought would look like a retreat and encourage his
+enemies, he determined to march to the south, and there await the
+supplies and reinforcements which his generals were to bring up.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of the convoy which General Lewenhaupt was conducting to the
+army rendered further delay necessary, and obliged the king to
+undertake the siege of Pultowa, in order to gain a firm footing in the
+country, and to secure the supplies which the place contained. The
+Swedish battering-train was weak, the powder not only bad from having
+been frequently injured by the wet and dried again, but very scarce
+besides. Still, courage and energy were making progress, when, June
+27th, on his very birthday, Charles, in repulsing a sally, was struck
+by a musket-ball that entered his left foot, above the root of the
+toes, and went out at the heel. The king continued in the field for an
+hour afterward, giving his orders as usual; but when he retired to his
+quarters, the leg was so much swelled that the boot had to be cut off,
+and the wound had so unfavorable an appearance as greatly to alarm the
+attendants.</p>
+
+<p>Charles behaved heroically, as usual. He held his leg to the surgeon
+with his own hands, nor did a single groan escape him during the
+terrible operation which the cutting away of some of the fractured
+bones rendered necessary. At one time <span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>(p. 215)</span> his life was despaired
+of, and a general panic seized the army, but though the wound proved
+decisive of his fate, the unhappy monarch had what may well be termed
+the misfortune to recover.</p>
+
+<p>The foe drew near. The Czar, well aware of the importance of Pultowa,
+advanced to its relief with an army of 80,000 men, besides 40,000
+irregulars, Kalmucks and Tartars. He brought 150 pieces of artillery
+along with him. Even with this vast superiority, and after the
+training of a nine years' war, the Russians did not venture to attack
+the Swedes, but drew closer and closer around them, till they began at
+last to intrench themselves within a league of the king's camp.
+Charles's illness gave them but too much leisure.</p>
+
+<p>A hostile fortress on one side, a hostile army on the other, nothing
+but a victory could save the Swedes; and on the morning of the 8th of
+July, only ten days after Charles had been wounded, they marched out
+to battle. Their whole army did not amount to 20,000 men, 4,000 of
+whom were left in the trenches and with the baggage. Their artillery
+consisted of four field-pieces; and their powder was so bad that it
+did not, as Count Poniatowsky and Lewenhaupt both affirm, throw the
+musket-balls more than thirty yards from the muzzles of the pieces.
+And yet these brave soldiers balanced fortune even against such
+overwhelming numbers. Three out of the seven Russian redoubts were
+taken; on the left wing the cavalry were victorious, and it is really
+difficult to say what the result would have proved, had Charles been
+able to exert his usual energy and activity. Certain it is that errors
+were committed which could not have happened under his immediate
+command; for the cavalry of the left wing did not follow up their
+success, and the cavalry of the right wing lost their direction, and
+took no share in the action. The king, who was carried on a litter
+between two horses, was present in the hottest of the fire, and
+exerted himself as much as was possible for a man in such a situation.
+A shot broke the litter, and the wounded monarch was for some time
+left alone on the ground. A lifeguardsman brought him a horse, and he
+endeavored to rally the yielding troops. The steed was shot under him,
+and&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+<span class="add7em">"Gierta gave</span><br>
+  His own, and died the Russian slave."</p>
+
+<p>Having assembled and re-formed the remnants of his broken host round
+the forces which had been left for the protection of the baggage, the
+fainting monarch was placed in Count Piper's carriage, and conveyed
+toward the Turkish frontier. The exertions of the wounded Charles to
+rally his army at Pultowa contrast singularly with the total want of
+any such exertion displayed by the unwounded Napoleon at Waterloo. We
+take this want of exertion for granted, because had any been
+displayed, the world's echoes would have rung with praise bestowed
+upon the heroic effort.</p>
+
+<p>The first result of the battle of Pultowa&mdash;its ultimate results are
+only now becoming apparent&mdash;was the entire destruction of the Swedish
+army, the famished and exhausted remains of which were some days
+afterward obliged to lay down their arms on the banks of the Dnieper,
+which they had no means of crossing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>(p. 216)</span> With this battle, which opens a new era in European history,
+the history of Charles XII. may be said to end; for his subsequent
+career was only a succession of disappointments, his poor and thinly
+peopled country not affording him the means of recovery from a single
+'defeat'.</p>
+
+<p>On his arrival at Bender, the king learned of the death of his sister,
+the Duchess of Holstein; and he who had calmly supported the loss of
+his fame and his army yielded to the most impassioned burst of sorrow,
+and was during four days unable to converse with his most intimate
+attendants&mdash;a proof how unjust are the accusations of want of feeling
+so often brought against him. His long stay in Turkey is certainly
+evidence of obstinacy, or of that pride which could not brook the
+thought of returning, a vanquished fugitive, to his native land, which
+had done so much for him, and which his best efforts had failed to
+protect from unjust violence. In Charles's high and noble countenance
+it is seen at once that he was endowed with&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+<span class="add6em">"The glance that took</span><br>
+  Their thoughts from others at a single look."</p>
+
+<p>He knew the worthlessness of his enemies; and it is doubly galling to
+the generous and the brave when fortune, in her base fancies, obliges
+them to succumb to mean and malicious adversaries. And such was the
+fate of Charles. His defeat was no sooner known than Denmark, Poland,
+and Saxony again flew to arms. Hanover and Prussia joined the unworthy
+league against the fallen monarch, who had been so dreaded, and was
+therefore so much hated; for Charles had injured no one&mdash;he was the
+aggrieved from first to last. His return to Sweden, the defence of
+Stralsund, the invasion of Norway, call for no particular attention.
+He was killed at the siege of Frederickshall, in Norway, on November
+30, 1718, under circumstances that long gave currency to the belief
+that he had been assassinated. Schott and Bardili positively assert
+the fact; but we are on this point disposed to agree with Voltaire,
+who, to save the honor of his countrymen, as positively denies it.
+After evening service, the king went out as usual to visit the
+trenches. He was attended by two French engineers, Megret and Siquier.
+A heavy fire was kept up by the enemy. Near the head of the <span class="italic">boyau</span>,
+or zigzag, he kneeled down, and, leaning against the parapet, looked
+toward the fortress. As he remained motionless for a long time, some
+one approached and found him perfectly dead, a ball having entered his
+right temple and passed through his head. Even in death the gallant
+hand had grasped the hilt of his sword; and this probably gave rise to
+the belief in the murder, which was afterward confirmed by Siquier's
+own confession. But this confession was only made while the pretended
+criminal labored under an attack of brain fever, and was retracted as
+soon as he recovered.</p>
+
+<p>Thus fell, in the thirty-sixth year of his age, one of the most
+extraordinary men that ever acted a part on the great stage of the
+world. Endowed by nature with a noble person, "a frame of adamant, a
+soul of fire," with high intellectual powers, dauntless bravery,
+kingly sentiments of honor, and a lofty scorn of all <span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>(p. 217)</span> that
+was mean and little, he became, from the very splendor of these gifts,
+perhaps one of the most unhappy men of his time. Less highly gifted,
+he would have been less hated and less envied; of humbler spirit, he
+would have been more pliant, and might possibly have been more
+successful.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH<br>
+By <span class="smcap">L. Drake</span><br>
+(1650-1722)</h3>
+
+<a id="img007" name="img007"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img007.jpg" width="250" height="362" alt="A standing man behind a sitting woman." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>About noon, on June 24, 1650, John Churchill, afterward Duke of
+Marlborough, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire. His school-days were
+soon over; for his father, Sir Winston Churchill, having established
+himself at court soon after the restoration of Charles the Second, was
+anxious to introduce his children early into life, and obtained for
+his son the situation of page of honor to the Duke of York, at the
+same time that his only daughter, Arabella, became maid of honor to
+the duchess.</p>
+
+<p>While at school, young Churchill had discovered in the library an old
+book on military subjects. This he read frequently, and conceived such
+a taste for a martial life, that he longed to distinguish himself as a
+soldier.</p>
+
+<p>The Duke of York held frequent reviews of the guards. Churchill had
+not long been his page, before the duke noticed his eagerness to be
+present on these occasions. Pleased with this indication of military
+ambition, the duke suddenly inquired one day, "What can I do for you,
+Churchill, as a first step to fortune?"</p>
+
+<p>The page threw himself on his knees before the duke. "I beseech your
+Royal Highness," he entreated, with clasped hands, "to honor me with a
+pair of colors."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>(p. 218)</span> "Well, well," said the duke, smiling at the lad's
+earnestness, "I will grant your request by and by;" and his young
+favorite had not long to wait before he got the post for which he had
+petitioned.</p>
+
+<p>The youthful ensign, scarce fifteen years of age, first embarked for
+Tangiers; and although his stay was short, yet in the sallies and
+skirmishes with the Moors he showed that even now he possessed that
+courage and ability which in after years placed him at the head of all
+the heroes of his time.</p>
+
+<p>Before the year in which he left England had expired, he was again in
+his native country. He then accompanied the Duke of Monmouth to the
+continent, to assist France against Holland. The Prince of Condé and
+Marshal Turenne, the greatest generals of that time, commanded the
+French army, so that Churchill had very favorable opportunities of
+improving his military talent and genius.</p>
+
+<p>A French officer, during the siege of Nimeguen, had failed to retain a
+post of consequence, which he had been appointed to defend. The news
+of its loss was brought to Turenne.</p>
+
+<p>"I will bet a supper and a dozen of claret," instantly exclaimed the
+marshal, "that my handsome Englishman will recover the post with half
+the number of men that the officer commanded who lost it."</p>
+
+<p>Churchill was despatched with a small company, and, after a short but
+desperate struggle, retook the post, won the marshal his wager, and
+gained for himself the applause and admiration of the whole army.</p>
+
+<p>Next year, at the siege of Maestricht, Captain Churchill again
+distinguished himself. At the head of his own company, he scaled the
+ramparts, and planted the banner of France on the very summit,
+escaping with a slight wound. Louis XIV. was so highly pleased with
+his conduct that he thanked him at the head of the army, and soon made
+him lieutenant-colonel. The Duke of Monmouth afterward confessed to
+the king, that he was indebted for his life, on this occasion, to our
+hero's gallantry and discretion.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to England, he was made gentleman of the bedchamber and
+master of the robes to his earliest patron, the Duke of York. At this
+period he was captivated by the beauty of Miss Sarah Jennings,
+daughter of a gentleman of ancient family, and maid of honor to the
+duchess. Their marriage took place in 1678.</p>
+
+<p>The services Colonel Churchill continued to yield the royal brothers
+did not pass unrewarded. He was created Baron Churchill of Agmouth, in
+Berwickshire; and a friendship sprung up between Lady Churchill and
+the Princess (afterward queen) Anne, who, when she married Prince
+George of Denmark, got her friend appointed lady of her bedchamber.</p>
+
+<p>The day after James II. was proclaimed, he made his favorite,
+lieutenant-general. The battle of Sedgemoor, in which the ill-fated
+Duke of Monmouth with his rebel army was defeated, was won chiefly by
+Churchill's courage and decision. Till the closing scene of James's
+reign, there is little stated of Lord Churchill, although it is known
+that he used his influence with his royal master to prevent the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>(p. 219)</span> arbitrary system of government the king endeavored to
+introduce. Finding the monarch determined to persist in his
+encroachments, Lord Churchill felt it his duty, however painful, to go
+over to the Prince of Orange, by whom he was received with
+distinguished marks of attention and respect; and, two days before his
+coronation, the prince raised him to the dignity of Earl of
+Marlborough.</p>
+
+<p>The affection the earl still felt toward his late benefactor, the
+ex-king, led him into a correspondence with him. This, being
+discovered, brought the displeasure of King William upon him, and for
+some time he was deprived of all his appointments. At length a
+governor being wanted for the young Duke of Gloucester, son of the
+Princess Anne, the king, as an earnest of his returning favor,
+conferred this honor on Marlborough. "Teach him, my lord," said his
+majesty, "to be what you are yourself, and he will not want
+accomplishments."</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of Queen Anne, Marlborough was made captain-general,
+master of the ordnance, and a knight of the garter. Soon after, he was
+sent to Holland to aid the Dutch against the French. He was appointed
+by them generalissimo of the forces, with a salary of £10,000 a year.
+With his army he crossed the river Meuse, and advanced to the siege of
+Rheinberg. "I hope soon to deliver you from these troublesome
+neighbors!" he exclaimed to the Dutch deputies who accompanied him on
+a reconnoitring party; and had it not been for the timidity of the
+Dutchmen he would have fulfilled his intentions. He however, took
+three towns out of the hands of the French, and the campaign ended by
+the taking of Liége.</p>
+
+<p>Marlborough soon returned to England, when the queen created him
+Marquis of Blandford and Duke of Marlborough, an honor he reluctantly
+accepted, and chiefly because it would give him more consideration if
+again called upon to serve his country abroad.</p>
+
+<p>In 1703 the duke was once more in Flanders, leading operations against
+the French with his usual success.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated Prince Eugene was appointed his colleague; and the
+first time these two generals met, they conceived that mutual esteem
+and confidence, which afterward rendered them partners in the same
+glory.</p>
+
+<p>At the head of a noble army, the two generals penetrated into the
+heart of Germany, driving the Elector of Bavaria before them, ere his
+French allies could join him. It would take too much space to describe
+all the victories, and relate the details of the burning of three
+hundred towns, villages, and castles! These stern necessities of war
+were far from pleasing to Marlborough, who grieved to see the poor
+people suffering from their master's ambition. The Elector shed tears
+when he heard of these devastations, and offered large sums to prevent
+military execution on the land. "The forces of England," replied the
+duke, "are not come into Bavaria to extort money, but to bring its
+prince to reason and moderation. It is in the power of the Elector to
+end the matter at once by coming to a speedy accommodation."</p>
+
+<p>But the Elector knew that Marshal Tallard, with a powerful French
+army, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>(p. 220)</span> was approaching; and, buoyed up by expectation,
+replied, "Since you have compelled me to draw the sword, I have thrown
+away the scabbard!"</p>
+
+<p>Prince Eugene had hastened from the Rhine to join Marlborough, with a
+force of eighteen thousand men, and reached the plains of Hochstadt by
+the time Tallard joined the Elector. As the prince and Marlborough
+proceeded to survey the ground, previous to taking up their position,
+they perceived some squadrons of the enemy at a distance. The two
+generals mounted the steeple of a church close by, and, with their
+glasses, discovered the quarter-masters of the enemy marking out a
+camp between Blenheim and Lützingen. Charmed beyond measure, they
+resolved to give battle before the enemy could strengthen themselves
+in their new position. Some officers, who knew the strength of the
+ground selected by the enemy, ventured to remonstrate, and to advise
+that no action should be hazarded. "I know the dangers of the case,"
+said Marlborough, who had not made up his mind without due
+consideration, "but a battle is absolutely necessary; and as for
+success, I rely on the hope that the discipline and courage of the
+troops will make amends for all disadvantages." Orders being issued
+for a general engagement, the whole army commenced preparations with
+cheerfulness and alacrity.</p>
+
+<p>Marlborough showed that he was resolved to conquer or to die in the
+attempt. Part of the night he passed in prayer, and toward morning
+received the sacrament. Then, after taking a short sleep, he concerted
+the arrangements for the action with Prince Eugene, particularly
+pointing out to the surgeons the proper place for the wounded.</p>
+
+<p>The forces of the duke and the prince formed an army of 33,500
+infantry and 18,400 cavalry. They were opposed by a force of 56,000
+men.</p>
+
+<p>About six o'clock in the morning, Marlborough and Eugene took their
+station on a rising ground, and calling all the generals, gave the
+directions for the attack. The army then marched into the plain; and
+being formed in order of battle, the chaplains performed service at
+the head of each regiment.</p>
+
+<p>The morning being hazy, the French and Bavarians did not even suspect
+the approach of their enemies, and were completely taken by surprise.
+A large gun boomed forth the signal for the onset; and as great a
+battle was fought as the memory of man ever heard of. A panic seized
+the whole of the troops which composed the right of the French army,
+and they fled like a flock of sheep before the victorious
+English,&mdash;deaf to the threats and entreaties of their commanders, and
+without observing whither their flight led them. A body of cavalry,
+the best and most renowned in the whole army, seized with fear,
+hurried away Marshal Tallard with them in their flight; and, void of
+all thought, threw themselves by squadrons into the Danube, men and
+horses, officers and troopers together. Some escaped; but the greater
+portion, who had sought to avoid an uncertain death on the field of
+battle and honor, found a certain and shameful death in the river. The
+poor marshal, after vainly endeavoring to stem this torrent of
+despair, was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner of war with
+several other general officers in his company. The defeat then became
+complete. Of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>(p. 221)</span> all the infantry the marshal had brought to the
+assistance of the Elector, only two battalions escaped; eight and
+twenty battalions were taken prisoners; and ten were entirely
+destroyed!</p>
+
+<p>The French, for many years, had never sustained any considerable
+defeat; and in consequence, had looked upon themselves, and had been
+regarded by other countries, almost as invincible. But now the charm
+was broken.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle, when Marshal Tallard was brought into the duke's
+tent, the marshal exclaimed with emphasis, "Your grace has beaten the
+best troops in the world!"</p>
+
+<p>"I hope," quickly rejoined the duke, "that you except the troops which
+defeated them."</p>
+
+<p>The news caused great joy in England, except to a discontented party,
+who considered that "it would no more weaken the power of the French
+king, than taking a bucket of water out of a river." Marlborough's
+answer, when he heard this, was, "If they will allow me to draw one or
+two such buckets more, we may then let the river run quietly, and not
+much apprehend its overflowing, and destroying its neighbors." Queen
+Anne, however, as a monument of victory, commanded a splendid palace
+to be built for the duke, at her own expense, to be called Blenheim.</p>
+
+<p>It would fill a large volume to relate all the victories of the Duke
+of Marlborough, none of which, however, exceeded the Battle of
+Blenheim in importance. One, some years afterward, called the Battle
+of Malplaquet, was a better contested fight, and perhaps ranks next;
+in truth, after this battle, France never again ventured to meet
+Marlborough in the field.</p>
+
+<p>At three o'clock in the morning of September 11, 1709, the
+confederated troops (for Eugene, with his army, was still with
+Marlborough) began to raise their batteries, under cover of a thick
+fog, which lasted till half-past seven. When it cleared away, the
+armies found themselves close together, each having a perfect view of
+the other. Marshal Villars commanded the French army. He was adored by
+his troops, who placed unbounded confidence in him; and as he now rode
+along their ranks the air rang with "Long live the king!" "Long live
+Marshal Villars!" The right wing was commanded by Marshal Boufflers.</p>
+
+<p>A discharge of fifty pieces of cannon from the confederates was the
+signal for battle, which commenced a little after eight. Each army had
+between ninety and one hundred thousand men, and the battle raged for
+some time with unexampled bravery. All the duties of a skilful general
+were performed by Marlborough; and late in the day the French army
+left the field in the possession of the allies, both armies having
+fought with almost incredible valor. The loss of the French was
+fourteen thousand men; the allies, though victory was on their side,
+lost nearly twenty thousand.</p>
+
+<p>An officer of distinction in the French army, writing an account of
+this battle said: "The Eugenes and Marlboroughs ought to be well
+satisfied with us during that day; since, till then, they had not met
+with resistance worthy of them. They may say, with justice, that
+nothing can stand before them; for what shall be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>(p. 222)</span> able to
+stem the rapid course of these two heroes, if an army of one hundred
+thousand of our best troops&mdash;posted between two roads, trebly
+entrenched, and performing their duty as well as brave men could
+do&mdash;were not able to stop them one day? Will you not, then, own with
+me, that they surpass all the heroes of former ages?"</p>
+
+<p>With his usual humanity, Marlborough's first care, at the close of the
+action, was the relief of the wounded. Three thousand Frenchmen who
+lay on the field shared his attention, with the wounded of his own
+army; and he immediately arranged means for conveying them away.
+Still, next morning&mdash;the day set apart for burying the
+slain&mdash;notwithstanding his care, when riding over the field he saw
+among the heaps which covered the plain, not only the numerous bodies
+of the slain, but of the dying also. Nor did he feel only for the
+sufferings of his companions in arms; the groans of wounded enemies,
+and the sight of their mangled limbs, equally awakened his compassion.
+Learning also, that many French officers and soldiers had crept into
+the neighboring houses and woods, wounded, and in a miserable
+condition for want of assistance, he ordered them every possible
+relief, and despatched a messenger with a letter to the French
+marshal, humanely proposing; a conference to arrange the means of
+removing these wretched sufferers. By this humanity the larger portion
+of not fewer than thirty thousand men, to whose sufferings death would
+soon have put an end, were saved. The officers gave their word that
+they would not serve against the allies till they were regularly
+exchanged; and the common soldiers were to be considered as prisoners
+of war, for whom an equal number of allied troops were to be returned.</p>
+
+<p>Many, many battles, too numerous to mention, were gained by this great
+commander. When he came back to England, at the peace, he for some
+time distinguished himself as an able statesman; but incurring the
+displeasure of the queen, and that of the party then in power, he
+found his situation so painful, that he determined to leave the
+country till the course of events should again run in his favor. He
+left Dover without any honors, as a private passenger, in a
+packet-boat; but on its arriving off Ostend, as soon as the
+townspeople knew that the Duke of Marlborough was on board, they made
+a salute of all the cannon toward the sea; and when the vessel entered
+the harbor, they fired three rounds of all the artillery on the
+ramparts. The people crowded round him, and shed tears at the
+ingratitude of his nation. Some, full of astonishment at the sight of
+him, said, "His looks, his air, his address, were full as conquering
+as his sword." Even a Frenchman exclaimed, "Though the sight is worth
+a million to my king, yet I believe he would not, at such a price,
+have lost the service of so brave a man."</p>
+
+<p>Marlborough remained at Aix-la-Chapelle till the death of the queen.
+On August 1, 1714, the day George the First was proclaimed, the duke
+and duchess landed at Dover. Marlborough's reception was truly a
+contrast to his departure. Now the artillery thundered forth a
+welcome; while thousands of spectators hailed the return of the
+voluntary exile. Passing on to London, he was met at Southwark by a
+large body of the burgesses, who escorted him into the city; and
+thence, joined by many of the first merchants, the nobility, and
+gentry, he proceeded <span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>(p. 223)</span> to St. James's, amid the joyful
+acclamations of the crowd, "Long live the king!" "Long live the Duke
+of Marlborough!"</p>
+
+<p>Old age had now laid his withering hand on the duke. For nearly two
+years he continued to enjoy the favor and confidence of the new king,
+who, on one occasion, said, "Marlborough's retirement would give me as
+much pain as if a dagger should be plunged in my bosom." But he soon
+was obliged to retreat to Blenheim, where he spent six years of
+declining life among his family and friends. At length, after a
+violent attack of palsy, the disease from which he suffered, he lay
+for several days expecting death. Early in the morning of June 15,
+1722, he resigned his spirit, with Christian calmness, into the hands
+of his Creator.</p>
+
+<p>The duke was nearly seventy-three when he died. His remains were
+interred with every honor in Westminster Abbey, but soon after were
+taken up, and conveyed to the chapel at Blenheim, and laid in a
+magnificent monument, which the duchess had erected for this honorable
+purpose.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY<br>
+By <span class="smcap">G. P. R. James</span><br>
+(1663-1736)</h3>
+
+<a id="img008" name="img008"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="250" height="336" alt="Prince Eugene." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Prince Eugene, the most famed of Austrian generals, was the son of
+Eugene Maurice of Savoy (by the mother's side Count of Soissons) and
+of Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. His father intrigued,
+and was banished from the court of France; and his mother also quitted
+Paris not many years after, suspected of many vices of which she was
+very probably innocent; and guilty of a thousand follies, which were
+more strictly scrutinized than her crimes. Eugene was originally
+destined for the Church, and, according to a scandalous custom, then
+common in France as well as other Catholic countries, he obtained
+several benefices while but a child, of which he was eager to divest
+himself as soon as his mind was capable of discriminating between one
+profession and another. He seems soon to have felt within himself that
+ardent desire for military service, which is sometimes a caprice and
+some times an inspiration; but Louis XIV., at whose court he still
+remained, positively <span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>(p. 224)</span> forbade his throwing off the clerical
+habit, notwithstanding all the entreaties of the young abbé, and by so
+doing, incurred the enmity of one who inherited from his mother no
+small faculty of hatred.</p>
+
+<p>At length, various circumstances with which he was in no degree
+connected, brought about a change in the affairs of Europe that
+afforded him an opportunity of escaping from the restraint placed upon
+his inclinations, and of turning the genius they had despised against
+those who had contemned him. France and Austria had long been either
+secretly or openly at strife; but now the dilapidated state of the
+German empire, after tedious and expensive wars, together with the
+combination of external foes and internal insurrection, threatened the
+nominal successor of the Roman Cæsars with utter destruction. The
+Hungarians in revolt, joined with the Turkish forces which they had
+called to their assistance, marched into Germany and laid siege to
+Vienna. Louis XIV. had hitherto taken care to foment the spirit of
+insurrection, and to aggravate the more pressing dangers of Germany;
+but at this moment, to cover the encouragement he had held out
+privately to the rebels, he permitted the nobility of his court to
+volunteer in defence of Christendom, which the fall of Vienna would
+have laid open to Infidels. A large body of young men set out
+immediately for Austria, among whom Prince Eugene contrived to effect
+his departure in secret. The famous, but unamiable minister Louvois,
+when he heard of the young abbé's escape remarked with a sneer, "So
+much the better, it will be long before he returns."</p>
+
+<p>The speech was afterward repeated to Eugene, who replied, "I will
+never return to France but as a conqueror;" and he kept his word, one
+of the few instances in which history has been able to record that a
+rash boast was afterward justified by talents and resolution.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving at Vienna, Eugene cast away the gown forever, and his rank
+instantly procured him a distinguished post near the person of the
+Duke of Lorraine, then commanding the imperial forces.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after he had joined the army, John Sobieski, the valiant King
+of Poland, advanced to the assistance of the emperor, and the Turks
+were forced to raise the siege of the Austrian capital. In the
+campaign that followed against the Infidels, Eugene distinguished
+himself greatly, both by a sort of light unthinking courage, and by a
+degree of skill and judgment, which seemed to show that the levity he
+was somewhat too fond of displaying, though perhaps a confirmed habit
+from his education in an idle and frivolous court, was no true type of
+the mind within. It was the empty bubble dancing on the bosom of a
+deep stream. This was felt by those who surrounded him; and promotion
+succeeded with astonishing rapidity. Before the end of three months he
+was in command of a regiment of horse.</p>
+
+<p>Continual battles, sieges, and skirmishes, now inured Eugene to all
+the hardships and all the dangers of war, and at the same time gave
+him every opportunity of acquiring a thorough knowledge of his new
+profession, and of obtaining higher and higher grades in the service.
+In the course of a very few years he had been wounded more than once
+severely; but at the same time he had aided in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>(p. 225)</span> taking of
+Neuhausel, Vicegradt, Gran, and Buda; was the first who entered sword
+in hand into the intrenched camp of the Turks at Hersan; and had
+received a commission as Lieutenant-general in the Austrian service.
+The storming of Belgrade was the next great event in which Eugene was
+called to act; and here, in command of a body of reserve, he attacked
+the walls, after the first parties had been repulsed, and succeeded in
+forcing his way into the city. The regiments which had failed at first
+now rallied; and the path being open, the Imperial forces poured in in
+all directions, and Belgrade was taken after a most obstinate defence.</p>
+
+<p>Victor Amadæus, Duke of Savoy, was shortly after this persuaded by his
+cousin Eugene to embrace the interests of the house of Austria; and to
+enter into the great alliance which had been formed for the purpose of
+depressing France.</p>
+
+<p>The vast power which Louis XIV. had acquired, and the evident
+disposition he displayed to extend that power to the utmost, had armed
+the fears of all the monarchs of Europe against him. At the same time,
+the armies which had conquered for him were dispersed, and the
+generals who had led them to victory had in most instances fallen into
+the grave. Perhaps these considerations might lead the Duke of Savoy
+to withdraw from an alliance which promised little support, and
+eminent danger; but he had soon reason to repent of having done so.
+Marshal Catinat, the best of Louis's living officers, was ordered to
+act against him; the whole of Piedmont quickly fell into the hands of
+the French; and on August 18th the duke was completely defeated by the
+adverse general. Eugene, who was present, though wounded with a spent
+ball, covered the retreat of the troops of Savoy; but the battle was
+nevertheless completely lost, and influenced for long the fate of
+Piedmont.</p>
+
+<p>After various campaigns in Italy, where little was effected but a
+diversion of the French forces from his scene of war in Germany and
+the Netherlands, Eugene prevailed upon his cousin the Duke of Savoy,
+to lead his troops into France and to draw the French army from Italy,
+by carrying the war into their own country. The scheme was a bold one,
+but it proved most successful, and Embrun, Quilestre, and Gap, having
+fallen, the allied army, under Victor Amadæus and Eugene, advanced
+rapidly into Dauphiny. Terror and consternation spread before them;
+and in revenge for the devastation committed by the French in the
+Palatinate, they now ravaged the whole of Dauphiny, burning the
+villages and hamlets, and laying the cities under heavy contributions.
+The heart of France was open to the invading army; but, fortunately
+for that country, a severe illness put a stop to the proceedings of
+Victor Amadæus. Returning to Turin in haste, he left his army to the
+command of Prince Eugene; but the Italian generals contrived, by
+hesitation in their obedience, and opposition to his wishes, to defeat
+Eugene's best schemes, so that he was glad, by a rapid retreat, to
+bring his army in safety to Savoy.</p>
+
+<p>Eugene was now created Field-marshal; and received the order of the
+Golden Fleece; but his gratification at these marks of approbation was
+bitterly alloyed by a severe defeat which he suffered near Pignerol,
+in company with his cousin <span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>(p. 226)</span> the Duke of Savoy, who madly
+engaged the French forces in a position where his own discomfiture was
+a certain consequence.</p>
+
+<p>Few movements of any import took place in Italy for some years after
+this, in which Eugene was concerned. Victor Amadæus, partly from
+caprice, partly from fear, withdrew from his alliance with Austria,
+and, once more signed a treaty of neutrality with France. The Imperial
+troops, unable singly to keep the field against the French, abandoned
+Savoy; and Eugene, though his efforts had proved unsuccessful, was
+received at Vienna with the highest distinction.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor, probably judging rightly in this instance, that the
+prince had failed from his energies being crippled by a divided power,
+now gave him the sole command of the army opposed to the Turks in
+Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Eugene immediately found himself menaced by the whole force of the
+Turkish Empire; but after some masterly man&oelig;uvres he saved the city
+of Peterwaradin, on which the Ottoman forces were marching; and then,
+though with very inferior power, approached the intrenchments of the
+Grand Vizier, at Zeuta, with the intention of forcing him from his
+camp. At the very moment, however, that the army had advanced too far
+to retreat, a courier arrived, bearing the emperor's commands to
+Eugene, on no account to risk a battle. Eugene's measures were already
+taken; he put the letter in his pocket, attacked the Turks, defeated
+them completely, left twenty thousand Mussulmen dead on the field, and
+ten thousand drowned in the Danube; pursued his victory by burning
+Serai and securing the frontier line of fortresses, and then returned
+to Vienna in expectation of reward and honor.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor received him coldly, and before the day was over he was
+put under arrest for disobedience of orders. The clamor, however, of
+the people, and some feeling of shame in the bosom of the proud, weak
+Leopold, soon caused him to restore Eugene to his rank, and to send
+him once more against the Turks. Success, however, did not follow the
+prince through the succeeding campaign; and before the season brought
+it naturally to a close, peace had been determined on between Austria
+and the Porte.</p>
+
+<p>Some time previous to the period of which we now speak, Louis XIV. had
+endeavored to tempt Eugene back to his Court, by the offer of a
+Marshal's rank in the French army, the government of Champagne, and a
+considerable yearly pension. Eugene, who felt that, however flattering
+to himself, the offer originated alone in the selfishness of an
+ambitious monarch, refused it in terms sufficiently galling to the
+proud King of France. Nevertheless, after the peace of Westphalia,
+Villars, who was sent as ambassador to Vienna, is supposed to have
+been again charged with a mission of the same nature to Eugene. The
+fact, however, is not only doubtful, but very improbable, from the
+character of all parties concerned. Eugene was not a man to leave
+himself the possibility of changing; Louis was not a man meanly to
+solicit where he had once been refused; and Villars was not a man to
+undertake a mean commission, even for a king. It is probable that the
+courtesy which the prince evinced toward Marshal de Villars from a
+sense of his personal merit, at a time when the haughty Court
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>(p. 227)</span> of Vienna was mean enough to treat even an ambassador with
+cold disrespect, was the sole origin of the report. However that might
+be, Eugene remained for a length of time at Vienna, filling up his
+inactivity by trifling with many arts and many enjoyments, till at
+length the War of the Succession, as it was called, breaking out, he
+was appointed to the command of the army in Italy.</p>
+
+<a id="img009" name="img009"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="400" height="584" alt="" title="">
+<p>Prince Eugene and the Marshal de Villars.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At length a general engagement took place at Luzara, at which Philip
+of Spain was present. The forces of the French have been estimated at
+forty thousand, those of the Imperial general did not much exceed
+one-half that number. The battle was long and fierce; and night only
+terminated the contest. Both parties of course claimed the victory.
+The French sung a Te Deum, but retreated; the Imperial army retained
+their ground.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the fruits of victory were gathered by the French. Their
+immense superiority of numbers gave them the power of overrunning the
+whole country; and the Imperial court, either from indolence,
+heedlessness, or intrigue, failed to take any step to support its arms
+in Italy; so that all which Eugene had taken, sooner or later fell
+into the enemy's hands, and he himself, disgusted with the neglect he
+had met with, left his army under the command of another, and set out
+to see whether he could not procure some reinforcement, or at least
+some supply of money to pay or provide for his forces. At Vienna he
+found good reason to suspect that Count Mansfield, the minister of
+war, had by some means been gained to the interest of France. But, in
+the meanwhile Eugene was appointed minister of war; and sometime
+after, in this capacity, proceeded to confer with Marlborough on the
+united interests of England and Austria.</p>
+
+<p>This negotiation was most successful; and here seems to have been
+concerted the scheme which Marlborough afterward so gloriously pursued
+for carrying on the war against France on the side of Germany, and of
+thus freeing the Empire. In a military point of view, also, Eugene's
+efforts, though supported by no great army, and followed by no great
+victory, were wise and successful. He foiled the Hungarian rebels in
+their bold attack upon Vienna, checked them in their progress
+everywhere, and laid the foundation of their after subjugation. Soon
+after this, Eugene took the command of the Imperial army on the Rhine;
+and after considerable man&oelig;uvring singly, to prevent the junction
+of the French army with that of the Duke of Bavaria, finding it
+impossible, he effected his own junction with the Duke of Marlborough,
+and shared in the glories of the field of Blenheim.</p>
+
+<p>Eugene was here always in the thickest of the fight, yet never for a
+moment forgot that he was called upon to act as a general rather than
+a soldier. His operations were planned as clearly and commanded as
+distinctly in the midst of the hottest conflict, as if no tumult had
+raged around him, and no danger had been near to distract his
+attention; yet his horse was killed under him in the early part of the
+battle; and at one moment, a Bavarian dragoon was seen holding him by
+the coat with one hand, while he levelled a pistol at his head with
+the other. One of the Imperialists, however, coming up at the moment,
+freed his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>(p. 228)</span> general from this unpleasant situation; and Eugene
+proceeded to issue his orders, without the least sign of discomposure.</p>
+
+<p>The following year Eugene returned to Italy, and once more began the
+war against Vendome. Notwithstanding all his skill and activity,
+however, the superiority of the French numbers, and the distinguished
+military genius of their chief, prevented Eugene from meeting with any
+very brilliant success. He surprised various detachments, relieved
+several towns, was successful in many skirmishes; but he failed in
+drawing the French out of Savoy, and was totally repulsed in
+endeavoring to pass the Adda.</p>
+
+<p>In the attempt to do so, many men and several valuable officers were
+lost on both sides. The battle was long and furious. Both Vendome and
+Eugene displayed all their skill to foil each other; and perhaps so
+bravely contested a field was as honorable to each as a great victory.
+Neither, however, could fairly claim the battle as won; for though
+Eugene failed in passing the river, the French were the greatest
+sufferers in the contest, and they did not succeed in compelling the
+Germans to fly, though they prevented them from advancing to join the
+Duke of Savoy. Eugene, with his wonted reckless courage, exposed
+himself more than even was necessary, and in the very commencement of
+the engagement was wounded severely in the neck, notwithstanding which
+he remained a considerable length of time on horseback, till a second
+musket-ball, in the knee, forced him to absent himself for a time from
+the field. These wounds probably decided the failure of his attempt;
+but they did not prevent him from securing his army in good winter
+quarters, and checking all active operations on the part of Vendome.</p>
+
+<p>The next campaign was more successful. Vendome, after defeating a body
+of Imperial troops at Calemato, was recalled, and the command of the
+French forces given to the Duke of Orleans and the Maréchal de Marsin,
+who with an army of eighty thousand men invested Turin, the last hold
+of the Duke of Savoy.</p>
+
+<p>Eugene immediately marched to form his junction with the duke; and no
+longer opposed by the genius of Vendome, passed the Adige unattacked,
+crossed the Tanaro, and the Po, joined his cousin near Carmagnola, and
+advanced to the succor of Turin. The French were dispirited; and
+uncertainty and divided councils pervaded their camp. On September
+7th, the allied army, with less than half their numerical force,
+attacked them in their intrenchment, forced their position in every
+direction, and after one of the severest conflicts ever known,
+completely defeated them, and raised the siege of Turin. The battle,
+however, was at one time nearly lost to the allies by an accident
+which befell Eugene. In rallying a body of Imperial cavalry, the
+prince's horse received a ball in his chest, fell with the rider, and
+threw him into a ditch, where, stunned with the fall, he lay for
+several minutes among the dead and dying. The report spread through
+the army that he was killed; a general alarm was the consequence; and
+the infantry were beginning to give way, when, suddenly starting up,
+Eugene commanded the nearest German regiment to fire <span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>(p. 229)</span> upon
+the French cavalry that were coming up to the charge. The effect was
+tremendous; the French went to the right about; and, though they
+rallied again and returned to the charge, the Imperial troops
+continued gradually to force their way on, till their adversaries fled
+in confusion.</p>
+
+<p>The consequence of this victory was the evacuation of the north of
+Italy by the French. Eugene was now everywhere successful for some
+time. He forced the passage of the Col de Tende, carried the French
+intrenchments on the Var, and laid siege to Toulon. Here, however, he
+failed; the defence was long and obstinate, reinforcements arrived at
+the French city, and Eugene, together with the Duke of Savoy, agreed
+to raise the siege once more, and retire into Piedmont.</p>
+
+<p>Eugene was now again called to join Marlborough, in company with whom
+he fought and conquered at Oudenarde, took Lille (where he was again
+severely wounded), Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, and Mons; and forced the
+French lines at Malplaquet, after a severe and long-protracted
+struggle, in which two hundred thousand men were engaged, and nearly
+sixty thousand fell.</p>
+
+<p>If the victories of Blenheim and Oudenarde might more fairly be
+attributed to Marlborough than to Eugene, the success at Malplaquet
+was chiefly obtained by the prince, who had forced the intrenchments,
+taken the wood of Sart, and turned the enemy's flank, before
+Marlborough had made much progress against the other wing.</p>
+
+<p>Eugene had strongly counselled the battle, though opposed by the
+States of Holland, and had in a measure taken the responsibility upon
+himself. On all occasions Eugene's impetuosity led him to expose his
+person more than mere duty required, and now, having staked his fame
+on the success of his attempt, he seems to have resolved not to
+survive a defeat. In the very first attack he received a severe wound
+behind the ear, which bled so profusely that all his staff pressed him
+to retire for the purpose of having it dressed.</p>
+
+<p>"If I am beaten," replied Eugene, "it will not be worth while; and if
+we beat the enemy, I shall have plenty of time to spare for that."</p>
+
+<p>After some short repose, we soon find Eugene once more acting against
+the Turks in Hungary. No sooner was war determined, than Achmet III.
+marched an immense force down to the frontiers of Hungary, to act
+against Eugene, who had just taken the command of the German forces at
+Peterwaradin. The Vizier Hali, commanding the Ottoman troops, full of
+confidence in his own skill, and in his immense superiority of
+numbers, advanced rapidly upon Eugene, and crossed the Save, which
+formed the boundary of the two countries, determined to crush his
+adversary by one great battle. Eugene was as desirous of such an event
+as the vizier, and therefore the troops were soon engaged, almost
+under the walls of Peterwaradin. The Turks fought bravely for many
+hours, and the battle was long undecided; but at length, Eugene's
+superior skill prevailed, and the enemy fled in every direction. The
+Grand Vizier struggled to the last, with long and desperate bravery,
+but after having received two severe wounds, he was borne away by the
+fugitives to Carlowitz, where he died the next day, muttering to the
+last imprecations against the Christians.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>(p. 230)</span> After the death of Hali from the wounds he had received at
+Peterwaradin, the command of the Turkish army was given to the Pacha
+of Belgrade, one of the most skilled officers in the Ottoman service.
+But Eugene was destined to destroy the Turkish power in Hungary. The
+campaign of the next year commenced with the siege of the
+often-captured Belgrade; and it was soon completely invested and
+reduced to sore distress. The Porte, however, was not unmindful of its
+preservation; and, in the beginning of August, the pacha appeared on
+the mountains surrounding the town, with an army of near two hundred
+thousand men. Thus shut up between a strong fortress and an immense
+army, with the dysentery in his camp, and his forces enfeebled by long
+and severe labors, Eugene's situation was as difficult as it is
+possible to conceive. Notwithstanding every disadvantage, his usual
+bold course of action was pursued in the present instance, and met
+with that success which is almost always sure to attend the
+combination of daring and skill. After a short delay, to enable
+himself to employ all his energies (having been himself greatly
+debilitated by the camp fever), he attacked the Turkish army in their
+intrenchments, and at the end of a very short but severe struggle,
+succeeded in defeating a force more than three times the number of his
+own.</p>
+
+<p>Belgrade surrendered immediately; and the next year, without any great
+military event, put an end to the war.</p>
+
+<p>After the conclusion of peace, Eugene, who had been appointed governor
+of the Austrian Netherlands, resigned that office, which he had never
+personally filled, and was appointed vicar-general for the emperor in
+his Italian dominions.</p>
+
+<p>For many years after this Eugene spent his days in peace and
+tranquillity, endeavoring to raise up a spirit of commerce among the
+Germans, and to improve the finances of his sovereign, by whom he was
+appreciated and loved. His greatest efforts were in favor of Trieste,
+which he changed from a petty town to a great commercial city, and
+which remains to the present day the best and the noblest fruit of all
+his talents and all his exertions.</p>
+
+<p>At first, everything promised that the old age of Eugene would have
+passed in peace, uninterrupted by any warlike movements; but he was
+once more called from his calmer occupations by the short war which
+broke out with France in 1733.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps, in point of military skill, the two campaigns which followed
+were the most brilliant of Eugene's life; but with only thirty
+thousand men, opposed to a force of double that number, he could alone
+act upon the defensive.</p>
+
+<p>He did so, however, with more success than the scantiness of his
+resources promised. He prevented the French from penetrating into
+Swabia; and, though Philipsburg was taken notwithstanding all his
+efforts, he contrived, by turning the course of the neighboring
+rivers, to inundate the country on the German side of that city, and
+to render its possession unprofitable to France.</p>
+
+<p>Peace soon succeeded, and with these two campaigns ended Eugene's life
+as a commander. He lived for some time after this, indeed, amusing
+himself with the embellishments of his palace and gardens, and
+employing a great many mechanics <span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>(p. 231)</span> and laborers, during all
+seasons of dearth or scarcity; but the battle-field never saw him
+more. His health gradually and slowly declined, and on April 21, 1736,
+in the seventy-fourth year of his age, he was found dead in his bed,
+after having been slightly indisposed the night before.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>GENERAL JAMES WOLFE<br>
+By <span class="smcap">L. Drake</span><br>
+(1726-1759)</h3>
+
+<a id="img010" name="img010"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img010.jpg" width="250" height="282" alt="James Wolfe." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>General Edward Wolfe, an officer who distinguished himself under the
+Duke of Marlborough, was the father of James Wolfe, conqueror of
+Quebec. He was the eldest son of the general, and was born at
+Westerham, a small town in Kent, on November 6, 1726. As liberal an
+education as could be acquired before the early age of fourteen, was
+given to the future hero. He then went with his father to Flanders to
+study the profession of an officer amid active warfare; and, thus
+engaged, seven years soon passed. During this novitiate, he was not
+without opportunities of distinguishing himself; his name was on
+several occasions mentioned with honor; till at length, at the battle
+of Laffeldt, his courage and skilful conduct attracted the notice of
+his commander, the Duke of Cumberland, who, at the close of the day,
+thanked him in the presence of the army; and from that time he was
+marked out "as an officer of extraordinary merit and promise."</p>
+
+<p>His merit, rather than any favor, brought Wolfe the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel when he was barely twenty-two. The battalion he
+commanded was soon distinguished by many and striking improvements in
+discipline, so that its superiority at exercise, and in the order of
+its quarters, gave sure proof of ability and temper in its young
+commander. "The men," it is said, "adored while they profoundly
+respected him; and his officers esteemed his approbation as much as
+they dreaded his displeasure."</p>
+
+<p>Canada, with a portion of New Brunswick, and also the islands of St.
+John and Cape Breton, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, were at this
+time possessed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>(p. 232)</span> by the French; while Nova Scotia and New
+Brunswick belonged to the English. The latter also claimed the tract
+of land called New England, lying (as will be seen on looking at a map
+of North America) to the west of New Brunswick, and south of the river
+St. Lawrence. The French, however, disputed their claim to this
+country; and constant quarrels arose between the rival settlers about
+their right to land, of which, in reality, the poor Indians were the
+proprietors. In virtue of a grant of parliament in 1750, a large body
+of English took possession of this "debatable ground;" but scarcely
+had they done so, when a superior force of French and Indians attacked
+them, and killing some, made prisoners of others, and drove the rest
+back. Many vigorous but unsuccessful efforts were made on the part of
+the colonists and their neighbors, during eighteen months, to regain
+their territory. A body of troops was then sent from England under
+General Braddock, but this attempt also failed; and, the struggle
+having now assumed some importance, an army of not less than sixteen
+thousand men, under Lord Loudon, renewed the contest of 1755 against
+the army under the Marquis de Montcalm, a most able and enterprising
+officer. His superiority as a commander had been shown in several
+instances, till, the slur which was being cast on the reputation of
+our country's arms having excited attention at home, Lord Loudon was
+recalled, and the army then in America was intrusted to General
+Abercrombie (not the celebrated Abercromby). At the same time a fresh
+force was raised at home, which put to sea in February, 1757. Wolfe
+accompanied this expedition as brigadier under Major-General Amherst.
+Its object was to reduce Cape Breton, the possession of which island,
+commanding as it does the grand entrance of the St. Lawrence, was felt
+to be of the greatest importance.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Louisburg stands upon a small tongue of land, and at this
+period was carefully fortified, having heavy batteries toward the sea,
+and a strong defence of regular works on its land sides. Its harbor,
+which is considered the most magnificent in the world, was carefully
+guarded by five ships of the line extending quite across the mouth.
+Goat Island formed one extremity of the entrance, and Lighthouse Point
+the other; both these were surmounted by strong redoubts, having the
+largest cannon and mortars used in war; while a garrison of 3,000
+soldiers, with 2,500 seamen to man the intrenchments, seemed to
+present an insuperable obstacle to a successful descent.</p>
+
+<p>Four miles westward of the town, however, there was a little creek,
+called Freshwater Cove; and, after much deliberation, it was resolved
+to attempt a landing at this point. The frigates and lighter vessels
+accordingly moved thither as soon as the weather moderated, and
+anchored there one evening, with the wind still boisterous, and the
+surf running very high. Next morning, at daybreak, the first division
+of the troops entered their boats, Wolfe at their head.</p>
+
+<p>The seamen had scarcely dipped their oars a second time, when a sudden
+glancing of arms amid the sand-hills warned the troops to expect
+opposition. The French had foreseen the probability of such an attempt
+as the present, and had prepared to oppose it by throwing up
+breastworks, placing field-pieces in the hollows, and stationing a
+considerable force to dispute a landing.</p>
+
+<a id="img011" name="img011"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img011.jpg" width="400" height="585" alt="" title="">
+<p>General Wolfe landing at Louisburg.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page233" name="page233"></a>(p. 233)</span> Gallantly the boats pressed onward; while the frigates, which
+had approached within half-cannon shot of the shore, opening their
+fire, swept the beach with a shower of round shot. The flotilla was
+now within musket range, when the French all at once poured in a
+volley of small-arms. Wolfe ordered his men not to fire in return;
+but, trusting to the broadsides from the frigates, which, ploughing up
+the sand, threw it high in the air, and thus kept the beach open, he
+urged his rowers to their utmost strength, passed through a heavy
+surf, though not without some loss, and made good his landing. Company
+by company, as the men arrived, they quickly formed, and pushing on,
+after a sharp encounter, forced the French to abandon their works, and
+retreat within the walls of Louisburg.</p>
+
+<p>The terrible surf proved the more formidable enemy. Above one hundred
+boats, with a large number of their crews, were lost in attempting to
+pass through to the shore. But officers and men were too enthusiastic
+to be disheartened. In a short time all the troops were landed; guns,
+stores, work-tools, ammunition, and provisions, followed quickly; and,
+ere the enemy had learned that real danger at last threatened them,
+the business of the siege was begun.</p>
+
+<p>General Amherst invested the place without delay on the land side,
+and, having opened his trenches before it, despatched Wolfe with the
+light infantry and a body of Highlanders to attack the battery on
+Lighthouse Point. Before dawn one morning, he reached the outposts,
+drove them in, and followed with such rapidity, that, ere the enemy
+could form, and almost before they had got under arms, they were
+completely routed. The guns were immediately turned with terrible
+accuracy upon the harbor and town. The five ships of war now found
+their position very hazardous; one was soon on fire, and blew up; the
+flames spread to two others, and the remaining two were attacked and
+captured by boats. The breaching batteries shook the ramparts of the
+town to their foundations, while the shells carried ruin and death
+into the streets. On July 26th, the enemy, finding it impossible to
+resist any longer, surrendered; the garrison became prisoners of war,
+and the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward fell into the hands
+of the English.</p>
+
+<p>Wolfe's part in this campaign was now over, for domestic matters
+summoned him to England. He had not, however, been long at home, when
+he was informed from head-quarters, that his brilliant services as a
+subaltern had caused the king to select him to conduct an enterprise
+of still greater hazard and honor. It had been proposed in Council, as
+the speediest mode of putting an end to the transatlantic war, that
+the reduction of Quebec, the enemy's colonial capital, should be
+effected. Competent authorities declared the attempt to be not
+impracticable; it was therefore resolved on, and Wolfe was nominated
+to the command of an armament to invest the town. An attack, to be
+made on three other points, was determined as a commencement of the
+campaign.</p>
+
+<p>The armament set sail early in February, 1759. Admiral Saunders
+commanded the fleet, which comprised twenty-two line-of-battle ships,
+and an equal number of frigates. The whole came within sight of
+Louisburg April 21st. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>(p. 234)</span> The harbor being still choked with
+ice, the vessels could not get in; and the delays which occurred
+prevented Wolfe from entering the St. Lawrence till June. The ships
+reached the Isle of Orleans by the end of the month; and, casting
+anchor, possession was taken. The land was in a high state of
+cultivation, affording abundant supplies to soldiers and sailors.</p>
+
+<p>The Marquis of Montcalm, now an old but still energetic man, occupied
+Quebec and the adjoining district with an army of five thousand
+regular troops, and the same number of militia and Indians. He made
+preparations for the defence with great judgment; the mass of his army
+was in the town, which he had further protected by intrenchments
+extending nearly eight miles to the west, till they reached the
+Montmorency River. Montreal was also well garrisoned; and, twenty
+miles above Quebec, a body of two thousand men lay encamped to attack
+in flank any force which might attempt to land in that direction.</p>
+
+<p>Many skirmishes took place at first between the Indians and British
+troops; and one attack of more importance, on the intrenchments near
+the St. Charles, was headed by Wolfe in person. It completely failed;
+but it taught him the strength of the enemy's position, and clearly
+showed that it would require stratagem to accomplish his design of
+reducing the town itself.</p>
+
+<p>A council was summoned, when it was found that disease and the petty
+combats in which they had been engaged, had reduced the troops to five
+thousand effective men. Insufficient as this army seemed, Wolfe
+determined to remain idle no longer; and a plan of attack on the town
+was agreed upon. Accordingly, the following morning (September 11th),
+the ships of the line, with the exception of two or three, and all the
+frigates, suddenly hoisted sail, and, exposed to a cannonade from all
+the batteries, sailed up the river past Quebec. The troops had
+previously been landed on the southern side of the river, and in
+perfect safety they marched in the same direction. When they had
+proceeded about nine miles, they found the fleet riding at anchor,
+already beyond the reach or observation of the enemy. The point of
+attack Wolfe had chosen lay within a mile and a half of Quebec, and
+consequently this march had no other purpose in view than to mislead
+the enemy as to his intentions. No sooner had the tide turned, and
+evening set in, than the surface of the river suddenly swarmed with
+boats, which had secretly been brought to this distant
+mustering-place. Then the signal for the ships to sail was hung out,
+and they immediately began proudly to descend the channel, leaving the
+flotilla boats behind them.</p>
+
+<p>Before midnight, the fleet had reached its first anchorage, and the
+troops up the river could hear the thundering of their guns, as they
+cannonaded at long shot the fortifications below the St. Charles. The
+cheering sound told them that the ships had repassed the town safely;
+while the French naturally concluded, that from the ships a descent
+was about to be attempted.</p>
+
+<p>During the interval, the troops had silently and in complete order
+taken their places in the boats; and, as soon as it became quite dark,
+like a huge flock of waterfowl, they glided down the stream. Not a
+word was spoken; the soldiers sat upright and motionless; and the
+sailors scarcely dipped their oars, lest the splash <span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>(p. 235)</span> should
+reach the ears of the French placed along the shore at short
+distances. Wolfe sat in the leading boat, surveying attentively each
+headland, to prevent the hazard of shooting beyond the point at which
+he purposed landing. Unobserved, he gained the little cove which has
+since borne his name, and shortly before midnight all the men were
+landed.</p>
+
+<p>The troops now stood upon a narrow beach. Above them rose a precipice,
+nearly perpendicular, to the height of two hundred and fifty feet. A
+winding path, broad enough to admit four men abreast, led to the
+summit; and here lay one of the large plains, or table-lands, which
+distinguish the heights of Abraham, on a level with the upper town of
+Quebec. A battery of four guns, and a strong party of infantry,
+defended this important pass. Vigilance, however, was not one of the
+qualities of this guard; for the leading files of the British, under
+Colonel Howe, were close upon the station of the French sentinel ere
+he challenged. Replying with a hearty cheer, they sprung forward. An
+irregular volley poured upon them; but the next instant they were high
+on the ground, and at close bayonets with the French guard, who
+immediately fled in terror, leaving Colonel Howe quietly in possession
+of their redoubt and artillery.</p>
+
+<p>Long before dawn, all the troops had gained this ground. Leaving two
+companies in charge of the redoubt, Wolfe hastened forward with the
+rest toward Quebec. He halted when within a mile of the town, and
+there the men lay down with their arms in readiness for the first
+alarm. A communication by small parties, called videttes, was kept up
+with the companies at the redoubt.</p>
+
+<p>A trooper, with his horse covered with foam, appeared in the French
+camp at Beau Point, as the morning sky began to redden. He brought
+Montcalm the first intelligence of the landing the English had
+effected, and the unwelcome news was soon confirmed by the appearance
+of some of the fugitive soldiers from the redoubt. The camp was
+instantly in commotion; but the marquis gave his orders coolly, and
+before an hour the entire army had crossed the river, and were in full
+march for the Heights of Abraham.</p>
+
+<p>About eleven in the forenoon, a large body of Indians and Canadian
+riflemen were seen issuing from a wood on one side of the plain on
+which the English were stationed. They were soon hidden again by a
+thicket; and dexterously spreading themselves among the bushes, they
+opened a smart skirmishing fire on the pickets. This was the first
+warning that the long-wished-for event was at hand&mdash;a general conflict
+might now be confidently expected.</p>
+
+<p>Without delay, Wolfe drew up his men in two lines, placing a few light
+companies in skirmishing order in front, and retaining one regiment
+(the 47th) in divisions, as a reserve. The French skirmishers were
+quickly engaged with the light troops, whom they compelled to fall
+back on the line; while a heavy column advancing on the left, obliged
+Wolfe to wheel round three battalions to strengthen that side. But ere
+the column bore down, a fresh body of skirmishers appeared, and under
+their cover it silently withdrew; then, suddenly appearing on the
+right, it came down impetuously upon the irregular troops which Wolfe
+had there stationed. These did their duty nobly; the fierce attack of
+the enemy <span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>(p. 236)</span> failed to break their order, or make them even
+flinch for a moment. The skirmishers, meantime, continued to gall the
+light infantry with their desultory fire, which acted also as a vail
+to conceal the intended movements of the main body of the enemy. As
+the light troops, however, hastily fell back, they caused a slight
+dismay among their supporters. Wolfe instantly rode along the line,
+and assured the men that these were only obeying instructions in order
+to draw the French onward. "Be firm, my lads!" said he; "do not return
+a shot till the enemy is within forty yards of the muzzles of your
+pieces; then you may fire!"</p>
+
+<p>The men replied by a shout; and, shouldering their muskets, they
+remained as though on parade, while the French continued to press
+nearer and nearer. At length they were within the appointed distance.
+Every gun was now levelled&mdash;a crashing volley passed from left to
+right&mdash;a dense smoke followed the discharge, and hid its effects for a
+minute. The breeze soon carried this off, and then the huge gaps in
+the enemy's line exceeded all expectation. In the rear, the ground
+appeared crowded with wounded men hurrying or being borne from the
+conflict; while the army, which had just advanced so confidently, now
+wavered, and then stood still. Seeing the irresolution of the enemy,
+Wolfe cheered his men to charge. A moment after, a musket-ball struck
+his wrist. He paused only to wrap his handkerchief round the wound,
+and again pressed on. He received a second ball in his body, but still
+continued to issue his orders without evincing any symptom of pain,
+when a third bullet pierced his breast.</p>
+
+<p>Wolfe fell to the ground; he was instantly raised and borne to the
+rear, where the utmost skill of the surgeons was put forth in a vain
+attempt to save his life. While they were engaged in examining his
+wounds, Wolfe continued to raise himself, from time to time, to watch
+the progress of the battle. His eyesight beginning to fail, he leaned
+backwards upon one of the grenadiers who had supported him from the
+field, and his heavy breathing and an occasional groan, alone showed
+that life remained.</p>
+
+<p>"See how they run!" exclaimed an officer, beside the dying general.</p>
+
+<p>"Who run?" cried Wolfe, instantly raising himself on his elbow, and
+looking up, as if life were returning with full vigor.</p>
+
+<p>"The French," answered the officer; "they are giving way in all
+directions."</p>
+
+<p>"Run, one of you," said the general, speaking with great firmness,
+"run to Colonel Burton; tell him to march Webb's regiment down to
+Charles River with all speed, so as to secure the bridge, and cut off
+the enemy's retreat."</p>
+
+<p>His orders were obeyed, and after a short pause, he continued, "Now,
+God be praised, I shall die happy!" He fell back at these words,
+turned convulsively on his side and expired.</p>
+
+<p>Montcalm had also fallen in the battle; the enemy was totally routed,
+and, five days after, Quebec capitulated to General Townshend.</p>
+
+<p>The body of the gallant and high-minded Wolfe was conveyed home in a
+ship of war. When the hero's remains arrived at Portsmouth,
+minute-guns were fired, the flags half struck, and a body of troops,
+with reversed arms, received the coffin on the beach, and followed the
+hearse. Parliament voted Wolfe a monument <span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>(p. 237)</span> in Westminster
+Abbey, and in that venerable pile would have been his last
+resting-place; but a mother claimed the ashes of her son, and laid
+them beside those of his father, in a vault of the parish church of
+Greenwich.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>FREDERICK THE GREAT<br>
+By <span class="smcap">General John Mitchell</span><br>
+(1712-1786)</h3>
+
+<a id="img012" name="img012"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="250" height="302" alt="Frederick the Great." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>How shall we describe the "Incomparable," the extraordinary compound
+of so many brilliant and repulsive qualities? How is he to be
+depicted, who was great as a king, and little as a man,&mdash;always
+admired in his public, never beloved in his private, character;&mdash;a
+just, generous, and laborious prince,&mdash;a vain, avaricious, and
+cold-hearted individual; luxurious by temperament, temperate in
+practice; a selfish epicurean, and affecting the harshness of the
+cynic;&mdash;peacefully disposed, and cultivating the arts of peace, yet
+exercising the arts of war in their direst form;&mdash;a man of letters,
+ignorant of the beauties, and disdaining the language of his
+country;&mdash;magnificent and mean; the builder of palaces, theatres,
+libraries and museums, and dying, literally, without a whole shirt in
+which he could be buried;&mdash;and, lastly, the most brilliant and
+successful soldier of his time,&mdash;and almost destitute of the soldier's
+first quality, personal courage?</p>
+
+<p>Frederick, by general acclamation surnamed "The Great," was born on
+January 24, 1712. His education was principally military; his very
+toys were miniature implements of war suited to his age; and no sooner
+was he able to handle a musket than he was sent to drill, and forced,
+like all the Prussian officers of the period, to perform the duties
+and submit to the privations of a private soldier,&mdash;obliged even to
+stand sentinel before the palace in all the severities of a northern
+winter. Though rather feeble of constitution, he soon became a
+proficient in martial exercises. The different branches of science
+bearing on the art of war he was forced to study; but his leisure
+hours were devoted to reading French verses, and playing on the
+flute&mdash;pursuits that greatly displeased his royal father, who
+frequently threw the books into the fire, and the flutes out of the
+window.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick William,&mdash;the original founder of the pipe-clay science of
+tactics, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page238" name="page238"></a>(p. 238)</span> and the stick-and-starvation system of
+organization,&mdash;the first inventor of pauper armies, dressed in martial
+uniforms,&mdash;became gradually estranged from his poetical son; and often
+declared that the dandy, "<span class="italic">Der Stutzer</span>" as he styled him, "would ruin
+everything." He consequently treated him with so much severity, that
+the young prince attempted to escape, intending to fly to England. The
+tragical result of the adventure is well known. Frederick was thrown
+into prison; and his friend and adviser, Katt, beheaded under his
+window, while soldiers held the prince's head toward the scaffold on
+which the deed of death was acting. What impression this dreadful
+scene made on his mind is not known; but it ought to have been a deep
+and a lasting one.</p>
+
+<p>It was the king's wish to follow up this execution by the trial of his
+own son; but the remonstrances of the cabinet of Vienna, of his own
+council, and, above all, of the upright and honest chaplain, Dr.
+Reinbeck, reluctantly induced him to forego the intention. It is not
+probable that he actually intended to put the prince to death, but
+only to force him to resign his right to the throne in favor of his
+second brother, William; a proposal to which Frederick constantly
+refused to assent.</p>
+
+<p>But though not tried, Frederick was severely punished, for he was
+confined to the fortress of Küstrin, where he was obliged to perform
+the duties of a commissary of finance, and write the reports, and make
+out the returns with his own hand. All this was, no doubt, of
+advantage to the future sovereign. On condition of marrying the
+Princess Elizabeth of Brunswick-Bevern, he was, at the end of eighteen
+months, released from confinement, and allowed to reside in the small
+town of Rheinsberg, where he resumed his flute and his French poets,
+to which the study of French philosophers and French translations from
+the classics was added. It was during his stay at Rheinsberg that his
+correspondence with foreign men of letters commenced; and it was here
+also that, with a party of friends, he formed an order of chivalry
+termed the "Order of Bayard," the motto of the knights being, "Without
+fear, and without reproach." But these were vain attempts at
+knighthood, for there was nothing chivalrous in the character of
+Frederick.</p>
+
+<p>Two short journeys performed with his father, and a visit to the army
+which Prince Eugene commanded on the Rhine in 1734, formed the only
+interruption to the tranquil and philosophical life of Rheinsberg.</p>
+
+<p>The first appearance in the field of the army bequeathed by Frederick
+William to his son, forms an era in modern history; for a belief in
+its efficiency was the mainspring that urged on the young king to
+attack the Austrians; and its excellence became the lever with which
+he ultimately raised his poor and secondary kingdom to the rank of a
+first-rate European power. The history of the rise and formation of
+this army, though a very curious one, would necessarily exceed our
+limits; but no one will be able to write the life of Frederick, and do
+full justice to the subject, without giving the reader a proper idea
+of the nature and origin of the engine which helped so mainly to
+render him great and famous. He had, no doubt, other claims to
+greatness besides those which his military actions conferred <span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>(p. 239)</span>
+upon him; but it was the splendor of these actions that brought his
+other merits to light; and little enough would have been heard of the
+"Philosopher of Sans-Souci," had not the victor of so many fields made
+him known to the world.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick, while crown-prince, had not shown any great predilection
+for military affairs; he was rather pacifically disposed; was even a
+little taken with the philosophy of Wolf; and greatly captivated by
+French literature, and by French poetry in particular. It is probable,
+therefore, that the high opinion generally entertained of the
+newly-formed army, and the favorable opportunity that fortune offered
+on his accession to the throne, were the spurs "that pricked him on"
+to the field.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Charles VI., the last male descendant of the house of
+Hapsburg, died in October, 1741, leaving his daughter, Maria Theresa,
+to retain, if possible, his extensive dominions against the various
+claimants who had not acknowledged the Pragmatic Sanction: an act by
+which the emperor had bequeathed to her all the possessions of his
+house. Frederick William had not acknowledged this deed, so that
+Frederick was not bound by it; and having some well-grounded claims on
+the duchies of Silesia, prepared to make them good&mdash;by force of arms,
+if necessary&mdash;the moment the emperor died. The desire "to be spoken
+of" was, as he himself confesses, one of his principal motives for
+action on this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>The young king resolved to lead the army he had inherited, personally
+into the field; and as the Austrians were totally unprepared for the
+visit, the principalities were occupied without resistance. It was not
+till April 10, 1741, that an Austrian force, under General Neipperg,
+came to give him the meeting; and there was but little wanting to have
+rendered the battle of Molwitz, the first of Frederick's fields, the
+last also. The ground was covered with snow. Both parties were of
+about equal strength, and took up their ground, as the king himself
+tells us, in a manner alike unskilful; but, on the part of the
+tactician, this very want of skill tended to gain the battle; for
+three battalions of the first line, not finding room to form up, were
+thrown back <span class="italic">en potence</span> on the extremity of the right wing, and, as
+we shall see, repulsed the Austrian cavalry by their fire at the most
+critical moment of the battle. The Austrians had been very merry at
+the expense of the Prussian system of tactics, and had promised to
+beat the pipe-clay out of their jackets at the first meeting; and now
+the words of scorn were to be made good.</p>
+
+<p>After the usual salutation of artillery, the Imperial cavalry,
+practised in the Turkish wars, fell at full gallop upon the Prussian
+cavalry of the right wing, and overthrew them in an instant; for, like
+the infantry, they had been taught only to fire. Following up their
+success, the Austrian horsemen dashed at the flank of the Prussian
+infantry; but here the three battalions already mentioned as thrown
+back <span class="italic">en potence</span>, presented a steady front, and by their rapid fire
+repulsed the assailants, who, having their commander killed, seeing
+the despised and pipe-clayed warriors standing immovably in their
+ranks, from which a fire of never-heard rapidity was pouring out in
+all directions, soon dispersed, leaving their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>(p. 240)</span> comrades of
+the infantry to try their fortune against these well-drilled foes. The
+infantry were not more fortunate than the cavalry. The Prussians stood
+firm as rocks, and fired three shots to their one; and as both were
+equally unskilful in the use of arms, the quantity of shots fired
+naturally decided the day. After a combat of several hours, the
+Austrians retired from the field, leaving the victory and
+battle-ground in the hands of the Prussians.</p>
+
+<p>But where was he, the chieftain of that gallant host, the claimant of
+dukedoms and principalities, the victor for whose brows a splendid
+wreath of laurel had been so nobly gained by the blood of the brave?
+Will blushing glory hide the tale of shame? Alas, no!&mdash;vain were the
+courtly attempts made to conceal the truth, and history is forced to
+confess that "Frederick the Great from Molwitz deigned to run." In the
+scene of death, tumult, and confusion, which followed on the overthrow
+of the Prussian cavalry, the king completely lost his presence of
+mind, and fled as far as Oppeln, where the Austrian garrison,
+unfortunately for their cause, received him with a fire of musketry,
+that made him take another direction. He passed the night in great
+anxiety at a small country inn twenty miles from the field. On the
+following morning an aide-de-camp of the Prince of Dessau brought the
+fugitive king back to his victorious army. "Oh, Frederick," says
+Berenhorst, "who could then have foretold the glory thou wert destined
+to acquire and to merit as well as any conqueror and gainer of battles
+ever did?"</p>
+
+<p>The war of the Austrian Succession having been now kindled, and Maria
+Theresa been attacked on all the points of her extensive dominions,
+Frederick made peace, left his allies to shift for themselves, and,
+having obtained the principalities of Silesia, retired from the
+contest. That he made good use of the time and additional sources of
+strength gained, it is needless to say.</p>
+
+<p>The splendid success of the Austrian arms against France, the rapid
+preponderance that Maria Theresa was acquiring, alarmed him, however,
+for his late conquests; and he determined again to take the field
+before the strength of the house of Austria should outgrow his power
+to repress it. Voltaire negotiated for France on this occasion, and
+represented the danger with rather more than diplomatic ability. On
+both sides the protocols were as often written in verse as in prose;
+and Frederick, who hated George II., having told the poet, "Let France
+declare war against England, and I march," the latter instantly set
+out for Versailles, and thus gave the signal for the second Silesian
+War. This was in 1744. The Prussian troops were again victorious in
+battle, but the general result was not so much in their favor. The
+king, after taking Prague, was forced to evacuate Bohemia and part of
+Silesia; and though afterward brilliantly successful, particularly in
+the fields of Hohenfriedberg, he did not hesitate to make a separate
+peace the moment a fair opportunity offered. On taking the field, he
+told the French ambassador, "I am going to play your game, and if the
+trumps fall to my share, we'll go halves." The best part of the
+promise was soon forgotten, and the French, Spaniards, and Bavarians
+left, as before, to fight their own battle, the King of Prussia
+having, in December, 1745, amicably concluded <span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>(p. 241)</span> all his
+differences with Saxony and Austria. The young and fortunate conqueror
+now proceeded to improve and adorn his dominions; and it is almost
+impossible to speak in too high terms of the great things he effected
+with comparatively small means.</p>
+
+<p>At this period of his life Frederick was singularly beloved and
+admired by the new court and world with which he had surrounded
+himself. His wit, fortune, and activity&mdash;a figure marked by
+distinguished bearing, by beauty of a peculiar kind, even by dress and
+apparel&mdash;a total of personal appearance that impressed itself
+singularly on the eyes of the beholder, excited general enthusiasm.
+Imitation is a proof and consequence of it; and many an orthodox
+believer, who trembled in private, ridiculed religion in public,
+because he had heard that the king was an atheist; and many a gallant
+soldier, who hated the sight and smell of snuff, disfigured his nose
+and lip with rappee, because such was the royal fashion. As a general,
+he was looked upon as the first of his time. The feeble moment at
+Molwitz had not become generally known; and the few who had witnessed
+the unpleasant affair, were too loyal and well-disposed to call it
+back to their recollection.</p>
+
+<p>The king certainly did everything to deserve the favorable opinion
+entertained of him. Arts, science, commerce, and agriculture were
+encouraged; more than one hundred and thirty villages sprang up on
+newly drained lands along the banks of the Oder; men of letters and
+talents were brought to Berlin; theatres, operas, ballets, were
+established; a sort of German Versailles arose amid the sands of
+Brandenburg; and the "Garden House outside the gate," which was
+Frederick William's summer residence and place of recreation, soon
+sank down to the humble rank of a gardener's lodge to his son's
+palace! The machinery of government was never carried on with such
+perfect regularity. The king superintended the whole himself, and that
+without any regular intercourse with his ministers, some of whom, it
+is said, he never saw in his life. They furnished him every morning
+with abridged statements of the business to be transacted, and he
+wrote his order on the margin of the paper; the affairs of state were
+all settled in a couple of hours. Literary compositions, in prose and
+verse, military reviews, meals, and conversation, filled up the rest
+of the day. "Frederick," says Voltaire, in his vile and mischievous
+"Mémoires," "governed without court, council, or religious
+establishment" (<span class="italic">culte</span>). It was during this brilliant period of the
+king's reign that the French poet passed some time at Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrians, who had ridiculed the drilling and powdering, had paid
+for their folly in many a bloody field, but had profited by the
+lesson, and could now move as accurately and fire as quickly as their
+neighbors. The first combat of the great Seven Years' War, which began
+in 1756, already proved this to the conviction of all parties. The
+Prussians purchased a slight advantage by a great loss of blood; and
+on the very battle-field the general remark was, "These are no longer
+the old Austrians." On the capture of the Saxon army, which
+surrendered at Pirna, Frederick, who exacted such unlimited allegiance
+from his subjects and soldiers, gave a strange proof of inconsistency,
+and of that contempt with which he seemed to treat the feelings of
+other men; for, without so much as asking <span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>(p. 242)</span> their consent, he
+ordered all the prisoners to be incorporated into the ranks of his
+army, and expected to make loyal Prussians of them by merely changing
+their uniforms. As was to be expected, they deserted immediately.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of the war is out of our province. Spoiled by success,
+Frederick, after gaining the dearly purchased victory of Prague,
+attempted to reduce a city which he could not invest, and in which an
+army was concentrated. The Austrians advanced with 60,000 men to raise
+the siege; and the presumptuous king did not hesitate to rush upon
+them with less than half the number of Prussians; a total defeat, the
+first he had yet sustained, was the consequence. From this day it is
+allowed that the Prussian infantry had no longer any superiority over
+their enemies; henceforth the genius of their sovereign, the
+confidence he inspired, and the dread entertained of him by his
+adversaries, are the only advantages they have to depend upon. In the
+second year of the war he writes to La Motte Fouqué,&mdash;"Owing to the
+great losses sustained, our infantry is very much degenerated from
+what it formerly was, and must not be employed on difficult
+undertakings." In the third year he says to the same,&mdash;"Care must be
+taken not to render our people timid; they are too much so by nature
+already."</p>
+
+<p>Of this battle of Collin we must here report an anecdote
+characteristic of what Frederick <span class="italic">then</span> was. The left wing of the
+Prussian army was obliquing in admirable order to the left, and
+already gaining the right of the Austrians, according to the
+prescribed disposition, when the king, at once losing patience in the
+most unaccountable manner, sent directions to Prince Maurice of
+Dessau, who commanded the infantry, ordering him to wheel up and
+advance upon the enemy. The prince told the officer that the proposed
+points had not yet been attained, and recommended that the oblique
+march should still be continued. The king immediately came up in
+person, and in haughty and overbearing style repeated the order, and,
+when the Prince of Dessau attempted to explain, drew his sword, and in
+a fiery and threatening tone exclaimed, "Will he (<span class="italic">er</span>) obey, and
+immediately wheel up and advance?" The officers present were
+terrified, fancying from his excited manner that he would be guilty of
+some act of violence; but the prince, of course, bowed and obeyed,
+and&mdash;the battle was soon lost.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick, as an absolute king and commander, had, no doubt, many
+advantages over the ill-combined coalition by which he was assailed;
+but the mass of brute force was so great on the part of his
+adversaries, that he was more than once on the very eve of being
+crushed. At one time, indeed, he contemplated the commission of
+suicide.</p>
+
+<a id="img013" name="img013"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="600" height="389" alt="" title="">
+<p>Frederick and the Austrians after Leuthen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wonderful battles of Rossbach and Leuthen<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1" title="Go to footnote 1"><span class="small">[1]</span></a> reconciled him to
+life. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>(p. 243)</span> former was not, as is well known, his work, as
+it was almost gained before he well knew what was going on: it was due
+principally to the indomitable bravery of Zeidlitz and the cavalry.
+His conduct at Leuthen could not be surpassed; and his manner of
+promoting General Prince Maurice of Dessau, who had most nobly aided
+him in the battle, was highly characteristic. "I congratulate you on
+the victory, <span class="italic">Field-marshal</span>," said Frederick, when they met on the
+field. The prince was still so much occupied with what was going
+forward, that he did not mark the exact words the king had used, till
+the latter again called out, "Don't you hear, <span class="italic">Field-marshal</span>, that I
+congratulate you on the victory gained?" when the newly promoted made
+due acknowledgments in course. Frederick, in his great contest, was
+assisted by an English, Hessian, and Hanoverian army, as well as by
+English subsidies; but, making full allowance for the value of these
+auxiliaries, it must still be admitted that great genius and courage
+were required to enable a King of Prussia to resist the combined
+forces of France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Frederick effected
+this, and his conduct deservedly obtained for him the name of "Great."</p>
+
+<p>During his first two wars, and till the period of the battle of
+Rossbach in the third war, he always kept at a distance from the
+scene, which may be allowed in a commander who has to overlook the
+whole, and is not called upon to defend posts or lead attacks in
+person. After the above period, however, and when he perceived that
+the nature of the contest, and public opinion itself, demanded greater
+exertions from him, he several times, on due deliberation, exposed
+himself to the danger of an ordinary brigadier. Several occasions of
+this kind might be specified. At the Battle of Kunersdorf, when
+attempting to assemble some remnants of the infantry, who were still
+holding their ground here and there, his horse was shot under him. At
+Liegnitz, a spent ball struck him on the calf of the leg. At Torgau
+again, when a newly advanced brigade began to give way, like all its
+predecessors, he rode into the heaviest fire of musketry, and received
+a shot on the breast, which penetrated his shirt, and for some moments
+deprived him so completely of all power of breathing, that he was
+believed to be dead.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2" title="Go to footnote 2"><span class="small">[2]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Frederick outlived his last great war for twenty-three years, and died
+in 1786, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Every hour of this
+last period of his life was assiduously occupied, almost to the hour
+of his death, in zealous exertions to improve his country and
+ameliorate the condition of his people. He certainly effected great
+things, but left much that he might have achieved totally unattempted.
+Living in the solitude which his dazzling fame had cast around him,
+separated from all immediate intercourse with his species by the very
+barrier his glory had interposed between him and other men, he acted
+his part to admiration before the crowds who, from far and near, came
+to behold him; but, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>(p. 244)</span> blinded by the halo that encompassed
+him, he saw little, and deemed less, perhaps, of mankind and their
+doings. In the mass they may possibly not be deserving of high
+admiration, but Frederick had never done them even justice; and in the
+latter years of his life, he entirely lost sight of the direction they
+were taking; he formed an ideal world to himself, and governed his
+country and subjects accordingly. He was the admired wonder of the
+age; a brilliant, if not spotless sun, that cast far aloft its vivid
+beams, indeed, but remained stationary and concentrated within itself,
+while all surrounding nature was in motion and in progress.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ROBERT, LORD CLIVE<br>
+By <span class="smcap">W. C. Taylor, LL.D.</span><br>
+(1725-1774)</h3>
+
+<a id="img014" name="img014"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="250" height="293" alt="Lord Clive." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>The history of British India is without a parallel in the annals of
+mankind. It is little over a hundred years ago since "the company of
+British merchants trading with the East Indies" possessed nothing more
+than a few ports favorably situated for commerce, held at the will, or
+rather the caprice, of the native princes, and defended against
+commercial rivals by miserable fortifications, which could not have
+resisted any serious attack. Now British sovereignty in India extends
+over an empire greater than that possessed by Alexander or the Cæsars,
+and probably superior to both in the amount of its wealth and
+population. The chief agent in raising the East India Company from a
+trading association to a sovereign power was Lord Clive, whose own
+elevation was scarcely less marvellous than that of the empire which
+he founded.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Clive was born September 29, 1725; his father was a country
+gentleman, of moderate fortune and still more moderate capacity, who
+cultivated his own estate in Shropshire. When a boy, the future hero
+of India distinguished himself chiefly by wild deeds of daring and
+courage, neglecting the opportunities of storing his mind with
+information, the want of which he bitterly felt in after-life. His
+violent temper, and his neglect of study, led his family to despair of
+his success at home, and, in his eighteenth year, he was sent out as a
+"writer," <span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>(p. 245)</span> in the service of the East India Company, to the
+Presidency of Madras. In our day such an appointment would be
+considered a fair provision for a young man, holding out, besides, a
+reasonable prospect of obtaining competency, if not fortune; but when
+Clive went to the East the younger "writers," or clerks, were so badly
+paid, that they could scarcely subsist without getting into debt,
+while their seniors enriched themselves by trading on their own
+account. The voyage out, from England to Madras, which is now effected
+in three or four weeks, occupied, at that time, from six months to a
+year. Clive's voyage was more than usually tedious; the ship was
+detained for a considerable period at the Brazils, where he picked up
+some knowledge of Portuguese, and contracted some heavy debts. This
+apparent misfortune had the good effect of compelling him to reflect
+on his situation. He avoided all amusements and dissipation, but
+availed himself of the resources of the governor's library, which was
+liberally opened to him in his hours of leisure. He, however, felt
+himself unhappy, for his occupations were unsuited to his tastes, and
+he longed for an opportunity of finding a mode of life more congenial
+to his disposition.</p>
+
+<p>The war of the Austrian Succession, in which George II. took the side
+of the empress, while the French king supported her competitor,
+extended to the Eastern World. Labourdonnais, the governor of the
+French colony in the Mauritius, suddenly appeared before Madras, and,
+as the town and fort were not prepared for defence, both were
+surrendered on honorable terms. But Dupleix, the French governor of
+Pondicherry, denying the right of Labourdonnais to grant any terms,
+refused to ratify the capitulation, and directed Madras to be razed to
+the ground. With still greater disregard for public faith, he led the
+English who had capitulated through the town of Pondicherry, as
+captives gracing his triumphal procession, in the presence of 50,000
+spectators. Clive escaped this outrage by flying from Madras in
+disguise; he took refuge at Fort St. David, a settlement subordinate
+to Madras, where he obtained from Major Lawrence, one of the best
+officers then in India, an ensign's commission in the service of the
+company.</p>
+
+<p>Peace between England and France having been established, Madras was
+restored to its former owners. Clive, however, did not return to his
+civil pursuits; he occasionally acted as a writer, but he was more
+frequently employed as a soldier in the petty hostilities which arose
+between the English and the natives. Events, however, were now in
+progress, which made the French and English East India companies
+competitors for an empire, though neither understood the value of the
+prize for which they contended; and Clive, fortunately for his country
+and himself, was almost forced to take the position of a military
+commander.</p>
+
+<p>To explain fully the position of India, at this period, would take far
+more pages than we can afford lines; a very brief sketch, may,
+however, help our readers to comprehend the course of events. India,
+in its entire extent, was nominally governed by the Emperor of Delhi,
+or, as he was generally, though absurdly, called in Europe, "the Great
+Mogul." Under him were several viceroys, each of whom ruled over as
+many subjects as any of the great sovereigns of Europe; <span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>(p. 246)</span> and
+the delegates of these viceroys had a wider extent of territory than
+is included in most of the minor states of Germany. This empire began
+to lose its unity toward the close of the seventeenth century. The
+different viceroys, while professing a nominal allegiance to the crown
+of Delhi, established a substantial independence; several of their
+immediate vassals treated them as they had done the emperor; and
+several warlike tribes took advantage of this disorganization to
+plunder the defenceless provinces. Of these the most formidable were
+the Mahrattas, whose name was long the terror of the peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Dupleix, whose name has already been mentioned as the French governor
+of Pondicherry, was the first who conceived the possibility of
+establishing a European dominion on the ruins of the Delhi empire;
+and, for this purpose, he wisely resolved to attempt no direct
+conquest, but to place at the head of the different principalities,
+men who owed their elevation to his aid, and whose continuance in
+power would be dependent on his assistance. With this view he
+supported a claimant to the viceroyalty of the Deccan, and another to
+the subordinate government of the Carnatic; or, as the Indians term
+it, a rival nizam, and a rival nabob, against the princes already in
+possession of these territories. His efforts were equally splendid and
+successful; the competitors whom he had selected became masters of the
+kingdom, and he, as the bestower of such mighty prizes, began to be
+regarded as the greatest authority in India. The English were struck
+with astonishment, and, as there was peace with France, they were at a
+loss to determine on the line of conduct that they ought to pursue.
+Mohammed Ali, whom the English recognized as Nabob of the Carnatic,
+was reduced to the possession of the single town of Trichinopoly, and
+even that was invested by Chunda Sahib, the rival nabob, and his
+French auxiliaries. Under these circumstances Clive proposed to the
+Madras authorities the desperate expedient of seizing on Arcot, the
+capital of the Carnatic, and thus recalling Chunda Sahib from the
+siege of Trichinopoly. With a force of 200 Europeans and 300 Sepoys,
+under eight officers, four of whom had been taken from the
+counting-house, Clive surprised Arcot in the midst of a terrific
+storm, and the garrison fled without striking a blow. Being reinforced
+by large bodies of troops, the expelled garrison, swelled to the
+number of 3,000 men, formed an encampment near the town; but Clive
+took them by surprise in the night, slew great numbers, put the rest
+to flight, and returned to his quarters without a single casualty.</p>
+
+<p>Chunda Sahib sent 10,000 men, including 150 French soldiers, under his
+son, Rajah Sahib, to recover Arcot. Clive's little garrison endured a
+siege of fifty days against this disproportionate force, and against
+the pressure of famine, which was early and severely felt. Nothing in
+history is equal to the proof of devotion which the native portion of
+this gallant little band gave to their beloved commander; the Sepoys
+came to Clive with a request that all the grain should be given to the
+Europeans, who required more nourishment than the natives of Asia,
+declaring that they would be satisfied with the thin gruel which
+strained away from the rice. Rajah Sahib at length made an attempt to
+take the place by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>(p. 247)</span> storm; he was defeated with great loss,
+principally by Clive's personal exertions, upon which he abandoned the
+siege, leaving behind him a large quantity of military stores.</p>
+
+<p>Clive followed up his victory with great vigor, and the government of
+Madras, encouraged by his success, resolved to send him with a strong
+detachment to reinforce the garrison of Trichinopoly. Just at this
+conjuncture, however, Major Lawrence returned from England and assumed
+the chief command. If Clive was mortified by the change, he soon
+overcame his feelings; he cheerfully placed himself under the command
+of his old friend, and exerted himself as strenuously in the second
+post as when he held the chief command. The French had no leaders fit
+to cope with the two friends, and the English triumphed everywhere.
+The besiegers of Trichinopoly were themselves besieged, and compelled
+to capitulate. Chunda Sahib fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, and
+was put to death at the instigation of his rival. The forts of
+Covelong and Chingleput were taken by Clive, though his forces
+consisted of raw recruits, little better than an undisciplined rabble.
+Dupleix, however, was not driven to despair, but still sought means of
+renewing the contest.</p>
+
+<p>After the capture of Chingleput, Clive returned to Madras, where he
+married Miss Maskelyne, sister to the Astronomer Royal, and
+immediately after returned to England. He was received with great
+honors by the Court of Directors, and, through the influence of Lord
+Sandwich, obtained a seat in Parliament; but his election having been
+set aside, he again turned his thoughts toward India, where both the
+company and the government were eager to avail themselves of his
+services. The directors appointed him governor of Fort St. David; the
+king gave him the commission of a lieutenant-colonel in the British
+army; and thus doubly authorized, he returned to Asia in 1755.</p>
+
+<p>The first service on which he was employed after his return to the
+East was the reduction of the stronghold of Gheriah. This fortress,
+built on a craggy promontory, and almost surrounded by the ocean, was
+the den of a pirate named Angria, whose ships had long been the terror
+of the Arabian seas. Admiral Watson, who commanded the English
+squadron, burned Angria's fleet, while Clive attacked the fastness by
+land. The place soon fell, and a booty of a hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds sterling was divided among the conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>About two months after Clive had entered on his government at Fort St.
+David, intelligence was received of the destruction of the English
+settlement at Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, the Nabob of Bengal.
+Although scarcely any resistance had been made, the English prisoners,
+146 in number, were all thrust into a close and narrow apartment
+called the Black Hole, which, in such a climate, would have been too
+close and too narrow for a single prisoner. Their sufferings during
+the dreadful night, until death put an end to the misery of most,
+cannot be described; 123 perished before morning, and the survivors
+had to be dug out of the heap formed by the dead bodies of their
+companions.</p>
+
+<p>The authorities at Madras, on receiving this intelligence, resolved to
+avenge the outrage; 900 Europeans and 1,500 Sepoys, under the command
+of Clive, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>(p. 248)</span> were embarked on board Admiral Watson's squadron;
+the passage was rendered tedious by adverse winds, but the armament
+arrived safely in Bengal. Clive proceeded with his usual promptitude;
+he routed the garrison which the nabob had placed in Fort William,
+recovered Calcutta, and took Hoogly by storm. Surajah Dowlah, who was
+as cowardly as he was cruel, now sought to negotiate peace, but at the
+same time he secretly urged the French to come to his assistance. This
+duplicity could not be concealed from Clive and Watson. They
+determined accordingly to attack Chandernagore, the chief possession
+of the French in Bengal, before the force there could be strengthened
+by new arrivals either from the South of India or Europe. Watson
+directed the expedition by water; Clive by land. The success of the
+combined movements was rapid and complete. The fort, the garrison, the
+artillery, the military stores, all fell into the hands of the
+English, and nearly five hundred European troops were among the
+prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after, Clive marched to attack Surajah Dowlah near Plassey. At
+sunrise on the morning of June 23, 1757, the army of the nabob,
+consisting of 40,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry, supported by fifty
+pieces of heavy ordnance, advanced to attack the English army, which
+did not exceed three thousand men in all, and had for its artillery
+but a few field-pieces. But the nabob had no confidence in his army,
+nor his army in him; the battle was confined to a distant cannonade,
+in which the nabob's artillery was quite ineffective, while the
+English field-pieces did great execution. Surajah's terror became
+greater every moment, and led him to adopt the insidious advice of a
+traitor, Meer Jaffier, and order a retreat. Clive saw the movement,
+and the confusion it occasioned in the undisciplined hordes; he
+ordered his battalions to advance, and, in a moment, the hosts of the
+nabob became a mass of inextricable confusion. In less than an hour
+they were dispersed, never again to reassemble; though only five or
+six hundred fell; their camp, guns, baggage, with innumerable wagons
+and cattle, remained in the hands of the victors. With the loss of
+only 22 soldiers killed and 50 wounded, Clive had dispersed an army of
+60,000 men, and conquered an empire larger and more populous than
+Great Britain. Surajah Dowlah fled from the field of battle to his
+capital, but, not deeming himself safe there, he tried to escape by
+the river to Patna. He was subsequently captured, and barbarously
+murdered by the son of Meer Jaffier. In the meantime Clive led Meer
+Jaffier in triumph to Moorshedabad, and installed him as nabob.</p>
+
+<p>Immense sums of money were given to the servants of the company; Clive
+received for his share between two and three hundred thousand pounds.
+Nor was this all: Shah Alum, the son of the Emperor of Delhi, having
+invaded Bengal, Clive delivered Meer Jaffier from this formidable
+enemy, and was rewarded with the jaghire or estate of the lands south
+of Calcutta, for which the company were bound to pay the nabob a
+quit-rent of about thirty thousand pounds annually. But the gratitude
+of Meer Jaffier did not last long; weary of his dependence on the
+English, he sought an alliance with the Dutch, who had a factory at
+Chinsurah. The authorities of this place sent earnest letters to their
+countrymen <span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>(p. 249)</span> in Batavia, urging them to take this opportunity
+of raising a rival power to the English in India, and their advice was
+taken. Seven large ships from Java, having on board 1,500 troops,
+appeared unexpectedly in the Hoogly. Though England was at peace with
+Holland, Clive resolved to attack them without delay. The ships were
+taken and the army routed. Chinsurah was invested by the conquerors,
+and was only spared on the condition that no fortifications should be
+built, and no soldiers raised, beyond those that were necessary for
+the police of the factories.</p>
+
+<p>Three months afterward he returned to England, where he was received
+with a profusion of honors; he was raised to the Irish peerage, and
+promised an English title. George III., who had just ascended the
+throne, received him with marked distinction, and the leading
+statesmen of the day vied with each other in showing him attention. By
+judicious purchases of land he was enabled to acquire great
+parliamentary influence, and by large purchases of India stock he was
+enabled to form a strong party in the Court of Proprietors. The value
+of such support was soon shown; the Court of Directors, instigated by
+Mr. Sullivan, the personal enemy of Lord Clive, withheld the rent of
+the jaghire that he had received from Meer Jaffier, and it was
+necessary to institute a suit in chancery to enforce payment.</p>
+
+<p>But Clive's greatest strength was derived from the misconduct of his
+successors in the government of Bengal. "Rapacity, luxury, and the
+spirit of insubordination," says a late writer, "spread from the civil
+service to the officers of the army, and from the officers to the
+soldiers. The evil continued to grow till every messroom became the
+seat of conspiracy and cabal, and till the Sepoys could only be kept
+in order by wholesale executions." Individuals were enriched, but the
+public treasury was empty, and the government had to face the dangers
+of disordered finances, when there was war on the frontiers and
+disaffection in the army. Under these circumstances it was generally
+felt that Clive alone could save the empire which he had founded.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Clive felt the strength of his position. He refused to go to
+India so long as his enemies had preponderating power in the Court of
+Directors; an overwhelming majority of the proprietors seconded his
+wishes, and the Sullivan party, lately triumphant, was deprived of
+power. Having been nominated governor-general and commander-in-chief
+of the British possessions in Bengal he sailed for India, and reached
+Calcutta in May, 1765. He at once assembled the council, and announced
+his determination to enforce his two great reforms&mdash;the prohibition of
+receiving presents from the natives, and the prohibition of private
+trade by the servants of the Company. The whole settlement seemed to
+be set, as one man, against these measures; but Clive declared that if
+the functionaries in Calcutta refused obedience, he would send for
+some civil servants from Madras to aid him in conducting the
+administration. As he evinced the strength of his resolution by
+dismissing the most factious of his opponents, the rest became alarmed
+and submitted to what was inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely had the governor-general quelled the opposition of the civil
+service <span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>(p. 250)</span> when he had to encounter a formidable mutiny of the
+officers of the army, occasioned by a diminution of their field
+allowances. Two hundred English officers engaged in a conspiracy to
+resign their commissions on the same day, believing that the
+governor-general would submit to any terms rather than see the army,
+on which the safety of the empire rested, left without commanders.
+They were mistaken in their calculations; Clive supplied their places
+from the officers round his person; he sent for others from Madras; he
+even gave commissions to some mercantile agents who offered their
+support at this time. Fortunately the soldiers, and particularly the
+Sepoys, over whom Clive had unbounded influence, remained steadfast in
+their allegiance. The leaders were arrested, tried, and dismissed from
+the service; the others, completely humbled, besought permission to
+withdraw their resignations, and Clive exhibited lenity to all, save
+those whom he regarded as the contrivers of the plot.</p>
+
+<p>In his foreign policy he was equally successful. The Nabob of Oude,
+who had threatened invasion, sought for peace as soon as he heard of
+Clive's arrival in India; and the Emperor of Delhi executed a formal
+warrant, empowering the Company to collect and administer the revenues
+of Bengal, Bahar, and Oussa; that is, in fact, to exercise direct
+sovereignty over these provinces. Never had such a beneficial change
+been wrought in the short space of eighteen months. The
+governor-general set a noble example of obedience to his own
+regulations; he refused the brilliant presents offered him by the
+native princes, and when Meer Jaffier left him a legacy of sixty
+thousand pounds, he made the whole over to the Company, in trust, for
+the officers and soldiers invalided in their service.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of January, 1767, the state of his health compelled Lord
+Clive to return to England. His reception at home was far from being
+gratifying; his old enemies in the India House, reinforced by those
+whose rapacity he had checked in Bengal, assailed him publicly and
+privately; the prejudices excited against those who had suddenly made
+large fortunes in India, were concentrated against him who was the
+highest, both in rank and fortune; while his ostentatious display of
+wealth and grandeur increased the unfavorable impression on the public
+mind. The dreadful famine which desolated Bengal in 1770, was, with
+strange perversity, attributed to Lord Clive's measures, and his
+parliamentary influence was greatly weakened by the death of George
+Grenville. Such was his position in the session of 1772, when the
+state of India was brought before Parliament, and all the evils of its
+condition made subjects of charge against the best of its rulers.
+Clive met the storm with firmness. Lord Chatham declared that the
+speech in which he vindicated himself at an early stage of the
+proceedings was one of the finest ever delivered in the House of
+Commons; his answers, when subjected to a rigid examination before a
+committee of inquiry, were equally remarkable for their boldness and
+candor. But there were some of his deeds which could not be justified,
+and a vote of moderate censure on his conduct was sanctioned by the
+House of Commons. This was a disgrace, for which the favor of his
+sovereign, though it never varied, afforded him no consolation; his
+constitution, already weakened by a tropical climate, began to give
+way; to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>(p. 251)</span> soothe the pains of mind and body he had recourse to
+the treacherous aid of opium, which only aggravated both; at length,
+on November 22, 1774, he died by his own hand.</p>
+
+<p>That Clive committed many faults cannot be denied; and it is not
+sufficient excuse to say that they were necessary to the founding of
+the British empire in India. But his second administration, the
+reforms he introduced into the government, and the system of wise
+policy which he established, may well atone for his errors; indeed, it
+has done so in India, where the natives not only respect his memory as
+a conqueror, but venerate it as a benefactor.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>FRANÇOIS KELLERMANN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE<br>
+(1735-1820)</h3>
+
+<a id="img015" name="img015"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img015.jpg" width="200" height="294" alt="François Kellermann." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>François Christopher Kellermann, who with a little army of raw
+recruits defeated the forces of united Europe at Valmy, and saved
+France from destruction, was born of a respectable family at
+Strasbourg, then part of France, on May 28, 1735. At the age of
+seventeen, he became a cadet in the regiment of Lowendalh; and passing
+through the grades of ensign and lieutenant in 1753 and 1756, became
+captain of dragoons, in which rank he served in the Seven Years' War
+until 1762, and was favorably mentioned in the reports of the battle
+of Bergen. A brilliant charge of cavalry, against a corps commanded by
+General Scheider, procured him, in the last year, the distinction of
+the cross of St. Louis, then an honor of the highest esteem. After the
+peace of 1763, he passed with the same rank into the legion of
+Conflans, and in 1765 and 1766 was charged by the king with the
+execution of some important commissions in Poland. In 1771, the
+increasing troubles in Poland furnished a pretext for the invasion of
+that country by the united troops of France and the Germanic
+confederation; and Kellermann was appointed to accompany the French
+commander-in-chief of the expedition, Baron de Vioménil; and in 1772,
+he was placed at the head of a native corps of cavalry which he had
+been concerned in organizing. His conduct in the retreat from the
+castle of Cracow, in 1772, elevated his character for dexterity and
+courage. In 1780, he became lieutenant-colonel of hussars; on January
+1, 1784, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier, and in 1788,
+received the rank of major-general. In 1790, under the National
+Assembly, he was placed in command of both departments of Alsace, and
+so approved were his services in placing that frontier in a state of
+defence against the threatened invasion of combined <span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>(p. 252)</span> Europe,
+that, in 1792, he received the cordon rouge of the order of St. Louis,
+and was appointed lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the
+forces assembled at Neukirch, and afterward, on August 28th, in the
+same year, of the army of the Moselle.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time that the formidable invasion under the Duke of
+Brunswick, consisting of 138,000 men, of whom 66,000 were under the
+King of Prussia in person, and 50,000 were Austrians under Prince
+Hohenlohe and Marshal Clairfait, marched to France, and menaced
+Dumouriez, who occupied the defiles of Varennes, with very inferior
+forces. Against this mighty invasion the French nation rose as one
+man. Recruits poured to the borderland singing the Marseillaise, their
+newly adopted national hymn. Rapidly reducing this motley force to
+order, Kellermann, with 22,000 men, marched from Metz, on September
+4th, for Chalons with the utmost celerity, reached Bar before the
+Prussians, saved the magazines on the upper Saone and Marne, and put
+himself in a situation to communicate with Dumouriez. The latter
+general was attacked on September 16th, and immediately ordered
+Kellermann to take a designated position on his left, which was,
+accordingly, accomplished on the 19th. No sooner had Kellermann
+arrived here, than he perceived that the position was altogether
+defective. A pond on his right separated him from Dumouriez; the
+marshy river of the Auve, traversed by a single narrow bridge, cut off
+his retreat in the rear; and the heights of Valmy commanded his left.
+While he was shut up in this isolated position, the enemy might march
+upon the magazines at Dampierre and Voilmont, cut both the French
+armies off from Chalons, and then fall upon each of them in
+succession. Kellermann instantly resolved to rectify this error in the
+disposition of the troops; and by four o'clock on the following
+morning, his army was in motion by its rear upon Dampierre and
+Voilmont. But the Prussians, equally alive to the disadvantage in
+which Kellermann had been placed, were already in movement to attack
+him, and it became impracticable to pass the Auve. Leaving his
+advanced-guard and his reserve to check the Prussians on the plain,
+Kellermann drew off the rest of his army to the heights of Valmy, and
+placing a battery of eighteen pieces near the mill of Valmy, at seven
+in the morning was drawn up in a strong position to receive the attack
+of the enemy. The King of Prussia, who commanded in person, drew up
+his army in three columns on the heights of La Lune, and advancing in
+an oblique direction a vehement fire was kept up on both sides for two
+hours. About nine, a new battery on the enemy's right suddenly opened
+in the direction of the mill, near which Kellermann and his escort,
+with the reserve cuirassiers, were stationed, and produced the utmost
+confusion. Most of the escort were killed or wounded, and Kellermann
+had a horse shot under him, while about the same time the explosion of
+two caissons of ammunition near the mill added to the alarm.
+Kellermann, however, quickly disposed a battery so as to return the
+fire, and the battle was restored on that side. After some time, two
+of the Prussian columns, flanked by powerful cavalry, advanced in
+formidable array toward the mill, while the third remained in reserve.
+Kellermann drew up his men in column by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>(p. 253)</span> battalions, and
+advancing his reserved artillery to the front of his position, waited
+the advance of the enemy, who approached in silence. When they were
+within range of a destructive fire, Kellermann, waving his hat upon
+the end of his sabre, shouted, "Vive la Nation!" to which the whole
+army responded with enthusiastic cries, and at the same moment, the
+artillery opened a tremendous fire. The Prussians halted; the heads of
+their columns melted away under the galling discharges; and they
+retreated, in good order, to their original position after sustaining
+a serious loss. The fire, however, continued on both sides with
+spirit; and about four o'clock in the afternoon the Prussians renewed
+their attack in column, but were again repulsed, even more decidedly,
+and by six in the evening were in full retreat. The victory was thus
+decided in favor of the French; but the safety of the magazines at
+Dampierre and Voilmont was still not secured.</p>
+
+<a id="img016" name="img016"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img016.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="The Marseillaise." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Kellermann allowed his army about two hours' repose, and then, leaving
+large fires lighted along his whole line, and some regiments of light
+cavalry to defend the position, if the enemy should attempt an attack,
+he quietly drew off about nine o'clock at night, and reached Dampierre
+without the enemy being aware of his movement. About six o'clock the
+next morning, the Prussians marched for the same point, and were not a
+little astonished to find Kellermann's army drawn up in line of battle
+on the heights of Dampierre, in a position which rendered it
+impracticable to attack. They immediately retreated, and their
+retiring columns suffered severely from a fire opened by the French
+artillery. This operation raised the reputation of Kellermann to an
+exalted height. The allies soon afterward retreated from France, and
+Kellermann desired to attack their rear; but Dumouriez would not allow
+the movement to be made.</p>
+
+<p>In recompense of these services Kellermann was made commander-in-chief
+of the army of the Alps; but incurring the jealousy of the ruling
+faction, he was thrown into prison in June, 1793, and lingered there
+for thirteen months, until the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) restored
+him to liberty. In 1795 the army of Italy was reincorporated with the
+army of the Alps, from which it had been separated in the beginning of
+1793; and the command of the united force was given to Kellermann at
+the close of that month. On his way to Nice to take the command, he
+met Napoleon at Marseilles, who, having been displaced by the
+reconstruction of the army, was now visiting his mother at that place
+on his way to Paris. Napoleon gave much valuable information
+respecting the seat of war; and Kellermann, continuing his journey,
+reached head-quarters at Nice on May 9, 1795. His operations during
+the campaign that followed diminished the reputation which he had
+previously acquired. "Throughout the conduct of this war," says
+Napoleon, "he was constantly committing errors." On June 23d General
+Devins, at the head of the Austrian and Piedmontese armies, advanced
+against his positions; and after a series of engagements on the 25th,
+26th, and 27th, Kellermann was driven out of all the posts in which
+Napoleon's arrangements had placed him in the preceding October, and
+falling back to the line of the Borghetto, wrote to the Directory
+that, unless he was speedily reinforced, he would be obliged even to
+quit Nice. The government were now satisfied that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>(p. 254)</span> the
+command of the army of Italy was beyond Kellermann's abilities; and
+again separating the army of the Alps from it, they placed Kellermann
+at the head of the latter as a reserve, and intrusted the army of
+Italy to General Scherer, and sometime afterward to Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>After the conquest of Milan, the Directory, either jealous of Napoleon
+or elated by success, decided to divide his army, and to place 20,000
+men under Kellermann to cover the siege of Mantua, and to direct the
+rest under Napoleon upon Rome. Napoleon immediately resigned his
+command, and wrote to the Directory: "I will not serve with a man who
+considers himself the best general in Europe; it is better to have one
+bad general than two good ones." The Directory, in alarm, abandoned
+their design; Kellermann was left at Chambéry, and Napoleon was
+allowed to follow his own plans.</p>
+
+<p>In 1797, Kellermann was made inspector-general of the cavalry of the
+army of England and of that of Holland; and in 1799, he took his place
+in the Senate, and was elected president on August 1, 1801. In 1804,
+he was created a Marshal of the Empire, and in the following year,
+received the grand eagle of the Legion of Honor. In 1803, he commanded
+the third corps of the army of reserve on the Rhine; and, in 1806, was
+placed at the head of the whole of that army; to which authority the
+command of the army of reserve in Spain was added in 1808; and in the
+same year, in honor of the great victory of his more vigorous days, he
+was created Duke of Valmy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1809, he commanded the army of reserve on the Rhine, the army of
+observation of the Elbe, the fifth, twenty-fifth, and twenty-sixth
+military divisions, and the army of reserve of the North. In 1812, he
+was charged with the duty of organizing the cohorts of the national
+guard in the first military division; he afterward commanded the
+twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth divisions. In 1813, he was at first
+provisional commander of the corps of observation on the Rhine, and
+then received the command of the second, third, and fourth military
+divisions. After the battle of Leipsic, he performed a valuable
+service in reconducting to France a body of about six thousand
+soldiers, who had been wounded in the affairs about Dresden.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the restoration of Louis XVIII., Marshal Kellermann received the
+command of the third and fourth divisions, and took no part in the
+events of the "hundred days." Upon the second restoration, he was
+placed at the head of the fifth division, received the grand cross of
+the order of St. Louis, and was made a peer of France.</p>
+
+<p>He died at Paris, on September 13, 1820, aged eighty-five years. He
+left a son, the celebrated general who made the decisive charge at
+Marengo, and distinguished himself in Spain and at Waterloo, and who
+died on June 2, 1835; and a daughter, married to General de Léry.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page255" name="page255"></a>(p. 255)</span> MICHEL NEY, MARSHAL OF FRANCE<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3" title="Go to footnote 3"><span class="small">[3]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Louise Chandler Moulton</span><br>
+(1769-1815)</h3>
+
+<a id="img017" name="img017"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img017.jpg" width="250" height="331" alt="Michel Ney." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the marshals of the great Napoleon, Ney has always held in my
+mind the place of honor. "The Bravest of the Brave" was the sobriquet
+bestowed on him by the men of his own nation and his own time; and the
+briefest record of his life cannot fail to prove how well the title
+was deserved. I could wish for a larger canvas on which to paint his
+portrait; but the space allotted to me here will at least suffice to
+reveal his character, and chronicle the main events of his career.</p>
+
+<p>Michel Ney was born on January 10, 1769, in the small town of
+Sarre-Louis, in Lorraine, which province had at that time only
+recently been annexed to France. He was in reality, therefore, more
+German than French. His father was a working cooper by trade, but he
+wished his son to be something better, and arranged for him to study
+law. Life at a desk, however, had no interest for the future marshal,
+who, even then, had no doubt as to what should be his future career.
+In 1787 he enlisted, at Metz, as a private hussar. His rise was rapid
+from the first. He greatly distinguished himself in the Netherlands,
+where revolutionary France, under Dumouriez and others was holding her
+own against allied Europe. He became lieutenant in 1793, and captain
+in 1794. In 1796, after a brilliant conflict under the walls of
+Forchheim, which resulted in the taking of that town, and on the field
+of battle, he was made General of Brigade.</p>
+
+<p>Next year, in trying to save a gun from capture, he was taken prisoner
+by the Austrians; but General Hoche, who was then commanding the army
+of the Sambre and Meuse, soon effected his exchange. In 1798 he served
+with great distinction under Masséna, in Switzerland, and was made
+general of division.</p>
+
+<p>In 1799 he was transferred to the army of the Rhine, which he
+commanded for some time, fighting with varying success, but with
+unvarying energy and courage. He fought under Moreau at the famous
+battle of Hohenlinden, and at the peace of Lunéville was appointed
+inspector-general of the cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802 Napoleon having discovered that Switzerland "could not settle
+her intestine divisions except by the interposition of France," sent
+Ney, with 20,000 men, to dissolve the Diet and disband its forces.
+This mode of settling intestine <span class="pagenum"><a id="page256" name="page256"></a>(p. 256)</span> divisions did not commend
+itself to the Swiss. It is generally admitted, however, that Ney acted
+with as much moderation as his odious task permitted; and he doubtless
+welcomed his recall to take a command in the army which was being
+collected at Boulogne, ostensibly for the invasion of England.</p>
+
+<p>When Napoleon was proclaimed emperor Ney was made a marshal, "for a
+long succession of heroic actions," and when the army, instead of
+crossing the Channel, turned back to crush Austria and the coalition,
+Ney commanded the sixth corps. By October 14, 1805, Napoleon had
+surrounded Mack and his army in Ulm, and on that day Ney carried the
+heights of Elchingen after a terrific combat. It was from this
+achievement that his title of Duke of Elchingen was derived. After the
+capitulation of Ulm Ney had, at Innsprück, the proud satisfaction of
+restoring to the seventy-sixth regiment the flags of which they had
+been despoiled. He was sent into the Tyrol in pursuit of the Archduke
+John, whose rear-guard he caught and cut to pieces at the foot of
+Mount Brenner, at the same time that Napoleon, at Austerlitz, brought
+the war to a close.</p>
+
+<p>After the peace of Presburg Ney remained in Suabia until the rupture
+with Prussia. The day of Jena found him so anxious for the fray that
+he attacked the enemy without waiting for orders, and brought the
+whole Prussian cavalry upon his small division of some three thousand
+men, and held them at bay until Napoleon sent him assistance. Though
+Prussia was practically annihilated by the battles of Jena and
+Auerstadt, Russia was still to be reckoned with. Napoleon invaded
+Poland, and found himself forced into a winter campaign at a
+formidable distance from France. Marching and countermarching through
+mud and snow the whole army was subjected to horrible suffering; but
+even then Ney's impetuous energy was unabated. Napoleon even rebuked
+him for "fool-hardiness;" and more than once his only salvation from
+destruction was in the slowness and density of the Russians. He took
+little part in the dreadful and indecisive battle of Eylau, after
+which Napoleon remained for eight days without making any movement;
+but it was to him that, at Friedland, Napoleon allotted the post of
+honor and of danger, saying, as the marshal went off proud of his
+task, "That man is a lion."</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon about this time discovered that "the interposition of France
+was necessary in the affairs of Spain;" and after the peace of Tilsit
+Ney was only allowed to remain in France long enough to recruit his
+forces, before being sent to the Peninsula. A few months later in the
+year, when Napoleon visited Spain, Ney was given the command of the
+sixth corps there, but he was destined to reap few Spanish laurels,
+and it is said that he endeavored to persuade the emperor to
+relinquish the hopeless struggle against an entire people. While Soult
+was engaged in the difficult task of forcing the English from the
+Peninsula by way of Corunna, Ney held Galicia and the Asturias,
+destroyed guerilla bands, defeated Sir Robert Wilson, and intercepted
+the enemy's convoys; but the whole country was in arms against the
+French, who after six months' unceasing struggle, were compelled to
+retreat.</p>
+
+<a id="img018" name="img018"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img018.jpg" width="500" height="383" alt="" title="">
+<p>Marshal Ney returning the captured Colors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Masséna was sent to Portugal with orders from Napoleon to drive
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page257" name="page257"></a>(p. 257)</span> "English leopards and their Sepoy general into the
+sea," Ney, acting under his directions, took Ciudad Rodrigo and
+Almeida. At Busaco, on September 27, 1810, he differed from his
+commander-in-chief as to the advisability of attacking the English
+position in front, which was strong. Masséna suffered a severe
+repulse; and Ney was undoubtedly right, since the fact remains that
+after the battle Wellington's position was easily turned, and he was
+compelled to fall back. He retreated upon the famous lines of Torres
+Vedras, before which Masséna sat helplessly for months, until famine
+forced him to break up his camp. Ney was intrusted with the command of
+the rear-guard, and the universal opinion of military critics is that
+his management of this retreat was one of his most splendid feats of
+arms. On one occasion he confronted, with 5,000 men, Wellington and
+his army of 30,000, and delayed them for many hours, while the sick
+and wounded, the baggage wagons, and the main body of the French army
+made good their retreat. While Ney was in front of him Wellington knew
+no repose, nor, for all his efforts, did he succeed, during the whole
+pursuit, in capturing an ammunition wagon or even a single gun. But
+when Masséna&mdash;with a view to saving his military reputation, which had
+been gravely compromised by his want of success&mdash;proposed again to
+advance upon Lisbon, Ney flatly refused to obey him, and after a
+violent quarrel, was ordered by Masséna to relinquish his command and
+retire into the interior of Spain to await the decision of the
+emperor. Napoleon recalled him to France, and gave him the command of
+the third corps of that avalanche of men&mdash;men of so many nations and
+kindreds and peoples&mdash;which he was preparing to hurl upon Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Army crossed the Niemen in June, 1812, and followed an
+ever-retreating foe to Smolensk, where the Russian general, Barclay de
+Tolly, had received positive orders from Alexander to give battle, and
+where he had placed a garrison of 30,000 men. On August 14th Ney
+cleared the neighboring town of Krasnoi at the point of the bayonet,
+and during the next two days the Russians were slowly forced back
+under the walls of Smolensk. On the 17th a general attack was ordered,
+and Ney was directed to take the citadel. But so obstinate was the
+Russian defence that when night came no entrance had been effected.
+However, an hour after midnight the Russian general set fire to the
+town, and abandoned it, having lost 12,000 men in the defence. At a
+council of war which followed the capture of the place, Ney strongly
+recommended that the Grand Army should establish itself upon the banks
+of the Dwina and the Dnieper, and occupying Smolensk and its environs
+with a vanguard, there await the Russian attack. His advice was
+overruled, however, and he was forced to follow the retreating foe
+upon the road to Moscow. But Russia was thoroughly dissatisfied with
+the way in which the war had so far been carried on, and Barclay de
+Tolly was at this juncture superseded by Kutusof, who, having
+intrenched himself strongly near the little village of Borodino,
+prepared to dispute the farther progress of the invaders. The battle
+which followed, on September 7th, was one of the most obstinate and
+sanguinary of modern times. It lasted from early morning till late at
+night, and more than eighty thousand men were killed or <span class="pagenum"><a id="page258" name="page258"></a>(p. 258)</span>
+wounded. Ney fought like a common soldier in the very thickest of the
+conflict. The Russian positions were at last carried, and Ney sent to
+the emperor for reinforcements with which to complete the victory. The
+emperor had only his guard in reserve, and refused this request. "If
+there should be another battle to-morrow," he said, "with what am I to
+fight it?" "Let him go back to Paris, and play at emperor, and leave
+fighting to us," cried Ney, scornfully, when he heard this message.
+Had his request been granted, and the Imperial Guard been hurled into
+the conflict at the right moment, it seems probable that the Russian
+army would have been entirely destroyed. As it was, they drew off in
+good order, under cover of night, and Kutusof even had the effrontery
+to claim a victory. For his services during this memorable day Ney
+received the title of Prince of the Moskowa.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the battle of Borodino was to leave Moscow at the mercy
+of the invaders, and a barren prize indeed it proved to them. In the
+horror of the fearful retreat from the ruined city the fame of Ney
+reached its highest point. Nothing in all history surpasses the record
+of his indomitable courage and cheerfulness in the most hopeless
+situations, and amid the most frightful hardships. As in Spain, he had
+the command of the rear-guard, and the soldiers, preyed upon alike by
+the Cossacks and the cold, died in the path like flies. Without
+artillery and without cavalry, they yet succeeded, day after day, in
+obstructing their pursuers. Ney was on foot in the midst of them,
+carrying a musket and fighting like the humblest private. But at
+Smolensk&mdash;where the army expected to find everything, and really found
+nothing&mdash;they stayed too long, and on resuming their march found the
+Russians barring their path. Napoleon and the Imperial Guard cut their
+way through. The first and fourth corps succeeded, after a desperate
+conflict, in evading their enemies, but Ney, who had received orders
+to blow up the fortifications of Smolensk before leaving the town,
+found himself with some eight thousand men cut off from the main body
+of fugitives by an army of 50,000 Russians. He attacked them as though
+the numbers were equal, lost in a short time nearly half his little
+force, and was obliged to fall back. Being called upon to surrender,
+he answered, proudly, "A Marshal of France never surrenders," and gave
+the order, as night approached, to retreat toward Smolensk, which was
+indeed the only way open to him. The soldiers were in despair. Ney
+alone did not lose heart. In the gathering dusk they came upon a small
+rivulet. The marshal broke the ice and watched the flow of the current
+beneath. "This must be a feeder of the Dnieper," he said. "We will
+follow it, and put the river between us and our enemies." This they
+succeeded in doing; but were obliged to leave their wounded, their
+artillery, and their baggage upon the other side. Ney had left
+Smolensk on November 17th, with about eight thousand men. On the 20th
+he joined Napoleon, who had given him up for lost&mdash;with somewhere
+about one thousand. Napoleon, hearing that he was come, fairly leaped
+and shouted for joy, exclaiming, "I have three hundred millions of
+francs in the Tuileries&mdash;I would have given them all rather than have
+lost such a man."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page259" name="page259"></a>(p. 259)</span> A few days afterward Ney was fighting madly on the shores of
+the fatal Beresina to clear the way for the surging and almost
+frenzied crowd of soldiers, stragglers, women and children, who, under
+the merciless fire of the Russian batteries were streaming across the
+river on the rickety bridges improvised by the French engineers. The
+Grand Army was by this time only a crowd of wretched and undisciplined
+fugitives. Ney managed to preserve the semblance of a rear-guard, and
+if it had not been for his unceasing efforts it seems probable that
+hardly a single soldier would ever have seen again the shores of
+France. As it was, when he crossed the Niemen on December 13th,
+himself the last man to leave Russian territory&mdash;his rear-guard had
+vanished, and he had with him only his aides-de-camp, while of about
+five hundred thousand men who had crossed the river five months before
+scarcely fifty thousand returned.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner did this catastrophe become known than Europe&mdash;so long
+ground under his heel&mdash;rose against Napoleon, who at once called upon
+France for fresh levies. Ney was given the command of the first Corps.
+On April 29, 1813, he drove the allies from Weissenfels toward
+Leipsic. On May 1st he again compelled a retrograde movement; and on
+May 2d he commanded the French centre at the battle of Lutzen, where,
+indeed, he bore the brunt of the fighting. The allies were compelled
+to retire, but they did not consider themselves beaten, and they
+fought again at Bautzen a few days afterward. Lutzen and Bautzen were
+both dubious victories, but at Dresden the allies were defeated with
+great loss.</p>
+
+<p>This victory, however, was annulled by the defeat of Vandamme, who was
+taken prisoner in Bohemia, after losing 10,000 men. When Napoleon
+heard of this disaster he at once sent Ney to replace Oudinot in the
+command of the Northern army, with the object of pushing on to Berlin;
+but for once Ney's evil stars were in the ascendant, for on September
+5th he was totally defeated by Bernadotte, at Dennewitz, losing 10,000
+prisoners and eighty guns. "The Bravest of the Brave" was
+inconsolable. For some days he took no food, and scarcely spoke. He
+wished to give up his command and fight as a grenadier. "If I have not
+blown out my brains," he said, "it is only because I want to rally my
+army before dying."</p>
+
+<p>And now came the catastrophe at Leipsic&mdash;the three days' battle of the
+Nations&mdash;where, on the first day, Ney was defeated by Blücher, after a
+desperate struggle in which he lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and
+upward of two thousand prisoners. On the third day, after the
+defection of the Saxons, he held out for five hours with 5,000 men
+against 20,000, and retired fighting to the end. Through the whole of
+the succeeding campaign of France, he was at the emperor's side; and
+when, in spite of all the genius of Napoleon, and all the bravery of
+his soldiers, Paris capitulated, Ney was one of three marshals sent by
+the defeated Emperor of the French to negotiate with the Emperor of
+Russia for his abdication in favor of his son, the King of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>This mission failed of any result&mdash;Napoleon went to Elba, and Louis
+XVIII. reigned over France in his stead. Ney accepted the new order of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page260" name="page260"></a>(p. 260)</span> things, and was created a peer of France, knight of St.
+Louis, and governor of the sixth Military Division. But the world was
+for the time at peace; and Ney's occupation was gone. He had been a
+fighter all his life&mdash;he could not turn courtier at the end. He had
+married, in 1810, Mlle Auguié, who had been brought up in the court of
+Louis XVI., was a friend of Hortense Beauharnais, and naturally fond
+of gayety and society. The great marshal was a simple and rather
+illiterate man, who had had no time to cultivate fashionable graces,
+so it happened that when Madame la Maréchal gave a banquet or a ball,
+Ney used not to appear, but dined by himself, in his own apartments,
+as far removed as possible from the noise of the festival. It is said
+that outside the field of battle he was one of the timidest of men,
+and even submitted quite tamely to the insolence of his own servants.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1815, he departed for his country-seat of Coudreaux, near
+Chateaudun, where he lived in the simplest possible fashion, till on
+March 6th, an aide-de-camp of the Minister of War brought him an order
+to return at once to the head-quarters of the Military Division of
+which he was commander. Instead of going directly to his post, he went
+by way of Paris, where he heard for the first time of the landing of
+Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>"It is a great misfortune," said he. "Whom can we send against him?"</p>
+
+<p>Then, having visited the king, and assured him of his devotion to the
+monarchy, he went to his command at Besançon. Next morning he heard
+that Grenoble had declared for the emperor, and that the occupation of
+Lyons was inevitable. He could observe for himself the dissatisfaction
+of the troops by whom he was surrounded. On the 12th he was at
+Lons-le-Saulnier, organizing his troops, and writing to the minister
+of war for ammunition and horses. But he soon saw that resistance was
+hopeless. The Bourbons had managed, as usual, to make themselves
+hated. The king's brother and Marshal Macdonald had been obliged to
+flee from Lyons when Napoleon appeared. All the soldiers were
+delighted at the thought of having their "Little Corporal" back again.
+On the night of the 13th Ney received an emissary from Napoleon. What
+memories must have stirred in his heart, of old perils and old
+glories! How could he resist the mighty spell of the past? On the 14th
+he announced to his troops that the house of Bourbon had ceased to
+reign, and proclaimed Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>"It was a grievous fault, and grievously did Cæsar answer it." From
+this moment Ney knew no more peace of mind. So bitter was his remorse
+that he could not face his fellow-soldiers, and obtained Napoleon's
+permission to retire for a time into the country. When he returned,
+Napoleon said, banteringly, "I heard you had emigrated." "Ah, sire,"
+answered Ney, "I ought to have done so long ago, but it is too late
+now."</p>
+
+<p>The approach of war revived his spirits to some extent, and when, a
+few days before the battle of Waterloo, he joined the army in
+Flanders, he looked like the Ney of old. At Quatre Bras, on June 16th,
+despite an obstinate combat, he failed to drive Wellington from his
+position, and the next day he does not appear <span class="pagenum"><a id="page261" name="page261"></a>(p. 261)</span> to have
+discovered that the English had fallen back upon Waterloo until some
+hours after their departure. At the great battle of Waterloo, on June
+18th, he fought with the same reckless bravery as ever. He had five
+horses killed under him, and his clothing was riddled with bullets.
+Napoleon said, not without truth, that he behaved like a madman. After
+his fifth horse was shot he fought on foot until forced from the field
+by the rush of fugitives. He had done his best to die on the field of
+battle, but almost miraculously he escaped without a wound.</p>
+
+<p>After the second restoration of the Bourbons Ney retired into the
+country, meaning to escape to the United States, and was provided by
+Fouché with a passport for this purpose. He delayed, for some reason,
+to use it; and on August 3d he was arrested at the house of a
+relative. A council of war was appointed to try him, composed of
+Marshals Masséna, Augereau, Mortier, and three lieutenants. It would
+have been better for Ney had he submitted himself to their verdict;
+but he unwisely denied their competence, and demanded, as a peer of
+the realm, to be tried by his peers, and it was a tribunal which
+showed him no mercy. It does not appear that the king desired his
+death; but Talleyrand declared that it would be a grand example, and
+the royalists generally thirsted for his blood. He was condemned, by a
+majority of 139 to 17, to be shot for high treason.</p>
+
+<p>On December 7th his wife and four children were admitted to his prison
+in the early morning, to take leave of him. But neither in this
+painful ordeal nor at any time afterward, did the condemned marshal
+show any sign of weakness. At eight o'clock he was taken in a carriage
+to the place of execution, outside the garden gates of the Luxembourg.
+The officer who commanded the firing party wished to bandage his eyes,
+but Ney said, quietly&mdash;"Are you ignorant that for twenty-five years I
+have been accustomed to face both balls and bullets?" Then, raising
+his voice, he cried, "I protest against my condemnation. I wish that I
+had died for my country in battle. But here is still the field of
+honor. <span class="italic">Vive la France!</span>"</p>
+
+<p>The officer in command, to his credit be it said, was dumb. He seemed
+incapable of giving the word to fire; and Ney himself, taking off his
+hat, and striking his breast, cried, in a loud voice&mdash;"Soldiers, do
+your duty&mdash;fire!"</p>
+
+<p>Thus died, in his forty-seventh year, "The Bravest of the Brave."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig001" name="sig001"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig001.jpg" width="300" height="50" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page262" name="page262"></a>(p. 262)</span> NAPOLEON BONAPARTE<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Colonel Clayton, R.A.</span><br>
+(1769-1821)</h3>
+
+<a id="img019" name="img019"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="300" height="322" alt="&quot;The coronation of Joséphine.&quot;" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon Bonaparte, the second son of Charles Bonaparte and his wife,
+Letizia de Ramolino, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, on August 15,
+1769. In 1779 he entered the Royal Military School of Brienne le
+Château; there he remained till the autumn of 1784, when he was
+transferred to the Military School of Paris, according to the usual
+routine. An official report on him by the Inspector of Military
+Schools in this year speaks highly of his conduct, and notifies his
+great proficiency in mathematics and fair knowledge of history and
+geography, but says he is not well up in ornamental studies or in
+Latin, and, curiously enough, adds that he will make an excellent
+sailor. Napoleon lost his father in 1785, and the same year he was
+commissioned as second-lieutenant of artillery, in which capacity he
+served at Valence and other garrisons. He spent his periods of leave
+in Corsica, and appears to have wished to play the leading part in the
+history of his native island, showing the first signs of his ambitious
+and energetic character. During the critical times following the first
+French Revolution, he at first joined the moderate party of Paoli;
+but, trying for military power, though by untiring activity and
+reckless audacity he succeeded in being elected lieutenant-colonel of
+the National Volunteers of Ajaccio, he failed in an attempt to seize
+that town and was obliged to return to France. The French Government
+soon made an endeavor to crush Paoli and do away with Corsican
+privileges, and the islanders rallied round the patriot. Napoleon now
+turned against him and attempted to seize the citadel of Ajaccio for
+the French; but failing again, with all his relatives he fled a second
+time to France.</p>
+
+<p>From this time onward Napoleon looked to France for his career. The
+narrow horizon of his native island was no longer wide enough for him,
+but from its bracing mountain air and from the quick blood of his race
+he drew a magnetic force, which imparted to his decisions and actions
+a rapidity and energy that carried all before them, while at the same
+time a power of calm calculation, of industry, and of self-control
+enabled him to employ his genius to the best advantage. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page263" name="page263"></a>(p. 263)</span> The
+force of his personality was so overwhelming that in considering his
+career the regret must ever be present that the only principle that
+remained steadfast with him, and is the key to his conduct throughout,
+should have been the care for his own advancement, glory, and power.
+Napoleon now joined the army under Carteaux, which acted against the
+Marseillais who had declared against the National Convention and
+occupied Avignon. At this time he became attached to the younger
+Robespierre, who was a commissioner with the army, and embraced his
+Jacobin principles. He was shortly promoted chef de bataillon, and
+commanded the artillery at the siege of Toulon, where he highly
+distinguished himself, and is generally believed to have been the
+author of the plan of attack which led to the fall of the place. He
+was then promoted general of brigade.</p>
+
+<p>On the fall of the Robespierres, Napoleon incurred serious danger, but
+was saved by powerful influence enlisted in his favor. He was,
+however, ordered to take command of an infantry brigade in the Army of
+the West. This he considered would stifle his military career, and
+neglecting to obey the order, he was in consequence removed from the
+list of employed general officers. Disgusted with his apparent lack of
+prospects, he was now anxious to be sent to Turkey to reorganize the
+Turkish artillery. But on the eve of the 13th Vendémiaire (October 5,
+1795) he was appointed second in command of the Army of the Interior
+under Barras, and did the National Convention good service next day in
+repelling the attack of the Sections of Paris. Influenced partly by
+fear and partly by appreciation of his talents, the Directory
+appointed General Bonaparte to the command of the Army of Italy, on
+February 23, 1796. On March 9th he married Joséphine Tascher de la
+Pagerie, widow of General Vicomte Alexandre de Beauharnais, and left
+Paris for Italy two days later.</p>
+
+<p>On joining the army Bonaparte inaugurated a new era in the wars of the
+Republic. Previously the leading motives had been pure patriotism and
+love of liberty; Bonaparte for the first time, in his proclamation on
+taking command, invoked the spirit of self-interest and plunder, which
+was to dominate the whole policy of France for the next twenty years.
+Evil as were the passions which he aroused, Napoleon's great military
+genius flashed forth in its full brilliancy in this his first
+campaign. His power lay in the rapidity and boldness of his decisions,
+and in the untiring energy with which he carried them out, confounding
+his enemies by the suddenness and lightning rapidity of his blows,
+which never gave them time to recover. He found the French army about
+thirty-six thousand strong, distributed along the crests of the
+mountains from Nice to Savona, and opposing 20,000 Piedmontese under
+Colli and 38,000 Austrians under Beaulieu. These two generals had,
+however, differing interests: Colli's main object was to protect
+Piedmont, Beaulieu's to cover Lombardy. Hence, if Bonaparte could
+penetrate the point of junction of the two armies, it was probable
+they would separate in their retreat, and could be beaten singly. He
+therefore attacked the centre of the allied line, and, driving back
+the Austrians from Montenotte on April 12th, turned against the
+Piedmontese and defeated them at <span class="pagenum"><a id="page264" name="page264"></a>(p. 264)</span> Millesimo the next day.
+Losing no time he left a division under Augereau to keep the
+Piedmontese in check, and led the bulk of his army against the
+Austrians, defeating them heavily at Dego on the 14th. The allied
+armies then retreated in diverging directions as expected, and
+Bonaparte, following the Piedmontese, beat them at Ceva and Mondovi,
+and forced the King of Sardinia to sign the armistice of Cherasco,
+leaving him free to deal with the Austrians. He crossed the Po at
+Piacenza on May 7th, and obliged the Austrians to retreat to the Adda.
+Following them he forced the bridge of Lodi on May 11th, and entered
+Milan amid the rejoicings of the people on the 15th. But his
+ill-omened proclamation had done its work; violence and pillage were
+rampant in the French army, and he could do little to restrain them.
+Indeed, he himself showed an example of plundering, though under more
+organized forms. Heavy contributions were exacted, curiosities and
+works of art were demanded wholesale and despatched to France; and the
+Directory, demoralized by the unaccustomed wealth that flowed in upon
+them, became fully as eager as Napoleon for fresh conquests and their
+accruing spoils.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrians still held Mantua, which Napoleon now besieged,
+occupying himself at the same time in consolidating his conquests. The
+Austrians made strenuous efforts to save the fortress. They were much
+superior in number to the French, but were defeated again and again by
+the rapidity and genius of their opponent. Finally, at the end of
+October, an Austrian army of 50,000, but mostly recruits, advanced
+under Alvinzi. Then followed the three days' battle of Arcola, during
+which Napoleon had a very narrow escape, but which ended in Alvinzi's
+defeat and retreat on Tyrol. From Arcola Napoleon dated his firm
+belief in his own fortune. Once again, in January, 1797, Alvinzi tried
+to relieve Mantua. But Napoleon moved in full force on Rivoli, and won
+a decisive battle there on January 14th, the Austrian detachment on
+the Lower Adige having to lay down their arms next day at Roverbella.
+Würmser capitulated at Mantua on February 2d, Napoleon treating him
+with generosity. This first Italian campaign was perhaps the most
+skilful of all those of Napoleon. Everything was done accurately and
+rapidly, and without throwing away chances. Some of his later
+campaigns, though equally brilliant, show him acting more with the
+gambler's spirit, running unnecessary risks with almost a blind
+reliance upon his star, in the hope of obtaining results which should
+dazzle the world.</p>
+
+<p>In political matters during this time Napoleon was acting less as a
+servant of the French Directory than as an independent ruler. He
+entirely ignored the instructions he received from Paris, levying
+contributions, entering into negotiations, and deposing princes at his
+own will, and writing that he is not fighting "for those rascals of
+lawyers."</p>
+
+<a id="img020" name="img020"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="600" height="352" alt="" title="">
+<p>Napoleon and the Sphinx.</p></div>
+
+<p>Napoleon returned to Paris on December 5, 1797. The Directory, fearing
+his ambition, thought they could only keep him quiet by employing him,
+and gave him command of the so-called Army of England. But he was bent
+on the conquest of Egypt. He appears to have had something visionary
+in his temperament, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page265" name="page265"></a>(p. 265)</span> and to have dreamed of founding a
+mighty empire from the stand-point of the East, the glow and glamour
+of which seem always to have had a certain fascination for him. He
+therefore employed the resources of the Army of England to prepare for
+an expedition to Egypt, and the Directory yielded to his wishes,
+partly no doubt, through the desire of getting him away from France.
+But their aggressive policy was at the same time fast bringing on
+another European war. The expedition sailed from Toulon on May 19,
+1798, captured Malta from the Knights of St. John by treachery, and,
+escaping by great luck from the British fleet under Nelson, arrived at
+Alexandria on June 30th. The army was disembarked in haste, for fear
+lest Nelson should arrive, and on July 8th Napoleon marched on Cairo.
+He defeated the Mamelukes at Chebreïss and the Pyramids, and entered
+Cairo on July 24th. He then occupied himself with organizing the
+government of Egypt, but his position was rendered very hazardous by
+the destruction of the French fleet on August 1st by Nelson at the
+battle of the Nile, and he saw that his dream of founding an empire in
+the East could not be realized. He thought, however, that he might
+create a revolution in Syria, by the aid of which he might overthrow
+the Turkish power, and march in triumph back to Europe through Asia
+Minor and Constantinople. He accordingly entered Syria in February,
+1799, with 12,000 men, but was brought to a standstill before St. Jean
+d'Acre. Failing to capture that fortress, supported as it was by the
+British squadron under Sir Sidney Smith, in spite of the most
+desperate efforts, he was obliged to return to Egypt. After his
+return, Napoleon defeated a Turkish army which had landed at Aboukir,
+but learning the reverses that had been suffered by the French arms in
+Europe, he resolved to leave Egypt and return to France. He embarked
+secretly on August 22d, leaving a letter placing Kléber in command of
+the Army of Egypt, and landed in France six weeks later.</p>
+
+<p>He found matters at home in great confusion. The wars had been
+mismanaged, Italy was almost lost, and the government, in consequence,
+was in very bad odor. The revolution of the 18th Brumaire followed
+(November 9, 1799), when the legislature was forcibly closed, and a
+provisional executive of three consuls, Siéyès, Roger-Duclos, and
+Bonaparte, formed to draw up a new constitution. This was promulgated
+on December 13th; the executive was vested in three consuls,
+Bonaparte, Cambacérès, and Lebrun, of whom Bonaparte was nominated
+First Consul for ten years. He was practically paramount, the two
+remaining consuls being ciphers, and the other institutions being so
+organized as to concentrate power in the executive. Siéyès became
+president of the Senate. The governmental crisis being settled,
+energetic steps were taken with regard to the civil war in the west. A
+proclamation was issued promising religious toleration at the same
+time that decided military action was taken, and these measures were
+so successful that all was quiet at home by the end of February, 1800.
+Then Napoleon turned his attention abroad. He made overtures for peace
+to England and Austria, now the only belligerents, as he wished to
+lull suspicion by posing as the friend of peace, not as a military
+ruler; but he inwardly rejoiced when they rejected his overtures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page266" name="page266"></a>(p. 266)</span> The situation of the belligerents on the Continent was this:
+the Army of the Rhine under Moreau, more than one hundred thousand
+strong, was distributed along the Rhine from the Lake of Constance to
+Alsace, opposed to Kray, whose head-quarters were at Donaueschingen in
+Baden; while Masséna, with the Army of Italy, was on the Riviera and
+at Genoa, opposed to an Austrian army under Melas. Napoleon intended
+to gain himself the chief glory of the campaign; so, giving Moreau
+orders to cross the Rhine, but not to advance beyond a certain limit,
+and leaving Masséna to make head as best he could against Melas, with
+the result that he was besieged in Genoa and reduced to the last
+extremity, he prepared secretly an army of reserve near the Swiss
+frontier, to the command of which Berthier was ostensibly appointed.
+Outside, and even inside France, this army of reserve was looked upon
+as a chimera. Moreau crossed the Rhine on April 24th, and drove Kray
+to Ulm, but was there checked by Napoleon's instructions, according to
+which he also sent a division to co-operate with the army of reserve.
+Napoleon himself went to Geneva on May 9th, and assuming command of
+this army crossed the St. Bernard, and reached the plains of Italy
+before Melas had convinced himself of the existence even of the army
+of reserve, and while his troops were scattered from Genoa to the Var.
+Napoleon's obvious course would now have been to move straight on
+Genoa, relieve Masséna, and beat in detail as many of Melas's troops
+as he could encounter. But this would not have been a sufficiently
+brilliant triumph, as the bulk of the Austrian army might have
+escaped; and trusting in his star, he resolved to stake the existence
+of his army on a gambler's cast. Leaving Masséna to be starved out, he
+moved to the left on Milan, and occupied the whole line of the Ticino
+and Po as far as Piacenza, so as to cut off entirely the retreat of
+the Austrians. He then crossed the Po, and concentrated as many troops
+as he could spare at Stradella. The strategy was brilliant, but the
+risk run excessive. His army was necessarily scattered, while Melas
+had had time to concentrate, and he was besides ignorant of the
+Austrian position. He sent Desaix with a column to seek information,
+and moved himself on Alessandria, where he found Melas. Next day, June
+14th, Melas marched out to attack the French on the plains of Marengo,
+and despite all Napoleon's efforts, had actually defeated them, when
+fortunately, Desaix returned, and his advance, together with a cavalry
+charge by Kellermann, changed defeat into victory. Melas, losing his
+head, signed a convention next day, giving up almost all North Italy,
+though Marmont says that if he had fought another battle he must have
+won it. Napoleon returned to Paris with the glories of this
+astonishing campaign; but peace did not follow till Moreau, when his
+liberty of action was restored to him, had won the battle of
+Hohenlinden on December 3, 1800. Then followed the treaty of Lunéville
+with Germany, in February, 1801, the concordat with Rome, in July,
+1801, and the treaty of Amiens with England, in March, 1802, so that
+Napoleon was able to figure as the restorer of peace to the world. He
+then devoted himself to the reconstruction of the civil institutions
+of France, employing in this great work the best talent that he could
+find, and impressing on their labors the stamp of his own genius. The
+institutions then created, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page267" name="page267"></a>(p. 267)</span> which still remain for the most
+part, were the restored Church, the judicial system, the codes, the
+system of local government, the University, the Bank of France, and
+the Legion of Honor.</p>
+
+<p>France at this period, sick of the failure of republican government,
+was gradually veering toward monarchy, and Napoleon knew how to take
+advantage of events to strengthen his position, and in due time
+establish his own dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>Preparations for the invasion of England had been steadily proceeding,
+but Napoleon's aggressive demeanor after becoming emperor alarmed the
+European cabinets, so that Pitt was able to revive the coalition, and
+in 1805 Napoleon found himself at war with Russia and Austria, as well
+as with England. Forced by England's naval supremacy to abandon the
+notion of invasion, he suddenly changed front in August, 1805, and led
+his armies through Hanover and the smaller German states, disregarding
+the neutrality even of Prussia herself, and reached the Danube in rear
+of the Austrian army under Mack, which was at Ulm. The surprise was
+complete; Mack surrendered October 19th, and Napoleon then marched on
+Vienna, which he entered November 13th. But his position was critical.
+The Archduke Charles was approaching from Hungary, a Russian army was
+entering Moravia, and Prussia, incensed at the violation of her
+territory, joined the coalition. A short delay would have surrounded
+Napoleon with his enemies, but the czar was impatient, and the Russian
+army, with a small contingent of Austrians, encountered Napoleon at
+Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, and was signally defeated. This caused
+the break-up of the coalition; the Holy Roman Empire came to an end,
+the Confederation of the Rhine was formed under French protection, and
+the Napoleonic empire was firmly established. Napoleon then entered
+into negotiations for peace with Russia and England, endeavoring to
+conciliate those powers at the expense of Prussia. The negotiations
+failed, but Prussia was mortally offended, and mobilized her army in
+August, 1806, about which time Russia finally rejected the treaty with
+France. Napoleon acted with his usual promptitude, and advanced
+against Prussia before she could get help either from England or
+Russia. Although the rank and file of the Prussian armies was good,
+their generals were antiquated, and Napoleon crushed them at Jena and
+Auerstadt, October 14th, and entered Berlin on the 27th. He had then
+to carry on a stubbornly contested campaign with Russia. An indecisive
+battle at Eylau was followed by a hardly earned French victory at
+Friedland, June 14, 1807, and the peace of Tilsit ensued, by which
+Prussia lost half her territory, and had to submit to various
+humiliating conditions, while Russia escaped easily, and indeed got a
+share of the spoils.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon was now at the zenith of his power; he was the arbiter of
+Europe and the paramount head of a confederation of princes, among
+whom the members of his own family occupied several thrones. To reward
+his partisans he at this time created a new noblesse, and lavished
+upon them the public money. He sent an army under Junot to Portugal,
+and another to Spain, which, under Murat, took Madrid. Napoleon then
+procured the abdication of the King of Spain and placed his brother
+Joseph on the vacant throne. But he did not foresee the consequences.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page268" name="page268"></a>(p. 268)</span> The spirit of the nation was roused, and a formidable
+insurrection broke out, while a British army, under Sir Arthur
+Wellesley, landed in Portugal, defeated Junot at Vimiera, and forced
+him to sign the Convention of Cintra, evacuating Portugal. So began
+the Peninsular War, which for the future was to paralyze half
+Napoleon's strength.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany also a spirit of revolt against his tyranny was rising,
+Austria at first taking the lead, and this brought on the war of 1809
+against that power. Prussia, already beginning to recover her strength
+under the military system of Scharnhorst and Stein, was hostile to
+Napoleon in sentiment, but was kept down by the pressure of Russia.
+Napoleon declared war on the pretext that Austria was arming, and
+marching through Bavaria drove the Austrians out of Ratisbon, and
+entered Vienna May 13th. Eugene Beauharnais, at the head of the Army
+of Italy, drove the Austrians before him into Hungary, defeated them
+at Raab, and joined Napoleon. The emperor then tried to cross the
+Danube, but was checked at Aspern and obliged to retire to the island
+of Lobau. Five weeks of preparation then followed, the peasant war
+under Hofer being carried on in Tyrol, and then Napoleon made a fresh
+and successful attempt to cross the Danube, and won the battle of
+Wagram July 5th. This was followed by the armistice of Znaim and the
+treaty of Schönbrunn, October 20, 1809, by which he obtained a heavy
+indemnity in money and considerable accession of territory in
+Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, and Galicia. But he mortally offended
+the czar by giving a large portion of the ceded territory of Galicia
+to the Duchy of Warsaw&mdash;i.e., to Poland.</p>
+
+<p>On December 16, 1809, Napoleon, desirous of an heir, divorced
+Joséphine, who was childless, and married, April 1, 1810, the
+Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria. He had no doubt the wish also to
+get a footing in the circle of the legitimate reigning families of
+Europe. A son, to whom the title of King of Rome was given, was born
+March 20, 1811.</p>
+
+<p>Still bent on the humiliation of England, Napoleon now tried to effect
+his purpose by increasing the stringency of the Continental System,
+but this ended in bringing him into conflict with Russia. He first
+annexed the kingdoms of Holland and Westphalia, to give him command of
+their seaboards, and then prohibited English trade even when carried
+in neutral bottoms. The czar, already estranged by Napoleon's alliance
+with Austria and his conduct as regards Poland, refused to adopt this
+policy, and the relations between them gradually became so strained
+that war was inevitable, and Napoleon took the momentous resolve to
+invade Russia. With Maria Louisa, he arrived at Dresden May 16, 1812,
+and was there greeted by the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia,
+and other sovereigns. His army for this gigantic enterprise numbered
+about six hundred thousand, including French, Germans, and Italians.
+He crossed the Niemen on June 24th, reaching Vilna, which was
+evacuated by the Russians, on the 28th; and remained at Vilna till
+July 16th, hesitating to take the final resolution to invade the heart
+of Russia. He made overtures for peace to the czar, who refused to
+treat as long as an enemy remained on Russian soil. Foiled here
+Napoleon at last decided <span class="pagenum"><a id="page269" name="page269"></a>(p. 269)</span> to go on with his enterprise; so he
+advanced, and at first the Russians were in no condition to meet him,
+their forces being scattered. If Napoleon could have advanced rapidly
+to Smolensk, he might have cut the Russian forces in two, but his vast
+host appears to have been unmanageable. Barclay de Tolly and Bagration
+succeeded in uniting at Smolensk, but were driven from it on August
+18th, after an obstinate defence. At Smolensk Napoleon again hesitated
+as to whether he should go into winter-quarters, but eventually
+decided to press on to Moscow, trusting to the moral effect of the
+fall of the ancient capital. It seems as if, while his superstitious
+belief in his star still remained, bodily ailments had caused a
+deterioration in his power of rapid decision and in his energy of
+action. Meanwhile, great discontent had been caused in Russia by the
+continued retreat of the armies. Kutusoff was appointed to the chief
+command, and stood to fight at Borodino on September 6th. Napoleon won
+the battle, but with unwonted and misplaced caution refused to engage
+his Guard, and the victory was almost fruitless.</p>
+
+<p>He entered Moscow on September 14th, and fire broke out the next
+night, the first effect of which was still further to alarm the
+Russians, who believed it to be the work of the French. The fire raged
+fiercely till the 20th, and a great part of the city was burned to the
+ground. Had the victory of Borodino been more decisive the czar might
+now have yielded; but as it was he listened to the advice of Stein and
+Sir R. Wilson and refused to treat, thus putting Napoleon in a
+dilemma. His plans were always made on the basis of immediate success,
+and the course to be adopted in case of failure was not considered.
+Again he hesitated, with the result that when at last he resolved to
+retire from Moscow, the winter, coming earlier than usual, upset his
+calculations, and the miseries of that terrible retreat followed. He
+left Moscow on October 18th, and, reaching the Beresina with but
+12,000 men, was joined there by Oudinot and Victor, who had been
+holding the line of the Dwina, with 18,000. His passage of the river
+was opposed, but he succeeded in crossing, and on December 6th the
+miserable remnant of the Grand Army reached Vilna. Macdonald, Reynier,
+and Schwarzenberg, with 100,000 men, on the Polish frontier and in the
+Baltic provinces, were safe; but this was the whole available remnant
+of the 600,000 with which the campaign commenced.</p>
+
+<p>All Europe now united against him. The French armies were discouraged,
+and the allies enthusiastic; but the latter had difficulties to
+contend with from their heterogeneous composition and diversity of
+interests. The campaign opened with varying fortune. A blow at Berlin
+was parried by Bülow at Gross Beeren on August 23d. Napoleon himself
+forced Blücher back to the Katzbach, but had to retire again to defend
+Dresden from the Austrians; and his lieutenant, Macdonald, was
+defeated in the battle of the Katzbach on August 26th. Napoleon
+inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austrians before Dresden on the
+27th, but, while preparing to cut off their retreat, was disturbed by
+the news of Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach and by sudden illness, and
+at Kulm lost Vandamme with 20,000 men. September was spent in
+fruitless marches, and toward the end of the month the allies began
+their converging march on their preconcerted rendezvous at Leipsic. At
+the same time the Confederation of the Rhine began to dissolve. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page270" name="page270"></a>(p. 270)</span> kingdom of Westphalia was upset on October 1st, and on the
+8th Bavaria joined Austria. The toils were closing round Napoleon, and
+between October 14th and 19th he was crushed in that battle of the
+Titans at Leipsic, and, brushing aside the Bavarians, who tried to
+stop him at Haynau, on November 1st, led back the remnant of his army,
+some 70,000 strong, across the Rhine at Mainz.</p>
+
+<p>The allies now made overtures for peace on the basis of natural
+frontiers, which would have left France the fruits of the first
+Revolution, viz., Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, and
+Nice; but Napoleon could not be content with such curtailment of his
+power. Evading at first the proposal, he would have accepted it, but
+with suspicious qualifications, when too late. The invasion of France
+followed. The allies issued a manifesto on December 1st, saying they
+were waging war against Napoleon alone, and advanced with three
+separate armies. Schwarzenberg led the Austrians through Switzerland,
+Blücher crossed the Middle Rhine toward Nancy, while the northern army
+passed through Holland. Napoleon had yet hopes of success on account
+of the forces he still had in the German fortresses, the mutual
+jealousies of the allies, his connection with the Emperor of Austria,
+and the patriotism which would be aroused in France by invasion. But
+the allies gave him no time to utilize these influences, and Paris was
+not fortified. Napoleon carried on a campaign full of genius, gaining
+what advantage he could from the separation of his enemies. He
+attacked Blücher and won four battles in four days at Champaubert
+(February 10, 1814), Montmirail (11th), Château-Thierry (12th), and
+Vauchamps (13th). These successes would have enabled him to make a
+reasonable peace, but his personal position forbade this, and he tried
+subterfuge and delay. The allies, however, were not to be trifled
+with, and in the beginning of March signed the treaty of Chaumont,
+which bound them each to keep 150,000 men on foot for twenty years.
+The battles of Craonne and Laon followed, in which Napoleon held his
+own, but saw his resources dwindle. On March 18th the conferences at
+Chatillon came to an end, and on the 24th the allies determined to
+march on Paris. Marmont and Mortier, with less than thirty thousand
+men, could make no head against them, while Napoleon himself tried a
+fruitless diversion against their communications. Joseph Bonaparte
+withdrew Maria Louisa and the King of Rome to Tours. On March 30th the
+allies attacked Paris on three sides, and in the afternoon the French
+marshals offered to capitulate. Napoleon, when he learned the real
+state of affairs, hurried up in rear of the allies, but was too late,
+and had to fall back to Fontainebleau. His position was desperate, and
+to add to his difficulties Wellington, whose career of success had
+gradually cleared the French out of the Peninsula, had now led his
+victorious army across the Pyrenees into France itself.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon therefore at first offered to abdicate in favor of his son,
+but, when he found that would not be sufficient, he signed an
+unconditional abdication on April 11, 1814. He was given the
+sovereignty of the island of Elba, and the Bourbons, in the person of
+Louis XVIII., were restored to the throne of France. But the condition
+of affairs was very precarious. The return of the Bourbons was most
+unpopular. It indeed restored the parliament, but it unsettled the
+position of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page271" name="page271"></a>(p. 271)</span> public men and the title to estates. The army
+was disgusted at the appointment to commands of emigrés who had fought
+against France. The Church began to cause alarm to the holders of
+national property; and by the release of prisoners and the return of
+the garrisons of German fortresses, very large numbers of Napoleonic
+soldiers became dispersed over France. The coalition, too, broke up,
+and fresh alliances began to be sought with a view to check the
+aggressive spirit which Russia seemed inclined to manifest. Altogether
+affairs in Europe and France were in such a state as to make it not
+impossible that the magic of Napoleon's name might replace him in
+power. He accordingly resolved on making the attempt, left Elba on
+February 26, 1815, and landed on the French coast on March 1st. On the
+20th he entered Paris, having been joined by the army.</p>
+
+<p>Europe had declared war against him, and a new coalition had been
+formed, but only two armies were immediately ready to take the field;
+a mixed force under the Duke of Wellington in Belgium, and a Prussian
+army under Blücher in the Rhine provinces. The English army had its
+base on the sea, and the Prussian on the Rhine, so that they had
+diverging lines of operation. Napoleon's idea was to strike suddenly
+at their point of junction before they could concentrate, push in
+between them, drive them apart, and then defeat each separately. The
+plan was unexceptionable, resembling that of his first campaign in
+1796, and the opening moves were successfully carried out. Napoleon
+left Paris on June 12th, his army being then echeloned between Paris
+and the Belgian frontier, so that the point where the blow would fall
+was still doubtful. On the 15th he occupied Charleroi, and was between
+the two allied armies, and on the 16th he defeated Blücher at Ligny
+before Wellington could come to his assistance. So far all had gone
+well with him; but now, apparently, his energy was not sufficient to
+cope rapidly with the difficulties that no doubt beset him through the
+shortcomings of his staff, and the spirit of mutual distrust that
+reigned among his officers. He did nothing till the morning of the
+17th, and it was not till 2 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> that he sent Grouchy with 33,000 men
+to follow the Prussians in the supposed direction of their retreat
+toward Liége, and keep them at a distance while he turned against
+Wellington. But he had lost his opportunity; the wasted hours had
+enabled the Prussians to disappear, and he did not know the fact that
+Blücher had taken the resolution to move on Wavre, giving up his own
+communications in order to reunite with Wellington. The latter had
+retired to a previously chosen position at Mont St. Jean, and received
+Blücher's promise to lead his army to his assistance. So on the 18th,
+when Napoleon attacked the duke, unknown to him the bulk of the
+Prussian army was hastening up on his right flank, while Grouchy was
+fruitlessly engaged with the Prussian rear-guard only. This led to the
+crowning defeat of Waterloo, where Napoleon's fortunes were finally
+wrecked. He fled to Paris, and abdicated for the last time on June
+22d; and, finding it impossible to escape from France, he surrendered
+to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, at Rochefort, on July 15th.
+He was banished by the British Government to St. Helena, where he
+arrived on October 15, 1815, and died there of cancer of the stomach
+on May 5, 1821.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page272" name="page272"></a>(p. 272)</span> ARTHUR, DUKE OF WELLINGTON<br>
+By <span class="smcap">L. Drake</span><br>
+(1769-1852)</h3>
+
+<a id="img021" name="img021"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="250" height="360" alt="Duke of Wellington." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Arthur Wellesley, the fourth son of the Earl of Mornington, was born
+on May 1, 1769, at Dungan Castle, in Ireland. Although exhibiting no
+decided inclination for the profession of arms, a soldier's career was
+chosen for him at an early age; and after some preparatory years spent
+at Eton, he was sent to Angers, in France, to learn in its ancient
+military school those lessons in the art of war which he was destined
+in after-life again and again so gloriously to surpass.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike his contemporary Napoleon, the genius of Wellington did not
+display itself beyond enabling him to attain a fair and creditable
+proficiency at Angers. On his return to England he was gazetted to an
+ensigncy early in 1787; and five years later, having passed through
+the intermediate degrees, he obtained a troop in the Eighteenth Light
+Dragoons.</p>
+
+<p>His first appearance in public life was as a statesman, having been
+returned to the Irish Parliament for the borough of Trim. His military
+career of active service commenced by his being ordered, with his
+regiment, to join the army in the Netherlands. Ere he reached it, the
+tide of victory was running against the British arms; and his opening
+campaign, while it gave him much experience, brought him but little
+glory. He had now obtained the rank of colonel; and, as commander of
+the rear-guard of the army, he steadily covered its retreat before the
+advancing troops of the French republic, till they crossed the
+frontiers of the Low Countries; when, after a kindly welcome and a
+short stay with the Bremeners, they returned home.</p>
+
+<p>The worn-out regiments were immediately recruited; and in April, 1796,
+Colonel Wellesley sailed with his corps for the East Indies, where he
+arrived in February the following year.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Seringapatam, and the death of Tippou-Saib in its defence,
+are well-known events.</p>
+
+<p>The principal command of the army in India was soon intrusted to
+Colonel Wellesley, and early next year he was gazetted major-general.
+The nature of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page273" name="page273"></a>(p. 273)</span> this sketch will not admit of a detailed
+account of the rest of the campaign, although it proved a "short but
+brilliant one"&mdash;one which ended in the entire submission of the
+Mahratta potentates who continued the struggle after Tippou's fall,
+and completely established the reputation of the future hero of
+Waterloo.</p>
+
+<p>A staff command awaited Major-General (and now Sir Arthur) Wellesley's
+return to England; and soon afterward he married Catherine, the third
+daughter of the Earl of Longford.</p>
+
+<p>The command of a detachment of the army sent against the French in
+Spain and Portugal, was confided to Sir Arthur, in June, 1808, when
+without delay he proceeded to Corunna. The successes of the earlier
+portion of the campaign, owing to the admirable conduct of Sir Arthur,
+were so well appreciated at home that the king raised him to the
+peerage. Through many difficulties Lord Wellington still continued to
+lead the allied army on from victory to victory, to relate which, even
+briefly, would alone fill a volume, till he found himself ready for
+the last grand struggle at Ciudad Rodrigo, which was now occupied by
+the French. It was early in January, 1811, yet notwithstanding the
+coldness of the weather, and the dangers to which the army was
+exposed, in case of the sudden rising of the river Agueda, which runs
+nearly in front of the town, the preliminaries of the siege were
+successfully conducted. One afternoon, the breaching batteries,
+comprising twenty-seven large guns, opened their fire on the wall of
+the town. In five days the breaches were practicable, and a summons to
+surrender was sent to the governor. This he declined doing.
+Wellington, having personally examined the breaches, felt convinced
+that an assault had every prospect of success. Ordering the fire of
+the guns to be directed against the cannon on the ramparts, he sat
+down on an embankment, and wrote the order of assault which was to
+seal the doom of the town, beginning with the emphatic sentence&mdash;"The
+attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo must be made this evening at seven
+o'clock."</p>
+
+<p>Spain and Portugal conferred honors on the conqueror of Rodrigo; and
+at home he was raised to the earldom of Wellington, with an increased
+annuity of £2,000 a year.</p>
+
+<p>The French army, under Marshal Soult, had at length been compelled to
+quit Spain, and with such speed, that in four days they passed over
+ground which it took the allied armies seven days to traverse. During
+the retreat the two armies approached each other several times; and on
+one occasion, when the French army was crossing the plains of Ger, its
+pursuers followed so closely, that had it not been for the thick woods
+through which they had to pass, Soult's retreat would have been
+seriously endangered by the British cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>When Bonaparte had quitted Fontainebleau, and had embarked on board
+the Undaunted frigate for Elba, Lord Wellington felt he might safely
+leave the army for a time; and, setting out for Paris, he reached it
+May 4th. He met with an enthusiastic reception from all classes; while
+the unqualified praises of each of the allied sovereigns showed how
+much the successful issue of the struggle to restore liberty to Europe
+was due to his talents and constancy of purpose. The restored Spanish
+king, Ferdinand, sent him a letter of gratitude; and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page274" name="page274"></a>(p. 274)</span>
+Crown Prince of Sweden gave him the Order of the Sword. England at the
+same time conferred upon him the dukedom he so long enjoyed, and
+raised five of his lieutenants to peerages.</p>
+
+<p>Once more the "loud shrill clarion" of war aroused Europe to arms. Ten
+short months after his abdication, Napoleon, escaped from Elba, was
+again in Paris, resolved to incur all risks in order to gain the
+greatest prize in Europe&mdash;the crown he had so lately relinquished. The
+magic influence of his name spread through France, which became one
+vast camp; and in an incredibly short space of time Napoleon found
+himself ready to take the field with an army of one hundred and fifty
+thousand men, of whom twenty thousand were highly disciplined cavalry.
+The whole army was perfectly equipped, while three hundred pieces of
+cannon formed an overpowering artillery. To oppose this well-appointed
+force, the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blücher had collected an
+army of one hundred and eighty thousand men. But although the allied
+armies thus exceeded Napoleon's in numbers, his consisted of veteran
+troops of one nation, while theirs were composed, for the most part,
+of raw levies. That under the duke was "the weakest and the worst;" at
+no time did it reach eighty thousand men, and on one-half of these
+only could reliance be placed in the day of battle.</p>
+
+<p>"I am going to have a brush with Wellington," said Napoleon, on the
+evening of June 11, 1815; and next morning before daybreak he set out
+to join his army on the frontiers, taking every precaution to conceal
+from Wellington that he was coming. Napoleon's object was to separate
+Blücher from Wellington, then to deal with each singly, and thus to
+crush them forever. Then France, rejoicing to see glory once more
+resting on her eagles, would again hail him as her emperor.</p>
+
+<p>While at dinner, Wellington received the first news of the advance of
+Napoleon. Thinking that this was merely a feint to draw the allies
+toward Ligny, while a serious attempt was made upon Brussels,
+Wellington, who had already prepared himself for any emergency,
+determined to wait till Napoleon's object was more fully displayed;
+while, therefore, he gave orders that the troops should be in
+readiness to march at a moment's notice, he, with his officers, joined
+in the festivities of a ball given that evening by the Duchess of
+Richmond.</p>
+
+<p>Blücher's second courier arrived before twelve o'clock, and the
+despatches were delivered to the duke in the ball-room. While he was
+reading them, he seemed completely absorbed by their contents; and
+after he had finished, for some minutes he remained in the same
+attitude of deep reflection, totally abstracted from every surrounding
+object, while his countenance was expressive of fixed and intense
+thought. He was heard to mutter to himself, "Marshal Blücher
+thinks"&mdash;"It is Marshal Blücher's opinion;"&mdash;and after remaining thus
+abstracted a few minutes, and having apparently formed his decision,
+he gave his usual clear and concise orders to one of his staff
+officers, who instantly left the room, and was again as gay and
+animated as ever; he stayed to supper, and then went home.</p>
+
+<a id="img022" name="img022"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="500" height="451" alt="" title="">
+<p>A review of the British Army by Wellington.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The trumpet's loud call awoke every sleeper in the city of Brussels a
+little <span class="pagenum"><a id="page275" name="page275"></a>(p. 275)</span> after midnight. Then it became known that the
+French had advanced to Charleroi, which they had taken, and that the
+English troops were ordered to advance and support the Prussians.
+Instantly the place resounded with martial preparations; and as
+soldiers were quartered in every house, the whole town became one
+bustling scene.</p>
+
+<p>At daylight the troops were under arms, and at eight o'clock set out
+for Quatre Bras, the expected scene of action in advance of Charleroi;
+the fifth division taking the direct road through the forest of
+Soignies.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the afternoon, Marshal Ney attacked the Prince of Orange, and
+by an overwhelming superiority of troops was driving him back through
+a thick wood called "Le Bois de Bossen," when the leading columns of
+the English reached Quatre Bras. Wellington's eye at once saw the
+critical condition of his ally; and, though the troops had marched
+twenty miles under a sultry sky, he knew their spirit was indomitable,
+and gave the welcome order that the wood must be immediately regained.</p>
+
+<p>On came Ney's infantry, doubling that of his opponents' in number,
+supported by a crashing fire of artillery, quickly followed by the
+cavalry, which, dashing through the rye crops, more than breast high,
+charged the English regiments as soon as they reached the
+battle-ground.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, though unable properly to establish themselves, they formed
+squares, and roughly repelled the enemy. Fierce and frequent were the
+efforts of the French to break the squares. Showers of grape poured
+upon them; and the moment an opening appeared, on rushed the lancers.
+But the dead were quickly removed; and, though the squares were
+lessened, they still presented an unbroken line of glittering
+bayonets, which neither the spears of the lancers, nor the long swords
+of the cuirassiers could break through. A division of the Guards from
+Enghien, coming up at this crisis, gallantly charged the enemy, and in
+half an hour cleared the wood of them completely. This exploit was
+remarkable, achieved as it was by young soldiers after a toilsome
+march of fifteen hours, during which time they had been without
+anything to eat or drink. The fire of the French artillery, and the
+charges of cavalry, obliged these gallant fellows, although now joined
+by the Brunswickers, in some measure to keep the shelter of the wood.
+They, however, sallied out at intervals, until Ney, finding himself
+shaken, sent for his reserve. This force Napoleon had unexpectedly
+removed to support his attack on the Prussians at Ligny; yet the
+marshal maintained his position to the close of the day, when he fell
+back on the road to Frasnes, while the British and their brave allies
+lighted fires, and securing such provisions as they could, after a
+scanty meal, piled arms, and lay down to rest on the battle-field.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon's simultaneous attack on the Prussians at Ligny was for a
+long time doubtful. Both Blücher and Napoleon were compelled to bring
+their reserves into action; and when night closed, Blücher still,
+"like a wounded lion," fought with ferocity. But the darkness enabled
+Napoleon to wheel a division of French infantry on the rear of the
+Prussians, while a dense body of cuirassiers forced Ligny on the other
+side, and not till then did Blücher fall back.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page276" name="page276"></a>(p. 276)</span> Wellington was prepared to accept battle at daybreak next
+morning; but, hearing of Blücher's retreat, he also resolved to fall
+back, so as to keep a lateral communication with the right wing of the
+Prussians, and by this movement also prevent Bonaparte from placing
+himself between the two armies, when at his choice he might turn his
+forces against either, in which case the inferiority of numbers would
+have entailed certain defeat.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon expected to find the English army still upon the ground it
+had occupied on the 16th. Great was his surprise when, on reaching the
+heights above Frasnes, he saw that the troops at the entrance of the
+wood were only a strong rear-guard, and that the retreat toward
+Brussels was already half effected. He bitterly rebuked Ney for his
+supposed negligence, though Wellington's own officers did not imagine
+they were to retreat till the moment it began; and the duke, by
+dexterously wheeling his troops round the wood, part of which could
+only be seen by the French, gave their marshal the idea that he was
+bringing up large reinforcements instead of drawing off his troops.
+The French squadrons immediately commenced the pursuit, but were so
+rudely handled by the Life Guards under Lord Uxbridge, who protected
+the rear, that, after several attacks, in the last of which the French
+hussars were charged and nearly cut to pieces, the pursuit was so
+severely checked as to give the infantry ample time to take up the
+ground appointed them on the heights of Mont St. Jean, covering the
+approach to Brussels by the great road from Charleroi.</p>
+
+<p>"Here it was that the duke had determined to make his final stand,
+staking the glory of many years on the issue of a single battle."</p>
+
+<p>When day broke, and Napoleon beheld his opponents, whom he feared
+would have escaped him during the night, fearlessly occupying their
+position of the evening before, and evidently prepared to defend it, a
+flush of joy overspread his face, while he exclaimed confidently,
+"Bravo! I have them then&mdash;these English!"</p>
+
+<p>By nine o'clock the weather moderated, the sun shone out, fires were
+kindled, the men dried and cleaned their arms, and, ammunition being
+served out, provisions were distributed, and the men breakfasted "with
+some degree of comfort."</p>
+
+<p>Since daybreak occasional shots had been fired; but not till eleven
+o'clock did the battle begin. A body of light troops left the French
+line, and, descending the hill at a sling trot, broke into scattered
+parties, keeping up an irregular fire as they advanced toward the
+Château of Hougoumont. These were closely followed by three divisions
+nearly thirty thousand strong; and the dropping fire was soon changed
+into one continued roll of musketry. As the English skirmishers fell
+back, two brigades of British artillery opened on the advancing
+columns of the French, each shot plunging and tearing through their
+masses, while the shells from the howitzers fell so truly that the
+shaken columns drew back. But now a powerful artillery opened from the
+French heights, fresh troops poured forward, and for more than an hour
+the line of each army remained spectators of the terrific attack on
+the château, surrounded by a dense cloud of smoke, through which
+glared forth the flashes of the artillery. The French guns <span class="pagenum"><a id="page277" name="page277"></a>(p. 277)</span>
+had found their range; every shot told upon the old walls of the
+mansion; and crashing masonry, burning rafters falling, mingled with
+the yell of battle, added a frightful interest to the scene. At length
+the Nassau sharpshooters were driven back, and the French troops began
+to penetrate the orchard; but, ere they could occupy it the squadrons
+of English cavalry, under Lord Saltoun, bore down upon them, and drove
+them back. Wheeling round, they then attempted the rear of the
+château, but being received unflinchingly, were obliged to retire.
+Despairing of success, the French artillery now discharged shells upon
+Hougoumont; the tower and chapel were soon in a blaze, and in these
+many wounded men met a dreadful fate. Still, though surrounded by
+flames and bursting shells, with the heavy shot ploughing through wall
+and window, the Guards held their post, nor could Hougoumont be taken.</p>
+
+<p>"How beautifully these English fight! But they must give way,"
+exclaimed Napoleon to Marshal Soult. But evening came, and yet they
+held their ground. The men, maddened by seeing their comrades falling
+around them, longed ardently for the moment to advance; but Wellington
+felt that the crisis was not yet come. It required all his authority
+to restrain the troops; but he knew their powers of endurance.</p>
+
+<p>"Not yet, my brave fellows," said the duke; "be firm a little longer,
+and you shall have at them by-and-by." This homely appeal kept each
+man in his place in the ranks. But now the superior officers
+remonstrated, and advised a retreat.</p>
+
+<p>"Will the troops stand?" demanded Wellington.</p>
+
+<p>"Till they perish!" was the reply.</p>
+
+<p>"Then," added the duke, "I will stand with them to the last man."</p>
+
+<p>Yet Wellington was not insensible of the critical nature of his
+position, and longed for night or Blücher. It was now seven, and the
+Prussians had been expected at three. In less than an hour, the sound
+of artillery was heard in the expected direction, and a staff officer
+brought word that the head of the Prussian column was at Planchenoit,
+nearly in the rear of the French reserve. Bonaparte, when told of
+their advance, maintained that it was Grouchy's long-expected force
+coming up; but when he saw them issue from the wood, and perceived the
+Prussian colors, he turned pale, but uttered not a word.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon's Imperial Guards&mdash;his veteran troops&mdash;were now advancing,
+covered by a tempest of shot and shells, toward the ridge behind which
+lay the British infantry to gain a shelter from the fire. Wellington
+eagerly watched the dense cloud as it approached; and when it arrived
+within a hundred yards, advancing on horseback to the brow of the
+ridge, he exclaimed, "Up, Guards, and at them!"</p>
+
+<p>In a moment the men were on their feet&mdash;the French closed on them,
+when a tremendous volley drove the whole mass back; but the old
+Imperial Guard recovered, yet only to receive a second volley as
+deadly as the first, followed by a bold charge with the bayonet, which
+forced them down the slope, and up the opposite bank. In vain the
+French attempted to support them by taking the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page278" name="page278"></a>(p. 278)</span> Guards in
+flank. Lord Hill brought forward the extreme right of the army, in the
+form of a crescent, which overlapping the horsemen, they were crushed
+as in a serpent's folds, while the infantry fell back, re-formed, and
+occupied their former place on the ridge.</p>
+
+<p>Wellington's quick eye already detected the confusion caused by the
+Prussian attack under General Bülow on the French rear. Hastily
+closing his telescope, he exclaimed, "The hour is come! Now every man
+must advance!"</p>
+
+<p>Forming into one long line, four men deep, the whole infantry
+advanced, with a loud cheer, the sun at the instant streaming out as
+if to shed his last glories on the conquerors of that dreadful day.
+Headed by the duke, with his hat in hand, the line advanced with
+spirit and rapidity, while the horse-artillery opened a fire of
+canister-shot on the confused masses.</p>
+
+<p>For a few minutes they stood their ground gallantly; and, even when
+the allied cavalry charged full upon them, four battalions of the Old
+Guard formed squares, and checked its advance. As the grapeshot tore
+through the ranks of the veterans, they closed up again, and, to every
+summons to surrender, gave the stern reply, "The Guard never
+surrender&mdash;they die!"</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon had already fled. Finding all hope of victory gone, he at
+first threw himself into one of the squares of the Old Guard,
+determined to die with them, but when the Prussians gained on their
+rear, and he was in danger of being made prisoner, he exclaimed, "For
+the present it is finished. Let us save ourselves!" and, turning his
+horse's head, he fled with ten or twelve of his immediate attendants.</p>
+
+<p>It was now half-past nine at night, and the moon rose with more than
+ordinary splendor. The French, now a mass of fugitives, were closely
+pursued by both armies, and a fearful slaughter ensued between
+Waterloo and Genappe. At the latter place the British discontinued the
+pursuit; but the Prussians, comparatively fresh, pursued without
+intermission; their light-horse putting no limit to their revenge.
+Many of the poor fugitives sought shelter in the villages on their
+route; but at the sound of a Prussian trumpet they fled again, only to
+be overtaken and cut down.</p>
+
+<p>Wellington re-crossed the field of Waterloo to sup at Brussels. The
+moonlight revealed all the horrors of the scene&mdash;his stern nature gave
+way&mdash;and, bursting into tears, he exclaimed, "I have never fought such
+a battle, and I hope never to fight such another."</p>
+
+<p>He never did. Waterloo was his last battle, though he lived for nearly
+forty years afterward, a leader in English politics, and died in 1852,
+a national hero, a worthy twin figure to the immortal Nelson.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page279" name="page279"></a>(p. 279)</span> LORD HORATIO NELSON<br>
+(1758-1805)</h3>
+
+<a id="img023" name="img023"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="250" height="308" alt="Lord Nelson." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Horatio Nelson was born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, September 29,
+1758. His father, the rector of that parish, was burdened with a
+numerous family; and it is said to have been more with a view to
+lighten that burden than from predilection for the service, that at
+the age of twelve he expressed a wish to go to sea, under the care of
+his uncle, Captain Suckling. Of his early adventures it is unnecessary
+to speak in detail. In 1773 he served in Captain Phipps's voyage of
+discovery in the Northern Polar seas. His next station was the East
+Indies; from which, at the end of eighteen months, he was compelled to
+return by a very severe and dangerous illness. In April, 1777, he
+passed his examination, and was immediately commissioned as second
+lieutenant of the Lowestoffe frigate, then fitting out for Jamaica.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunate in conciliating the good-will and esteem of those with whom
+he served, he passed rapidly through the lower ranks of his
+profession, and was made post-captain, with the command of the
+Hinchinbrook, of twenty-eight guns, June 11, 1779, when not yet of
+age. In 1782 he was appointed to the Albemarle, twenty-eight; and in
+1784 to the Boreas, twenty-eight, in which he served for three years
+in the West Indies, and though in time of peace, gave signal proof of
+his resolution and strict sense of duty, by being the first to insist
+on the exclusion of the Americans from direct trade with the British
+colonies, agreeably to the terms of the Navigation Act. He had no
+small difficulties to contend with; for the planters and the colonial
+authorities were united against him, and even the admiral on the
+station coincided with their views, and gave orders that the Americans
+should be allowed free access to the islands. Still Nelson persevered.
+Transmitting a respectful remonstrance to the admiral, he seized four
+of the American ships, and after a long and tedious process at law, in
+which he incurred much anxiety and expense, he succeeded in procuring
+their condemnation by the Admiralty Court. Neither his services in
+this matter, nor his efforts to expose and remedy the peculations and
+dishonesty of the government agents, in almost all matters connected
+with naval affairs in the West Indies, were duly acknowledged by the
+Government at home; and in moments of spleen when <span class="pagenum"><a id="page280" name="page280"></a>(p. 280)</span> suffering
+under inconveniences which a conscientious discharge of his duty had
+brought on him, he talked of quitting the service of an ungrateful
+country. In March, 1787, he married Mrs. Nisbet, a West-Indian lady,
+and in the same year returned to England. He continued unemployed till
+January, 1793; when, on the breaking out of the French wars, he was
+appointed to the Agamemnon, sixty-four, and ordered to serve in the
+Mediterranean under the command of Lord Hood.</p>
+
+<p>An ample field for action was now open to him. Lord Hood, who had
+known him in the West Indies, and appreciated his merits, employed him
+to co-operate with Paoli in delivering Corsica from its subjection to
+France; and most laboriously and ably did he perform the duty
+intrusted to him. The siege and capture of Bastia was entirely owing
+to his efforts; and at the siege of Calvi, during which he lost an
+eye, and throughout the train of successes which brought about the
+temporary annexation of Corsica to the British crown, his services,
+and those of the brave crew of the Agamemnon, were conspicuous. In
+1795 Nelson was selected to co-operate with the Austrian and Sardinian
+troops in opposing the progress of the French in the north of Italy.
+The incapacity, if not dishonesty, and the bad success of those with
+whom he had to act, rendered this service irksome and inglorious; and
+his mortification was heightened when orders were sent out to withdraw
+the fleet from the Mediterranean, and evacuate Corsica and Elba. These
+reverses, however, were the prelude to a day of glory. On February 13,
+1797, the British fleet, commanded by Sir John Jervis, fell in with
+the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. In the battle which ensued,
+Nelson, who had been raised to the rank of Commodore, and removed to
+the Captain, seventy-four, bore a most distinguished part.
+Apprehensive lest the enemy might be enabled to escape without
+fighting, he did not hesitate to disobey signals, and executed a
+man&oelig;uvre which brought the Captain into close action at once with
+three first-rates, an eighty, and two seventy-four gun ships. Captain
+Trowbridge, in the Culloden, immediately came to his support, and they
+maintained the contest for near an hour against this immense disparity
+of force. One first-rate and one seventy-four dropped astern disabled;
+but the Culloden was also crippled, and the Captain was fired on by
+five ships of the line at once; when Captain Collingwood, in the
+Excellent, came up and engaged the huge Santissima Trinidad, of one
+hundred and thirty-six guns. By this time the Captain's rigging was
+all shot away; and she lay unmanageable abreast of the eighty-gun
+ship, the San Nicolas. Nelson seized the opportunity to board, and was
+himself among the first to enter the Spanish ship. She struck after a
+short struggle; and, sending for fresh men, he led the way from his
+prize to board the San Josef, of one hundred and twelve guns,
+exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey or victory." The ships immediately
+surrendered. Nelson received the most lively and public thanks for his
+services from the admiral, who was raised to the peerage by the title
+of Earl St. Vincent. Nelson received the Order of the Bath; he had
+already been made Rear-Admiral, before tidings of the battle reached
+England.</p>
+
+<p>During the spring, Sir Horatio Nelson commanded the inner squadron
+employed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page281" name="page281"></a>(p. 281)</span> in the blockade of Cadiz. He was afterward
+despatched on an expedition against Teneriffe, which was defeated with
+considerable loss to the assailants. The admiral himself lost his
+right arm, and was obliged to return to England, where he languished
+more than four months before the cure of his wound was completed. His
+services were rewarded by a pension of £1,000. On this occasion he was
+required by official forms to present a memorial of the services in
+which he had been engaged; and as our brief account can convey no
+notion of the constant activity of his early life, we quote the
+abstract of this paper given by Mr. Southey. "It stated that he had
+been in four actions with the fleets of the enemy, and in three
+actions with boats employed in cutting out of harbor, in destroying
+vessels, and in taking three towns; he had served on shore with the
+army four months, and commanded the batteries at the sieges of Bastia
+and Calvi; he had assisted at the capture of seven sail of the line,
+six frigates, four corvettes, and eleven privateers; taken and
+destroyed near fifty sail of merchant vessels, and actually been
+engaged against the enemy upward of a hundred and twenty times; in
+which service he had lost his right eye and right arm, and been
+severely wounded and bruised in his body."</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1798 Nelson went out in the Vanguard to rejoin Lord St.
+Vincent off Cadiz. He was immediately despatched with a squadron, into
+the Mediterranean, to watch an armament known to be fitting out at
+Toulon, the destination of which excited much anxiety. It sailed May
+20th, attacked and took Malta, and then proceeded, as Nelson supposed,
+to Egypt. Strengthened by a powerful reinforcement, he made all sail
+for Alexandria; but there no enemy had been seen or heard of. He
+returned in haste along the north coast of the Mediterranean to
+Sicily, refreshed the fleet, and again sailed to the eastward. On
+nearing Alexandria the second time, August 1st, he had the pleasure of
+seeing the object of his toilsome cruise moored in Aboukir Bay, in
+line of battle. It appeared afterward that the two fleets must have
+crossed each other on the night of June 22d.</p>
+
+<p>The French fleet consisted of thirteen ships of the line and four
+frigates; the British of the same number of ships of the line, and one
+fifty-gun ship. In number of guns and men the French had a decided
+superiority. It was evening before the British fleet came up. The
+battle began at half-past six; night closed in at seven, and the
+struggle was continued through the darkness&mdash;a magnificent and awful
+spectacle to thousands who watched the engagement with eager anxiety.
+Victory was not long doubtful. The first two ships of the French line
+were dismasted in a quarter of an hour; the third, fourth, and fifth
+were taken by half-past eight; about ten, the L'Orient, Admiral
+Bruey's flag-ship, blew up. By daybreak the two rear ships, which had
+not been engaged, cut their cables and stood out to sea, in company
+with two frigates, leaving nine ships of the line in the hands of the
+British, who were too much crippled to engage in pursuit. Two ships of
+the line and two frigates were burnt or sunk. Three out of the four
+ships which escaped were subsequently taken; and thus, of the whole
+armament, only a single frigate returned to France.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page282" name="page282"></a>(p. 282)</span> This victory, the most complete and most important then known
+in naval warfare, raised Nelson to the summit of glory, and presents
+and honors were showered on him from all quarters. The gratitude of
+his country was expressed, inadequately in comparison with the rewards
+bestowed on others for less important services, by raising him to the
+peerage, by the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, with a pension of
+£2,000. The Court of Naples, to which the battle of Aboukir was as a
+reprieve from destruction, testified a due sense of its obligation by
+bestowing on him the dukedom and domain of Bronte, in Sicily.</p>
+
+<p>The autumn of 1798, the whole of 1799, and part of 1800, Nelson spent
+in the Mediterranean, employed in the recovery of Malta, in protecting
+Sicily, and in co-operating to expel the French from the Neapolitan
+continental dominions. In 1800 various causes of discontent led him to
+solicit leave to return to England, where he was received with the
+enthusiasm due to his services.</p>
+
+<p>Soon afterward he separated himself formally from Lady Nelson. In
+March, 1801, he sailed as second in command of the expedition against
+Copenhagen, led by Sir Hyde Parker. The dilatoriness with which it was
+conducted increased the difficulties of this enterprise, and might
+have caused it to fail, had not Nelson's energy and talent been at
+hand to overcome the obstacles occasioned by this delay. The attack
+was intrusted to him by Sir Hyde Parker, and executed April 2d, with
+his usual promptitude and success. After a fierce engagement, with
+great slaughter on both sides, the greater part of the Danish line of
+defence was captured or silenced. Nelson then sent a flag of truce on
+shore, and an armistice was concluded. He bore honorable testimony to
+the gallantry of his opponents. "The French," he said, "fought
+bravely, but they could not have supported for one hour the fight
+which the Danes had supported for four." May 5th Sir Hyde Parker was
+recalled, and Nelson appointed Commander-in-chief; but no further
+hostilities occurred, and suffering greatly from the climate, he
+almost immediately returned home. For this battle he was raised to the
+rank of Viscount.</p>
+
+<p>At this time much alarm prevailed with respect to the meditated
+invasion of England; and the command of the coast from Orfordness to
+Beachy Head was offered to him, and accepted. But he thought the alarm
+idle; he felt the service to be irksome; and gladly retired from it at
+the peace of Amiens. When war was renewed in 1803, he took the command
+of the Mediterranean fleet. For more than a year he kept his station
+off Toulon, eagerly watching for the French fleet. In January, 1805,
+it put to sea, and escaped the observation of his lookout ships. He
+made for Egypt, and failing to meet with them, returned to Malta,
+where he found information that they had been dispersed in a gale, and
+forced to put back to Toulon. Villeneuve put to sea again, March 31st,
+formed a junction with the Spanish fleet in Cadiz, and sailed for the
+West Indies. Thither Nelson followed him, after considerable delay for
+want of information and from contrary winds; but the enemy still
+eluded his pursuit, and he was obliged to retrace his anxious course
+to Europe, without the longed-for meeting, and with no other
+satisfaction than that of having frustrated by his diligence their
+designs on the English colonies. June 20, 1805, he landed at
+Gibraltar, that being the first <span class="pagenum"><a id="page283" name="page283"></a>(p. 283)</span> time that he had set foot
+ashore since June 16, 1803. After cruising in search of the enemy till
+the middle of August, he was ordered to Portsmouth, where he learned
+that an indecisive action had taken place between the combined fleets
+returning from the West Indies, and the British under Sir Robert
+Calder.</p>
+
+<a id="img024" name="img024"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="400" height="520" alt="" title="">
+<p>Nelson at Trafalgar.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He had not been many days established at home before certain news
+arrived that the French and Spanish fleets had entered Cadiz. Eager to
+gain the reward of his long watchings, and laborious pursuit, he again
+offered his services, which were gladly accepted. He embarked at
+Portsmouth, September 14, 1805, on board the Victory, to take the
+command of the fleet lying off Cadiz, under Admiral Collingwood, his
+early friend and companion in the race of fame. The last battle in
+which Nelson was engaged was fought off Cape Trafalgar, October 21,
+1805. The enemy were superior in number of ships, and still more in
+size and weight of metal. Nelson bore down on them in two lines,
+heading one himself, while Collingwood, in the Royal Sovereign, led
+the other, which first entered into action. "See," cried Nelson, as
+the Royal Sovereign cut through the centre of the enemy's line, and
+muzzle to muzzle engaged a three-decker, "see how that noble fellow
+Collingwood carries his ships into action." Collingwood, on the other
+hand, said to his captain, "Rotherham, what would Nelson give to be
+here?" As the Victory approached an incessant raking fire was directed
+against her, by which fifty of her men were killed and wounded before
+a single gun was returned. Nelson steered for his old opponent at Cape
+St. Vincent, the Santissima Trinidad, distinguished by her size, and
+opened his fire at four minutes after twelve, engaging the Redoubtable
+with his starboard, the Santissima Trinidad and Bucentaur with his
+larboard guns.</p>
+
+<p>About a quarter past one, a musket-ball, fired from the mizzen-top of
+the Redoubtable, struck him on the left shoulder, and he fell. From
+the first he felt the wound to be mortal. He suffered intense pain,
+yet still preserved the liveliest interest in the fate of the action;
+and the joy visible in his countenance as often as the hurrahs of the
+crew announced that an enemy had struck, testified how near his heart,
+even in the agonies of death, was the accomplishment of the great work
+to which his life had been devoted. He lived to know that his victory
+was complete and glorious, and expired tranquilly at half-past four.
+His last words were, "Thank God, I have done my duty."</p>
+
+<p>He had indeed done his duty, and completed his task; for thenceforth
+no hostile fleet presumed to contest the dominion of the sea. It may
+seem mournful that he did not survive to enjoy the thanks and honors
+with which a grateful country would have rejoiced to recompense this
+crowning triumph. But he had reached the pinnacle of fame; and his
+death in the hour of victory has tended far more than a few years of
+peaceful life, to keep alive his memory in the hearts of a people
+which loved, and a navy which adored him.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page284" name="page284"></a>(p. 284)</span> ISRAEL PUTNAM<br>
+(1718-1790)</h3>
+
+<a id="img025" name="img025"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="300" height="241" alt="Men searching in rocks." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Israel Putnam, the redoubtable hero of Indian and French adventure in
+the old colonial wars, the survivor of many a revolutionary fight, was
+born at Salem, Mass., January 7, 1718. His grandfather, from the south
+of England, was one of the first settlers of the place. The boy was
+brought up with his father on the farm. He had little education in
+literature; much in the development of a hardy, vigorous constitution,
+in his contest with the soil and the actual world about him. He was
+fond of athletic exercises, an adept in running and wrestling, in
+which he proved himself more than a match for his village companions.
+The story is told of his being insulted for his rusticity, on his
+first visit to Boston, by a youth of twice his size, when he taught
+the citizen better manners by a sound flogging.</p>
+
+<p>Before he was of age, he was married to the daughter of John Pope, of
+Salem, and presently removed with his wife to a farm in the town of
+Pomfret, in Eastern Connecticut. His rugged powers were, no doubt,
+sufficiently taxed in the ordinary labors of the field. In those days
+the farmer had enemies to encounter, which have since vanished from
+the land.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known fable of Æsop, of the boy and the wolf, had then a
+literal application. Every child in the days of our fathers knew the
+story of Putnam, and the she-wolf which he dragged from its den. This
+and similar tales go far to make up the popular reputation of the
+hero, and it was as a man of the people that Putnam first appears upon
+the public scene.</p>
+
+<p>On the breaking out of the old French war, as it was termed, at the
+age of thirty-seven, he drew together a band of his neighbors and
+reported himself with the Connecticut contingent before Crown Point.
+He appears to have been employed in this service under Major Rogers,
+the celebrated partisan "ranger," whose life he is said to have saved
+in an encounter with a stalwart Frenchman. Putnam conducted himself as
+a man of resources and valor in this mixed species of warfare, in
+achieving a reputation which brought him, in 1757, the commission of a
+major from the Connecticut Legislature. It was the year of the
+memorable massacre of Fort William Henry. Putnam was with the forces
+whose head-quarters were at the neighboring Fort Edward, under command
+of General Webb, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page285" name="page285"></a>(p. 285)</span> made several vigorous attempts to
+assist in the support of the beleaguered fortress, but his efforts
+were not seconded by the commander, who ungenerously left the fort a
+prey to Montcalm and the Indians. These adventures of Putnam displayed
+his personal courage, in approaching the enemy on Lake George, and
+subsequently in command of his Rangers in rescuing a party of his
+fellow-soldiers from an Indian ambuscade at Fort Edward.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1758 saw Major Putnam again in the field, under the command
+of Abercrombie, at the scene of his former labors, in the vicinity of
+Lake George. In the early movements of the campaign, Putnam
+distinguished himself in an ambuscade, by a destructive night attack
+upon a party of the enemy at Wood Creek. When the main line advanced
+toward Ticonderoga, he was, with the lamented Lord Howe, in the front
+of the centre, when that much-loved officer was slain upon the march.
+It was the first meeting, after landing from Lake George, with the
+advance of the French troops. There was some skirmishing, which
+attracted the attention of the officers. Putnam advanced to the spot,
+accompanied, contrary to his dissuasions, by Lord Howe, who fell at
+the first fire. The party of Putnam, enraged by this disaster, fought
+with gallantry, and inflicted a heavy loss upon their opponents. The
+result of this miserably conducted expedition, however, made no amends
+for the loss of the gallant Howe. Two thousand men were blunderingly
+sacrificed before Ticonderoga, and the threatened siege was abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The life of Putnam is full of perilous encounters incident to border
+service against the Indians. In one of these he narrowly avoided
+capture by the savages on the Hudson, near Fort Miller. He escaped
+only by shooting the rapids with his boat, a marvellous adventure,
+which is said to have wakened a superstitious veneration for him in
+the minds of his Indian assailants.</p>
+
+<p>Not long afterward, however, the barbarians had an opportunity of
+treating him with less respect. It was in the month of August of this
+year that he was engaged with a reconnoitring party in company with
+the partisan Rogers, near Ticonderoga. They had been employed in
+watching the movements of the enemy, and were on their return to Fort
+Edward when the attention of the French partisan officer, Molang, who
+was on the lookout, was attracted to them by a careless shooting-match
+between Rogers and a fellow British officer. A confused hand-to-hand
+action ensued in the woods, in the course of which Putnam, his gun
+missing fire, "while the muzzle was pressed against the breast of a
+large and well-proportioned savage," was captured and bound to a tree
+by that formidable personage. The English party now rallying, drove
+their pursuers backward, which brought the unfortunate Putnam to a
+central position between two fires. "Human imagination," well says
+Colonel Humphreys, "can hardly figure to itself a more deplorable
+situation." Putnam remained more than an hour deprived of all power
+save that of hearing and vision, as the musket-balls whizzed by his
+ears and a ruthless savage aimed his tomahawk repeatedly, with the
+infernal dexterity of a Chinese juggler, within a hair's breadth of
+his person. This amusement was succeeded by the attempt of a French
+petty-officer to put <span class="pagenum"><a id="page286" name="page286"></a>(p. 286)</span> an end to his life by discharging his
+musket against his breast. It happily missed fire. The action was now
+brought to an end in favor of the Provincials; but Putnam was carried
+off in the retreat by his Indian captor. He was now destined to
+witness one of those scenes, since so well described by Cooper, of the
+peculiar tortures inflicted by the Indians upon their prisoners in
+war; but unhappily with less complacent feelings than the reader of
+the skilful novelist experiences, whose terrors are tempered by the
+delightful art of the narrator. With Putnam the spectator and the
+sufferer were the same. He has been bound on the march with
+intolerable thongs, he has almost perished under his burdens, he has
+been tomahawked in the face; he is now to be roasted alive. A dark
+forest is selected for the sacrifice; stripped naked, he is bound to a
+tree, and the inflammable brushwood piled around him. Savage voices
+sound his death-knell. Fire is applied, when a sudden shower dampens
+the flame, to burst forth again with renewed strength. Though securely
+fastened, the limbs of the victim are left some liberty to shrink from
+the accursed heat. He has thought his last thought of home, of wife
+and children, when the desperate French partisan, Molang, the
+commander of the savage hordes, hearing of the act, rushes upon the
+scene and rescues him from his tormentors. Putnam is now restored to
+the guardianship of the Indian chief by whom he had been captured, and
+from whom he was separated during these hours of agony, when he had
+fallen into the hands of the baser fellows of the tribe. The party now
+reach Ticonderoga, where Putnam is delivered to Montcalm, and thence
+courteously conducted by a French officer to Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>There he found himself within reach of a benevolent American officer,
+then a prisoner in the city, Colonel Peter Schuyler, who generously
+ministered to his necessities, and who was instrumental in procuring
+his release from the French commander, when he himself was exchanged
+after the capture of Frontenac. Putnam, on his return home, gallantly
+conducted through the wilderness the sorely tried Mrs. Howe and her
+children, whose adventures in Indian captivity and among the French,
+equal the inventive pages of romance.</p>
+
+<p>The next year, in Amherst's great campaign, Putnam returned to
+Montreal under better auspices. He was with that commander in his
+onward movement, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and rendered
+efficient service in the passage down the St. Lawrence, by his bravery
+and ingenuity. When the fort of Oswegatchie was to be attacked, and
+two armed vessels were in the way, he proposed to silence the latter
+by driving wedges to hinder the movement of their rudders, and to
+cross the abatis of the fortification by an attack from boats, armed
+with long planks, which were to be let down when the vessels,
+protected by fascines, were placed alongside of the work. A timely
+surrender anticipated both of these expedients. The dying Wolfe had
+conquered Canada at Quebec, making victory easy elsewhere in the
+province. Montreal surrendered to the allied forces without a blow.
+Putnam, it is recorded, availed himself of the opportunity to look up
+the Indian chief who had taken him prisoner, and exchange civilities
+and hospitalities, now that the tables were turned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page287" name="page287"></a>(p. 287)</span> We next find Putnam in charge of a Connecticut regiment, in a
+novel field of warfare, on the coast of Cuba, in Lord Albemarle's
+attack upon Havana, in 1762. He was in considerable danger in a storm,
+when the transport in which he embarked with his men was wrecked on a
+reef of the island; a landing was effected by rafts, and a fortified
+camp established on the shore. He was again fortunate in escaping the
+dangers of a climate so fatal to his countrymen. On his return home,
+he was engaged in service against the Indians, with the title of
+colonel. The war being now over, he retired to his farm, which he
+continued to cultivate till he was again called into the field by the
+stirring summons of Lexington.</p>
+
+<p>In the preliminary scenes of the war, he fairly represented the
+feeling of the mass of his countrymen, as it was excited by the
+successive acts of parliamentary aggression. As a soldier of the old
+French war, he had learned the weakness of British officers in
+America, and the strength of a hardy, patriotic peasantry. "If," he
+said, "it required six years for the combined forces of England and
+her colonies to conquer such a feeble colony as Canada, it would, at
+least, take a very long time for England alone to overcome her own
+widely extended colonies, which were much stronger." Another anecdote
+is characteristic of the blunt farmer. Being once asked whether he did
+not seriously believe "that a well-appointed British army of five
+thousand veterans could march through the whole continent of America,"
+he replied, "no doubt, if they behaved civilly, and paid well for
+everything they wanted; but&mdash;if they should attempt it in a hostile
+manner, though the American men were out of the question, the women,
+with their ladles and broomsticks, would knock them all on the head
+before they had got half way through."</p>
+
+<p>The news of Lexington&mdash;the war message&mdash;transmitted from hand to hand
+till village repeated it to village, the sea to the backwoods, "found
+the farmer of Pomfret, two days after the conflict, like Cincinnatus,
+literally at the plough." He unyoked his team and hastened in his rude
+dress to the camp. Summoning the forces of Connecticut, he was placed
+at their head, with the rank of Major-General, and stood ready at
+Cambridge for the bloody day of Bunker's Hill. He was in service in
+May, in the spirited affair checking the British supplies from
+Noddle's Island, in Boston Harbor, and resolutely counselled the
+occupation of the heights of Charlestown. When the company of Prescott
+went forth on the night of June 16th, to their gallant work, he was
+with them, taking no active command, but assisting where opportunity
+served. He was seen in different parts of the field, but his chief
+exertions appear to have been expended upon the attempted
+fortification of Bunker's Hill, where he met the fugitives in the
+retreat, and conducted "such of them as would obey him," says
+Bancroft, to the night's encampment at Prospect Hill.</p>
+
+<p>Putnam's was one of the first Congressional appointments, ten days
+before the battle, when the rank of Major-General was conferred upon
+him. He continued to serve at the siege of Boston, and when the
+theatre of operations was changed by the departure of the British to
+New York, was placed by Washington, in 1776, in command in that city
+until his own arrival. He employed himself <span class="pagenum"><a id="page288" name="page288"></a>(p. 288)</span> during this short
+period, with several devices for the safety of the harbor. In August,
+on the landing of Howe, he was, upon the sudden illness of Greene, who
+had directed the fortifications, and after the arrival of the British,
+left in command at the battle of Long Island, and much censure has
+been thrown upon him for the neglect of the passes by which the
+American left was turned. In the actual combat there appears to have
+been a divided authority.</p>
+
+<p>The abandonment of New York next followed, with the retreat to
+Westchester and the passage through the Jerseys. Putnam was then, in
+January, 1777, ordered to Philadelphia to make provision for its
+defence. In May, he was put in command of the post at the Highlands,
+to secure its defences, and observe, from that central position, the
+movements of the enemy. In the summer of this year, Sir Henry Clinton,
+at New York, sent up the river a flag of truce to claim one Edmund
+Palmer, who had been taken in the American camp, as a lieutenant in
+the British service. This drew forth from Putnam a reply which has
+been often quoted:</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+
+<p class="right">
+  "<span class="smcap">Headquarters</span>, August 7, 1777.</p>
+
+<p>"Edmund Palmer, an officer in the enemy's service, was taken as a spy
+lurking within our lines; he has been tried as a spy, condemned as a
+spy, and shall be executed as a spy, and the flag is ordered to depart
+immediately.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  "<span class="smcap">Israel Putnam.</span></p>
+
+<p>"P.S.&mdash;He has been accordingly executed."</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In September, a portion of Putnam's command was withdrawn by
+Washington for the support of the army in Pennsylvania, by a
+peremptory order which, it is said, put an end to a plan formed by
+Putnam for a separate attack on the enemy at New York. Forts
+Montgomery and Clinton, at the entrance to the Highlands, fell into
+the hands of Clinton by a surprise shortly after, but the conquest of
+this important position was neutralized by the victory of Gates, at
+Saratoga. The British remained at Fort Montgomery but twenty days.
+Putnam seems still to have entertained some project in connection with
+New York, which led him to withhold troops called for by the imperious
+necessities of Washington. The neglect of these orders brought a
+pointed letter from Hamilton, and an equally significant rebuke from
+Washington himself. In the following spring, Putnam was relieved of
+his command in the Highlands by the appointment of General McDougal to
+the post, and was ordered to Connecticut to superintend the raising of
+the new levies. He was stationed the following winter at Danbury, when
+the famous descent of the precipice at Horse Neck occurred, one of the
+latest marvels of Putnam's anecdotical career. While he was on a visit
+to one of his outposts at Horse Neck, Governor Tryon of New York,
+advanced upon the place with a considerable body of troops. Putnam
+planted his small force on the hill, but was speedily compelled to
+provide for the safety of his men by a retreat, and for his own, by
+plunging down a formidable rocky steep by the roadside.</p>
+
+<p>In 1779, he was again in the Highlands, superintending the defences
+then <span class="pagenum"><a id="page289" name="page289"></a>(p. 289)</span> erected at West Point, one of which, the fort now in
+ruins, bore his name. In the winter, he visited his family in
+Connecticut, and as he was returning to the army, at Morristown, was
+struck with paralysis. His right side was enfeebled, and his active
+career ceased, though he enjoyed the cheerful, tranquil pursuits of
+age. His memory remained unimpaired. One of his amusements was to
+relate to his friend and military companion, Colonel Humphreys, those
+events of his varied life, which that officer wrought into the
+pleasing narrative appropriately addressed to the State Society of the
+Cincinnati in Connecticut, and published by their order. The
+dedication of the work to Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth, bears date June
+4, 1788, about two years before the decease of the hero of the story.
+General Putnam died at Brookline, Conn., May 29, 1790, in his
+seventy-third year.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ANTHONY WAYNE<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4" title="Go to footnote 4"><span class="small">[4]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">O. C. Bosbyshell</span><br>
+(1745-1796)</h3>
+
+<a id="img026" name="img026"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="250" height="268" alt="Anthony Wayne." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Across the pages of history recording mighty conflicts that rock
+nations and governments to their foundations, flash certain grand
+characters whose career adds a charm to the dreary and often prosaic
+narrative. Some bright particular star, whose lustre flings romance
+over dry facts, firing the hearts of all patriots with enthusiasm and
+national fervor. Honoring the great commanders of the wars of the ages
+for their noble deeds, here and there sparkles out the brilliant
+genius of a warrior with less responsibility, but whose name inspires
+the ardor of men, the love of women, and the fervor of the poet and
+novelist. Such a character, such a man, was "Mad" Anthony Wayne, an
+able, fearless soldier of the American Revolution, so thoroughly
+patriotic such an earnest, honest believer in the righteous cause for
+which he fought, that he was mad indeed with all found arrayed against
+the interests of the Colonists, or with those who, having donned the
+Continental uniform, were indisposed to fight.</p>
+
+<p>Anthony Wayne was born in Waynesborough, Easttown Township, Chester
+County, Penn., on January 1, 1745. He sprang from good English stock.
+His grandfather resided in Yorkshire, England, but during the reign of
+Charles II. purchased an estate in the County Wicklow, Ireland, and
+settled on it. Being a thorough <span class="pagenum"><a id="page290" name="page290"></a>(p. 290)</span> Protestant he espoused the
+cause of King William III., and in the service of that monarch fought
+in the Battle of the Boyne, as a captain of dragoons. In 1722 he came
+to America with his four sons, and procured some one thousand six
+hundred acres of land in Chester County, Penn., upon which he settled
+in 1724. His youngest son, Isaac, the father of Anthony Wayne,
+received as his share of his father's estate five hundred acres of
+land near Paoli. Born and brought up amid the charming surroundings of
+this most beautiful country, it is easily understood why Anthony Wayne
+became so thoroughly imbued with tastes for the beautiful. His
+neatness in dress, and earnest advocacy of a brilliant uniform for the
+officers and men of the Revolutionary Army, had its foundation in the
+very atmosphere he lived in, this magnificent Chester Valley. "Dandy"
+Wayne indeed, but only so far as neatness in dress and delicacy of
+taste were concerned, for a nobler-minded, more unselfish patriot
+never entered the army of a nation. Wayne was educated at the
+Philadelphia Academy, and he became a surveyor of some note. He
+attended closely, however, to his magnificent farm, and took a lively
+interest in all affairs affecting his fellow-citizens. In 1765 and 66,
+only just of age, he was sent to Nova Scotia to survey some lands
+belonging to Benjamin Franklin and others.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1766, he married Mary, the daughter of Bartholomew Penrose, a
+Philadelphia merchant, and settled down to the life of a farmer. He
+was a stirring man in his neighborhood, fond of an active and out-door
+life. He was filled with military impulses; his choice of a
+profession, that of surveyor, evidently arose from his taste for
+exploration, and for the excitement incident to plunging into
+trackless wastes of forests and mapping out new boundaries. His love
+of military pursuits led him to study all the great works on the art
+of war, and when the time came he was prepared, as few soldiers of the
+revolution were, for the conflict with the trained soldiers of Great
+Britain. He formed companies with the men in his neighborhood, and
+drilled them assiduously. This gave him prominence and popularity, so
+that he is found a member of the Pennsylvania Legislature in 1774-75.
+Wayne seemed to have prescience of what was coming, and when the
+conflict came he was ready. In September, 1775, he raised a regiment
+of soldiers, of which he became the colonel in the January following,
+and joined General Sullivan's command in Canada in the spring of 1776.
+At the battle of Three Rivers, May, 1776, Wayne displayed remarkable
+military knowledge, and was enabled to extricate his command from
+difficulties that seemed almost insurmountable. In a letter to Dr.
+Franklin and others he gives a graphic description of this engagement.
+Of his men engaged he says, "I have lost more than the one-quarter
+part, together with a slight touch in my right leg, which is partly
+well already." This was Wayne's first battle. He displayed such
+remarkable coolness and excellent judgment throughout this engagement,
+as to command the respect and admiration of all in the army; his
+entire career during this unfortunate Canadian campaign exhibited
+clearly his soldierly qualifications. Recognizing these, General
+Schuyler, in November, 1776, appointed Colonel Wayne to the command of
+Fort Ticonderoga and Mt. Independence, which military post Wayne
+considered the second <span class="pagenum"><a id="page291" name="page291"></a>(p. 291)</span> most important in the country. While
+stationed here, Wayne busied his men in rendering the place as nearly
+impregnable as possible, and by warm, fervid letters implored the
+"powers that be" in Pennsylvania, to send proper clothing, food, and
+arms to the men of that State serving in his army. So negligent did
+the State seem to the needs of its men, that this warm-hearted,
+high-spirited warrior, seriously thought of resigning his commission,
+being unable to longer witness the impoverished condition of his
+troops.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Wayne was appointed Brigadier General in February, 1777, and
+ordered to join General Washington's army at Morristown, N. J., in
+April of the same year. He was given command of the "Pennsylvania
+Line" consisting of two brigades of four regiments each, with a total
+strength of about 1,700 men. His activity and alertness during the
+summer, in harassing and annoying the enemy, went far toward ridding
+the State of that enemy, and gained for him the praise of Washington,
+who publicly acknowledged his "bravery and good conduct." The British,
+unable to force their way through New Jersey, determined to go around
+by sea to Philadelphia, and after embarking at Staten Island were next
+heard from within the Chesapeake Bay. Washington moved his army to
+Wilmington, Wayne having been sent ahead to organize the militia
+rendezvousing in Chester County, Penn. He rejoined the army at
+Germantown and marched with it to Wilmington.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of Brandywine, September 11, 1777, Wayne was
+particularly distinguished. He occupied the left of the American line
+at Chad's Ford, and had opposed to his forces, the Hessians commanded
+by Baron von Knyphausen. He fought all day, holding his ground
+tenaciously, repelling every effort made by the enemy to cross the
+ford and worrying them by repeated attacks of his light infantry,
+which he frequently sent over the creek for the purpose. The right
+wing of the enemy having been turned, Wayne, at sunset, retreated in
+good order, without the loss of any artillery or stores. On the
+evening of September 20th, Wayne, with a detachment of twelve hundred
+men, was suddenly and impetuously attacked at Paoli Tavern by a very
+large force of the rear guard of the British army, which rear guard he
+had been sent to annoy. By the betrayal of Tory spies at the time of
+the attack, the forces "were not more than ten yards distant."
+Notwithstanding the impetuosity of the attack, by largely overwhelming
+numbers, Wayne succeeded in extricating his command without loss of
+artillery, ammunition, or stores. Some sixty-one Americans were
+killed. A court of inquiry was instituted to inquire into Wayne's
+conduct of this affair, which resulted so distastefully to him that he
+demanded a court martial. This court acquitted "him with the highest
+honors," a conclusion approved by General Washington.</p>
+
+<p>Wayne's residence was searched by the British immediately after the
+Paoli fight, with the hope of capturing the general. The officer, in
+his zeal, ripped open a feather-bed with his sword. Mrs. Wayne
+indignantly exclaimed, "Did you expect to find General Wayne in a
+feather-bed? Look where the fight is the thickest!"</p>
+
+<p>Wayne led the right wing at the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777,
+and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page292" name="page292"></a>(p. 292)</span> forced the enemy back a distance of two miles. The
+British claim that "this was the first time we had ever retreated from
+the Americans." The balance of the army, failing to accomplish the end
+desired, Wayne was compelled to retreat, but this he did in good
+order, and when General Howe, who "could not persuade himself that we
+had run from victory," as Wayne puts it, followed the Americans, Wayne
+drew up in line. "When he advanced near we gave him a few cannon shot
+with some musketry&mdash;which caused him to break and run with the utmost
+confusion." Wayne lost a horse in this engagement, and received slight
+wounds in the hand and foot. The memorable winter at Valley Forge
+followed. General Wayne, ever active, devoted his time to procuring
+necessary supplies for the army. His earnest appeals to the State
+authorities and men of influence, for the welfare of the brave men at
+Valley Forge, tell a tale of suffering and endurance hard to realize.
+Early in the spring of 1778 he successfully raided the British lines,
+carrying off horses, cattle, forage, and other supplies. After the
+evacuation of Philadelphia, Wayne kept up a constant annoyance around
+the rear of the British army, fighting whenever the opportunity came.</p>
+
+<p>The American army re-entered New Jersey in June, 1778, and moved
+across that State in a line parallel with the route taken by the
+British army. These lines encountered each other on June 28th, at
+Monmouth; an engagement fought, in the main, on a plan suggested to
+General Washington by General Wayne. General Charles Lee's
+half-hearted action, to call it no more severe name, resulted in the
+battle of Monmouth being less of a disaster to the British army than
+it promised. Wayne did his part gloriously. Lee, who with his own
+command was in full retreat when he should have earnestly supported
+Wayne, ordered Wayne to retire. This the latter did, chagrined and
+mortified, until the mortification was turned into delight upon
+meeting the Commander-in-Chief, who immediately ordered Wayne to
+advance to the attack again. This was just what Wayne wanted, and with
+three Pennsylvania regiments, one from Maryland, and one from
+Virginia, he stayed the assaults of the flower of the English army,
+the <span class="italic">corps d'élite</span>, and successfully held his line, causing the enemy
+to retire with great loss. General Washington commended General Wayne
+in the highest terms for his "good conduct and bravery through the
+whole action." Writing of this engagement to the Secretary of War,
+Wayne says, "Tell the Phila ladies that the heavenly, sweet, pretty
+red coats&mdash;the accomplished Gent-n of the Guards and Grenadiers have
+humbled themselves on the plains of Monmouth."</p>
+
+<p>The enemy retreated to New York and remained in that city the balance
+of the year. Wayne occupied the time in urging active operations and
+trying to infuse a more aggressive spirit into the management of
+affairs. At this time public affairs were very much hampered by a
+feeling of indifference as well as an illusive notion that peace would
+soon follow. This affected the nation and the army. Wayne baffled
+these false ideas with all his powers. He urged the Government to
+forward needed supplies of clothing and food. He could not be
+inactive; fervid, earnest, and aggressive, he must be ever doing. The
+American Army kept a close watch upon the movements of the British in
+New York during the summer <span class="pagenum"><a id="page293" name="page293"></a>(p. 293)</span> and fall of 1779. General
+Washington organized a Light Infantry Corps and put General Wayne in
+command. It was considered one of the finest bodies of troops attached
+to the Continental Army, and was composed, besides "the choicest sons
+of Pennsylvania," of two Connecticut and one Virginia regiment. The
+Commander-in-Chief was extremely desirous of driving the British from
+the forts commanding King's Ferry on the Hudson, at Stony Point, on
+the western bank of the river, and at Verplanck's Point, directly
+opposite. This dangerous business was confided to Wayne and his Light
+Infantry Corps, the plan of operations being carefully prepared by
+General Washington. This plan was followed by Wayne, except in one
+particular, which change Washington declared to be an "improvement on
+his own plan." Wayne, after the most careful preparations, moved to
+the assault on Stony Point, a fortification strongly built on a rocky
+eminence, one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, at 12
+o'clock at night, on July 16, 1779. Wayne's report to Washington tells
+the story of the fight most graphically&mdash;he says he "gave the troops
+the most pointed orders not to attempt to fire, but put their whole
+dependence on the Bayonet&mdash;which was most faithfully and Literally
+Observed&mdash;neither the deep Morass, the formidable and double rows of
+abatis or the high and strong works in front and flank could damp the
+ardor of the troops&mdash;who in the face of a most tremendous and
+Incessant fire of Musketry and from Artillery loaded with shells and
+Grape-shot forced their way at the point of the Bayonet thro' every
+Obstacle, both Columns meeting in the Center of the Enemy's works
+nearly at the same Instant." Before entering the fort Wayne was struck
+in the head by a musket-ball; he fell stunned, but soon rallied, and
+by the assistance of two of his aides, was helped into the
+fortification and shared the capture with his troops. The Stony Point
+achievement roused the patriotic spirit of the Americans. It was
+deemed the most brilliant affair of the war. Congratulations from the
+Commander-in-Chief, and all the prominent generals, as well as
+foremost citizens and Assemblies, were heaped upon Wayne, and Congress
+voted him a gold medal to commemorate his gallant conduct, besides
+thanking him "for his brave, prudent, and soldier-like conduct in the
+well-conducted attack on Stony Point."</p>
+
+<p>After the treachery of Arnold, in 1780, the charge of the fort at West
+Point was committed to General Wayne. He marched his division over the
+mountain in a dark night, a distance of sixteen miles, in four hours,
+"without a single halt or a man left behind." In January, 1781, owing
+to the broken promises of Congress, a large number of the men in the
+Pennsylvania line mutinied, an event that threatened serious
+consequences to the American Army. This defection was suppressed
+peaceably, mainly through the excellent tact of General Wayne. He was
+idolized by his soldiers, who knew him as the soul of honor, and who
+placed implicit trust in his statements. Washington in a letter
+certifies to his "great share in preventing worse extremities" and
+thanks him for his exertions. In February, 1781, Wayne was ordered to
+join General Greene's Army, then operating in South Carolina, but upon
+Lord Cornwallis' rapidly transferring his forces to Virginia, this
+order was changed, and Wayne was directed to reinforce <span class="pagenum"><a id="page294" name="page294"></a>(p. 294)</span>
+Lafayette. This he did at Fredericksburg in June. The enemy seemed
+intent upon destroying all military stores they could reach, and for
+this purpose continually sent raiding parties through the State. The
+efforts of Wayne were ever put forth to suppress these raids.
+Believing, on July 6, 1781, that Cornwallis's forces were divided by
+the James River, Wayne was sent forward to attack them at Green
+Springs. He found a great force of the British Army in his front. Too
+late to retreat, Wayne with true soldierly instinct, having faith in
+the courage and discipline of his men, boldly charged a force five
+times as large as his own, threw them into disorder and safely brought
+his men away under cover of the enemy's confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwallis hastened to Yorktown, the investiture and siege of which
+Wayne aided in furthering, first, by occupying the ground south of the
+James River to prevent the enemy's reaching North Carolina; and then
+in opening the first parallel with six regiments on October 6, 1781. A
+few days afterward he, with two battalions, covered the Pennsylvania
+and Maryland troops while they began the second parallel. Wayne, with
+the Pennsylvania regiments, supported the French troops in the attack
+of the 14th, and was present at the surrender on the 19th.
+Notwithstanding a wound in the fleshy part of the leg, early in the
+siege, caused by a sentry mistaking him, Wayne remained active, and
+participated in the glory of the capture of Cornwallis and his army.
+This operation over, Wayne joined the army of General Nathaniel
+Greene, in South Carolina, in January, 1782, and was instrumental in
+quelling the disturbances in that section. A very large force of
+Indians threatened the destruction of his command on the night of June
+23, 1782. These Indians were skilfully handled by a noted Creek Chief,
+as well as by a British officer. They surrounded Wayne's forces and
+held his artillery. Wayne fiercely attacked, using only the bayonet,
+and so impetuous was his onslaught, that he broke the lines of the
+Indians, and routed them completely. The dead body of the Creek
+leader, who, it is said, was felled by Wayne's own sword, was found on
+the ground the next day.</p>
+
+<p>Wayne commanded the forces that took possession of Savannah and
+Charleston, after their evacuation by the British. Having freed the
+South from all marauders, Wayne returned, much shattered in health
+from the effect of a low fever, to his old home in Pennsylvania, and
+settled down to civil life, desiring, as he puts it, "to pass many
+happy hours in domestic felicity with a few of our friends, unfettered
+by any public employ and consequently unenvied." He was, however, made
+a member of the Council of Censors, and in 1784 represented his county
+in the General Assembly of Pennsylvania. He was likewise, in 1787, a
+member of the Convention of the State called to ratify the
+Constitution of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>To better look after an estate given him by the State of Georgia, in
+recognition of the services he rendered that State, Wayne settled
+there, and was elected a member of Congress on January 3, 1791. He
+served from October, 1791, to March, 1792, when, a contest being made,
+Congress decided his election illegal and declared his seat vacant.
+Almost immediately after this action, on April 3, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page295" name="page295"></a>(p. 295)</span> 1792,
+President Washington appointed Wayne Commander-in-Chief of the United
+States Army, with the rank of Major-General; an appointment confirmed
+by the Senate on the same day. No more signal act could have marked
+the approval of Wayne's great services to the nation in the War of the
+Revolution, than this great mark of approbation conferred by his
+illustrious Chief. To him was intrusted the settlement of the
+difficulties then existing with the Indians in the Northwestern
+Territory. These savages, stirred up by the British, armed with
+British guns, and often led by British officers, continued the warfare
+on the Americans after peace had been declared between the contending
+countries. Efforts to subjugate them under Generals Harmar and St.
+Clair had failed.</p>
+
+<p>General Wayne, whose entire life clearly shows a man prepared for what
+may come, wisely drilled the force he collected to undertake this
+work, for a year. He knew the value of a well-drilled and disciplined
+army. Having perfected his troops, he, by easy stages, advanced into
+the disturbed territory, establishing posts at various points, which
+he cleverly fortified, and upon every occasion and opportunity offered
+the savages peace. These offers were as often rejected. From Fort
+Defiance, a fort he built and named, at the junction of the Miami and
+Le Glaize rivers, he, in August, 1794, went down the Miami River, with
+about one thousand men, until he came close to a British post, at the
+foot of the rapids of the river. Here he sent a last overture to the
+Indians, promising peace if they would lay down their arms. Upon their
+rejecting this, he, on August 20th, moved to the head of the rapids,
+and attacked them with such vigor, using again his favorite weapon,
+the bayonet, that their defeat was overwhelming. The entire
+surrounding country was laid waste. The army advanced to the junction
+of the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers, where a strong fort was
+built and named Fort Wayne. The present flourishing city of that name
+in Indiana now stands upon this spot. The winter was spent in
+Greeneville, at which place the Indians, on August 3, 1795, against
+the wishes of their leaders and English allies, signed a treaty of
+peace, in which twelve tribes took part&mdash;a peace which was never
+broken, and by which an immense territory was ceded to the United
+States and opened up for settlement. Wayne returned early in 1796, on
+a short visit to Pennsylvania, and everywhere <span class="italic">en route</span> received the
+plaudits of his fellow-citizens. His reception in Philadelphia was
+exceedingly brilliant. The unsettled condition of affairs in the
+Northwest, however, made his stay brief. Having been appointed sole
+commissioner to treat with the disaffected parties there, and directed
+to take possession of all forts held by the British in that country,
+he returned in June of the same year. With great tact he performed
+wisely and well the difficult mission intrusted to him. In November he
+left Detroit to visit the last of the posts included in his orders.
+This was then called Presque Isle, but is now the site of the city of
+Erie. When within a short sail of this post a severe and sudden attack
+of the gout came on. He was carried into the block-house at Presque
+Isle, in a dying condition, and lingered in great agony until December
+15, 1796, when he died. By his own desire he was buried "at the foot
+of the flag-staff on a high hill called 'Garrison Hill,' north of the
+present Soldiers' <span class="pagenum"><a id="page296" name="page296"></a>(p. 296)</span> Home." (Stille, 343.) In 1809, his son,
+Colonel Isaac Wayne, removed the body to the family burying-ground at
+St. David's Church, Radnor, Penn., where, on July 4th of the same
+year, the Society of the Cincinnati erected a monument in his honor.</p>
+
+<p>So lived, so died, Anthony Wayne; gentleman, soldier, statesman,
+patriot. "Mad," "Dandy," "Black Snake," "Tornado." Angry with
+traitors&mdash;Neat-Courageous&mdash;Irresistible. None can study his life
+without feeling the nobleness of his character. Courtly in manners,
+honorable to a degree, high in aspirations, unselfishly for country,
+magnanimous in victory, loyal to authority, affectionate to family,
+pure in morality, and earnest for the right, Anthony Wayne's life is a
+bright example and legacy to the American youth of all times.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig002" name="sig002"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig002.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3>FRANCIS MARION<br>
+(1732-1795)</h3>
+
+<a id="img027" name="img027"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="250" height="288" alt="Francis Marion." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Francis Marion, the partisan general of South Carolina, was of
+Huguenot descent, the first American settlers of the name being
+Benjamin Marion and Judith Balnet, his wife, who came from France in
+1690, and established themselves in a plantation on one of the
+tributaries of the Cooper River, near Charleston. Gabriel, the son of
+Benjamin, married Esther Cordes. These were the parents of Francis
+Marion. He was born, it would appear, in St. John's Parish, Berkeley
+County, probably in 1732. His early life was passed, till his
+twenty-seventh year, in agricultural pursuits, when we first hear of
+him in connection with military matters in the period of the old
+French war. He took the field with Moultrie, and fought gallantly by
+the side of that officer in the Cherokee country against the savages
+at the battle of Etchoee. He then returned to his farm, near Eutaw
+Springs, ripening for the work of the Revolution, which found him at
+the height of manhood, at the age of forty-three. The people of his
+district relied upon his understanding, for we find them sending
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page297" name="page297"></a>(p. 297)</span> him as their delegate to the Provincial Congress of 1775,
+when he was appointed captain in the regiment of his former superior
+officer, Colonel Moultrie. His first duty was to gather a company,
+which he speedily effected in the Eastern region, where he was well
+known. He was then employed in the neighborhood of Charleston; being
+engaged in the occupation of Fort Johnson and the command of
+Dorchester.</p>
+
+<p>He was with Moultrie, at Sullivan's Island in May, 1776, during that
+fierce day of battle when the British were driven from the southern
+colonies, and particularly distinguished himself in the gallant
+defence.</p>
+
+<p>At the ill-managed attack upon Savannah, by the combined forces of
+D'Estaing and Lincoln, which ended so disastrously for the Americans,
+Marion was present with his regiment, which did much by its gallantry
+to redeem the honor, if not the fortunes, of the day. Next came, in
+the winter of 1780, the siege of Charleston, by Sir Henry Clinton. It
+was evident from the beginning that the city must fall, and it has
+been a point much discussed whether Lincoln should have attempted to
+defend it, whether it would not have been better for the cause that he
+should withdraw his troops, and besiege the British from the open
+country. This was what afterward took place when the conquerors were
+reduced almost to starvation. An accident which happened to Marion has
+been esteemed a piece of singular good fortune to the cause, in saving
+him from surrender. He was in command of the small body of light
+troops, outside of the city, when he was called to aid in the defence.
+During the first days of the very deliberate investment, he was dining
+with some friends in the town, when, according to a custom not unusual
+in those hard-drinking times, the door was locked that no one should
+avoid his share of the conviviality. Determined to escape the
+infliction, he threw himself from the window into the street. The fall
+fractured his ankle and incapacitated him from service. In obedience
+to an order of Lincoln, commanding all officers unfit for duty to
+retire from the city, he left while the country was still open, and
+took refuge in his native region of St. John. His freedom was thus
+preserved for the service of his country.</p>
+
+<p>Now came the incursions of Tarleton and the devastating warfare of
+Cornwallis&mdash;a policy of savage extermination which would have driven a
+people with less capability of exertion to despair. But it happened,
+as it has before, that the very means employed to crush, excited the
+spirit of resistance, and deliverers were raised up for the oppressed.
+It was a peculiar species of warfare which was now entered upon,
+requiring novel resources both for attack and defence. A thinly
+inhabited country was the scene of operations, cut up in all
+directions by rivers and their branches, and innumerable swamps. Large
+bodies of troops could move only with difficulty; it was a service for
+small parties of cavalry always in movement, making up by rapidity for
+want of numbers. On the side of the British, Lieutenant-Colonel
+Tarleton, an officer of spirit, whose fiery youth has been vividly
+handed down to us in the portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, was the
+leading representative of this method of warfare, harrying the land
+with his mounted troops, and overcoming by his activity and
+unscrupulousness. Success <span class="pagenum"><a id="page298" name="page298"></a>(p. 298)</span> added terror to his name, as he
+gained victory after victory, and seemed destined to sweep the land of
+its patriot defenders. He was the right arm of Cornwallis, in his
+movements in the interior, and began to be deemed invincible, when his
+course was arrested by Morgan, the Virginian, and his resolute
+companies of native defenders of the State, at the battle of Cowpens.
+But it was in Marion that the chief spirit of resistance was
+incorporated. On the arrival of Gates from the North, in command of
+the Southern army, having partially recovered from his lameness, he
+presented himself before the hero of Saratoga, on his march toward the
+fatal field of Camden. American commanders were accustomed to odd
+sights of dress and equipment in the patriot soldiery who enlisted
+under their banners, and Gates must have been used to appearances with
+which the eye of Washington himself was but too familiar. The little
+band of Marion, however, seems to have astonished even their American
+brethren-in-arms. As for the well-equipped British, they always held
+the ragged American regiments in contempt, till they were soundly
+flogged by them. An intelligent looker-on at the camp, Colonel Otho
+Williams, in his narrative of the campaign, speaks of Colonel Marion's
+arrival, "attended by a very few followers, distinguished by small
+leather caps and the wretchedness of their attire; their number did
+not exceed twenty men and boys, some white, some black, and all
+mounted, but most of them miserably equipped. Their appearance was, in
+fact, so burlesque, that it was with much difficulty the diversion of
+the regular soldiery was restrained by the officers; and the general
+himself was glad of an opportunity of detaching Colonel Marion, at his
+own instance, toward the interior of South Carolina, with orders to
+watch the motions of the enemy, and furnish intelligence."</p>
+
+<p>It was while Marion was engaged on this service, that the battle of
+Camden was fought; but luckily, he had no share in the misadventure.
+He was employed, in fact, in quite an independent career of his own,
+organizing his own forces and acting at his own discretion. He was at
+the head of that system of partisan warfare, which, in its
+developments, was to rid the State of the foreign foe. His present
+command, "Marion's Brigade," was formed from the hardy spirited
+population of Irish descent, settled between the Santee and the Pedee,
+in the territory of Williamsburg. They were convinced of the
+intentions of the British rulers at Charleston to reduce them to
+political servitude; they knew their rights, and knowing, dared to
+maintain them. Their movement was voluntary, as they gathered their
+small but resolute force of picked men, and called Marion to its
+command. He had already assumed it, and caused the Tories to feel his
+new authority when the defeat of Gates took place. It roused him at
+once to a new effort to redeem the fortunes of war. He was already in
+the neighborhood of the field, and hearing that a British guard was on
+its way with a considerable body of prisoners, he determined to arrest
+the party on its march. Two days after the battle, he concerted an
+attack, and with the loss of but one man, killed and took 22 regulars
+and 2 Tories prisoners, and retook 150 continentals of the Maryland
+line. He was now a recognized leader in the field, and the British
+commander-in-chief directed his efforts to his overthrow. "I <span class="pagenum"><a id="page299" name="page299"></a>(p. 299)</span>
+most sincerely hope," wrote Cornwallis to Tarleton, "that you will get
+at Mr. Marion." But Mr. Marion was not so easily to be caught. On the
+appearance of a superior force, under the command of Tarleton, which
+it would have been vain to resist, the skilful partisan turned his
+forces in another direction, to the borders of North Carolina, where
+he overawed the Scotch Tories in that disaffected region. The ruthless
+conduct of the British whom he had left behind, now raised the South
+Carolinians to fresh resistance, when Marion, ever mindful of his
+opportunity, returned to the State with speed, accomplishing sixty
+miles in one day, and in a bold night attack, defeated a large body of
+Tories on the Black Mingo. Following this up with some smaller
+successes of the kind, he again attracted the attention of Tarleton,
+who issued out of Charleston in force for his capture, and when he was
+fairly on his heels, wearied out and perplexed by the windings of his
+foe, gave up the chase, it is said, with the exclamation, "Come, my
+boys! let us go back. We will soon find the Game Cock [Marion's
+brother partisan, Sumter], but as for this damned Swamp-fox, the devil
+himself could not catch him."</p>
+
+<p>The tide was now turning, as the people felt their strength. King's
+Mountain, in the autumn of this memorable 1780, brought a vast
+accession of strength to the popular cause, in the proof that the best
+British troops were not invincible before an aroused yeomanry; but
+there was much yet to be done before the day of final deliverance was
+secured. It was a slow, weary, harassing policy which was to be
+pursued, of surprises and escapes, of self-denial and endurance, of
+the watchful, unyielding virtue of Marion and his men. They took post
+in an island fortress of wooded swamp land, at the junction of the
+Pedee and Lynch's Creek, known as the "camp of Marion," where he
+recruited his forces, husbanded his strength, and sallied forth on his
+raids against the foe. This is the spot where the popular admiration
+of Marion finds its home and centre. "His career as a partisan," says
+his faithful biographer, the novelist Simms, "in the thickets and
+swamps of Carolina, is abundantly distinguished by the picturesque;
+but it was while he held his camp at Snow's Island that it received
+its highest colors of romance. In this snug and impenetrable fortress,
+he reminds us very much of the ancient feudal baron of France and
+Germany, who, perched on a castled eminence, looked down with the
+complacency of an eagle from his eyrie, and marked all below him for
+his own. The resemblance is good in all respects but one. The plea and
+justification of Marion are complete. His warfare was legitimate." It
+is in this place the scene is laid of an interview with the British
+officer, so familiar to the public in popular narratives and pictorial
+illustration. A flag from the enemy, at the neighboring post of
+Georgetown, is received with the design of an exchange of prisoners.
+The officer is admitted blindfold into the encampment, and on the
+bandage being taken from his eyes, is surprised equally at the
+diminutive size of the General and the simplicity of his quarters. He
+had expected, it is said, to see some formidable personage of the sons
+of Anak of the standard military figure, which, as Mr. Simms remarks,
+averaged, in the opposing generals during the war, more than two
+hundred pounds. On the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page300" name="page300"></a>(p. 300)</span> contrary, he saw "a swarthy,
+smoke-dried little man, with scarcely enough of threadbare homespun to
+cover his nakedness, and instead of tall ranks of gay-dressed
+soldiers, a handful of sunburnt, yellow-legged militiamen, some
+roasting potatoes, and some asleep, with their black firelocks and
+powder-horns lying by them on the logs." This is Weems's narrative, a
+little colored with his full brush, but true enough as to detail. The
+improvement which he works up from the plain potato presented as a
+dinner to the officer, is equally sound as a moral, though we will not
+vouch for the exact expression of the sentiment. As a specimen of
+Weems, it is characteristic; but certainly Marion never talked in the
+fashion of this zealous biographer.</p>
+
+<p>The Briton, however, entrenched at Charleston, and with his double
+line of forts encompassing the interior, was not all at once driven
+out. When he was compelled to leave, it was by the slow process of an
+exhaustion, to which even victory contributed; for every British
+conquest in that region was as costly as a defeat. Greene came with
+his Fabian policy, acquired in the school of Washington, to repair the
+errors of Gates. It was a course with which the policy of Marion was
+quite in agreement, attacking the enemy when they were vulnerable; at
+other moments retreating before them. Both officers knew well how to
+drain the vitality of the British army. Greene appreciated Marion. "I
+like your plan," he wrote to him, "of frequently shifting your ground.
+We must endeavor to keep up a partisan war." He sent
+Lieutenant-Colonel Lee to his aid, and together they attempted the
+capture of Georgetown in a night attack, which was but partially
+successful, in consequence of a loss of time and the want of
+artillery. Though not fully carried out, it served as a diversion and
+alarm in the rear of Cornwallis, who now, after the defeat of an
+important portion of his force under Tarleton, was advancing rapidly
+through North Carolina at the heels of Greene. Lee was recalled to
+join his commander, and Marion continued his partisan warfare in South
+Carolina. He was after a while reinforced by Greene on his return to
+the State, and assisted that general greatly in the movements which
+resulted in imprisoning the enemy in Charleston. After a brilliant
+affair with the British, in conjunction with Lee and Sumter, and other
+bold spirits, he hastened to Greene in time for the battle of Eutaw,
+in which engagement he commanded the right of the South Carolina
+militia, and gallantly sustained the fierce attack of the enemy.
+Toward the close of the war, he took his seat in the Legislative
+Assembly which met at Jacksonborough, as the representative of St.
+John, Berkeley. He was engaged in one or two further conflicts with
+the enemy, and the struggle which he had so manfully sustained was at
+an end.</p>
+
+<p>He now retired to his plantation, to find it broken up by the
+incursions of the British. While engaged in its restoration, he was
+sent as representative of the district to the Senate of the State. It
+is recorded to his credit that he displayed in this situation a ready
+magnanimity toward Tory offenders in preserving their lands from
+confiscation.</p>
+
+<a id="img028" name="img028"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img028.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="" title="">
+<p>Marion crossing the Pedee.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>"It was war, then," said he; "it is peace now. God has given us the
+victory. Let us show our gratitude to heaven, which we shall not do by
+cruelty to man." <span class="pagenum"><a id="page301" name="page301"></a>(p. 301)</span> In the same lofty spirit, he refused to
+receive any advantages from a bill exempting the soldiers of the
+militia from prosecution for acts committed in the service. He felt
+that his conduct needed no shelter. The Legislature rewarded him with
+thanks, and the more substantial appointment of Commandant of the Port
+of Charleston, a nominal office, with the salary of £500, which were
+cut down to dollars. A timely marriage, however, with a wealthy lady
+of Huguenot descent, Miss Mary Videau, a spinster of fifty, who was
+attracted by the hero, relieved him of pecuniary anxieties, leaving
+him an old age of ease in agricultural pursuits. He still represented
+his parish in the State Senate, and sat in 1790 in the Convention for
+forming the Constitution. In 1794 he resigned his military commission
+given to him by Rutledge, and the following year, yielding to a
+gradual decline, expired on February 27th, at the age of sixty-three.</p>
+
+<p>Marion was a true, unflinching patriot&mdash;a man of deeds, and not of
+words; a prudent, sagacious soldier, not sudden or quick in quarrel,
+but resolute to the end; a good disciplinarian, and beloved by his
+men, who came at his call.</p>
+
+<p>There was no power of coercion, such as restrains the hired soldier,
+in his little band; it was held together only by the cohesive force of
+patriotism and attachment to the leader. We hear of no acts of cruelty
+to stain the glory of his victories, but much of his magnanimity.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>PAUL JONES<br>
+(1747-1792)</h3>
+
+<a id="img029" name="img029"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="250" height="238" alt="Paul Jones." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Paul Jones, the popular naval hero of the Revolution, the son of John
+Paul, a gardener in Scotland, was born July 6, 1747, at a cottage on
+the estate of his father's employer, Mr. Craik, at Arbigland, in the
+parish of Kirkbean. His parents belonged to a respectable class of the
+population of the country. The boy, as is wont with Scottish boys,
+however humble, received the elements of education, but could not have
+advanced very far with his books, since we find him at the age of
+twelve apprenticed to the sea. The situation of Kirkbean, on the shore
+of the Solway, naturally gave a youth of spirit an inclination to life
+on the ocean; and he had not far to seek for employment in the
+trading-port of Whitehaven, in the opposite county of Cumberland.
+Paul's first adventure&mdash;the appendix of Jones was an <span class="pagenum"><a id="page302" name="page302"></a>(p. 302)</span>
+after-thought of his career&mdash;was in the service of Mr. Younger, a
+merchant in the American trade, who sent his apprentice on a voyage to
+Virginia, where an elder brother of Paul had profitably established
+himself at Fredericksburg. This gave him an early introduction to the
+country with which the fame of the future soldier of fortune was to be
+especially identified.</p>
+
+<p>The apprenticeship of Paul was of short duration. The failure of his
+employer threw the youth upon his own resources; but he lost no time
+in taking care of himself. His studies on shipboard had already
+qualified him for the higher duties of the mercantile service; the
+slave-trade, the active pursuit of those days, offered him an
+engagement; he sailed for the African coast in the King George, a
+vessel engaged in this infamous traffic, out of Whitehaven, and in his
+nineteenth year was trusted as chief mate of the Two Friends, another
+vessel of the trade, belonging to Jamaica. Having carried his human
+cargo to the island, sickening of the pursuit, he sailed as a
+passenger to Kirkcudbright, in his native district. Opportunities are
+always presenting themselves to the watchful and the initiated. The
+chief officers of the vessel died of the fever; Paul took command and
+carried the ship in safety to the owners. They put him in command of
+the brig, the John, on another West India voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in 1771, he left Scotland never to return to it, save to
+carry terror among its population. He proceeded to London; found
+employment in the West India trade, and in 1773 settled himself for a
+while in Virginia on the estate of his brother, to whom he had now
+become heir. This was a grand turning-point of his career, and to
+signalize it properly, Paul, who was somewhat of a fanciful turn,
+added the name Jones to his proper appellation, John Paul.</p>
+
+<p>On the organization of the infant navy of the United States, in 1775,
+John Paul Jones, as he is henceforth to be called, received the
+appointment of first of the first lieutenants in the service, in
+which, in his station on the flag-ship Alfred, he claimed the honor of
+being the foremost, on the approach of the commander-in-chief,
+Commodore Hopkins, to raise the new American flag. This was the old
+device of a rattle-snake coiled on a yellow ground, with the motto,
+<span class="italic">Don't tread on me</span>, which is yet partially retained in the seal of
+the war-office.</p>
+
+<p>The first service of the new squadron was the attack upon the island
+of New Providence, in which Jones rendered signal assistance. On the
+return voyage, the unsatisfactory encounter with the Glasgow occurred,
+which afterward resulted in the dismissal of one of the American
+officers, and Jones's appointment in his place to the command of the
+Providence, of twelve guns and seventy men. His exploits in this
+vessel gained him his first laurels. He now received the rank of
+captain, and sailed on various expeditions, transporting troops,
+conveying merchantmen, out-sailing British frigates, and greatly
+harassing the enemy's commercial interests. His success in these
+enterprises induced Commodore Hopkins to put him in command of the
+Alfred and other vessels on an expedition to the eastward, which
+resulted in the capture of various important prizes of transport and
+other ships, and extensive injury to the fisheries at Canso. On his
+return, he was superseded in the command of the Alfred, his seniority
+in the service <span class="pagenum"><a id="page303" name="page303"></a>(p. 303)</span> being set aside, a grievance which led to
+remonstrance on his part, and a correspondence with the Committee of
+Congress, in the course of which Jones made many valuable suggestions
+as to the service, and gained the friendship of that eminent business
+man of the old Confederacy, Robert Morris. There appear to have been
+several appointments for him in progress, when his somewhat unsettled
+position became determined by the resolve of Congress to send him to
+France for the purpose of taking command of a frigate to be provided
+for him by the Commissioners at Paris. By the resolution of June 14,
+1777, he was appointed to the Ranger, newly built at Portsmouth,
+and&mdash;a second instance of the kind&mdash;had the honor of hoisting for the
+first time the new flag of the stars and stripes; at least he claimed
+the distinction, for the bristling vanity of Jones made him
+punctilious in these accidental matters of personal renown.</p>
+
+<p>It took some time to prepare the Ranger for sea, but Jones got off on
+his adventure in November, made a couple of prizes by the way, and at
+the end of a month reached Nantes. Disappointed in obtaining the large
+vessel which he expected, and obliged to be contented with the Ranger,
+he employed his time in making acquaintance with the French navy at
+Quiberon Bay, and offering valuable suggestions for the employment of
+D'Estaing's fleet on the American coast. He soon determined to put to
+sea on an adventure of spirit. On April 10, 1778, he sailed from Brest
+on a cruise in British waters. Directing his course to the haunts of
+his youth, he captured a brigantine off Cape Clear, and a London ship
+in the Irish Channel; planned various bold adventures on the Irish
+coast, which he was not able to carry out from adverse influences of
+wind and tide, but well-nigh succeeded in burning a large fleet of
+merchantmen in the docks of Whitehaven. In this last adventure, he
+made a landing at night, and advanced to the capture of the
+town-batteries, leaving his officers to fire the ships, of which there
+were about two hundred in the port. His orders were not obeyed, either
+from insufficient preparations or the relenting of his agents, when he
+himself set fire to one of the largest of the vessels. It was now day,
+and the people were warned by a deserter from his force, but Jones
+managed to hold the whole town at bay till he made good his retreat.
+This daring affair was an impromptu of Jones's genius, justified in
+his view by similar depredations of the British on the American coast;
+but it had an ugly look of ingratitude to the place which had
+sheltered his youth, and first given him promotion in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was this all. He immediately crossed to his native shore of
+Scotland, with the intention of seizing the Earl of Selkirk, at his
+seat on the promontory of St. Mary's Isle, on the Solway, near
+Kirkcudbright. Landing at the spot he ascertained that the earl was
+from home. Disappointed in his object, he would have returned, when
+the officers in his boat insisted upon a demand for the family plate.
+Jones demurred, but yielded with the proviso that the thing was to be
+done in the most delicate manner possible. His lieutenant, Simpson,
+undertook the business, and introduced himself to Lady Selkirk, who
+was, conveniently enough for his purposes, engaged at breakfast. She
+had at first taken the party for a press-gang, and had offered them
+refreshments; on being informed of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page304" name="page304"></a>(p. 304)</span> nature of their
+visit, their request, backed by the armed crew at the door, was
+complied with.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that Jones apologized personally to Lady Selkirk, and we
+shall presently find him, at the first interval of leisure, taking
+measures to repair the act. For the moment, however, he had more
+serious work on hand. In his upward voyage along the Irish coast, he
+had looked into Belfast Lough, after his Majesty's sloop-of-war Drake,
+of twenty guns, which he attempted to board in a night attack by a
+bold man&oelig;uvre, which came within an ace of success. Immediately
+after the affair of St. Mary's, he ran across the channel and had the
+fortune to meet the Drake coming out of Carrickfergus. She was getting
+to sea to check the exploits of the Ranger, which had now alarmed the
+whole region. Jones desired nothing more than an encounter. As the
+ship drew up she hailed the Ranger. Jones gave the reply through his
+sailing-master: "The American continental ship Ranger. We are waiting
+for you. Come on. The sun is little more than an hour high, and it is
+time to begin!" A broadside engagement commenced, and continued at
+close quarters for an hour, when the Drake surrendered. Her captain
+and first lieutenant were mortally wounded, her sails and rigging
+terribly cut up, and hull much shattered. The loss of the Ranger was 2
+killed and 6 wounded; that of the Drake, 42. The Drake had two guns
+the advantage of her adversary. The action took place on April 24th;
+on May 8th, Jones having traversed the channel, carried his prize
+safely into Brest.</p>
+
+<p>His first thought now was to make some amends to Lady Selkirk and his
+own reputation for the plundering visit of his lieutenant. He
+therefore addressed to her, the very day of his landing, an
+extraordinary letter&mdash;Jones was fond of letter-writing&mdash;full of
+high-sounding phrases, and professions of gallantry and esteem, in the
+midst of which he failed not to recite the splendid victory of the
+Ranger. He drew a picture of the terrors inflicted by the British in
+America; and in respect to that unfortunate plate, expressed his
+intention to purchase it, in the sale of the prize, and restore it at
+his own expense to the family. This, after delays and obstacles, he
+finally accomplished some years later, when we are told it was all
+returned as it was taken, the very tea-leaves of the parting breakfast
+clinging to the tea-pot.</p>
+
+<a id="img030" name="img030"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="400" height="561" alt="" title="">
+<p>Paul Jones and Lady Selkirk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The affair of the Ranger, so brilliantly conducted, the short,
+energetic cruise in narrow seas, so near the British naval stations,
+gave Jones a great reputation for gallantry in Paris. The delays and
+difficulties, however, incidental to the wretched state of the
+American finances abroad, and the imperfect relation of his country
+with the French court, were well calculated to cool any enthusiasm
+excited by his conquest; and a man of less vivacity and perseverance
+than Jones might have dropped the service. He persevered. His
+lieutenant, Simpson, after various refractory proceedings, had sailed
+home in the Ranger, when an arrangement was finally made with Le Ray
+de Chaumont, the negotiator of the French court, to furnish a jointly
+equipped and officered fleet, of which Jones was to take command. Five
+vessels were thus provided, including the American frigate Alliance.
+An old Indiaman, the Duke de Duras, fell to the lot of Jones.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page305" name="page305"></a>(p. 305)</span> In compliment to Dr. Franklin, one of the commissioners,
+and especially in gratitude for a hint which he had accidentally
+lighted upon in an odd number of that philosopher's almanac, to the
+effect that whoever would have his business well done must do it
+himself&mdash;a suggestion by which Jones had greatly profited in giving a
+final spur to his protracted negotiations&mdash;he changed the name of his
+vessel, by permission of the French Government, to the Bon Homme
+Richard.</p>
+
+<p>Jones at length set sail, on August 14th, with his squadron. Landais,
+an incompetent Frenchman in the American service, was in command of
+the Alliance. It was altogether a weak, mongrel affair. The Bon Homme
+Richard was unseaworthy, her armament was defective, and in her motley
+crew Englishmen and foreigners outnumbered the Americans. The plan of
+the cruise was to sail round the British Islands from the westward. At
+Cape Clear the commander parted with two of the smaller vessels of the
+squadron, which now consisted of his own ship, the Alliance, the
+Pallas, and the Vengeance. The service was, however, far more impaired
+by the insubordination of Landais, who evinced great jealousy of his
+superior. Several prizes were taken, one of them by Jones off Cape
+Wrath, at the extremity of Scotland. Traversing the eastern coast, he
+arrived, with the Pallas and the Vengeance, at the Firth of Forth, and
+entertained the bold idea of attacking the armed vessels at the
+station, and putting not only Leith, but possibly the capital,
+Edinburgh itself, under contribution. He would certainly have made the
+attempt&mdash;indeed, it was in full progress&mdash;when it was defeated by a
+violent gale of wind.</p>
+
+<p>Jones now continued his course southwardly, casting longing eyes upon
+Hull and Newcastle, when, having been joined by the Alliance, the
+squadron suddenly, off Flamborough Head, fell in with the Baltic
+cruisers, the Serapis, forty-four. Captain Pearson, and the Countess
+of Scarborough, twenty, Captain Piercy, convoying a fleet of
+merchantmen. Jones at once prepared for action. The combat which
+ensued, between the Serapis and the Bon Homme Richard, is one of the
+most remarkable in the annals of naval warfare, for the circumstances
+under which it was fought, the persistence of the contest, and the
+well-matched valor of the commanders. The engagement was by moonlight,
+on a tranquil sea, within sight of the shore, which was crowded with
+spectators, who thronged the promontory of Flamborough Head and the
+piers of Scarborough. After various preliminary man&oelig;uvres on the
+part of the English commander to shelter the merchantmen, the
+engagement began at half-past seven in the evening, with a series of
+attempts of the Bon Homme Richard to come to close quarters with her
+antagonist. At the first broadside of Jones's vessel, two of the old
+eighteen-pounders mounted in her gun-room burst, with fearful
+destruction to the men. This accident compelled the closing of the
+lower ports, and produced a still greater inequality between the
+combatants than at the start, for the Serapis was not only a
+well-constructed, well-furnished man-of-war, thoroughly equipped,
+while the Bon Homme Richard had even-disadvantage in these respects:
+but the absolute weight of metal was, at the outset, greatly in favor
+of the Englishman. The Richard then passed to windward of the Serapis,
+receiving her fire, which did much damage <span class="pagenum"><a id="page306" name="page306"></a>(p. 306)</span> to the rotten hull
+of the old Indiaman. Jones next attempted a movement to get into
+position to rake his antagonist from stem to stern, which resulted in
+a momentary collision. There was an effort to board the Serapis, which
+was repulsed, when Captain Pearson called out, "Has your ship struck?"
+and Jones instantly replied, "I have not yet begun to fight." The
+ships then separating, were brought again to a broadside encounter,
+when Jones, feeling the superior force of the Serapis, and her better
+sailing, was fully prepared to take advantage of the next position as
+the ships fell foul of one another, to grapple with his opponent. He
+himself assisted in lashing the jib-stay of the Serapis to the
+mizzenmast of the Richard.</p>
+
+<p>The ships became now closely entangled for their full length on their
+starboard sides; so near were they together, that the guns of one
+touched the sides of the other, and in some places where the
+port-holes met, the guns were loaded by passing the rammers into the
+opposite vessel. Every discharge in this position was of course most
+deadly, and told fearfully upon the rotten hull of the Richard. To add
+to Jones's embarrassment, he was repeatedly fired upon by Landais,
+from the Alliance, which always kept her position with the Richard
+between her and the enemy. This extraordinary circumstance is only to
+be accounted for by an entire lack of presence of mind in the
+confusion, or by absolute treachery. The Serapis poured in her fire
+below from a full battery, while the Richard was confined to three
+guns on deck. She had efficient aid, however, in clearing the deck of
+the Serapis, from the musketry and hand-grenades of her men in the
+tops. One of these missiles reached the lower gun-deck of the Serapis,
+and there setting fire to a quantity of exposed cartridges, produced a
+destruction of life, an offset to the fearful loss of the Richard by
+the bursting of her guns in the opening of the engagement. The injury
+to the Richard, from the wounds inflicted upon her hull, was at this
+time so great that she was pronounced to be sinking, and there was a
+cry among the men of surrender; not, however, from Jones, who was as
+much himself at this extremity as ever. Seeing the English prisoners,
+who had been released below, more than a hundred in number, rushing
+upon deck, where in a moment they might have leaped into the Serapis,
+and put themselves under then country's flag, he coolly set them to
+working the pumps, to save the sinking ship. Human courage and
+resolution have seldom been more severely tried than in the exigencies
+of this terrible night on board the Richard. Jones continued to ply
+his feeble cannonade from the deck, levelled at the mainmast of the
+adversary. Both vessels were on fire, when, at half-past ten, the
+Serapis struck.</p>
+
+<p>The loss in this extraordinary engagement, which outstrips and
+exaggerates the usual vicissitudes of naval service, was of course
+fearful. The entire loss of the Richard is estimated by Cooper at one
+hundred and fifty, nearly one-half of all the men she had engaged.
+Captain Pearson reported at least one hundred and seventeen
+casualties. The Bon Homme Richard was so riddled by the enemy's fire,
+and disembowelled by the gun-room explosion, that she could not be
+saved from sinking. When the wind freshened, the day after the
+victory, she <span class="pagenum"><a id="page307" name="page307"></a>(p. 307)</span> became no longer tenable; her living freight
+was taken from her, and Jones, in the forenoon of the 25th, "with
+inexpressible grief," saw her final plunge into the depths of the
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p>While the engagement of the Richard and Serapis was going on, the
+Pallas, better officered than the Alliance, captured the other English
+vessel, the Countess of Scarborough. The two prizes were carried to
+the Texel, where the squadron enjoyed the uneasy protection of
+Holland. Jones himself had a more satisfactory reception in an
+enthusiastic greeting on the Exchange at Amsterdam, and a brilliant
+triumph, illuminated by the smiles of the fair sex, shortly after in
+Paris. In October, 1780, he left for America in the Ariel, bearing
+with him a gift from the king, a gold-mounted sword, with the
+inscription on the blade: <span class="italic">Vindicati Maris Ludovicus XVI. Remunerator
+Strenuo Vindici</span>&mdash;"Louis XVI., rewarder, to the valiant defender of a
+liberated sea." The voyage was interrupted, at its outset, by a severe
+storm off the harbor, in which Jones displayed his usual heroism. The
+vessel was refitted, and after a partial action on the high seas with
+a mysterious stranger, reached Philadelphia in February, 1781.</p>
+
+<p>In 1787 he left America with the intention of serving under Louis.
+When he reached Paris, he was met by a proposition to enter the
+service of Catherine of Russia, in which he was induced to engage by
+prospects of rank and glory. On his journey to St. Petersburg, he had
+a characteristic adventure in his passage from Stockholm to Revel,
+which he made while the navigation was interrupted by ice, traversing
+the sea, with great hardihood, in an open boat, extorting the labors
+of the boatmen by his threats of violence. He was well received by the
+Empress, who forwarded him to Potemkin, then in command on the Black
+Sea, in a war with the Turks. It is not necessary to recount the
+movements of a small squadron, with a divided command and jealous
+counsels, presided over by a whimsical, despotic court favorite. Many
+as were the vexations encountered by Jones in the inefficient
+resources, the shifts and expedients of foreign allies, and the
+straits of the American commissioners, they were light compared with
+the stifling restraints of Russian tyranny. Jones did much fighting,
+in his command of the Wolodomer, on the Black Sea, against the Pasha,
+but retired with little glory. Persecution followed at St.
+Petersburg&mdash;there was an assault upon his moral character, which was
+triumphantly disproved&mdash;various projects flitted through his teeming
+mind, and his connection with the country closed after a residence of
+fifteen months. It is sad to watch the last years of Paul Jones, not,
+indeed, of age, but of growing weariness and disease, as he renews his
+broken Russian hopes, and revives the old, faded, pecuniary claims on
+the French court. A gleam of sunshine appears in his aspirations to
+serve his country&mdash;for he still looked across the Atlantic&mdash;in the
+removal of the chains from the American sailors imprisoned at Algiers.
+His country listened to his cry; he was charged to treat with the
+Regency for their ransom, but before the commission reached him, he
+had passed to that land where the weary cease from sighing, and
+prisoners are at rest. Here, with Mercy bending over the scene, let
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page308" name="page308"></a>(p. 308)</span> the curtain fall. Paul Jones died at Paris, at the age of
+forty-five, of a dropsical affection, July 18, 1792.</p>
+
+<p>The person of Paul Jones is well known by the numerous prints devoted
+to his brilliant exploits. You will see him, a little active man of
+medium height, not robust but vigorous, a keen black eye, lighting a
+dark, weather-beaten visage, compact and determined, with a certain
+melancholy grace.</p>
+
+<p>He was one of nature's self-made men; that is, nature gave the genius,
+and he supplied the industry, for he knew how to labor, and must have
+often exerted himself to secure the attainments which he possessed. He
+was a good seaman, as well as a most gallant officer; sagacious in the
+application of means; vain, indeed, and expensive, but natural and
+generous; something of a poet in verse, much more in the quickness and
+vivacity of his imagination, which led him to plan nobly; an
+accomplished writer; and as he was found worthy of the warm and
+unchanging friendship of Franklin, that sage who sought for excellence
+while he looked with a kindly eye upon human infirmity, we, too, may
+peruse the virtues of the man and smile upon his frailties.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>TECUMSEH<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5" title="Go to footnote 5"><span class="small">[5]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">James A. Green</span><br>
+(1776-1813)</h3>
+
+<a id="img031" name="img031"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="300" height="333" alt="Indians." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>It would be a difficult matter for a well-read American to recall the
+names of more than four or five notable Indians, leaving, of course,
+contemporaneous red men out of the question. The list might comprise
+Pocahontas, best known, probably, for something she did not do;
+Powhatan, that vague and shadowy Virginian chief; King Philip, who had
+a war named after him and so succeeded in having his name embalmed in
+history; Pontiac, whose great conspiracy Parkman has made immortal,
+and Tecumseh. But, of them all, Tecumseh is easily foremost. He was a
+man who, had he been born to great position among civilized nations,
+would have stamped his name and fame upon the world. He was not a mere
+savage of the ordinary type, bloodthirsty, brutal beyond description,
+going upon one aimless raid after another to glut his passion for
+rapine and murder. These savage traits <span class="pagenum"><a id="page309" name="page309"></a>(p. 309)</span> were not his, though
+all the good qualities of the Indian he possessed in double measure.
+He was fearless, he was untiring, and when once started toward an end
+he knew no rest until he had accomplished his design. He had a
+primitive dignity of thought and expression that marked him as a great
+orator. At the famous council at Vincennes, when Tecumseh had finished
+his speech and was about to sit down with his braves, the interpreter,
+pointing to General W. H. Harrison, said, "Your father wishes you to
+take a chair." But the ordinary courtesy of calling the white Governor
+the father of the red men was repugnant to Tecumseh, and with lofty
+mien and unpremeditated eloquence he declined the proffered seat.
+"No," he exclaimed, "the sun is my father, the earth is my mother, and
+I will rest on her bosom." And he sat down on Mother Earth with his
+assembled warriors, this act and fiery speech more than ever binding
+them to his fortunes.</p>
+
+<p>Tecumseh was in reality the first of the great Ohio men. He was a
+Shawnee Indian, and his tribe, in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, had emigrated from Florida to what is now the State of Ohio,
+Tecumseh being born in what is now Clarke County, near the present
+city of Springfield, in an Indian town that bore the name of Piqua.
+This must not be confounded with the present Ohio town of Piqua, which
+is in another county altogether, the birthplace of Tecumseh now being
+the site of a straggling village bearing the name, West Boston. In his
+boyhood there was nothing unusual. He grew up in the stirring times
+when Daniel Boone, Simon Kenton, and the other hardy Kentucky
+pioneers. Long Knives the Indians called them&mdash;were leading their
+forces into the West. It was a time when the Indians were constantly
+fighting. They did not live in Kentucky, but they regarded the fertile
+woods and prairies south of the Ohio River as their hunting-grounds,
+and they attacked with savage cruelty all the whites that dared to
+encroach upon this territory. The whites in turn crossed the Ohio in
+reprisal, burnt the Indian towns, tomahawked women and children,
+destroyed corn-fields, and were as unrelenting and barbarous in their
+revenge as their savage foes.</p>
+
+<p>Tecumseh was born about 1776, and in 1780 the village of Piqua was
+attacked by a party of 1,000 Kentuckians, who, after a fierce battle,
+drove out the Indians and destroyed the place. It was amid such scenes
+that the Indian boy grew to manhood. In that wild time, war was the
+only science, and butchery the only trade that an Indian could follow.
+One of the favorite Indian pursuits of the day was the capture of
+parties of emigrants and traders who came floating down the Ohio in
+canoes or "broadhorns." For miles the Indians would secretly follow
+such a party, and then when their opportunity came would strike their
+deadly blow. When a boy of seventeen Tecumseh was in a party making an
+attack on some boats near the present site of Maysville, Ky. The boats
+were captured and all the people in them slaughtered on the spot
+except one person, who was spared and later burnt alive. The horror of
+the spectacle so impressed Tecumseh that he then and there said he
+would never again be guilty of such cruelty, and the vigorous manner
+in which he protested against it so moved his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page310" name="page310"></a>(p. 310)</span> companions
+that they agreed with him to not repeat the act. This resolution
+Tecumseh never altered; time and time again he protected women and
+children from his infuriated followers. At the battle of Fort Meigs a
+party of Americans was captured by the British and Indians. Though
+they had surrendered as prisoners of war, yet the savages were firing
+into them promiscuously, or selecting such as they chose to tomahawk
+in cold blood. This dreadful scene was interrupted by Tecumseh, who
+came spurring up and, springing from his horse to the ground, dashed
+aside two Indians who were about to murder an American, threatening to
+slay anyone who would dare to injure another prisoner. Turning to the
+British General, Proctor, he asked why such a massacre had been
+permitted. "Sir," said Proctor, "your Indians cannot be commanded."
+"Begone," was the angry reply of the outraged Tecumseh, "you are unfit
+to command. Go, put on petticoats." This was only one incident of many
+showing how far he was above the ordinary Indian in magnanimity of
+character. At the already mentioned Vincennes conference Tecumseh
+agreed with General William Henry Harrison&mdash;his unrelenting foe and
+who judged him as harshly as any of the frontiersmen who feared and
+hated him&mdash;that in case of an outbreak of hostilities the women and
+children on both sides were to be protected and respected. Certain it
+is that General Harrison would have made no such agreement had he not
+believed that his adversary would keep it.</p>
+
+<a id="img032" name="img032"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tecumseh defends the Whites at Fort Meigs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To understand the life and work of Tecumseh it is necessary to look
+into the history of his times. His career was embraced between the
+period of the Revolution and our second war with Great Britain. The
+destiny of the Great West was not then assured. Ohio and Kentucky were
+frontier States, vastly farther from the seat of government than is
+the most remote of our Western outposts to-day. They could be reached
+only by a toilsome journey over the Alleghanies and a trip down the
+Ohio. A journey to-day to the Yellowstone, or to the regions beyond
+the Black Hills, does not mean, in the way of time, danger, or
+adventure, one-tenth what a journey to Fort Washington (Cincinnati)
+meant in 1800. Indiana was a Territory, and the Territorial Governor,
+first of the Northwest, and then of Indiana, was William Henry
+Harrison, a born fighter, a palaverer, and who, in the difficult
+position which he occupied in dealing with unruly settlers on the one
+hand and turbulent Indians on the other hand, displayed singular tact
+and ability. He was eminently the right man in the right place. But in
+spite of the claims the United States made of the West, the country
+was but little known, nor was its real importance even suspected. That
+the Mississippi Valley would one day be peopled by millions, and be
+the greatest, wealthiest, and most productive part of the country, was
+not thought of even by the most sanguine of Americans. The Eastern
+States in those days had affairs enough of their own on hand, and the
+Western frontier was not regarded as essentially important. The
+national idea&mdash;the Nation with a big N, as recent humorous newspaper
+writers have put it&mdash;had not been evolved. It was difficult for even a
+man of the persuasive powers of General Harrison, to induce the
+General Government to furnish half enough troops to adequately guard
+the outposts. If there was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page311" name="page311"></a>(p. 311)</span> serious work to do the settlers
+had to do it themselves. There was little grumbling over this state of
+affairs, however, as the Kentuckians and Westerners generally had been
+brought up to do their own fighting and not to wait for the Government
+at Washington to do it for them. In those days British agents were
+actively at work among the Northern Indians to keep them in a state of
+disaffection toward the United States. Meanwhile, the Indians were in
+the midst of the great tragedy that has been enacted since the days of
+Columbus. They were the victims of traders who sold them fire-water,
+and for poor and cheap weapons, demanded furs whose value was out of
+all proportion to that given in return. Many of their women married
+white renegades who corrupted the morals of the tribes. They were
+being dispossessed of the finest homes and best hunting grounds in
+America, for the buffalo was then found in Kentucky in great herds,
+and their position was thoroughly unhappy. They had then&mdash;and happily
+this is not wholly the case at present&mdash;no rights that a white man was
+bound to respect. But the Indians were still many and the settlers
+were few. To a great leader, who of course could not take into account
+the mighty force behind the Anglo-Saxon ranks that first marched over
+the Alleghenies, it would still seem practical to band the red men
+together in a vast confederation and drive the invaders back again
+beyond the Ohio and the mountains. This was Tecumsch's splendid plan.
+This was the design to which he devoted his life, and which he pursued
+with such ardor and genius as to do what an Indian had never before
+accomplished. Pontiac, it is true, at the siege of Detroit gathered a
+number of tribes under his leadership, but he never dreamed of a
+continental confederacy, as did Tecumseh. In this vast design he was
+materially aided by his brother, best known by the name of the
+Prophet, who, while lacking in judgment, was none the less a man of
+extraordinary force of character. He proclaimed that he had received
+power from the Great Spirit to confound the enemies of the Indians,
+stay the march of disease and death, and that he was the Messiah to
+lead his people to new and greater things. But as conditions to
+success the Indians must stop drinking fire-water, they must cease
+intermarrying with the whites or trading with them, and they must hold
+all things as the property of all. They must return to their original
+dress and manners, and forget that they had ever seen or known the
+"pale faces." The fame and influence of the Prophet spread with almost
+miraculous rapidity, and young men and warriors came from afar in
+crowds to receive inspiration from him. Tecumseh with rare ability
+turned this influence to advance his own plans. And of course this
+constant stream of visitors to his brother, enabled the chief to
+spread his racial idea far and wide. One of the things that Tecumseh
+maintained was that the Indians held the land in common, that no one
+tribe owned this or that territory, but that the Great Spirit had
+given it equally to all. This he said at the conference at Vincennes,
+but General Harrison ridiculed the idea and stated that if the Great
+Spirit had intended to make one nation of the Indians, he would not
+have put different languages into their heads, but would have taught
+them all to speak alike. Tecumseh bitterly replied that no one tribe
+had the right to give away what was the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page312" name="page312"></a>(p. 312)</span> joint property of
+all, and not until the United States agreed to cease purchasing lands
+from the Indians and restored the lands recently bought, would peace
+be possible. Pointing to the moon that had risen on the council,
+Governor Harrison said that the moon would sooner fall to earth than
+the United States would give up anything fairly acquired. "Then," said
+Tecumseh, "I suppose that you and I will have to fight it out."</p>
+
+<p>But these councils ended in nothing except a manly and impressive
+statement by Tecumseh of his position, and a strong and terribly just
+indictment of the whites for their treatment of the Indians. Tecumseh
+was constantly on the move. Now on the Lakes, now on the Wabash, then
+on the Mississippi or the plains to the westward, then on the Ohio or
+the hills that roll to the south from it. Everywhere the Indians
+received him graciously. But an accident destroyed his plans, and one
+defeat dashed his confederation to pieces. During his absence Governor
+Harrison, alarmed at the gathering of warriors at the Prophet's town
+of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River, in Indiana, marched against it.
+There was no necessity for a battle. It might easily have been
+avoided. Toward the close of day the Americans reached Tippecanoe. The
+Indians disclaimed any hostile ideas, and it was settled that the
+terms of peace were to be arranged the next day. That night, however,
+the Indians treacherously attacked the Americans. The conflict was
+fierce and bloody. The Indian braves were animated by the promises of
+the Prophet, who declared that they would be victorious and that he
+had rendered the bullets of the white men of no avail. During the
+battle he stood on a neighboring hill and chanted a war song, to
+further fill his warriors with courage and enthusiasm. But though the
+red men fought gallantly, they were doomed to defeat. They were
+scattered up and down the Wabash, their town was burnt, and the power
+of the Western Indians was by this one blow shattered. So complete was
+the victory and so far-reaching in its effects, that General Harrison
+at once became the popular idol, and the glorification of the battle
+of Tippecanoe, a generation later carried him into the Presidential
+chair. It was this battle that gave the West to the whites.</p>
+
+<p>As for Tecumseh, he returned suddenly from the West to find that
+despite his commands, the Prophet had permitted a battle. In his rage
+and disappointment he took his brother, now fallen and disgraced, by
+the hair and shook him. But no longer was it possible to hold his
+tribes together. The victory of the United States at Tippecanoe took
+the ardor for battle and resistance quite out of them. There were
+hundreds of them, however, who in the war of 1812, which broke out
+immediately, followed Tecumseh into the British service, in which he
+was commissioned as a major-general. In that service he was doomed to
+continued disaster. The English commander. General Proctor, was
+incompetent and, in all the qualities of real manhood, the inferior of
+his savage ally. After the battle of Put-in-Bay, on Lake Erie, he
+started to retreat. Tecumseh protested, and was induced to go on only
+by the promise that winter supplies would be delivered a few miles up
+the Thames. It was on this stream that Proctor finally determined to
+make a stand, but at the outset of the action he, coward-like,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page313" name="page313"></a>(p. 313)</span> retreated with his red coats, leaving the Indians to bear
+the brunt of the battle. Tecumseh had gone into the fight saying that
+he would be killed, and his prediction was verified. But how he died
+no one can say with certainty. No less than four Americans claimed the
+honor of having killed him. Among the slain, in that time of fierce
+pursuit and confusion, his body was not even identified. But there it
+was, on the banks of that quiet Canadian stream, some thirty-five
+miles from Detroit, that the greatest Indian in statecraft, diplomacy,
+devotion to his people, and in dignity of thought and intellectual
+gifts, found his unmarked grave. No one yet has written a biography of
+him that does full justice to his great abilities and lofty character.
+But his name is the most familiar of all Indian names, and he is the
+only Indian after whom Western fathers and mothers have ever named
+their sons. The late General of the United States Army, William
+Tecumseh Sherman, bore his name, as have hundreds of other boys born
+in Ohio, Kentucky, and the great States that roll westward from them.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig003" name="sig003"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig003.jpg" width="250" height="86" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>JAMES LAWRENCE<br>
+(1781-1813)</h3>
+
+<a id="img033" name="img033"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="250" height="270" alt="James Lawrence." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Captain James Lawrence was one of that band of chivalrous spirits who,
+concentrating all their life in the work, with insufficient means, in
+the face of powerful enemies, raised our infant navy in an instant, as
+it were, to an honored rank in the world. The force and energy of the
+free national development were felt in the spontaneous movement that
+placed so many ardent, courageous spirits at the service of the
+country. These men, Barry, Barney, Decatur, Bainbridge, Perry, Somers,
+and the rest&mdash;the list is a long one&mdash;were volunteers in the cause,
+fighting more for glory than for pay. Such spirits were not to be
+hired&mdash;theirs was no mercenary service. It was limited by no
+prudential considerations. They went forth singly or united, the
+commissioned champions of the nation, with their lives in their hands,
+ready to sacrifice <span class="pagenum"><a id="page314" name="page314"></a>(p. 314)</span> themselves in that cause. Punctilious on
+all points of honor, they sought but one reward&mdash;victory. There was
+but one thing for them to do&mdash;to conquer; and, failing that, to die.
+Of these fiery-souled heroes, who carried their country in their
+hearts, the men of courtesy and courage, of equal humanity and
+bravery, true sons of chivalry, Lawrence will ever be ranked among the
+noblest.</p>
+
+<p>He was born October 1, 1781, at Burlington, on the banks of the
+Delaware, in New Jersey. His father, John Lawrence, was an eminent
+counsellor at law at that place. The death of his mother, shortly
+after his birth, threw the charge of the child upon his elder sisters,
+by whom he was tenderly cared for. His disposition answered to this
+gentle culture. The boy was dutiful and affectionate, amiable in
+disposition and agreeable in manners. Such a soil is peculiarly
+favorable to the growth of the manly virtues where nature has assisted
+by her generous physical gifts. The bravest men have often been the
+gentlest. It is the union of the two conditions which, as in Sir
+Philip Sidney, makes the perfect warrior.</p>
+
+<p>Young Lawrence early showed a liking for the sea, and would have led a
+life on the waters from the age of twelve, had not his father firmly
+turned his attention to books and education. It was his intention to
+prepare him for his own profession, the law, and his desire that he
+should enjoy the usual preparatory finished education. This was,
+however, prevented by his pecuniary misfortunes, and the youth passed
+from his primary school at once to the law office of his brother, John
+Lawrence, then residing at Woodbury. He spent two years in this
+situation, between thirteen and fifteen, or thereabout, vainly
+endeavoring to reconcile his humors to the onerous duties of the
+unwelcome position. The death of his father left him, in a measure,
+free to follow his own inclinations, and his brother, perceiving his
+strong bent for the sea, placed him under the care of a Mr. Griscomb,
+at Burlington, to study navigation, evidently with a view to enter the
+naval service of the country, for we find him, after a brief three
+months' instruction, in possession of a midshipman's warrant. This was
+dated September 4, 1798, the year when Congress seriously directed its
+attention to the protection of our commerce, then so wantonly pillaged
+by the two great belligerents of Europe, by the creation of a distinct
+navy department, and the enlargement of our naval force. The movement
+was specially directed to the French aggressions on the Atlantic and
+in the Mediterranean. Indeed, in all but the name, war existed with
+France. It was called a quasi war.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence's first service was a cruise to the West Indies, in the
+Ganges, a twenty-four gun ship, then commanded by Captain Tingey. He
+showed in this and other voyages such aptitude for his duties that he
+was made an acting lieutenant by his commander previous to his
+receiving his commission from Government. In 1802 he was appointed
+first lieutenant in the Enterprise, of twelve guns, one of the fleet
+of Commodore Morris, sent to the Mediterranean to prosecute the war
+with Tripoli. He particularly distinguished himself in that service,
+by his adventures with Lieutenant David Porter, of the New York, in an
+attack in open day on certain coasters or feluccas laden with wheat,
+which took refuge <span class="pagenum"><a id="page315" name="page315"></a>(p. 315)</span> in Old Tripoli, where they were defended
+by a land force. The attack was made in boats, at close quarters,
+under a heavy fire of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence had a second opportunity of distinguishing himself in this
+war in an action likely to be better remembered by the public, the
+glorious adventure of Decatur, in the destruction of the wrecked and
+captured Philadelphia, in the harbor of Tripoli, in February, 1804.
+Lawrence was the first lieutenant of that officer in this brilliant
+adventure, and shared its full dangers and glories.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence was also engaged in the Enterprise, in Preble's bombardment
+of Tripoli, the same year. He returned in the winter to the United
+States, with that commodore, in the John Adams. In the following
+spring of 1805, Lawrence successfully carried across the Atlantic one
+of the fleet of gunboats, No. 6, of which he was commander, destined
+for service in the Mediterranean. It was a small vessel, mounting two
+guns, not at all adapted for ocean navigation. The voyage was looked
+upon as a marvel. When near the Western Islands, Mr. Cooper, in his
+"Naval History" tells, he "fell in with the British frigate Lapwing,
+28, Captain Upton which ran for him, under the impression that the
+gunboat was some wrecked mariners on a raft, there being a great show
+of canvas and apparently no hull."</p>
+
+<p>After the war with Tripoli was ended, Lawrence returned to the United
+States, and in the interval, when the war with England, after the
+affair with the Leopard and Chesapeake, was daily becoming more
+imminent, we find him, in 1808, appointed first lieutenant of the
+Constitution. About the same time he married Miss Montaudevert, the
+daughter of a respectable merchant of New York. He was on duty in the
+Vixen, Wasp, and Argus; and, at the commencement of the war of 1812,
+was promoted to the command of the Hornet. While in this last vessel
+he sailed with Bainbridge, who had the flag-ship Constitution, on a
+cruise along the coast of South America, and, having occasion to look
+in at the port of San Salvador, found there the British sloop-of-war,
+Bonne Citoyenne, of eighteen guns, ready to sail for England with a
+large amount of specie. Lawrence, whose ship mounted an equal number
+of guns, was exceedingly anxious to engage with this vessel. He sent a
+challenge to its commander, Captain Green, through the American
+consul, inviting him to "come out," and pledging his honor that
+neither the Constitution, nor any other American vessel, should
+interfere, which Commodore Bainbridge seconded by promising to be out
+of the way, or at least non-combatant. The English captain, however,
+declined.</p>
+
+<p>It was an unhappy precedent which Lawrence thus established, injurious
+to the service and destined to act fatally against himself in the end,
+when from the challenger he became the challenged.</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution meanwhile sailed away, to close the year with her
+brilliant engagement with the Java, leaving the Hornet engaged in the
+blockade of the Bonne Citoyenne. Eighteen days since the departure of
+the flag-ship had passed while her consort was thus engaged, waiting
+till her expected prize should issue from the harbor, when the Hornet
+was robbed of her chances of victory by the arrival of his majesty's
+seventy-four, the Montague. Escape now became the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page316" name="page316"></a>(p. 316)</span> policy of
+Lawrence, who luckily managed to get from the harbor in safety, and
+turned his course to the northward, along the coast. While cruising in
+this direction, after capturing a small English brig, he fell in with,
+on February 24, 1813, off the mouth of the Demerara, two brigs of war,
+with one of which, the Peacock, Captain Peake, he speedily became
+engaged. The American vessel on this occasion had somewhat the
+advantage in armament. In the words of Lawrence's dispatch, which
+gives a modest and forcible account of the affair, after mentioning
+his attempt to get at the first vessel he discovered at anchor off the
+bar, he says: "At half-past three <span class="smcap">P.M.</span>, I discovered another sail on
+my weather quarter, edging down for us. At twenty minutes past four
+she hoisted English colors, at which time we discovered her to be a
+large man-of-war brig; beat to quarters and cleared ship for action;
+kept close by the wind, in order if possible, to get the weather gage.
+At ten minutes past five, finding I could weather the enemy, I hoisted
+American colors and tacked. At twenty minutes past five, in passing
+each other, exchanged broadsides within half pistol shot. Observing
+the enemy in the act of wearing, I bore up, received his starboard
+broadside, ran him close on board on the starboard quarter, and kept
+up such a heavy and well-directed fire, that in less than fifteen
+minutes he surrendered, being literally cut to pieces, and hoisted an
+ensign, union down, from his fore-rigging, as a signal of distress."</p>
+
+<p>The hull of the Peacock was so riddled that she sank, while every
+exertion was made by her captors to save her by throwing over her guns
+and stopping the shot-holes. Nine of her crew went down with her, and
+three of the Hornet's men. Captain Peake was found dead on board. The
+loss of the Hornet was trifling compared with that of her adversary;
+but one man killed and four wounded or injured, one of whom afterward
+died. This superiority is attributed by Cooper, who sums up the
+testimony, "to the superior gunnery and rapid handling of the Hornet."</p>
+
+<p>This victory brought Lawrence a harvest of honors, public and private.
+Before he sailed, he had felt called upon to protest to the Secretary
+of the Navy against what he thought an injustice done him in the
+promotion of a younger officer to a captaincy, while he remained
+simply lieutenant-commander. He now found that the promotion had been
+conferred upon him in his absence, and was offered the command of the
+Constitution. He would have been pleased to sail in this vessel, but,
+much to his annoyance, immediately after receiving the appointment was
+ordered to the Chesapeake, then lying at Boston.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Lawrence took the command of the Chesapeake at Boston toward
+the end of May, 1813. The Shannon frigate, Captain Broke, a superior
+vessel of the British navy, had been for some time off the port, and
+her commander, assured of his strength, was desirous of a conflict.
+"You will feel it as a compliment," he wrote, "if I say that the
+result of our meeting may be the most grateful service I can render to
+my country; and I doubt not that you, equally confident of success,
+will feel convinced that it is only by triumphs in equal combats that
+your little navy can now hope to console your country for the loss of
+that trade it can no longer protect."</p>
+
+<a id="img034" name="img034"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img034.jpg" width="500" height="401" alt="" title="">
+<p>"Don't give up the ship."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page317" name="page317"></a>(p. 317)</span> It would be complimenting the valor of Lawrence at the
+expense of his judgment, if we were to pronounce him ardent for the
+fight, with the circumstances under which it took place. In fact, as
+Mr. Cooper states, "he went into the engagement with strong
+reluctance, on account of the undisciplined state of his crew, to whom
+he was personally unknown." The challenging vessel, on the contrary,
+carried a picked crew, with every advantage of discipline and
+equipment. The presumption, of course, is that he was fully prepared.
+The armament of the two vessels was about equal, mounting forty-nine
+guns each.</p>
+
+<p>At noon, then, on June 1st, Lawrence weighed anchor and left his
+station in the bay to proceed to sea with a southwesterly breeze. The
+Shannon was in sight, and the two ships stood off the shore till about
+half-past four in the afternoon, when the Chesapeake fired a gun,
+which was the signal for a series of man&oelig;uvres, bringing the
+vessels within range of each other about a quarter before six. The
+Shannon hove to, and the Chesapeake bore down toward her. It was
+Lawrence's intention to bring his ship fairly alongside of the enemy
+for a full discharge of his battery. He consequently first received
+the enemy's fire from the cabin guns, as, the wind having freshened,
+his ship came up to measure her length with her antagonist, which lay
+with her head to the southeast. Then the Chesapeake poured in her full
+fire, inflicting considerable damage, which was repeated in the
+successive discharges for several minutes. In this commencement of the
+action it was considered that the Shannon received most injury,
+particularly in her hull. Unhappily, the Chesapeake in turn lost the
+command of her sails. The ship was consequently brought up into the
+wind, and fell aboard of the enemy, with her mizzen rigging foul of
+the Shannon's fore-chains. This accident exposed the Chesapeake to a
+raking fire, which swept her deck, and, as she was already deprived of
+the services of the officers who had fallen in the first discharges,
+her guns in turn were deserted by the men. Captain Lawrence had
+already received a wound in the leg; his first lieutenant, Ludlow, was
+wounded; the sailing-master was killed, and other important officers
+were mortally wounded. As the ships became entangled, Lawrence gave
+orders to summon the boarders, who were ready below; but unhappily,
+the negro whose duty it was to call them up by his bugle, was too much
+frightened to sound a note. A verbal message was sent, and before it
+could be executed Lawrence was a second time struck, receiving a
+grapeshot in his body. The deck was thus left with no officer above
+the rank of a midshipman. The men of the Shannon now poured in and
+gained possession of the vessel. As Lawrence was borne below, mortally
+wounded, his dying thoughts were of his command, uttering his order
+not to strike the flag of his ship, or some equivalent expression,
+which is handed down in the popular phrase, "Don't give up the ship!"
+He lingered and died of his wounds on board on June 6th. The
+Chesapeake was carried into Halifax, and there the remains of her
+gallant captain were borne from the frigate with military honors, with
+every mark of respect which a generous enemy could pay to a fallen
+hero.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page318" name="page318"></a>(p. 318)</span> STEPHEN DECATUR<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6" title="Go to footnote 6"><span class="small">[6]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Edward S. Ellis, A.M.</span><br>
+(1779-1820)</h3>
+
+<a id="img035" name="img035"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img035.jpg" width="250" height="382" alt="Stephen Decatur." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Stephen Decatur was born on the eastern shore of Maryland, Worcester
+County, January 5, 1779. The family was of French extraction in the
+paternal line, and of Irish on the maternal side. The grandfather was
+a native of La Rochelle, in France, and married a lady of Newport, R.
+I., where Stephen, the son of the commodore, was born. When a very
+young man he removed to Philadelphia and married the daughter of an
+Irish gentleman named Pine. Decatur was bred to the sea and commanded
+a merchantman out of the port of Philadelphia, until appointed to the
+sloop-of-war, Delaware. Upon the completion of the frigate
+Philadelphia, the command of it was given to him.</p>
+
+<p>The elder Decatur had one daughter and three sons. The daughter was
+twice married, her first husband having been killed in a duel. The
+sons were Stephen, James, and John P., all of whom grew to manhood.
+The boys were educated at the old Philadelphia Academy in Fourth
+Street. Admiral Charles Stewart attended the same school and was an
+intimate friend of Decatur through life. Many of the incidents of this
+sketch were received by the writer from Stewart, who fully appreciated
+the manliness, courage, and nobility of the sailor, now accepted as
+the foremost type of the heroes and founders of the American navy.</p>
+
+<p>"Decatur was a born fighter," said Stewart; "I never knew a boy so
+fond of a bout as he. I sat near him at school and have known weeks to
+pass, without a single day in which he did not arrange a contest with
+one of the boys. We generally adjourned to the Quaker burying-ground
+opposite, and had it out among the tombs. Decatur despised meanness of
+every description, and rarely was beaten in a fight. When only
+fifteen, he half killed a partially intoxicated man who insulted his
+mother and refused to apologize. He never knew when he was whipped,
+but would hang on like a bull-dog. I was a few months older than he,
+but we were appointed midshipmen in the same year, 1798. Our intimacy
+was never broken by the slightest incident."</p>
+
+<p>Upon entering the navy, in March of the year named, Decatur joined the
+frigate United States, under command of Commodore Barry, who had
+obtained the warrant for him. He served with Barry until promoted to a
+lieutenancy. The United States needed repairs, and not wishing to stay
+in port, Decatur <span class="pagenum"><a id="page319" name="page319"></a>(p. 319)</span> applied for orders to join the brig
+Norfolk, then bound to the Spanish Main. After one cruise he returned
+again to port and resumed his station on the United States, where he
+stayed until our naval troubles with France terminated. He was next
+ordered to the Essex and sailed with Commodore Dale's squadron to the
+Mediterranean. Returning home once more, he was appointed to the New
+York, one of the second squadron under command of Commodore Morris.
+When he again came back, he was ordered to command the Argus, to
+proceed with her to join Commodore Preble's squadron in the
+Mediterranean, and on his arrival there to resign the Argus to
+Lieutenant Hull and take charge of the schooner Enterprise, then
+commanded by that officer.</p>
+
+<p>The exchange being made, Decatur sailed to Syracuse where the squadron
+was to rendezvous. There he learned of the disaster to the
+Philadelphia. That frigate, as the reader will recall, ran aground
+while blockading Tripoli (with which country we were at war), and was
+captured by the Turks. Commodore Bainbridge and his crew of more than
+three hundred, among whom were Porter, Jones, and Biddle, were made
+prisoners and immured in a gloomy dungeon. Decatur quickly formed a
+plan for capturing or destroying the frigate. Preble, to whom the
+proposal was submitted, refused at first to give his consent, but his
+impetuous lieutenant won him over and was allowed to lead the
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Decatur selected the ketch Intrepid, which he had captured a few weeks
+before, and manned her with seventy volunteers, chiefly his own crew.
+He sailed from Syracuse, February 3, 1804, accompanied by the United
+States brig Siren, Lieutenant Stewart, who was to aid with his boats
+and to receive the crew of the ketch, should it be found expedient to
+use her as a fireship.</p>
+
+<p>The weather was so tempestuous that it required fifteen days to reach
+the harbor of Tripoli. It was arranged by Decatur and Stewart that the
+ketch should enter the harbor about ten o'clock that night, attended
+by the boats of the Siren. A change of wind threw the Siren six or
+eight miles away from the Intrepid, and, fearing to wait for the
+boats, Decatur decided to adventure alone in the harbor, which he did
+about eight o'clock.</p>
+
+<p>The Philadelphia lay within one-half gunshot of the Bashaw's castle
+and of the principal battery; two of the enemy's cruisers were only a
+couple of cables' length away on the starboard quarter, and their
+gunboats were within one-half gunshot on the starboard bow. All the
+guns of the frigate were mounted and loaded.</p>
+
+<p>Although it was only three miles from the entrance of the harbor to
+the frigate, the wind was so light that the Intrepid did not get
+within hail until eleven o'clock. At the distance of two hundred
+yards, the frigate hailed the ketch and ordered her to anchor under
+threat of being fired into. Decatur's Maltese pilot, by his direction,
+replied they had lost their anchor in a gale of wind off the coast and
+were unable to do as commanded. When within fifty yards Decatur sent a
+small boat with a rope to make fast to the frigate's fore-chains. This
+was done and the Americans began warping the ketch alongside. Not
+until that moment did the Tripolitans suspect the character of the
+Intrepid. They were thrown into confusion, during which the two
+vessels came together. Decatur was the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page320" name="page320"></a>(p. 320)</span> first to leap aboard,
+followed immediately by Midshipman Charles Morris. A minute passed
+before their companions could join them, but the Turks were too
+terrified to sweep the daring officers from the deck, as they might
+have done in the twinkling of an eye.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Decatur could form a line equal to that of the enemy, the
+charge was made. Twenty of the Turks were killed, many jumped
+overboard, and the rest scurried to the main deck whither they were
+pursued and driven into the hold.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans had hardly gained possession of the frigate, when a
+number of launches were seen hurrying about the harbor. Decatur
+decided that the best defence could be made by staying on the frigate,
+and he prepared to receive their attack. Meanwhile, the enemy had
+opened fire from the batteries and the castle and from two corsairs
+lying near. As the launches did not approach, the lieutenant ordered
+the ship to be set on fire in several places. The flames spread so
+fast that it was with the utmost difficulty the Americans were able to
+reach the ketch. At that critical moment, a propitious breeze sprang
+up and carried the Intrepid out of the harbor. She had not lost a man,
+only four being wounded.</p>
+
+<p>For this exploit, Decatur was promoted to the rank of post captain,
+there being no intermediate grade. The honor was specially gratifying,
+since the promotion was made with the consent of every officer over
+whose head he was raised. It should be stated that at that time the
+rank of captain was the highest in the navy. A commodore was simply
+the senior officer of a squadron and might be a master, commandant, a
+lieutenant, or midshipman.</p>
+
+<p>It was decided some weeks later to make an attack on Tripoli. The King
+of Naples loaned six gunboats and two lombards to Commodore Preble.
+These were formed in two divisions, Decatur commanding one and
+Lieutenant Somers the other. The squadron which sailed from Syracuse
+included the frigate Constitution, the brig Siren, the schooners
+Nautilus and Vixen, and the gunboats. Adverse winds deferred the
+attack for several days. Finally, on the morning of August 3d, the
+weather being favorable, the signal was given from the commodore's
+vessel to prepare for action. This signal to open the bombardment was
+made at nine o'clock. The gunboats were cast off and advanced in a
+line ahead, led by Captain Decatur and covered by the frigate
+Constitution and the brigs and schooners. The enemy's gunboats were
+moored along the harbor under the batteries and within musket-shot.
+Their sails had been taken from them and they were ordered to sink
+rather than abandon their position. They were aided and covered also
+by a brig of sixteen and a schooner of ten guns.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering into close action, Decatur went alongside each of the
+boats and directed them to unship their bowsprits and follow him, as
+it was his intention to board the enemy's boats. Lieutenant James
+Decatur commanded one of the boats belonging to Commodore Preble's
+division, but being farther to the windward than the rest of his
+division, he joined and took orders from his brother.</p>
+
+<p>When Captain Decatur in the leading boat came within range of the
+batteries, they and the gunboats opened fire. He returned it and
+pushed his way among the boats. At this juncture, Commodore Preble,
+fearing the results of Decatur's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page321" name="page321"></a>(p. 321)</span> rashness, ordered the
+signal to be made for retreat. This command brought to light the
+singular fact, that in making out the signals before going into
+battle, no one had thought of that which ordered a retreat. It was
+impossible, therefore, to recall the daring Decatur.</p>
+
+<p>The enemy's gunboats contained forty men each and ours the same.
+Decatur had twenty-seven Americans and thirteen Neapolitans. On
+boarding the enemy, the latter held back, but our countrymen charged
+eagerly forward. Ten minutes sufficed to clear the deck. Eight of the
+Turks plunged into the hold, some fell while fighting, and others
+leaped into the sea. Only three of the Americans were wounded.</p>
+
+<p>As Decatur was about to withdraw with his prize, his brother's boat
+came under the stern. The men called to him that they had engaged and
+captured one of the enemy, but her commander, after surrendering, had
+treacherously shot Lieutenant James Decatur, pushed off while the crew
+were recovering the body, and was at that moment making all haste for
+the harbor.</p>
+
+<p>Decatur was infuriated on hearing this and resolved that the miscreant
+should not escape. With his single boat he pressed with all possible
+speed within the enemy's line, and running aside the offending boat,
+bounded over the gunwale, followed by eleven Americans, all that were
+left to him. Then followed the most desperate hand to hand fight
+conceivable, the issue being in doubt for twenty minutes.</p>
+
+<p>There have been many accounts of Decatur's exploit on this Tripolitan
+gunboat, with considerable variation as to particulars. That which
+follows is the story as it was told to me by Admiral Stewart, who
+received it from Decatur himself, immediately after the fight. Decatur
+presented the weapon, called an espontoon, to Stewart, and I naturally
+examined it with great interest. The handle was of ivory and the blade
+perhaps eight or ten inches long, being very narrow and curved like a
+scimetar. It had no edge, was sharply pointed, and evidently made for
+thrusting.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could stay the fury of Decatur. He easily identified the
+commander by his immense size and gorgeous uniform. He eagerly sought
+out the American and they instantly came together in the fight to the
+death. Decatur had a cutlass, and the Turk a pike. The latter
+inflicted a slight wound on Decatur's breast, and in parrying the
+stroke his sword broke off at the hilt. Flinging the weapon aside, the
+American sprang like a tiger at his antagonist. The two fell to the
+deck, Decatur under, and flat on his back. The Turk had the weapon I
+have described in the front of his sash and attempted to withdraw it
+to give the finishing thrust. Decatur flung his legs over his back and
+with one arm held his enemy so tight against his body that he could
+not force his hand between. In this position, Decatur with his free
+arm drew a pistol from near his hip, reached over the back of the Turk
+and fired downward, directly toward himself.</p>
+
+<p>"It was just like Decatur," said Stewart; "the chances were ten to one
+that the bullet would pass through both their bodies, but luckily it
+met a bone and the huge barbarian rolled off dead. The two were
+half-smothered by others fighting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page322" name="page322"></a>(p. 322)</span> and tumbling over them,
+and it was with the utmost difficulty that Decatur freed himself from
+them and rose to his feet."</p>
+
+<p>While this fierce struggle was going on, a Turk fought his way forward
+and aimed a fearful blow at Decatur, who was not aware of his danger.
+Reuben Jones, an American sailor, so desperately wounded that he could
+not use his arms, flung himself between them and received the blow on
+his skull, which was fractured. It is a pleasure to record, however,
+that the brave fellow finally recovered and lived many years on a
+pension from his government.</p>
+
+<p>Decatur succeeded in withdrawing with both prizes, and the next day
+was honored with the highest commendation in general orders from
+Commodore Preble. When the latter was superseded in command of the
+squadron, he gave the command of the Constitution to Decatur, who had
+some time before received his commission. From that ship he was
+removed to the Congress, returning home on her on the conclusion of
+peace with Tripoli.</p>
+
+<p>Decatur was next employed as superintendent of gunboats, and March 6,
+1806, was married to Miss Susan Wheeler of Norfolk, the only child of
+wealthy and cultured parents. The union was a most happy one, though
+no children were born to the couple.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of June, 1807, the British frigate Leopard, while
+cruising off the coast of Virginia, poured several broadsides into the
+American frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Barron.
+England, as will be remembered, insisted on the "right of search," and
+the British Captain Humphreys claimed that the American had several
+English deserters on board. The Chesapeake had three men killed and
+eighteen wounded, and being unprepared for action, struck her colors.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Barron was court-martialed and sentenced to five years'
+suspension without pay from the service, for what was deemed a
+cowardly act on his part. Commodore Decatur succeeded him in command
+of the ship, being transferred to the United States, when she was
+again put in commission.</p>
+
+<p>October 25, 1812, in latitude 29° N., longitude 29° 30' W., Decatur
+fell in with the British ship Macedonian, of 49 carriage guns (the odd
+one shifting). This frigate was the largest of her class, two years
+old, four months out of dock, and reputed one of the best sailers in
+the English service. Taking advantage of the wind, the enemy fought at
+her own distance. The battle lasted one hour and fifty minutes. The
+United States poured such an incessant fire into the Macedonian that
+the shouts of her crew were plainly heard. She lost her mizzenmast,
+fore and main topsails and main yard, and was much damaged in the
+hull. Her official list was, 36 killed and 48 wounded, that of the
+Americans being 5 killed and 7 wounded. Decatur could have continued
+his cruise, but was obliged to accompany his crippled prize into port,
+where she was equipped as an American frigate. The young officer, as
+may be supposed, was hailed by the country as its foremost naval hero.
+Congress and several of the States voted him valuable testimonials for
+his gallantry.</p>
+
+<a id="img036" name="img036"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="400" height="519" alt="" title="">
+<p>Decatur's conflict with the Algerine at Tripoli.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following year, Decatur attempted to gain the open sea from New
+York, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page323" name="page323"></a>(p. 323)</span> through Long Island Sound, with the Macedonian and
+Hornet. A British squadron of superior force, however, compelled him
+to run into the Thames River in Connecticut, and he lay off New London
+for months unable to get to sea. He was naturally impatient at being
+thus cooped up, and bitterly complained that traitors on shore, by
+means of "blue lights," warned the enemy whenever at night he prepared
+to break out of his imprisonment. He sent a challenge to Commander Sir
+Thomas Hardy of the blockading squadron, offering to fight two of the
+British frigates with two of his own, but the offer was declined and
+Decatur's frigates were afterward dismantled.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to New York, he assumed command of a squadron bound for the
+East Indies, and put to sea in the President. January 14, 1815,
+through the blunder of his pilot, his ship heavily grounded while
+going out. The next morning, Decatur discovered the British squadron
+in pursuit, consisting of the Majestic razee, the Endymion, Tenedos,
+and Pomona frigates and a brig. Of these the Endymion was the
+fleetest. After drawing her away from the rest, Decatur turned and
+attacked her. She was crippled and her battery silenced, when the
+American resumed her flight. By this time, however, the other ships
+had come up and opened fire. Escape was impossible and Decatur
+surrendered to the British squadron.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the United States under parole, he was despatched to the
+Mediterranean, on the conclusion of peace, to punish the Algerine
+pirates that were preying upon our commerce. He did his work
+thoroughly and well, compelling the Dey to sign the most humiliating
+treaty ever made with a Christian nation. He obtained similar redress
+at Tunis and Tripoli.</p>
+
+<p>Decatur was subsequently created Navy Commissioner and made his
+residence in Washington at Kalorama, formerly occupied by Joel Benton.</p>
+
+<p>Commodore Barron's suspension began February 8, 1808. He resorted to
+the merchant service, and was abroad when war was declared. His
+suspension terminated about eight months afterward, some time after
+which he reported himself to the navy department, by letter, for duty,
+the war continuing two years after his becoming available for command.
+He did not return to the United States until the close of 1818. He
+declared that he had used every effort to reach home before during
+hostilities, but was prevented. A court, presided over by Captain
+Charles Stewart, afterward declared its judgment that such effort had
+not been made by Barron.</p>
+
+<p>The latter felt resentful toward Decatur, and called him to account
+for certain expressions he had been told were used by him reflecting
+upon his conduct as an officer. When appealed to, Decatur, as Navy
+Commissioner, declared that he held no personal enmity toward Barron;
+he deemed it unjust to other officers of the navy that his request to
+be restored to command should be granted.</p>
+
+<p>Barron opened a sharp correspondence with Decatur, which continued
+nearly a year. Mutual friends, or rather enemies, fanned the trouble
+between them, which ended in a challenge from Barron which was
+promptly accepted by Decatur. The duel took place at Bladensburg, on
+the morning of March 22, 1820, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page324" name="page324"></a>(p. 324)</span> Commodore Bainbridge was
+Decatur's second, and Captain Jesse D. Elliott served Barron in a
+similar capacity. Decatur chivalrously surrendered his right to name
+the distance, which Barron made the shortest possible, eight paces, on
+account of his defective eyesight. Decatur was without a superior as a
+pistol shot, and, declaring that he did not wish the life of his
+antagonist, said he would only wound him in the hip.</p>
+
+<p>At the word "two," both fired so exactly together, that only one
+report was heard. Barron was struck in the right hip, as Decatur
+intended, and sank to the ground. Decatur stood erect a moment and was
+seen to turn pale, compress his lips, and press his hand against his
+side. Then he fell, the ball having passed through his abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>"I am mortally wounded," he said, "and wish that it had been in the
+defence of my country." His attendants helped him to his feet, and
+started slowly toward the waiting carriage. His pain was so great that
+after a few paces he sank exhausted, near where Barron was stretched
+on the ground. While the two thus lay near each other, waiting to be
+carried off, they shook hands, and each freely forgave the other.</p>
+
+<p>Decatur was lifted into the carriage, which reached Washington at
+half-past ten. He would not allow himself to be carried into his home
+until his wife and two nieces were sent to the upper floor where they
+could not see the dreadful sight. Wishing to save the distracted ones
+from the grief of witnessing his suffering, he refused them permission
+to enter the room where he lay.</p>
+
+<p>The news caused consternation and sorrow in Washington, where no man
+was more honored and loved than he. He thanked his friends for their
+sympathy, told them he had not long to live, and signed his will. "I
+am a dying man," said he, "and only regret that my wound was not
+received on the quarter-deck in the service of my country."</p>
+
+<p>When the surgeons proposed to probe for the bullet, he said it was not
+worth while as it had done all the harm it could. He remarked that he
+did not believe it possible for a person to suffer so much pain and
+yet live. But not once did he utter a groan. His agony was beyond
+description and did not cease until half-past ten, when he died.</p>
+
+<p>It seemed as if the whole male population of Washington and the
+adjacent county were present at the funeral, besides most of the
+officers of the government, members of Congress, and resident foreign
+ministers. The <span class="italic">National Intelligencer</span>, in an extra, said: "A hero
+has fallen. Commodore Stephen Decatur, one of the first officers of
+our navy, the pride of his country, the gallant and noble-hearted
+gentleman, is no more. He expired a few minutes ago, of the mortal
+wound received in the duel this morning. Mourn, Columbia! for one of
+thy brightest stars is set! A son without fear and without reproach,
+in the fulness of his fame, in the prime of his usefulness, has
+descended into the tomb."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig004" name="sig004"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig004.jpg" width="200" height="53" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page325" name="page325"></a>(p. 325)</span> OLIVER HAZARD PERRY<br>
+(1785-1819)</h3>
+
+<a id="img037" name="img037"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="250" height="319" alt="Oliver Hazard Perry." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Oliver Hazard Perry was born in Rhode Island, August 23, 1785. The
+late Commodore Mackenzie, of the navy, who possessed what we may term
+a fine biographical faculty, has traced in his interesting narrative
+of the Life of Perry, with fond minuteness, the early incidents of the
+boy's career. The chief characteristics, he tells us, "were an
+uncommon share of beauty, a sweetness and gentleness of disposition
+which corroborated the expression of his countenance, and a perfect
+disregard of danger, amounting to apparent unconsciousness." This
+biographer gives some curious anecdotes of his school days.</p>
+
+<p>Suffice it to say, that the family removing to Newport about this
+time, Perry found good opportunities of education at that place, and
+availed himself of them in a manly spirit. He was especially
+instructed in mathematics, and their application to navigation and
+nautical astronomy. As proof of the boy's ingenuousness, and the
+interest he excited in intelligent observers, it is related that Count
+Rochambeau, the son of the General of the Revolution, then residing at
+Newport, was particularly attracted to him, and that Bishop Seabury,
+on his visitation, marked him as a boy of religious feeling. These are
+traits which shape the man; we shall find them reappearing in the
+maturity of Perry's life, in his worth, humanity, and refinement.</p>
+
+<p>The boy was but thirteen when his father, in 1798, was called into the
+naval service of his country in the spirited effort made by President
+Adams to resist the aggressions of France upon the ocean. He took the
+command of a small frigate, built under his direction in Rhode Island,
+named the General Greene, and carried with him to sea his son Oliver
+as a midshipman, at the express solicitation of the youth. The General
+Greene was actively employed in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico,
+giving all its officers abundant opportunity for practice in the
+infant service. The French war flurry after a while blew over, as the
+Directory, the mainspring of these aggressions, lost power; peace was
+patched up, and Jefferson shortly after inaugurated an unwholesome
+pacific policy by a sweeping reduction of the navy, as if it were not
+small enough already. In this mutilating operation the elder Perry was
+dropped, the younger one fortunately retained.</p>
+
+<p>The navy, however, was soon revived by the demands of the nation to
+resist the iniquitous and insulting depredations upon life and
+property inflicted by the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page326" name="page326"></a>(p. 326)</span> Barbary powers. The United States
+had borne far too patiently with these injuries, though she had the
+honor of being in advance of the old powers of Europe in resisting
+them. The Mediterranean became the scene of many a chivalrous exploit
+of our early officers, a score of whom, headed by Preble, Bainbridge,
+Decatur, Somers, and others of that stamp of fiery and indomitable
+valor, gained immortal laurels by their deeds of daring in conflict
+with the infidel.</p>
+
+<p>The young Perry served as midshipman in the frigate Adams, which
+sailed from Newport, in 1802, to join Commodore Morris' command at
+Gibraltar. His ship was for some time employed in blockading a
+Tripolitan at that port; a tedious but instructive service in
+man&oelig;uvring, at the close of which Perry, in consequence of his
+accomplishments, was promoted by his captain to the duties of a
+lieutenant. The frigate was then employed as a convoy, making the tour
+of the northern ports. This gave Perry an opportunity to study scenes
+of the old world, which can never lose their influence in the
+formation of the man of education and refinement.</p>
+
+<p>In 1809, Perry got to sea in command of an armed schooner, the
+Revenge, which was employed on the coast service. While on the
+southern coast, he had an opportunity to gain distinction, which he
+did not fail to avail himself of, in cutting out a stolen American
+vessel from under the guns of a British ship in Spanish waters, off
+Florida. Conveying his prize off the coast, he was threatened by his
+Majesty's ship Gore, of double his force, when, having, as Mackenzie
+says, "no idea of being 'Leopardized,'" he put his little schooner in
+readiness for boarding at a moment's notice&mdash;a spirited resolution of
+great bravery, which he would no doubt have carried out, had the
+British vessel insisted upon overhauling the Revenge. While engaged in
+cruising off Connecticut and Rhode Island, in the beginning of 1811,
+he unfortunately lost his vessel, through an error of the pilot, on
+the Watch Hill Reef, opposite Fisher's Island, as he was sailing from
+Newport to New London. Every seamanlike effort was made to save the
+vessel, and when all was unavailing, Perry showed equal skill and
+resolution in landing the crew in a heavy January swell, with a
+violent wind. He was himself the last to leave the vessel. He was not
+merely acquitted of neglect, but his conduct was extolled by a court
+of inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>He was, of course, thrown temporarily out of command by the loss of
+his vessel; an interval of repose which he hastened to turn to account
+by forming a matrimonial alliance with Miss Elizabeth Champlin Mason,
+of an influential family at Newport, to whom he had become engaged
+several years before, on his arrival from the Mediterranean. The
+wedding took place in May, 1811, affording him ample opportunity for
+the honeymoon, previous to the actual outbreak of the war impending
+with England.</p>
+
+<p>This event found him at Newport, with the rank of master commandant,
+in charge of the flotilla of gunboats keeping watch in the harbor. It
+was a service not altogether adapted to satisfy the ambitious spirit
+of a young officer, but it was important in itself, and became, in
+Perry's hands, a step to future eminence. His course, at this time,
+illustrates a valuable truth, that no honorable employment is
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page327" name="page327"></a>(p. 327)</span> profitless to a man of genius. He will in some way turn it
+to account. Constructing gunboats, and recruiting men in port, were
+services not calculated to make any great blaze in a despatch, but
+they conducted Perry to his glorious bulletins of victory, and the
+resounding praises of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>He saw the new field of military operations opening on the lakes, and
+his experienced eye must have seen as well the certain difficulties,
+as the possible honors of the situation. It was not the post which an
+officer with the claims of Perry would have sought, while brilliant
+victories were being won, in the eye of the world, on the vast theatre
+of the ocean. Others, however, were before him on that element.</p>
+
+<p>Despairing of a command at sea, he offered himself to Commodore
+Chauncey, who had recently been placed at the head of the lake
+service. His character was understood by this officer, and the proffer
+accepted. The necessary communications were made to the Government,
+and in the middle of February, in 1813, he was ordered to join
+Chauncey at Sackett's Harbor, with the picked men of his Newport
+flotilla. He lost no time in reporting himself at the appointed spot.
+His destination was Lake Erie, where he was to supervise the
+construction of two vessels to be employed in the next campaign, and
+he was anxious to get to the work; but Chauncey, who felt the need of
+his aid, detained him for a while on Lake Ontario. He, however, toward
+the end of March, reached Erie, where the vessels were building.</p>
+
+<p>His experience in constructing gunboats at Newport was now of avail to
+him. He put the defence of the works, which had been greatly
+neglected, in a state of efficiency, and set himself to the collection
+of supplies, workmen, and an armament: no easy matter at that day and
+in that place in the wilderness; for such, as compared with our own
+time, it then was. The labors of Perry in this work of preparation
+were, in fact, of the most arduous character. They should not be
+forgotten as a heavy item to his credit in the sum total of his
+victory. Three gunboats and two brigs were launched and equipped in
+May.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time that he received advices that Chauncey was about
+to make an attack on the British post of Fort George, at the mouth of
+the Niagara River. He had been promised a share in this adventure, and
+hastened to the scene. The incidents of this journey show the spirit
+of the man. In his own words, in a letter describing this passage of
+his life: "On the evening of May 23d, I received information, about
+sunset, that Commodore Chauncey would in a day or two arrive at
+Niagara, when an attack would be made on Fort George. He had
+previously promised me the command of the seamen and marines that
+might land from the fleet. Without hesitation I determined to join
+him. I left Erie about dark in a small four-oared open boat. The night
+was squally and very dark. After encountering headwinds and many
+difficulties, I arrived at Buffalo on the evening of the 24th,
+refreshed, and remained there until daylight; I then passed the whole
+of the British lines in my boat, within musket-shot. Passing
+Strawberry Island, several people on our side of the river hailed and
+beckoned me on shore. On landing they pointed out about forty men on
+the end of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page328" name="page328"></a>(p. 328)</span> Grand Island, who, doubtless, were placed there
+to intercept boats. In a few moments I should have been in their
+hands. I then proceeded with more caution. As we arrived at Schlosser,
+it rained violently. No horse could be procured. I determined to push
+forward on foot; walked about two miles and a half, when the rain fell
+in such torrents I was obliged to take shelter in a house at hand. The
+sailors whom I had left with the boat, hearing of public horses on the
+commons, determined to catch one for me. They found an old passing one
+which could not run away, and brought him in, rigged a rope from the
+boat into a bridle, and borrowed a saddle without either stirrup,
+girth, or crupper. Thus accoutred they pursued me, and found me at the
+house where I had stopped. The rain ceasing, I mounted; my legs hung
+down the sides of the horse, and I was obliged to steady the saddle by
+holding by the mane. In this style I entered the camp, it raining
+again most violently. Colonel Porter being the first to discover me,
+insisted upon my taking his horse, as I had some distance to ride to
+the other end of the camp, off which the Madison lay."</p>
+
+<p>Having thus reached head-quarters, arrangements were rapidly made, and
+the landing of the troops assigned to Perry. In the ignorance or
+inexperience of some of the officers, there was considerable confusion
+in directing the boats in the river, which was remedied by Perry's
+vigilance and decision. He was everywhere, in the midst of danger,
+guiding and directing; the unexpected attack of the British was met by
+his energy, the landing effected, and the object of the expedition
+accomplished. This victory opened the port of Black Rock, where
+several American vessels were collected, which Perry undertook to get
+into Lake Erie against the strong current of the river, a feat which
+was accomplished with extraordinary fatigue; so that he returned to
+his station at Erie, with a respectable addition of five vessels to
+his own newly launched little fleet in that harbor. The American force
+was composed of the brigs Lawrence and Niagara, of twenty guns each,
+and seven smaller vessels, numbering in all fifty-four guns. Captain
+Barclay, commander of the British forces on the lake, had the Detroit,
+of nineteen guns, the Queen Charlotte, Lady Provost, and three other
+vessels, numbering altogether sixty-three guns. The range of the
+enemy's guns gave them the advantage at a distance, when the
+corresponding American fire was ineffectual. The Americans, too, were
+under a disadvantage in the enfeebled state of the crews, by the
+general illness which prevailed among them. The British force had
+undoubtedly the superiority in trained men, as compared with Perry's
+extemporized miscellaneous command, and untried junior officers. The
+latter proved, however, to be of the right material.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the engagement the American fleet was among the
+islands off Malden at Put in Bay, when the British fleet bore up.
+There was some difficulty at first in clearing the islands, and the
+nature of the wind seemed likely to throw Perry upon the defensive,
+when a southeast breeze springing up, enabled him to bear down upon
+the enemy. This was at ten o'clock of a fine autumnal morning. Perry
+arranged his vessels in line, taking the lead in his flag-ship, the
+Lawrence, on which he now raised the signal for action, a blue flag,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page329" name="page329"></a>(p. 329)</span> inscribed in large white letters, with the words of the
+dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" He accompanied this movement
+with an appeal to his men. "My brave lads, this flag contains the last
+words of Captain Lawrence. Shall I hoist it?" "Ay, ay, sir!" was the
+willing response. In this way he cheered the men in the awful pause,
+"a dead silence of an hour and a half," preceding the action, for in
+the light breeze the vessels were long in overcoming the intermediate
+distance of several miles.</p>
+
+<p>Perry, who knew the perils of the day, prepared his papers as if for
+death. He leaded the public documents in readiness to be cast
+overboard, and&mdash;a touching trait of these moments&mdash;gave a hurried
+perusal to his wife's letters, and tore them to pieces lest they
+should be read by the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The awful silence is suddenly broken by a bugle sounded on board the
+Detroit, and the cheers of the British seamen. A shot from that vessel
+fell short of its mark. The Lawrence bears on to meet the fire,
+accompanied by the other vessels of the command in appointed order,
+each destined for its appropriate antagonist. At noon the British fire
+from the superior long guns, was telling fearfully on the American
+force, when Perry made all sail for close quarters, bringing the
+Lawrence within reach of the Detroit. He maintained a steady,
+well-directed fire from his carronades, assisted by the Scorpion and
+Ariel. The destruction on the deck of the Lawrence was fearful. Out of
+100 well men, says Mackenzie, who had gone into action, 22 were killed
+and 61 wounded. We shall not insult the humanity of the reader by the
+details of this fearful carnage. It has probably never been exceeded
+in the terrors of the "dying deck," in naval warfare.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of this storm of conflict, Perry, finding his ship
+getting disabled, and seeing the Niagara uninjured at a safe distance,
+resolved to change his flag to that vessel. He had half a mile to
+traverse, exposed to the fire of the enemy, in an open boat. Nothing
+deterred, with the exclamation, "If a victory is to be gained I'll
+gain it," he made the passage, part of the time standing as a target
+for the hostile guns. Fifteen minutes were passed exposed to this
+plunging fire, which splintered the oars and covered the boat with
+spray. The Lawrence, stripped of her officers and men, was compelled
+to surrender.</p>
+
+<p>Perry instantly bore up to the Detroit, the guns of which were plied
+resolutely, when she became entangled with her consort, the Queen
+Charlotte, and the Niagara poured a deadly fire into both vessels.
+This cannonade decided the battle in seven minutes, when the enemy
+surrendered. The American loss in this engagement was 27 killed and 96
+wounded; that of the British 41 killed and 94 wounded. Gallant actions
+were performed and noble men fell on both sides. It was every way a
+splendid victor, placing the genius of Perry and his magnanimous,
+spirited conduct throughout, in the highest rank of naval exertion.</p>
+
+<p>The memorable letters, brief, at once eloquent and modest, which he
+wrote that afternoon announcing his victory, are too characteristic to
+be omitted in any personal account of the man. Addressing General
+Harrison, he writes: "Dear <span class="pagenum"><a id="page330" name="page330"></a>(p. 330)</span> General&mdash;We have met the enemy
+and they are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.
+Yours, with very great respect and esteem. O. H. Perry." The other was
+to the Secretary of the Navy: "Sir, it has pleased the Almighty to
+give to the arms of the United States a signal victory over their
+enemies on this lake. The British squadron, consisting of two ships,
+two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop, have this moment surrendered
+to the force under my command, after a sharp conflict. I have the
+honor to be, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant. O. H.
+Perry." In consonance with this simple eloquence, the mark of a
+master-mind, was his chivalrous care of his wounded and conduct toward
+his prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>The victory having been gained, and the lake thus cleared of the foe,
+Perry was enabled to act in concert with General Harrison in driving
+the British from Michigan, and when his fleet was of no avail to
+follow them in their rapid flight, he joined that officer's land
+expedition, and was present, acting as his aid, at the battle of the
+Thames. "The appearance of the brave commodore," writes Harrison in
+his official report, "cheered and animated every heart." Perry also
+gained the gratitude of the Moravians, in whose district the contest
+took place, by his care in relieving the inevitable evils of war. He
+met everywhere on his homeward route with complimentary toasts and
+resolutions, gathering volume as he reached his native State, where he
+was received at Newport with military and civic honors. The city of
+New York paid him a grateful attention in a request communicated by De
+Witt Clinton, then mayor, to sit for his portrait for the civic
+gallery. The portrait was painted by Jarvis, representing him in the
+act of boarding the Niagara, and is preserved in the City Hall. He was
+created an honorary member of the Cincinnati; Congress voted him a
+medal and money; he was dined and feasted, and "blazed the comet of
+the season."</p>
+
+<p>Perry's next service was in August, 1814, in command of the Java, 44,
+a frigate recently built at Baltimore. He was, however, not able to
+get to sea, in consequence of the blockade by the enemy. On the
+conclusion of peace he sailed in this vessel to join Commodore Shaw's
+squadron in the Mediterranean. In 1819 he sailed as commodore in
+command of the John Adams, for the West Indies, bound for the State of
+Venezuela, to carry on an armed negotiation for the protection of
+American commerce from aggressions in that quarter. Arriving at the
+mouth of the Orinoco, he shifted his flag to the Nonsuch, and ascended
+the river to the capital, Angostura, where he remained twenty days
+transacting his business, in the height of the yellow-fever season.
+His vessel had hardly left the river, on her way to Trinidad, when he
+was attacked. For nearly a week he suffered the progress of the
+terrible disease on board the small schooner, under a tropical sun,
+when he reached the station whither he had sent his flag-ship, the
+Adams. But he reached port only to die at sea, within a mile of the
+anchorage, on August 23, 1819, when he had just completed his
+thirty-fourth year. Such and so early was the fate of the gallant
+Perry. His remains were interred from the John Adams at Port Spain,
+with every attention by the English governor. Subsequently they were
+brought home in a national vessel by order of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page331" name="page331"></a>(p. 331)</span> Congress, and
+reinterred at the public expense in the cemetery at Newport. The
+country also provided for the support of his family. If ever America
+produced a man whom the nation delighted to honor it was Perry.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>SAM HOUSTON<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7" title="Go to footnote 7"><span class="small">[7]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Amelia E. Barr</span><br>
+(1793-1863)</h3>
+
+<a id="img038" name="img038"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img038.jpg" width="250" height="303" alt="Sam Houston." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>The builders of the American Commonwealth were all great and
+individual men, but the most grandly picturesque, the most heroic,
+figure among them, is that of General Sam Houston. Neither modern
+history, nor the scrolls of ancient Greece or Rome, can furnish a tale
+of glory more thrilling and stirring than the epic Sam Houston wrote
+with sword and pen, as a Conqueror of Tyranny and a Liberator of Men.</p>
+
+<p>His life is a romance, and even his antecedents have the grandeur and
+glamour of military glory, for his ancestors, as "Sons of Old Gaul,"
+had drawn their long swords in every battle for Scottish liberty, and
+his own father died while on military duty in the Alleghanies. He had
+also a mother worthy of the son she bore; a grand, brave woman, who
+put the musket into his boyish hands with the words, "My doors are
+ever open to the brave, Sam, but are eternally closed to cowards."</p>
+
+<p>This was in the year 1813, when there was promise of a war with
+England, and Sam was not then twenty years old&mdash;a tall, slender,
+wonderfully handsome youth, with the air and manner of a prince. But
+nothing of this bearing was due to schools or schoolmasters, he was
+not of any man's moulding, although he had been educated for his
+future in a noble manner. For to escape the drudgery of measuring tape
+and molasses, he fled to the Indians when but a lad, and was adopted
+by their chief, and with the young braves he learned to run and leap,
+and hunt and ride, and find his way through pathless woods with all
+their skill. This was his practical education; he had only one book
+for mental enlargement, but this was Pope's translation of "The
+Iliad." He read and re-read this volume till he could recite it from
+beginning to end; till the words were living, and the spectral heroes
+were his friends and companions. So that when he joined General
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page332" name="page332"></a>(p. 332)</span> Jackson's battalion, he had the heart of a Greek demi-god
+and the physical skill and prowess of a Cherokee Indian chief.</p>
+
+<p>He made a glorious record in this war, and, being severely wounded,
+both by arrows and gunshot, he returned to his home to be nursed by
+his mother. When he was able to rise again peace was assured and he
+resolved to become a lawyer. He was told that eighteen months' hard
+study would be necessary, but in six months he passed a searching
+examination, and was admitted to the bar of Tennessee with <span class="italic">éclat</span>.
+Then honor after honor came as naturally to him as a tree bears fruit
+or flower&mdash;first Adjutant-General of the State with the rank of
+Colonel; then District Attorney&mdash;Major-General&mdash;Member of
+Congress&mdash;Governor of the State of Tennessee. All these places and
+honors were awarded him by large majorities during a period of nine
+years. Indeed, between <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1818 and 1827, the records of Tennessee
+read like some political romance, of which the handsome and beloved
+Sam Houston was the hero.</p>
+
+<p>This was his second school. He was learning during these years those
+great principles of government which enabled him afterward to
+legislate so wisely for the land he conquered. And as soon as he was
+ready for his destiny, an event happened which drove him back again to
+the wilderness. Concerning this event no human being has the right to
+speak authoritatively; it was an affair strictly between himself and
+his bride of hardly three months. But whatever occurred, shattered his
+life to pieces. He separated from his wife, resigned his office as
+governor, and in the presence of a vast and sorrowing multitude, bid
+adieu to all his friends and honors, and set his face resolutely to
+his Indian father, who was then king of the Cherokees in Arkansas.</p>
+
+<p>He began, in fact, his journey to Texas, the theatre of the great work
+for which his previous life had been a preparation. The thought of
+Texas was not a new one to him. No man had watched the hitherto futile
+efforts of that glorious land for freedom with greater interest; and
+there is little doubt that Andrew Jackson was a sharer in all
+Houston's Texan enthusiasms, and that he also quietly encouraged and
+aided the efforts for its Americanization. Indeed, at that day Texas
+was a name full of romance and mystery. Throughout the South and West,
+up the great highway of the Mississippi, on the busy streets of New
+York, and among the silent hills of New England, men spoke of the
+charmed city of San Antonio as Europeans in the eighteenth century
+spoke of Delhi and Agra and the Great Mogul. French traders went there
+with fancy goods from New Orleans, and Spanish Dons from the wealthy
+cities of Central Mexico came there to buy. From the villages of
+Connecticut, from the woods of Tennessee, and the lagoons of the
+Mississippi, adventurous Americans entered the Spanish-Texan Territory
+at Nacogdoches, going through the land buying horses, and lending
+their stout hearts and ready rifles to every effort for freedom which
+the Texans made. For though the Americans were few in number and much
+scattered, they were like the salt in a pottage, and men caught fire
+and the idea of "freedom" from them.</p>
+
+<p>Texas was at this time a territory of the Empire of Mexico, and Mexico
+was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page333" name="page333"></a>(p. 333)</span> making constant, though as yet ineffectual, efforts to
+become independent. Twenty years before Houston entered Texas, a
+number of Americans joined the priest Hidalgo in his struggle to make
+Mexico free. They were all shot, but this did not hinder Magee and
+Bernardo, with 1,200 Americans, raising the standard of liberty two
+years later. This party took San Antonio, and the fame of their deeds
+brought young Americans by hundreds to their aid; though they received
+no money, the love of freedom and the love of adventure being their
+motive and their reward.</p>
+
+<p>But these brave paladins were soon followed by men who bought land and
+made homes, and in 1821 Austin, with the sanction of the Spanish
+Viceroy, introduced three hundred families, who received every
+reasonable guarantee from the Spanish Government. They were scarcely
+settled ere there was another Mexican revolt against Spain. This time
+the Mexicans under Santa Anna achieved the independence of their
+country, and a Mexican Republic was formed, with a constitution so
+liberal that it was gladly accepted by the American colonists. But its
+promises were fallacious. For ten years Santa Anna was engaged in
+fighting for his own supremacy, and when he had subdued all opposition
+he had forgotten the traditions of freedom for which he first drew his
+sword, and assumed the authority of a dictator.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the American element had been steadily increasing, and
+Santa Anna was, not unnaturally, afraid of its growing strength and
+influence. In order to weaken it, he substituted for the constitution
+under whose guarantee they had settled, military and priestly laws of
+the most oppressive kind; and the complaints and reprisals at length
+reached such a pitch, that all Americans were ordered to deliver up
+their arms to the Mexican authorities. It was simply an order to
+disarm them in the midst of their enemies. Now the rifle is to the
+frontier American a third limb, and in Texas it was also necessary for
+the supply of food for the family, and vital for their protection from
+the Indians. The answer to this demand was a notice to Santa Anna
+posted on the very walls of the Alamo Fortress:</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="italic">If you want our arms&mdash;take them! Ten thousand Americans.</span>" This was
+a virtual declaration of war, but the American Texans were by no means
+unprepared for the idea, nor yet for its translation into practice.</p>
+
+<p>Austin&mdash;who had been sent with a remonstrance to Santa Anna&mdash;was in
+the dungeons of the Inquisition in Mexico; but Houston, Lamar,
+Burleson, Burnet, Bowie, Crockett, Sherman, and many another name able
+to fire an army, were on the ground. Besides which, the sympathy of
+the whole land was with the little band of heroes. For the idea of
+Texas had been carried in the American heart for two generations. As
+far back as 1819, President Adams had wanted Texas, and Henry Clay
+would have voted three millions for it. Van Buren told Poinsett to
+offer five millions. Jackson added an additional half-million for the
+Rio Grande territory; but Jackson had more faith in Houston and the
+American settlers in Texas than in money. His brave old heart was on
+fire for the wrongs and cruelties inflicted by Santa Anna on his
+countrymen; and he was inclined to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page334" name="page334"></a>(p. 334)</span> make Mexico give Texas as
+an atonement for the insults offered them. There is little doubt that
+the defiance posted on the walls of the Alamo thrilled him with a
+similar defiance, and that he instinctively put his hand on the spot
+where he had been used to wear his sword.</p>
+
+<p>The first step of the American-Texans was to set a civil government in
+motion. Declarations and manifestoes had to be made, and loans raised
+in order to maintain an army in the field. There were many fine
+fighters, but Houston was the only statesman; and to him the arduous
+duty naturally fell. In the meantime Lamar and Burleson with 200
+picked men attacked the Alamo Fortress. It was defended by General Cos
+with 1,000 men and forty-eight cannon; but on the afternoon of the
+third day's fighting surrendered to the Americans. This was but the
+first act in the drama, for as soon as the news reached Mexico, Santa
+Anna with a large "army of subjugation" was on the road to Texas.</p>
+
+<p>The Alamo was taken by the Americans during the first day of December,
+1835; on March 2, 1836, Texas was declared by the Convention assembled
+at the settlement of Washington, to be an independent republic, and 55
+out of 56 votes elected Houston commander in chief. Houston
+immediately set out for the Alamo, but when he reached Gonzales he
+heard that every man in it had died fighting, and that Santa Anna had
+made a huge hecatomb of their bodies and burned them to ashes. Houston
+immediately sent an express to Fannin, who was defending Goliad, to
+blow up the fortress of Goliad, and unite with him on the Guadalupe.
+Fannin did not obey orders. He wrote to Houston that "he had named the
+place <span class="italic">Fort Defiance</span>, and was resolved to defend it." This decision
+distressed Houston, for Fannin's men were of the finest
+material&mdash;young men from Georgia and Alabama, fired with the idea of
+freedom and the spread of Americanism, or perhaps with the fanaticism
+of religious liberty of conscience. After reading Fannin's letter,
+Houston turned to Major Hockley, and said, as he pointed to the little
+band of men around him, "Those men are the last hope of Texas; with
+them we must achieve our independence, or perish in the attempt."</p>
+
+<p>He immediately sent wagons into all the surrounding country to gather
+the women and the children, for he anticipated the atrocities which
+would mark every mile of Santa Anna's progress through the country;
+and he was determined that these helpless non-combatants should be
+placed in comparative safety in the eastern settlements. Then
+commenced one of the grandest and most pathetic "retreats" history has
+any record of. Encumbered by hundreds of women and children in every
+condition of helplessness, the bravery, tenderness, and patience of
+these American soldiers is as much beyond credence as it is beyond
+praise. The whole weeping, weary company were to guard, and to forage
+for; yet the men were never too weary to help mothers still more
+exhausted, or to carry some child whose swollen feet could no longer
+bear its weight. On this terrible march many children were lost, many
+died, and many were born; and the whole company suffered from
+deprivations of every kind.</p>
+
+<p>On March 23d Houston wrote to General Rusk, "Before my God, I have
+found the darkest hours of my life! For forty-eight hours I have
+neither eaten <span class="pagenum"><a id="page335" name="page335"></a>(p. 335)</span> nor slept!" And just at this time came the
+news that Fannin with 500 men had been massacred, after fighting until
+their ammunition gave out, and surrendering as prisoners of war under
+favorable terms of capitulation. This news was answered by a
+passionate demand for vengeance, and Houston, gathering his men around
+him, spoke words which inspired them with an unconquerable courage.
+His large, bright face, serious but hopeful, seemed to sun the camp,
+and his voice, loud as a trumpet with a silver tone, set every heart
+to its loftiest key.</p>
+
+<p>"They live too long," he cried, "who outlive freedom, and I promise
+you a full cup of vengeance!" But in words not to be gainsayed, he
+told them they <span class="italic">must</span> put their women and children in safety first of
+all. Then he explained the advantages they were gaining by every mile
+they made the enemy follow them&mdash;how the low Brazos land, the
+unfordable streams, the morasses, and the pathless woods were
+weakening, separating, and confusing the three great bodies of
+Mexicans behind. He declared the freedom of Texas to be sure and
+certain, and bid them prepare to achieve it.</p>
+
+<p>When they arrived at Harrisburgh they found Santa Anna had burned the
+place. It was evident then, that the day and the hour was at hand.
+Houston transported the two hundred families he had in charge across
+the Buffalo Bayou, which was twenty feet deep, and the very home of
+alligators. He then destroyed the only bridge across the dangerous
+stream, and wrote the following letter, now in the archives of the
+Texas Republic:</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+
+<p>"This morning we are in preparation to meet Santa Anna. We will only
+be about seven hundred to march, besides the camp guard. But we go to
+conquest. The troops are in fine spirits, and now is the time for
+action. I leave the results in the hands of an all-wise God, and I
+rely confidently in His Providence.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  "<span class="smcap">Sam Houston.</span>"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both armies were on the field of San Jacinto, and Santa Anna had with
+him nearly two thousand men, against the 700 with General Houston.
+Houston advanced to the attack at three o'clock in the afternoon, with
+the war cry of "<span class="italic">Remember the Alamo!</span>" It was taken up by 700 men with
+such a shout of vengeance as mortal ears never heard before. With it
+on their lips they advanced close to the Mexican lines, while a storm
+of bullets went over their heads. Houston and his horse were both
+wounded, but both being of the finest metal, they pressed on
+regardless of wounds. The Americans did not answer the volley until
+they could pour their lead into the bosoms of their foes. They never
+thought of reloading, but clubbing their rifles until they broke, they
+then flung them away, and fired their pistols into the very eyes of
+the Mexicans. When nothing else remained, they drew their bowie knives
+and cut their way through the walls of living flesh.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing comparable to that charge for freedom was ever made. Men said
+afterward that the unseen battalions&mdash;the mighty dead as well as the
+mighty living&mdash;won the battle. "Poor Fannin!" exclaimed General
+Sherman, "he has been blamed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page336" name="page336"></a>(p. 336)</span> for disobeying orders; but I
+think he obeyed orders to-day!" Men fought like spirits, impetuous,
+invincible, as if they had cast off flesh and blood. The battle began
+at three o'clock in the afternoon of April 21, 1836, and after the
+Americans reached the Mexican line, it lasted <span class="italic">just eighteen minutes</span>.
+At four o'clock the whole Mexican army was flying, and the pursuit and
+slaughter continued until dark. It was a military miracle, for the
+American loss was only eight killed and seventeen wounded. Of the
+Mexicans, 630 were left dead on the field; multitudes perished in the
+bayou and morass; and there were nearly eight hundred prisoners. Only
+seven men are known to have escaped either death or capture. Santa
+Anna was found hiding in coarse clothing, and Houston had the greatest
+difficulty to save his life. For Houston knew that the lives of all
+the Americans in Mexico were in danger, besides which, he was needed
+to secure the peace and independence of Texas. It required Houston's
+influence, however, to convince men whose fathers and brothers and
+sons had been brutally massacred at Goliad and the Alamo, that their
+private vengeance must give way to the public good.</p>
+
+<p>Just about the time that the battle of San Jacinto was fought,
+President Jackson was one day found by Mr. Buchanan studying earnestly
+the map of Texas. He was tracing Houston's plan of retreat&mdash;of which
+he had doubtless received information&mdash;and putting his finger upon San
+Jacinto he said, "Here is the place! If Sam Houston is worth one
+bawbee, he will make a stand here, and give them a fight!" A few days
+after this declaration, news was received in Washington that the fight
+had been given and won on that very spot.</p>
+
+<p>The annexation of Texas was now publicly, as it had long been
+privately, the hope and goal of the Government; and for this end
+Jackson, says Mr. Parton, "displayed an energy and pugnacity seldom
+exhibited before or since, by a politician in his seventy-seventh
+year." But "failure" was a word not in Jackson's vocabulary; he
+annexed Texas, and dying as the measure was accomplished, talked only
+in his last moments of Texas and Houston.</p>
+
+<p>Houston was elected President of the new Republic by acclamation, and
+he served the State two terms in this capacity. Both were marked by
+the finest statesmanship; and during them the Texans suffered little
+from the ferocious Apache, Comanche, and other Indian tribes. For
+Houston fearlessly slept in their camps, and treated them as brethren;
+and his Indian "Talks" have an Ossianic poetry about them. Thus he
+writes to the Indian Chief Linney: "The red brothers know that my
+words to them have never been forgotten by me. They have never been
+swallowed up in darkness, nor has the light of the sun consumed them.
+Truth cannot perish, but the words of a liar are as nothing. Talk to
+all the red men, and tell them to make peace. War cannot make them
+happy. It has lasted too long. Let it now be ended and cease forever,"
+etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p>After the annexation of Texas, Houston represented the State for three
+terms in the United States Senate; but in 1859 he failed of
+re-election, because he refused to go with the South on the fatal
+subject of Secession. Yet so great was the confidence of the people in
+his honor and ability, that they elected him Governor of Texas in the
+same year; and he entered on the office in December, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page337" name="page337"></a>(p. 337)</span> 1859.
+The election of Mr. Lincoln in 1860 precipitated events; and though
+Houston used all his mighty personal influence, and all his charmful,
+potent eloquence to keep Texas in <span class="italic">the Union</span>, he failed, and was
+deposed from the Governorship on his refusal to sign the Ordinance of
+Secession.</p>
+
+<p>Then he calmly withdrew from the scene, and there are many living who
+remember his pathetic parting words. "I have seen," he said, "the
+statesmen and patriots of my youth gathered to their fathers, and the
+government which they had reared rent in twain, and none like them are
+now left to reunite it again. I stand almost the last of a race who
+learned from them the lessons of human freedom!"</p>
+
+<p>These events inflicted a mortal wound upon his great spirit, and when
+he heard the roar of the cannon announcing the secession of Texas, he
+turned to his wife and said, "My heart is broken!" The words were only
+too true; for two years he lingered a sad and solemn old man, mourning
+for the woes of his country and for the defection of his eldest son
+Sam, who had joined the Confederates, and been taken prisoner by the
+Northern army. He was also suffering from the wounds received both in
+the war of 1812 and also at San Jacinto; and it was evident that he
+had come to the close of life. He himself looked forward to the event
+without fear, and with a wise and well-grounded hope.</p>
+
+<p>On March 2, 1863, Houston was seventy, and in response to an ovation
+in his own city of Houston, he made a short, broken little speech. It
+was his last public effort, and from it he went back home to
+Huntsville, to die. His last days were spent in incessant and
+heart-broken prayers for his country and for his family; and on July
+26, 1863, three weeks after the fall of Vicksburg, he breathed his
+last to the words "<span class="italic">Texas! Texas!</span>"</p>
+
+<p>So honestly and unselfishly had this great man lived that he died in
+poverty, needing many comforts; this hero, who by his valor and
+statesmanship had increased the territory of the United States by more
+than <span class="italic">eight hundred thousand square miles</span>, or about the equivalent of
+<span class="italic">the thirteen original States</span>! But the splendor of his name is not to
+be touched by such an accident as poverty; to the people of Texas,
+Houston will ever be a beloved memory; and on the Roll of Fame he
+shines forth, the noblest, the most princely, the most picturesque and
+chivalrous character in American history.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig005" name="sig005"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig005.jpg" width="300" height="58" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page338" name="page338"></a>(p. 338)</span> WINFIELD SCOTT<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8" title="Go to footnote 8"><span class="small">[8]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Hon. Theodore Roosevelt</span><br>
+(1786-1866)</h3>
+
+<a id="img039" name="img039"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="250" height="319" alt="Winfield Scott." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Winfield Scott was born at Petersburg, Virginia, on June 13, 1786. His
+father was a gallant Revolutionary soldier, his mother one of the
+well-known Virginia family of Masons. He attended the schools in his
+neighborhood, and graduated at the then famous college of William and
+Mary; and upon graduation began his career as a lawyer. All his tastes
+were military, however, and in 1807 he joined a volunteer organization
+to watch the coasts, which were menaced by the British frigates; there
+being then great excitement over the Leopard and Chesapeake affair.
+When this flurry subsided he went down to practice in South Carolina.
+Soon after his arrival there was another alarm of war, and back went
+Scott post-haste for Washington, again abandoning his law, with the
+hope of getting a commission in the army. Yet again, in 1808, the
+chances of war once more retiring to the background, he tried his
+fortune at the bar, this time in Virginia. Alarms of war were frequent
+during the next four years, however, and Scott rigidly confined his
+practice as a lawyer to the intervals when it was not deemed possible
+that there could be danger from abroad.</p>
+
+<p>In 1808 he was made a captain of light artillery, and was sent with
+his company to New Orleans. Scott was always frank in announcing his
+utter contempt for Jefferson's foreign policy as President, and his
+abhorrence of the men whom Jefferson got into the army at this period.
+West Point had only just started. Its few graduates did well in the
+war of 1812, but most of the other officers of the army were men
+appointed by political influence at the time, or else old officers who
+in their youth had had some experience in the Revolutionary War, but
+who were disabled by age, drunkenness, and long lack of acquaintance
+with military matters. Among the officers themselves there were savage
+factions, and Scott got into one or two scrapes in consequence of his
+advocacy of one of the parties. In May, 1812, the long-delayed
+hostilities were evidently close at hand, and Scott left New Orleans
+for Washington.</p>
+
+<p>In September, Scott, now made a lieutenant-colonel, reached Niagara,
+only to share in the humiliating though petty defeats with which the
+land war opened on our northern frontier. His first serious affair was
+at the abortive effort to storm the Heights of Queenstown. When Van
+Rensselaer, who had led the attack, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page339" name="page339"></a>(p. 339)</span> was wounded so as to be
+unable to take further part, Scott himself assumed the command. At
+this time about a fourth of the American militia had crossed and were
+attacked by slightly superior numbers of British regulars and Indians.
+Their remaining companions, utterly undisciplined and with no leaders,
+were struck by panic cowardice and refused to cross to the assistance
+of their fellows. Scott behaved with distinguished personal bravery,
+rallying his raw troops and leading them in a charge with the bayonet,
+always a favorite weapon with him. Nevertheless his forces soon fell
+into disorder and were driven over the cliffs to the edge of the
+water, where, from lack of boats, most of the men were made prisoners,
+Scott among the number. Much difficulty was experienced by the British
+officers in preventing the Indians from massacring the prisoners.
+Scott was a man of gigantic proportions. This fact, and the reckless
+courage with which he had fought, had attracted the attention of the
+Indians. Some of them came into the room where he was confined and
+attempted to murder him, and only his great strength and quickness
+enabled him to beat them off until he was rescued by a British
+officer.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his capture he was exchanged, and promoted to the rank of
+colonel. He joined the American armies as chief of staff to the
+major-general commanding, and being about the only man in the army who
+had any knowledge of tactical manuals and military treatises
+generally, he was kept busy from morning till night in organizing the
+staff service, drilling the officers, and the like. These duties,
+however, did not interfere with his leading and commanding his troops
+in battle. He led the advance guard in the successful assault on Fort
+George in May, 1813, took part in a number of skirmishes, and served
+with gallantry in Wilkinson's unsuccessful campaign.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the spring of 1814 a camp of instruction for officers and men
+was formed, with Scott in command, near Buffalo. Up to this time the
+imbecility of the administration (and of the people whom the
+administration represented) in not preparing for the war, had been
+well matched by the supineness with which they carried it on. During
+the eighteen months that had elapsed since the beginning of the
+contest, only the navy, built by the Federalists when in power fifteen
+years before, had saved the country from complete disgrace, the armies
+generally being utterly inadequate in number, and moreover models of
+all that troops ought not to be. Even in 1814 this remained true of
+the forces intrusted with the defence of the Capital itself; but on
+the northern frontier Scott, and his immediate superior, Brown, by
+laborious work succeeded in turning the inefficient mob of the first
+two campaigns into as admirable a weapon of offence and defence as
+ever was handled by a general officer.</p>
+
+<p>In July the little army of skeleton regiments, thus carefully drilled,
+was ready for the invasion of Canada. On July 5th the fight at
+Chippewa took place. The battle was practically between Scott's wing
+of Brown's army and Riall's British troops, the numbers being almost
+exactly equal. There was very little man&oelig;uvring. After a tolerably
+heavy artillery fire and some skirmishing between the light troops and
+Indians on each side, in the woods, the British regulars <span class="pagenum"><a id="page340" name="page340"></a>(p. 340)</span> and
+Scott's American regulars advanced against each other in line across
+the plain, occasionally halting to fire. It was noticed that the fire
+of the Americans was the more deadly; their line was thinner and more
+extended than that of the British. When within sixty or seventy paces
+of one another the two sides charged; there was a clash of bayonets;
+then the thinner American line, outflanking the more solid British
+column, closed in at the extremities, and the British broke and fled
+immediately.</p>
+
+<p>This was not only a needed victory for the Americans, but it was the
+first occasion for a generation that British regulars had been faced
+in the open, on equal terms, with the bayonet and defeated. At this
+very time the British had just brought to a close the terrible war
+with the French in the Peninsula. Their troops had been pitted
+successfully against the best marshals and the best troops of what was
+undoubtedly the foremost military power of Continental Europe; and now
+the American regulars, trained by Scott and under his leadership,
+performed a feat which no French general and no French troops had ever
+been able to place to the credit of their nation.</p>
+
+<p>Three weeks later the British and American forces again came together
+at the bloody battle of Lundy's Lane. The most desperate fighting on
+this occasion took place during the night, the Americans and British
+charging in turn with the bayonet, and the artillery of both sides
+being captured and recaptured again and again. The Americans were
+somewhat inferior in numbers to the British, and the slaughter was
+very great, considering the number of men engaged, amounting to nearly
+a third of the total of both forces. In the end the fight ceased from
+exhaustion, the armies drawing off from one another and leaving the
+field of battle untenanted; but the result was virtually a victory for
+the British, for the next day they advanced, and the Americans retired
+to Fort Erie. Scott, who had exposed himself with the reckless
+personal courage he always showed when under fire, was dismounted and
+badly injured by the rebound of a cannon ball in the early part of the
+battle, and about midnight, just before the close of the actual
+fighting, received a musket ball in the body which disabled him.</p>
+
+<p>Scott did not recover from his wound in time to take part in the
+remaining scenes of the war. After its close he went abroad, visiting
+London and Paris, and being very well received, returning in 1816, and
+again taking up his duties in the army. He indulged himself in the
+luxury of a sharp quarrel with Andrew Jackson, a luxury which any man
+could easily obtain by the way, but which was too much for any man not
+possessing Scott's abundant capacity to take care of himself in any
+conflict. He interested himself greatly in improving the tactics of
+the army, and went out to take command in the Black Hawk war, where he
+had no opportunity to distinguish himself. At the time of the
+nullification outbreak in South Carolina he was appointed to see to
+the interests of the United States in Charleston, where he acquitted
+himself with equal tact and resolution. He commanded in the Seminole
+war, but again had no opportunity to distinguish himself; and in the
+winter of 1837-38 was stationed on the northern frontier, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page341" name="page341"></a>(p. 341)</span>
+where he succeeded in preventing invasions of Canada by American
+sympathizers with the then existing Canadian rebellion. Soon after
+this he superintended the removal of the Cherokees from Georgia, doing
+everything in his power for the Indians, who, in defiance of the
+pledged faith of the United States, were being driven out of that
+State.</p>
+
+<p>For the next few years Scott was comparatively inactive. He had a
+great taste for politics, and could not forbear meddling with them,
+although he was at the time general-in-chief of the army. He was a
+very sincere Union man, and was an outspoken Whig, though with a
+strong latent leaning to the Know-nothing party; for he distrusted
+both foreigners and Catholics. He would not own slaves, and
+disbelieved in slavery, but he also utterly disapproved of the actions
+of the political abolitionists of the day. He was not only a very
+ambitious but a very vain man, and at times his desire for civic
+honors led him to try for success on fields where he did not show to
+such advantage as on the field of battle.</p>
+
+<p>When the Mexican war broke out, the President, Polk, whom Scott
+detested, was reluctant to see Scott given a chance to make a record,
+in view of his being a pronounced Whig, and of the probability that a
+successful general, if nominated on the Whig ticket, would sweep the
+country. However, toward the end of 1846, it became impossible longer
+to pass by Scott's demands for active service, and, moreover, the
+administration felt the less reluctance inasmuch as Taylor, another
+Whig, had achieved much credit by his victories along the Rio Grande.
+Accordingly Scott was despatched with a fine army to attack Mexico
+from the seaboard of the Gulf and to penetrate to the capital of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Early in March of 1847 he landed near the city of Vera Cruz, with
+12,000 men. Trenches were opened, a bombardment begun, and the castle
+of San Juan de Ulloa surrendered on the 27th, 5,000 prisoners and four
+hundred pieces of artillery falling to the victors. Scott lost in all
+but sixty-four men killed and wounded. As soon after this victory as
+he could gather horses and mules the army started for the interior,
+and on April 18th encountered the Mexican army, about the same in
+numbers as Scott's, under Santa Anna, strongly posted at Cerro Gordo.
+Scott made his plans with great skill, and the battle is remarkable
+because of the closeness with which the methods and results of the
+actual attacks followed the outline which Scott gave of what he wished
+accomplished, in his general orders of the day previous. The Americans
+attacked with resolution. In places the Mexicans defended themselves
+well, but in other places, where their troops were raw, they gave way
+very quickly, and, as a result, the whole force was speedily routed
+and driven in headlong flight, with great loss of artillery and
+prisoners. Scott pushed closely after them, but almost immediately was
+halted by the necessity of discharging four thousand volunteers whose
+terms of service had expired. After waiting in vain for
+reinforcements, the Americans again marched forward, and halted some
+time at Puebla, where the long-looked-for additional troops finally
+arrived in August.</p>
+
+<p>The army had suffered a good deal from sickness, and Scott was anxious
+to bring it into contact with the enemy as soon as possible.
+Accordingly he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page342" name="page342"></a>(p. 342)</span> pushed straight for Mexico. The Mexican
+armies, numerically about equal in strength to his own, occupied very
+strong positions, from which they were driven only by desperate
+fighting at Contreras, San Antonio, and Buena Vista, the Americans
+losing 1,000 men killed and wounded, but capturing 3,000 of their
+adversaries and thirty-seven pieces of artillery. An armistice
+followed, but the negotiations came to nothing, and in September
+hostilities were resumed. The strong outworks of Molino Del Rey and
+Chapultepec were stormed with great loss to the Americans; for they
+were places of formidable strength, the Mexicans defended themselves
+well, and the assailants were few in numbers. The bravery of the
+victors, under these circumstances, showed that Scott had not
+forgotten the art which enabled him to turn the raw troops of 1812
+into men who, alone among the troops of civilized nations, could meet
+the British infantry in the open on equal terms.</p>
+
+<p>The City of Mexico fell immediately after the storming of Chapultepec,
+and Scott marched in. There was no further fighting of consequence,
+although bands of guerillas and brigands of all kinds had to be
+dispersed. Scott treated them with proper severity. The campaign ended
+unhappily for Scott in one way, for he became embroiled with the
+administration and some of its partisans among the high officers of
+the army, the intrigues which caused this embroilment being instigated
+chiefly by Democratic jealousy of the Whig general. However, he was
+thanked by Congress.</p>
+
+<p>This was the end of Scott's active service. He again plunged into
+political life, and in 1852 ran for the presidency on the Whig ticket,
+but was hopelessly defeated. He continued general-in-chief of the army
+until 1861, when he retired from the command. He was too old to take
+the field and do his part toward the suppression of the rebellion, but
+he remained stanchly loyal to the flag upon which his victories had
+conferred such glory, and to which he himself had owed so much. Even
+when his State seceded it did not affect him or cause him to waver in
+his allegiance to the country for which he had so often drawn his
+sword. He died May 29, 1866.</p>
+
+<p>Scott had many little vanities, and peculiarities of temper and
+disposition, at which it is easy to laugh; but these are all of small
+moment in estimating the man's character and the worth of his
+services. He was a fearless, honest, loyal, and simple-hearted
+soldier, who served the nation with entire fidelity and devotion. He
+was very successful in battle, and, not only his crowning campaign
+against Mexico, but the way in which he trained and led his troops in
+the Canadian campaign against the British, show him to have possessed
+military abilities of a high order. His name will always stand well up
+on the list of American worthies.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig006" name="sig006"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig006.jpg" width="300" height="38" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page343" name="page343"></a>(p. 343)</span> ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9" title="Go to footnote 9"><span class="small">[9]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Oliver Optic</span><br>
+(1822-1885)</h3>
+
+<a id="img040" name="img040"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="250" height="303" alt="Ulysses Grant." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon I. was a genius; General Grant was not. But the earnest,
+persistent, and determined efforts of men only moderately endowed by
+nature with intellectual gifts, sometimes surpass what is accomplished
+by the spasmodic flashes of those born to be conquerors. So far as the
+successful career of the most prominent hero of the War of the
+Rebellion may be used to "point a moral," it forcibly emphasizes the
+results of energy, perseverance, and a determination to succeed in
+spite of all obstacles. As a military strategist he was doubtless
+surpassed by others who were engaged in the gigantic struggle with
+him; but he accomplished, by adding to his soldierly abilities, his
+personal attributes, which seemed not to have been within the power of
+any other of the able commanders associated with him in the mighty
+conflict.</p>
+
+<p>It is not claimed that General Grant was born into the world with
+brilliant, or even superior, intellectual powers, and his greatness
+was in the combination of his individual qualities, and the fact that,
+like Wellington, he was "rich in saving common-sense." He was a
+soldier in the most comprehensive sense; and if he did not overtop his
+colleagues in a knowledge of the science of war, he was at least their
+equal. The career of its greatest hero illustrates the manner in which
+the loyal nation gave to posterity a victorious Union.</p>
+
+<p>Grant was born in humble circumstances at Point Pleasant, a village on
+the Ohio River, and there were no accidents of family to gild or cloud
+his coming into the world. He was descended from Puritan stock, and
+one of his ancestors, a captain in the Old French War, was killed in
+battle. The general's grandfather served through the Revolutionary
+War. His father was a tanner in Ohio, but his son was not inclined to
+follow that occupation, though he was willing to do so if his father
+insisted upon it until he was of age, but not a day longer. He stated
+his preferences in regard to his future employment, desiring to be a
+farmer, a trader on the river, or to obtain an education. The first
+was not practicable, and the second was not regarded as very
+reputable. His father wrote to the representative of his district in
+Congress, who obtained for the young man a nomination to the Military
+Academy at West Point.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page344" name="page344"></a>(p. 344)</span> All the education the young candidate for military honors had
+was only such as he had obtained at the district school, and the
+examination for admission was considered a very trying ordeal, though
+it included only the branches taught in the common schools. He
+"brushed up" his studies, and as he was always cool and
+self-possessed, he did not fail from embarrassment, as many do on such
+occasions, but was passed and admitted. Of the class of eighty-seven
+only thirty-nine were graduated. In rank Grant was the twenty-first,
+indicating about the average ability.</p>
+
+<p>As a cadet he was popular with his comrades. He was honest, fair, and
+square, and was especially careful of the rights of others. The horse
+had been a favorite with him from his early childhood, and at the
+Academy he was distinguished as a bold and fearless rider. He was
+sober and rather dignified in his manner. The name given to him by his
+parents was "Hiram Ulysses;" but the Congressman had made a mistake in
+presenting the nomination, and at West Point he was known as "Ulysses
+Sidney." Failing to correct the error, he accepted the initial S., but
+made it stand for "Simpson," after his mother. The first name was
+suggested by an elderly female relative, who appears to have read the
+Odyssey, and appreciated its hero. The initials of his name as it
+finally stood had a national significance, which the newspapers were
+not tardy in using at the time of his first decided victory.</p>
+
+<p>He was graduated in 1843, and appointed brevet second lieutenant in
+the Fourth Regiment of Infantry. The engineers and the cavalry are
+considered more desirable arms of the service than the infantry, and
+the best scholars at the Military Academy are assigned to them.
+Grant's rank placed him in the latter. His regiment was sent to
+Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis. Frederick T. Dent, his classmate, was
+in the same command, and resided in the vicinity. He was invited to
+the house of the Dents, where he made the acquaintance of Miss Julia
+T. Dent, who became his wife five years later.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845, the events which led to the Mexican War assumed form, and
+Grant's regiment was ordered to Corpus Christi, where he was
+commissioned as a full second lieutenant. His post was situated at the
+mouth of the Rio Nueces, between which and the Rio Grande was a
+triangular section of territory claimed by both governments; and this
+was the nominal subject of dispute between the United States and
+Mexico. General Taylor, commanding about four thousand troops, was
+ordered to move his force to the Rio Grande, on which the Mexicans had
+concentrated an army. A body of United States dragoons, commanded by
+Captain Thornton, was surprised by an overwhelming force of the enemy,
+and all of them killed, wounded, or captured. This event fired the
+blood of the soldiers, as well as of the people of the country, and
+Taylor crossed the river with the main body of his little army.</p>
+
+<p>The Mexican generals declared that the advance of Taylor into the
+disputed territory was an act of war, and active hostilities had
+commenced. While the general was hastening to reinforce one of the
+forts attacked, he came upon the Mexicans drawn up in order of battle
+at Palo Alto. An action, mostly with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page345" name="page345"></a>(p. 345)</span> artillery, followed,
+and the enemy were defeated and driven from the field. It was the
+first battle fought in thirty-one years with any foe other than
+Indians, by American soldiers. Grant was in that first conflict of
+half a century, as he was in the last ones.</p>
+
+<p>The Mexicans had fled from this first considerable battle of the war
+to Resaca de la Palma, where they had established themselves in a
+strong position. Taylor attacked them the next day, and though their
+force was triple that of their assailants, they were again defeated
+and routed. The Mexicans fought with dogged courage, however they may
+be judged from the events of the war. Three months later, General
+Taylor marched upon Monterey with an army reinforced to 6,000 men. It
+was strongly fortified, but the city was captured after a hard-fought
+battle.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of the conflict in the town, while the Mexicans were
+disputing its possession from the windows of the strongly constructed
+houses, the ammunition of the brigade to which Grant was attached was
+exhausted, and it became necessary to send for a fresh supply. It was
+a service of extreme peril, and a volunteer was called for to perform
+it. Grant was a bold rider, and he promptly offered himself to execute
+the dangerous mission. Mounting a very spirited horse, he resorted to
+the Indian fashion of hanging at the side of his steed so that the
+body of the animal protected him against the shots from the windows,
+and he passed safely through the street. With a sufficient escort he
+succeeded in conveying a load of ammunition to the point where it was
+needed.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the battle of Monterey, Grant's regiment was sent to Vera
+Cruz to reinforce the larger army that was to march under General
+Scott to the "Halls of the Montezumas." Lieutenant Grant, as a
+careful, substantial, and energetic officer, was selected for the
+important position of quartermaster of the Fourth Regiment. The army
+proceeded on its uninterrupted career of victory till the capital of
+Mexico was in its possession. The heights of Cerro Gordo were stormed
+and carried, and Grant, as usual, was in the thickest of the fight.</p>
+
+<p>The first considerable obstacle after the capture of Vera Cruz having
+been removed, the army proceeded on its march to the City of Mexico,
+occupying Jalapa and Castle Perote on the way; but at Puebla the
+forces were so reduced by sickness, death, and the expiration of
+enlistments as to compel a halt. For three months General Scott was
+compelled to wait for reinforcements; but when he could muster 11,000
+effective men, a very small number for the conquest of a country, he
+resumed his march, and in August arrived in the vicinity of the
+capital. Outside of the causeways leading to the city were the
+strongholds of Chapultepec and Cherubusco, and batteries mounting a
+hundred guns.</p>
+
+<p>Chapultepec was a fortification one hundred and fifty feet above the
+average level of the ground. A front of nine hundred feet bristled
+with cannon. Behind it was a mill called El Molino del Rey, fortified
+and garrisoned, which defended the approach to the castle. The capture
+of this work was assigned to General Worth, to whose command the
+Fourth Regiment belonged. The assault was a desperate one, for it was
+"the last ditch" of the Mexicans; but it <span class="pagenum"><a id="page346" name="page346"></a>(p. 346)</span> was carried, though
+the assailing force lost one-fourth of its number in the assault.
+"Second Lieutenant Grant behaved with distinguished gallantry," is the
+official report of his conduct. Though custom and the precedents of
+the service permitted the quartermaster to remain at a safe distance
+from actual fighting in charge of the baggage trains, Grant never
+availed himself of this immunity from personal peril, but retained his
+place with the regiment.</p>
+
+<p>When the strong places which defended the city fell, Scott and his
+army marched into the capital. The Mexican forces fled, and the United
+States flag floated over the "Halls of the Montezumas." The country
+was conquered, and the war was ended. Grant had been engaged in all
+the battles near the Rio Grande, and in most of them from Vera Cruz to
+the City of Mexico, and he had won the brevet rank of captain for his
+gallantry.</p>
+
+<p>After the ratification of the treaty of peace, by which California was
+acquired, the army evacuated Mexico, and Captain Grant was sent to New
+York with his regiment. Its companies were separated and sent to
+various military stations. After serving at Detroit and Sackett's
+Harbor, the Fourth Infantry was sent to Oregon in 1851, the discovery
+of gold in California having attracted an immense immigration to the
+shores of the Pacific. The battalion of which Grant's company was a
+part was stationed at Fort Dallas, and had some experience in Indian
+warfare. In 1848 he had been married to Miss Dent; but in the wilds of
+Oregon he was separated from his family. There was nothing there to
+satisfy his reasonable ambition, no hope of rising in his profession,
+and he became discontented. In 1853 he was commissioned as a full
+captain; but this did not reconcile him to his situation, and he
+resigned his position in the army to enter upon an untried life as a
+civilian.</p>
+
+<p>Grant was now thirty-two years of age; he had a wife and two children,
+and it was necessary for him to provide for their support. His first
+choice of an occupation had been that of a farmer, and he went back to
+that in the present emergency. His wife owned a farm about nine miles
+from St. Louis, and Grant located himself there. He built a house upon
+it of hewn logs, working upon it with his own hands. He was not a
+"gentleman farmer" in any sense, for he drove one of his teams with
+wood to the city. He wore an old felt hat, a seedy blouse, and tucked
+his trousers' legs into the tops of his boots. His habits were very
+simple, and the lack of means compelled him to live on the most
+economical scale.</p>
+
+<p>The retired captain was not successful as a farmer; but he was known
+as an honest, upright man, faithful in all his obligations. In his
+need of a remunerative occupation he applied for the position of city
+engineer in St. Louis; but he failed to obtain it. As a real estate
+agent and as a collector he was equally unsuccessful, and his fortunes
+were at a very low ebb. He obtained a place in the custom-house, but
+at the end of two months the death of the collector compelled him to
+retire. But while fortune seemed to have completely deserted him,
+subjecting him to the fate of thousands of others in the struggle to
+live and care for his family, it was more propitious to his father,
+who was in comparatively easy <span class="pagenum"><a id="page347" name="page347"></a>(p. 347)</span> circumstances, and had
+established himself in the leather business in Galena, Ill. It seemed
+to be incumbent upon him to do something for the relief of his oldest
+son, and in 1860 the ex-captain became a member of the firm of "Grant
+&amp; Sons." This was the position in which the opening of the War of the
+Rebellion found him.</p>
+
+<p>For years the military spirit of the North had been repressed and
+discouraged. Sober and dignified people regarded the soldier as
+unnecessary, and military parades were looked upon as childish, and
+classed in the category with circus shows. But suddenly, when the
+cannon of the Rebellion began to resound in the South, the people were
+awakened from their dream of security, and the profession of arms,
+which had been disparaged and had almost fallen into disrepute, became
+in the highest degree honorable, for the safety of the nation depended
+upon it. Millions were ready to fight for the Union, but there were
+very few trained officers to organize and command those who were eager
+to uphold the flag and save the nation. Except here and there one who
+had served in the Mexican or Indian wars, there was not a soldier in
+the land who had any experience of actual warfare.</p>
+
+<p>To Galena came the intelligence that Fort Sumter had been bombarded,
+and with it the proclamation of President Lincoln calling for 75,000
+volunteers. Grant was profoundly moved by the situation of the
+country, and without seeking for or thinking of the honors and
+emoluments that might be reaped, he patriotically desired to serve his
+country in the present terrible emergency. The nation had educated him
+for military service, and though he had fought with honor through one
+war, he did not regard the debt as paid. He was a soldier, but he did
+not boast of what he had done, or even claim the rank in the gathering
+armies to which his experience entitled him.</p>
+
+<p>In less than a week he was drilling a company in Galena, whose members
+wished to make him their captain; but another citizen wanted the
+place, and he declined it. He consented to go to Springfield, the
+capital of the State, with the company. On the way he met the Hon.
+Elihu B. Washburn, and by him was presented to Governor Yates, who,
+however, did not appear to be greatly impressed, and did not take much
+notice of him. Then Grant wrote to the adjutant-general of the army at
+Washington, stating that he had been educated at West Point at the
+public expense, and considered it his duty to tender his services to
+the Government. He did not apply for the commission of a
+brigadier-general; but was willing to serve in any capacity where he
+might be needed.</p>
+
+<p>No response came to this modest offer, and Grant visited Cincinnati,
+where George B. McClellan, who had been appointed major-general of
+volunteers by the governor of Ohio, was organizing the forces. Both
+had served in Worth's brigade in Mexico; and Grant thought his former
+friend might tender him a position on his staff. Though he called upon
+him several times, he failed to find him, and returned to Springfield.
+While he was waiting at the capital, Governor Yates sent for him, and
+asked him if he knew how many men belonged in a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page348" name="page348"></a>(p. 348)</span> company, how
+many companies in a regiment, and similar questions concerning details
+which were very perplexing to a civilian.</p>
+
+<p>Grant assured him that he was a graduate of West Point, had served
+eleven years in the regular army, and knew all about such matters.
+This reply helped the governor out of his embarrassment, and the
+soldier was invited to take a seat in the State House, and act as
+adjutant-general. One who knew Grant better than others suggested to
+the governor that he should appoint him to the command of a regiment.
+This advice was acted upon, and the patriotic seeker for military
+employment was appointed colonel of the Twenty-first Regiment of
+Illinois Infantry. Grant promptly accepted the commission, and
+hastened to Mattoon, where the regiment was encamped, and assumed the
+command.</p>
+
+<p>His command was a body of three months' troops, composed of excellent
+material, but in rather a demoralized condition when the colonel
+assumed command, for the men were American citizens, jealous of their
+rights as such, and military discipline was new and strange to them.
+Grant marched them to Caseyville, where he drilled them for four
+weeks, and transformed them from a mob of independent citizens into
+one of the best-disciplined bodies of troops in the country, which
+became noted for its orderly and excellent bearing. The change was
+effected so skilfully that no man believed he had sacrificed his
+citizenship. The strong will of the colonel, dignified by the genuine
+principle of patriotism, overcame the prevailing idea of equality, and
+his command was a unit. The men were proud of the leadership of a
+regular army officer, and admired him to such a degree that they
+re-enlisted for three years.</p>
+
+<p>While Colonel Grant was at Caseyville it was reported that Quincy, on
+the Mississippi, was menaced by rebel guerillas from Missouri, and he
+was ordered to the exposed point. In the absence of transportation he
+marched his regiment one hundred and twenty miles of the distance.
+From this point his command was sent into Missouri, where the
+discipline and the morals of the body were improved by quiet and
+judicious measures. Guarding railroads was the service in which the
+regiment was employed; and when serving with other commands Grant was
+the acting brigadier-general, though he was ranked by all the other
+colonels.</p>
+
+<p>In July of the opening year of the war Grant became a
+brigadier-general of volunteers. The appointment was obtained by Mr.
+Washburn, who had befriended him before. The Western Department was at
+this time under the command of General Fremont. Grant's district was a
+part of Missouri, with Western Kentucky and Tennessee, and he
+established his head-quarters at Cairo, a point of the utmost military
+importance as a depot of supplies and a gunboat rendezvous. Kentucky
+had proclaimed a suspicious neutrality, and near Cairo, on the other
+side of the river, were the three termini of a railroad from the
+South. A Confederate force seized two of them, and Grant hastened to
+secure Paducah, the third. The enemy hurriedly retired as he landed
+his force, and Grant issued a temperate and judicious proclamation,
+for he was on the soil of the enemy. He had acted without orders from
+his superior, and returning to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page349" name="page349"></a>(p. 349)</span> Cairo after an absence of
+less than a day, he found Fremont's order, already executed, awaiting
+him. He also took possession of Smithland, at the mouth of the
+Cumberland River.</p>
+
+<p>With a force of 3,100 men General Grant made an incursion into
+Missouri to break up a rebel camp at Belmont, where he fought his
+first battle in the Rebellion. He had accomplished his purpose, when
+the enemy was reinforced from Columbus, on the other side of the
+river, and though he brought off his command in safety he narrowly
+escaped capture himself. Fremont was superseded by Halleck, and for
+the next two months Grant was employed in organizing and drilling
+troops. Columbus, with 140 cannon and full of men and material, closed
+the Mississippi. The Confederate line of defence against the invasion
+of the South extended from this point across the country, including
+Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, the
+latter mounting forty guns, with quarters for 20,000 soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Grant was studying this line of defence, devising a plan to break
+through it. By order of General Halleck he had sent out a
+reconnoissance in force, under General Smith, who reported to him that
+the capture of Fort Henry was practicable. Grant forwarded this report
+to the commander of the department, and asked for permission to attack
+it. This was refused in sharp and curt terms. A written application,
+earnestly seconded by Commodore Foote, who had brought the gunboat
+service up to a state of efficiency in the West, secured the desired
+order. With 17,000 men, in connection with 7 gunboats under the
+command of the commodore, Grant started upon his mission the day after
+he received the order. Fort Henry was captured, though the army was
+not engaged. The main body of the Confederate force escaped to Fort
+Donelson.</p>
+
+<p>The capture of Fort Henry cheered the army and the people. Grant
+telegraphed the result of the attack to Halleck, and announced his
+intention to proceed against Fort Donelson. Leaving 2,500 men to
+garrison the fort, Grant marched with 15,000 from Fort Henry, while a
+considerable addition to his force came up the river. The
+fortification was invested, and after three days of persistent
+fighting in cold, snow, and hunger, the fort surrendered. The gunboats
+were severely handled by the water batteries of the enemy, and the
+commodore was badly wounded, so that most of the work fell upon the
+army.</p>
+
+<p>It was a brilliant victory, and the loyal nation resounded with the
+praises of Grant. This was the pointer to the fame he afterward
+achieved. His reply to the rebel general, "I propose to move
+immediately on your works," was repeated all over the country, and the
+initials of his name came to mean "Unconditional Surrender," the terms
+he had demanded of the commander of the fort.</p>
+
+<p>The strategetic line of the Confederates was broken, and new
+dispositions of their forces became necessary on account of this
+important victory; Columbus was abandoned, and its men and material
+sent to Island No. 10. The battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, as
+it is called in the South, followed under Grant's command. It was a
+bloody and hotly contested action, and not as decisive as that of
+Donelson. The ground was held, and the arrival of Buell with
+reinforcements <span class="pagenum"><a id="page350" name="page350"></a>(p. 350)</span> caused the Confederates to retire. Sherman
+had a command in this battle under Grant, and the strong friendship
+between these two great commanders, which subsisted to the end, had
+its origin about this time.</p>
+
+<p>Not such were the relations between Halleck and Grant, for the latter
+was practically thrown into the shade by the former; but the hero of
+Fort Donelson continued to do his duty faithfully, making no issue
+with his superior. At this time he was in command of the Army of the
+Tennessee. While he remained in this position the Union army and navy
+had made decided progress in the West and the South; but no real
+advance was made in the direction of the rebel capital. Then McClellan
+was removed from his position of general-in-chief, and Halleck was
+appointed in his place. Grant seemed to be forgotten for the time, or
+his operations were overshadowed by those in the East. But he had
+driven the enemy out of West Tennessee, and was turning his attention
+toward Vicksburg.</p>
+
+<p>When he had sufficiently informed himself in regard to the situation,
+he proposed to the general-in-chief a movement upon Vicksburg, which
+was really the Gibraltar of the Mississippi, and he was invested with
+full powers to carry out his own plans. Constantly and earnestly
+supported by Sherman, he battered against this strong fortress for six
+months. Various expedients were resorted to for the reduction of the
+place, without success. With the written protest of four of his ablest
+generals in his pocket, Grant moved his army to a point four miles
+below Grand Gulf, fought several battles on his way, and came to the
+rear of Vicksburg. The Confederate engineers were doubtless as skilful
+as any in the world, and seemed to be justified in regarding the
+fortress, with its surrounding batteries, fortifications, swamps, and
+tangled jungles, as impregnable.</p>
+
+<p>Following up his regular siege operations, Grant exercised his
+indomitable will against those tremendous defences, and Vicksburg
+fell. The news of its surrender was spread all over the loyal nation
+with that of the great victory of Gettysburg. The Confederacy had been
+cut in two, and a decided turn in the struggle for the Union was
+clearly indicated. The name of the victorious general was again upon
+the lips of all the people. Grant himself seemed to be the only man
+who remained unmoved. President Lincoln sent him an autograph letter,
+acknowledging that Grant was right while he was wrong; and even
+Halleck was magnanimous enough to send him a very handsome letter of
+congratulation. The fortunate general had been made a major-general of
+volunteers after his victory at Donelson; and he was now promoted to
+the rank of major-general in the regular army.</p>
+
+<p>A new department had been created for Major-General Grant, covering
+nearly all the territory south of the Ohio. He was worn out and sick
+after the severe exertions of the summer; but when informed that
+Rosecrans was shut up and closely besieged by Bragg, in Chattanooga,
+he set out for this point with only his personal staff. On the way he
+used the telegraph and the mails, and suggested or ordered such steps
+as would relieve the place, for the Army of the Cumberland, shut off
+from supplies, was in desperate straits, sick and famished. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page351" name="page351"></a>(p. 351)</span>
+Reinforcements were hurried, and the result of his preparations was
+the decided victory of the battle of Chattanooga and Missionary Ridge.
+In this battle General Sheridan came to his notice for the first time.</p>
+
+<p>General Grant was thanked, and presented with a gold medal by
+Congress. He had become the idol of the loyal nation; but he bore his
+honors very meekly. The grade of lieutenant-general was revived, and
+conferred upon him. All the armies of the United States were now under
+his command. He was called to Washington, and it is not possible even
+to mention the honors that were showered upon him. In due time he took
+his place at the head of the Army of the Potomac, and fought some of
+the most terrible battles of the war. Richmond was his first objective
+point, and failing in the direct approach to the capital of the
+Confederacy, he moved upon it from the south. It was a long struggle,
+but in the end Richmond fell.</p>
+
+<p>At Appomattox Court House Grant received the surrender of General Lee,
+granting the most magnanimous terms to the defeated army. The other
+armies of the Confederacy soon followed the example of the Army of
+Virginia, and the long and terrible conflict of over four years was
+ended in a victorious Union. As soon as the surrender was effected,
+General Grant, without any pomp or parade, proceeded to Washington,
+not even taking in Richmond on his way, and reported in person to
+President Lincoln. He advised the immediate reduction of the army,
+sustained at an enormous expense, and no longer needed.</p>
+
+<p>The war was ended! Perhaps no man ever stood higher in the estimation
+of his country than Grant, and it was inevitable that he should become
+a candidate for the Presidency. He had been a Democrat in politics
+before the war; but he was elected to the first office in the nation
+by the people, though the candidate of the Republican party. He was
+hardly as successful in this office as he had been in the field; but
+he carried with him the respect and admiration of the people to the
+day of his death. He was re-elected to the Presidency; and the
+objections of the people to a third term more than anything else,
+prevented his third nomination.</p>
+
+<p>After his return to private life he visited nearly every country in
+Europe, and was everywhere honored as no citizen of the Republic had
+ever been before. In the last years of his life he engaged in a
+financial and banking business, by which he lost all his property.
+About the same time an insidious disease was wearing away his life. He
+had been approached before to write a history of his military life, to
+which he would not listen. In his financial strait he accepted an
+offer, and wrote the work, in two octavo volumes, while suffering from
+the weakness and pain of his malady. He was doing it for his family,
+for his own days were numbered; and there is nothing on record more
+heroic than his struggle to finish this task.</p>
+
+<p>Four days after he had finished his literary labor of love, he died of
+the disease which had been the burden of his last days. He passed away
+at Mount McGregor, N. Y., July 23, 1885. The loyal people mourned him
+as the saviour of the nation from disruption, and even those who had
+been his enemies in war were <span class="pagenum"><a id="page352" name="page352"></a>(p. 352)</span> his friends in death. The whole
+nation was present in spirit at his obsequies. His remains were
+interred at Riverside Park, New York, and only await the imposing
+monument which the metropolis of the nation he saved is to rear above
+his tomb.</p>
+
+<p>His character can never be as prominent as the victories he won for
+his imperilled country; but his honesty, his unsullied honor, and his
+self-abnegation entitle him to another crown of glory.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig007" name="sig007"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig007.jpg" width="250" height="54" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3>WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10" title="Go to footnote 10"><span class="small">[10]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Elbridge S. Brooks</span><br>
+(1820-1891)</h3>
+
+<a id="img041" name="img041"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="250" height="287" alt="William Sherman." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Achievement wins applause. And when the steps toward achievement are
+tinged with mystery, romance, or daring, the applause is irresistible
+and continuous. So it has come to pass that by the side of Xenophon's
+masterly "retreat of the Ten Thousand," of Cortes's burning his ships
+at Vera Cruz, and of Marlborough's bold march through the heart of
+Germany to the victory at Blenheim, stands Sherman's March to the Sea
+and his "Christmas Gift" of captured Savannah. And yet this brilliant
+leader of men had never seen a hostile shot fired until he was
+forty-one, and his first battle was the defeat at Bull Run.</p>
+
+<p>The March to the Sea, upon which Sherman's fame as a soldier so
+largely rests, was by no means the greatest or most significant of his
+many achievements. His record as a soldier is filled with examples of
+his courage, his shrewdness, and his tenacity, while his mingling of
+gentle ways and grim determination, of restlessness and calm, of
+forethought, fearlessness, and frankness, make him at once a unique
+and central figure in the decade of war and reconstruction that forms
+so important a chapter in the story of the United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>William Tecumseh Sherman was born on February 8, 1820, in the town of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page353" name="page353"></a>(p. 353)</span> Lancaster, the county-seat of that fair and fertile section
+known as Fairfield County, in the southern part of the State of
+Ohio&mdash;the busy commonwealth that furnished 300,000 men to the armies
+of the Union, and gave to the Civil War its three greatest generals;
+for Grant and Sherman were Ohio born, and Sheridan's boyhood was spent
+in the same State.</p>
+
+<p>But Sherman's ancestors were of stout Puritan stock, dating back
+almost to the days of the Mayflower. His first American "forebear" was
+a Puritan minister, Rev. John Sherman, an emigrant to the Connecticut
+colony from Essex in England. Of one of the collateral branches was
+Roger Sherman, drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence.
+The father of the soldier was Judge Sherman, of the Ohio Supreme
+Court; his mother was "a Hoyt of New England."</p>
+
+<p>William Tecumseh Sherman was the sixth of eleven children, a younger
+brother being the lad who, later, became Senator John Sherman of Ohio.
+Judge Sherman, the father of the boys, died in 1829, and William was
+adopted into the family of Senator Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, a resident
+of Lancaster, and a notable figure in American history, for he was
+senator and cabinet minister for nearly forty years.</p>
+
+<p>Sherman's training was that of a soldier from boyhood. At sixteen, he
+was entered as a cadet at the Military Academy at West Point, from
+which he graduated in 1840, standing sixth in a class of 42.
+Engineering was his favorite study, but devotion to his books seems
+not to have kept him out of mischief. He was not, he himself admitted
+later, "a Sunday-school cadet," his record for behavior being 124 in
+the Academy standard&mdash;not so very far from the foot. But Grant, it
+must be remembered, ranked even lower in his behavior record, standing
+at 149.</p>
+
+<p>The twenty years that followed Sherman's graduation from West Point
+were variously spent. He was commissioned second lieutenant in the
+Third Artillery, July 1, 1840, and ordered to Florida to face the
+hostile Seminoles. He was promoted to be first lieutenant November 30,
+1841, and in 1842 was ordered to Fort Morgan, in Alabama. From 1843 to
+1846 he was stationed at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor (where
+the afterward famous Major Robert Anderson was his superior officer),
+at Bellefontaine, Alabama, and at Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, on
+recruiting service. When the war with Mexico was declared, Lieutenant
+Sherman was sent to California, then a debatable land. He reached
+Monterey Bay, by way of "the Horn," in January, 1847, and spent three
+years in California, returning east as bearer of despatches to the War
+Department in 1850. In May, 1850, he married Miss Ellen Ewing,
+daughter of Senator Ewing, then Secretary of the Interior under
+President Taylor, and in September following he was commissioned as
+captain and sent to St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time, so Sherman notes in his "Memoirs," that he felt a
+great disappointment to think that the war with Mexico was fought to a
+finish without his having been "in it," and he adds, "of course, I
+thought it was the last and only chance in my day, and that my career
+as a soldier was at an end." It was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page354" name="page354"></a>(p. 354)</span> at an end for a time,
+for after garrison duty at St. Louis and New Orleans, he resigned from
+the army, and, in 1853, sought to make his fortune in business.</p>
+
+<p>He first went to California as manager of the San Francisco branch of
+a St. Louis bank, but the ill success of the enterprise drove him east
+again in 1857, when he engaged in the banking business in New York
+City. To this enterprise, however, the famous panic of 1857 put an
+early end, and in 1858 he was embarked in the law, with an office at
+Leavenworth, Kan. This, too, failing to supply sufficient bread and
+butter, he tried farming in Ohio for a while, and then applied for a
+government position in Washington. Instead of this, however, he
+secured an appointment as Superintendent and Professor of Engineering
+in a new military college just started at Alexandria, in Louisiana. He
+entered upon the duties of his position on the 1st of January, 1860,
+when the mutterings of rebellion were already abroad; and just as he
+had put the academy into good working order the war-cloud became so
+black that Sherman, in a manly letter to Governor Moore, of Louisiana,
+declared his intention of maintaining his allegiance to "the old
+constitution as long as a fragment of it survives," resigned his
+office, and returned to Ohio. In April, 1861, he accepted the
+presidency of a St. Louis street railway company. Then Sumter was
+fired on, the war fever filled the land, troops were hurried to the
+front, and Sherman signified to the Secretary of War his desire to
+serve his country "in the capacity for which I was trained." On May
+14, 1861, he was appointed colonel of the Thirteenth United States
+Infantry, and assigned to inspection duty in Washington under General
+Scott, the commander-in-chief; and then the real story of his life
+began.</p>
+
+<p>At first fate seemed to be against him. He was too outspoken and
+hard-headed to suit the reckless and effusive boasters of those early
+days of the war, which he insisted would be long and bloody, unless
+the whole military power of the Republic was put into the field to
+crush the rebellion before it could grow into a revolution. He was as
+disgusted as Washington had been in revolutionary times, with
+short-service enlistments, and refused point-blank to go to Ohio to
+enlist "three-months men," saying, in his blunt way, "You might as
+well try to put out fire with a squirt gun as expect to put down this
+rebellion with three-months troops." He was assigned to the command of
+the Third Brigade of the First Division of McDowell's army, and had
+his "baptism of fire" upon the disastrous field of Bull Run, which he
+has characterized as "one of the best planned and worst fought battles
+of the war." That famous "skedaddle," as it was the fashion to call
+it, he frankly admitted, in his official report, began among the men
+of his brigade, and the "disorderly retreat" speedily became a
+humiliating rout, which only a few cool-headed officers, such as
+Colonel Sherman, could check or control.</p>
+
+<p>The chagrin over the stampede at Bull Run was so great, that the more
+conscientious Union officers expected to be held responsible for it
+and duly court-martialed; but to Colonel Sherman's surprise, his
+superiors saw beyond the demoralization of the moment, and in August,
+1861, he was made brigadier-general of volunteers and transferred to
+the Department of the Cumberland, with head-quarters <span class="pagenum"><a id="page355" name="page355"></a>(p. 355)</span> at
+Louisville, Ky. From thenceforth all his fighting and all his fame was
+associated with the armies of the West.</p>
+
+<p>At once he saw the desperate condition of affairs in Kentucky&mdash;a
+border State, only to be held for the Union by prompt and decisive
+measures. He called for reinforcements frequently and emphatically,
+and when the Secretary of War visited him on a tour of inspection, and
+asked his views on the situation, Sherman paralyzed him by asserting
+that for the defence of Kentucky, 60,000 men were needed at once, and
+that 200,000 would be necessary there before the war in that State
+could be ended. This was so out of proportion to the Secretary's
+estimate that Sherman was declared crazy; he was deprived of his
+command at the front and relegated to a camp of instruction near St.
+Louis.</p>
+
+<p>But so shrewd and correct an observer, so energetic a leader, and so
+determined a fighter, could not long be left in retirement, and in
+February, 1862, General Sherman was ordered to assume command of the
+forces at Paducah, Ky. Desperate fighting soon followed. The battle of
+Shiloh (sometimes called Pittsburg Landing) showed of what stuff the
+"crazy Sherman," as the newspapers had called him, was made, and from
+Shiloh's bloody field in 1862, to Johnston's surrender at Raleigh in
+1865, Sherman's fame rose steadily, until it left him one of the three
+greatest generals of the Civil War, and one of the famous commanders
+of the century.</p>
+
+<p>From Shiloh to Raleigh, Sherman stood, in a measure, as Grant's right
+hand, for, even when Grant was "hammering away" in Virginia, Sherman,
+by his strategy, shrewdness, and daring in the West was giving him
+material support and help. In the three years of fighting, from 1862
+to 1865, these events stand prominently out in Sherman's military
+record&mdash;the tenacity with which he held the right of the line at
+Shiloh, the faithful service he rendered as commander of the left
+before Vicksburg, his rapid relief of Knoxville, his brilliant capture
+of Atlanta, his daring and famous march to the sea and the capture of
+Savannah, his equally daring march through the Carolinas to the help
+of Grant, and his final capture of Johnston's army, which was the real
+close of the war.</p>
+
+<p>In all these events the peculiar traits of character that made Sherman
+so conspicuous a success stood out in bold relief&mdash;his coolness in
+danger, his bravery in action, his daring in devices, his readiness of
+invention, his electric surprises, his scientific strategy, his
+ruthlessness in destruction, his courtesy to the conquered, his
+devotion to his soldiers, his loyalty to his superior in command, his
+restlessness, his energy, his determination to succeed. These all
+contributed to the result that made "Sherman's army" famous the world
+over, and stamped him as the hero of a campaign that, according to
+military critics, "stands alone in the history of modern warfare."</p>
+
+<p>His scientific fencing with General Joseph E. Johnston, the
+Confederate leader, was as masterly as it was effective. He forced his
+rival from the stand he had taken as warder of the gateways to the
+South's supply land, fighting him step by step from Dalton backward to
+Atlanta, and capturing that stronghold of the Confederacy by
+persistent and desperate fighting. Then, when Atlanta was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page356" name="page356"></a>(p. 356)</span>
+won, Sherman's ability to cut the Gordian knot, as no other man dared,
+was displayed with especial force. Instead of frittering away his
+precious time by simply holding Atlanta, or wasting strength
+unnecessarily by hunting up a baffled and elusive foe, or devoting all
+his energy to keeping open his long line of communication and supply,
+he determined to strike a disastrous blow at the Confederacy, swiftly
+and unexpectedly. Cutting loose from his connection with the West, he
+would live on the enemy and lay waste the storehouse of the
+Confederacy&mdash;or, as he expressed it in outlining his plans to General
+Grant, "move through Georgia, smashing things, to the sea."</p>
+
+<p>The boldness of this desperate measure at first attracted, as it
+afterward alarmed, the authorities at Washington. Consent was given
+and then recalled, but, before the recall could reach him Sherman had
+acted quickly, fearing this same countermand. Upon receipt of the
+order consenting to his march, he cut the telegraph wires to the
+north, then he burned his bridges, tore up the railroad that connected
+him with the West, and, with his army reduced to its actual available
+fighting strength of 60,000 men, with banners streaming, gun-barrels
+glistening in the sun, bands playing, and the men singing lustily
+"Glory, glory, hallelujah!" Atlanta was left behind, and "Sherman's
+army" set its face eastward and commenced its memorable march to the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>In two parallel columns the army of invasion and destruction moved
+through the fertile land, cutting a swath of desolation forty miles
+wide, and crippling the Confederacy by dissipating its most cherished
+resources. For fully a month the army was practically lost, so far as
+communication with the North was concerned. Then it struck the sea at
+Savannah, captured that beautiful city, and, in the celebrated
+despatch which actually reached President Lincoln on Christmas Eve,
+General Sherman presented to the President and the country "the city
+of Savannah, as a Christmas gift."</p>
+
+<p>Savannah taken, the more difficult march northward was determined
+upon, so as to make a junction with Grant before Richmond, and end the
+war by one final and tremendous stroke. The "Campaign of the
+Carolinas," as this northward march was called, was a really greater
+achievement than the march to the sea, for it was against more
+formidable natural odds, and was done in midwinter. The distance
+covered, from Savannah to Goldsboro, in North Carolina, was four
+hundred and twenty-five miles; five large rivers were crossed, three
+important cities were captured, and the Stars and Stripes were once
+more flung to the breeze above the ruins of Fort Sumter. And yet, in
+fifty days from the start, the army reached Goldsboro, "in superb
+order," and concluded what Sherman himself designates as "one of the
+longest and most important marches ever made by an organized army in a
+civilized country." It was a great achievement, but it was without the
+novelty, the mystery, and the dramatic qualities of the earlier
+cross-country campaign, and so it has come to pass that the first has
+been the most famous, and Sherman's march to the sea has gone into
+history as one of the romances and glories of the War of the
+Rebellion.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign of the Carolinas fitly ended, as had the march to the
+sea, in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page357" name="page357"></a>(p. 357)</span> victory; and the successes at Averysboro and
+Burtonville culminated on April 26, 1865, in the surrender, near
+Raleigh, of Johnston, and the last organized army of the Confederacy.</p>
+
+<p>The war was over. Sherman's army marched northward to Washington,
+where, on May 24, 1865, on the second day of the famous Grand Review,
+General Sherman and his victorious army marched past the presidential
+reviewing stand&mdash;"sixty-five thousand men," says General Sherman, "in
+splendid physique, who had just completed a march of nearly two
+thousand miles in a hostile country." Then came the disbandment;
+Sherman bade his "boys" good-by in a ringing farewell order; the men
+departed to their waiting homes, and the splendid "Army of the West"
+was a thing of the past.</p>
+
+<p>After the conclusion of the war General Sherman was, for four years,
+stationed at St. Louis, as Commander of the Military Division of the
+Mississippi. He was a notable public character, with a reputation for
+bravery that none dare assail, and a record as a soldier that made him
+one of the nation's heroes. He stood next to Grant in position, merit,
+and popularity; and when, in 1869, General Grant was elected to the
+presidency, Sherman, who had been named lieutenant-general in 1866,
+was promoted to the vacant post as general of the army, with
+head-quarters at Washington.</p>
+
+<p>He visited Europe in 1871-72 and, both because of his own brilliant
+record, and his official position as head of the American army, he was
+everywhere received with honor and distinction. Returning home he
+wrote his "Memoirs;" they were published in 1875, and stamped him, in
+the opinion of critics, as "by far the ablest writer among America's
+military men."</p>
+
+<p>On February 8, 1884, he was placed upon the retired list&mdash;"turned out
+to grass," as he expressed it, "and told I could spend the rest of my
+days in peace and retirement." As an especial mark of the nation's
+pride in his record, he was, as the order stated, "placed upon the
+retired list of the army, without reduction in his current pay and
+allowances," and the President in the same order publicly put on
+record the gratitude of the American people "for the services of
+incalculable value rendered by General Sherman in the War for the
+Union, which his great military genius and daring did so much to end."
+It was a fitting tribute to the man who had worn the uniform of his
+country for forty years, faithful to every trust and equal to every
+emergency, and who had risen through every grade from a cadetship and
+a lieutenancy, to the proud eminence of General of the Armies of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>The twenty-six years that were his after the close of the great
+struggle in which he had been one of the central figures, were filled
+with a quiet enjoyment of life and a wide personal popularity.
+Wherever he went he was a living hero, welcomed and honored as such by
+the people who owed so much to his wise brain and his unsheathed
+sword. He could have been President of the United States, had he been
+willing to accept the nomination that was offered him; instead, he
+declined with peremptory and characteristic bluntness, and he is, it
+is believed, the only man who ever did refuse that high office.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page358" name="page358"></a>(p. 358)</span> After his retirement he made his home, first in St. Louis and
+then in New York, where the last five years of his life were passed,
+and where he speedily became one of the great city's familiar,
+honored, and notable figures. Here, too, the final call came to him.
+On February 14, 1891, when he had just passed his seventy-first
+birthday, sounded the order "parade is dismissed," and Sherman died in
+his own home, in West Seventy-first Street, mourned by an entire
+nation. He was buried in St. Louis by the side of his wife, who had
+died in 1890.</p>
+
+<p>William Tecumseh Sherman was, in the strictest sense of the word, a
+soldier. His bearing and presence told of camp and uniform. With a
+military education and military environments, he could not understand,
+and could not calmly brook, the cautious conservatism of the civilian,
+which would often temporize when swift, determined action seemed
+necessary, and which was often boastful at home, and timorous in the
+field. Able in action, fierce in assault, unerring in judgment,
+watchful in detail; with a sagacity and foresight that amounted almost
+to genius, and a memory that was marvellous, General Sherman was a
+great military leader, and one who, when the opportunity came, rode
+straight into fame and reputation. As determined as he was daring, as
+magnanimous as he was impulsive, as clear-headed as he was energetic,
+and as gentle-hearted in peace as he was ruthless in war, he was
+indeed a unique figure in America's history, and, as time goes on, his
+name will stand as that of one of the great Republic's most famous men
+and most cherished memories.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig008" name="sig008"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig008.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<h3>PHILIP HENRY SHERIDAN<br>
+(1831-1888)</h3>
+
+
+<p>Philip Henry Sheridan, Commander-in-chief of the United States Army,
+and the last and most brilliant of the great generals of the North,
+was born at Albany, N. Y. March 6, 1831. He had few advantages of
+early education and training, but in 1848 he obtained a cadetship at
+West Point. Sheridan's hot blood and impulsive temperament were
+manifested even in his student days, and a quarrel with a comrade
+resulted in his suspension for a year. He was consequently unable to
+graduate in 1852, as he should have done, but in the following year he
+concluded his studies and was appointed a brevet second lieutenant of
+infantry. In 1854 he was assigned to the First Infantry in Texas, and
+the same year he received his commission <span class="pagenum"><a id="page359" name="page359"></a>(p. 359)</span> as second
+lieutenant of the Fourth Infantry. With the latter regiment he served
+during the next six years in Washington Territory and Oregon. In the
+attack upon the Indians at the Cascades, Washington Territory, in
+April, 1856, the United States troops landed under fire, and routed
+and dispersed the enemy at every point. General Scott drew special
+attention to Sheridan's bravery on this occasion.</p>
+
+<a id="img042" name="img042"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/img042.jpg" width="250" height="318" alt="Philip Henry Sheridan." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>But it was the great Civil War which developed Sheridan's talents, as
+in the case of many other distinguished officers, and made promotion
+rapid. The resignation of commanders with Southern sympathies and the
+creation of new regiments secured Sheridan a first lieutenancy in the
+Fourth Infantry in March, 1861, and a captaincy in the Thirteenth
+Infantry in the following May. Yet that memorable year in the history
+of the United States "brought him little employment and no laurels."
+After various minor services he was commissioned as colonel of the
+Second Michigan Cavalry on May 25, 1862. He at once engaged with the
+regiment in Elliot's raid against the railroad, which was destroyed at
+Booneville. During the month of June he commanded the Second Cavalry
+Brigade in several skirmishes, and on July 1st gained a brilliant
+victory at Booneville over a superior cavalry force. His appointment
+as brigadier-general of volunteers dated from this action. In the
+autumn of 1862 Sheridan received the command of the Eleventh Division
+of the Army of the Ohio, under General Buell. Moving out of Louisville
+with Buell, against Bragg, he took part, on October 8th, in the
+stoutly contested battle of Perryville, where he man&oelig;uvred his
+division with conspicuous skill and effect, holding the key of the
+Northern position, and using the point to its utmost advantage.</p>
+
+<p>At the famous battle of Murfreesboro, which was one of the bloodiest
+and most prolonged of the campaign, Sheridan held the key-point for
+several hours in the first day's fighting, "displaying superb tactical
+skill and the greatest gallantry." After repulsing four desperate
+assaults his ammunition unfortunately gave out. He then ordered a
+bayonet charge and withdrew his lines from the field; but by his
+obstinate resistance invaluable time had been gained by his chief,
+General Rosecrans, to make new dispositions. Sheridan's commission as
+major-general followed upon these services. From this time little of
+interest occurred until September 19 and 20, 1863, when Sheridan again
+distinguished himself at the battle of Chickamauga, rescuing his
+division from a perilous position. General Thomas was transferred to
+the command of Rosecrans' besieged army at Chattanooga, and thither
+General Grant arrived with reinforcements from Vicksburg. Grant was
+determined to dislodge the Southern commander, Bragg, who was posted
+on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page360" name="page360"></a>(p. 360)</span> Hooker carried
+Lookout Mountain and Thomas captured the Ridge on November 25th. In
+the latter operation Sheridan's division was the first to cross the
+crest, and it pressed the enemy's rear-guard until long after dark,
+seizing wagons and artillery. By his successful conduct in the West,
+Sheridan had now thoroughly established his military reputation.</p>
+
+<p>Grant, who had now become lieutenant-general, established his
+head-quarters in Virginia in March, 1864. He was very badly off for an
+energetic commander of cavalry there, and discussed the matter with
+General Halleck. The latter at once suggested Sheridan, remembering
+his splendid dash and bravery at Missionary Ridge. "The very man!"
+exclaimed the laconic Grant, and Sheridan accordingly became commander
+of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Sheridan's progress
+during the campaign of 1864 was like a whirlwind. His troops covered
+the front and flanks of the infantry through the battle of the
+"Wilderness" until May 8th, when the greater part of the force was
+withdrawn, and next morning Sheridan started on a raid against the
+enemy's points of communication with Richmond. Getting within the
+Confederate lines he dashed upon the outworks of Richmond itself,
+where he took one hundred prisoners, and thence moved to Haxall's
+Landing, from which point he returned to the Northern army, having
+destroyed many miles of railroad track, besides trains and a great
+quantity of rations, and liberated Union soldiers. This expedition
+included repulses of the enemy at Beaver Dam and Meadow Bridge, and
+the defeat of the enemy's cavalry at Yellow Tavern, where their best
+cavalry leader, J. E. B. Stuart, was killed. From May 27th to June
+24th Sheridan was engaged in almost daily engagements and skirmishes,
+harassing the enemy, and, with that good fortune which sometimes
+attends the most daring soldiers, resisting all attempts to defeat or
+capture him.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle Department and the Department of West Virginia, Washington,
+and Susquehanna were constituted the "Middle Military Division" in
+August, 1864, and General Grant put Sheridan in command of the same.
+He chafed for opportunities of further distinguishing himself and
+justifying his appointment; but the enemy, under General Early, had
+been reinforced, and for six weeks Sheridan was kept on the defensive
+near Harper's Ferry. At length, when Early's forces had been
+diminished, Sheridan expressed such confidence of success if he were
+allowed to attack, that Grant gave him permission in only two words of
+instruction, "Go in!" Sheridan went in, attacking Early with great
+vigor, on September 19th, at the crossing of the Opequan. After a
+severe battle the enemy was routed; Sheridan captured three thousand
+prisoners and five guns, and sent Early, as he expressed it, "whirling
+through Winchester." Next day President Lincoln, on Grant's
+recommendation, appointed the victorious soldier a brigadier-general
+in the regular army. Taking up the pursuit of Early in the Shenandoah
+Valley, Sheridan found him on the 20th strongly posted on Fisher's
+Hill, just beyond Strasburg. Quietly moving Crook's command through
+the wood, he turned the enemy's left on the 22d, and drove him from
+his stronghold, capturing sixteen guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page361" name="page361"></a>(p. 361)</span> The losses of Sheridan and those of Early in these two
+battles were almost precisely equal, being about fifty-four hundred
+men each; but the Northern general had captured many guns and small
+arms. Sheridan continued the pursuit up the valley, but finding it
+impracticable to proceed either to Lynchburg or Charlottesville, he
+returned through the valley, devastating it on his way and rendering
+it untenable for an enemy's army. By Sheridan's successes Grant
+obtained the unobstructed use of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad and the
+Chesapeake &amp; Ohio Canal, whereas his defeat would have exposed
+Maryland and Pennsylvania to invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Sheridan's next operations, however, were the most important, as they
+have become the most renowned, in his career. Passing through
+Strasburg, he posted his troops on the further bank of Cedar Creek,
+while he himself, on October 16th, went to Washington, in response to
+a request from Secretary Stanton, for consultation. Before the sun
+rose on the morning of the 19th, Early, who had been reinforced,
+surprised, during a fog, the left of the Union army and uncovered the
+position also of the Nineteenth Corps, capturing twenty-four guns and
+about fourteen hundred prisoners. General Wright succeeded in
+retaining his grasp on the turnpike by moving the Sixth Corps to its
+western side and the cavalry to its eastern; but the whole army in the
+process had been driven back beyond Middletown.</p>
+
+<p>Sheridan was at Winchester at this time, on his return from
+Washington. Hearing the noise of battle, he dashed up the turnpike
+with an escort of twenty men, rallying the fugitives on his way, and
+after a ride of a dozen miles reached the army, where he was received
+with indescribable enthusiasm. This famous incident gave rise to
+Buchanan Read's stirring poem of Sheridan's ride, now one of the most
+popular pieces in the repertories of public readers, both in England
+and the United States. After the lapse of a few hours, spent in
+preparing his forces, Sheridan ordered an advance, and literally swept
+the enemy from the field in one of the most overwhelming and decisive
+engagements of the war. All the lost Union guns were retaken, and
+twenty-four Confederate guns and many wagons and stores were captured.
+Congress passed a vote of thanks to Sheridan and his troops for the
+"brilliant series of victories in the valley," and especially the one
+at Cedar Creek. Sheridan was appointed by the President a
+major-general in the army "for the personal gallantry, military skill,
+and just confidence in the courage and patriotism of your troops," as
+the order expressed it, "displayed by you on October 19th."</p>
+
+<p>On February 27, 1865, Sheridan, with his cavalry, 10,000 strong, moved
+up the valley, destroying the Virginia Central Railroad, the James
+River Canal, and immense quantities of supplies, and defeating Early
+again at Waynesboro. He then made his way toward Grant's army and
+arrived at the White House on March 19th. In subsequent operations he
+acted immediately under General Grant. The final campaign of the war
+began, and on March 31st Sheridan was attacked by a heavy force of
+Lee's infantry, under Picket and Johnson; but on the following day,
+being reinforced by Warren, he entrapped and completely routed Picket
+and Johnson's forces at Five Forks, taking thousands of prisoners.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page362" name="page362"></a>(p. 362)</span> Sheridan displayed great tactical skill and generalship on
+this occasion, and the decisive battle of Five Forks compelled General
+Lee to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. Lee was soon in flight, but
+Sheridan was speedily on his trail, and, far away in the Northern van,
+he constantly harassed the enemy. Overtaking the flying army at
+Sailor's Creek, he captured sixteen guns and four hundred wagons, and
+detained the enemy until the Sixth Corps could come up, when a
+combined attack resulted in the capture of more than six thousand
+prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>On April 8th Sheridan again engaged the Confederates at Appomattox
+Station. Early on the morning of the 9th the enemy endeavored to break
+through, but abandoned the attempt when Sheridan, moving aside,
+disclosed the infantry behind. Sheridan mounted his men and was about
+to charge, when the white flag betokening surrender was displayed in
+his front. This brought the war in Virginia to a close, though in
+Alabama and other districts the conflict continued to a somewhat later
+period. The Confederate power, however, was broken by the surrender at
+Appomattox Court-house, which practically ended the Civil War.</p>
+
+<p>Sheridan subsequently conducted an expedition into North Carolina. On
+June 3, 1865, he took command of the Military Division of the
+Southwest, at New Orleans, and was appointed to the Fifth Military
+District (Louisiana and Texas) in March, 1867. President Johnson,
+being dissatisfied with his administration, relieved him of his
+appointment during the reconstruction troubles in Louisiana, and
+transferred him to the Department of the Missouri. He continued in
+command until March 4, 1869, when he was promoted to the rank of
+lieutenant-general, and assigned the command of the Division of the
+Missouri, with head-quarters at Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>During the Franco-German War of 1870-71 General Sheridan visited
+Europe, and was present as a spectator with the German forces at
+several celebrated engagements. He was held in high esteem by Prince
+Bismarck and Count Von Moltke. After the sanguinary battle of
+Gravelotte, which Sheridan witnessed, Bismarck returned with the King
+to Pont-à-Mousson, and on the evening of the next day the German
+Chancellor entertained at dinner General Sheridan and his American
+companions, "with whom he talked eagerly in good English, while
+champagne and porter circulated." At one point of the Franco-German
+War, when Bismarck was at Versailles, anxiously desiring a French
+government with which he could conclude a durable peace, "it almost
+seemed," says Mr. Lowe, in his "Life of Bismarck," "as if he had no
+other resource but to pursue the war on the principles laid down by
+General Sheridan." The American soldier had said to the Chancellor:
+"First deal as hard blows at the enemy's soldiers as possible, and
+then cause so much suffering to the inhabitants of the country that
+they will long for peace and press their government to make it.
+Nothing should be left to the people but eyes to see and lament the
+war."</p>
+
+<a id="img043" name="img043"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="400" height="579" alt="" title="">
+<p>Sheridan ride.</p></div>
+
+<p>In 1875, during the political disturbances in Louisiana, General
+Sheridan was sent to New Orleans, returning to Chicago on quiet being
+restored. On the retirement of General Sherman, in March, 1884, he was
+appointed Commander-in-chief <span class="pagenum"><a id="page363" name="page363"></a>(p. 363)</span> of the Army of the United
+States. He died August 5, 1888. General Sheridan was the most
+brilliant cavalry officer whom America has produced. In addition to
+conspicuous personal bravery, he had an eagle eye for piercing through
+the designs of an enemy and for detecting at a glance all their weak
+points. He possessed wonderful energy, remained undepressed in the
+presence of overwhelming odds, and had a superb confidence in moments
+of the greatest danger. His career was one of the most romantic and
+adventurous called forth by the great American civil struggle.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ROBERT EDMUND LEE<br>
+By <span class="smcap">General Viscount Wolseley</span><br>
+(1807-1870)</h3>
+
+<a id="img044" name="img044"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="Robert Lee." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>It is my wish to give a short outline of General Lee's life, and to
+describe him as I saw him in the autumn of 1862, when at the head of
+proud and victorious troops he smiled at the notion of defeat by any
+army that could be sent against him. I desire to make known to the
+reader not only the renowned soldier, whom I believe to have been the
+greatest of his age, but to give some insight into the character of
+one whom I have always considered the most perfect man I ever met.</p>
+
+<p>As a looker-on, I feel that both parties in the war have so much to be
+proud of that both can afford to hear what impartial Englishmen, or
+foreigners, have to say about it. Inflated and bubble reputations were
+acquired during its progress, few of which will bear the test of time.
+The idol momentarily set up, often for political reasons, crumbles in
+time into the dust from which its limbs were perhaps originally
+moulded. To me, however, two figures stand out in that history,
+towering above all others, both cast in hard metal that will be
+forever proof against the belittling efforts of all future detractors:
+one, General Lee, the great soldier; the other, Mr. Lincoln, the
+far-seeing statesman of iron will, of unflinching determination. Each
+is a good representative of the genius that characterized his country.
+As I study the history of the secession war, these seem to me the two
+men who influenced it most, and who will be recognized as its greatest
+heroes when future generations of American historians record its
+stirring events with impartiality.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page364" name="page364"></a>(p. 364)</span> General Lee came from the class of landed gentry that has
+furnished England at all times with her most able and distinguished
+leaders. The first of his family who went to America was Richard Lee,
+who, in 1641, became Colonial Secretary to the Governor of Virginia.
+The family settled in Westmoreland, one of the most lovely counties in
+that historic State, and members of it from time to time held high
+positions in the government. Several of the family distinguished
+themselves during the War of Independence, among whom was Henry, the
+father of General Robert E. Lee. He raised a mounted corps known as
+"Lee's Legion," in command of which he obtained the reputation of
+being an able and gallant soldier. He was nicknamed by his comrades
+"Light-Horse Harry." He was three times Governor of his native State.
+To him is attributed the authorship of the eulogy on General
+Washington, in which occurs the so-often quoted sentence, "First in
+war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen,"
+praise that with equal truth might have been subsequently applied to
+his own distinguished son.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of this slight sketch, Robert Edmund Lee, was born January
+9, 1807, at the family place of Stratford, in the county of
+Westmoreland, State of Virginia. When only a few years old, his
+parents moved to the small town of Alexandria, which is on the right
+bank of the Potomac River, nearly opposite Washington, but a little
+below it.</p>
+
+<p>He was but a boy of eleven when his father died, leaving his family in
+straitened circumstances. Like many other great commanders, he was in
+consequence brought up in comparative poverty, a condition which has
+been pronounced by the greatest of them as the best training for
+soldiers. During his early years he attended a day-school near his
+home in Alexandria. He was thus able in his leisure hours to help his
+invalid mother in all her household concerns, and to afford her that
+watchful care which, owing to her very delicate health, she so much
+needed. She was a clever, highly gifted woman, and by her fond care
+his character was formed and stamped with honest truthfulness. By her
+he was taught never to forget that he was well born, and that, as a
+gentleman, honor must be his guiding star through life. It was from
+her lips he learned his Bible, from her teaching he drank in the
+sincere belief in revealed religion which he never lost. It was she
+who imbued her great son with an ineradicable belief in the efficacy
+of prayer, and in the reality of God's interposition in the every-day
+affairs of the true believer. No son ever returned a mother's love
+with more heartfelt intensity. She was his idol, and he worshipped her
+with the deep-seated inborn love which is known only to the son in
+whom filial affection is strengthened by respect and personal
+admiration for the woman who bore him. He was her all in all, or, as
+she described it, he was both son and daughter to her. He watched over
+her in weary hours of pain, and served her with all that soft
+tenderness which was such a marked trait in the character of this
+great, stern leader of men.</p>
+
+<p>He seems to have been throughout his boyhood and early youth perfect
+in disposition, in bearing, and in conduct&mdash;a model of all that was
+noble, honorable, and manly. Of the early life of very few great men
+can this be said. Many who <span class="pagenum"><a id="page365" name="page365"></a>(p. 365)</span> have left behind the greatest
+reputations for usefulness, in whom middle age was a model of virtue
+and perhaps of noble self-denial, began their career in a whirlwind of
+wild excess. Often, again, we find that, like Nero, the virtuous youth
+develops into the middle-aged fiend, who leaves behind him a name to
+be execrated for all time. It would be difficult to find in history a
+great man, be he soldier or statesman, with a character so
+irreproachable throughout his whole life as that which in boyhood,
+youth, manhood, and to his death, distinguished Robert Lee from all
+contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>He entered the Military Academy of West Point at the age of eighteen,
+where he worked hard, became adjutant of the cadet corps, and finally
+graduated at the head of his class. There he mastered the theory of
+war and studied the campaigns of the great masters in that most
+ancient of all sciences. Whatever he did, even as a boy, he did
+thoroughly, with order and method. Even at this early age he was the
+model Christian gentleman in thought, word, and deed; careful and
+exact in the obedience he rendered his superiors, but remarkable for
+that dignity of deportment which all through his career struck
+strangers with admiring respect.</p>
+
+<p>He left West Point when twenty-two, having gained its highest honors,
+and at once obtained a commission in the engineers. Two years
+afterward he married the granddaughter and heiress of Mrs. Custis,
+whose second husband had been General Washington, but by whom she left
+no children. It was a great match for a poor subaltern officer, as his
+wife was heiress to a very extensive property and to a large number of
+slaves. She was clever, very well educated, and a general favorite; he
+was handsome, tall, well made, with a graceful figure, and a good
+rider; his manners were at once easy and captivating. These young
+people had long known one another, and each was the other's first
+love. She brought with her as part of her fortune General Washington's
+beautiful property of Arlington, situated on the picturesque wooded
+heights that overhang the Potomac River, opposite the capital to which
+the great Washington had given his name. In talking to me of the
+Northern troops, whose conduct in Virginia was then denounced by every
+local paper, no bitter expression passed his lips, but tears filled
+his eyes as he referred to the destruction of his place, that had been
+the cherished home of the father of the United States. He could
+forgive their cutting down his trees, their wanton conversion of his
+pleasure-grounds into a graveyard, but he could never forget their
+reckless plunder of all the camp equipment and other relics of General
+Washington that Arlington House had contained.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Lee first saw active service during the American war with
+Mexico in 1846, where he was wounded, and evinced a remarkable talent
+for war that brought him prominently into notice. He was afterward
+engaged in operations against hostile Indians, and obtained the
+reputation in the army of being an able officer of great promise.
+General Scott, then the general of greatest repute in the United
+States, was especially attracted by the zeal and soldierly instinct of
+the young captain of engineers, and frequently employed him on distant
+expeditions <span class="pagenum"><a id="page366" name="page366"></a>(p. 366)</span> that required cool nerve, confidence, and plenty
+of common sense. It is a curious fact that throughout the Mexican War
+General Scott in his despatches and reports made frequent mention of
+three officers&mdash;Lee, Beauregard, and McClellan&mdash;whose names became
+household words in America afterward, during the great Southern
+struggle for independence. General Scott had the highest opinion of
+Lee's military genius, and did not hesitate to ascribe much of his
+success in Mexico as due to Lee's "skill, valor, and undaunted
+energy." Indeed, subsequently, when the day came that these two men
+should part, each to take a different side in the horrible contest
+before them, General Scott is said to have urged Mr. Lincoln's
+Government to secure Lee at any price, alleging he "would be worth
+fifty thousand men to them." His valuable services were duly
+recognized at Washington by more than one step of brevet promotion: he
+obtained the rank of colonel and was given command of a cavalry
+regiment shortly afterward.</p>
+
+<p>I must now pass to the most important epoch of his life, when the
+Southern States left the Union and set up a government of their own.
+Mr. Lincoln was in 1860 elected President of the United States in the
+abolitionist interest. Both parties were so angry that thoughtful men
+soon began to see that war alone could end this bitter dispute.
+Shipwreck was before the vessel of state which General Washington had
+built and guided with so much care during his long and hard-fought
+contest. Civil war stared the American citizen in the face, and Lee's
+heart was well-nigh broken at the prospect. Early in 1861 the seven
+Cotton States passed acts declaring their withdrawal from the Union,
+and their establishment of an independent republic, under the title of
+"The Confederate States of America." This declaration of independence
+was in reality a revolution; war alone could ever bring all the States
+together.</p>
+
+<p>Lee viewed this secession with horror. Until the month of April, when
+Virginia, his own dearly cherished State, joined the Confederacy, he
+clung fondly to the hope that the gulf which separated the North from
+the South might yet be bridged over. He believed the dissolution of
+the Union to be a dire calamity not only for his own country, but for
+civilization and all mankind. "Still," he said, "a Union that can only
+be maintained by swords and bayonets, and in which strife and civil
+war are to take the place of brotherly love and kindness, has no charm
+for me." In common with all Southerners he firmly believed that each
+of the old States had a legal and indisputable right, by its
+individual constitution, and by its act of union, to leave at will the
+great Union into which each had separately entered as a sovereign
+State. This was with him an article of faith of which he was as sure
+as of any divine truths he found in the Bible. This fact must be kept
+always in mind by those who would rightly understand his character, or
+the course he pursued in 1861. He loved the Union for which his father
+and family in the previous century had fought so hard and done so
+much. But he loved his own State still more. She was the sovereign to
+whom in the first place he owed allegiance, and whose orders, as
+expressed through her legally constituted government, he was, he felt,
+bound in law, in honor, and in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page367" name="page367"></a>(p. 367)</span> love to obey without doubt or
+hesitation. This belief was the mainspring that kept the Southern
+Confederacy going, as it was also the corner-stone of its
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>In April, 1861, at Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, the first shot was
+fired in a war that was only ended in April, 1865, by the surrender of
+General Lee's army at Appomattox Court House, in Virginia. In duration
+it is the longest war waged since the great Napoleon's power was
+finally crushed at Waterloo. As the heroic struggle of a small
+population that was cut off from all outside help, against a great,
+populous, and very rich republic, with every market in the world open
+to it, and to whom all Europe was a recruiting ground, this secession
+war stands out prominently in the history of the world. When the vast
+numbers of men put into the field by the Northern States, and the
+scale upon which their operations were carried on, are duly
+considered, it must be regarded as a war fully equal in magnitude to
+the successful invasion of France by Germany in 1870. If the mind be
+allowed to speculate on the course that events will take in centuries
+to come, as they flow surely on with varying swiftness to the ocean of
+the unknown future, the influence which the result of this Confederate
+war is bound to exercise upon man's future history will seem very
+great. Think of what a power the re-United States will be in another
+century! Of what it will be in the twenty-first century of the
+Christian era! If, as many believe, China is destined to absorb all
+Asia and then to overrun Europe, may it not be in the possible future
+that Armageddon, the final contest between heathendom and
+Christianity, may be fought out between China and North America? Had
+secession been victorious, it is tolerably certain that the United
+States would have broken up still further, and instead of the present
+magnificent and English-speaking empire, we should now see in its
+place a number of small powers with separate interests.</p>
+
+<p>Most certainly it was the existence of slavery in the South that gave
+rise to the bitter antagonism of feeling which led to secession. But
+it was not to secure emancipation that the North took up arms,
+although during the progress of the war Mr. Lincoln proclaimed it, for
+the purpose of striking his enemy a serious blow. Lee hated slavery,
+but, as he explained to me, he thought it wicked to give freedom
+suddenly to some millions of people who were incapable of using it
+with profit to themselves or the State. He assured me he had long
+intended to gradually give his slaves their liberty. He believed the
+institution to be a moral and political evil, and more hurtful to the
+white than to the black man. He had a strong affection for the negro;
+but he deprecated any sudden or violent interference on the part of
+the State between master and slave. Nothing would have induced him to
+fight for the continuance of slavery; indeed, he declared that had he
+owned every slave in the South he would willingly give them all up if
+by so doing he could preserve the Union. He was opposed to secession,
+and to prevent it he would willingly sacrifice everything except honor
+and duty, which forbade him to desert his State. When in April, 1861,
+she formally and by an act of her Legislature left the Union, he
+resigned his commission in the United <span class="pagenum"><a id="page368" name="page368"></a>(p. 368)</span> States army with the
+intention of retiring into private life. He endeavored to choose what
+was right. Every personal interest bade him throw in his lot with the
+Union. His property lay so close to Washington that it was certain to
+be destroyed and swept of every slave, as belonging to a rebel. But
+the die was cast; he forsook everything for principle and the stern
+duty it entailed. Then came that final temptation which opened out
+before him a vista of power and importance greater than that which any
+man since Washington had held in America. General Long's book proves
+beyond all further doubt that he was offered the post of
+commander-in-chief of the Federal army. General Scott, his great
+friend and leader, whom he loved and respected, then commanding that
+army, used all his influence to persuade him to throw in his lot with
+the North, but to no purpose. Nothing would induce him to have any
+part in the invasion of his own State, much as he abhorred the war
+into which he felt she was rushing. His love of country, his unselfish
+patriotism, caused him to relinquish home, fortune, a certain future,
+in fact, everything, for her sake.</p>
+
+<p>He was not, however, to remain a spectator of the coming conflict; he
+was too well known to his countrymen in Virginia as the officer in
+whom the Federal army had most confidence. The State of Virginia
+appointed him major-general and commander-in-chief of all her military
+forces. In open and crowded convention he formally accepted this
+position, saying, with all that dignity and grace of manner which
+distinguished him, that he did so "trusting in Almighty God, an
+approving conscience, and the aid of my fellow-citizens." The scene
+was most impressive. There were present all the leading men of
+Virginia, and representatives of all the first families in a State
+where great store was attached to gentle birth, and where society was
+very exclusive. General Lee's presence commanded respect, even from
+strangers, by a calm, self-possessed dignity the like of which I have
+never seen in other men. Naturally of strong passions, he kept them
+under perfect control by that iron and determined will, of which his
+expression and his face gave evidence. As this tall, handsome soldier
+stood before his countrymen, he was the picture of the ideal patriot,
+unconscious and self-possessed in his strength; he indulged in no
+theatrical display of feeling; there was in his face and about him
+that placid resolve which bespoke great confidence in self, and which
+in his case&mdash;one knows not how&mdash;quickly communicated its magnetic
+influence to others. He was then just fifty-four years old, the age of
+Marlborough when he destroyed the French army at Blenheim. In many
+ways and on many points these two great men much resembled each other.
+Both were of a dignified and commanding exterior; eminently handsome,
+with a figure tall, graceful, and erect, while a muscular,
+square-built frame bespoke great activity of body. The charm of manner
+which I have mentioned as very winning in Lee, was possessed in the
+highest degree by Marlborough. Both, at the outset of their great
+career of victory, were regarded as essentially national commanders.
+Both had married young, and were faithful husbands and devoted
+fathers. Both had in all their campaigns the same belief in an
+ever-watchful Providence, in whose help they trusted implicitly, and
+for whose interposition <span class="pagenum"><a id="page369" name="page369"></a>(p. 369)</span> they prayed at all times. They were
+gifted with the same military instinct, the same genius for war. The
+power of fascinating those with whom they were associated, the spell
+which they cast over their soldiers, who believed almost
+superstitiously in their certainty of victory, their contempt of
+danger, their daring courage, constitute a parallel that is difficult
+to equal between any other two great men of modern times.</p>
+
+<p>From the first Lee anticipated a long and bloody struggle, although
+from the bombastic oratory of self-elected politicians and patriots
+the people were led to believe that the whole business would be
+settled in a few weeks. This folly led to a serious evil, namely, the
+enlistment of soldiers for only ninety days. Lee, who understood war,
+pleaded in favor of the engagement being for the term of war, but he
+pleaded in vain. To add to his military difficulties, the politicians
+insisted upon the officers being elected by their men. This was a
+point which, in describing to me the constitution of his army, Lee
+most deplored.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of an army with the means alone at his disposal was a
+colossal task. Everything had to be created by this extraordinary man.
+The South was an agricultural, not a manufacturing, country, and the
+resources of foreign lands were denied it by the blockade of its ports
+maintained by the fleet of the United States. Lee was a thorough man
+of business, quick in decision, yet methodical in all he did. He knew
+what he wanted. He knew what an army should be, and how it should be
+organized, both in a purely military as well as an administrative
+sense. In about two months he had created a little army of fifty
+thousand men, animated by a lofty patriotism and courage that made
+them unconquerable by any similarly constituted army. In another month
+this army, at Bull Run, gained a complete victory over the Northern
+invaders, who were driven back across the Potomac like herds of
+frightened sheep.</p>
+
+<p>The Confederates did not follow up their victory at Bull Run. A rapid
+and daring advance would have given them possession of Washington,
+their enemy's capital. Political considerations at Richmond were
+allowed to outweigh the very evident military expediency of reaping a
+solid advantage from this their first great success. Often afterward,
+when this attempt to allay the angry feelings of the North against the
+act of secession had entirely failed, was this action of their
+political rulers lamented by the Confederate commanders.</p>
+
+<p>In this article, to attempt even a sketch of the subsequent military
+operations is not to be thought of. Both sides fought well, and both
+have such true reason to be proud of their achievements that they can
+now afford to hear the professional criticisms of their English
+friends in the same spirit that we Britishers have learned to read of
+the many defeats inflicted upon our arms by General Washington.</p>
+
+<p>As a student of war I would fain linger over the interesting lessons
+to be learned from Lee's campaigns; of the same race as both
+belligerents, I could with the utmost pleasure dwell upon the many
+brilliant feats of arms on both sides; but I cannot do so here.</p>
+
+<p>The end came at last, when the well-supplied North, rich enough to pay
+recruits, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page370" name="page370"></a>(p. 370)</span> no matter where they came from, a bounty of over
+five hundred dollars a head, triumphed over an exhausted South, hemmed
+in on all sides, and even cut off from all communication with the
+outside world. The desperate, though drawn battle of Gettysburg was
+the death-knell of Southern independence; and General Sherman's
+splendid but almost unopposed march to the sea showed the world that
+all further resistance on the part of the Confederate States could
+only be a profitless waste of blood. In the thirty-five days of
+fighting near Richmond which ended the war in 1865, General Grant's
+army numbered 190,000, that of Lee only 51,000 men. Every man lost by
+the former was easily replaced, but an exhausted South could find no
+more soldiers. "The right of self-government," which Washington won
+and for which Lee fought, was no longer to be a watchword to stir
+men's blood in the United States. The South was humbled and beaten by
+its own flesh and blood in the North, and it is difficult to know
+which to admire most, the good sense with which the result was
+accepted in the so-called Confederate States, or the wise magnanimity
+displayed by the victors. The wounds are now healed on both sides;
+Northerners and Southerners are now once more a united people, with a
+future before them to which no other nation can aspire. If the
+English-speaking people of the earth cannot all acknowledge the same
+sovereign, they can, and I am sure they will, at least combine to work
+in the interests of truth and of peace for the good of mankind. The
+wise men on both sides of the Atlantic will take care to chase away
+all passing clouds that may at any time throw even a shadow of dispute
+or discord between the two great families into which our race is
+divided.</p>
+
+<p>Like all men, Lee had his faults; like all the greatest of generals,
+he sometimes made mistakes. His nature shrank with such horror from
+the dread of wounding the feelings of others, that upon occasions he
+left men in positions of responsibility to which their abilities were
+not equal. This softness of heart, amiable as that quality may be,
+amounts to a crime in the man intrusted with the direction of public
+affairs at critical moments. Lee's devotion to duty and great respect
+for obedience seem at times to have made him too subservient to those
+charged with the civil government of his country. He carried out too
+literally the orders of those whom the Confederate constitution made
+his superiors, although he must have known them to be entirely
+ignorant of the science of war. He appears to have forgotten that he
+was the great revolutionary chief engaged in a great revolutionary
+war, that he was no mere leader in a political struggle of parties
+carried on within the lines of an old, well-established form of
+government. It was very clear to many at the time, as it will be
+commonly acknowledged now, that the South could only hope to win under
+the rule of a military dictator. If General Washington had had a Mr.
+Davis over him, could he have accomplished what he did? It will, I am
+sure, be news to many that General Lee was given the command over all
+the Confederate armies a month or two only before the final collapse;
+and that the military policy of the South was all throughout the war
+dictated by Mr. Davis as President of the Confederate States. Lee had
+no power to reward soldiers or to promote officers. It was Mr. Davis
+who selected <span class="pagenum"><a id="page371" name="page371"></a>(p. 371)</span> the men to command divisions and armies. Is it
+to be supposed that Cromwell, King William the Third, Washington, or
+Napoleon could have succeeded in the revolutions with which their
+names are identified, had they submitted to the will and authority of
+a politician as Lee did to Mr. Davis?</p>
+
+<p>Lee was opposed to the final defence of Richmond that was urged upon
+him for political, not military, reasons. It was a great strategic
+error. General Grant's large army of men was easily fed and its daily
+losses easily recruited from a near base; whereas if it had been drawn
+far into the interior after the little army with which Lee endeavored
+to protect Richmond, its fighting strength would have been largely
+reduced by the detachments required to guard a long line of
+communications through a hostile country. It is profitless, however,
+to speculate upon what might have been, and the military student must
+take these campaigns as they were carried out. No fair estimate of Lee
+as a general can be made by a simple comparison of what he achieved
+with that which Napoleon, Wellington, or Von Moltke accomplished,
+unless due allowance is made for the difference in the nature of the
+American armies, and of the armies commanded and encountered by those
+great leaders. They were at the head of perfectly organized,
+thoroughly trained, and well disciplined troops; while Lee's soldiers,
+though gallant and daring to a fault, lacked the military cohesion and
+efficiency, the trained company leaders, and the educated staff which
+are only to be found in a regular army of long standing. A trial heat
+between two jockeys mounted on untrained horses may be interesting,
+but no one would ever quote the performance as an instance of great
+racing speed.</p>
+
+<p>Who shall ever fathom the depth of Lee's anguish when the bitter end
+came, and when, beaten down by sheer force of numbers, and by
+absolutely nothing else, he found himself obliged to surrender! The
+handful of starving men remaining with him laid down their arms, and
+the proud Confederacy ceased to be. Surely the crushing, maddening
+anguish of awful sorrow is only known to the leader who has so failed
+to accomplish some lofty, some noble aim for which he has long striven
+with might and main, with heart and soul, in the interests of king or
+of country. A smiling face, a cheerful mien, may conceal the sore
+place from the eyes, possibly even from the knowledge of his friends;
+but there is no healing for such a wound, which eats into the very
+heart of him who has once received it.</p>
+
+<p>General Lee survived the destruction of the Confederacy for five
+years, when, at the age of sixty-three, and surrounded by his family,
+life ebbed slowly from him. Where else in history is a great man to be
+found whose whole life was one such blameless record of duty nobly
+done? It was consistent in all its parts, complete in all its
+relations. The most perfect gentleman of a State long celebrated for
+its chivalry, he was just, gentle, and generous, and childlike in the
+simplicity of his character. Never elated with success, he bore
+reverse, and at last, complete overthrow, with dignified resignation.
+Throughout this long and cruel struggle his was all the
+responsibility, but not the power that should have accompanied it. The
+fierce light which beats upon the throne is as that of a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page372" name="page372"></a>(p. 372)</span>
+rush-light in comparison with the electric glare which our newspapers
+now focus upon the public man in Lee's position. His character has
+been subjected to that ordeal, and who can point to any spot upon it?
+His clear, sound judgment, personal courage, untiring activity, genius
+for war, and absolute devotion to his State mark him out as a public
+man, as a patriot to be forever remembered by all Americans. His
+amiability of disposition, deep sympathy with those in pain or sorrow,
+his love for children, nice sense of personal honor, and genial
+courtesy endeared him to all his friends. I shall never forget his
+sweet, winning smile, nor his clear, honest eyes, that seemed to look
+into your brain. I have met many of the great men of my time, but Lee
+alone impressed me with the feeling that I was in the presence of a
+man who was cast in a grander mould, and made of different and of
+finer metal than all other men. He is stamped upon my memory as a
+being apart and superior to all others in every way: a man with whom
+none I ever knew, and very few of whom I have read, are worthy to be
+classed. I have met but two men who realize my ideas of what a true
+hero should be: my friend Charles Gordon, was one, General Lee was the
+other.</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+<p>The following beautiful letter was written by Lee to his son in
+1860:<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11" title="Go to footnote 11"><span class="small">[11]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>"You must study to be frank with the world; frankness is the child of
+honesty and courage. Say just what you mean to do on every occasion,
+and take it for granted you mean to do right. If a friend asks a
+favor, you should grant it, if it is reasonable; if not, tell him
+plainly why you cannot; you will wrong him and wrong yourself by
+equivocation of any kind. Never do a wrong thing to make a friend or
+keep one; the man who requires you to do so, is dearly purchased at a
+sacrifice. Deal kindly, but firmly, with all your classmates; you will
+find it the policy which wears best. Above all, do not appear to
+others what you are not. If you have any fault to find with anyone,
+tell him, not others, of what you complain; there is no more dangerous
+experiment than that of undertaking to be one thing before a man's
+face and another behind his back. We should live, act, and say,
+nothing to the injury of anyone. It is not only best as a matter of
+principle, but it is the path to peace and honor.</p>
+
+<p>"In regard to duty, let me, in conclusion of this hasty letter, inform
+you that, nearly a hundred years ago, there was a day of remarkable
+gloom and darkness&mdash;still known as 'the dark day'&mdash;a day when the
+light of the sun was slowly extinguished, as if by an eclipse. The
+Legislature of Connecticut was in session, and as its members saw the
+unexpected and unaccountable darkness coming on, they shared in the
+general awe and terror. It was supposed by many that the last day&mdash;the
+day of judgment&mdash;had come. Someone, in the consternation of the hour,
+moved an adjournment. Then there arose an old Puritan legislator,
+Davenport, of Stamford, and said that, if the last day had come, he
+desired to be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page373" name="page373"></a>(p. 373)</span> found at his place doing his duty, and
+therefore, moved that candles be brought in, so that the House could
+proceed with its duty. There was quietness in that man's mind, the
+quietness of heavenly wisdom and inflexible willingness to obey
+present duty. Duty, then, is the sublimest word in our language. Do
+your duty in all things, like the old Puritan. You cannot do more, you
+should never wish to do less. Never let me and your mother wear one
+gray hair for any lack of duty on your part."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON<a id="footnotetag12" name="footnotetag12"></a><a href="#footnote12" title="Go to footnote 12"><span class="small">[12]</span></a><br>
+By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span><br>
+(1826-1863)</h3>
+
+<a id="img045" name="img045"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img045.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="Thomas Jackson." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1842 a young man from Lewis County, Va., "dropped" discouraged out
+of his class in West Point, after a few weeks' trial of drill and
+curriculum, and returned home.</p>
+
+<p>The story of his defeat was canvassed freely in the neighborhood
+smithy, the head-quarters of provincial gossip, and was under
+discussion one May day while Cummins Jackson, a planter and bachelor,
+waited to have a horse shod.</p>
+
+<p>"There's a chance for Tom Jackson!" observed the blacksmith, with
+friendly officiousness.</p>
+
+<p>The early life of Cummins Jackson's nephew was well known to speaker
+and bystanders. Left an orphan at seven years of age, he, with his
+brother, older than himself, and their little sister, were thrown upon
+the charity of uncles and aunts. "Tom" was accounted steady and
+industrious, yet there was a serious break in his record. The brothers
+had run away to seek their fortunes in company when Warren was
+fourteen, Tom but twelve years old, going down the Ohio to the
+Mississippi and maintaining themselves by cutting wood for passing
+steamboats until disabled by malarial fever. Thomas took the lead in
+the juvenile prodigals' return to relatives and respectability, and
+was kindly received by his bachelor uncle. Since then he had worked in
+Cummins Jackson's mill and upon his farm as diligently as he sought to
+"get an education" in the "old field school" nearest to his home.</p>
+
+<p>His imagination took fire at his uncle's report of the blacksmith's
+suggestion. Armed with a letter of introduction signed by leading
+citizens of the county, to the Congressman from the district, he went
+in person to Washington and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page374" name="page374"></a>(p. 374)</span> through the kindness of the
+representative obtained an interview with the Secretary of War.</p>
+
+<p>"Gruff and heroic with the grit of Old Hickory himself" was the
+cabinet-officer's opinion of the country lad. He commended him to the
+West Point Board of Examiners in terms that secured him admission to
+the Military Academy in spite of certain grave deficiencies in his
+early education.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the wrestle with these and other disabilities during the
+next four years is interesting and instructive. Three extracts from a
+list of rules for his personal conduct, set down at this time in a
+private note-book, sound the keynote of his subsequent career:</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="italic">Sacrifice your life rather than your word.</span></p>
+
+<p>"<span class="italic">Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you
+resolve.</span></p>
+
+<p>"<span class="italic">You may be whatever you resolve to be.</span>"</p>
+
+<p>He was respected by all his classmates, known and liked by a few. He
+was too reserved by nature, too busy in practice, to be a general
+favorite. His labors were unremitting, his recreations few and simple.
+With no prevision of the destinies awaiting them, Jackson, McClellan,
+A. T. Hill, Reno, Picket, Foster, and Maury, as beardless boys,
+studied and were drilled side by side for four terms and were
+graduated upon the same day. There were seventy in this remarkable
+class, and the name of Thomas Jonathan Jackson stood seventeenth upon
+the roll of merit.</p>
+
+<p>"If we had to stay here one year more, old Jack would be at the head,"
+the witnesses of the fierce ordeal of his West Point training used to
+say.</p>
+
+<p>The class of '46 was ordered forthwith to the seat of war in Mexico.
+Jackson's first engagement was the siege of Vera Cruz; his next the
+battle of Cherubusco. The official report of this last mentions him
+favorably. As second lieutenant, he was called upon early in the
+action to take the place of the next in rank above him, the first
+lieutenant having fallen in the charge. After the battle Jackson was
+further promoted to the rank of brevet captain. His "devotion,
+industry, talent, and gallantry" were noted officially after
+Chapultepec, not only by his colonel, but by Generals Pillow and
+Worth, and by the Commander-in-chief, Winfield Scott.</p>
+
+<p>What he afterward confessed as the "one wilful lie he ever told" is
+thus reported by a brother-officer:</p>
+
+<p>"Lieutenant Jackson's section of Magruder's battery was subjected to a
+plunging fire from the Castle of Chapultepec. Horses were killed or
+disabled, and the men deserted the guns and sought shelter behind wall
+or embankment. Lieutenant Jackson remained at the guns, walking back
+and forth and kept saying, 'See, there is no danger; <span class="italic">I</span> am not hit!'
+While standing with his legs wide apart, a cannon-ball passed between
+them.... No other officer in the army in Mexico was promoted so often
+for meritorious conduct, or made so great a stride in rank."</p>
+
+<p>After peace was declared in 1848, he was stationed for two years at
+Fort Hamilton, and six months at Fort Meade in Florida; in 1851 he was
+elected <span class="pagenum"><a id="page375" name="page375"></a>(p. 375)</span> Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and
+Artillery Tactics in the Virginia Military Institute, situated in
+Lexington, Va. In the decade succeeding this event, he was to the
+casual eye the least striking figure in the group of professors who
+taught the art of war in the beautiful mountain-girt "West Point of
+the South."</p>
+
+<p>"I should have said that he was the least likely of our family to make
+a noise in the world," said his sister-in-law in 1862, when the
+popular voice was ranking him with Bayard, Roland, Sidney, and
+Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>"I knew that what I willed to do, I could do," he had said of his
+recovery from physical weaknesses which made his acceptance of the
+Lexington professorship of doubtful expediency, in the judgment of
+friends.</p>
+
+<p>He never willed to be eloquent in the lecture-room or brilliant in
+society in his life as teacher, church official, and neighbor there
+was no evidence of the personal magnetism which was to make him the
+soul and genius of the Confederate army. While carrying into every
+detail of daily existence the military law of system and fidelity, he
+was aggressive in nothing. The grave, quiet gentleman who was never
+late in class, never negligent of the minutest professional duty, who
+was always punctual at religious services, and never missed a meeting
+of the Faculty of the V. M. I., or of the deacons of the Presbyterian
+Church, was reckoned a good Christian and upright citizen, exemplary
+in domestic and social relations&mdash;perhaps a trifle ultra-conscientious
+in some particulars. But for the prevalency of orthodoxy in "the
+Valley" he would have been considered eccentric in his religious views
+and practice. He established a Sunday-school for the negroes and
+superintended it in person; he gave a tenth of his substance to the
+church; he "weighed his lightest utterances in the balances of the
+sanctuary;" he would not pick up an apple in a neighbor's orchard
+unless he had permission to take it; he never wrote or read letters on
+Sunday, or mailed one that must travel on that day to reach its
+destination; used neither tobacco, tea, nor coffee, and during the war
+was "more afraid of a glass of wine than of Federal bullets." His
+reverence for women was deep and unfeigned; he was gentleness itself
+to little children; bowed down before the hoary head, and never sank
+the lover in the husband. All that he had and all he was, belonged
+first to <span class="smcap">God</span>, then to his wife.</p>
+
+<p>"His person was tall, erect, and muscular.... His bearing was
+peculiarly English, and in the somewhat free society of America was
+regarded as constrained. Every movement was quick and decisive; his
+articulation was rapid, but distinct and emphatic, and often made the
+impression of curtness. He practised a military exactness in all the
+courtesies of society.... His brow was fair and expansive; his eyes
+blue-gray, large, and expressive; his nose Roman and well-chiselled,
+his cheeks were ruddy and sunburned; his mouth, firm and full of
+meaning; his beard was brown"&mdash;is a pen-picture drawn by a brother
+officer.</p>
+
+<p>On December 2, 1859, a corps of cadets was sent to Charlestown, Va.,
+to secure law and order during the execution of John Brown. Major
+Jackson's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page376" name="page376"></a>(p. 376)</span> graphic description of the scene in a letter to
+his wife contains this passage:</p>
+
+<p>"I was much impressed with the thought that before me stood a man in
+the full vigor of health, who must in a few moments enter eternity. I
+sent up the petition that he might be saved."</p>
+
+<p>An officer upon duty, he saw the terrible spectacle with Cromwellian
+composure, but the man behind the impassive mask was upon his knees in
+prayer for the human soul. Under date of January 21, 1860, he writes:</p>
+
+<p>"Viewing things at Washington from human appearances we have great
+reason for alarm, but my trust is in God. I cannot think that He will
+permit the madness of men to interfere so materially with the
+Christian labors of this country at home and abroad."</p>
+
+<p>She who, of all the world, knew him best records:</p>
+
+<p>"He never was a secessionist and maintained that it was better for the
+South to fight for her rights in the Union than out of it.... At this
+time (March 16, 1861) he was strongly for the Union. At the same time,
+he was a firm State's rights man."</p>
+
+<p>At dawn, April 21st, he received an order from the Governor of
+Virginia to report to him immediately at Richmond, bringing the corps
+of cadets with him. At 1 o'clock <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> he bade a final farewell to home
+and Lexington.</p>
+
+<p>On June 4th he writes incidentally to his "Little One" from Harper's
+Ferry:</p>
+
+<p>"The troops here have been divided into brigades, and the Virginia
+forces under General Johnston constitute the First Brigade, of which I
+am in command."</p>
+
+<p>This brigade was to share with the commanding officers the <span class="italic">sobriquet</span>
+by which he is known better than under his real name. In the battery
+attached to it were forty-nine graduates of colleges, besides nineteen
+divinity students.</p>
+
+<p>From the first victory of Manassas (June 21, 1861), when General Bee
+turned the tide of battle by shouting to the wavering lines, "Look at
+Jackson, standing like a stone wall! Rally behind the Virginians!" to
+the fatal blunder of May 2, 1863, "Stonewall" Jackson was the flashing
+star that guided the Confederate armies to glorious success. His faith
+in the God of armies was so blended with the conviction that he was a
+chosen instrument in the Omnipotent hand to repel invasion and secure
+an honorable peace for his beloved State, that his sublime confidence
+infused officers and men.</p>
+
+<p>A fragment of a camp ballad, popular in 1862, will give a faint idea
+of the enthusiasm excited by the "praying fighter:"</p>
+
+<p class="poem30">
+Silence! ground arms! kneel all! caps off!<br>
+<span class="add1em">Old Blue-light's going to pray.</span><br>
+  Strangle the fool that dares to scoff!<br>
+<span class="add1em">Attention! 'tis his way!</span><br>
+  Appealing from his native sod<br>
+<span class="add1em">In <span class="italic">forma pauperis</span> to God;</span><br>
+  "Lay bare Thine arm&mdash;stretch forth Thy rod!<br>
+<span class="add1em">Amen!" <span class="italic">That's</span> Stonewall's way.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page377" name="page377"></a>(p. 377)</span> Love-letters to his "only sweetheart," written in camp, in
+the saddle, from smoking battle-fields, red with the blood of the
+slain, reveal a heart as tender as it was stout, faith that never
+failed, the courage of a lion, the unspoiled simplicity of a child.</p>
+
+<p>Our last extract from war papers is significant of what might have
+been but for the fall of the South's greatest chieftain at the most
+critical period of the struggle:</p>
+
+<p>"Jackson alone stands forth the one advocate of 'ceaseless invasion'
+as our 'safest hope,' the first conviction of his mind and a policy in
+accord with Southern feeling."</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Jackson joined her husband at his quarters near Fredericksburg,
+bringing with her the baby-girl he had never seen until then, on April
+20, 1863. On the 23d the little one, held in the proud father's arms,
+was baptized by the regimental chaplain. Nine golden days followed the
+reunion of the loving family before Hooker crossed the Rappahannock in
+force. Wife and baby were hurried off to Richmond after "a hasty,
+tender adieu," and the battle of Chancellorsville began.</p>
+
+<p>"From the opening of this campaign," says Jackson's biographer, "it
+was observed that a wondrous change came over him. From the quiet,
+patient, but arduous laborer over his daily tasks, he seemed
+transformed into a thunderbolt of war."</p>
+
+<p>During the three awful days of Chancellorsville "the thunderbolt"
+seemed omnipresent to the Confederate soldiers, oftenest in the
+hottest of the fight, always where he was most sorely needed.</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of May 2d, in making his way from one part of the
+field to another with his staff and couriers, they were mistaken for
+Federal cavalry, and a volley of musketry was poured in upon them,
+wounding General Jackson mortally.</p>
+
+<p>On the way to the rear a second disaster overtook the doomed band. A
+Federal battery opened a fire across the road, and the devoted
+attendants, laying the wounded chief in a shallow ditch, covered him
+with their own bodies while the tempest of shot tore up the earth on
+all sides of them. The danger was averted by a change in the range of
+the guns, and the mournful march was resumed. Meeting a North Carolina
+general who "feared," in reply to Jackson's eager questions, "that his
+troops could not maintain their position," the hero spoke out, in the
+accustomed tone of command:</p>
+
+<p>"You <span class="italic">must</span> hold your ground, General Pender! you must hold your
+ground, sir!"</p>
+
+<p>It was his last military order. Some hours later he lay in his tent,
+weak from pain and loss of blood, one arm gone, and his other wounds
+dressed, when a messenger arrived in haste from General J. E. B.
+Stuart, relating that he was contending against fearful odds in the
+field, and asking for counsel from the friend who would never more
+ride forth at his side. At the tidings of Stuart's extremity, General
+Jackson aroused himself to interrogate the bearer of the message,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page378" name="page378"></a>(p. 378)</span> query succeeding query with characteristic impetuosity.
+Suddenly the martial fire faded ashily, his eyes dulled into
+mournfulness.</p>
+
+<p>"I don't know. I can't tell&mdash;" as if groping for thought or words.
+"Tell General Stuart to do what <span class="italic">he</span> thinks best."</p>
+
+<p>The "resolve" he and others had thought invincible, the iron nerve
+that had not quivered in the shock of fifty engagements, failed him.
+Yet he rallied as the cannonading jarred his bed and insisted upon
+receiving reports from hour to hour.</p>
+
+<p>"Good! good!" he ejaculated, when told how his own brigade was
+behaving. "The men will some day be proud to say to their children, 'I
+was one of the Stonewall brigade.' The name belongs to them, not to
+me. It was their steadfast heroism at First Manassas that earned it.
+They are a noble body of men."</p>
+
+<p>His wife and child were recalled in season to be with him for two days
+immediately preceding his death. Although confident up to the dawn of
+his last day on earth, that <span class="smcap">God</span> still had work for him to do, and
+would raise him up to do it, he received the news of his approaching
+dissolution with perfect calmness.</p>
+
+<p>"He preferred the will of <span class="smcap">God</span> to his own;" he "would be infinitely the
+gainer by the translation from earth to heaven." He gave his wife
+instructions as to his burial and her future home; smiled radiantly,
+in murmuring "Little darling! sweet one!" as the baby he had named for
+his mother was lifted for the father's last kiss.</p>
+
+<p>"Jackson must recover," General Lee had exclaimed upon hearing of his
+condition. "God will not take him from us now that we need him so
+much. Say to him that he has lost his left arm, <span class="italic">I my right!</span>"</p>
+
+<p>Men who had not blenched when brought face to face with death that
+menaced themselves, bowed to the earth, weeping like women, as mortal
+weakness stole upon the strong right arm of the Confederacy. Without
+the tent "the whole army was praying for him," while incoherent
+sentences of command and inarticulate murmurings fell from his
+lips&mdash;fainter with each utterance. The watchers thought speech and
+consciousness gone forever, when the voice that had pealed like the
+blast of Roland in charge and rally, sounded through the hushed
+chamber, sweet, distinct, and full of cheer, but in dreamy
+inflections:</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">"Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees!</span>"</p>
+
+<p>Forced march, and midnight raid, and mad rush of battle were over.
+Victorious Greatheart slept upon the field.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig009" name="sig009"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig009.jpg" width="300" height="57" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<a id="img046" name="img046"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img046.jpg" width="400" height="574" alt="" title="">
+<p>Jackson at Chancellorsville.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page379" name="page379"></a>(p. 379)</span> DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT<br>
+By <span class="smcap">L. P. Brockett, A.M.</span><br>
+(1801-1870)</h3>
+
+<a id="img047" name="img047"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="David Farragut." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Heroes have not been wanting in the history of maritime warfare, at
+any time in these last three hundred years. Holland points with pride
+to her gallant DeRuyter and Van Tromp, who made the little republic
+among the marshes and canals that yield tribute to the Zuyder Zee,
+famous the world over. England glories in her Blake, her Collingwood,
+and most of all, in her Nelson, the model naval hero of all her
+history; and we cannot suppress our admiration of the daring of the
+reckless John Paul Jones, the matchless patriotism of Lawrence, and
+the gallant bearing and extraordinary success of Perry, Bainbridge,
+Decatur, and the elder Porter; while in the War of the Rebellion the
+heroic Foote, Dupont, Winslow, D. D. Porter, and Rogers, covered their
+names with glory.</p>
+
+<p>But among all these illustrious names there is none which so
+thoroughly awakens our enthusiasm, or so readily calls forth our
+applause, as that of Farragut. With all of Nelson's courage and
+daring, he had more than his executive ability and fertility of
+resource, a wider and more generous intellectual culture, and a more
+unblemished, <span class="italic">naïve</span>, frank, and gentle character.</p>
+
+<p>He bore in his veins some traces of the best blood of Spain, his
+father, George Farragut, having been a native of Citadella, the
+capital of the island of Minorca, and a descendant of an ancient and
+honorable Catalonian family. The father came to this country in 1776,
+and united most heartily in our struggle for independence, attaining
+during the war the rank of major. After the conclusion of the war,
+Major Farragut married Miss Elizabeth Shine, of North Carolina, a
+descendant of the old Scotch family of McIven, and settled as a farmer
+at Campbell's Station, near Knoxville, Tenn. Here, on July 5, 1801,
+his illustrious son was born. The father seems to have been not
+altogether contented with a farmer's life in that mountainous region,
+for not long after we hear of him as a sailing-master in the navy, and
+an intimate friend of the father of Commodore David D. Porter, who
+then held a similar rank. Young Farragut inherited his father's love
+for the sea, and though brought up so far inland, among the Cumberland
+Mountains, he had hardly reached the age of nine and a half years,
+when <span class="pagenum"><a id="page380" name="page380"></a>(p. 380)</span> the longing for a sailor's life possessed him so
+strongly, that his father consented; and after some little delay, a
+midshipman's warrant was procured for him.</p>
+
+<p>His first cruise was under the command of Captain (then
+master-commandant) Porter, who, in July, 1812, was promoted to the
+rank of captain, and soon after sailed in the Essex for the South
+American coast and the Pacific. To this famous frigate the young
+midshipman was ordered before her departure, and he remained on her
+through the eventful two years that followed, when she drove the
+British commerce out of the Pacific. When on March 28, 1814, the
+British frigate Ph&oelig;be, thirty-six guns, and sloop-of-war Cherub,
+twenty-eight guns, without scruple attacked the Essex in the harbor of
+Valparaiso, in violation of the rights of a neutral nation, there
+ensued one of the fiercest naval battles on record. Though fighting
+against hopeless odds, the two British vessels having twice the number
+of guns and men of the Essex, Commodore Porter, with the reckless
+daring which was so marked a trait of his character, refused to strike
+his colors till his ship had been three or four times on fire, and was
+in a sinking condition, with her rigging shot away, the flames
+threatening her magazine, and 152, out of her crew of 255, killed,
+wounded, or missing. The battle had lasted two and a half hours. On
+his surrender, the Essex Junior, a whaling-ship which he had converted
+into a sloop-of-war, but which had been unable to take any part in the
+battle, was sent home with the prisoners on parole. The young
+midshipman, then a boy under thirteen, was in the hottest of the
+fight, and was slightly wounded during the action. Before the loss of
+the Essex, he had served as acting-lieutenant on board the Atlantic,
+an armed prize.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to the United States, Commodore Porter placed him at
+school at Chester, Pa., where he was taught, among other studies, the
+elements of military and naval tactics; but in 1816 he was again
+afloat and on board the flag-ship of the Mediterranean squadron, where
+he had the good fortune to meet in the chaplain, Rev. Charles Folsom,
+an instructor to whom he became ardently attached, and to whose
+teachings he attributed much of his subsequent usefulness and success.</p>
+
+<p>This pleasant period of instruction passed all too quickly, and the
+boy, now grown to man's estate, after some further service in the
+Mediterranean, was, on January 1, 1821, at the age of nineteen and a
+half years, promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and ordered to duty on
+the West India station. In 1824 he was assigned to duty at the Norfolk
+navy-yard; and with the exception of a two years' cruise in the
+Vandalia, on the Brazil station, remained at Norfolk till 1833. Here
+he married a lady of highly respectable family, and during the long
+years of suffering through which she was called to pass, from a
+hopeless physical malady, he proved one of the most tender and
+affectionate of husbands, never wearying of administering all the
+relief and comfort to the sufferer in his power. When death at last
+terminated her protracted distress, he mourned her tenderly and long.
+He subsequently married another lady of Norfolk, Miss Virginia Loyall,
+the daughter of one of the most eminent citizens of that city.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860 he had spent nearly nineteen years afloat&mdash;eighteen years and
+four <span class="pagenum"><a id="page381" name="page381"></a>(p. 381)</span> months on shore duty, and ten years and ten months
+either waiting orders or on leave of absence. Forty-eight of his
+fifty-eight years had been spent in the naval service.</p>
+
+<p>In April, 1861, came the rebellion. Captain Farragut was at his home
+in Norfolk, surrounded by those who were sympathizers with the
+rebellion, and who were already maturing plans for the seizure of the
+Government property and its conversion to rebel uses. No more loyal
+heart ever beat than his, and in frank and manly terms he denounced
+the whole proceedings of the traitors, and gave expression to his
+abhorrence of them. This roused all the hatred of the plotters of
+treason, and they told him at once, in tones of menace, that he could
+not be permitted to live there if he held such sentiments. "Very
+well," was his prompt reply, "then I will go where I can live and hold
+such sentiments." Returning to his home, he informed his family that
+they must leave Norfolk for New York in a few hours. They immediately
+made their preparations, and the next morning, April 18, 1861, bid
+adieu to Norfolk. The Navy Department was, however, anxious to give
+him employment, and in default of anything else he served for a time
+as a member of the Naval Retiring Board, which shelved the incompetent
+officers of the navy, and promoted the active, loyal, and deserving.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, the Government had resolved on the capture of New Orleans,
+and entered with zeal upon the work of fitting out a squadron, as well
+as an army, for its reduction. The squadron was to consist of a fleet
+of armed steamers, and twenty bomb-schooners, each carrying gigantic
+mortars, fifteen-inch shells.</p>
+
+<p>The bomb-fleet was to be under the command of Commander David D.
+Porter, but he was to report to Flag-officer Farragut, who was to have
+charge of the entire squadron. Selecting the Hartford as his
+flag-ship, and having made all possible preparations for his
+expedition, Flag-officer Farragut received his orders on January 20,
+1862, and on February 3d sailed from Hampton Roads. Arriving at Ship
+Island on February 20th, he organized the West Gulf Blockading
+Squadron, and in spite of difficulties of all sorts&mdash;the delay in
+forwarding coal, naval stores, hospital stores, ammunition, etc., the
+labor of getting vessels drawing twenty-two feet over the bars at Pass
+L'Outre and Southwest Pass, where the depth was but twelve and fifteen
+feet, the ignorance and stupidity of some of the officers, and every
+other obstacle he had to encounter&mdash;made steady progress. The
+difficulties were not all surmounted until April 18th, when the
+bombardment of Fort Jackson, the lowermost of the two forts defending
+the passage of the Mississippi, was commenced. These forts were
+seventy-five miles below New Orleans and possessed great strength. A
+continuous bombardment was maintained for six days, by which the forts
+were considerably damaged, but they still held out stoutly. A heavy
+iron chain had been stretched across the river, supported by large
+logs, to obstruct the passage of vessels, and was placed at a point
+where the fire of the two forts could be most effectively
+concentrated. Above this chain lay the rebel fleet of sixteen gunboats
+and two iron-clad rams. Along the banks of the river were land
+batteries, mounting several guns each.</p>
+
+<p>Finding that the forts were not likely to yield to the bombardment,
+Flag-officer <span class="pagenum"><a id="page382" name="page382"></a>(p. 382)</span> Farragut called a council of war, and after
+hearing their opinions, which were somewhat discordant, issued his
+general order of April 20th, in which the spirit of the hero gleams
+out. This was his language: "The flag-officer having heard all the
+opinions expressed by the different commanders, is of the opinion
+<span class="italic">that whatever is to be done will have to be done quickly</span>. When, in
+the opinion of the flag-officer, the propitious time has arrived, the
+signal will be made to weigh, and advance to the conflict.... He will
+make the signal for close action, <span class="italic">and abide the result&mdash;conquer or be
+conquered</span>."</p>
+
+<p>After further and severe bombardment of the forts, the flag-officer
+gave notice to the steam-vessels of the squadron, of his determination
+to break the chain and run past the forts, engage the rebel fleet, and
+having defeated it, ascend the river to New Orleans, and capture that
+city. It was a most daring movement. The chain had previously been
+broken, and the mortar-vessels moved up and anchored ready to pour in
+their fire as soon as the forts should open. The steam-fleet moved up
+in two columns, one led by Flag-officer Farragut in person, in the
+Hartford, the other by Captain Theodorus Bailey, as second in command,
+in the Cayuga. The left column (Farragut's) was composed of the
+Hartford, Brooklyn, Richmond, Sciota, Iroquois, Kennebec, Pinola,
+Itasca, and Winona; the right (Bailey's), of the Cayuga, Pensacola,
+Mississippi, Oneida, Varuna, Katahdin, Kineo, and Wissahickon. The
+right column was to engage Fort St. Philip; the left, Fort Jackson.
+The fleet were fairly abreast of the forts before they were
+discovered, and fire opened upon them; but from that moment the firing
+was terrible, and the smoke, settling down like a pall upon the river,
+produced intense darkness, and the ships could only aim at the flash
+from the forts, the forts at the flash from the ships. A fire-raft,
+pushed by the ram Manassas against the flag-ship (the Hartford), set
+it on fire, and at the same instant it ran aground; but by the prompt
+and disciplined exertions of the men the flame was extinguished in a
+few minutes and the ship got afloat, never ceasing its fire upon the
+enemy. At times the gunboats passed so near the forts as to be able to
+throw their broadsides of shrapnel, grape, and canister with most
+destructive force into their interior; and the forts, in the endeavor
+to depress their guns sufficiently to strike the vessels, lost their
+shot, which rolled into the ditches. They were nearly past the forts
+when the rebel fleet came down upon them, the iron-clad ram Manassas
+among them. Several of these gunboats were iron-clad about the bow,
+and had iron beaks or spurs. The Cayuga, Captain Bailey's flag-ship,
+was the first to encounter these; and soon after the Varuna, commanded
+by Captain Boggs, found itself in a nest of rebel steamers, and moved
+forward, delivering its broadsides, port and starboard, with fearful
+precision, into its antagonists, four of which were speedily disabled
+and sunk by its fire. The Varuna was finally attacked by the Morgan
+and another rebel gunboat, both iron-clad at the bow, which crushed in
+her sides; but crowding her steam, she drew them on, while still fast,
+and poured broadsides into both, which drove them ashore crippled and
+in flames. Running his own steamer on shore as speedily as possible,
+the gallant Boggs fought her as long as his guns were out of water,
+and then brought off his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page383" name="page383"></a>(p. 383)</span> men, who were taken on board the
+Oneida and other gunboats of the fleet. Several of the gunboats were
+considerably injured, but none of them lost except the Varuna. The
+Itasca, Winona, and Kennebec were disabled and obliged to fall back.
+Thirteen of the seventeen vessels composing Flag-officer Farragut's
+squadron were able to pass in safety these forts, and had defeated a
+rebel fleet, destroying thirteen of their gunboats and rams, and the
+iron-clad Manassas, and compelling the remainder to shelter themselves
+under the guns of the forts. The entire loss of the Union squadron was
+but 36 killed and 135 wounded.</p>
+
+<p>The gallant flag-officer now ascended the river, encountering slight
+opposition from the Chalmette batteries, about three miles below New
+Orleans; but they were silenced in twenty minutes, and at noon of
+April 25th, he lay in front of the city, and demanded its surrender.
+Four days later the forts were surrendered to Captain Porter, and
+General Butler came up the river to arrange for landing his troops,
+and taking possession of the conquered city. Meantime, Farragut had
+ascended the river above the city to Carrolton, where had been erected
+some strong works to oppose the progress of Flag-officer Foote, should
+he descend the river. These, on the approach of the gunboats, were
+abandoned, and their guns spiked. They were destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>New Orleans being safely in the possession of the Union forces,
+Flag-officer Farragut ascended the Mississippi, and on June 27th ran
+his vessels safely past the rebel batteries at Vicksburg, and
+communicated with Flag-officer Davis, then commanding the Mississippi
+squadron, and arranged for a joint attack upon Vicksburg. The attack
+failed, because the bluffs at Vicksburg were too high to be
+effectively bombarded by the gunboats, and the capture of the city
+required the co-operation of a land force. He therefore repassed the
+batteries in safety on July 15th, and descending the river, made
+Pensacola the head-quarters of his squadron. On July 11th, the rank of
+rear-admiral, having been created in accordance with the
+recommendation of a committee of Congress, Captain Farragut was
+advanced to that rank, and placed first on the list for his
+meritorious conduct in the capture of New Orleans. He also received
+the thanks of both houses of Congress. In the autumn of 1862 he
+directed the naval attacks on Corpus Christi, Sabine Pass, and
+Galveston, which resulted in the capture of those points. In his
+duties as the commander of a blockading and guarding squadron, there
+was much of detail: attacks of guerillas along the river shores, to be
+parried and punished; surprises of the weaker vessels of the squadron
+to be chastised and revenged; expeditions against rebel towns on or
+near the coast, to be aided and sustained; and careful lookout to be
+kept for blockade-runners, who sought their opportunities to slip into
+the ports of Mobile, Galveston, and Aransas. These occupied much of
+his time during the autumn and winter of 1862-63.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral had long desired to attack the defences of Mobile, and
+thus effectually check the blockade-running, which it was impossible
+wholly to prevent while that port was left unmolested. But it was not
+until August 5, 1864, that the assault was finally made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page384" name="page384"></a>(p. 384)</span> The fleet which was to take part in the attack consisted of
+fourteen sloops-of-war and gunboats, and four iron-clad monitors. The
+admiral arranged them for the attack as follows: the Brooklyn and
+Octorara were lashed together, the Brooklyn being on the starboard
+side, nearest Fort Morgan&mdash;the Brooklyn being, much against the
+admiral's wishes, allowed the lead; next the Hartford and Metacomet,
+followed by the Richmond and Port Royal, the Lackawanna and Seminole,
+the Monongahela and Kennebec, the Ossipee and Itasca, and the Oneida
+and Galena. The four monitors were arranged in the following order, to
+the right or starboard of the gunboats: the Tecumseh, Commander T. R.
+M. Craven, taking the lead, and followed by the Manhattan, Commander
+Nicholson; the Winnebago, Commander Stevens; and the Chickasaw,
+Lieutenant-commander Perkins.</p>
+
+<p>The rebels, in addition to three forts all manned with large
+garrisons, had a squadron consisting of the iron-clad ram Tennessee,
+regarded by them as the most formidable armed vessel ever constructed,
+and three powerful gunboats, the Selma, Morgan, and Gaines.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet steamed steadily up the channel, the Tecumseh firing the
+first shot at 6.47 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> The rebels opened upon them from Fort Morgan
+at six minutes past seven, and the Brooklyn replied, after which the
+action became general. The Brooklyn now paused, and for good
+reason&mdash;the Tecumseh, near her, careened suddenly and sank almost
+instantly, having struck and exploded a torpedo; and her gallant
+commander and nearly all her crew sank with her.</p>
+
+<p>Directing the commander of the Metacomet to send a boat instantly to
+rescue her crew, Admiral Farragut determined to take the lead in his
+own flag-ship, the Hartford, and putting on all steam, led off through
+a track which had been lined with torpedoes by the rebels; but he
+says, "Believing that, from their having been some time in the water,
+they were probably innocuous, I determined to take the chance of their
+explosion."</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the northwestward to clear the middle ground, the fleet
+were enabled to keep such a broadside fire on the batteries of Fort
+Morgan as to prevent them from doing much injury. After they had
+passed the fort, about ten minutes before eight o'clock, the ram
+Tennessee dashed out at the Hartford; but the admiral took no further
+notice of her than to return her fire. The rebel gunboats were ahead,
+and annoyed the fleet by a raking fire, and the admiral detached his
+consort, the Metacomet, ordering her commander, Lieutenant-commander
+Jouett, to go in pursuit of the Selma, and the Octorara was detached
+to pursue one of the others. Lieutenant-commander Jouett captured the
+Selma, but the other two escaped under the protection of the guns of
+Fort Morgan, though the Gaines was so much injured that she was run
+ashore and destroyed. The combat which followed between the Tennessee
+and the Union fleet, and resulted in the surrender of that formidable
+iron-clad vessel, is best described in the admiral's own words:</p>
+
+<p>"Having passed the forts and dispersed the enemy's gunboats, I had
+ordered most of the vessels to anchor, when I perceived the ram
+Tennessee standing up <span class="pagenum"><a id="page385" name="page385"></a>(p. 385)</span> for this ship. This was at forty-five
+minutes past eight. I was not long in comprehending his intentions to
+be the destruction of the flag-ship. The monitors and such of the
+wooden vessels as I thought best adapted for the purpose, were
+immediately ordered to attack the ram, not only with their guns, but
+bows on at full speed; and then began one of the fiercest naval
+combats on record.</p>
+
+<p>"The Monongahela, Commander Strong, was the first vessel that struck
+her, and in doing so carried away her own iron prow, together with the
+cutwater, without apparently doing her adversary much injury. The
+Lackawanna, Captain Marchand, was the next vessel to strike her, which
+she did at full speed; but though her stem was cut and crushed to the
+plank-ends for the distance of three feet above the water's edge to
+five feet below, the only perceptible effect on the ram was to give
+her a heavy list.</p>
+
+<p>"The Hartford was the third vessel that struck her; but, as the
+Tennessee quickly shifted her helm, the blow was a glancing one, and,
+as she rasped along our side, we poured our whole port broadside of
+nine-inch solid shot within ten feet of her casement.</p>
+
+<p>"The monitors worked slowly, but delivered their fire as opportunity
+offered. The Chickasaw succeeded in getting under her stern, and a
+fifteen-inch shot from the Manhattan broke through her iron plating
+and heavy wooden backing, though the missile itself did not enter the
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p>"Immediately after the collision with the flag-ship, I directed
+Captain Drayton to bear down for the ram again. He was doing so at
+full speed, when, unfortunately, the Lackawanna ran into the Hartford
+just forward of the mizzenmast, cutting her down to within two feet of
+the water's edge. We soon got clear again, however, and were fast
+approaching our adversary, when she struck her colors and ran up the
+white flag.</p>
+
+<p>"She was at this time sore beset; the Chickasaw was pounding away at
+her stern, the Ossipee was approaching her at full speed, and the
+Monongahela, Lackawanna, and this ship were bearing down upon her,
+determined upon her destruction. Her smoke-stack had been shot away,
+her steering-chains were gone, compelling a resort to her
+relieving-tackles, and several of her port shutters were jammed.
+Indeed, from the time the Hartford struck her, until her surrender,
+she never fired a gun. As the Ossipee, Commander Le Roy, was about to
+strike her, she hoisted the white flag, and that vessel immediately
+stopped her engine, though not in time to avoid a glancing blow.</p>
+
+<p>"During this contest with the rebel gunboats and the ram Tennessee,
+which terminated by her surrender at ten o'clock, we lost many more
+men than from the fire of the batteries of Fort Morgan."</p>
+
+<p>The rebel Admiral Buchanan was severely wounded, and subsequently lost
+a leg by amputation. Admiral Farragut, as humane in his feelings
+toward a wounded foe as he was gallant and daring in action,
+immediately addressed a note to Brigadier-General Page, the commander
+of Fort Morgan, asking permission to send the rebel admiral and the
+other wounded rebel officers by ship, under flag of truce, to the
+Union hospitals at Pensacola, where they could be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page386" name="page386"></a>(p. 386)</span> tenderly
+cared for. This request was granted, and the Metacomet despatched with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral had stationed himself "in an elevated position in the main
+rigging, near the top," a place of great peril, but one which enabled
+him to see much better than if he had been on deck, the progress of
+the battle; and from thence he witnessed, and testified with great
+gratification to the admirable conduct of the men at their guns,
+throughout the fleet; and, in this connection, gives utterance to a
+sentiment which shows most conclusively his sympathy and tenderness:
+"Although," he says, "no doubt their hearts sickened, as mine did,
+when their shipmates were struck down beside them, yet there was not a
+moment's hesitation to lay their comrades aside and spring again to
+their deadly work."</p>
+
+<p>It is said that at the moment of the collision between the Hartford
+and Lackawanna, when the men called to each other to save the admiral,
+Farragut, finding the ship would float at least long enough to serve
+his purpose, and thinking of that only, called out to his
+fleet-captain, "Go on with speed! Ram her again!"</p>
+
+<p>The results of this victory were the destruction of the rebel fleet;
+the capture of the armored ship Tennessee, and of 230 rebel officers
+and men; the abandonment on the next day of Fort Powell, with 18 guns;
+the surrender on the 8th of Fort Gaines, with 56 officers, 818 men,
+and 26 guns; and on August 23d, after a further bombardment of
+twenty-four hours, of Fort Morgan, with 60 guns and 600 prisoners. By
+these captures the port of Mobile was hermetically sealed against
+blockade-runners, and a serious blow given to the rebel cause.</p>
+
+<p>Rear-admiral Farragut remained in command of the West Gulf squadron
+till November, 1864, when he requested leave of absence, and was
+called to Washington for consultation in regard to future naval
+operations. Soon after the opening of Congress, a resolution of thanks
+to him for his brilliant victory at Mobile was passed, and the rank of
+vice-admiral, corresponding to that of lieutenant-general in the army,
+was created, and on January 1, 1865, David Glascoe Farragut promoted
+to it. This appointment made him the virtual chief commander of the
+naval forces of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The West Gulf blockading squadron, during all the time Admiral
+Farragut was in command of it, had had more fighting and less prizes
+than any other blockading squadron on the coast; and while Admirals
+Dupont, Lee, Porter, and Dahlgren had accumulated immense fortunes by
+their shares of prize-money, Admiral Farragut had received little
+beyond his regular pay. The merchants of New York, understanding this,
+and recognizing the great services he had rendered to commerce and to
+the nation, subscribed the sum of fifty thousand dollars, which was
+presented to him in United States 7.30 Treasury notes, in January,
+1865, in testimony of their appreciation of his ability and success as
+a naval commander. Until 1866 the rank of vice-admiral was the highest
+known in the navy In July of that year the office of admiral was
+specially created and bestowed on Farragut. He saw no further
+important service, but died quietly at Portsmouth, N. H., August 14,
+1870.</p>
+
+<a id="img048" name="img048"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="600" height="379" alt="" title="">
+<p>Farragut at Mobile Bay.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page387" name="page387"></a>(p. 387)</span> Even the English <span class="italic">Army and Navy Gazette</span> speaks of Admiral
+Farragut as "the doughty admiral whose feats of arms place him at the
+head of his profession, and certainly constitute him the first naval
+officer of the day, as far as actual reputation won by skill, courage,
+and hard fighting goes."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>DAVID DIXON PORTER<br>
+(1814-1891)</h3>
+
+<a id="img049" name="img049"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="250" height="317" alt="David Porter." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the coincidences of naval and military command in the war for
+the Union, the association of the names of Farragut and Porter, in the
+important series of operations on the Mississippi, has not escaped
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>The former, as the reader has seen in the previous sketch, was
+introduced to the service in his childhood, under the care and
+protection of Commodore David Porter, and boy as he was, fully shared
+the adventures and perils of his famous cruise in the Pacific. Nearly
+fifty years after that event Captain Farragut, in command of the
+Department of the Gulf, entered the Mississippi in concert with the
+son of his old commander of the Essex, to vindicate the national honor
+by the restoration of New Orleans to the Union&mdash;a service which was to
+prove the ability of both officers, and lead them to the highest rank
+known to the naval service of the United States. Looking into the
+future, Commodore Porter, the hero of the War of 1812, would hardly
+have dreamt that the "boy midshipman, who had been introduced to him
+at New Orleans, would, with two of his own sons, at the end of half a
+century, receive the highest honors of their country, the reward of
+the most arduous and perilous services against a domestic foe on the
+Mississippi."</p>
+
+<p>Of these sons of Commodore Porter, thus distinguished in this field of
+duty, William D. Porter, the elder, on more than one occasion, in
+command of the gunboat Essex, recalled not merely the name of his
+father's vessel, but the courage and patriotism, the spirit and
+success which had given the old ship her reputation. The younger,
+David D. Porter, the subject of this notice, born in Philadelphia,
+entered the navy as midshipman in the year 1829. His first cruise was
+in the Mediterranean, under Commodore Biddle, till 1831. After a
+year's leave <span class="pagenum"><a id="page388" name="page388"></a>(p. 388)</span> of absence, he returned to that station, which
+has ever proved, in its liberal intercourse with the men of other
+nations, and its undying associations of nature and art, a most
+important school in the education of the young naval officers of the
+United States. Having passed his examination in 1835, young Porter was
+attached to the coast survey service from 1836 to 1841, when he was
+promoted to a lieutenancy and was ordered to the frigate Congress, in
+which he sailed for four years on the Mediterranean and South American
+stations. In 1845, we find him attached to the National Observatory at
+Washington in special service. During the Mexican war which succeeded,
+he was in charge of the naval rendezvous at New Orleans, was
+subsequently again employed on the coast survey, and from 1849 to 1853
+was, by permission of the department, in command of the California
+mail steamers Panama and Georgia, running from New York to Aspinwall,
+a rising commercial service of national importance, to which his
+experience and personal character were of great value. After this he
+was in various home services, till 1861, when he was promoted to the
+rank of commander, and placed in command of the steam-sloop Powhatan,
+in which he joined the Gulf Blockading squadron off Pensacola. He had
+thus, at the outbreak of the Rebellion, been thirty-two years in the
+service, over nineteen of which had been spent at sea and nine on
+shore duty.</p>
+
+<p>A special service of great importance was presently intrusted to him.
+When in the beginning of 1862, an expedition was set on foot to open
+the Mississippi River to New Orleans, he was assigned to the command
+of a fleet of bomb-vessels to co-operate with the squadron of Captain
+Farragut in that enterprise&mdash;a service which he carried out with
+distinguished ability.</p>
+
+<p>After the capture of New Orleans, Commander Porter continued to
+co-operate with Captain Farragut on the Mississippi, being engaged in
+the movement on Vicksburg in May. In the following October he was
+placed in command of the Mississippi squadron, with the rank of acting
+rear-admiral, and when, in the ensuing year, operations were actively
+resumed for the capture of Vicksburg, his squadron, in concert with
+the victorious army of General Grant, was constantly employed in the
+most hazardous and honorable service.</p>
+
+<p>It was he who forwarded to the Secretary of the Navy at Washington the
+brief and authoritative announcement: "Sir, I have the honor to inform
+you that Vicksburg surrendered to the United States forces on July
+4th." This was the first bulletin to the country and to the world of
+this memorable event. Simultaneously with the victory of General Mead
+over Lee at Gettysburg, it was hailed as the crowning disaster to the
+Rebellion. As a reward for his services on the Mississippi, Porter was
+promoted to the full rank of rear-admiral.</p>
+
+<p>In December, 1864, he commanded the fleet which bombarded Fort Fisher.
+After a terrific assault the fort was captured January 13, 1865, and
+Wilmington, the last Confederate port, was closed. Porter received
+another, his fourth, vote of thanks from Congress, and in 1866 was
+made vice-admiral. On Farragut's death, in 1870, he was immediately
+appointed to succeed him as admiral, and held the rank until his
+death, on February 13, 1891.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page389" name="page389"></a>(p. 389)</span> GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI<br>
+(1807-1882)</h3>
+
+<a id="img050" name="img050"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="250" height="265" alt="Guiseppe Garibaldi." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Garibaldi has not left the world without some account of his birth,
+parentage, and early life. Not a little of his great, naïve, and
+enthusiastic character may be studied in those Memoirs, of which his
+eccentric friend, Alexander Dumas, published a free translation. He
+was born July 22, 1807. He was a native of Nice, a city inhabited by a
+mongrel race, but himself sprung from a purely Italian family The name
+of Garibaldi, common enough throughout North Italy, betokens old
+Lombard descent. He first saw light, as he states, in the very house
+and room where, forty-nine years before, Masséna was born. His father,
+Domenico, had come from Chiavari, in the Riviera di Levante; he gives
+his mother's name Rosa Raguindo. Garibaldi's father and grandfather
+were seamen, and he took to the sea as his native element, developing
+great strength and skill as a swimmer, an accomplishment which enabled
+him to save drowning men on several memorable occasions. For what book
+learning he had he seems to have been indebted to the desultory
+lessons of priestly schoolmasters under the direction of his mother.
+Of this latter he always spoke with great tenderness, acknowledging
+that "to her inspiration he owed his patriotic feelings," and stating
+that "in his greatest dangers by land and sea his imagination always
+conjured up the picture of the pious woman prostrated at the feet of
+the Most High interceding for the safety of her beloved."</p>
+
+<p>In early life he embarked in his father's merchant vessel, a brig, and
+in that and other craft he made frequent voyages to Odessa, Rome, and
+Constantinople. Soon after the revolutionary movements of 1831 he was
+at Marseilles, where he fell in with Mazzini, busy at that time with
+the organization of "Young Italy," and with the preparations for an
+invasion of Italy by sea, which, upon Mazzini's expulsion from
+Marseilles, was attempted at Geneva, and directed against the Savoy
+frontier. The Savoy expedition turned out an egregious failure, the
+blame of which Garibaldi, on Mazzini's statement, throws on the Polish
+General Ramorino's treachery. Garibaldi himself, who had embarked on
+board the royal frigate Eurydice to gain possession of that vessel by
+a mutiny of the crew, being off Genoa, and hearing of a plot to storm
+the barracks of the Carabinieri, landed in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page390" name="page390"></a>(p. 390)</span> the town to join
+it; but the attack upon the barracks miscarried, and he, not daring to
+go back to his ship, saw himself irreparably compromised, fled to
+Nice, and thence crossed the Var and found himself an exile at
+Marseilles. Here he betook himself again to his sea life, sailed for
+the Black Sea and for Tunis, and at last on board the Nageur, of
+Nantes, for Rio de Janeiro.</p>
+
+<p>In the commentaries before alluded to Garibaldi gives the fullest
+particulars of the exploits by which he rose to distinction beyond the
+Atlantic during the twelve years elapsing from his leaving Europe in
+1836 to his return to Italy in 1848. It is the romance of his career,
+and will some day be wrought into an epic blending the charms of the
+Odyssey with those of the Iliad&mdash;a battle and a march being the theme
+of the eventful tale almost from beginning to end.</p>
+
+<p>Garibaldi took service with the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul, a vast
+territory belonging to Brazil, then in open rebellion and war against
+that empire. He took the command of a privateer's boat with a crew of
+twelve men, to which he gave the name of Mazzini, and by the aid of
+which he soon helped himself to a larger and better-armed vessel, a
+prize taken from the enemy. In his many encounters with the Imperial
+or Brazilian party the hero bought experience both of wonderfully
+propitious and terribly adverse fortune, and had every imaginable
+variety of romantic adventure and hair-breadth escapes. He was
+severely wounded, taken prisoner, and in one instance at Gualeguay, in
+the Argentine territory, he found himself in the power of one Leonardo
+Millan, a type of Spanish South American brutality, by whom he was
+savagely struck in the face with a horsewhip, submitted to several
+hours' rack and torture, and thrown into a dungeon in which his
+sufferings were soothed by the ministration of that "angel of
+charity," a woman, by name Madame Alleman.</p>
+
+<p>Escaping from his tormentor by the intervention of the Governor of
+Gualeguay, Paolo Echague, Garibaldi crossed from the territories of
+the Plate into those of the Rio Grande, and faithful to the cause of
+that republic, he fought with better success, winning battles,
+storming fortresses, standing his ground with a handful of men, or
+even single-handed, against incredible odds, beating strong squadrons
+with a few small vessels, giving through all proofs of the rarest
+disinterestedness, humanity, and generosity, disobeying orders to sack
+and ravage vanquished cities, and exercising that mixture of authority
+and glamour over his followers which almost enabled him to dispense
+with the ties of stern rule and discipline. At last, after losing a
+flotilla in a hurricane on the coast of Santa Caterina, where he
+landed wrecked and forlorn, having seen his bravest and most cherished
+Italian friends shot down or drowned, he fell in with his Anita&mdash;not,
+apparently, the first fair one for whom he had a passing fancy&mdash;with
+whom he united his destinies, for better for worse, in life and till
+death, in some off-hand manner, about which he is reticent and
+mysterious. Anita turned out almost as great and daring and
+long-enduring a being as her heroic mate, and was by his side in all
+fights by land and sea, till the fortunes of the Republic of Rio
+Grande declined, when, after giving birth to her first-born, Menotti
+Garibaldi, September 16, 1840, she went with that infant and his
+father through unheard of hardships <span class="pagenum"><a id="page391" name="page391"></a>(p. 391)</span> and dangers in the
+disastrous retreat of Las Antas; when at last, Garibaldi, beginning to
+feel the responsibilities of a growing family, and despairing of the
+issues of an ill-conducted war, took leave of his Republican friends
+at Rio Grande and went for a short respite in his adventurous career
+to Montevideo.</p>
+
+<p>After trying on the journey to find employment as a cattle-driver,
+Garibaldi settled at Montevideo in the capacity of a general broker
+and teacher of mathematics; but war having broken out between the
+Republic of the Uruguay and Buenos Ayres, the Condottiere was
+solicited to draw his sword for the former state which afforded him
+hospitality, and was trusted with the command of a little squadron
+destined to operate on the Parana River against a largely superior
+Argentine force. This expedition was contrived by enemies high in
+power in the Montevidean Government, who, jealous of the reputation
+won by Garibaldi at Rio Grande, vainly plotted to have him
+assassinated with his friend Anzani, and hoped to rid themselves of
+him by exposing him to dangers from which it seemed impossible that he
+could extricate himself. Garibaldi, however, made the best of his
+desperate position, and escaped, not only with his life, but also with
+"honor&mdash;the only thing that was not lost."</p>
+
+<p>Presently, danger pressing sorely on the republic, he organized his
+Italian Legion, which behaved well through a new series of land and
+sea combats, its band of only 400 combatants often beating the enemy's
+corps 600 men strong, at the close of which exploits its soldiers
+refused grants of land offered to them by a grateful state, "the
+stimulus of their exertions," as their commander said, "being only the
+triumph of the Republican cause." The legion was afterward as a mark
+of honor, allowed precedence over all the other troops of the
+republic. The war continued, and under the auspices of their commander
+the soldiers of the Italian Legion rose to such distinction that at
+the affairs of the Boyada and of Salto Sant' Antonio, February, 1846,
+Garibaldi was empowered to write to the government of the republic
+that the brilliant successes of those deeds of arms were entirely due
+to their gallantry.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, however, news from Europe came to turn the attention of
+Italian patriots to the momentous events which were rapidly changing
+the conditions of the peninsula. Years had passed. Pius IX. was Pope;
+Sicily had risen in open and successful revolt; a republic had been
+proclaimed in France; Constitutions were being wrested from the
+reluctant hands of most European despots. Austria was convulsed with
+insurrectionary attempts; the Milanese drove Radetsky from their city
+after five days' fighting, and Charles Albert unfurled the national
+standard and crossed the Ticino.</p>
+
+<p>The theatre of the exploits of the hero of Montevideo was soon
+changed. All who had a heart and soul in Italy were up and doing, and
+could Italy's greatest heart and soul remain beyond the seas?
+Garibaldi, on the first reports of the Pope's liberal leanings, wrote
+to the Nuncio Bedini at Montevideo, October 17, 1847, offering the
+services of the Italian Legion to his Holiness, who was now almost on
+the eve of a war with Austria, "although," the letter said, "the
+writer was well aware that St. Peter's throne rests on a solid basis,
+proof against all human <span class="pagenum"><a id="page392" name="page392"></a>(p. 392)</span> attacks and needing no mortal
+defenders." The Nuncio returned thanks and praises and referred
+Garibaldi's tender to the Pontifical Government at Rome. But
+Garibaldi, never well disposed to losing time, after vainly waiting
+for further communication from Pope or Nuncio, brooked no longer
+delay. With incredible difficulty he scraped together money and means,
+and embarked with his brave friend, Anzani (who died at Genoa soon
+after landing), having with him only 85 men and two cannon, and
+leaving the remainder of his legion to follow when and how it could.</p>
+
+<p>He crossed the ocean, landed at Nice, proceeded to Genoa and Milan,
+and when Charles Albert, defeated at Custozza, withdrew from the
+Lombard city and accepted an armistice, which saved Piedmont from
+invasion, August, 1848, Garibaldi passed over to Mazzini, and at the
+head of a volunteer force, of which Mazzini was the standard-bearer,
+issued a manifesto in which he proclaimed the Sardinian king a
+traitor, and declared that "the royal war was at an end, and that of
+the people was now to begin." That proclamation was, however, only an
+idle bravado. Mazzini, even if he had the spirit, lacked the physical
+strength of a fighting man. The Garibaldians, on hearing the news of
+the fall of Milan, lost heart, and many crossed over the frontier to
+Switzerland. With thinned and dispirited bands, Garibaldi, aided by
+his friend Medici, ventured on a few desultory fights near Luino, on
+Lake Maggiore, but soon fell back and withdrew to Lugano in the Canton
+Ticino, his health, it is said, breaking down, and his immediate
+followers being reduced to some three hundred.</p>
+
+<p>A few months later Pius IX., fallen from his popularity and pressed
+hard by his disaffected subjects, who murdered his minister and almost
+stormed him in his palace at the Quirinal, ran away to Gaëta, and a
+Roman Republic was proclaimed, of which Mazzini, in a triumvirate with
+two others, mere men of straw, became the head. Attacked by the French
+in flagrant violation of all rights of nations, Rome undertook to
+defend itself, and whatever Italy could boast of generous hearts,
+regardless of party differences, rallied round Garibaldi, who drove
+back the French from Porta Pancrazia, April 29 and 30, 1849, defeated
+the Neapolitans in that campaign of Velletri, which was like the farce
+contrasting with the tragic drama soon to be acted at Rome, and
+withstood a three months' siege, in which many of the noblest
+champions of the Italian cause lavished their lives in a hopeless,
+yet, as it proved, not a fruitless struggle.</p>
+
+<p>The French having gained possession of the city July 13, 1849,
+Garibaldi left it with a band of devoted volunteers, retired via Terni
+and Orvieto, gathering together about 2,000 men in his progress,
+crossed the Apennines, and pressed by the Austrians with overwhelming
+forces, sought a refuge at San Marino, gave the enemy the slip in the
+night, embarked at Cesenatico for Venice, which was still withstanding
+the Austrian siege, was met by four Austrian men-of-war, which
+compelled him to put back and land on the coast near Ravenna, and
+wandered ashore in the woods, where Anita, his inseparable companion
+in this disastrous march, succumbed to the fatigues of the journey,
+and expired in the hero's arms. Garibaldi's devoted friends Ugo Bassi
+and Ciceruacchio, falling into the hands of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page393" name="page393"></a>(p. 393)</span> the Austrians,
+were shot by them without any forms of trial and by an act of
+barbarism which no human or divine law could justify. The heart-broken
+hero, with a few trusty men, made his way from the Adriatic to the
+Mediterranean, was arrested by the Sardinian Carabinieri at Chiaveri,
+conveyed to Genoa, where La Marmora was in command, and there embarked
+for Tunis; hence, finding nowhere a refuge, he proceeded to the Island
+of La Maddalena, off the shore of Sardinia, and hence again to
+Gibraltar and Tangier.</p>
+
+<p>La Marmora received the heart-broken fugitive as a brother, supplied
+him with ample means for his journey to Tunis, and obtained for him
+from the Turin Government the assignment of an honorable pension,
+which Garibaldi did not in his straits disdain to accept. But, in his
+opinion, all seemed now over for Italy; Charles Albert's son, Victor
+Emmanuel, after the defeat of Navara, had made his peace with Austria
+in March, 1849. Venice had succumbed after heroic sufferings in
+August, and Garibaldi, again crossing the ocean, settled at New York
+as a tallow chandler, and only came back to Europe in 1855.</p>
+
+<p>When Garibaldi returned from America he did not look out for Mazzini
+or his Republicans in England or Switzerland, but sought a home in
+Piedmont, a Constitutional State, which allowed him an obscure but
+peaceful retreat in his hermitage at Caprera, an island rock on the
+Sardinian coast near the Maddalena, and conveyed to him a hint that
+the time might soon come in which his country's cause would summon him
+from retirement. And, truly, four years later (1859) the destinies of
+Italy were nearing their fulfilment. France and Piedmont took the
+field against Austria. Garibaldi, leaving his island home, was met and
+highly welcomed by Victor Emmanuel, to whom he swore fealty as the
+only hope of Italy. He now took the command of the Chasseurs des
+Alpes, aided the royal army in its defence of the territory previous
+to the arrival of its great French auxiliary, and, following in the
+upper region a line parallel to that kept in the plain by the conquest
+of Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino, beat the Austrians at Varese and
+San Fermo, bewildered his adversary Urban, by the rashness of his
+movements on the mountains above Como, advanced upon Bergamo and
+Brescia, and pushed on to the Valtellina up to the very summit of the
+Stelvia Pass. Here the peace of Villafranca put an end to the
+struggle, and Garibaldi, afflicted by the arthritic pains to which he
+was a martyr all his life, travelled for a few days' rest to Tuscany
+and Genoa.</p>
+
+<p>At Genoa, during the autumn and winter, Garibaldi, hospitably
+entertained by his friend Augusto Vecchi outside the city, busied
+himself with that expedition of "the Thousand" which made one state of
+the south and north of Italy. He embarked on May 11, 1860, at Genoa,
+landed in Sicily, at Marsala, beat the Neapolitans at Calatafimi,
+followed up his success to Palermo, and, aided by the insurgent city,
+compelled the garrison to surrender. He again routed the Bourbon
+troops at Milazzo, and had soon the whole island at his discretion
+with the exception of the citadel of Messina. He then crossed over
+into Calabria, and, almost without firing a shot, drove the Neapolitan
+king's troops before him all over the mainland, compelled the king to
+abandon the strong pass of La Cava <span class="pagenum"><a id="page394" name="page394"></a>(p. 394)</span> and to withdraw his
+forces from his capital, where Garibaldi, with only a few of his
+staff, made his triumphal entry on September 7, 1860.</p>
+
+<p>After a few days' rest Garibaldi followed the disheartened king to
+Capua, obtained new signal successes on the Volturno, at Santa Maria,
+and Caserta; but would probably have been unable to accomplish the
+enterprise had not the Piedmontese, whose government had aided
+Garibaldi's expedition while pretending to oppose it, overrun the
+Marches, beaten Lamoricière and the Papal forces at Castel Fidardo,
+and, crossing the frontier and the Apennines, besieged and reduced the
+strong places of Capua and Gaëta. Garibaldi, who, as a dictator, had
+with doubtful success endeavored to establish something like rule in
+the Two Sicilies, aware of the arduousness of a task which would have
+exceeded many wiser men's powers, met Victor Emmanuel at Naples,
+delivered the two kingdoms into his hands, and, declining all the
+proffered honors and emoluments for himself, took leave of his
+sovereign and embarked for the solitude of his rock-farm at Caprera.</p>
+
+<p>Rome alone now remained outside of the United Italian Kingdom, and
+Garibaldi, raising bands of adventurers, made two or three attempts to
+capture it, but was repulsed by its French garrison, and it was not
+until 1870 that, the French troops being recalled to their own sorely
+distressed country, the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel became an
+accomplished fact, though in the great liberator's absence. Garibaldi
+once more was seen in Rome, April, 1879. He was supposed to be
+proposing great purchases of arms, to be enlisting hosts of
+volunteers, to be planning thorough reforms and preparing formidable
+expeditions against Austria. But Garibaldi, away from Caprera, could
+not fail to have his good as well as his evil angels about him. He saw
+the king; he listened to General Medici, his own right arm in so many
+campaigns, and now first aide-de-camp to King Humbert, as he had
+before been to King Victor Emmanuel. He listened, while they showed
+him the folly of further war, and, though not convinced, he was
+silenced. Although too proud to acknowledge the absurdity of his
+schemes in words, he was too wise not to give them up in deeds. He
+withdrew from the vain popular acclamation; shut his door against the
+crowd of his visitors, and although he announced his intention to take
+up his domicile in Rome, he pleaded indisposition as an excuse for
+inaction and retirement. Unfortunately there was only too much ground
+in the plea. The arthritic pains, of which symptoms had manifested
+themselves as early as during the Lombard campaign of 1849, had been
+seriously aggravated by his toils, and the sight of his helplessness
+in Rome as he hobbled up the steps of Montecitorio in 1874, was
+saddening to all beholders, and prepared his friends for that end
+which, however, was to be put off for several years. The fatigue of
+the voyage from Caprera in 1879, and still more the excitement of
+incessant calls, objectless conferences, and endless exhibitions soon
+entirely prostrated the hero, and before the backward spring had fully
+set in it became evident that Garibaldi's life could only be a
+lingering agony.</p>
+
+<a id="img051" name="img051"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="600" height="370" alt="" title="">
+<p>Meeting of Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His life, if life it may be called, and at all events his sufferings,
+were prolonged yet a few years. He left home in the spring of 1881 on
+a mad scheme <span class="pagenum"><a id="page395" name="page395"></a>(p. 395)</span> of liberating, "by force if necessary," his
+son-in-law, Canzio, who had been arrested as a plotter for the
+republic. But having obtained the man's release from the king's
+government as a favor, he once more sought the peace of his hermitage
+where he died, June 2, 1882.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT VON MOLTKE<br>
+(1800-1891)</h3>
+
+<a id="img052" name="img052"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="250" height="291" alt="Count von Moltke." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Suddenly, but quietly and painlessly, on the evening of April 24,
+1891, passed away one of the most remarkable men of the present
+century. Hellmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke was born, October 26, 1800,
+at Parshim, in Mecklenburg, where his father, previously a captain in
+the Prussian army, had retired, impoverished in circumstances, to an
+estate which he inherited. When little Hellmuth was three years old,
+his father, Baron Moltke, settled at the free town of Lubeck, the once
+famous head of the Hanseatic League. Here, in 1806, on the retreat
+from the disastrous battle of Jena, Marshal Blücher, who like Von
+Moltke was of Mecklenburg origin, sought refuge with his shattered
+troops; and little Moltke was a witness of the sack and plunder of the
+town by the troops of Napoleon, his father's house being one of those
+that suffered most severely. It is said that the incidents of this
+event made a lasting impression upon the mind of the boy. At the age
+of nine, with his elder brother Fritz, young Hellmuth was placed under
+the care of Pastor Knickbein, at Hohenfelde, near Horst, a scholarly
+man of a kindly and genial disposition, for whom he always retained a
+deep regard. His sense of indebtedness appears in the inscription
+which he wrote on the title-page when forwarding to him a copy of his
+first work, his "Letters from Turkey;" "To my dear teacher and
+fatherly friend to whom I owe so much, I send this, my first work, as
+a slight testimony of respect."</p>
+
+<p>The favorite recreation of the two brothers while here at school was
+playing at war, as perhaps was natural at such a period. They were
+accustomed to collect the peasant boys of the village and divide them
+into two rival armies, Fritz commanding the one, and Hellmuth the
+other. Once, when the mimic warfare was at its height, the weaker
+force of Hellmuth was routed, and some were taken prisoners. Called
+upon to surrender, Hellmuth cried out, "All is not lost!" and hastily
+rallying his men he marched them straight to a pond in Pastor
+Knickbein's garden, and hurried them to a little island which the boy
+himself had constructed with great labor, and accessible only by a
+single plank. Facing the enemy with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page396" name="page396"></a>(p. 396)</span> a few of his strongest
+men, he kept them at bay until all his troops had passed into the
+fortress, he himself being the last to enter. Then the drawbridge was
+raised and the victory won. The island, preserved by the good pastor,
+long since gone to his rest, still exists, and is pointed out with
+great pride by the villagers to curious visitors as the scene of one
+of the early exploits of Germany's greatest strategist.</p>
+
+<p>His experiences at the Royal Academy at Copenhagen, to which he was
+sent at the age of twelve, were not of the happiest. Relating his
+reminiscences of that period, in reply to the question, "Do you retain
+pleasant recollections of cadet life?" he remarked, "I have little
+reason to do so. Without relations or acquaintances in a strange city,
+we spent a joyless youth. The discipline was strict, even hard, and
+now, when my judgment of it is unprejudiced, I must say that it was
+too strict, too hard. The only benefit we received from this treatment
+was that we became accustomed to deprivations."</p>
+
+<p>Passing over the period of his service in the Danish army, and his
+entrance into that of Prussia, we find him, after making heroic
+efforts on his scanty pay to acquire foreign languages, in which he
+attained in after-life so remarkable a proficiency, attached to a
+commission for topographical surveys in Silesia and the Grand Duchy of
+Posen.</p>
+
+<p>Consolidating and extending his knowledge of military science and of
+foreign peoples, as in the case of his visits to the East, Russia,
+Rome, and elsewhere, Moltke rose steadily in his profession. In 1845,
+he became aide-de-camp to the invalid Prince Henry of Prussia, uncle
+of the king; and subsequently, after holding commands of increasing
+importance, he was made first aide-de-camp to the Crown Prince
+Frederick. Ultimately, in 1859, he was appointed permanent chief of
+the staff. His later military career, and brilliant successes against
+the Danes, Austrians, and the French, and the various honors accorded
+him, are so well known and have been so often and so recently
+narrated, that any further reference to them in this present sketch is
+unnecessary, the purpose of our notice being to briefly indicate some
+of the leading points of the great field-marshal's character. One fact
+is memorable, that he had passed the age when men frequently retire
+from the public service before the time of his greater achievements.
+His splendid career began to the eye of the world at sixty-five.</p>
+
+<p>The guiding principle of his life is well illustrated by the ancient
+motto of his family, <span class="italic">Caute et candide</span> (warily and gently), and by
+his own favorite maxim, <span class="italic">Erst wägen, dann wagen</span> (first weigh, then
+venture). He was slow, cautious, and careful in laying his plans, but
+having formed his design, he was bold, daring even to the verge of
+apparent recklessness in its execution. The same calm, immovable
+spirit characterized him even in moments when most ordinary
+mortals&mdash;he was a man <span class="italic">sui generis</span>&mdash;might, with some show of reason,
+be perturbed or excited. Even in the most critical period of the
+Franco-German war his unruffled quietness remained the same, sterner
+perhaps in look, more silent than ever. Though the warrior king,
+amidst the carnage of the battle-field might feel depressed; though
+Bismarck, man of "iron and blood," might be anxious at the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page397" name="page397"></a>(p. 397)</span>
+progress of events, Moltke, seated on his great black horse, calmly
+surveyed, telescope in hand, the movements of the troops, or later,
+resting quietly in his room at Versailles, awaited the result
+undismayed. When war was declared, a friend met him with the remark:
+"You must indeed be overworked at present." "No," replied the General,
+"the work was done beforehand; all orders are gone out; I really have
+nothing to do."</p>
+
+<p>Married in 1842, shortly after his return home from the East, to Miss
+Burt, an English lady, he lived with her in the bonds of a rare union
+of happiness, concord, and mutual sympathy. On the occasion of her
+death, which took place Christmas Eve, 1868, he withdrew still more
+from public life, and found in quiet, studious, and laborious life
+some slight relief for his grief. Very touching was his devotion to
+the memory of his wife. Upon his estate at Kreisau he built a little
+mausoleum, situated on a beautiful eminence, embowered in foliage.
+This little chapel, constructed of red brick and sandstone, was lined
+inside with black and white marble, and in front of the altar was
+placed the simple oak coffin in which the remains of his wife reposed,
+covered at all seasons of the year with wreaths. Sculptured in the
+apse was a finely carved figure of our Lord in an attitude of
+blessing, copied from Thorwaldsen. Above were inscribed the words of
+St. Paul, "Love is the fulfilment of the Law." When at his
+country-seat the aged warrior visited the tomb morning and evening.
+Now at her side slumbers the veteran, awaiting with her the signal of
+the resurrection.</p>
+
+<p>Of his bearing in the time of his bereavement, the following incident
+was related by the late Mr. George Bancroft, the distinguished
+historian, at that period United States Minister at Berlin. Mr.
+Bancroft was one of the favored few who were accustomed to accompany
+Von Moltke in his daily rides in the Thiergarten or to the Grunewald.
+Seeing the general on horseback, "my first impulse," said Mr.
+Bancroft, "was to trot into another lane. On second thoughts, however,
+I turned my horse alongside his, remembering that it was for him to
+talk or be silent. To my surprise, he forthwith began a lively
+conversation, describing the happiness with which Miss Burt had
+blessed her husband, and expatiating upon her manifold virtues as one
+crushed by an overwhelming, irreparable loss. Then of a sudden he grew
+silent, as if a new current of thought had carried him sheer away. 'Do
+you know,' he said, when his lips were again opened, 'it has just been
+brought home to me that, after all, perhaps it was better that this
+happened now than at another time? You see, I am convinced that a
+French invasion is impending; it will burst upon us sooner or later,
+whatever the plea may eventually be. Now think if the fortune of war
+was to be adverse to our arms! Why, her grief over the country's
+adversities must have cut her life short. No, no; that would have been
+worse!'"</p>
+
+<p>Von Moltke was a passionate lover of children, and is said to have
+been quite the slave to the caprices of his little grandnephew, the
+son of Major Hellmuth von Moltke, the aide-de-camp of the count, whom
+the emperor, as a special mark of his royal favor, immediately after
+the funeral of his chief, made one of his own aides-de-camp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page398" name="page398"></a>(p. 398)</span> As far as Count von Moltke's religious views could be
+ascertained, they were of a simple type, and characterized by a strict
+adherence to the path of duty and virtue. Daily was he accustomed to
+read his Bible, one of ancient date, its well-marked pages indicating
+how frequently its owner was in the habit of consulting its inspired
+pages. An extract from a letter the aged field-marshal wrote on the
+eve of his eightieth birthday is peculiarly interesting. "I stand,"
+said he, "close upon the end of my life; but how different from that
+here will be the measure in a future world according to which our
+earthly actions will be judged! Not the brilliancy of success, but the
+purity of our endeavors and faithful perseverance in duty, even when
+the result was scarcely visible, will decide as to the value of a
+man's life. What a wonderful displacement of high and low will be
+witnessed at that great review! We do not even know ourselves what we
+have to ascribe to ourselves, to others, or to a higher will. It will
+be well not to set too great a value on externals." In a passage in
+one of his books, referring to our Lord's life here upon earth, he
+remarks: "His life was humble. He was the descendant of a people in
+bondage, and He had not a place where to lay His head. To the
+fishermen He talked in parables about God; He healed the sick, and
+died the death of an evil-doer. And yet there has never been anything
+on this earth that could be purer, more elevated, and also&mdash;even seen
+from the worldly point of view&mdash;more successful than His conduct, His
+teaching, and His death."</p>
+
+<p>The old soldier's habits of life were, like those of the majority of
+really great men, extremely simple and singularly free from
+ostentation of any kind. Very characteristic of the late field-marshal
+are the following data of his life, written by himself on the occasion
+of his ninetieth birthday. An Austrian Association for the Promotion
+of Popular Knowledge addressed a number of interrogatories to various
+European celebrities of great age, which were to explain the
+circumstances and conditions under which an exceptionally long life
+might be attained. The answers received were collected in a book and
+subsequently published.</p>
+
+<p>Field-Marshal von Moltke answered the questions submitted to him in
+his own peculiarly laconic manner, as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> In which year of your life and on which date did you begin to
+learn, and for how many hours a day?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> 1808, in my eighth year,
+with four; after 1810, with ten hours a day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> Was your health in your youth delicate or robust?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Tough
+nature.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> Did you grow up in the country or in town?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Up to my tenth
+year in the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How many hours did you spend in the open air? Regularly?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span>
+Irregularly, and but few hours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> Did you cultivate hardening games and other exercises?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Not
+methodically.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How many hours did you sleep in childhood?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Ten hours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> Special remarks?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Joyless youth, scanty nourishment, absence
+from the paternal home.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page399" name="page399"></a>(p. 399)</span> <span class="italic">Q.</span> Where did you complete your studies&mdash;in town or in the
+country?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> In town.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How many hours a day do you devote to mental work?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Very
+different.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> Do you attribute to any particular habit of your life a favorable
+influence upon your health?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Moderation in all habits of life. In
+all weathers exercise in the open air. No day altogether at home.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How long did you sleep at a mature age?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> From eight to nine
+hours on an average.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> What alterations have you made at an advanced age in your mode of
+life?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> None.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How long did you work daily in your fiftieth, sixtieth,
+seventieth, eightieth years?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Quite as circumstances required it;
+often, therefore, very long.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> What were your recreations?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Riding on horseback up to my
+eighty-sixth year.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How many hours do you spend in the open air?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Now, in summer
+on my estate, half the day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> How long do you sleep at present?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> Always eight hours still.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> What are your habits with regard to eating, etc.?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> I eat
+very little, and take concentrated food.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Q.</span> To what circumstances do you particularly attribute your stalwart
+old age (which may God long preserve!)?&mdash;<span class="italic">A.</span> To God's grace and
+temperate habits.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting anecdote is related, apropos of his dislike to display,
+on the occasion of the opening of new barracks at
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, to which, as the oldest and most distinguished
+officer of the regiment in which he first served, he was invited. His
+acceptance of the invitation was accompanied by the stipulation that
+no ceremony should be made; but the officers, desiring to do honor to
+their illustrious guest, had provided the best carriage that the town
+afforded to meet him at the station. On his arrival, the field-marshal
+thanked the officer in waiting, took a common cab, and with his
+nephew, who was with him as aide-de-camp, drove off to the barracks,
+to the astonishment of the honest burghers.</p>
+
+<p>His favorite recreations were chess, in which he excelled; music,
+especially that of the school of Schubert and Mozart&mdash;he entertained
+very decided opinions about the "music of the future"&mdash;and whist,
+which he rarely missed playing after dinner, even when at the seat of
+war. The count was an authority on the culture of roses, and at
+Kreisau, where he spent most of his time after his retirement from
+more active service, he possessed one of the finest and most unique
+collections of roses in Germany, a fact which lends an additional
+grace to the tribute of respect paid to the field-marshal's memory,
+when, the day after his death, the empress visited the head-quarters
+of the General Staff and placed a magnificent wreath of his favorite
+flower upon the bed of the departed hero.</p>
+
+<p>Had not his reputation as a military strategist overshadowed his other
+gifts, the count would have gained distinction in the world of
+letters. In the twenties, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page400" name="page400"></a>(p. 400)</span> while engaged in the Topographical
+Department, he wrote a pamphlet, published at Berlin, entitled
+"Holland and Belgium," by H. von Moltke, in which he calls the
+attention of Europe to the Belgian Revolution; this was followed, in
+1845, by a critical military work of great merit, "The Russo-Turkish
+Campaign of 1828-29 in European Turkey," which created a deep
+impression in military circles, and proved of considerable service in
+the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. Moltke's pithy and laconic
+style was founded on the model of his chief, General von Müffling, his
+instructor in practical and theoretical tactics, in which the members
+of the German General Staff are required to excel. He was a graphic
+writer and shrewd observer of men and things, as his charming letters
+from Russia, France, Turkey, and other places show. Especially
+sagacious were his observations on the Turks, made to his sister,
+married to Mr. John Burt, an Englishman settled at Holstein, in which
+he affirms that the kingdom is rotten, that Turkey had fallen under a
+ban, and that ban the Koran, which teaches so warped a doctrine that
+its laws and decrees must of necessity oppose all social progress. His
+views on Russia, as indicated in his letters written in the form of a
+diary to his wife on the occasion of his visit in 1856, when
+accompanying Prince Frederick William at the coronation of the Czar
+Alexander II. at Moscow, show the same keen powers of observation. He
+considered that Russia had a great future before her, but this could
+only be realized when her officials became more honest. "Honesty among
+Russian officials," he thinks, "can only be brought about by many
+years of iron severity." Of the difficulty of governing the French
+nation, he wrote, when visiting the court of Napoleon III.: "It would
+be as impossible to allow the liberty of the press in France as to
+admit discussion of the orders given by generals to their armies when
+in the field." We have not the advantage of knowing his views on
+England and the English on the three occasions, in 1856, 1858, and
+1861, when he visited the country in company with the crown prince to
+be present at his betrothal and marriage to the princess royal, and
+again at the funeral of the prince consort. How highly his opinion as
+an authority was esteemed as early as 1867, is seen by an incident
+which occurred during the Universal Exhibition, when Count Moltke, in
+company with King William of Prussia and Count Bismarck, dined with
+Napoleon III. at St. Cloud. Subsequently, the emperor and Moltke
+engaged in an animated conversation apart from the rest. At this
+moment Marshal Randon, Minister of War, walked across the room, and
+the emperor, noticing him, raised his voice, saying, "Come here,
+marshal. General Moltke says that with the needle-gun he would be
+strong enough to fight even the French army." Marshal Randon drew
+near, and, turning toward Moltke, said, in a tone loud enough to be
+heard by all in the room, "Pardon me, general; but, in spite of the
+high opinion I have of your judgment, I cannot share your belief. I
+venture to affirm, that even with the needle-gun, the French army
+would not suffer the fate of the Austrian army;" and the conversation
+continued without the bystanders being able to follow it. But after
+the departure of the King of Prussia and his suite, Napoleon III.,
+struck by these words, energetically <span class="pagenum"><a id="page401" name="page401"></a>(p. 401)</span> busied himself in
+overhauling the equipment of the French army. He examined various
+models of guns that were submitted to him, and among these the Martini
+rifle, which he found excellent, but which was after all rejected for
+the Chassepôt. The making of this gun was pushed forward so actively
+that the French army was provided with it by 1870.</p>
+
+<a id="img053" name="img053"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="400" height="544" alt="" title="">
+<p>Moltke at Versailles, 1870.</p></div>
+
+<p>In respect of his literary efforts, as of his military achievements,
+Moltke was singularly modest. Herr G. von Bunsen tells us how,
+"meeting the general one day at a dinner-party, I expressed my regret
+at his having neglected to write some letter-press to accompany his
+well-known map of the environs of Ancient Rome. 'But a companion book
+for it was written,' he replied; 'or rather,' correcting himself, 'he
+had begun writing one at Rome, and was prevented from finishing the
+MS. when the Government ordered him to convey Prince Henry's body to
+Berlin, and there set him engrossing tasks to do.' Hereupon I ventured
+to ask him for a loan of this fragment. Of course he believed it to be
+lost; but, as a matter of course likewise, it was brought to my door
+by an orderly at an early hour next morning. When returning the MS., I
+advised the publication of parts of it, which would be found
+acceptable independently of his being the author; and if my humble
+advice should be followed, would he accept my humble services as
+editor? His reply," adds Herr von Bunsen, "has been carefully
+preserved. Its purport was that he must lay down three conditions:
+First, I must omit what I pleased; secondly, transpose at my pleasure;
+and thirdly, <span class="italic">alter the text</span> wherever it seemed desirable." "Will any
+editor in the world," Herr von Bunsen pithily remarks, "hesitate to
+confirm my belief that no MS. of the last unfledged stripling of an
+author was ever offered on similar conditions?"</p>
+
+<p>Fitting tributes of respect and admiration were paid to the aged
+field-marshal on the occasion of his celebrating his ninetieth
+birthday, on October 26, 1890. Telegrams from all sorts and conditions
+of men poured in upon him, including, among the princes and sovereigns
+of Europe, one from Queen Victoria, who held Count von Moltke in high
+esteem. The 26th falling upon Sunday, the schools throughout the
+length and breadth of Germany were closed on the previous Saturday to
+enable the scholars to add their quota to the general rejoicing. In
+Berlin a torchlight procession of vast extent, composed of 20,000
+students, artists, members of trades and guilds, marched with banners
+and groups of historically dressed personages and impersonifications,
+from the old gray Schloss down the Linden, through the Brandenburg
+Gate to the Königsplatz, where are situated the buildings of the Grand
+Staff. Here addresses were presented to Von Moltke.</p>
+
+<p>On the following day, in the Conference Hall of the General Staff, the
+emperor, surrounded by the military magnates of the Reichsrath, the
+generals of the twenty army corps specially summoned to be present,
+the officers of the General Staff, Chancellor von Caprivi, successor
+to Prince Bismarck, the King of Saxony, the grand dukes and the Duke
+of Connaught, addressed the marshal in the following terms:</p>
+
+<p>"I thank you in the name of those who have fought together with you,
+and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page402" name="page402"></a>(p. 402)</span> whose most faithful and devoted servant you have been. I
+thank you for all you have done for my House and for the greatness of
+the Fatherland. We greet in you not only a Prussian leader who has won
+for the army the reputation of being invincible, but one of the
+founders of the German Empire. The presence of the King of Saxony, who
+has made a point of personally congratulating you, recalls the time
+when he and you fought for Germany's greatness. The distinctions
+conferred upon you by my grandfather leave nothing in which I can
+personally show my thanks to you.... I call upon all those present to
+express their feelings of gratitude that Field-Marshal von Moltke has
+known how not to stand alone in his greatness, but to form a school of
+leaders of the army for time to come, and for all future generations,
+by giving cheers for his excellency."</p>
+
+<p>This, the last occasion on which public honors were accorded to the
+field-marshal during his life, appropriately emphasized the universal
+esteem in which "Father Moltke," as he was affectionally designated by
+the army, was held as one of the founders of the German Empire.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>GEORGE DEWEY<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Major-General Joseph Wheeler</span><br>
+(Born 1837)</h3>
+
+<a id="img054" name="img054"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="250" height="249" alt="George Dewey." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Every occasion finds a <span class="italic">man</span> to meet the exigencies of the hour, every
+conflict brings forth its hero, and every war educates soldiers for a
+war to come. War begets the warrior. Washington came out of the French
+and Indian wars, Jackson from the Creek wars; Scott and Taylor both
+emerged from Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, Grant and Lee from Mexico. So,
+George Dewey came out of the fierce internecine strife of our Civil
+War. He came, too, from one of the great sources of the best elements
+of our American population. The Puritans of New England and the
+Cavaliers of Virginia sprung from the same soil and a common ancestry,
+worked side by side, in a widely different manner, but to the same
+end; and from these two classes have sprung nearly all our great
+soldiers, statesmen, and authors. From the former came the great naval
+hero of the Spanish-American War.</p>
+
+<a id="img055" name="img055"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="400" height="594" alt="" title="">
+<p>Admiral Dewey at Manila Bay.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page403" name="page403"></a>(p. 403)</span> George Dewey was born in Montpelier, Vermont, on December 26,
+1837, of direct descent, in the ninth generation, from Thomas Dewey,
+who came from Sandwich, England, to Dorchester, in the Massachusetts
+Bay Colony, in 1633.</p>
+
+<p>His father, Dr. Julius Dewey, was a physician, eminent in his
+profession, and loved and respected, not only for his ability but for
+his innate nobility of character; and his mother was Mary Perrin. His
+ancestors on both sides were patriots in the days that tried men's
+souls, the hard and bitter days of the Colonial and Revolutionary
+Wars. He was the third of four children, and even in his boyhood he
+was a leader among his fellows. His breaches of discipline culminated
+in his heading an insurrection against the village school-master; but
+the pedagogue came off victorious, and administered a severe flogging
+to the young rebel, which punishment his father is said to have
+reinforced with some home-brewed medicine. The lesson was well
+learned, for we hear of no more insurrections.</p>
+
+<p>George Dewey entered the Naval Academy September 23, 1854, and was
+graduated fifth in a class of fourteen. He was attached to the frigate
+Wabash of the Mediterranean Squadron, and after his two years' cruise
+as a midshipman passed his final examination, in which he stood number
+one, gaining a final rating of three in his class. War was already
+imminent, and rapidly passing through the next grades he was on April
+19th attached as lieutenant to the Mississippi, belonging to the West
+Gulf Squadron. Early in 1862 Commodores Farragut and Porter prepared
+to capture New Orleans. Throughout this campaign Lieutenant Dewey
+distinguished himself by his cool courage, quick perception, and ready
+skill, winning the praise of Commodore Farragut. In running by the
+forts, he stood upon the bridge of the Mississippi, unmoved amid a
+storm of shot and shell, and unerringly guided her up the river,
+although he knew not a foot of the channel. The next year he was
+attached to one of Farragut's gunboats, and later to the Monongahela,
+which he commanded temporarily. In 1864, attached to the Colorado, he
+again distinguished himself in the attack on Fort Fisher, by a display
+not only of great courage, but of marked tactical skill, and by the
+fighting of his ship, which, though a junior, he really directed, and
+won the enthusiastic congratulations of his superior officers. Made
+lieutenant-commander March 3, 1865, Dewey emerged from the Civil War a
+matured naval officer at the age of twenty-seven, ripe in experience
+and ready for any service or sacrifice for the welfare of his country.</p>
+
+<p>His career from this time until the close of the year 1897, although
+important in his development and replete with valuable services in all
+directions, must be summed up in a few words.</p>
+
+<p>For two years subsequent to the war, he served with the European
+Squadron, first on the Kearsarge, later on the Colorado. 1867 found
+him at the Naval Academy. Promoted commander, April 13, 1872, he was
+assigned to the Narragansett until 1875. After seven years of bureau
+duty in the Navy Department, October 18, 1882, he commanded the
+Juniata of the Asiatic Squadron, and then learned the topography of
+Manila Bay, where he gave his first lesson <span class="pagenum"><a id="page404" name="page404"></a>(p. 404)</span> to the Spaniard
+in the person of the Port Captain of Manila, who impudently proposed
+that he "parade his crew," so that some sailors accused of riot might
+be identified, Dewey's reply being: "The deck of this vessel is United
+States territory, and I'll parade my men for no foreigner that ever
+drew breath."</p>
+
+<p>Dewey's health broke down, and in 1884 he was at the Navy Department,
+but September 27th was commissioned captain and took command of the
+Dolphin, one of the "White Squadron," the beginning of our "New Navy."
+He reached the rank of commodore February 28, 1896. On shore he has
+served as a member of the Lighthouse Board, Chief of the Bureau of
+Equipment, and Chief of the Board of Inspection and Survey. Late in
+the year 1897 it became necessary to select a commander of the Asiatic
+Station. War with Spain was a possibility. It was therefore essential
+that the Asiatic Station be in command of an able and experienced
+officer.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that Commodore Dewey, as also the other commodores,
+sought the North Atlantic and European Stations, believing that the
+Atlantic would be "the theatre of the war," and that he was averse to
+service in the Asiatic. It has also been said that the appointment of
+Dewey was a mere chance, a matter of routine. I think that these
+statements are not correct. I believe that Commodore Dewey was too old
+a sailor, too good a sailor, and too experienced a sailor to attempt
+to dictate his own orders. Furthermore, in a conversation with the
+President, this subject being mentioned, the President told me that he
+had carefully considered the appointment of an officer to command the
+Asiatic Station and had finally determined upon Dewey&mdash;that he wrote
+upon a card which he sent to the Secretary, of the Navy: "Appoint
+Dewey to Asiatic Squadron."</p>
+
+<p>In pursuance of the President's action, Commodore George Dewey was
+detached on November 30th from Bureau work and ordered to the Asiatic
+Station, of which he took command on January 3, 1898. The opportunity
+came, and the right man was in the right place.</p>
+
+<p>Commodore Dewey's squadron was composed of four protected cruisers,
+two gunboats, and a despatch-boat, as follows: The Olympia
+(flag-ship), a protected cruiser of 5,870 tons, mounting fourteen
+guns, Captain Gridley and flag-officer, Captain Benjamin P. Lamberton;
+the Baltimore, a protected cruiser of 4,413 tons and ten guns, Captain
+Nehemiah M. Dyer; the Raleigh, a protected cruiser of 3,213 tons and
+eleven guns, Captain Joseph B. Coghlan; the Boston, a protected
+cruiser of 3,000 tons and eight guns, Captain Frank Wildes; the
+Concord, a gunboat of 1,710 tons and six guns, Commander Asa Walker;
+the Petrel, a gunboat of 892 tons and four guns, Commander Wood; and
+the revenue cutter McCulloch, despatch-boat. Also the transports
+Zaffiro and Nanshan with provisions and coal. There was no armored
+vessel in the squadron.</p>
+
+<a id="img056" name="img056"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="400" height="556" alt="" title="">
+<p>Admiral Dewey Loving Cup.</p></div>
+
+<p>From the day Commodore Dewey took command of the Asiatic Station until
+April 24th, active preparations for war were going forward. The ships
+were kept stored to their full capacity with provisions, coal, and
+ammunition, and there was a continuous round of drill, target
+practice, man&oelig;uvres, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page405" name="page405"></a>(p. 405)</span> evolutions. Dewey would be
+ready when action should become necessary. On April 24th the British
+authorities notified the American commander that he must quit Hong
+Kong within twenty-four hours. Dewey moved his squadron to Mirs Bay
+immediately. At six o'clock on the evening of April 25th, he received
+the following despatch:</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+
+<p class="right">
+  "<span class="smcap">Washington</span>, April 24, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>"Dewey, Hong Kong:</p>
+
+<p>"War has commenced between the United States and Spain. Proceed at
+once to the Philippine Islands. Commence operations at once,
+particularly against the Spanish fleet. You must capture vessels or
+destroy. Use utmost endeavors.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap">Long</span>."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These orders were all sufficient for Dewey. Even without them he had
+no alternative. Obliged to leave British, he would soon be debarred
+from Chinese, waters; he was nearly 8,000 miles from a home-port, and
+Honolulu, his nearest coaling station, was 6,000 miles away.</p>
+
+<p>The following day was spent in consultation with his commanders in
+final preparation for his campaign, and waiting for the arrival from
+Manila of Williams, the American Consul, until the evening of the
+27th, when at two o'clock he sailed out of Mirs Bay to find the fleet
+of Spain. Proceeding across the China Sea, the squadron sighted Cape
+Bolinas one hundred and fifteen miles north of the entrance to Manila
+Bay, at 3.30 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, on Saturday, April 30th. About thirty miles north
+of the entrance, a conference of commanders was held. Dewey announced
+his plans. Rumors of mines and torpedoes had no terrors for Dewey,
+and, steaming slowly into Manila Bay, his squadron passed between
+Corregidor and Caballos about midnight.</p>
+
+<p>They arrived opposite Cavite about five o'clock, and, as daylight
+increased, the Spanish fleet could be seen in the harbor. This fleet,
+under Admiral Montejo, comprised ten vessels, viz.: The Reina Maria
+Cristina, a protected cruiser of 3,520 tons; the Castilla, a wooden
+cruiser of 3,340 tons; the Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don Juan de Austria,
+and Velasco, steel cruisers of 1,152 tons each; the Isla de Luzon and
+Isla de Cuba, gunboats of 1,040 tons each; the General Lezo and El
+Correo, gun vessels of 524 tons each; and the Marques del Duero,
+despatch-boat of 500 tons; besides tugs, transports, and launches, the
+latter used as torpedo-boats. There was no armored vessel in this
+fleet.</p>
+
+<p>Though counting more fighting vessels, the Spanish fleet was inferior
+to the American squadron in size and armament. The Spanish vessels
+mounted 116 guns, the American 135. But the Spanish fleet was
+protected by land batteries and forts armed with modern guns. The
+Spaniards were, therefore, much superior to the Americans in force and
+armament.</p>
+
+<p>At ten minutes past five the battle began, the Spaniards opening fire
+from ships and forts, at a distance of more than four miles. Two great
+mines were exploded in the path of the Olympia, but too far away to
+cause damage.</p>
+
+<p>At twenty-three minutes past five Dewey said to Captain Gridley: "You
+may fire when ready." Almost instantly an eight-inch gun roared out
+American <span class="pagenum"><a id="page406" name="page406"></a>(p. 406)</span> defiance. As with one voice the blue-jackets of the
+squadron gave forth the American war-cry, "Remember the Maine!" and
+the battle was on.</p>
+
+<p>The Castilla lay moored head and stern under the protection of the
+guns, and surrounded by barges, which made it impossible to strike her
+below the water-line. The Reina Cristina, Admiral Montejo's flag-ship,
+and the other vessels of his fleet moved out to the battle protected
+by the forts and batteries. The Olympia in the lead, followed by the
+other vessels of the American squadron, headed straight for the centre
+of the Spanish line; then changing course, ran parallel to the Spanish
+line at a distance of four thousand yards. After passing the Spanish
+position the American squadron turned and again passed the Spanish
+line, decreasing the distance. The Spaniards were in strong position
+and fighting with consummate courage, but it soon became apparent that
+nothing could withstand the effects of American gunnery. Still, the
+Spaniards, knowing the exact distance of our vessels, were doing some
+damage. Early in the battle a shot struck and passed clean through the
+Baltimore, and another disabled a six-inch gun and exploded a box of
+ammunition, wounding eight men but killing no one. The Olympia was
+struck by a shell which, exploding outside, did little damage, and the
+signal halyards were cut out of the flag-officer's hands. The lines
+were immediately replaced by a blue-jacket. The Boston was struck by
+three shells, one starting a fire in a stateroom and another in the
+hammock-netting, while a third passed through the foremast near
+Captain Wildes. The squadron passed four times before the enemy,
+slightly decreasing the distance on each run, and on the fifth,
+believing that the depth of water was greater than he had supposed,
+Dewey took the Olympia closer, until on this last run he was within
+two thousand yards of the enemy. The Spaniards were suffering terribly
+and fought with courage and desperation. Admiral Montejo on the Reina
+Cristina sallied forth alone and made straight for the Olympia at full
+speed, but the concentrated fire of the whole American squadron drove
+him back to the protection of the breakwater, and as the flag-ship
+sped away, a shell from the Olympia struck her, passed through her
+entire length, and set her on fire.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Cadarso was mortally wounded. Admiral Montejo in an open boat
+transferred his flag to the gunboat Isla de Cuba. The Castilla was
+repeatedly hit and was soon burning fiercely. The Don Juan de Austria
+was blown up by a shell entering the magazine. The other Spanish
+vessels and all the forts and batteries maintained a terrific firing.
+The heavy guns of Manila took part in the fight until Dewey sent a
+message to Governor-General Augusti, that unless they were immediately
+silenced he would shell the city. The message had its effect. Two
+small launches or torpedo-boats started out from the Castilla, headed
+for the Olympia, but the danger to her was averted by the concentrated
+fire of the squadron, and they hasted in their backward flight. A
+shell struck and sank one; the other was disabled. A Spanish gunboat
+slipping out of line made for the McCulloch, lying off with the
+transports, but nothing escaped the eagle eye on the bridge of the
+Olympia, and a hail of shells sent the adventurer scurrying back to
+cover.</p>
+
+<a id="img057" name="img057"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="400" height="501" alt="" title="">
+<p>The Dewey triumphal Arch.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page407" name="page407"></a>(p. 407)</span> It was half-past seven; the battle had raged incessantly for
+two hours, during which Commodore Dewey with his flag-officer had
+remained exposed on the bridge of the Olympia. The men had been
+undergoing a constant strain for twenty-four hours and had been served
+only with coffee, so at a quarter before eight the Olympia ceased
+firing, and the Commodore ordered the squadron to retire. It was time
+for "Dewey's Breakfast."</p>
+
+<p>When the marvellous news was signalled from ship to ship: "No damage,
+not a man killed," the joy and enthusiasm was unbounded.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Admiral, not comprehending the meaning of the American
+withdrawal, wired to Madrid a report of a wonderful victory. The
+Minister of Marine replied with fulsome compliments. This was the last
+news sent out of Manila by cable, and for a week the American people
+were in painful suspense.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime a sumptuous breakfast was served aboard the American
+squadron and a conference of commanders held. The two functions
+consumed more than three hours, and at a quarter after eleven the
+battle was renewed. The big guns at Cavite were hard at work, and the
+Baltimore was ordered to silence them. This she speedily accomplished,
+destroying the entire battery. The Olympia and other ships soon took
+part, and in an hour nothing was left of the Spanish fleet except
+sunken and burning hulks. More than a thousand of the enemy were
+killed and drowned and six hundred wounded. At half-past twelve the
+Americans ceased to fire, and at twelve-forty the Spanish flag was
+lowered and the white flag of surrender took its place.</p>
+
+<p>Commodore Dewey immediately requested Governor-General Augusti to
+allow him to cable to Washington. On the Governor-General's refusal
+the Commodore promptly cut the cable to Hong Kong. The only means of
+communication left to him was by despatch-boat to Hong Kong, but he
+was unable to start the McCulloch for several days, when he sent two
+despatches, one penned on the day of battle, the other on May 4th.
+These two telegrams, announcing what Captain Mahan has characterized
+as "the greatest naval victory recorded in history," reached Hong Kong
+on the 8th of May, one week after the battle, and were received in
+Washington on the same evening. The intense anxiety which had pervaded
+America and the whole English-speaking world, from the day Dewey
+sailed from Mirs Bay, was changed to enthusiasm and gratification.
+These two despatches, which will go down in history alongside Perry's
+from Lake Erie, formed the clearest and most concise account of the
+Battle of Manila and its immediate results.</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>The first despatch: "May 1st.&mdash;Squadron arrived at Manila at daybreak
+this morning. Immediately engaged the enemy and destroyed the
+following vessels: Reina Cristina, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa,
+Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marques del Duero, Correo,
+Velasco, Isla de Mindanao, a transport and a water battery. The
+squadron is uninjured, and only a few men are slightly wounded. Only
+means of telegraphing is to American Consul at Hong Kong. Shall
+communicate with him.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap">Dewey</span>."</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page408" name="page408"></a>(p. 408)</span> The second despatch: "Cavite, May 4th.&mdash;I have taken
+possession of naval station at Cavite on Philippine Islands. Have
+destroyed the fortifications at bay entrance, paroling garrison. I
+control bay completely and can take city at any time. The squadron is
+in excellent health and spirits. The Spanish loss not fully known, but
+very heavy; one hundred and fifty killed, including captain of Reina
+Cristina. Am assisting in protecting Spanish sick and wounded; two
+hundred and fifty sick and wounded in hospitals within our lines. Much
+excitement at Manila. Will protect foreign residents.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  <span class="smcap">Dewey</span>."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cavite in his possession, Dewey now entered upon the most difficult
+part of his enterprise. Although to take possession of Manila would be
+comparatively easy, to hold it with his force would be another matter.
+He had to cope with Spanish deceit and Malay craft, with the
+ill-concealed antagonism of the German and the unexpressed jealousy of
+Japan. Not knowing when to expect another Spanish fleet, he was
+obliged to force the representative of Germany to observe the decorum
+and etiquette demanded by the situation. Hence the friction with Von
+Diederich, when Dewey demanded to know whether his country and ours
+were at war, for if so, he was ready to do his part of the fighting.
+By July 31st troops in sufficient numbers, under General Merritt, had
+arrived; and on August 13th the city was assaulted and surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>The grade of Admiral has been revived by Congress and bestowed upon
+Dewey. Never was enacted a more dramatic scene in the House of
+Representatives than that when Mr. Moody of Massachusetts, fearing
+that in the hurry of the latter days of the Fifty-fifth Congress the
+bill passed by the Senate might be overlooked, offered it as a new
+section of the Naval Appropriation Bill then under consideration. The
+suggestion was received with bursts of applause and acted upon
+immediately. A few days afterward the senate bill was passed by the
+House.</p>
+
+<p>Only twice before has the grade of Admiral been conferred on an
+officer of the United States Navy. Farragut and Porter earned it by
+their work in the Civil War. Numerous as are the heroes of our naval
+history, none surpass Dewey, and the country is grateful to the
+President and Congress that his worth has been recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The fighting in the Philippines is not over, and Dewey remains to
+secure the territory won by his fearless entry into Manila Bay and the
+magnificent plan of battle that made him victorious on that first May
+morning of 1898.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="sig010" name="sig010"></a>
+<div class="right">
+<img src="images/sig010.jpg" width="150" height="78" alt="Author signature." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 1:</strong> It was the evening succeeding this battle of Leuthen that
+Frederick, himself leading the advance after the flying Austrians,
+entered the little town of Lissa, where a body of the enemy, never
+dreaming the pursuit could reach so far, were resting for the night.
+Frederick was as surprised as they when, on entering a room of the
+principal inn, he found it filled with Austrian officers. He had but a
+handful of troops with him, and, had his enemies known it, was their
+prisoner. But with the utmost coolness he saluted them, "Good-evening,
+gentlemen. Is there still room for me, think you?" Whereon the
+frightened Austrians, thinking themselves surrounded by the whole
+Prussian army, decamped in wild haste, and getting their troops
+together as they could, fled from the dangerous neighborhood.<a href="#footnotetag1"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 2:</strong> This battle of Torgau, Frederick planned to win by a
+flank attack; but the flanking column was delayed in its march, and at
+evening the king found himself everywhere beaten back. His last chance
+of success against his many opponents seemed lost: and he spent the
+night seated in the church at Elsnig, in such mood as may be imagined.
+During the night the flanking column at last arrived, fell on the
+enemy, and crushed them. This was the last of Frederick's great
+battles.<a href="#footnotetag2"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 3:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag3"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 4:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag4"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 5:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag5"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 6:</strong> Copyright 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag6"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 7:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag7"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 8:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag8"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 9:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag9"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 10:</strong> A Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag10"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 11:</strong> Copied, with the kind permission of the publisher, G. W.
+Dillingham, from John Esten Cooke's Life of Lee.<a href="#footnotetag11"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote12" name="footnote12"></a>
+<strong>Footnote 12:</strong> Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.<a href="#footnotetag12"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,11332 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8
+       A series of pen and pencil sketches of the lives of more
+       than 200 of the most prominent personages in History
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Charles F. Horne
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26422]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT MEN, FAMOUS WOMEN, VOL. 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine P. Travers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Captions marked with [TN] and the table of contents have been added
+while producing this file.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Repulsed at Torgau--Frederick waiting for morning.]
+
+
+
+
+GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN
+
+
+_A Series of Pen and Pencil Sketches of_
+
+THE LIVES OF MORE THAN 200 OF THE MOST PROMINENT PERSONAGES IN HISTORY
+
+
+VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1894, BY SELMAR HESS
+
+edited by Charles F. Horne
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's arm.]
+
+New-York: Selmar Hess Publisher
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
+
+
+  SUBJECT                          AUTHOR                         PAGE
+
+  CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN,     _General John Mitchell,_             211
+  ROBERT, LORD CLIVE,         _W. C. Taylor, LL.D.,_               244
+  STEPHEN DECATUR,            _Edward S. Ellis, A.M.,_             318
+  GEORGE DEWEY,               _Major-General Joseph Wheeler,_      402
+  PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY,     _G. P. R. James,_                    223
+  DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT,     _L. P. Brockett, A.M.,_              379
+  FREDERICK THE GREAT,        _Major-General John Mitchell,_       237
+  GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI,                                              389
+  ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT,      _Oliver Optic,_                      343
+  SAM HOUSTON,                _Amelia E. Barr,_                    331
+  THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON,    _Marion Harland,_                    373
+  PAUL JONES,                                                      301
+  FRANCOIS KELLERMANN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE,                          251
+  JAMES LAWRENCE,                                                  313
+  ROBERT EDMUND LEE,          _General Viscount Wolseley,_         363
+  Letter from Lee to his son on the subject of "Duty,"             372
+  FRANCIS MARION,                                                  296
+  JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH,  _L. Drake,_                          217
+  FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT VON MOLTKE,                                  395
+  NAPOLEON BONAPARTE,         _Colonel Clayton, R.A.,_             262
+  LORD HORATIO NELSON,                                             279
+  MICHEL NEY, MARSHAL OF FRANCE,
+                              _Louise Chandler Moulton,_           255
+  OLIVER HAZARD PERRY,                                             325
+  DAVID DIXON PORTER,                                              387
+  ISRAEL PUTNAM,                                                   284
+  WINFIELD SCOTT,             _Hon. Theodore Roosevelt,_           338
+  PHILIP HENRY SHERIDAN,                                           358
+  WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN,   _Elbridge S. Brooks,_                352
+  TECUMSEH,                   _James A. Green,_                    308
+  MARSHAL TURENNE,                                                 205
+  ANTHONY WAYNE,              _O. C. Bosbyshell,_                  289
+  ARTHUR, DUKE OF WELLINGTON, _L. Drake,_                          272
+  GENERAL JAMES WOLFE,        _L. Drake,_                          231
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+
+PHOTOGRAVURES
+
+  ILLUSTRATION                               ARTIST            TO FACE
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+  REPULSED AT TORGAU--FREDERICK
+    WAITING FOR MORNING,                _R. Warthmueller_  Frontispiece
+  THE MARSEILLAISE,                     _Gustave Dore_             252
+  NAPOLEON AND THE SPHINX,              _Jean Leon Gerome_         264
+  SHERIDAN'S RIDE,                      _T. Buchanan Read_         362
+  FARRAGUT AT MOBILE BAY,               _W. H. Overend_            386
+  ADMIRAL DEWEY AT MANILA
+    BAY,                                _H. T. See_                402
+  THE DEWEY TRIUMPHAL ARCH,                                        406
+
+
+WOOD-ENGRAVINGS AND TYPOGRAVURES.
+
+
+  TURENNE AT THE BATTLE OF THE DUNES,   _Lariviere_                208
+  CHARLES XII. AND AN UNWILLING
+    RECRUIT,                            _Thure von Cederstroem_     212
+  PRINCE EUGENE AND THE MARSHAL DE
+    VILLARS,                            _P. Philippoteaux_         226
+  GENERAL WOLFE LANDING AT LOUISBURG,   _Wild_                     232
+  FREDERICK AND THE AUSTRIANS AFTER
+    LEUTHEN,                            _A. Kampf_                 242
+  MARSHAL NEY RETURNING THE CAPTURED
+    COLORS,                             _Meynier_                  256
+  A REVIEW OF THE BRITISH ARMY BY WELLINGTON,                      274
+  NELSON AT TRAFALGAR,                  _W. H. Overend_            282
+  MARION CROSSING THE PEDEE,            _W. Ranney_                300
+  PAUL JONES AND LADY SELKIRK,          _W. H. Overend_            304
+  TECUMSEH DEFENDS THE WHITES AT FORT
+    MEIGS,                              _Chapin_                   310
+  "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP,"             _Alonzo Chappel_           316
+  DECATUR'S CONFLICT WITH THE ALGERINE
+    AT TRIPOLI                          _Alonzo Chappel_           322
+  JACKSON AT CHANCELLORSVILLE,          _A. R. Ward_               378
+  MEETING OF VICTOR EMMANUEL AND
+    GARIBALDI,                          _C. Ademollo_              394
+  MOLTKE AT VERSAILLES, 1870,           _Anton von Werner_         400
+  ADMIRAL DEWEY LOVING CUP,                                        404
+
+
+
+
+MARSHAL TURENNE
+
+(1611-1675)
+
+[Illustration: Turenne. [TN]]
+
+
+Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne, esteemed, after
+Napoleon, the greatest of French generals, was born September 16,
+1611. He was the second son of the Duc de Bouillon, Prince of Sedan,
+and of Elizabeth of Nassau, daughter of the celebrated William of
+Orange, to whose courage and talents the Netherlands mainly owed their
+deliverance from Spain. Both parents being zealous Calvinists, Turenne
+was of course brought up in the same faith. Soon after his father's
+death, the duchess sent him, when he was not yet thirteen years old,
+into the Low Countries, to learn the art of war under his uncle,
+Maurice of Nassau, who commanded the troops of Holland in the
+protracted struggle between that country and Spain. Maurice held that
+there was no royal road to military skill, and placed his young
+relation in the ranks, as a volunteer, where for some time he served,
+enduring all hardships to which the common soldiers were exposed. In
+his second campaign he was promoted to the command of a company, which
+he retained for four years, distinguished by the admirable discipline
+of his men, by unceasing attention to the due performance of his own
+duty, and by his eagerness to witness, and become thoroughly
+acquainted with, every branch of service. In the year 1630, family
+circumstances rendered it expedient that he should return to France,
+where the Court received him with distinction, and invested him with
+the command of a regiment.
+
+Four years elapsed before Turenne had an opportunity of distinguishing
+himself in the service of his native country. His first laurels were
+reaped in 1634, at the siege of the strong fortress of La Motte, in
+Lorraine, where he headed the assault, and, by his skill and bravery,
+mainly contributed to its success. For this exploit he was raised, at
+the early stage of twenty-three, to the rank of Marechal de Camp, the
+second grade of military rank in France. In the following year, the
+breaking out of war between France and Austria opened a wider field of
+action. Turenne held a subordinate command in the army, which, under
+the Cardinal de la Valette, marched into Germany to support the
+Swedes, commanded by the Duke of Weimar. At first fortune smiled on
+the allies; but, ere long, scarcity of provisions compelled them to a
+disastrous retreat over a ruined country, in the face of the enemy. On
+this occasion the young soldier's ability and disinterestedness were
+equally conspicuous. He sold his plate and equipage for the use of the
+army; threw away his baggage to load the wagons with those stragglers
+who must otherwise have been abandoned; and marched on foot, while he
+gave up his own horse to the relief of one who had fallen, exhausted
+by hunger and fatigue. These are the acts which win the attachment of
+soldiers, and Turenne was idolized by his.
+
+Our limits will not allow of the relation of those campaigns in which
+the subject of this memoir filled a subordinate part. In 1637-38 he
+again served under La Valette, in Flanders and Germany, after which he
+was made Lieutenant-general, a rank not previously existing in France.
+The three following years he was employed in Italy and Savoy, and in
+1642 made a campaign in Roussillon, under the eye of Louis XIII. In
+the spring of 1643 the king died; and in the autumn of the same year
+Turenne received from the queen-mother and regent, Anne of Austria, a
+marshal's baton, the appropriate reward of his long and brilliant
+services. Four years a captain, four a colonel, three Marechal de
+Camp, five lieutenant-general, he had served in all stations from the
+ranks upward, and distinguished himself in them not only by military
+talent, but by strict honor and trustworthiness; rare virtues in those
+turbulent times, when men were familiar with civil war, and the great
+nobility were too powerful to be peaceful subjects.
+
+Soon after his promotion he was sent to Germany, to collect and
+reorganize the French army, which had been roughly handled at
+Duttlingen. It wanted rest, men, and money, and he settled it in good
+quarters, raised recruits, and pledged his own credit for the
+necessary sums. The effects of his exertions were soon seen. He
+arrived in Alsace, December, 1643, and in the following May was at the
+head of 10,000 men, well armed and equipped, with whom he felt strong
+enough to attack the Imperial army, and raise the siege of Fribourg.
+At that moment the glory which he hoped for, and was entitled to
+obtain, as the reward of five months' labor, was snatched from him by
+the arrival of the celebrated Prince de Conde, at that time Duc
+d'Enghien, to assume the command. The vexation which Turenne must have
+felt was increased by the difference of age (for the prince was ten
+years his junior), and of personal character. Conde was ardent and
+impetuous, and flushed by his brilliant victory at Rocroi the year
+before; Turenne, cool, calculating, and cautious, unwearied in
+preparing a certainty of success beforehand, yet prompt in striking
+when the decisive moment was come. The difference of their characters
+was exemplified upon this occasion. Merci, the Austrian commander, had
+taken up a strong position, which Turenne said could not be forced;
+but at the same time pointed out the means of turning it. Conde
+differed from him, and the second in command was obliged to submit. On
+two successive days two bloody and unsuccessful assaults were made;
+on the third Turenne's advice was taken, and on the first
+demonstration of this change of plan Merci retreated. In the following
+year, ill supplied with everything, and forced to separate his troops
+widely to obtain subsistence, Turenne was attacked at Mariendal, and
+worsted by his old antagonist, Merci. This, his first defeat, he felt
+severely; still he retained his position, and was again ready to meet
+the enemy, when he received positive orders from Mazarin to undertake
+nothing before the arrival of Conde. Zealous for his country and
+careless of personal slights, he marched without complaint under the
+command of his rival; and his magnanimity was rewarded at the battle
+of Nordlingen, in 1645, where the centre and right wing having failed
+in their attack, Turenne, with the left wing, broke the enemy's right,
+and falling on his centre in flank, threw it into utter confusion. For
+this service he received the most cordial and ample acknowledgments
+from Conde, both on the field and in his despatches to the Queen
+Regent. Soon after, Conde, who was wounded in the battle, resigned his
+command into the hands of Turenne. The following campaigns of
+1646-47-48 exhibited a series of successes, by means of which he drove
+the Duke of Bavaria from his dominions, and reduced the emperor to
+seek for peace. This was concluded at Munster in 1648, and to
+Turenne's exertions the termination of the Thirty Years' War is mainly
+to be ascribed.
+
+The repose of France was soon broken by civil war. Mazarin's
+administration, oppressive in all respects, but especially in fiscal
+matters, had produced no small discontent throughout the country, and
+especially in Paris, where the Parliament openly espoused the cause of
+the people against the minister, and was joined by several of the
+highest nobility, urged by various motives of private interest or
+personal pique. Among these were the Prince of Conti, the Duc de
+Longueville, and the Duc de Bouillon. Mazarin, in alarm, endeavored to
+enlist the ambition of Turenne in his favor, by offering the
+government of Alsace, and the hand of his own niece, as the price of
+his adherence to the Court. The viscount, pressed by both parties,
+avoided declaring his adhesion to either; but he unequivocally
+expressed his disapprobation of the cardinal's proceedings, and, being
+superseded in his command, retired peaceably to Holland. There he
+remained till the convention of Ruel effected a hollow and insincere
+reconciliation between the Court and one of the jarring parties of
+which the Fronde was composed. That reconciliation was soon broken by
+the sudden arrest of Conde, Conti, and the Duc de Longueville. Turenne
+then threw himself into the arms of the Fronde, and, at the head of
+eight thousand men, found himself obliged to encounter the royal army,
+twenty thousand strong. In the battle which ensued, he distinguished
+his personal bravery in several desperate charges; but the disparity
+was too great; and this defeat of Rhetel was of serious consequence to
+the Fronde party. Convinced at last that his true interest lay rather
+on the side of the Court, then managed by a woman and a priest, where
+he might be supreme in military matters, than in supporting the cause
+of an impetuous and self-willed leader, such as Conde, Turenne gladly
+listened to overtures of accommodation, and passed over to the support
+of the regency.
+
+The value of his services was soon made evident. Twice, at the head of
+very inferior troops, he checked Conde in the career of victory; and
+again compelled him to fight under the walls of Paris; where, in the
+celebrated battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine, the prince and his army
+narrowly escaped destruction. Finally, he re-established the Court at
+Paris, and compelled Conde to quit the realm. These important events
+took place in one campaign of six months in 1652.
+
+In 1654 he again took the field against his former friend and
+commander, Conde, who had taken refuge in Spain, and now led a foreign
+army against his country. The most remarkable operation of the
+campaign was the raising the siege of Arras, which the Spaniards had
+invested, according to the most approved fashion of the day, with a
+strong double line of circumvallation, within which the besieging army
+was supposed to be securely sheltered against the sallies of the
+garrison cooped up within, and the efforts of their friends from
+without. Turenne marched to the relief of the place. This could only
+be effected by forcing the enemy's entrenchments; which were
+accordingly attacked, contrary to the opinion of his own officers, and
+carried at all points, despite the personal exertions of Conde. The
+Spaniards were forced to retreat. It is remarkable that Turenne, not
+long after, was himself defeated in precisely similar circumstances,
+under the walls of Valenciennes, round which he had drawn lines of
+circumvallation. Once more he found himself in the same position at
+Dunkirk. On this occasion he marched out of his lines to meet the
+enemy, rather than wait, and suffer them to choose their point of
+attack; and the celebrated battle of the Dunes, or Sandhills, ensued,
+in which he gained a brilliant victory over the best Spanish troops,
+with Conde at their head. This took place in 1657. Dunkirk and the
+greater part of Flanders fell into the hands of the French in
+consequence; and these successes led to the treaty of the Pyrenees,
+which terminated the war in 1658.
+
+When war broke out afresh between France and Spain, in 1667, Louis
+XIV. made his first campaign under Turenne's guidance, and gained
+possession of nearly the whole of Flanders. In 1672, when Louis
+resolved to undertake in person the conquest of Holland, he again
+placed the command, under himself, in Turenne's hands, and disgraced
+several marshals who refused to receive orders from the viscount,
+considering themselves his equals in military rank. How Le Grand
+Monarque forced the passage of the Rhine when there was no army to
+oppose him, and conquered city after city, till he was stopped by
+inundations, under the walls of Amsterdam, has been said and sung by
+his flatterers, and need not be repeated here. But after the king had
+left the army, when the princes of Germany came to the assistance of
+Holland, and her affairs took a more favorable turn under the able
+guidance of the Prince of Orange, a wider field was offered for the
+display of Turenne's talents. In the campaign of 1673 he drove the
+Elector of Brandenburg, who had come to the assistance of the Dutch,
+back to Berlin, and compelled him to negotiate for peace. In the same
+year he was opposed, for the first time, to the imperial general,
+Montecuculi, celebrated for his military writings as well as for his
+exploits in the field. The meeting of these two great generals
+produced no decisive results.
+
+[Illustration: Turenne at the battle of the Dunes.]
+
+Turenne returned to Paris in the winter, and was received with the
+most flattering marks of favor. On the approach of spring he was sent
+back to take command of the French army in Alsace, which, amounting to
+no more than ten thousand men, was pressed by a powerful confederation
+of the troops of the Empire, and those of Brandenburg, once again in
+the field. Turenne set himself to beat the allies in detail, before
+they could form a junction. He passed the Rhine, marched forty French
+leagues in four days, and came up with the Imperialists, under the
+Duke of Lorraine, at Sintzheim. They occupied a strong position, their
+wings resting on mountains; their centre protected by a river and a
+fortified town. Turenne hesitated: it seemed rash to attack; but a
+victory was needful before the combination of the two armies should
+render their force irresistible; and he commanded the best troops of
+France. The event justified his confidence. Every post was carried
+sword in hand. The Marshal had his horse killed under him, and was
+slightly wounded. To the officers, who crowded round him with
+congratulations, he replied, with one of those short and happy
+speeches which tell upon an army more than the most labored harangues,
+"With troops like you, gentlemen, a man ought to attack boldly, for he
+is sure to conquer." The beaten army fell back behind the Neckar,
+where they effected a junction with the troops of Brandenburg; but
+they dared attempt nothing further, and left the Palatinate in the
+quiet possession of Turenne. Under his eye, and, as it appears from
+his own letters, at his express recommendation, as a matter of policy,
+that wretched country was laid waste to a deplorable extent. This
+transaction went far beyond the ordinary license of war, and excited
+general indignation even in that unscrupulous age. It will ever be
+remembered as a foul stain upon the character of the general who
+executed, and of the king and minister who ordered or consented to it.
+
+Having carried fire and sword through that part of the Palatinate
+which lay upon the right or German bank of the Rhine, he crossed that
+river. But the Imperial troops, reinforced by the Saxons and Hessians
+to the amount of sixty thousand men, pressed him hard; and it seemed
+impossible to keep the field against so great a disparity of force;
+his own troops not amounting to more than twenty thousand. He
+retreated into Lorraine, abandoning the fertile plains of Alsace to
+the enemy, led his army behind the Vosges Mountains, and crossing them
+by unfrequented routes, surprised the enemy at Colmar, beat him at
+Mulhausen and Turkheim, and forced him to recross the Rhine. This is
+esteemed the most brilliant of Turenne's campaigns, and it was
+conceived and conducted with the greater boldness, being in opposition
+to the orders of Louvois. "I know," he wrote to that minister, in
+remonstrating, and indeed refusing to follow his directions, "I know
+the strength of the Imperialists, their generals, and the country in
+which we are. I take all upon myself, and charge myself with whatever
+may occur."
+
+Returning to Paris at the end of the campaign, his journey through
+France resembled a triumphal progress; such was the popular enthusiasm
+in his favor. Not less flattering was his reception by the king, whose
+undeviating regard and confidence, undimmed by jealousy or envy, is
+creditable alike to the monarch and to his faithful subject. At this
+time Turenne, it is said, had serious thoughts of retiring to a
+convent, and was induced only by the earnest remonstrances of the
+king, and his representations of the critical state of France, to
+resume his command. Returning to the Upper Rhine, he was again opposed
+to Montecuculi. For two months the resources and well-matched skill of
+the rival captains were displayed in a series of marches and
+countermarches, in which every movement was so well foreseen and
+guarded against, that no opportunity occurred for coming to action
+with advantage to either side. At last the art of Turenne appeared to
+prevail; when, not many minutes after he had expressed the full belief
+that victory was within his grasp, a cannon-ball struck him while
+engaged in reconnoitring the enemy's position, previous to giving
+battle, and he fell dead from his horse, July 27, 1675. The same shot
+carried off the arm of St. Hilaire, commander-in-chief of the
+artillery. "Weep not for me," said the brave soldier to his son; "it
+is for that great man that we ought to weep."
+
+His subordinates possessed neither the talents requisite to follow up
+his plans, nor the confidence of the troops, who perceived their
+hesitation, and were eager to avenge the death of their beloved
+general. "Loose the piebald," so they named Turenne's horse, was the
+cry; "he will lead us on." But those on whom the command devolved
+thought of anything rather than of attacking the enemy; and after
+holding a hurried council of war, retreated in all haste across the
+Rhine.
+
+The Swabian peasants let the spot where he fell lie fallow for many
+years, and carefully preserved a tree under which he had been sitting
+just before. Strange that the people who had suffered so much at his
+hands should regard his memory with such respect!
+
+The character of Turenne was more remarkable for solidity than for
+brilliancy. Many generals may have been better qualified to complete a
+campaign by one decisive blow; few probably have laid the scheme of a
+campaign with more judgment, or shown more skill and patience in
+carrying their plans into effect. And it is remarkable that, contrary
+to general experience, he became much more enterprising in advanced
+years than he had been in youth. Of that impetuous spirit, which
+sometimes carries men to success where caution would have hesitated
+and failed, he possessed little. In his earlier years he seldom
+ventured to give battle, except where victory was nearly certain; but
+a course of victory inspired confidence, and trained by long practice
+to distinguish the difficult from the impossible, he adopted in his
+later campaigns a bolder style of tactics than had seemed congenial to
+his original temper. In this respect he offered a remarkable contrast
+to his rival in fame, Conde, who, celebrated in early life for the
+headlong valor, even to rashness, of his enterprises, became in old
+age prudent almost to timidity. Equally calm in success or in defeat,
+Turenne was always ready to prosecute the one, or to repair the other.
+And he carried the same temper into private life, where he was
+distinguished for the dignity with which he avoided quarrels, under
+circumstances in which lesser men would have found it hard to do so,
+without incurring the reproach of cowardice. Nor must we pass over his
+thorough honesty and disinterestedness in pecuniary matters; a quality
+more rare in a great man then than it is now.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN
+
+By GENERAL JOHN MITCHELL
+
+(1682-1718)
+
+[Illustration: Charles XII. [TN]]
+
+
+Charles XII., against whom it has been made a fault that he carried
+virtues to extremes, was born at Stockholm, on June 27, 1682, during a
+storm that
+
+  "Rived the mighty oak, and made
+   The ambitious ocean swell, and rage, and foam,
+   To be exalted with the threatening clouds."
+
+Astrologers observed that the star called the "Lion's Heart"
+predominated at his nativity, and that the "Fox" was on the
+decline--omens and prodigies well suited to announce the birth of a
+prince who was himself a living tempest. Charles's infancy has nothing
+very remarkable. His education was strictly attended to, and he proved
+an attentive scholar. He acquired considerable knowledge of history,
+geography, mathematics, and the military sciences, and became
+perfectly familiar with several languages, though he never, after his
+accession to the throne, spoke any but Latin, Swedish, or German. The
+gallant Charles Stewart, the same who afterward led the king across
+the Duna, was his instructor in the art of war, and is said to have
+communicated to the young prince much of the fiery spirit for which he
+was himself distinguished. In his fifteenth year Charles ascended the
+throne, and, contrary to usual assertion, already evinced considerable
+ability and application to business, though no particular predilection
+for military affairs, unless his bear-hunting expeditions may be so
+considered, for they were more than "faint images of war," being
+attended with great danger. No arms were used in these encounters; the
+sportsman was provided only with a single doubly-pointed stick and a
+cast-net, like the one perhaps, used by the ancient gladiators. The
+object of these fierce combats was to capture and bind the bear, and
+to carry him in triumph from the scene of action! Charles was, it
+seems, a great proficient in this dangerous sport.
+
+At the age of eighteen Charles was obliged to take the field against
+the four greatest powers of the North. Forced to contend with small
+means against vastly superior foes, he made genius and courage supply
+the place of numbers. Heroism was never more nobly displayed than by
+this gallant monarch and his followers. What men could do was done.
+For nine years he triumphed over constantly augmenting enemies. And
+when the "unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain" fell at last,
+crushed by the weight of masses, fortune more than shared with his
+innumerable adversaries the honor of his overthrow.
+
+It was during the Polish campaign of 1703 that Max Emanuel of
+Wirtemberg, then only fourteen years of age, joined Charles. When
+introduced, the king asked him whether he wished to go to Stockholm
+for a time, or to remain with the army. The prince, of course,
+preferred the latter. "Well, then," said Charles, "I will bring you up
+in my own way," and immediately placed the boy, tired as he was from
+his journey, on horseback, and led him a long and fatiguing ride. From
+this period to the battle of Pultowa, Max continued to be his constant
+companion, shared his dangers, and attended him in all his adventures,
+many of which border almost on the fabulous. The affectionate kindness
+evinced by Charles toward his pupil could not be surpassed. When the
+boy, as sometimes happened, was worn down by sickness and fatigue, the
+monarch attended him with parental care; and when on one occasion he
+fell speechless from his horse, and his recovery was despaired of, the
+king never left his couch till he was pronounced out of danger.
+
+The adventures they encountered together were endless. On inspecting
+the regiments before the opening of the campaign of 1706, they rode
+five hundred miles in six days, were never in bed, and hardly ever out
+of the saddle, and frequently reduced to milk and water as their only
+nourishment--
+
+  "Alike to Charles was tide or time,
+   Moonless midnight or matin prime."
+
+Having on another occasion lost their road and escort during a stormy
+night, they arrived in the midst of a tempest before the town of
+Tousha. Neither calling nor firing brought any one to the gates. The
+king at last dismounted and sought for an entrance, while the prince
+held the horses in the pelting rain. An entrance having at last been
+discovered, they took possession of a hut in which was a fire. The
+king threw himself, booted and spurred, on a bundle of straw, and fell
+fast asleep. The prince, less hardy, took off his boots, filled them
+with straw, and placed them by the fire. While sleeping, the flame
+caught and consumed the valuable gambodoes. The prince was next day
+obliged to get a pair of peasant's boots, in which he rode about for
+eight days; a proof that the princely wardrobe was but slenderly
+furnished.
+
+And yet the camp was not without its gayeties either; for while the
+head-quarters were wintering at Rawitcz, the town became the scene of
+great festivities; balls and parties succeeding each other as rapidly
+as battles had done before. Charles was usually present, was always
+very polite, but made only a short stay, and retired as soon as he
+could.
+
+[Illustration: Charles XII. and an unwilling recruit.]
+
+During the stay of the army in this place, a fire broke out and
+consumed several houses. The king flew to aid in extinguishing the
+flames. He ascended to the top of a house that was already on fire,
+and continued working till the building was sinking under him. He
+escaped with difficulty, was thrown down by one of the beams, and for
+a moment believed to be dead. "It was discovered two years afterward,"
+says Bardili, "that the place was set on fire by an incendiary bribed
+by Augustus II. to slay the king of Sweden in the confusion;" and a
+man actually came forward and denounced himself as the intended
+assassin, declaring that some unknown power had prevented him from
+stabbing the king when he got near his person. Charles said the man
+was mad, and sent him about his business. Napoleon would have sent him
+before a military commission and had him shot, as he caused the
+student at Schoenbrunn to be shot.
+
+We regret that we cannot give a sufficient account of the Duke of
+Marlborough's visit to Charles's head-quarters at Altranstadt; for
+what Voltaire says on the subject is but an idle fable. That the
+English general should easily have penetrated the views of the Swedish
+conqueror, which the latter took no pains to conceal, is sufficiently
+probable; but that the conversation between two such men should have
+turned principally on the king's large boots, which, as Voltaire says,
+Charles told Marlborough "he had not quitted for seven years," is of
+course a mere puerility. Besides, we find from Max's "Memoirs," that
+Charles was not so coarse in his dress as is usually represented, for
+his clothes were made of fine materials. He always wore a plain blue
+coat with gilt buttons, buff waistcoat and breeches, a black crape
+cravat, and a cocked hat; a waist-belt, and a long cut-and-thrust
+sword. He never disfigured himself by the full-bottomed wig of the
+period, but always wore his own brown hair, combed back from his
+forehead. His camp-bed consisted of a blue silk mattress, pillow and
+coverlid; materials that would have suited even a dandy guardsman.
+
+The invasion of Saxony occasioned great uneasiness at Vienna,
+Charles's arrival being considered alike dangerous to the Catholic
+states of the Empire and to the success of the Grand Alliance. It
+happened, under these unpleasant feelings, that at a party the Swedish
+Minister, Count Stralenghielm, proposed his master's health as a
+toast. An imperial chamberlain, a Count Zabor, a magnate of Hungary,
+refused to drink it, declaring that "no honest man ought to drink the
+health of the Turk, the devil, and of a third person." The Swede
+struck the offender, and swords were drawn; but the adversaries were
+of course separated. The ambassador demanded satisfaction for the
+insult; and Zabor was arrested, and sent in irons to Stettin, and
+delivered up to the Swedes. Charles instantly set him at liberty,
+simply desiring him to "be more guarded in his speeches for the
+future."
+
+The Saxon nobility (Ritterschaft, chivalry) having been taxed to aid
+in defraying the Swedish contributions, applied to Charles, claiming
+their privilege of exemption from all taxation, except that of
+furnishing horses for the chivalry engaged in defence of the country.
+"Had the Saxon chivalry," said Charles, "acted up to the duties to
+which they owe their privilege, I should not have been here."
+
+The King of Sweden left Saxony, and set out on his Russian expedition
+at the head of 43,000 men. Of these 8,000 remained in Poland; so that
+he undertook the march to Moscow with only 35,000--a force amounting
+to about one-fifteenth part of the army with which Napoleon set out on
+a similar expedition. The Russians followed the same system they
+afterward employed against the French, retiring and laving waste the
+country. The difficulties the Swedes had to encounter, in consequence
+of bad roads and want of provisions, are almost incredible. The
+soldiers were forced to contend, not only against the enemy, but
+against the localities also; roads for the advance of the army had to
+be opened through forests and morasses before the least progress could
+be made; and it often happened that a league a day was the greatest
+extent of march gained after immense toil. But nothing checked the
+ardor of these gallant soldiers. The Russians attempted to defend the
+passage of rivers and swamps that impeded the march of the foe. Their
+efforts were vain; no superiority of numbers, no strength of position,
+could arrest the indomitable valor of Charles and his troops. And the
+actions performed during this march would be deemed absolutely
+fabulous, were they not recorded on authority which cannot be doubted.
+
+During the severe winter of 1709, the army suffered dreadfully from
+want and cold. When, early in spring, the thaw set in, the whole of
+those flat countries were overflowed, and long marches had to be made
+through complete inundations, by which quantities of stores were lost,
+and the powder greatly damaged. It was, as we now find, in consequence
+of the losses thus sustained that Charles accepted Mazeppa's proposal
+of marching into the Ukraine. Finding his army too much weakened to
+penetrate further into Russia, and not wishing to fall back upon
+Livonia, which he thought would look like a retreat and encourage his
+enemies, he determined to march to the south, and there await the
+supplies and reinforcements which his generals were to bring up.
+
+The loss of the convoy which General Lewenhaupt was conducting to the
+army rendered further delay necessary, and obliged the king to
+undertake the siege of Pultowa, in order to gain a firm footing in the
+country, and to secure the supplies which the place contained. The
+Swedish battering-train was weak, the powder not only bad from having
+been frequently injured by the wet and dried again, but very scarce
+besides. Still, courage and energy were making progress, when, June
+27th, on his very birthday, Charles, in repulsing a sally, was struck
+by a musket-ball that entered his left foot, above the root of the
+toes, and went out at the heel. The king continued in the field for an
+hour afterward, giving his orders as usual; but when he retired to his
+quarters, the leg was so much swelled that the boot had to be cut off,
+and the wound had so unfavorable an appearance as greatly to alarm the
+attendants.
+
+Charles behaved heroically, as usual. He held his leg to the surgeon
+with his own hands, nor did a single groan escape him during the
+terrible operation which the cutting away of some of the fractured
+bones rendered necessary. At one time his life was despaired of, and
+a general panic seized the army, but though the wound proved decisive
+of his fate, the unhappy monarch had what may well be termed the
+misfortune to recover.
+
+The foe drew near. The Czar, well aware of the importance of Pultowa,
+advanced to its relief with an army of 80,000 men, besides 40,000
+irregulars, Kalmucks and Tartars. He brought 150 pieces of artillery
+along with him. Even with this vast superiority, and after the
+training of a nine years' war, the Russians did not venture to attack
+the Swedes, but drew closer and closer around them, till they began at
+last to intrench themselves within a league of the king's camp.
+Charles's illness gave them but too much leisure.
+
+A hostile fortress on one side, a hostile army on the other, nothing
+but a victory could save the Swedes; and on the morning of the 8th of
+July, only ten days after Charles had been wounded, they marched out
+to battle. Their whole army did not amount to 20,000 men, 4,000 of
+whom were left in the trenches and with the baggage. Their artillery
+consisted of four field-pieces; and their powder was so bad that it
+did not, as Count Poniatowsky and Lewenhaupt both affirm, throw the
+musket-balls more than thirty yards from the muzzles of the pieces.
+And yet these brave soldiers balanced fortune even against such
+overwhelming numbers. Three out of the seven Russian redoubts were
+taken; on the left wing the cavalry were victorious, and it is really
+difficult to say what the result would have proved, had Charles been
+able to exert his usual energy and activity. Certain it is that errors
+were committed which could not have happened under his immediate
+command; for the cavalry of the left wing did not follow up their
+success, and the cavalry of the right wing lost their direction, and
+took no share in the action. The king, who was carried on a litter
+between two horses, was present in the hottest of the fire, and
+exerted himself as much as was possible for a man in such a situation.
+A shot broke the litter, and the wounded monarch was for some time
+left alone on the ground. A lifeguardsman brought him a horse, and he
+endeavored to rally the yielding troops. The steed was shot under him,
+and--
+
+                   "Gierta gave
+  His own, and died the Russian slave."
+
+Having assembled and re-formed the remnants of his broken host round
+the forces which had been left for the protection of the baggage, the
+fainting monarch was placed in Count Piper's carriage, and conveyed
+toward the Turkish frontier. The exertions of the wounded Charles to
+rally his army at Pultowa contrast singularly with the total want of
+any such exertion displayed by the unwounded Napoleon at Waterloo. We
+take this want of exertion for granted, because had any been
+displayed, the world's echoes would have rung with praise bestowed
+upon the heroic effort.
+
+The first result of the battle of Pultowa--its ultimate results are
+only now becoming apparent--was the entire destruction of the Swedish
+army, the famished and exhausted remains of which were some days
+afterward obliged to lay down their arms on the banks of the Dnieper,
+which they had no means of crossing.
+
+With this battle, which opens a new era in European history, the
+history of Charles XII. may be said to end; for his subsequent career
+was only a succession of disappointments, his poor and thinly peopled
+country not affording him the means of recovery from a single
+'defeat'.
+
+On his arrival at Bender, the king learned of the death of his sister,
+the Duchess of Holstein; and he who had calmly supported the loss of
+his fame and his army yielded to the most impassioned burst of sorrow,
+and was during four days unable to converse with his most intimate
+attendants--a proof how unjust are the accusations of want of feeling
+so often brought against him. His long stay in Turkey is certainly
+evidence of obstinacy, or of that pride which could not brook the
+thought of returning, a vanquished fugitive, to his native land, which
+had done so much for him, and which his best efforts had failed to
+protect from unjust violence. In Charles's high and noble countenance
+it is seen at once that he was endowed with--
+
+                  "The glance that took
+  Their thoughts from others at a single look."
+
+He knew the worthlessness of his enemies; and it is doubly galling to
+the generous and the brave when fortune, in her base fancies, obliges
+them to succumb to mean and malicious adversaries. And such was the
+fate of Charles. His defeat was no sooner known than Denmark, Poland,
+and Saxony again flew to arms. Hanover and Prussia joined the unworthy
+league against the fallen monarch, who had been so dreaded, and was
+therefore so much hated; for Charles had injured no one--he was the
+aggrieved from first to last. His return to Sweden, the defence of
+Stralsund, the invasion of Norway, call for no particular attention.
+He was killed at the siege of Frederickshall, in Norway, on November
+30, 1718, under circumstances that long gave currency to the belief
+that he had been assassinated. Schott and Bardili positively assert
+the fact; but we are on this point disposed to agree with Voltaire,
+who, to save the honor of his countrymen, as positively denies it.
+After evening service, the king went out as usual to visit the
+trenches. He was attended by two French engineers, Megret and Siquier.
+A heavy fire was kept up by the enemy. Near the head of the _boyau_,
+or zigzag, he kneeled down, and, leaning against the parapet, looked
+toward the fortress. As he remained motionless for a long time, some
+one approached and found him perfectly dead, a ball having entered his
+right temple and passed through his head. Even in death the gallant
+hand had grasped the hilt of his sword; and this probably gave rise to
+the belief in the murder, which was afterward confirmed by Siquier's
+own confession. But this confession was only made while the pretended
+criminal labored under an attack of brain fever, and was retracted as
+soon as he recovered.
+
+Thus fell, in the thirty-sixth year of his age, one of the most
+extraordinary men that ever acted a part on the great stage of the
+world. Endowed by nature with a noble person, "a frame of adamant, a
+soul of fire," with high intellectual powers, dauntless bravery,
+kingly sentiments of honor, and a lofty scorn of all that was mean
+and little, he became, from the very splendor of these gifts, perhaps
+one of the most unhappy men of his time. Less highly gifted, he would
+have been less hated and less envied; of humbler spirit, he would have
+been more pliant, and might possibly have been more successful.
+
+
+
+
+JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH
+
+By L. DRAKE
+
+(1650-1722)
+
+[Illustration: A standing man behind a sitting woman. [TN]]
+
+
+About noon, on June 24, 1650, John Churchill, afterward Duke of
+Marlborough, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire. His school-days were
+soon over; for his father, Sir Winston Churchill, having established
+himself at court soon after the restoration of Charles the Second, was
+anxious to introduce his children early into life, and obtained for
+his son the situation of page of honor to the Duke of York, at the
+same time that his only daughter, Arabella, became maid of honor to
+the duchess.
+
+While at school, young Churchill had discovered in the library an old
+book on military subjects. This he read frequently, and conceived such
+a taste for a martial life, that he longed to distinguish himself as a
+soldier.
+
+The Duke of York held frequent reviews of the guards. Churchill had
+not long been his page, before the duke noticed his eagerness to be
+present on these occasions. Pleased with this indication of military
+ambition, the duke suddenly inquired one day, "What can I do for you,
+Churchill, as a first step to fortune?"
+
+The page threw himself on his knees before the duke. "I beseech your
+Royal Highness," he entreated, with clasped hands, "to honor me with a
+pair of colors."
+
+"Well, well," said the duke, smiling at the lad's earnestness, "I will
+grant your request by and by;" and his young favorite had not long to
+wait before he got the post for which he had petitioned.
+
+The youthful ensign, scarce fifteen years of age, first embarked for
+Tangiers; and although his stay was short, yet in the sallies and
+skirmishes with the Moors he showed that even now he possessed that
+courage and ability which in after years placed him at the head of all
+the heroes of his time.
+
+Before the year in which he left England had expired, he was again in
+his native country. He then accompanied the Duke of Monmouth to the
+continent, to assist France against Holland. The Prince of Conde and
+Marshal Turenne, the greatest generals of that time, commanded the
+French army, so that Churchill had very favorable opportunities of
+improving his military talent and genius.
+
+A French officer, during the siege of Nimeguen, had failed to retain a
+post of consequence, which he had been appointed to defend. The news
+of its loss was brought to Turenne.
+
+"I will bet a supper and a dozen of claret," instantly exclaimed the
+marshal, "that my handsome Englishman will recover the post with half
+the number of men that the officer commanded who lost it."
+
+Churchill was despatched with a small company, and, after a short but
+desperate struggle, retook the post, won the marshal his wager, and
+gained for himself the applause and admiration of the whole army.
+
+Next year, at the siege of Maestricht, Captain Churchill again
+distinguished himself. At the head of his own company, he scaled the
+ramparts, and planted the banner of France on the very summit,
+escaping with a slight wound. Louis XIV. was so highly pleased with
+his conduct that he thanked him at the head of the army, and soon made
+him lieutenant-colonel. The Duke of Monmouth afterward confessed to
+the king, that he was indebted for his life, on this occasion, to our
+hero's gallantry and discretion.
+
+On his return to England, he was made gentleman of the bedchamber and
+master of the robes to his earliest patron, the Duke of York. At this
+period he was captivated by the beauty of Miss Sarah Jennings,
+daughter of a gentleman of ancient family, and maid of honor to the
+duchess. Their marriage took place in 1678.
+
+The services Colonel Churchill continued to yield the royal brothers
+did not pass unrewarded. He was created Baron Churchill of Agmouth, in
+Berwickshire; and a friendship sprung up between Lady Churchill and
+the Princess (afterward queen) Anne, who, when she married Prince
+George of Denmark, got her friend appointed lady of her bedchamber.
+
+The day after James II. was proclaimed, he made his favorite,
+lieutenant-general. The battle of Sedgemoor, in which the ill-fated
+Duke of Monmouth with his rebel army was defeated, was won chiefly by
+Churchill's courage and decision. Till the closing scene of James's
+reign, there is little stated of Lord Churchill, although it is known
+that he used his influence with his royal master to prevent the
+arbitrary system of government the king endeavored to introduce.
+Finding the monarch determined to persist in his encroachments, Lord
+Churchill felt it his duty, however painful, to go over to the Prince
+of Orange, by whom he was received with distinguished marks of
+attention and respect; and, two days before his coronation, the prince
+raised him to the dignity of Earl of Marlborough.
+
+The affection the earl still felt toward his late benefactor, the
+ex-king, led him into a correspondence with him. This, being
+discovered, brought the displeasure of King William upon him, and for
+some time he was deprived of all his appointments. At length a
+governor being wanted for the young Duke of Gloucester, son of the
+Princess Anne, the king, as an earnest of his returning favor,
+conferred this honor on Marlborough. "Teach him, my lord," said his
+majesty, "to be what you are yourself, and he will not want
+accomplishments."
+
+On the accession of Queen Anne, Marlborough was made captain-general,
+master of the ordnance, and a knight of the garter. Soon after, he was
+sent to Holland to aid the Dutch against the French. He was appointed
+by them generalissimo of the forces, with a salary of L10,000 a year.
+With his army he crossed the river Meuse, and advanced to the siege of
+Rheinberg. "I hope soon to deliver you from these troublesome
+neighbors!" he exclaimed to the Dutch deputies who accompanied him on
+a reconnoitring party; and had it not been for the timidity of the
+Dutchmen he would have fulfilled his intentions. He however, took
+three towns out of the hands of the French, and the campaign ended by
+the taking of Liege.
+
+Marlborough soon returned to England, when the queen created him
+Marquis of Blandford and Duke of Marlborough, an honor he reluctantly
+accepted, and chiefly because it would give him more consideration if
+again called upon to serve his country abroad.
+
+In 1703 the duke was once more in Flanders, leading operations against
+the French with his usual success.
+
+The celebrated Prince Eugene was appointed his colleague; and the
+first time these two generals met, they conceived that mutual esteem
+and confidence, which afterward rendered them partners in the same
+glory.
+
+At the head of a noble army, the two generals penetrated into the
+heart of Germany, driving the Elector of Bavaria before them, ere his
+French allies could join him. It would take too much space to describe
+all the victories, and relate the details of the burning of three
+hundred towns, villages, and castles! These stern necessities of war
+were far from pleasing to Marlborough, who grieved to see the poor
+people suffering from their master's ambition. The Elector shed tears
+when he heard of these devastations, and offered large sums to prevent
+military execution on the land. "The forces of England," replied the
+duke, "are not come into Bavaria to extort money, but to bring its
+prince to reason and moderation. It is in the power of the Elector to
+end the matter at once by coming to a speedy accommodation."
+
+But the Elector knew that Marshal Tallard, with a powerful French
+army, was approaching; and, buoyed up by expectation, replied, "Since
+you have compelled me to draw the sword, I have thrown away the
+scabbard!"
+
+Prince Eugene had hastened from the Rhine to join Marlborough, with a
+force of eighteen thousand men, and reached the plains of Hochstadt by
+the time Tallard joined the Elector. As the prince and Marlborough
+proceeded to survey the ground, previous to taking up their position,
+they perceived some squadrons of the enemy at a distance. The two
+generals mounted the steeple of a church close by, and, with their
+glasses, discovered the quarter-masters of the enemy marking out a
+camp between Blenheim and Luetzingen. Charmed beyond measure, they
+resolved to give battle before the enemy could strengthen themselves
+in their new position. Some officers, who knew the strength of the
+ground selected by the enemy, ventured to remonstrate, and to advise
+that no action should be hazarded. "I know the dangers of the case,"
+said Marlborough, who had not made up his mind without due
+consideration, "but a battle is absolutely necessary; and as for
+success, I rely on the hope that the discipline and courage of the
+troops will make amends for all disadvantages." Orders being issued
+for a general engagement, the whole army commenced preparations with
+cheerfulness and alacrity.
+
+Marlborough showed that he was resolved to conquer or to die in the
+attempt. Part of the night he passed in prayer, and toward morning
+received the sacrament. Then, after taking a short sleep, he concerted
+the arrangements for the action with Prince Eugene, particularly
+pointing out to the surgeons the proper place for the wounded.
+
+The forces of the duke and the prince formed an army of 33,500
+infantry and 18,400 cavalry. They were opposed by a force of 56,000
+men.
+
+About six o'clock in the morning, Marlborough and Eugene took their
+station on a rising ground, and calling all the generals, gave the
+directions for the attack. The army then marched into the plain; and
+being formed in order of battle, the chaplains performed service at
+the head of each regiment.
+
+The morning being hazy, the French and Bavarians did not even suspect
+the approach of their enemies, and were completely taken by surprise.
+A large gun boomed forth the signal for the onset; and as great a
+battle was fought as the memory of man ever heard of. A panic seized
+the whole of the troops which composed the right of the French army,
+and they fled like a flock of sheep before the victorious
+English,--deaf to the threats and entreaties of their commanders, and
+without observing whither their flight led them. A body of cavalry,
+the best and most renowned in the whole army, seized with fear,
+hurried away Marshal Tallard with them in their flight; and, void of
+all thought, threw themselves by squadrons into the Danube, men and
+horses, officers and troopers together. Some escaped; but the greater
+portion, who had sought to avoid an uncertain death on the field of
+battle and honor, found a certain and shameful death in the river. The
+poor marshal, after vainly endeavoring to stem this torrent of
+despair, was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner of war with
+several other general officers in his company. The defeat then became
+complete. Of all the infantry the marshal had brought to the
+assistance of the Elector, only two battalions escaped; eight and
+twenty battalions were taken prisoners; and ten were entirely
+destroyed!
+
+The French, for many years, had never sustained any considerable
+defeat; and in consequence, had looked upon themselves, and had been
+regarded by other countries, almost as invincible. But now the charm
+was broken.
+
+After the battle, when Marshal Tallard was brought into the duke's
+tent, the marshal exclaimed with emphasis, "Your grace has beaten the
+best troops in the world!"
+
+"I hope," quickly rejoined the duke, "that you except the troops which
+defeated them."
+
+The news caused great joy in England, except to a discontented party,
+who considered that "it would no more weaken the power of the French
+king, than taking a bucket of water out of a river." Marlborough's
+answer, when he heard this, was, "If they will allow me to draw one or
+two such buckets more, we may then let the river run quietly, and not
+much apprehend its overflowing, and destroying its neighbors." Queen
+Anne, however, as a monument of victory, commanded a splendid palace
+to be built for the duke, at her own expense, to be called Blenheim.
+
+It would fill a large volume to relate all the victories of the Duke
+of Marlborough, none of which, however, exceeded the Battle of
+Blenheim in importance. One, some years afterward, called the Battle
+of Malplaquet, was a better contested fight, and perhaps ranks next;
+in truth, after this battle, France never again ventured to meet
+Marlborough in the field.
+
+At three o'clock in the morning of September 11, 1709, the
+confederated troops (for Eugene, with his army, was still with
+Marlborough) began to raise their batteries, under cover of a thick
+fog, which lasted till half-past seven. When it cleared away, the
+armies found themselves close together, each having a perfect view of
+the other. Marshal Villars commanded the French army. He was adored by
+his troops, who placed unbounded confidence in him; and as he now rode
+along their ranks the air rang with "Long live the king!" "Long live
+Marshal Villars!" The right wing was commanded by Marshal Boufflers.
+
+A discharge of fifty pieces of cannon from the confederates was the
+signal for battle, which commenced a little after eight. Each army had
+between ninety and one hundred thousand men, and the battle raged for
+some time with unexampled bravery. All the duties of a skilful general
+were performed by Marlborough; and late in the day the French army
+left the field in the possession of the allies, both armies having
+fought with almost incredible valor. The loss of the French was
+fourteen thousand men; the allies, though victory was on their side,
+lost nearly twenty thousand.
+
+An officer of distinction in the French army, writing an account of
+this battle said: "The Eugenes and Marlboroughs ought to be well
+satisfied with us during that day; since, till then, they had not met
+with resistance worthy of them. They may say, with justice, that
+nothing can stand before them; for what shall be able to stem the
+rapid course of these two heroes, if an army of one hundred thousand
+of our best troops--posted between two roads, trebly entrenched, and
+performing their duty as well as brave men could do--were not able to
+stop them one day? Will you not, then, own with me, that they surpass
+all the heroes of former ages?"
+
+With his usual humanity, Marlborough's first care, at the close of the
+action, was the relief of the wounded. Three thousand Frenchmen who lay
+on the field shared his attention, with the wounded of his own army; and
+he immediately arranged means for conveying them away. Still, next
+morning--the day set apart for burying the slain--notwithstanding his
+care, when riding over the field he saw among the heaps which covered
+the plain, not only the numerous bodies of the slain, but of the dying
+also. Nor did he feel only for the sufferings of his companions in arms;
+the groans of wounded enemies, and the sight of their mangled limbs,
+equally awakened his compassion. Learning also, that many French
+officers and soldiers had crept into the neighboring houses and woods,
+wounded, and in a miserable condition for want of assistance, he ordered
+them every possible relief, and despatched a messenger with a letter to
+the French marshal, humanely proposing; a conference to arrange the
+means of removing these wretched sufferers. By this humanity the larger
+portion of not fewer than thirty thousand men, to whose sufferings death
+would soon have put an end, were saved. The officers gave their word
+that they would not serve against the allies till they were regularly
+exchanged; and the common soldiers were to be considered as prisoners of
+war, for whom an equal number of allied troops were to be returned.
+
+Many, many battles, too numerous to mention, were gained by this great
+commander. When he came back to England, at the peace, he for some
+time distinguished himself as an able statesman; but incurring the
+displeasure of the queen, and that of the party then in power, he
+found his situation so painful, that he determined to leave the
+country till the course of events should again run in his favor. He
+left Dover without any honors, as a private passenger, in a
+packet-boat; but on its arriving off Ostend, as soon as the
+townspeople knew that the Duke of Marlborough was on board, they made
+a salute of all the cannon toward the sea; and when the vessel entered
+the harbor, they fired three rounds of all the artillery on the
+ramparts. The people crowded round him, and shed tears at the
+ingratitude of his nation. Some, full of astonishment at the sight of
+him, said, "His looks, his air, his address, were full as conquering
+as his sword." Even a Frenchman exclaimed, "Though the sight is worth
+a million to my king, yet I believe he would not, at such a price,
+have lost the service of so brave a man."
+
+Marlborough remained at Aix-la-Chapelle till the death of the queen.
+On August 1, 1714, the day George the First was proclaimed, the duke
+and duchess landed at Dover. Marlborough's reception was truly a
+contrast to his departure. Now the artillery thundered forth a
+welcome; while thousands of spectators hailed the return of the
+voluntary exile. Passing on to London, he was met at Southwark by a
+large body of the burgesses, who escorted him into the city; and
+thence, joined by many of the first merchants, the nobility, and
+gentry, he proceeded to St. James's, amid the joyful acclamations of
+the crowd, "Long live the king!" "Long live the Duke of Marlborough!"
+
+Old age had now laid his withering hand on the duke. For nearly two
+years he continued to enjoy the favor and confidence of the new king,
+who, on one occasion, said, "Marlborough's retirement would give me as
+much pain as if a dagger should be plunged in my bosom." But he soon
+was obliged to retreat to Blenheim, where he spent six years of
+declining life among his family and friends. At length, after a
+violent attack of palsy, the disease from which he suffered, he lay
+for several days expecting death. Early in the morning of June 15,
+1722, he resigned his spirit, with Christian calmness, into the hands
+of his Creator.
+
+The duke was nearly seventy-three when he died. His remains were
+interred with every honor in Westminster Abbey, but soon after were
+taken up, and conveyed to the chapel at Blenheim, and laid in a
+magnificent monument, which the duchess had erected for this honorable
+purpose.
+
+
+
+
+PRINCE EUGENE OF SAVOY
+
+By G. P. R. JAMES
+
+(1663-1736)
+
+[Illustration: Prince Eugene. [TN]]
+
+
+Prince Eugene, the most famed of Austrian generals, was the son of
+Eugene Maurice of Savoy (by the mother's side Count of Soissons) and
+of Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. His father intrigued,
+and was banished from the court of France; and his mother also quitted
+Paris not many years after, suspected of many vices of which she was
+very probably innocent; and guilty of a thousand follies, which were
+more strictly scrutinized than her crimes. Eugene was originally
+destined for the Church, and, according to a scandalous custom, then
+common in France as well as other Catholic countries, he obtained
+several benefices while but a child, of which he was eager to divest
+himself as soon as his mind was capable of discriminating between one
+profession and another. He seems soon to have felt within himself that
+ardent desire for military service, which is sometimes a caprice and
+some times an inspiration; but Louis XIV., at whose court he still
+remained, positively forbade his throwing off the clerical habit,
+notwithstanding all the entreaties of the young abbe, and by so doing,
+incurred the enmity of one who inherited from his mother no small
+faculty of hatred.
+
+At length, various circumstances with which he was in no degree
+connected, brought about a change in the affairs of Europe that
+afforded him an opportunity of escaping from the restraint placed upon
+his inclinations, and of turning the genius they had despised against
+those who had contemned him. France and Austria had long been either
+secretly or openly at strife; but now the dilapidated state of the
+German empire, after tedious and expensive wars, together with the
+combination of external foes and internal insurrection, threatened the
+nominal successor of the Roman Caesars with utter destruction. The
+Hungarians in revolt, joined with the Turkish forces which they had
+called to their assistance, marched into Germany and laid siege to
+Vienna. Louis XIV. had hitherto taken care to foment the spirit of
+insurrection, and to aggravate the more pressing dangers of Germany;
+but at this moment, to cover the encouragement he had held out
+privately to the rebels, he permitted the nobility of his court to
+volunteer in defence of Christendom, which the fall of Vienna would
+have laid open to Infidels. A large body of young men set out
+immediately for Austria, among whom Prince Eugene contrived to effect
+his departure in secret. The famous, but unamiable minister Louvois,
+when he heard of the young abbe's escape remarked with a sneer, "So
+much the better, it will be long before he returns."
+
+The speech was afterward repeated to Eugene, who replied, "I will
+never return to France but as a conqueror;" and he kept his word, one
+of the few instances in which history has been able to record that a
+rash boast was afterward justified by talents and resolution.
+
+On arriving at Vienna, Eugene cast away the gown forever, and his rank
+instantly procured him a distinguished post near the person of the
+Duke of Lorraine, then commanding the imperial forces.
+
+Shortly after he had joined the army, John Sobieski, the valiant King
+of Poland, advanced to the assistance of the emperor, and the Turks
+were forced to raise the siege of the Austrian capital. In the
+campaign that followed against the Infidels, Eugene distinguished
+himself greatly, both by a sort of light unthinking courage, and by a
+degree of skill and judgment, which seemed to show that the levity he
+was somewhat too fond of displaying, though perhaps a confirmed habit
+from his education in an idle and frivolous court, was no true type of
+the mind within. It was the empty bubble dancing on the bosom of a
+deep stream. This was felt by those who surrounded him; and promotion
+succeeded with astonishing rapidity. Before the end of three months he
+was in command of a regiment of horse.
+
+Continual battles, sieges, and skirmishes, now inured Eugene to all
+the hardships and all the dangers of war, and at the same time gave
+him every opportunity of acquiring a thorough knowledge of his new
+profession, and of obtaining higher and higher grades in the service.
+In the course of a very few years he had been wounded more than once
+severely; but at the same time he had aided in the taking of
+Neuhausel, Vicegradt, Gran, and Buda; was the first who entered sword
+in hand into the intrenched camp of the Turks at Hersan; and had
+received a commission as Lieutenant-general in the Austrian service.
+The storming of Belgrade was the next great event in which Eugene was
+called to act; and here, in command of a body of reserve, he attacked
+the walls, after the first parties had been repulsed, and succeeded in
+forcing his way into the city. The regiments which had failed at first
+now rallied; and the path being open, the Imperial forces poured in in
+all directions, and Belgrade was taken after a most obstinate defence.
+
+Victor Amadaeus, Duke of Savoy, was shortly after this persuaded by his
+cousin Eugene to embrace the interests of the house of Austria; and to
+enter into the great alliance which had been formed for the purpose of
+depressing France.
+
+The vast power which Louis XIV. had acquired, and the evident
+disposition he displayed to extend that power to the utmost, had armed
+the fears of all the monarchs of Europe against him. At the same time,
+the armies which had conquered for him were dispersed, and the
+generals who had led them to victory had in most instances fallen into
+the grave. Perhaps these considerations might lead the Duke of Savoy
+to withdraw from an alliance which promised little support, and
+eminent danger; but he had soon reason to repent of having done so.
+Marshal Catinat, the best of Louis's living officers, was ordered to
+act against him; the whole of Piedmont quickly fell into the hands of
+the French; and on August 18th the duke was completely defeated by the
+adverse general. Eugene, who was present, though wounded with a spent
+ball, covered the retreat of the troops of Savoy; but the battle was
+nevertheless completely lost, and influenced for long the fate of
+Piedmont.
+
+After various campaigns in Italy, where little was effected but a
+diversion of the French forces from his scene of war in Germany and
+the Netherlands, Eugene prevailed upon his cousin the Duke of Savoy,
+to lead his troops into France and to draw the French army from Italy,
+by carrying the war into their own country. The scheme was a bold one,
+but it proved most successful, and Embrun, Quilestre, and Gap, having
+fallen, the allied army, under Victor Amadaeus and Eugene, advanced
+rapidly into Dauphiny. Terror and consternation spread before them;
+and in revenge for the devastation committed by the French in the
+Palatinate, they now ravaged the whole of Dauphiny, burning the
+villages and hamlets, and laying the cities under heavy contributions.
+The heart of France was open to the invading army; but, fortunately
+for that country, a severe illness put a stop to the proceedings of
+Victor Amadaeus. Returning to Turin in haste, he left his army to the
+command of Prince Eugene; but the Italian generals contrived, by
+hesitation in their obedience, and opposition to his wishes, to defeat
+Eugene's best schemes, so that he was glad, by a rapid retreat, to
+bring his army in safety to Savoy.
+
+Eugene was now created Field-marshal; and received the order of the
+Golden Fleece; but his gratification at these marks of approbation was
+bitterly alloyed by a severe defeat which he suffered near Pignerol,
+in company with his cousin the Duke of Savoy, who madly engaged the
+French forces in a position where his own discomfiture was a certain
+consequence.
+
+Few movements of any import took place in Italy for some years after
+this, in which Eugene was concerned. Victor Amadaeus, partly from
+caprice, partly from fear, withdrew from his alliance with Austria,
+and, once more signed a treaty of neutrality with France. The Imperial
+troops, unable singly to keep the field against the French, abandoned
+Savoy; and Eugene, though his efforts had proved unsuccessful, was
+received at Vienna with the highest distinction.
+
+The emperor, probably judging rightly in this instance, that the
+prince had failed from his energies being crippled by a divided power,
+now gave him the sole command of the army opposed to the Turks in
+Hungary.
+
+Eugene immediately found himself menaced by the whole force of the
+Turkish Empire; but after some masterly manoeuvres he saved the city
+of Peterwaradin, on which the Ottoman forces were marching; and then,
+though with very inferior power, approached the intrenchments of the
+Grand Vizier, at Zeuta, with the intention of forcing him from his
+camp. At the very moment, however, that the army had advanced too far
+to retreat, a courier arrived, bearing the emperor's commands to
+Eugene, on no account to risk a battle. Eugene's measures were already
+taken; he put the letter in his pocket, attacked the Turks, defeated
+them completely, left twenty thousand Mussulmen dead on the field, and
+ten thousand drowned in the Danube; pursued his victory by burning
+Serai and securing the frontier line of fortresses, and then returned
+to Vienna in expectation of reward and honor.
+
+The emperor received him coldly, and before the day was over he was
+put under arrest for disobedience of orders. The clamor, however, of
+the people, and some feeling of shame in the bosom of the proud, weak
+Leopold, soon caused him to restore Eugene to his rank, and to send
+him once more against the Turks. Success, however, did not follow the
+prince through the succeeding campaign; and before the season brought
+it naturally to a close, peace had been determined on between Austria
+and the Porte.
+
+Some time previous to the period of which we now speak, Louis XIV. had
+endeavored to tempt Eugene back to his Court, by the offer of a
+Marshal's rank in the French army, the government of Champagne, and a
+considerable yearly pension. Eugene, who felt that, however flattering
+to himself, the offer originated alone in the selfishness of an
+ambitious monarch, refused it in terms sufficiently galling to the
+proud King of France. Nevertheless, after the peace of Westphalia,
+Villars, who was sent as ambassador to Vienna, is supposed to have
+been again charged with a mission of the same nature to Eugene. The
+fact, however, is not only doubtful, but very improbable, from the
+character of all parties concerned. Eugene was not a man to leave
+himself the possibility of changing; Louis was not a man meanly to
+solicit where he had once been refused; and Villars was not a man to
+undertake a mean commission, even for a king. It is probable that the
+courtesy which the prince evinced toward Marshal de Villars from a
+sense of his personal merit, at a time when the haughty Court of
+Vienna was mean enough to treat even an ambassador with cold
+disrespect, was the sole origin of the report. However that might be,
+Eugene remained for a length of time at Vienna, filling up his
+inactivity by trifling with many arts and many enjoyments, till at
+length the War of the Succession, as it was called, breaking out, he
+was appointed to the command of the army in Italy.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Eugene and the Marshal de Villars.]
+
+At length a general engagement took place at Luzara, at which Philip
+of Spain was present. The forces of the French have been estimated at
+forty thousand, those of the Imperial general did not much exceed
+one-half that number. The battle was long and fierce; and night only
+terminated the contest. Both parties of course claimed the victory.
+The French sung a Te Deum, but retreated; the Imperial army retained
+their ground.
+
+Nevertheless, the fruits of victory were gathered by the French. Their
+immense superiority of numbers gave them the power of overrunning the
+whole country; and the Imperial court, either from indolence,
+heedlessness, or intrigue, failed to take any step to support its arms
+in Italy; so that all which Eugene had taken, sooner or later fell
+into the enemy's hands, and he himself, disgusted with the neglect he
+had met with, left his army under the command of another, and set out
+to see whether he could not procure some reinforcement, or at least
+some supply of money to pay or provide for his forces. At Vienna he
+found good reason to suspect that Count Mansfield, the minister of
+war, had by some means been gained to the interest of France. But, in
+the meanwhile Eugene was appointed minister of war; and sometime
+after, in this capacity, proceeded to confer with Marlborough on the
+united interests of England and Austria.
+
+This negotiation was most successful; and here seems to have been
+concerted the scheme which Marlborough afterward so gloriously pursued
+for carrying on the war against France on the side of Germany, and of
+thus freeing the Empire. In a military point of view, also, Eugene's
+efforts, though supported by no great army, and followed by no great
+victory, were wise and successful. He foiled the Hungarian rebels in
+their bold attack upon Vienna, checked them in their progress
+everywhere, and laid the foundation of their after subjugation. Soon
+after this, Eugene took the command of the Imperial army on the Rhine;
+and after considerable manoeuvring singly, to prevent the junction of
+the French army with that of the Duke of Bavaria, finding it
+impossible, he effected his own junction with the Duke of Marlborough,
+and shared in the glories of the field of Blenheim.
+
+Eugene was here always in the thickest of the fight, yet never for a
+moment forgot that he was called upon to act as a general rather than
+a soldier. His operations were planned as clearly and commanded as
+distinctly in the midst of the hottest conflict, as if no tumult had
+raged around him, and no danger had been near to distract his
+attention; yet his horse was killed under him in the early part of the
+battle; and at one moment, a Bavarian dragoon was seen holding him by
+the coat with one hand, while he levelled a pistol at his head with
+the other. One of the Imperialists, however, coming up at the moment,
+freed his general from this unpleasant situation; and Eugene
+proceeded to issue his orders, without the least sign of discomposure.
+
+The following year Eugene returned to Italy, and once more began the
+war against Vendome. Notwithstanding all his skill and activity,
+however, the superiority of the French numbers, and the distinguished
+military genius of their chief, prevented Eugene from meeting with any
+very brilliant success. He surprised various detachments, relieved
+several towns, was successful in many skirmishes; but he failed in
+drawing the French out of Savoy, and was totally repulsed in
+endeavoring to pass the Adda.
+
+In the attempt to do so, many men and several valuable officers were
+lost on both sides. The battle was long and furious. Both Vendome and
+Eugene displayed all their skill to foil each other; and perhaps so
+bravely contested a field was as honorable to each as a great victory.
+Neither, however, could fairly claim the battle as won; for though
+Eugene failed in passing the river, the French were the greatest
+sufferers in the contest, and they did not succeed in compelling the
+Germans to fly, though they prevented them from advancing to join the
+Duke of Savoy. Eugene, with his wonted reckless courage, exposed
+himself more than even was necessary, and in the very commencement of
+the engagement was wounded severely in the neck, notwithstanding which
+he remained a considerable length of time on horseback, till a second
+musket-ball, in the knee, forced him to absent himself for a time from
+the field. These wounds probably decided the failure of his attempt;
+but they did not prevent him from securing his army in good winter
+quarters, and checking all active operations on the part of Vendome.
+
+The next campaign was more successful. Vendome, after defeating a body
+of Imperial troops at Calemato, was recalled, and the command of the
+French forces given to the Duke of Orleans and the Marechal de Marsin,
+who with an army of eighty thousand men invested Turin, the last hold
+of the Duke of Savoy.
+
+Eugene immediately marched to form his junction with the duke; and no
+longer opposed by the genius of Vendome, passed the Adige unattacked,
+crossed the Tanaro, and the Po, joined his cousin near Carmagnola, and
+advanced to the succor of Turin. The French were dispirited; and
+uncertainty and divided councils pervaded their camp. On September
+7th, the allied army, with less than half their numerical force,
+attacked them in their intrenchment, forced their position in every
+direction, and after one of the severest conflicts ever known,
+completely defeated them, and raised the siege of Turin. The battle,
+however, was at one time nearly lost to the allies by an accident
+which befell Eugene. In rallying a body of Imperial cavalry, the
+prince's horse received a ball in his chest, fell with the rider, and
+threw him into a ditch, where, stunned with the fall, he lay for
+several minutes among the dead and dying. The report spread through
+the army that he was killed; a general alarm was the consequence; and
+the infantry were beginning to give way, when, suddenly starting up,
+Eugene commanded the nearest German regiment to fire upon the French
+cavalry that were coming up to the charge. The effect was tremendous;
+the French went to the right about; and, though they rallied again and
+returned to the charge, the Imperial troops continued gradually to
+force their way on, till their adversaries fled in confusion.
+
+The consequence of this victory was the evacuation of the north of
+Italy by the French. Eugene was now everywhere successful for some
+time. He forced the passage of the Col de Tende, carried the French
+intrenchments on the Var, and laid siege to Toulon. Here, however, he
+failed; the defence was long and obstinate, reinforcements arrived at
+the French city, and Eugene, together with the Duke of Savoy, agreed
+to raise the siege once more, and retire into Piedmont.
+
+Eugene was now again called to join Marlborough, in company with whom
+he fought and conquered at Oudenarde, took Lille (where he was again
+severely wounded), Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, and Mons; and forced the
+French lines at Malplaquet, after a severe and long-protracted
+struggle, in which two hundred thousand men were engaged, and nearly
+sixty thousand fell.
+
+If the victories of Blenheim and Oudenarde might more fairly be
+attributed to Marlborough than to Eugene, the success at Malplaquet
+was chiefly obtained by the prince, who had forced the intrenchments,
+taken the wood of Sart, and turned the enemy's flank, before
+Marlborough had made much progress against the other wing.
+
+Eugene had strongly counselled the battle, though opposed by the
+States of Holland, and had in a measure taken the responsibility upon
+himself. On all occasions Eugene's impetuosity led him to expose his
+person more than mere duty required, and now, having staked his fame
+on the success of his attempt, he seems to have resolved not to
+survive a defeat. In the very first attack he received a severe wound
+behind the ear, which bled so profusely that all his staff pressed him
+to retire for the purpose of having it dressed.
+
+"If I am beaten," replied Eugene, "it will not be worth while; and if
+we beat the enemy, I shall have plenty of time to spare for that."
+
+After some short repose, we soon find Eugene once more acting against
+the Turks in Hungary. No sooner was war determined, than Achmet III.
+marched an immense force down to the frontiers of Hungary, to act
+against Eugene, who had just taken the command of the German forces at
+Peterwaradin. The Vizier Hali, commanding the Ottoman troops, full of
+confidence in his own skill, and in his immense superiority of
+numbers, advanced rapidly upon Eugene, and crossed the Save, which
+formed the boundary of the two countries, determined to crush his
+adversary by one great battle. Eugene was as desirous of such an event
+as the vizier, and therefore the troops were soon engaged, almost
+under the walls of Peterwaradin. The Turks fought bravely for many
+hours, and the battle was long undecided; but at length, Eugene's
+superior skill prevailed, and the enemy fled in every direction. The
+Grand Vizier struggled to the last, with long and desperate bravery,
+but after having received two severe wounds, he was borne away by the
+fugitives to Carlowitz, where he died the next day, muttering to the
+last imprecations against the Christians.
+
+After the death of Hali from the wounds he had received at
+Peterwaradin, the command of the Turkish army was given to the Pacha
+of Belgrade, one of the most skilled officers in the Ottoman service.
+But Eugene was destined to destroy the Turkish power in Hungary. The
+campaign of the next year commenced with the siege of the
+often-captured Belgrade; and it was soon completely invested and
+reduced to sore distress. The Porte, however, was not unmindful of its
+preservation; and, in the beginning of August, the pacha appeared on
+the mountains surrounding the town, with an army of near two hundred
+thousand men. Thus shut up between a strong fortress and an immense
+army, with the dysentery in his camp, and his forces enfeebled by long
+and severe labors, Eugene's situation was as difficult as it is
+possible to conceive. Notwithstanding every disadvantage, his usual
+bold course of action was pursued in the present instance, and met
+with that success which is almost always sure to attend the
+combination of daring and skill. After a short delay, to enable
+himself to employ all his energies (having been himself greatly
+debilitated by the camp fever), he attacked the Turkish army in their
+intrenchments, and at the end of a very short but severe struggle,
+succeeded in defeating a force more than three times the number of his
+own.
+
+Belgrade surrendered immediately; and the next year, without any great
+military event, put an end to the war.
+
+After the conclusion of peace, Eugene, who had been appointed governor
+of the Austrian Netherlands, resigned that office, which he had never
+personally filled, and was appointed vicar-general for the emperor in
+his Italian dominions.
+
+For many years after this Eugene spent his days in peace and
+tranquillity, endeavoring to raise up a spirit of commerce among the
+Germans, and to improve the finances of his sovereign, by whom he was
+appreciated and loved. His greatest efforts were in favor of Trieste,
+which he changed from a petty town to a great commercial city, and
+which remains to the present day the best and the noblest fruit of all
+his talents and all his exertions.
+
+At first, everything promised that the old age of Eugene would have
+passed in peace, uninterrupted by any warlike movements; but he was
+once more called from his calmer occupations by the short war which
+broke out with France in 1733.
+
+Perhaps, in point of military skill, the two campaigns which followed
+were the most brilliant of Eugene's life; but with only thirty
+thousand men, opposed to a force of double that number, he could alone
+act upon the defensive.
+
+He did so, however, with more success than the scantiness of his
+resources promised. He prevented the French from penetrating into
+Swabia; and, though Philipsburg was taken notwithstanding all his
+efforts, he contrived, by turning the course of the neighboring
+rivers, to inundate the country on the German side of that city, and
+to render its possession unprofitable to France.
+
+Peace soon succeeded, and with these two campaigns ended Eugene's life
+as a commander. He lived for some time after this, indeed, amusing
+himself with the embellishments of his palace and gardens, and
+employing a great many mechanics and laborers, during all seasons of
+dearth or scarcity; but the battle-field never saw him more. His
+health gradually and slowly declined, and on April 21, 1736, in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, he was found dead in his bed, after
+having been slightly indisposed the night before.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL JAMES WOLFE
+
+By L. DRAKE
+
+(1726-1759)
+
+[Illustration: James Wolfe. [TN]]
+
+
+General Edward Wolfe, an officer who distinguished himself under the
+Duke of Marlborough, was the father of James Wolfe, conqueror of
+Quebec. He was the eldest son of the general, and was born at
+Westerham, a small town in Kent, on November 6, 1726. As liberal an
+education as could be acquired before the early age of fourteen, was
+given to the future hero. He then went with his father to Flanders to
+study the profession of an officer amid active warfare; and, thus
+engaged, seven years soon passed. During this novitiate, he was not
+without opportunities of distinguishing himself; his name was on
+several occasions mentioned with honor; till at length, at the battle
+of Laffeldt, his courage and skilful conduct attracted the notice of
+his commander, the Duke of Cumberland, who, at the close of the day,
+thanked him in the presence of the army; and from that time he was
+marked out "as an officer of extraordinary merit and promise."
+
+His merit, rather than any favor, brought Wolfe the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel when he was barely twenty-two. The battalion he
+commanded was soon distinguished by many and striking improvements in
+discipline, so that its superiority at exercise, and in the order of
+its quarters, gave sure proof of ability and temper in its young
+commander. "The men," it is said, "adored while they profoundly
+respected him; and his officers esteemed his approbation as much as
+they dreaded his displeasure."
+
+Canada, with a portion of New Brunswick, and also the islands of St.
+John and Cape Breton, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, were at this
+time possessed by the French; while Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
+belonged to the English. The latter also claimed the tract of land
+called New England, lying (as will be seen on looking at a map of
+North America) to the west of New Brunswick, and south of the river
+St. Lawrence. The French, however, disputed their claim to this
+country; and constant quarrels arose between the rival settlers about
+their right to land, of which, in reality, the poor Indians were the
+proprietors. In virtue of a grant of parliament in 1750, a large body
+of English took possession of this "debatable ground;" but scarcely
+had they done so, when a superior force of French and Indians attacked
+them, and killing some, made prisoners of others, and drove the rest
+back. Many vigorous but unsuccessful efforts were made on the part of
+the colonists and their neighbors, during eighteen months, to regain
+their territory. A body of troops was then sent from England under
+General Braddock, but this attempt also failed; and, the struggle
+having now assumed some importance, an army of not less than sixteen
+thousand men, under Lord Loudon, renewed the contest of 1755 against
+the army under the Marquis de Montcalm, a most able and enterprising
+officer. His superiority as a commander had been shown in several
+instances, till, the slur which was being cast on the reputation of
+our country's arms having excited attention at home, Lord Loudon was
+recalled, and the army then in America was intrusted to General
+Abercrombie (not the celebrated Abercromby). At the same time a fresh
+force was raised at home, which put to sea in February, 1757. Wolfe
+accompanied this expedition as brigadier under Major-General Amherst.
+Its object was to reduce Cape Breton, the possession of which island,
+commanding as it does the grand entrance of the St. Lawrence, was felt
+to be of the greatest importance.
+
+The town of Louisburg stands upon a small tongue of land, and at this
+period was carefully fortified, having heavy batteries toward the sea,
+and a strong defence of regular works on its land sides. Its harbor,
+which is considered the most magnificent in the world, was carefully
+guarded by five ships of the line extending quite across the mouth.
+Goat Island formed one extremity of the entrance, and Lighthouse Point
+the other; both these were surmounted by strong redoubts, having the
+largest cannon and mortars used in war; while a garrison of 3,000
+soldiers, with 2,500 seamen to man the intrenchments, seemed to
+present an insuperable obstacle to a successful descent.
+
+Four miles westward of the town, however, there was a little creek,
+called Freshwater Cove; and, after much deliberation, it was resolved
+to attempt a landing at this point. The frigates and lighter vessels
+accordingly moved thither as soon as the weather moderated, and
+anchored there one evening, with the wind still boisterous, and the
+surf running very high. Next morning, at daybreak, the first division
+of the troops entered their boats, Wolfe at their head.
+
+The seamen had scarcely dipped their oars a second time, when a sudden
+glancing of arms amid the sand-hills warned the troops to expect
+opposition. The French had foreseen the probability of such an attempt
+as the present, and had prepared to oppose it by throwing up
+breastworks, placing field-pieces in the hollows, and stationing a
+considerable force to dispute a landing.
+
+[Illustration: General Wolfe landing at Louisburg.]
+
+Gallantly the boats pressed onward; while the frigates, which had
+approached within half-cannon shot of the shore, opening their fire,
+swept the beach with a shower of round shot. The flotilla was now
+within musket range, when the French all at once poured in a volley of
+small-arms. Wolfe ordered his men not to fire in return; but, trusting
+to the broadsides from the frigates, which, ploughing up the sand,
+threw it high in the air, and thus kept the beach open, he urged his
+rowers to their utmost strength, passed through a heavy surf, though
+not without some loss, and made good his landing. Company by company,
+as the men arrived, they quickly formed, and pushing on, after a sharp
+encounter, forced the French to abandon their works, and retreat
+within the walls of Louisburg.
+
+The terrible surf proved the more formidable enemy. Above one hundred
+boats, with a large number of their crews, were lost in attempting to
+pass through to the shore. But officers and men were too enthusiastic
+to be disheartened. In a short time all the troops were landed; guns,
+stores, work-tools, ammunition, and provisions, followed quickly; and,
+ere the enemy had learned that real danger at last threatened them,
+the business of the siege was begun.
+
+General Amherst invested the place without delay on the land side,
+and, having opened his trenches before it, despatched Wolfe with the
+light infantry and a body of Highlanders to attack the battery on
+Lighthouse Point. Before dawn one morning, he reached the outposts,
+drove them in, and followed with such rapidity, that, ere the enemy
+could form, and almost before they had got under arms, they were
+completely routed. The guns were immediately turned with terrible
+accuracy upon the harbor and town. The five ships of war now found
+their position very hazardous; one was soon on fire, and blew up; the
+flames spread to two others, and the remaining two were attacked and
+captured by boats. The breaching batteries shook the ramparts of the
+town to their foundations, while the shells carried ruin and death
+into the streets. On July 26th, the enemy, finding it impossible to
+resist any longer, surrendered; the garrison became prisoners of war,
+and the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward fell into the hands
+of the English.
+
+Wolfe's part in this campaign was now over, for domestic matters
+summoned him to England. He had not, however, been long at home, when
+he was informed from head-quarters, that his brilliant services as a
+subaltern had caused the king to select him to conduct an enterprise
+of still greater hazard and honor. It had been proposed in Council, as
+the speediest mode of putting an end to the transatlantic war, that
+the reduction of Quebec, the enemy's colonial capital, should be
+effected. Competent authorities declared the attempt to be not
+impracticable; it was therefore resolved on, and Wolfe was nominated
+to the command of an armament to invest the town. An attack, to be
+made on three other points, was determined as a commencement of the
+campaign.
+
+The armament set sail early in February, 1759. Admiral Saunders
+commanded the fleet, which comprised twenty-two line-of-battle ships,
+and an equal number of frigates. The whole came within sight of
+Louisburg April 21st. The harbor being still choked with ice, the
+vessels could not get in; and the delays which occurred prevented
+Wolfe from entering the St. Lawrence till June. The ships reached the
+Isle of Orleans by the end of the month; and, casting anchor,
+possession was taken. The land was in a high state of cultivation,
+affording abundant supplies to soldiers and sailors.
+
+The Marquis of Montcalm, now an old but still energetic man, occupied
+Quebec and the adjoining district with an army of five thousand
+regular troops, and the same number of militia and Indians. He made
+preparations for the defence with great judgment; the mass of his army
+was in the town, which he had further protected by intrenchments
+extending nearly eight miles to the west, till they reached the
+Montmorency River. Montreal was also well garrisoned; and, twenty
+miles above Quebec, a body of two thousand men lay encamped to attack
+in flank any force which might attempt to land in that direction.
+
+Many skirmishes took place at first between the Indians and British
+troops; and one attack of more importance, on the intrenchments near
+the St. Charles, was headed by Wolfe in person. It completely failed;
+but it taught him the strength of the enemy's position, and clearly
+showed that it would require stratagem to accomplish his design of
+reducing the town itself.
+
+A council was summoned, when it was found that disease and the petty
+combats in which they had been engaged, had reduced the troops to five
+thousand effective men. Insufficient as this army seemed, Wolfe
+determined to remain idle no longer; and a plan of attack on the town
+was agreed upon. Accordingly, the following morning (September 11th),
+the ships of the line, with the exception of two or three, and all the
+frigates, suddenly hoisted sail, and, exposed to a cannonade from all
+the batteries, sailed up the river past Quebec. The troops had
+previously been landed on the southern side of the river, and in perfect
+safety they marched in the same direction. When they had proceeded about
+nine miles, they found the fleet riding at anchor, already beyond the
+reach or observation of the enemy. The point of attack Wolfe had chosen
+lay within a mile and a half of Quebec, and consequently this march had
+no other purpose in view than to mislead the enemy as to his intentions.
+No sooner had the tide turned, and evening set in, than the surface of
+the river suddenly swarmed with boats, which had secretly been brought
+to this distant mustering-place. Then the signal for the ships to sail
+was hung out, and they immediately began proudly to descend the channel,
+leaving the flotilla boats behind them.
+
+Before midnight, the fleet had reached its first anchorage, and the
+troops up the river could hear the thundering of their guns, as they
+cannonaded at long shot the fortifications below the St. Charles. The
+cheering sound told them that the ships had repassed the town safely;
+while the French naturally concluded, that from the ships a descent
+was about to be attempted.
+
+During the interval, the troops had silently and in complete order
+taken their places in the boats; and, as soon as it became quite dark,
+like a huge flock of waterfowl, they glided down the stream. Not a
+word was spoken; the soldiers sat upright and motionless; and the
+sailors scarcely dipped their oars, lest the splash should reach the
+ears of the French placed along the shore at short distances. Wolfe
+sat in the leading boat, surveying attentively each headland, to
+prevent the hazard of shooting beyond the point at which he purposed
+landing. Unobserved, he gained the little cove which has since borne
+his name, and shortly before midnight all the men were landed.
+
+The troops now stood upon a narrow beach. Above them rose a precipice,
+nearly perpendicular, to the height of two hundred and fifty feet. A
+winding path, broad enough to admit four men abreast, led to the
+summit; and here lay one of the large plains, or table-lands, which
+distinguish the heights of Abraham, on a level with the upper town of
+Quebec. A battery of four guns, and a strong party of infantry,
+defended this important pass. Vigilance, however, was not one of the
+qualities of this guard; for the leading files of the British, under
+Colonel Howe, were close upon the station of the French sentinel ere
+he challenged. Replying with a hearty cheer, they sprung forward. An
+irregular volley poured upon them; but the next instant they were high
+on the ground, and at close bayonets with the French guard, who
+immediately fled in terror, leaving Colonel Howe quietly in possession
+of their redoubt and artillery.
+
+Long before dawn, all the troops had gained this ground. Leaving two
+companies in charge of the redoubt, Wolfe hastened forward with the
+rest toward Quebec. He halted when within a mile of the town, and
+there the men lay down with their arms in readiness for the first
+alarm. A communication by small parties, called videttes, was kept up
+with the companies at the redoubt.
+
+A trooper, with his horse covered with foam, appeared in the French
+camp at Beau Point, as the morning sky began to redden. He brought
+Montcalm the first intelligence of the landing the English had
+effected, and the unwelcome news was soon confirmed by the appearance
+of some of the fugitive soldiers from the redoubt. The camp was
+instantly in commotion; but the marquis gave his orders coolly, and
+before an hour the entire army had crossed the river, and were in full
+march for the Heights of Abraham.
+
+About eleven in the forenoon, a large body of Indians and Canadian
+riflemen were seen issuing from a wood on one side of the plain on
+which the English were stationed. They were soon hidden again by a
+thicket; and dexterously spreading themselves among the bushes, they
+opened a smart skirmishing fire on the pickets. This was the first
+warning that the long-wished-for event was at hand--a general conflict
+might now be confidently expected.
+
+Without delay, Wolfe drew up his men in two lines, placing a few light
+companies in skirmishing order in front, and retaining one regiment
+(the 47th) in divisions, as a reserve. The French skirmishers were
+quickly engaged with the light troops, whom they compelled to fall
+back on the line; while a heavy column advancing on the left, obliged
+Wolfe to wheel round three battalions to strengthen that side. But ere
+the column bore down, a fresh body of skirmishers appeared, and under
+their cover it silently withdrew; then, suddenly appearing on the
+right, it came down impetuously upon the irregular troops which Wolfe
+had there stationed. These did their duty nobly; the fierce attack of
+the enemy failed to break their order, or make them even flinch for a
+moment. The skirmishers, meantime, continued to gall the light
+infantry with their desultory fire, which acted also as a vail to
+conceal the intended movements of the main body of the enemy. As the
+light troops, however, hastily fell back, they caused a slight dismay
+among their supporters. Wolfe instantly rode along the line, and
+assured the men that these were only obeying instructions in order to
+draw the French onward. "Be firm, my lads!" said he; "do not return a
+shot till the enemy is within forty yards of the muzzles of your
+pieces; then you may fire!"
+
+The men replied by a shout; and, shouldering their muskets, they
+remained as though on parade, while the French continued to press
+nearer and nearer. At length they were within the appointed distance.
+Every gun was now levelled--a crashing volley passed from left to
+right--a dense smoke followed the discharge, and hid its effects for a
+minute. The breeze soon carried this off, and then the huge gaps in
+the enemy's line exceeded all expectation. In the rear, the ground
+appeared crowded with wounded men hurrying or being borne from the
+conflict; while the army, which had just advanced so confidently, now
+wavered, and then stood still. Seeing the irresolution of the enemy,
+Wolfe cheered his men to charge. A moment after, a musket-ball struck
+his wrist. He paused only to wrap his handkerchief round the wound,
+and again pressed on. He received a second ball in his body, but still
+continued to issue his orders without evincing any symptom of pain,
+when a third bullet pierced his breast.
+
+Wolfe fell to the ground; he was instantly raised and borne to the
+rear, where the utmost skill of the surgeons was put forth in a vain
+attempt to save his life. While they were engaged in examining his
+wounds, Wolfe continued to raise himself, from time to time, to watch
+the progress of the battle. His eyesight beginning to fail, he leaned
+backwards upon one of the grenadiers who had supported him from the
+field, and his heavy breathing and an occasional groan, alone showed
+that life remained.
+
+"See how they run!" exclaimed an officer, beside the dying general.
+
+"Who run?" cried Wolfe, instantly raising himself on his elbow, and
+looking up, as if life were returning with full vigor.
+
+"The French," answered the officer; "they are giving way in all
+directions."
+
+"Run, one of you," said the general, speaking with great firmness,
+"run to Colonel Burton; tell him to march Webb's regiment down to
+Charles River with all speed, so as to secure the bridge, and cut off
+the enemy's retreat."
+
+His orders were obeyed, and after a short pause, he continued, "Now,
+God be praised, I shall die happy!" He fell back at these words,
+turned convulsively on his side and expired.
+
+Montcalm had also fallen in the battle; the enemy was totally routed,
+and, five days after, Quebec capitulated to General Townshend.
+
+The body of the gallant and high-minded Wolfe was conveyed home in a
+ship of war. When the hero's remains arrived at Portsmouth,
+minute-guns were fired, the flags half struck, and a body of troops,
+with reversed arms, received the coffin on the beach, and followed the
+hearse. Parliament voted Wolfe a monument in Westminster Abbey, and
+in that venerable pile would have been his last resting-place; but a
+mother claimed the ashes of her son, and laid them beside those of his
+father, in a vault of the parish church of Greenwich.
+
+
+
+
+FREDERICK THE GREAT
+
+By GENERAL JOHN MITCHELL
+
+(1712-1786)
+
+[Illustration: Frederick the Great. [TN]]
+
+
+How shall we describe the "Incomparable," the extraordinary compound
+of so many brilliant and repulsive qualities? How is he to be
+depicted, who was great as a king, and little as a man,--always
+admired in his public, never beloved in his private, character;--a
+just, generous, and laborious prince,--a vain, avaricious, and
+cold-hearted individual; luxurious by temperament, temperate in
+practice; a selfish epicurean, and affecting the harshness of the
+cynic;--peacefully disposed, and cultivating the arts of peace, yet
+exercising the arts of war in their direst form;--a man of letters,
+ignorant of the beauties, and disdaining the language of his
+country;--magnificent and mean; the builder of palaces, theatres,
+libraries and museums, and dying, literally, without a whole shirt in
+which he could be buried;--and, lastly, the most brilliant and
+successful soldier of his time,--and almost destitute of the soldier's
+first quality, personal courage?
+
+Frederick, by general acclamation surnamed "The Great," was born on
+January 24, 1712. His education was principally military; his very
+toys were miniature implements of war suited to his age; and no sooner
+was he able to handle a musket than he was sent to drill, and forced,
+like all the Prussian officers of the period, to perform the duties
+and submit to the privations of a private soldier,--obliged even to
+stand sentinel before the palace in all the severities of a northern
+winter. Though rather feeble of constitution, he soon became a
+proficient in martial exercises. The different branches of science
+bearing on the art of war he was forced to study; but his leisure
+hours were devoted to reading French verses, and playing on the
+flute--pursuits that greatly displeased his royal father, who
+frequently threw the books into the fire, and the flutes out of the
+window.
+
+Frederick William,--the original founder of the pipe-clay science of
+tactics, and the stick-and-starvation system of organization,--the
+first inventor of pauper armies, dressed in martial uniforms,--became
+gradually estranged from his poetical son; and often declared that the
+dandy, "_Der Stutzer_" as he styled him, "would ruin everything." He
+consequently treated him with so much severity, that the young prince
+attempted to escape, intending to fly to England. The tragical result
+of the adventure is well known. Frederick was thrown into prison; and
+his friend and adviser, Katt, beheaded under his window, while
+soldiers held the prince's head toward the scaffold on which the deed
+of death was acting. What impression this dreadful scene made on his
+mind is not known; but it ought to have been a deep and a lasting one.
+
+It was the king's wish to follow up this execution by the trial of his
+own son; but the remonstrances of the cabinet of Vienna, of his own
+council, and, above all, of the upright and honest chaplain, Dr.
+Reinbeck, reluctantly induced him to forego the intention. It is not
+probable that he actually intended to put the prince to death, but
+only to force him to resign his right to the throne in favor of his
+second brother, William; a proposal to which Frederick constantly
+refused to assent.
+
+But though not tried, Frederick was severely punished, for he was
+confined to the fortress of Kuestrin, where he was obliged to perform
+the duties of a commissary of finance, and write the reports, and make
+out the returns with his own hand. All this was, no doubt, of
+advantage to the future sovereign. On condition of marrying the
+Princess Elizabeth of Brunswick-Bevern, he was, at the end of eighteen
+months, released from confinement, and allowed to reside in the small
+town of Rheinsberg, where he resumed his flute and his French poets,
+to which the study of French philosophers and French translations from
+the classics was added. It was during his stay at Rheinsberg that his
+correspondence with foreign men of letters commenced; and it was here
+also that, with a party of friends, he formed an order of chivalry
+termed the "Order of Bayard," the motto of the knights being, "Without
+fear, and without reproach." But these were vain attempts at
+knighthood, for there was nothing chivalrous in the character of
+Frederick.
+
+Two short journeys performed with his father, and a visit to the army
+which Prince Eugene commanded on the Rhine in 1734, formed the only
+interruption to the tranquil and philosophical life of Rheinsberg.
+
+The first appearance in the field of the army bequeathed by Frederick
+William to his son, forms an era in modern history; for a belief in
+its efficiency was the mainspring that urged on the young king to
+attack the Austrians; and its excellence became the lever with which
+he ultimately raised his poor and secondary kingdom to the rank of a
+first-rate European power. The history of the rise and formation of
+this army, though a very curious one, would necessarily exceed our
+limits; but no one will be able to write the life of Frederick, and do
+full justice to the subject, without giving the reader a proper idea
+of the nature and origin of the engine which helped so mainly to
+render him great and famous. He had, no doubt, other claims to
+greatness besides those which his military actions conferred upon
+him; but it was the splendor of these actions that brought his other
+merits to light; and little enough would have been heard of the
+"Philosopher of Sans-Souci," had not the victor of so many fields made
+him known to the world.
+
+Frederick, while crown-prince, had not shown any great predilection
+for military affairs; he was rather pacifically disposed; was even a
+little taken with the philosophy of Wolf; and greatly captivated by
+French literature, and by French poetry in particular. It is probable,
+therefore, that the high opinion generally entertained of the
+newly-formed army, and the favorable opportunity that fortune offered
+on his accession to the throne, were the spurs "that pricked him on"
+to the field.
+
+The Emperor Charles VI., the last male descendant of the house of
+Hapsburg, died in October, 1741, leaving his daughter, Maria Theresa,
+to retain, if possible, his extensive dominions against the various
+claimants who had not acknowledged the Pragmatic Sanction: an act by
+which the emperor had bequeathed to her all the possessions of his
+house. Frederick William had not acknowledged this deed, so that
+Frederick was not bound by it; and having some well-grounded claims on
+the duchies of Silesia, prepared to make them good--by force of arms,
+if necessary--the moment the emperor died. The desire "to be spoken
+of" was, as he himself confesses, one of his principal motives for
+action on this occasion.
+
+The young king resolved to lead the army he had inherited, personally
+into the field; and as the Austrians were totally unprepared for the
+visit, the principalities were occupied without resistance. It was not
+till April 10, 1741, that an Austrian force, under General Neipperg,
+came to give him the meeting; and there was but little wanting to have
+rendered the battle of Molwitz, the first of Frederick's fields, the
+last also. The ground was covered with snow. Both parties were of
+about equal strength, and took up their ground, as the king himself
+tells us, in a manner alike unskilful; but, on the part of the
+tactician, this very want of skill tended to gain the battle; for
+three battalions of the first line, not finding room to form up, were
+thrown back _en potence_ on the extremity of the right wing, and, as
+we shall see, repulsed the Austrian cavalry by their fire at the most
+critical moment of the battle. The Austrians had been very merry at
+the expense of the Prussian system of tactics, and had promised to
+beat the pipe-clay out of their jackets at the first meeting; and now
+the words of scorn were to be made good.
+
+After the usual salutation of artillery, the Imperial cavalry,
+practised in the Turkish wars, fell at full gallop upon the Prussian
+cavalry of the right wing, and overthrew them in an instant; for, like
+the infantry, they had been taught only to fire. Following up their
+success, the Austrian horsemen dashed at the flank of the Prussian
+infantry; but here the three battalions already mentioned as thrown
+back _en potence_, presented a steady front, and by their rapid fire
+repulsed the assailants, who, having their commander killed, seeing
+the despised and pipe-clayed warriors standing immovably in their
+ranks, from which a fire of never-heard rapidity was pouring out in
+all directions, soon dispersed, leaving their comrades of the
+infantry to try their fortune against these well-drilled foes. The
+infantry were not more fortunate than the cavalry. The Prussians stood
+firm as rocks, and fired three shots to their one; and as both were
+equally unskilful in the use of arms, the quantity of shots fired
+naturally decided the day. After a combat of several hours, the
+Austrians retired from the field, leaving the victory and
+battle-ground in the hands of the Prussians.
+
+But where was he, the chieftain of that gallant host, the claimant of
+dukedoms and principalities, the victor for whose brows a splendid
+wreath of laurel had been so nobly gained by the blood of the brave?
+Will blushing glory hide the tale of shame? Alas, no!--vain were the
+courtly attempts made to conceal the truth, and history is forced to
+confess that "Frederick the Great from Molwitz deigned to run." In the
+scene of death, tumult, and confusion, which followed on the overthrow
+of the Prussian cavalry, the king completely lost his presence of
+mind, and fled as far as Oppeln, where the Austrian garrison,
+unfortunately for their cause, received him with a fire of musketry,
+that made him take another direction. He passed the night in great
+anxiety at a small country inn twenty miles from the field. On the
+following morning an aide-de-camp of the Prince of Dessau brought the
+fugitive king back to his victorious army. "Oh, Frederick," says
+Berenhorst, "who could then have foretold the glory thou wert destined
+to acquire and to merit as well as any conqueror and gainer of battles
+ever did?"
+
+The war of the Austrian Succession having been now kindled, and Maria
+Theresa been attacked on all the points of her extensive dominions,
+Frederick made peace, left his allies to shift for themselves, and,
+having obtained the principalities of Silesia, retired from the
+contest. That he made good use of the time and additional sources of
+strength gained, it is needless to say.
+
+The splendid success of the Austrian arms against France, the rapid
+preponderance that Maria Theresa was acquiring, alarmed him, however,
+for his late conquests; and he determined again to take the field
+before the strength of the house of Austria should outgrow his power
+to repress it. Voltaire negotiated for France on this occasion, and
+represented the danger with rather more than diplomatic ability. On
+both sides the protocols were as often written in verse as in prose;
+and Frederick, who hated George II., having told the poet, "Let France
+declare war against England, and I march," the latter instantly set
+out for Versailles, and thus gave the signal for the second Silesian
+War. This was in 1744. The Prussian troops were again victorious in
+battle, but the general result was not so much in their favor. The
+king, after taking Prague, was forced to evacuate Bohemia and part of
+Silesia; and though afterward brilliantly successful, particularly in
+the fields of Hohenfriedberg, he did not hesitate to make a separate
+peace the moment a fair opportunity offered. On taking the field, he
+told the French ambassador, "I am going to play your game, and if the
+trumps fall to my share, we'll go halves." The best part of the
+promise was soon forgotten, and the French, Spaniards, and Bavarians
+left, as before, to fight their own battle, the King of Prussia
+having, in December, 1745, amicably concluded all his differences
+with Saxony and Austria. The young and fortunate conqueror now
+proceeded to improve and adorn his dominions; and it is almost
+impossible to speak in too high terms of the great things he effected
+with comparatively small means.
+
+At this period of his life Frederick was singularly beloved and
+admired by the new court and world with which he had surrounded
+himself. His wit, fortune, and activity--a figure marked by
+distinguished bearing, by beauty of a peculiar kind, even by dress and
+apparel--a total of personal appearance that impressed itself
+singularly on the eyes of the beholder, excited general enthusiasm.
+Imitation is a proof and consequence of it; and many an orthodox
+believer, who trembled in private, ridiculed religion in public,
+because he had heard that the king was an atheist; and many a gallant
+soldier, who hated the sight and smell of snuff, disfigured his nose
+and lip with rappee, because such was the royal fashion. As a general,
+he was looked upon as the first of his time. The feeble moment at
+Molwitz had not become generally known; and the few who had witnessed
+the unpleasant affair, were too loyal and well-disposed to call it
+back to their recollection.
+
+The king certainly did everything to deserve the favorable opinion
+entertained of him. Arts, science, commerce, and agriculture were
+encouraged; more than one hundred and thirty villages sprang up on
+newly drained lands along the banks of the Oder; men of letters and
+talents were brought to Berlin; theatres, operas, ballets, were
+established; a sort of German Versailles arose amid the sands of
+Brandenburg; and the "Garden House outside the gate," which was
+Frederick William's summer residence and place of recreation, soon
+sank down to the humble rank of a gardener's lodge to his son's
+palace! The machinery of government was never carried on with such
+perfect regularity. The king superintended the whole himself, and that
+without any regular intercourse with his ministers, some of whom, it
+is said, he never saw in his life. They furnished him every morning
+with abridged statements of the business to be transacted, and he
+wrote his order on the margin of the paper; the affairs of state were
+all settled in a couple of hours. Literary compositions, in prose and
+verse, military reviews, meals, and conversation, filled up the rest
+of the day. "Frederick," says Voltaire, in his vile and mischievous
+"Memoires," "governed without court, council, or religious
+establishment" (_culte_). It was during this brilliant period of the
+king's reign that the French poet passed some time at Berlin.
+
+The Austrians, who had ridiculed the drilling and powdering, had paid
+for their folly in many a bloody field, but had profited by the
+lesson, and could now move as accurately and fire as quickly as their
+neighbors. The first combat of the great Seven Years' War, which began
+in 1756, already proved this to the conviction of all parties. The
+Prussians purchased a slight advantage by a great loss of blood; and
+on the very battle-field the general remark was, "These are no longer
+the old Austrians." On the capture of the Saxon army, which
+surrendered at Pirna, Frederick, who exacted such unlimited allegiance
+from his subjects and soldiers, gave a strange proof of inconsistency,
+and of that contempt with which he seemed to treat the feelings of
+other men; for, without so much as asking their consent, he ordered
+all the prisoners to be incorporated into the ranks of his army, and
+expected to make loyal Prussians of them by merely changing their
+uniforms. As was to be expected, they deserted immediately.
+
+The progress of the war is out of our province. Spoiled by success,
+Frederick, after gaining the dearly purchased victory of Prague,
+attempted to reduce a city which he could not invest, and in which an
+army was concentrated. The Austrians advanced with 60,000 men to raise
+the siege; and the presumptuous king did not hesitate to rush upon
+them with less than half the number of Prussians; a total defeat, the
+first he had yet sustained, was the consequence. From this day it is
+allowed that the Prussian infantry had no longer any superiority over
+their enemies; henceforth the genius of their sovereign, the
+confidence he inspired, and the dread entertained of him by his
+adversaries, are the only advantages they have to depend upon. In the
+second year of the war he writes to La Motte Fouque,--"Owing to the
+great losses sustained, our infantry is very much degenerated from
+what it formerly was, and must not be employed on difficult
+undertakings." In the third year he says to the same,--"Care must be
+taken not to render our people timid; they are too much so by nature
+already."
+
+Of this battle of Collin we must here report an anecdote
+characteristic of what Frederick _then_ was. The left wing of the
+Prussian army was obliquing in admirable order to the left, and
+already gaining the right of the Austrians, according to the
+prescribed disposition, when the king, at once losing patience in the
+most unaccountable manner, sent directions to Prince Maurice of
+Dessau, who commanded the infantry, ordering him to wheel up and
+advance upon the enemy. The prince told the officer that the proposed
+points had not yet been attained, and recommended that the oblique
+march should still be continued. The king immediately came up in
+person, and in haughty and overbearing style repeated the order, and,
+when the Prince of Dessau attempted to explain, drew his sword, and in
+a fiery and threatening tone exclaimed, "Will he (_er_) obey, and
+immediately wheel up and advance?" The officers present were
+terrified, fancying from his excited manner that he would be guilty of
+some act of violence; but the prince, of course, bowed and obeyed,
+and--the battle was soon lost.
+
+Frederick, as an absolute king and commander, had, no doubt, many
+advantages over the ill-combined coalition by which he was assailed;
+but the mass of brute force was so great on the part of his
+adversaries, that he was more than once on the very eve of being
+crushed. At one time, indeed, he contemplated the commission of
+suicide.
+
+[Illustration: Frederick and the Austrians after Leuthen.]
+
+The wonderful battles of Rossbach and Leuthen[1] reconciled him to
+life. The former was not, as is well known, his work, as it was
+almost gained before he well knew what was going on: it was due
+principally to the indomitable bravery of Zeidlitz and the cavalry.
+His conduct at Leuthen could not be surpassed; and his manner of
+promoting General Prince Maurice of Dessau, who had most nobly aided
+him in the battle, was highly characteristic. "I congratulate you on
+the victory, _Field-marshal_," said Frederick, when they met on the
+field. The prince was still so much occupied with what was going
+forward, that he did not mark the exact words the king had used, till
+the latter again called out, "Don't you hear, _Field-marshal_, that I
+congratulate you on the victory gained?" when the newly promoted made
+due acknowledgments in course. Frederick, in his great contest, was
+assisted by an English, Hessian, and Hanoverian army, as well as by
+English subsidies; but, making full allowance for the value of these
+auxiliaries, it must still be admitted that great genius and courage
+were required to enable a King of Prussia to resist the combined
+forces of France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Frederick effected
+this, and his conduct deservedly obtained for him the name of "Great."
+
+         [Footnote 1: It was the evening succeeding this battle of
+         Leuthen that Frederick, himself leading the advance after the
+         flying Austrians, entered the little town of Lissa, where a
+         body of the enemy, never dreaming the pursuit could reach so
+         far, were resting for the night. Frederick was as surprised
+         as they when, on entering a room of the principal inn, he
+         found it filled with Austrian officers. He had but a handful
+         of troops with him, and, had his enemies known it, was their
+         prisoner. But with the utmost coolness he saluted them,
+         "Good-evening, gentlemen. Is there still room for me, think
+         you?" Whereon the frightened Austrians, thinking themselves
+         surrounded by the whole Prussian army, decamped in wild
+         haste, and getting their troops together as they could, fled
+         from the dangerous neighborhood.]
+
+During his first two wars, and till the period of the battle of
+Rossbach in the third war, he always kept at a distance from the
+scene, which may be allowed in a commander who has to overlook the
+whole, and is not called upon to defend posts or lead attacks in
+person. After the above period, however, and when he perceived that
+the nature of the contest, and public opinion itself, demanded greater
+exertions from him, he several times, on due deliberation, exposed
+himself to the danger of an ordinary brigadier. Several occasions of
+this kind might be specified. At the Battle of Kunersdorf, when
+attempting to assemble some remnants of the infantry, who were still
+holding their ground here and there, his horse was shot under him. At
+Liegnitz, a spent ball struck him on the calf of the leg. At Torgau
+again, when a newly advanced brigade began to give way, like all its
+predecessors, he rode into the heaviest fire of musketry, and received
+a shot on the breast, which penetrated his shirt, and for some moments
+deprived him so completely of all power of breathing, that he was
+believed to be dead.[2]
+
+         [Footnote 2: This battle of Torgau, Frederick planned to win
+         by a flank attack; but the flanking column was delayed in its
+         march, and at evening the king found himself everywhere
+         beaten back. His last chance of success against his many
+         opponents seemed lost: and he spent the night seated in the
+         church at Elsnig, in such mood as may be imagined. During the
+         night the flanking column at last arrived, fell on the enemy,
+         and crushed them. This was the last of Frederick's great
+         battles.]
+
+Frederick outlived his last great war for twenty-three years, and died
+in 1786, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Every hour of this
+last period of his life was assiduously occupied, almost to the hour
+of his death, in zealous exertions to improve his country and
+ameliorate the condition of his people. He certainly effected great
+things, but left much that he might have achieved totally unattempted.
+Living in the solitude which his dazzling fame had cast around him,
+separated from all immediate intercourse with his species by the very
+barrier his glory had interposed between him and other men, he acted
+his part to admiration before the crowds who, from far and near, came
+to behold him; but, blinded by the halo that encompassed him, he saw
+little, and deemed less, perhaps, of mankind and their doings. In the
+mass they may possibly not be deserving of high admiration, but
+Frederick had never done them even justice; and in the latter years of
+his life, he entirely lost sight of the direction they were taking; he
+formed an ideal world to himself, and governed his country and
+subjects accordingly. He was the admired wonder of the age; a
+brilliant, if not spotless sun, that cast far aloft its vivid beams,
+indeed, but remained stationary and concentrated within itself, while
+all surrounding nature was in motion and in progress.
+
+
+
+
+ROBERT, LORD CLIVE
+
+By W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D.
+
+(1725-1774)
+
+[Illustration: Lord Clive. [TN]]
+
+
+The history of British India is without a parallel in the annals of
+mankind. It is little over a hundred years ago since "the company of
+British merchants trading with the East Indies" possessed nothing more
+than a few ports favorably situated for commerce, held at the will, or
+rather the caprice, of the native princes, and defended against
+commercial rivals by miserable fortifications, which could not have
+resisted any serious attack. Now British sovereignty in India extends
+over an empire greater than that possessed by Alexander or the Caesars,
+and probably superior to both in the amount of its wealth and
+population. The chief agent in raising the East India Company from a
+trading association to a sovereign power was Lord Clive, whose own
+elevation was scarcely less marvellous than that of the empire which
+he founded.
+
+Robert Clive was born September 29, 1725; his father was a country
+gentleman, of moderate fortune and still more moderate capacity, who
+cultivated his own estate in Shropshire. When a boy, the future hero
+of India distinguished himself chiefly by wild deeds of daring and
+courage, neglecting the opportunities of storing his mind with
+information, the want of which he bitterly felt in after-life. His
+violent temper, and his neglect of study, led his family to despair of
+his success at home, and, in his eighteenth year, he was sent out as a
+"writer," in the service of the East India Company, to the Presidency
+of Madras. In our day such an appointment would be considered a fair
+provision for a young man, holding out, besides, a reasonable prospect
+of obtaining competency, if not fortune; but when Clive went to the
+East the younger "writers," or clerks, were so badly paid, that they
+could scarcely subsist without getting into debt, while their seniors
+enriched themselves by trading on their own account. The voyage out,
+from England to Madras, which is now effected in three or four weeks,
+occupied, at that time, from six months to a year. Clive's voyage was
+more than usually tedious; the ship was detained for a considerable
+period at the Brazils, where he picked up some knowledge of
+Portuguese, and contracted some heavy debts. This apparent misfortune
+had the good effect of compelling him to reflect on his situation. He
+avoided all amusements and dissipation, but availed himself of the
+resources of the governor's library, which was liberally opened to him
+in his hours of leisure. He, however, felt himself unhappy, for his
+occupations were unsuited to his tastes, and he longed for an
+opportunity of finding a mode of life more congenial to his
+disposition.
+
+The war of the Austrian Succession, in which George II. took the side
+of the empress, while the French king supported her competitor,
+extended to the Eastern World. Labourdonnais, the governor of the
+French colony in the Mauritius, suddenly appeared before Madras, and,
+as the town and fort were not prepared for defence, both were
+surrendered on honorable terms. But Dupleix, the French governor of
+Pondicherry, denying the right of Labourdonnais to grant any terms,
+refused to ratify the capitulation, and directed Madras to be razed to
+the ground. With still greater disregard for public faith, he led the
+English who had capitulated through the town of Pondicherry, as
+captives gracing his triumphal procession, in the presence of 50,000
+spectators. Clive escaped this outrage by flying from Madras in
+disguise; he took refuge at Fort St. David, a settlement subordinate
+to Madras, where he obtained from Major Lawrence, one of the best
+officers then in India, an ensign's commission in the service of the
+company.
+
+Peace between England and France having been established, Madras was
+restored to its former owners. Clive, however, did not return to his
+civil pursuits; he occasionally acted as a writer, but he was more
+frequently employed as a soldier in the petty hostilities which arose
+between the English and the natives. Events, however, were now in
+progress, which made the French and English East India companies
+competitors for an empire, though neither understood the value of the
+prize for which they contended; and Clive, fortunately for his country
+and himself, was almost forced to take the position of a military
+commander.
+
+To explain fully the position of India, at this period, would take far
+more pages than we can afford lines; a very brief sketch, may,
+however, help our readers to comprehend the course of events. India,
+in its entire extent, was nominally governed by the Emperor of Delhi,
+or, as he was generally, though absurdly, called in Europe, "the Great
+Mogul." Under him were several viceroys, each of whom ruled over as
+many subjects as any of the great sovereigns of Europe; and the
+delegates of these viceroys had a wider extent of territory than is
+included in most of the minor states of Germany. This empire began to
+lose its unity toward the close of the seventeenth century. The
+different viceroys, while professing a nominal allegiance to the crown
+of Delhi, established a substantial independence; several of their
+immediate vassals treated them as they had done the emperor; and
+several warlike tribes took advantage of this disorganization to
+plunder the defenceless provinces. Of these the most formidable were
+the Mahrattas, whose name was long the terror of the peninsula.
+
+Dupleix, whose name has already been mentioned as the French governor
+of Pondicherry, was the first who conceived the possibility of
+establishing a European dominion on the ruins of the Delhi empire;
+and, for this purpose, he wisely resolved to attempt no direct
+conquest, but to place at the head of the different principalities,
+men who owed their elevation to his aid, and whose continuance in
+power would be dependent on his assistance. With this view he
+supported a claimant to the viceroyalty of the Deccan, and another to
+the subordinate government of the Carnatic; or, as the Indians term
+it, a rival nizam, and a rival nabob, against the princes already in
+possession of these territories. His efforts were equally splendid and
+successful; the competitors whom he had selected became masters of the
+kingdom, and he, as the bestower of such mighty prizes, began to be
+regarded as the greatest authority in India. The English were struck
+with astonishment, and, as there was peace with France, they were at a
+loss to determine on the line of conduct that they ought to pursue.
+Mohammed Ali, whom the English recognized as Nabob of the Carnatic,
+was reduced to the possession of the single town of Trichinopoly, and
+even that was invested by Chunda Sahib, the rival nabob, and his
+French auxiliaries. Under these circumstances Clive proposed to the
+Madras authorities the desperate expedient of seizing on Arcot, the
+capital of the Carnatic, and thus recalling Chunda Sahib from the
+siege of Trichinopoly. With a force of 200 Europeans and 300 Sepoys,
+under eight officers, four of whom had been taken from the
+counting-house, Clive surprised Arcot in the midst of a terrific
+storm, and the garrison fled without striking a blow. Being reinforced
+by large bodies of troops, the expelled garrison, swelled to the
+number of 3,000 men, formed an encampment near the town; but Clive
+took them by surprise in the night, slew great numbers, put the rest
+to flight, and returned to his quarters without a single casualty.
+
+Chunda Sahib sent 10,000 men, including 150 French soldiers, under his
+son, Rajah Sahib, to recover Arcot. Clive's little garrison endured a
+siege of fifty days against this disproportionate force, and against
+the pressure of famine, which was early and severely felt. Nothing in
+history is equal to the proof of devotion which the native portion of
+this gallant little band gave to their beloved commander; the Sepoys
+came to Clive with a request that all the grain should be given to the
+Europeans, who required more nourishment than the natives of Asia,
+declaring that they would be satisfied with the thin gruel which
+strained away from the rice. Rajah Sahib at length made an attempt to
+take the place by storm; he was defeated with great loss, principally
+by Clive's personal exertions, upon which he abandoned the siege,
+leaving behind him a large quantity of military stores.
+
+Clive followed up his victory with great vigor, and the government of
+Madras, encouraged by his success, resolved to send him with a strong
+detachment to reinforce the garrison of Trichinopoly. Just at this
+conjuncture, however, Major Lawrence returned from England and assumed
+the chief command. If Clive was mortified by the change, he soon
+overcame his feelings; he cheerfully placed himself under the command
+of his old friend, and exerted himself as strenuously in the second
+post as when he held the chief command. The French had no leaders fit
+to cope with the two friends, and the English triumphed everywhere.
+The besiegers of Trichinopoly were themselves besieged, and compelled
+to capitulate. Chunda Sahib fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, and
+was put to death at the instigation of his rival. The forts of
+Covelong and Chingleput were taken by Clive, though his forces
+consisted of raw recruits, little better than an undisciplined rabble.
+Dupleix, however, was not driven to despair, but still sought means of
+renewing the contest.
+
+After the capture of Chingleput, Clive returned to Madras, where he
+married Miss Maskelyne, sister to the Astronomer Royal, and
+immediately after returned to England. He was received with great
+honors by the Court of Directors, and, through the influence of Lord
+Sandwich, obtained a seat in Parliament; but his election having been
+set aside, he again turned his thoughts toward India, where both the
+company and the government were eager to avail themselves of his
+services. The directors appointed him governor of Fort St. David; the
+king gave him the commission of a lieutenant-colonel in the British
+army; and thus doubly authorized, he returned to Asia in 1755.
+
+The first service on which he was employed after his return to the
+East was the reduction of the stronghold of Gheriah. This fortress,
+built on a craggy promontory, and almost surrounded by the ocean, was
+the den of a pirate named Angria, whose ships had long been the terror
+of the Arabian seas. Admiral Watson, who commanded the English
+squadron, burned Angria's fleet, while Clive attacked the fastness by
+land. The place soon fell, and a booty of a hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds sterling was divided among the conquerors.
+
+About two months after Clive had entered on his government at Fort St.
+David, intelligence was received of the destruction of the English
+settlement at Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, the Nabob of Bengal.
+Although scarcely any resistance had been made, the English prisoners,
+146 in number, were all thrust into a close and narrow apartment
+called the Black Hole, which, in such a climate, would have been too
+close and too narrow for a single prisoner. Their sufferings during
+the dreadful night, until death put an end to the misery of most,
+cannot be described; 123 perished before morning, and the survivors
+had to be dug out of the heap formed by the dead bodies of their
+companions.
+
+The authorities at Madras, on receiving this intelligence, resolved to
+avenge the outrage; 900 Europeans and 1,500 Sepoys, under the command
+of Clive, were embarked on board Admiral Watson's squadron; the
+passage was rendered tedious by adverse winds, but the armament
+arrived safely in Bengal. Clive proceeded with his usual promptitude;
+he routed the garrison which the nabob had placed in Fort William,
+recovered Calcutta, and took Hoogly by storm. Surajah Dowlah, who was
+as cowardly as he was cruel, now sought to negotiate peace, but at the
+same time he secretly urged the French to come to his assistance. This
+duplicity could not be concealed from Clive and Watson. They
+determined accordingly to attack Chandernagore, the chief possession
+of the French in Bengal, before the force there could be strengthened
+by new arrivals either from the South of India or Europe. Watson
+directed the expedition by water; Clive by land. The success of the
+combined movements was rapid and complete. The fort, the garrison, the
+artillery, the military stores, all fell into the hands of the
+English, and nearly five hundred European troops were among the
+prisoners.
+
+Soon after, Clive marched to attack Surajah Dowlah near Plassey. At
+sunrise on the morning of June 23, 1757, the army of the nabob,
+consisting of 40,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry, supported by fifty
+pieces of heavy ordnance, advanced to attack the English army, which
+did not exceed three thousand men in all, and had for its artillery
+but a few field-pieces. But the nabob had no confidence in his army,
+nor his army in him; the battle was confined to a distant cannonade,
+in which the nabob's artillery was quite ineffective, while the
+English field-pieces did great execution. Surajah's terror became
+greater every moment, and led him to adopt the insidious advice of a
+traitor, Meer Jaffier, and order a retreat. Clive saw the movement,
+and the confusion it occasioned in the undisciplined hordes; he
+ordered his battalions to advance, and, in a moment, the hosts of the
+nabob became a mass of inextricable confusion. In less than an hour
+they were dispersed, never again to reassemble; though only five or
+six hundred fell; their camp, guns, baggage, with innumerable wagons
+and cattle, remained in the hands of the victors. With the loss of
+only 22 soldiers killed and 50 wounded, Clive had dispersed an army of
+60,000 men, and conquered an empire larger and more populous than
+Great Britain. Surajah Dowlah fled from the field of battle to his
+capital, but, not deeming himself safe there, he tried to escape by
+the river to Patna. He was subsequently captured, and barbarously
+murdered by the son of Meer Jaffier. In the meantime Clive led Meer
+Jaffier in triumph to Moorshedabad, and installed him as nabob.
+
+Immense sums of money were given to the servants of the company; Clive
+received for his share between two and three hundred thousand pounds.
+Nor was this all: Shah Alum, the son of the Emperor of Delhi, having
+invaded Bengal, Clive delivered Meer Jaffier from this formidable
+enemy, and was rewarded with the jaghire or estate of the lands south
+of Calcutta, for which the company were bound to pay the nabob a
+quit-rent of about thirty thousand pounds annually. But the gratitude
+of Meer Jaffier did not last long; weary of his dependence on the
+English, he sought an alliance with the Dutch, who had a factory at
+Chinsurah. The authorities of this place sent earnest letters to their
+countrymen in Batavia, urging them to take this opportunity of
+raising a rival power to the English in India, and their advice was
+taken. Seven large ships from Java, having on board 1,500 troops,
+appeared unexpectedly in the Hoogly. Though England was at peace with
+Holland, Clive resolved to attack them without delay. The ships were
+taken and the army routed. Chinsurah was invested by the conquerors,
+and was only spared on the condition that no fortifications should be
+built, and no soldiers raised, beyond those that were necessary for
+the police of the factories.
+
+Three months afterward he returned to England, where he was received
+with a profusion of honors; he was raised to the Irish peerage, and
+promised an English title. George III., who had just ascended the
+throne, received him with marked distinction, and the leading
+statesmen of the day vied with each other in showing him attention. By
+judicious purchases of land he was enabled to acquire great
+parliamentary influence, and by large purchases of India stock he was
+enabled to form a strong party in the Court of Proprietors. The value
+of such support was soon shown; the Court of Directors, instigated by
+Mr. Sullivan, the personal enemy of Lord Clive, withheld the rent of
+the jaghire that he had received from Meer Jaffier, and it was
+necessary to institute a suit in chancery to enforce payment.
+
+But Clive's greatest strength was derived from the misconduct of his
+successors in the government of Bengal. "Rapacity, luxury, and the
+spirit of insubordination," says a late writer, "spread from the civil
+service to the officers of the army, and from the officers to the
+soldiers. The evil continued to grow till every messroom became the
+seat of conspiracy and cabal, and till the Sepoys could only be kept
+in order by wholesale executions." Individuals were enriched, but the
+public treasury was empty, and the government had to face the dangers
+of disordered finances, when there was war on the frontiers and
+disaffection in the army. Under these circumstances it was generally
+felt that Clive alone could save the empire which he had founded.
+
+Lord Clive felt the strength of his position. He refused to go to
+India so long as his enemies had preponderating power in the Court of
+Directors; an overwhelming majority of the proprietors seconded his
+wishes, and the Sullivan party, lately triumphant, was deprived of
+power. Having been nominated governor-general and commander-in-chief
+of the British possessions in Bengal he sailed for India, and reached
+Calcutta in May, 1765. He at once assembled the council, and announced
+his determination to enforce his two great reforms--the prohibition of
+receiving presents from the natives, and the prohibition of private
+trade by the servants of the Company. The whole settlement seemed to
+be set, as one man, against these measures; but Clive declared that if
+the functionaries in Calcutta refused obedience, he would send for
+some civil servants from Madras to aid him in conducting the
+administration. As he evinced the strength of his resolution by
+dismissing the most factious of his opponents, the rest became alarmed
+and submitted to what was inevitable.
+
+Scarcely had the governor-general quelled the opposition of the civil
+service when he had to encounter a formidable mutiny of the officers
+of the army, occasioned by a diminution of their field allowances. Two
+hundred English officers engaged in a conspiracy to resign their
+commissions on the same day, believing that the governor-general would
+submit to any terms rather than see the army, on which the safety of
+the empire rested, left without commanders. They were mistaken in
+their calculations; Clive supplied their places from the officers
+round his person; he sent for others from Madras; he even gave
+commissions to some mercantile agents who offered their support at
+this time. Fortunately the soldiers, and particularly the Sepoys, over
+whom Clive had unbounded influence, remained steadfast in their
+allegiance. The leaders were arrested, tried, and dismissed from the
+service; the others, completely humbled, besought permission to
+withdraw their resignations, and Clive exhibited lenity to all, save
+those whom he regarded as the contrivers of the plot.
+
+In his foreign policy he was equally successful. The Nabob of Oude,
+who had threatened invasion, sought for peace as soon as he heard of
+Clive's arrival in India; and the Emperor of Delhi executed a formal
+warrant, empowering the Company to collect and administer the revenues
+of Bengal, Bahar, and Oussa; that is, in fact, to exercise direct
+sovereignty over these provinces. Never had such a beneficial change
+been wrought in the short space of eighteen months. The
+governor-general set a noble example of obedience to his own
+regulations; he refused the brilliant presents offered him by the
+native princes, and when Meer Jaffier left him a legacy of sixty
+thousand pounds, he made the whole over to the Company, in trust, for
+the officers and soldiers invalided in their service.
+
+At the close of January, 1767, the state of his health compelled Lord
+Clive to return to England. His reception at home was far from being
+gratifying; his old enemies in the India House, reinforced by those
+whose rapacity he had checked in Bengal, assailed him publicly and
+privately; the prejudices excited against those who had suddenly made
+large fortunes in India, were concentrated against him who was the
+highest, both in rank and fortune; while his ostentatious display of
+wealth and grandeur increased the unfavorable impression on the public
+mind. The dreadful famine which desolated Bengal in 1770, was, with
+strange perversity, attributed to Lord Clive's measures, and his
+parliamentary influence was greatly weakened by the death of George
+Grenville. Such was his position in the session of 1772, when the
+state of India was brought before Parliament, and all the evils of its
+condition made subjects of charge against the best of its rulers.
+Clive met the storm with firmness. Lord Chatham declared that the
+speech in which he vindicated himself at an early stage of the
+proceedings was one of the finest ever delivered in the House of
+Commons; his answers, when subjected to a rigid examination before a
+committee of inquiry, were equally remarkable for their boldness and
+candor. But there were some of his deeds which could not be justified,
+and a vote of moderate censure on his conduct was sanctioned by the
+House of Commons. This was a disgrace, for which the favor of his
+sovereign, though it never varied, afforded him no consolation; his
+constitution, already weakened by a tropical climate, began to give
+way; to soothe the pains of mind and body he had recourse to the
+treacherous aid of opium, which only aggravated both; at length, on
+November 22, 1774, he died by his own hand.
+
+That Clive committed many faults cannot be denied; and it is not
+sufficient excuse to say that they were necessary to the founding of
+the British empire in India. But his second administration, the
+reforms he introduced into the government, and the system of wise
+policy which he established, may well atone for his errors; indeed, it
+has done so in India, where the natives not only respect his memory as
+a conqueror, but venerate it as a benefactor.
+
+
+
+
+FRANCOIS KELLERMANN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE
+
+(1735-1820)
+
+[Illustration: Francois Kellermann. [TN]]
+
+
+Francois Christopher Kellermann, who with a little army of raw
+recruits defeated the forces of united Europe at Valmy, and saved
+France from destruction, was born of a respectable family at
+Strasbourg, then part of France, on May 28, 1735. At the age of
+seventeen, he became a cadet in the regiment of Lowendalh; and passing
+through the grades of ensign and lieutenant in 1753 and 1756, became
+captain of dragoons, in which rank he served in the Seven Years' War
+until 1762, and was favorably mentioned in the reports of the battle
+of Bergen. A brilliant charge of cavalry, against a corps commanded by
+General Scheider, procured him, in the last year, the distinction of
+the cross of St. Louis, then an honor of the highest esteem. After the
+peace of 1763, he passed with the same rank into the legion of
+Conflans, and in 1765 and 1766 was charged by the king with the
+execution of some important commissions in Poland. In 1771, the
+increasing troubles in Poland furnished a pretext for the invasion of
+that country by the united troops of France and the Germanic
+confederation; and Kellermann was appointed to accompany the French
+commander-in-chief of the expedition, Baron de Viomenil; and in 1772,
+he was placed at the head of a native corps of cavalry which he had
+been concerned in organizing. His conduct in the retreat from the
+castle of Cracow, in 1772, elevated his character for dexterity and
+courage. In 1780, he became lieutenant-colonel of hussars; on January
+1, 1784, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier, and in 1788,
+received the rank of major-general. In 1790, under the National
+Assembly, he was placed in command of both departments of Alsace, and
+so approved were his services in placing that frontier in a state of
+defence against the threatened invasion of combined Europe, that, in
+1792, he received the cordon rouge of the order of St. Louis, and was
+appointed lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the forces
+assembled at Neukirch, and afterward, on August 28th, in the same
+year, of the army of the Moselle.
+
+It was at this time that the formidable invasion under the Duke of
+Brunswick, consisting of 138,000 men, of whom 66,000 were under the
+King of Prussia in person, and 50,000 were Austrians under Prince
+Hohenlohe and Marshal Clairfait, marched to France, and menaced
+Dumouriez, who occupied the defiles of Varennes, with very inferior
+forces. Against this mighty invasion the French nation rose as one
+man. Recruits poured to the borderland singing the Marseillaise, their
+newly adopted national hymn. Rapidly reducing this motley force to
+order, Kellermann, with 22,000 men, marched from Metz, on September
+4th, for Chalons with the utmost celerity, reached Bar before the
+Prussians, saved the magazines on the upper Saone and Marne, and put
+himself in a situation to communicate with Dumouriez. The latter
+general was attacked on September 16th, and immediately ordered
+Kellermann to take a designated position on his left, which was,
+accordingly, accomplished on the 19th. No sooner had Kellermann
+arrived here, than he perceived that the position was altogether
+defective. A pond on his right separated him from Dumouriez; the
+marshy river of the Auve, traversed by a single narrow bridge, cut off
+his retreat in the rear; and the heights of Valmy commanded his left.
+While he was shut up in this isolated position, the enemy might march
+upon the magazines at Dampierre and Voilmont, cut both the French
+armies off from Chalons, and then fall upon each of them in
+succession. Kellermann instantly resolved to rectify this error in the
+disposition of the troops; and by four o'clock on the following
+morning, his army was in motion by its rear upon Dampierre and
+Voilmont. But the Prussians, equally alive to the disadvantage in
+which Kellermann had been placed, were already in movement to attack
+him, and it became impracticable to pass the Auve. Leaving his
+advanced-guard and his reserve to check the Prussians on the plain,
+Kellermann drew off the rest of his army to the heights of Valmy, and
+placing a battery of eighteen pieces near the mill of Valmy, at seven
+in the morning was drawn up in a strong position to receive the attack
+of the enemy. The King of Prussia, who commanded in person, drew up
+his army in three columns on the heights of La Lune, and advancing in
+an oblique direction a vehement fire was kept up on both sides for two
+hours. About nine, a new battery on the enemy's right suddenly opened
+in the direction of the mill, near which Kellermann and his escort,
+with the reserve cuirassiers, were stationed, and produced the utmost
+confusion. Most of the escort were killed or wounded, and Kellermann
+had a horse shot under him, while about the same time the explosion of
+two caissons of ammunition near the mill added to the alarm.
+Kellermann, however, quickly disposed a battery so as to return the
+fire, and the battle was restored on that side. After some time, two
+of the Prussian columns, flanked by powerful cavalry, advanced in
+formidable array toward the mill, while the third remained in reserve.
+Kellermann drew up his men in column by battalions, and advancing
+his reserved artillery to the front of his position, waited the
+advance of the enemy, who approached in silence. When they were within
+range of a destructive fire, Kellermann, waving his hat upon the end
+of his sabre, shouted, "Vive la Nation!" to which the whole army
+responded with enthusiastic cries, and at the same moment, the
+artillery opened a tremendous fire. The Prussians halted; the heads of
+their columns melted away under the galling discharges; and they
+retreated, in good order, to their original position after sustaining
+a serious loss. The fire, however, continued on both sides with
+spirit; and about four o'clock in the afternoon the Prussians renewed
+their attack in column, but were again repulsed, even more decidedly,
+and by six in the evening were in full retreat. The victory was thus
+decided in favor of the French; but the safety of the magazines at
+Dampierre and Voilmont was still not secured.
+
+[Illustration: The Marseillaise.]
+
+Kellermann allowed his army about two hours' repose, and then, leaving
+large fires lighted along his whole line, and some regiments of light
+cavalry to defend the position, if the enemy should attempt an attack,
+he quietly drew off about nine o'clock at night, and reached Dampierre
+without the enemy being aware of his movement. About six o'clock the
+next morning, the Prussians marched for the same point, and were not a
+little astonished to find Kellermann's army drawn up in line of battle
+on the heights of Dampierre, in a position which rendered it
+impracticable to attack. They immediately retreated, and their
+retiring columns suffered severely from a fire opened by the French
+artillery. This operation raised the reputation of Kellermann to an
+exalted height. The allies soon afterward retreated from France, and
+Kellermann desired to attack their rear; but Dumouriez would not allow
+the movement to be made.
+
+In recompense of these services Kellermann was made commander-in-chief
+of the army of the Alps; but incurring the jealousy of the ruling
+faction, he was thrown into prison in June, 1793, and lingered there
+for thirteen months, until the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) restored
+him to liberty. In 1795 the army of Italy was reincorporated with the
+army of the Alps, from which it had been separated in the beginning of
+1793; and the command of the united force was given to Kellermann at
+the close of that month. On his way to Nice to take the command, he
+met Napoleon at Marseilles, who, having been displaced by the
+reconstruction of the army, was now visiting his mother at that place
+on his way to Paris. Napoleon gave much valuable information
+respecting the seat of war; and Kellermann, continuing his journey,
+reached head-quarters at Nice on May 9, 1795. His operations during
+the campaign that followed diminished the reputation which he had
+previously acquired. "Throughout the conduct of this war," says
+Napoleon, "he was constantly committing errors." On June 23d General
+Devins, at the head of the Austrian and Piedmontese armies, advanced
+against his positions; and after a series of engagements on the 25th,
+26th, and 27th, Kellermann was driven out of all the posts in which
+Napoleon's arrangements had placed him in the preceding October, and
+falling back to the line of the Borghetto, wrote to the Directory
+that, unless he was speedily reinforced, he would be obliged even to
+quit Nice. The government were now satisfied that the command of the
+army of Italy was beyond Kellermann's abilities; and again separating
+the army of the Alps from it, they placed Kellermann at the head of
+the latter as a reserve, and intrusted the army of Italy to General
+Scherer, and sometime afterward to Napoleon.
+
+After the conquest of Milan, the Directory, either jealous of Napoleon
+or elated by success, decided to divide his army, and to place 20,000
+men under Kellermann to cover the siege of Mantua, and to direct the
+rest under Napoleon upon Rome. Napoleon immediately resigned his
+command, and wrote to the Directory: "I will not serve with a man who
+considers himself the best general in Europe; it is better to have one
+bad general than two good ones." The Directory, in alarm, abandoned
+their design; Kellermann was left at Chambery, and Napoleon was
+allowed to follow his own plans.
+
+In 1797, Kellermann was made inspector-general of the cavalry of the
+army of England and of that of Holland; and in 1799, he took his place
+in the Senate, and was elected president on August 1, 1801. In 1804,
+he was created a Marshal of the Empire, and in the following year,
+received the grand eagle of the Legion of Honor. In 1803, he commanded
+the third corps of the army of reserve on the Rhine; and, in 1806, was
+placed at the head of the whole of that army; to which authority the
+command of the army of reserve in Spain was added in 1808; and in the
+same year, in honor of the great victory of his more vigorous days, he
+was created Duke of Valmy.
+
+In 1809, he commanded the army of reserve on the Rhine, the army of
+observation of the Elbe, the fifth, twenty-fifth, and twenty-sixth
+military divisions, and the army of reserve of the North. In 1812, he
+was charged with the duty of organizing the cohorts of the national
+guard in the first military division; he afterward commanded the
+twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth divisions. In 1813, he was at first
+provisional commander of the corps of observation on the Rhine, and
+then received the command of the second, third, and fourth military
+divisions. After the battle of Leipsic, he performed a valuable
+service in reconducting to France a body of about six thousand
+soldiers, who had been wounded in the affairs about Dresden.
+
+Upon the restoration of Louis XVIII., Marshal Kellermann received the
+command of the third and fourth divisions, and took no part in the
+events of the "hundred days." Upon the second restoration, he was
+placed at the head of the fifth division, received the grand cross of
+the order of St. Louis, and was made a peer of France.
+
+He died at Paris, on September 13, 1820, aged eighty-five years. He
+left a son, the celebrated general who made the decisive charge at
+Marengo, and distinguished himself in Spain and at Waterloo, and who
+died on June 2, 1835; and a daughter, married to General de Lery.
+
+
+
+
+MICHEL NEY, MARSHAL OF FRANCE[3]
+
+By LOUISE CHANDLER MOULTON
+
+(1769-1815)
+
+         [Footnote 3: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Michel Ney. [TN]]
+
+
+Among the marshals of the great Napoleon, Ney has always held in my
+mind the place of honor. "The Bravest of the Brave" was the sobriquet
+bestowed on him by the men of his own nation and his own time; and the
+briefest record of his life cannot fail to prove how well the title
+was deserved. I could wish for a larger canvas on which to paint his
+portrait; but the space allotted to me here will at least suffice to
+reveal his character, and chronicle the main events of his career.
+
+Michel Ney was born on January 10, 1769, in the small town of
+Sarre-Louis, in Lorraine, which province had at that time only
+recently been annexed to France. He was in reality, therefore, more
+German than French. His father was a working cooper by trade, but he
+wished his son to be something better, and arranged for him to study
+law. Life at a desk, however, had no interest for the future marshal,
+who, even then, had no doubt as to what should be his future career.
+In 1787 he enlisted, at Metz, as a private hussar. His rise was rapid
+from the first. He greatly distinguished himself in the Netherlands,
+where revolutionary France, under Dumouriez and others was holding her
+own against allied Europe. He became lieutenant in 1793, and captain
+in 1794. In 1796, after a brilliant conflict under the walls of
+Forchheim, which resulted in the taking of that town, and on the field
+of battle, he was made General of Brigade.
+
+Next year, in trying to save a gun from capture, he was taken prisoner
+by the Austrians; but General Hoche, who was then commanding the army
+of the Sambre and Meuse, soon effected his exchange. In 1798 he served
+with great distinction under Massena, in Switzerland, and was made
+general of division.
+
+In 1799 he was transferred to the army of the Rhine, which he
+commanded for some time, fighting with varying success, but with
+unvarying energy and courage. He fought under Moreau at the famous
+battle of Hohenlinden, and at the peace of Luneville was appointed
+inspector-general of the cavalry.
+
+In 1802 Napoleon having discovered that Switzerland "could not settle
+her intestine divisions except by the interposition of France," sent
+Ney, with 20,000 men, to dissolve the Diet and disband its forces.
+This mode of settling intestine divisions did not commend itself to
+the Swiss. It is generally admitted, however, that Ney acted with as
+much moderation as his odious task permitted; and he doubtless
+welcomed his recall to take a command in the army which was being
+collected at Boulogne, ostensibly for the invasion of England.
+
+When Napoleon was proclaimed emperor Ney was made a marshal, "for a
+long succession of heroic actions," and when the army, instead of
+crossing the Channel, turned back to crush Austria and the coalition,
+Ney commanded the sixth corps. By October 14, 1805, Napoleon had
+surrounded Mack and his army in Ulm, and on that day Ney carried the
+heights of Elchingen after a terrific combat. It was from this
+achievement that his title of Duke of Elchingen was derived. After the
+capitulation of Ulm Ney had, at Innsprueck, the proud satisfaction of
+restoring to the seventy-sixth regiment the flags of which they had
+been despoiled. He was sent into the Tyrol in pursuit of the Archduke
+John, whose rear-guard he caught and cut to pieces at the foot of
+Mount Brenner, at the same time that Napoleon, at Austerlitz, brought
+the war to a close.
+
+After the peace of Presburg Ney remained in Suabia until the rupture
+with Prussia. The day of Jena found him so anxious for the fray that
+he attacked the enemy without waiting for orders, and brought the
+whole Prussian cavalry upon his small division of some three thousand
+men, and held them at bay until Napoleon sent him assistance. Though
+Prussia was practically annihilated by the battles of Jena and
+Auerstadt, Russia was still to be reckoned with. Napoleon invaded
+Poland, and found himself forced into a winter campaign at a
+formidable distance from France. Marching and countermarching through
+mud and snow the whole army was subjected to horrible suffering; but
+even then Ney's impetuous energy was unabated. Napoleon even rebuked
+him for "fool-hardiness;" and more than once his only salvation from
+destruction was in the slowness and density of the Russians. He took
+little part in the dreadful and indecisive battle of Eylau, after
+which Napoleon remained for eight days without making any movement;
+but it was to him that, at Friedland, Napoleon allotted the post of
+honor and of danger, saying, as the marshal went off proud of his
+task, "That man is a lion."
+
+Napoleon about this time discovered that "the interposition of France
+was necessary in the affairs of Spain;" and after the peace of Tilsit
+Ney was only allowed to remain in France long enough to recruit his
+forces, before being sent to the Peninsula. A few months later in the
+year, when Napoleon visited Spain, Ney was given the command of the
+sixth corps there, but he was destined to reap few Spanish laurels,
+and it is said that he endeavored to persuade the emperor to
+relinquish the hopeless struggle against an entire people. While Soult
+was engaged in the difficult task of forcing the English from the
+Peninsula by way of Corunna, Ney held Galicia and the Asturias,
+destroyed guerilla bands, defeated Sir Robert Wilson, and intercepted
+the enemy's convoys; but the whole country was in arms against the
+French, who after six months' unceasing struggle, were compelled to
+retreat.
+
+[Illustration: Marshal Ney returning the captured Colors.]
+
+When Massena was sent to Portugal with orders from Napoleon to drive
+the "English leopards and their Sepoy general into the sea," Ney,
+acting under his directions, took Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida. At
+Busaco, on September 27, 1810, he differed from his commander-in-chief
+as to the advisability of attacking the English position in front,
+which was strong. Massena suffered a severe repulse; and Ney was
+undoubtedly right, since the fact remains that after the battle
+Wellington's position was easily turned, and he was compelled to fall
+back. He retreated upon the famous lines of Torres Vedras, before
+which Massena sat helplessly for months, until famine forced him to
+break up his camp. Ney was intrusted with the command of the
+rear-guard, and the universal opinion of military critics is that his
+management of this retreat was one of his most splendid feats of arms.
+On one occasion he confronted, with 5,000 men, Wellington and his army
+of 30,000, and delayed them for many hours, while the sick and
+wounded, the baggage wagons, and the main body of the French army made
+good their retreat. While Ney was in front of him Wellington knew no
+repose, nor, for all his efforts, did he succeed, during the whole
+pursuit, in capturing an ammunition wagon or even a single gun. But
+when Massena--with a view to saving his military reputation, which had
+been gravely compromised by his want of success--proposed again to
+advance upon Lisbon, Ney flatly refused to obey him, and after a
+violent quarrel, was ordered by Massena to relinquish his command and
+retire into the interior of Spain to await the decision of the
+emperor. Napoleon recalled him to France, and gave him the command of
+the third corps of that avalanche of men--men of so many nations and
+kindreds and peoples--which he was preparing to hurl upon Russia.
+
+The Grand Army crossed the Niemen in June, 1812, and followed an
+ever-retreating foe to Smolensk, where the Russian general, Barclay de
+Tolly, had received positive orders from Alexander to give battle, and
+where he had placed a garrison of 30,000 men. On August 14th Ney
+cleared the neighboring town of Krasnoi at the point of the bayonet,
+and during the next two days the Russians were slowly forced back
+under the walls of Smolensk. On the 17th a general attack was ordered,
+and Ney was directed to take the citadel. But so obstinate was the
+Russian defence that when night came no entrance had been effected.
+However, an hour after midnight the Russian general set fire to the
+town, and abandoned it, having lost 12,000 men in the defence. At a
+council of war which followed the capture of the place, Ney strongly
+recommended that the Grand Army should establish itself upon the banks
+of the Dwina and the Dnieper, and occupying Smolensk and its environs
+with a vanguard, there await the Russian attack. His advice was
+overruled, however, and he was forced to follow the retreating foe
+upon the road to Moscow. But Russia was thoroughly dissatisfied with
+the way in which the war had so far been carried on, and Barclay de
+Tolly was at this juncture superseded by Kutusof, who, having
+intrenched himself strongly near the little village of Borodino,
+prepared to dispute the farther progress of the invaders. The battle
+which followed, on September 7th, was one of the most obstinate and
+sanguinary of modern times. It lasted from early morning till late at
+night, and more than eighty thousand men were killed or wounded. Ney
+fought like a common soldier in the very thickest of the conflict. The
+Russian positions were at last carried, and Ney sent to the emperor
+for reinforcements with which to complete the victory. The emperor had
+only his guard in reserve, and refused this request. "If there should
+be another battle to-morrow," he said, "with what am I to fight it?"
+"Let him go back to Paris, and play at emperor, and leave fighting to
+us," cried Ney, scornfully, when he heard this message. Had his
+request been granted, and the Imperial Guard been hurled into the
+conflict at the right moment, it seems probable that the Russian army
+would have been entirely destroyed. As it was, they drew off in good
+order, under cover of night, and Kutusof even had the effrontery to
+claim a victory. For his services during this memorable day Ney
+received the title of Prince of the Moskowa.
+
+The result of the battle of Borodino was to leave Moscow at the mercy
+of the invaders, and a barren prize indeed it proved to them. In the
+horror of the fearful retreat from the ruined city the fame of Ney
+reached its highest point. Nothing in all history surpasses the record
+of his indomitable courage and cheerfulness in the most hopeless
+situations, and amid the most frightful hardships. As in Spain, he had
+the command of the rear-guard, and the soldiers, preyed upon alike by
+the Cossacks and the cold, died in the path like flies. Without
+artillery and without cavalry, they yet succeeded, day after day, in
+obstructing their pursuers. Ney was on foot in the midst of them,
+carrying a musket and fighting like the humblest private. But at
+Smolensk--where the army expected to find everything, and really found
+nothing--they stayed too long, and on resuming their march found the
+Russians barring their path. Napoleon and the Imperial Guard cut their
+way through. The first and fourth corps succeeded, after a desperate
+conflict, in evading their enemies, but Ney, who had received orders
+to blow up the fortifications of Smolensk before leaving the town,
+found himself with some eight thousand men cut off from the main body
+of fugitives by an army of 50,000 Russians. He attacked them as though
+the numbers were equal, lost in a short time nearly half his little
+force, and was obliged to fall back. Being called upon to surrender,
+he answered, proudly, "A Marshal of France never surrenders," and gave
+the order, as night approached, to retreat toward Smolensk, which was
+indeed the only way open to him. The soldiers were in despair. Ney
+alone did not lose heart. In the gathering dusk they came upon a small
+rivulet. The marshal broke the ice and watched the flow of the current
+beneath. "This must be a feeder of the Dnieper," he said. "We will
+follow it, and put the river between us and our enemies." This they
+succeeded in doing; but were obliged to leave their wounded, their
+artillery, and their baggage upon the other side. Ney had left
+Smolensk on November 17th, with about eight thousand men. On the 20th
+he joined Napoleon, who had given him up for lost--with somewhere
+about one thousand. Napoleon, hearing that he was come, fairly leaped
+and shouted for joy, exclaiming, "I have three hundred millions of
+francs in the Tuileries--I would have given them all rather than have
+lost such a man."
+
+A few days afterward Ney was fighting madly on the shores of the fatal
+Beresina to clear the way for the surging and almost frenzied crowd of
+soldiers, stragglers, women and children, who, under the merciless
+fire of the Russian batteries were streaming across the river on the
+rickety bridges improvised by the French engineers. The Grand Army was
+by this time only a crowd of wretched and undisciplined fugitives. Ney
+managed to preserve the semblance of a rear-guard, and if it had not
+been for his unceasing efforts it seems probable that hardly a single
+soldier would ever have seen again the shores of France. As it was,
+when he crossed the Niemen on December 13th, himself the last man to
+leave Russian territory--his rear-guard had vanished, and he had with
+him only his aides-de-camp, while of about five hundred thousand men
+who had crossed the river five months before scarcely fifty thousand
+returned.
+
+No sooner did this catastrophe become known than Europe--so long
+ground under his heel--rose against Napoleon, who at once called upon
+France for fresh levies. Ney was given the command of the first Corps.
+On April 29, 1813, he drove the allies from Weissenfels toward
+Leipsic. On May 1st he again compelled a retrograde movement; and on
+May 2d he commanded the French centre at the battle of Lutzen, where,
+indeed, he bore the brunt of the fighting. The allies were compelled
+to retire, but they did not consider themselves beaten, and they
+fought again at Bautzen a few days afterward. Lutzen and Bautzen were
+both dubious victories, but at Dresden the allies were defeated with
+great loss.
+
+This victory, however, was annulled by the defeat of Vandamme, who was
+taken prisoner in Bohemia, after losing 10,000 men. When Napoleon
+heard of this disaster he at once sent Ney to replace Oudinot in the
+command of the Northern army, with the object of pushing on to Berlin;
+but for once Ney's evil stars were in the ascendant, for on September
+5th he was totally defeated by Bernadotte, at Dennewitz, losing 10,000
+prisoners and eighty guns. "The Bravest of the Brave" was
+inconsolable. For some days he took no food, and scarcely spoke. He
+wished to give up his command and fight as a grenadier. "If I have not
+blown out my brains," he said, "it is only because I want to rally my
+army before dying."
+
+And now came the catastrophe at Leipsic--the three days' battle of the
+Nations--where, on the first day, Ney was defeated by Bluecher, after a
+desperate struggle in which he lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and
+upward of two thousand prisoners. On the third day, after the
+defection of the Saxons, he held out for five hours with 5,000 men
+against 20,000, and retired fighting to the end. Through the whole of
+the succeeding campaign of France, he was at the emperor's side; and
+when, in spite of all the genius of Napoleon, and all the bravery of
+his soldiers, Paris capitulated, Ney was one of three marshals sent by
+the defeated Emperor of the French to negotiate with the Emperor of
+Russia for his abdication in favor of his son, the King of Rome.
+
+This mission failed of any result--Napoleon went to Elba, and Louis
+XVIII. reigned over France in his stead. Ney accepted the new order of
+things, and was created a peer of France, knight of St. Louis, and
+governor of the sixth Military Division. But the world was for the
+time at peace; and Ney's occupation was gone. He had been a fighter
+all his life--he could not turn courtier at the end. He had married,
+in 1810, Mlle Auguie, who had been brought up in the court of Louis
+XVI., was a friend of Hortense Beauharnais, and naturally fond of
+gayety and society. The great marshal was a simple and rather
+illiterate man, who had had no time to cultivate fashionable graces,
+so it happened that when Madame la Marechal gave a banquet or a ball,
+Ney used not to appear, but dined by himself, in his own apartments,
+as far removed as possible from the noise of the festival. It is said
+that outside the field of battle he was one of the timidest of men,
+and even submitted quite tamely to the insolence of his own servants.
+
+In January, 1815, he departed for his country-seat of Coudreaux, near
+Chateaudun, where he lived in the simplest possible fashion, till on
+March 6th, an aide-de-camp of the Minister of War brought him an order
+to return at once to the head-quarters of the Military Division of
+which he was commander. Instead of going directly to his post, he went
+by way of Paris, where he heard for the first time of the landing of
+Napoleon.
+
+"It is a great misfortune," said he. "Whom can we send against him?"
+
+Then, having visited the king, and assured him of his devotion to the
+monarchy, he went to his command at Besancon. Next morning he heard
+that Grenoble had declared for the emperor, and that the occupation of
+Lyons was inevitable. He could observe for himself the dissatisfaction
+of the troops by whom he was surrounded. On the 12th he was at
+Lons-le-Saulnier, organizing his troops, and writing to the minister
+of war for ammunition and horses. But he soon saw that resistance was
+hopeless. The Bourbons had managed, as usual, to make themselves
+hated. The king's brother and Marshal Macdonald had been obliged to
+flee from Lyons when Napoleon appeared. All the soldiers were
+delighted at the thought of having their "Little Corporal" back again.
+On the night of the 13th Ney received an emissary from Napoleon. What
+memories must have stirred in his heart, of old perils and old
+glories! How could he resist the mighty spell of the past? On the 14th
+he announced to his troops that the house of Bourbon had ceased to
+reign, and proclaimed Napoleon.
+
+"It was a grievous fault, and grievously did Caesar answer it." From
+this moment Ney knew no more peace of mind. So bitter was his remorse
+that he could not face his fellow-soldiers, and obtained Napoleon's
+permission to retire for a time into the country. When he returned,
+Napoleon said, banteringly, "I heard you had emigrated." "Ah, sire,"
+answered Ney, "I ought to have done so long ago, but it is too late
+now."
+
+The approach of war revived his spirits to some extent, and when, a
+few days before the battle of Waterloo, he joined the army in
+Flanders, he looked like the Ney of old. At Quatre Bras, on June 16th,
+despite an obstinate combat, he failed to drive Wellington from his
+position, and the next day he does not appear to have discovered that
+the English had fallen back upon Waterloo until some hours after their
+departure. At the great battle of Waterloo, on June 18th, he fought
+with the same reckless bravery as ever. He had five horses killed
+under him, and his clothing was riddled with bullets. Napoleon said,
+not without truth, that he behaved like a madman. After his fifth
+horse was shot he fought on foot until forced from the field by the
+rush of fugitives. He had done his best to die on the field of battle,
+but almost miraculously he escaped without a wound.
+
+After the second restoration of the Bourbons Ney retired into the
+country, meaning to escape to the United States, and was provided by
+Fouche with a passport for this purpose. He delayed, for some reason,
+to use it; and on August 3d he was arrested at the house of a
+relative. A council of war was appointed to try him, composed of
+Marshals Massena, Augereau, Mortier, and three lieutenants. It would
+have been better for Ney had he submitted himself to their verdict;
+but he unwisely denied their competence, and demanded, as a peer of
+the realm, to be tried by his peers, and it was a tribunal which
+showed him no mercy. It does not appear that the king desired his
+death; but Talleyrand declared that it would be a grand example, and
+the royalists generally thirsted for his blood. He was condemned, by a
+majority of 139 to 17, to be shot for high treason.
+
+On December 7th his wife and four children were admitted to his prison
+in the early morning, to take leave of him. But neither in this
+painful ordeal nor at any time afterward, did the condemned marshal
+show any sign of weakness. At eight o'clock he was taken in a carriage
+to the place of execution, outside the garden gates of the Luxembourg.
+The officer who commanded the firing party wished to bandage his eyes,
+but Ney said, quietly--"Are you ignorant that for twenty-five years I
+have been accustomed to face both balls and bullets?" Then, raising
+his voice, he cried, "I protest against my condemnation. I wish that I
+had died for my country in battle. But here is still the field of
+honor. _Vive la France!_"
+
+The officer in command, to his credit be it said, was dumb. He seemed
+incapable of giving the word to fire; and Ney himself, taking off his
+hat, and striking his breast, cried, in a loud voice--"Soldiers, do
+your duty--fire!"
+
+Thus died, in his forty-seventh year, "The Bravest of the Brave."
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
+
+By COLONEL CLAYTON, R.A.
+
+(1769-1821)
+
+[Illustration: "The coronation of Josephine". [TN]]
+
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, the second son of Charles Bonaparte and his wife,
+Letizia de Ramolino, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, on August 15,
+1769. In 1779 he entered the Royal Military School of Brienne le
+Chateau; there he remained till the autumn of 1784, when he was
+transferred to the Military School of Paris, according to the usual
+routine. An official report on him by the Inspector of Military
+Schools in this year speaks highly of his conduct, and notifies his
+great proficiency in mathematics and fair knowledge of history and
+geography, but says he is not well up in ornamental studies or in
+Latin, and, curiously enough, adds that he will make an excellent
+sailor. Napoleon lost his father in 1785, and the same year he was
+commissioned as second-lieutenant of artillery, in which capacity he
+served at Valence and other garrisons. He spent his periods of leave
+in Corsica, and appears to have wished to play the leading part in the
+history of his native island, showing the first signs of his ambitious
+and energetic character. During the critical times following the first
+French Revolution, he at first joined the moderate party of Paoli;
+but, trying for military power, though by untiring activity and
+reckless audacity he succeeded in being elected lieutenant-colonel of
+the National Volunteers of Ajaccio, he failed in an attempt to seize
+that town and was obliged to return to France. The French Government
+soon made an endeavor to crush Paoli and do away with Corsican
+privileges, and the islanders rallied round the patriot. Napoleon now
+turned against him and attempted to seize the citadel of Ajaccio for
+the French; but failing again, with all his relatives he fled a second
+time to France.
+
+From this time onward Napoleon looked to France for his career. The
+narrow horizon of his native island was no longer wide enough for him,
+but from its bracing mountain air and from the quick blood of his race
+he drew a magnetic force, which imparted to his decisions and actions
+a rapidity and energy that carried all before them, while at the same
+time a power of calm calculation, of industry, and of self-control
+enabled him to employ his genius to the best advantage. The force of
+his personality was so overwhelming that in considering his career the
+regret must ever be present that the only principle that remained
+steadfast with him, and is the key to his conduct throughout, should
+have been the care for his own advancement, glory, and power. Napoleon
+now joined the army under Carteaux, which acted against the
+Marseillais who had declared against the National Convention and
+occupied Avignon. At this time he became attached to the younger
+Robespierre, who was a commissioner with the army, and embraced his
+Jacobin principles. He was shortly promoted chef de bataillon, and
+commanded the artillery at the siege of Toulon, where he highly
+distinguished himself, and is generally believed to have been the
+author of the plan of attack which led to the fall of the place. He
+was then promoted general of brigade.
+
+On the fall of the Robespierres, Napoleon incurred serious danger, but
+was saved by powerful influence enlisted in his favor. He was,
+however, ordered to take command of an infantry brigade in the Army of
+the West. This he considered would stifle his military career, and
+neglecting to obey the order, he was in consequence removed from the
+list of employed general officers. Disgusted with his apparent lack of
+prospects, he was now anxious to be sent to Turkey to reorganize the
+Turkish artillery. But on the eve of the 13th Vendemiaire (October 5,
+1795) he was appointed second in command of the Army of the Interior
+under Barras, and did the National Convention good service next day in
+repelling the attack of the Sections of Paris. Influenced partly by
+fear and partly by appreciation of his talents, the Directory
+appointed General Bonaparte to the command of the Army of Italy, on
+February 23, 1796. On March 9th he married Josephine Tascher de la
+Pagerie, widow of General Vicomte Alexandre de Beauharnais, and left
+Paris for Italy two days later.
+
+On joining the army Bonaparte inaugurated a new era in the wars of the
+Republic. Previously the leading motives had been pure patriotism and
+love of liberty; Bonaparte for the first time, in his proclamation on
+taking command, invoked the spirit of self-interest and plunder, which
+was to dominate the whole policy of France for the next twenty years.
+Evil as were the passions which he aroused, Napoleon's great military
+genius flashed forth in its full brilliancy in this his first
+campaign. His power lay in the rapidity and boldness of his decisions,
+and in the untiring energy with which he carried them out, confounding
+his enemies by the suddenness and lightning rapidity of his blows,
+which never gave them time to recover. He found the French army about
+thirty-six thousand strong, distributed along the crests of the
+mountains from Nice to Savona, and opposing 20,000 Piedmontese under
+Colli and 38,000 Austrians under Beaulieu. These two generals had,
+however, differing interests: Colli's main object was to protect
+Piedmont, Beaulieu's to cover Lombardy. Hence, if Bonaparte could
+penetrate the point of junction of the two armies, it was probable
+they would separate in their retreat, and could be beaten singly. He
+therefore attacked the centre of the allied line, and, driving back
+the Austrians from Montenotte on April 12th, turned against the
+Piedmontese and defeated them at Millesimo the next day. Losing no
+time he left a division under Augereau to keep the Piedmontese in
+check, and led the bulk of his army against the Austrians, defeating
+them heavily at Dego on the 14th. The allied armies then retreated in
+diverging directions as expected, and Bonaparte, following the
+Piedmontese, beat them at Ceva and Mondovi, and forced the King of
+Sardinia to sign the armistice of Cherasco, leaving him free to deal
+with the Austrians. He crossed the Po at Piacenza on May 7th, and
+obliged the Austrians to retreat to the Adda. Following them he forced
+the bridge of Lodi on May 11th, and entered Milan amid the rejoicings
+of the people on the 15th. But his ill-omened proclamation had done
+its work; violence and pillage were rampant in the French army, and he
+could do little to restrain them. Indeed, he himself showed an example
+of plundering, though under more organized forms. Heavy contributions
+were exacted, curiosities and works of art were demanded wholesale and
+despatched to France; and the Directory, demoralized by the
+unaccustomed wealth that flowed in upon them, became fully as eager as
+Napoleon for fresh conquests and their accruing spoils.
+
+The Austrians still held Mantua, which Napoleon now besieged,
+occupying himself at the same time in consolidating his conquests. The
+Austrians made strenuous efforts to save the fortress. They were much
+superior in number to the French, but were defeated again and again by
+the rapidity and genius of their opponent. Finally, at the end of
+October, an Austrian army of 50,000, but mostly recruits, advanced
+under Alvinzi. Then followed the three days' battle of Arcola, during
+which Napoleon had a very narrow escape, but which ended in Alvinzi's
+defeat and retreat on Tyrol. From Arcola Napoleon dated his firm
+belief in his own fortune. Once again, in January, 1797, Alvinzi tried
+to relieve Mantua. But Napoleon moved in full force on Rivoli, and won
+a decisive battle there on January 14th, the Austrian detachment on
+the Lower Adige having to lay down their arms next day at Roverbella.
+Wuermser capitulated at Mantua on February 2d, Napoleon treating him
+with generosity. This first Italian campaign was perhaps the most
+skilful of all those of Napoleon. Everything was done accurately and
+rapidly, and without throwing away chances. Some of his later
+campaigns, though equally brilliant, show him acting more with the
+gambler's spirit, running unnecessary risks with almost a blind
+reliance upon his star, in the hope of obtaining results which should
+dazzle the world.
+
+In political matters during this time Napoleon was acting less as a
+servant of the French Directory than as an independent ruler. He
+entirely ignored the instructions he received from Paris, levying
+contributions, entering into negotiations, and deposing princes at his
+own will, and writing that he is not fighting "for those rascals of
+lawyers."
+
+[Illustration: Napoleon and the Sphinx.]
+
+Napoleon returned to Paris on December 5, 1797. The Directory, fearing
+his ambition, thought they could only keep him quiet by employing him,
+and gave him command of the so-called Army of England. But he was bent
+on the conquest of Egypt. He appears to have had something visionary
+in his temperament, and to have dreamed of founding a mighty empire
+from the stand-point of the East, the glow and glamour of which seem
+always to have had a certain fascination for him. He therefore
+employed the resources of the Army of England to prepare for an
+expedition to Egypt, and the Directory yielded to his wishes, partly
+no doubt, through the desire of getting him away from France. But
+their aggressive policy was at the same time fast bringing on another
+European war. The expedition sailed from Toulon on May 19, 1798,
+captured Malta from the Knights of St. John by treachery, and,
+escaping by great luck from the British fleet under Nelson, arrived at
+Alexandria on June 30th. The army was disembarked in haste, for fear
+lest Nelson should arrive, and on July 8th Napoleon marched on Cairo.
+He defeated the Mamelukes at Chebreiss and the Pyramids, and entered
+Cairo on July 24th. He then occupied himself with organizing the
+government of Egypt, but his position was rendered very hazardous by
+the destruction of the French fleet on August 1st by Nelson at the
+battle of the Nile, and he saw that his dream of founding an empire in
+the East could not be realized. He thought, however, that he might
+create a revolution in Syria, by the aid of which he might overthrow
+the Turkish power, and march in triumph back to Europe through Asia
+Minor and Constantinople. He accordingly entered Syria in February,
+1799, with 12,000 men, but was brought to a standstill before St. Jean
+d'Acre. Failing to capture that fortress, supported as it was by the
+British squadron under Sir Sidney Smith, in spite of the most
+desperate efforts, he was obliged to return to Egypt. After his
+return, Napoleon defeated a Turkish army which had landed at Aboukir,
+but learning the reverses that had been suffered by the French arms in
+Europe, he resolved to leave Egypt and return to France. He embarked
+secretly on August 22d, leaving a letter placing Kleber in command of
+the Army of Egypt, and landed in France six weeks later.
+
+He found matters at home in great confusion. The wars had been
+mismanaged, Italy was almost lost, and the government, in consequence,
+was in very bad odor. The revolution of the 18th Brumaire followed
+(November 9, 1799), when the legislature was forcibly closed, and a
+provisional executive of three consuls, Sieyes, Roger-Duclos, and
+Bonaparte, formed to draw up a new constitution. This was promulgated
+on December 13th; the executive was vested in three consuls,
+Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun, of whom Bonaparte was nominated
+First Consul for ten years. He was practically paramount, the two
+remaining consuls being ciphers, and the other institutions being so
+organized as to concentrate power in the executive. Sieyes became
+president of the Senate. The governmental crisis being settled,
+energetic steps were taken with regard to the civil war in the west. A
+proclamation was issued promising religious toleration at the same
+time that decided military action was taken, and these measures were
+so successful that all was quiet at home by the end of February, 1800.
+Then Napoleon turned his attention abroad. He made overtures for peace
+to England and Austria, now the only belligerents, as he wished to
+lull suspicion by posing as the friend of peace, not as a military
+ruler; but he inwardly rejoiced when they rejected his overtures.
+
+The situation of the belligerents on the Continent was this: the Army
+of the Rhine under Moreau, more than one hundred thousand strong, was
+distributed along the Rhine from the Lake of Constance to Alsace,
+opposed to Kray, whose head-quarters were at Donaueschingen in Baden;
+while Massena, with the Army of Italy, was on the Riviera and at
+Genoa, opposed to an Austrian army under Melas. Napoleon intended to
+gain himself the chief glory of the campaign; so, giving Moreau orders
+to cross the Rhine, but not to advance beyond a certain limit, and
+leaving Massena to make head as best he could against Melas, with the
+result that he was besieged in Genoa and reduced to the last
+extremity, he prepared secretly an army of reserve near the Swiss
+frontier, to the command of which Berthier was ostensibly appointed.
+Outside, and even inside France, this army of reserve was looked upon
+as a chimera. Moreau crossed the Rhine on April 24th, and drove Kray
+to Ulm, but was there checked by Napoleon's instructions, according to
+which he also sent a division to co-operate with the army of reserve.
+Napoleon himself went to Geneva on May 9th, and assuming command of
+this army crossed the St. Bernard, and reached the plains of Italy
+before Melas had convinced himself of the existence even of the army
+of reserve, and while his troops were scattered from Genoa to the Var.
+Napoleon's obvious course would now have been to move straight on
+Genoa, relieve Massena, and beat in detail as many of Melas's troops
+as he could encounter. But this would not have been a sufficiently
+brilliant triumph, as the bulk of the Austrian army might have
+escaped; and trusting in his star, he resolved to stake the existence
+of his army on a gambler's cast. Leaving Massena to be starved out, he
+moved to the left on Milan, and occupied the whole line of the Ticino
+and Po as far as Piacenza, so as to cut off entirely the retreat of
+the Austrians. He then crossed the Po, and concentrated as many troops
+as he could spare at Stradella. The strategy was brilliant, but the
+risk run excessive. His army was necessarily scattered, while Melas
+had had time to concentrate, and he was besides ignorant of the
+Austrian position. He sent Desaix with a column to seek information,
+and moved himself on Alessandria, where he found Melas. Next day, June
+14th, Melas marched out to attack the French on the plains of Marengo,
+and despite all Napoleon's efforts, had actually defeated them, when
+fortunately, Desaix returned, and his advance, together with a cavalry
+charge by Kellermann, changed defeat into victory. Melas, losing his
+head, signed a convention next day, giving up almost all North Italy,
+though Marmont says that if he had fought another battle he must have
+won it. Napoleon returned to Paris with the glories of this
+astonishing campaign; but peace did not follow till Moreau, when his
+liberty of action was restored to him, had won the battle of
+Hohenlinden on December 3, 1800. Then followed the treaty of Luneville
+with Germany, in February, 1801, the concordat with Rome, in July,
+1801, and the treaty of Amiens with England, in March, 1802, so that
+Napoleon was able to figure as the restorer of peace to the world. He
+then devoted himself to the reconstruction of the civil institutions
+of France, employing in this great work the best talent that he could
+find, and impressing on their labors the stamp of his own genius. The
+institutions then created, which still remain for the most part, were
+the restored Church, the judicial system, the codes, the system of
+local government, the University, the Bank of France, and the Legion
+of Honor.
+
+France at this period, sick of the failure of republican government,
+was gradually veering toward monarchy, and Napoleon knew how to take
+advantage of events to strengthen his position, and in due time
+establish his own dynasty.
+
+Preparations for the invasion of England had been steadily proceeding,
+but Napoleon's aggressive demeanor after becoming emperor alarmed the
+European cabinets, so that Pitt was able to revive the coalition, and
+in 1805 Napoleon found himself at war with Russia and Austria, as well
+as with England. Forced by England's naval supremacy to abandon the
+notion of invasion, he suddenly changed front in August, 1805, and led
+his armies through Hanover and the smaller German states, disregarding
+the neutrality even of Prussia herself, and reached the Danube in rear
+of the Austrian army under Mack, which was at Ulm. The surprise was
+complete; Mack surrendered October 19th, and Napoleon then marched on
+Vienna, which he entered November 13th. But his position was critical.
+The Archduke Charles was approaching from Hungary, a Russian army was
+entering Moravia, and Prussia, incensed at the violation of her
+territory, joined the coalition. A short delay would have surrounded
+Napoleon with his enemies, but the czar was impatient, and the Russian
+army, with a small contingent of Austrians, encountered Napoleon at
+Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, and was signally defeated. This caused
+the break-up of the coalition; the Holy Roman Empire came to an end,
+the Confederation of the Rhine was formed under French protection, and
+the Napoleonic empire was firmly established. Napoleon then entered
+into negotiations for peace with Russia and England, endeavoring to
+conciliate those powers at the expense of Prussia. The negotiations
+failed, but Prussia was mortally offended, and mobilized her army in
+August, 1806, about which time Russia finally rejected the treaty with
+France. Napoleon acted with his usual promptitude, and advanced
+against Prussia before she could get help either from England or
+Russia. Although the rank and file of the Prussian armies was good,
+their generals were antiquated, and Napoleon crushed them at Jena and
+Auerstadt, October 14th, and entered Berlin on the 27th. He had then
+to carry on a stubbornly contested campaign with Russia. An indecisive
+battle at Eylau was followed by a hardly earned French victory at
+Friedland, June 14, 1807, and the peace of Tilsit ensued, by which
+Prussia lost half her territory, and had to submit to various
+humiliating conditions, while Russia escaped easily, and indeed got a
+share of the spoils.
+
+Napoleon was now at the zenith of his power; he was the arbiter of
+Europe and the paramount head of a confederation of princes, among
+whom the members of his own family occupied several thrones. To reward
+his partisans he at this time created a new noblesse, and lavished
+upon them the public money. He sent an army under Junot to Portugal,
+and another to Spain, which, under Murat, took Madrid. Napoleon then
+procured the abdication of the King of Spain and placed his brother
+Joseph on the vacant throne. But he did not foresee the consequences.
+The spirit of the nation was roused, and a formidable insurrection
+broke out, while a British army, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed in
+Portugal, defeated Junot at Vimiera, and forced him to sign the
+Convention of Cintra, evacuating Portugal. So began the Peninsular
+War, which for the future was to paralyze half Napoleon's strength.
+
+In Germany also a spirit of revolt against his tyranny was rising,
+Austria at first taking the lead, and this brought on the war of 1809
+against that power. Prussia, already beginning to recover her strength
+under the military system of Scharnhorst and Stein, was hostile to
+Napoleon in sentiment, but was kept down by the pressure of Russia.
+Napoleon declared war on the pretext that Austria was arming, and
+marching through Bavaria drove the Austrians out of Ratisbon, and
+entered Vienna May 13th. Eugene Beauharnais, at the head of the Army
+of Italy, drove the Austrians before him into Hungary, defeated them
+at Raab, and joined Napoleon. The emperor then tried to cross the
+Danube, but was checked at Aspern and obliged to retire to the island
+of Lobau. Five weeks of preparation then followed, the peasant war
+under Hofer being carried on in Tyrol, and then Napoleon made a fresh
+and successful attempt to cross the Danube, and won the battle of
+Wagram July 5th. This was followed by the armistice of Znaim and the
+treaty of Schoenbrunn, October 20, 1809, by which he obtained a heavy
+indemnity in money and considerable accession of territory in
+Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, and Galicia. But he mortally offended
+the czar by giving a large portion of the ceded territory of Galicia
+to the Duchy of Warsaw--i.e., to Poland.
+
+On December 16, 1809, Napoleon, desirous of an heir, divorced
+Josephine, who was childless, and married, April 1, 1810, the
+Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria. He had no doubt the wish also to
+get a footing in the circle of the legitimate reigning families of
+Europe. A son, to whom the title of King of Rome was given, was born
+March 20, 1811.
+
+Still bent on the humiliation of England, Napoleon now tried to effect
+his purpose by increasing the stringency of the Continental System,
+but this ended in bringing him into conflict with Russia. He first
+annexed the kingdoms of Holland and Westphalia, to give him command of
+their seaboards, and then prohibited English trade even when carried
+in neutral bottoms. The czar, already estranged by Napoleon's alliance
+with Austria and his conduct as regards Poland, refused to adopt this
+policy, and the relations between them gradually became so strained
+that war was inevitable, and Napoleon took the momentous resolve to
+invade Russia. With Maria Louisa, he arrived at Dresden May 16, 1812,
+and was there greeted by the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia,
+and other sovereigns. His army for this gigantic enterprise numbered
+about six hundred thousand, including French, Germans, and Italians.
+He crossed the Niemen on June 24th, reaching Vilna, which was
+evacuated by the Russians, on the 28th; and remained at Vilna till
+July 16th, hesitating to take the final resolution to invade the heart
+of Russia. He made overtures for peace to the czar, who refused to
+treat as long as an enemy remained on Russian soil. Foiled here
+Napoleon at last decided to go on with his enterprise; so he
+advanced, and at first the Russians were in no condition to meet him,
+their forces being scattered. If Napoleon could have advanced rapidly
+to Smolensk, he might have cut the Russian forces in two, but his vast
+host appears to have been unmanageable. Barclay de Tolly and Bagration
+succeeded in uniting at Smolensk, but were driven from it on August
+18th, after an obstinate defence. At Smolensk Napoleon again hesitated
+as to whether he should go into winter-quarters, but eventually
+decided to press on to Moscow, trusting to the moral effect of the
+fall of the ancient capital. It seems as if, while his superstitious
+belief in his star still remained, bodily ailments had caused a
+deterioration in his power of rapid decision and in his energy of
+action. Meanwhile, great discontent had been caused in Russia by the
+continued retreat of the armies. Kutusoff was appointed to the chief
+command, and stood to fight at Borodino on September 6th. Napoleon won
+the battle, but with unwonted and misplaced caution refused to engage
+his Guard, and the victory was almost fruitless.
+
+He entered Moscow on September 14th, and fire broke out the next
+night, the first effect of which was still further to alarm the
+Russians, who believed it to be the work of the French. The fire raged
+fiercely till the 20th, and a great part of the city was burned to the
+ground. Had the victory of Borodino been more decisive the czar might
+now have yielded; but as it was he listened to the advice of Stein and
+Sir R. Wilson and refused to treat, thus putting Napoleon in a
+dilemma. His plans were always made on the basis of immediate success,
+and the course to be adopted in case of failure was not considered.
+Again he hesitated, with the result that when at last he resolved to
+retire from Moscow, the winter, coming earlier than usual, upset his
+calculations, and the miseries of that terrible retreat followed. He
+left Moscow on October 18th, and, reaching the Beresina with but
+12,000 men, was joined there by Oudinot and Victor, who had been
+holding the line of the Dwina, with 18,000. His passage of the river
+was opposed, but he succeeded in crossing, and on December 6th the
+miserable remnant of the Grand Army reached Vilna. Macdonald, Reynier,
+and Schwarzenberg, with 100,000 men, on the Polish frontier and in the
+Baltic provinces, were safe; but this was the whole available remnant
+of the 600,000 with which the campaign commenced.
+
+All Europe now united against him. The French armies were discouraged,
+and the allies enthusiastic; but the latter had difficulties to
+contend with from their heterogeneous composition and diversity of
+interests. The campaign opened with varying fortune. A blow at Berlin
+was parried by Buelow at Gross Beeren on August 23d. Napoleon himself
+forced Bluecher back to the Katzbach, but had to retire again to defend
+Dresden from the Austrians; and his lieutenant, Macdonald, was
+defeated in the battle of the Katzbach on August 26th. Napoleon
+inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austrians before Dresden on the
+27th, but, while preparing to cut off their retreat, was disturbed by
+the news of Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach and by sudden illness, and
+at Kulm lost Vandamme with 20,000 men. September was spent in
+fruitless marches, and toward the end of the month the allies began
+their converging march on their preconcerted rendezvous at Leipsic. At
+the same time the Confederation of the Rhine began to dissolve. The
+kingdom of Westphalia was upset on October 1st, and on the 8th
+Bavaria joined Austria. The toils were closing round Napoleon, and
+between October 14th and 19th he was crushed in that battle of the
+Titans at Leipsic, and, brushing aside the Bavarians, who tried to
+stop him at Haynau, on November 1st, led back the remnant of his army,
+some 70,000 strong, across the Rhine at Mainz.
+
+The allies now made overtures for peace on the basis of natural
+frontiers, which would have left France the fruits of the first
+Revolution, viz., Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, and
+Nice; but Napoleon could not be content with such curtailment of his
+power. Evading at first the proposal, he would have accepted it, but
+with suspicious qualifications, when too late. The invasion of France
+followed. The allies issued a manifesto on December 1st, saying they
+were waging war against Napoleon alone, and advanced with three
+separate armies. Schwarzenberg led the Austrians through Switzerland,
+Bluecher crossed the Middle Rhine toward Nancy, while the northern army
+passed through Holland. Napoleon had yet hopes of success on account
+of the forces he still had in the German fortresses, the mutual
+jealousies of the allies, his connection with the Emperor of Austria,
+and the patriotism which would be aroused in France by invasion. But
+the allies gave him no time to utilize these influences, and Paris was
+not fortified. Napoleon carried on a campaign full of genius, gaining
+what advantage he could from the separation of his enemies. He
+attacked Bluecher and won four battles in four days at Champaubert
+(February 10, 1814), Montmirail (11th), Chateau-Thierry (12th), and
+Vauchamps (13th). These successes would have enabled him to make a
+reasonable peace, but his personal position forbade this, and he tried
+subterfuge and delay. The allies, however, were not to be trifled
+with, and in the beginning of March signed the treaty of Chaumont,
+which bound them each to keep 150,000 men on foot for twenty years.
+The battles of Craonne and Laon followed, in which Napoleon held his
+own, but saw his resources dwindle. On March 18th the conferences at
+Chatillon came to an end, and on the 24th the allies determined to
+march on Paris. Marmont and Mortier, with less than thirty thousand
+men, could make no head against them, while Napoleon himself tried a
+fruitless diversion against their communications. Joseph Bonaparte
+withdrew Maria Louisa and the King of Rome to Tours. On March 30th the
+allies attacked Paris on three sides, and in the afternoon the French
+marshals offered to capitulate. Napoleon, when he learned the real
+state of affairs, hurried up in rear of the allies, but was too late,
+and had to fall back to Fontainebleau. His position was desperate, and
+to add to his difficulties Wellington, whose career of success had
+gradually cleared the French out of the Peninsula, had now led his
+victorious army across the Pyrenees into France itself.
+
+Napoleon therefore at first offered to abdicate in favor of his son,
+but, when he found that would not be sufficient, he signed an
+unconditional abdication on April 11, 1814. He was given the
+sovereignty of the island of Elba, and the Bourbons, in the person of
+Louis XVIII., were restored to the throne of France. But the condition
+of affairs was very precarious. The return of the Bourbons was most
+unpopular. It indeed restored the parliament, but it unsettled the
+position of public men and the title to estates. The army was
+disgusted at the appointment to commands of emigres who had fought
+against France. The Church began to cause alarm to the holders of
+national property; and by the release of prisoners and the return of
+the garrisons of German fortresses, very large numbers of Napoleonic
+soldiers became dispersed over France. The coalition, too, broke up,
+and fresh alliances began to be sought with a view to check the
+aggressive spirit which Russia seemed inclined to manifest. Altogether
+affairs in Europe and France were in such a state as to make it not
+impossible that the magic of Napoleon's name might replace him in
+power. He accordingly resolved on making the attempt, left Elba on
+February 26, 1815, and landed on the French coast on March 1st. On the
+20th he entered Paris, having been joined by the army.
+
+Europe had declared war against him, and a new coalition had been
+formed, but only two armies were immediately ready to take the field;
+a mixed force under the Duke of Wellington in Belgium, and a Prussian
+army under Bluecher in the Rhine provinces. The English army had its
+base on the sea, and the Prussian on the Rhine, so that they had
+diverging lines of operation. Napoleon's idea was to strike suddenly
+at their point of junction before they could concentrate, push in
+between them, drive them apart, and then defeat each separately. The
+plan was unexceptionable, resembling that of his first campaign in
+1796, and the opening moves were successfully carried out. Napoleon
+left Paris on June 12th, his army being then echeloned between Paris
+and the Belgian frontier, so that the point where the blow would fall
+was still doubtful. On the 15th he occupied Charleroi, and was between
+the two allied armies, and on the 16th he defeated Bluecher at Ligny
+before Wellington could come to his assistance. So far all had gone
+well with him; but now, apparently, his energy was not sufficient to
+cope rapidly with the difficulties that no doubt beset him through the
+shortcomings of his staff, and the spirit of mutual distrust that
+reigned among his officers. He did nothing till the morning of the
+17th, and it was not till 2 P.M. that he sent Grouchy with 33,000 men
+to follow the Prussians in the supposed direction of their retreat
+toward Liege, and keep them at a distance while he turned against
+Wellington. But he had lost his opportunity; the wasted hours had
+enabled the Prussians to disappear, and he did not know the fact that
+Bluecher had taken the resolution to move on Wavre, giving up his own
+communications in order to reunite with Wellington. The latter had
+retired to a previously chosen position at Mont St. Jean, and received
+Bluecher's promise to lead his army to his assistance. So on the 18th,
+when Napoleon attacked the duke, unknown to him the bulk of the
+Prussian army was hastening up on his right flank, while Grouchy was
+fruitlessly engaged with the Prussian rear-guard only. This led to the
+crowning defeat of Waterloo, where Napoleon's fortunes were finally
+wrecked. He fled to Paris, and abdicated for the last time on June
+22d; and, finding it impossible to escape from France, he surrendered
+to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, at Rochefort, on July 15th.
+He was banished by the British Government to St. Helena, where he
+arrived on October 15, 1815, and died there of cancer of the stomach
+on May 5, 1821.
+
+
+
+
+ARTHUR, DUKE OF WELLINGTON
+
+By L. DRAKE
+
+(1769-1852)
+
+[Illustration: Duke of Wellington. [TN]]
+
+
+Arthur Wellesley, the fourth son of the Earl of Mornington, was born
+on May 1, 1769, at Dungan Castle, in Ireland. Although exhibiting no
+decided inclination for the profession of arms, a soldier's career was
+chosen for him at an early age; and after some preparatory years spent
+at Eton, he was sent to Angers, in France, to learn in its ancient
+military school those lessons in the art of war which he was destined
+in after-life again and again so gloriously to surpass.
+
+Unlike his contemporary Napoleon, the genius of Wellington did not
+display itself beyond enabling him to attain a fair and creditable
+proficiency at Angers. On his return to England he was gazetted to an
+ensigncy early in 1787; and five years later, having passed through
+the intermediate degrees, he obtained a troop in the Eighteenth Light
+Dragoons.
+
+His first appearance in public life was as a statesman, having been
+returned to the Irish Parliament for the borough of Trim. His military
+career of active service commenced by his being ordered, with his
+regiment, to join the army in the Netherlands. Ere he reached it, the
+tide of victory was running against the British arms; and his opening
+campaign, while it gave him much experience, brought him but little
+glory. He had now obtained the rank of colonel; and, as commander of
+the rear-guard of the army, he steadily covered its retreat before the
+advancing troops of the French republic, till they crossed the
+frontiers of the Low Countries; when, after a kindly welcome and a
+short stay with the Bremeners, they returned home.
+
+The worn-out regiments were immediately recruited; and in April, 1796,
+Colonel Wellesley sailed with his corps for the East Indies, where he
+arrived in February the following year.
+
+The fall of Seringapatam, and the death of Tippou-Saib in its defence,
+are well-known events.
+
+The principal command of the army in India was soon intrusted to
+Colonel Wellesley, and early next year he was gazetted major-general.
+The nature of this sketch will not admit of a detailed account of the
+rest of the campaign, although it proved a "short but brilliant
+one"--one which ended in the entire submission of the Mahratta
+potentates who continued the struggle after Tippou's fall, and
+completely established the reputation of the future hero of Waterloo.
+
+A staff command awaited Major-General (and now Sir Arthur) Wellesley's
+return to England; and soon afterward he married Catherine, the third
+daughter of the Earl of Longford.
+
+The command of a detachment of the army sent against the French in
+Spain and Portugal, was confided to Sir Arthur, in June, 1808, when
+without delay he proceeded to Corunna. The successes of the earlier
+portion of the campaign, owing to the admirable conduct of Sir Arthur,
+were so well appreciated at home that the king raised him to the
+peerage. Through many difficulties Lord Wellington still continued to
+lead the allied army on from victory to victory, to relate which, even
+briefly, would alone fill a volume, till he found himself ready for
+the last grand struggle at Ciudad Rodrigo, which was now occupied by
+the French. It was early in January, 1811, yet notwithstanding the
+coldness of the weather, and the dangers to which the army was
+exposed, in case of the sudden rising of the river Agueda, which runs
+nearly in front of the town, the preliminaries of the siege were
+successfully conducted. One afternoon, the breaching batteries,
+comprising twenty-seven large guns, opened their fire on the wall of
+the town. In five days the breaches were practicable, and a summons to
+surrender was sent to the governor. This he declined doing.
+Wellington, having personally examined the breaches, felt convinced
+that an assault had every prospect of success. Ordering the fire of
+the guns to be directed against the cannon on the ramparts, he sat
+down on an embankment, and wrote the order of assault which was to
+seal the doom of the town, beginning with the emphatic sentence--"The
+attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo must be made this evening at seven
+o'clock."
+
+Spain and Portugal conferred honors on the conqueror of Rodrigo; and
+at home he was raised to the earldom of Wellington, with an increased
+annuity of L2,000 a year.
+
+The French army, under Marshal Soult, had at length been compelled to
+quit Spain, and with such speed, that in four days they passed over
+ground which it took the allied armies seven days to traverse. During
+the retreat the two armies approached each other several times; and on
+one occasion, when the French army was crossing the plains of Ger, its
+pursuers followed so closely, that had it not been for the thick woods
+through which they had to pass, Soult's retreat would have been
+seriously endangered by the British cavalry.
+
+When Bonaparte had quitted Fontainebleau, and had embarked on board
+the Undaunted frigate for Elba, Lord Wellington felt he might safely
+leave the army for a time; and, setting out for Paris, he reached it
+May 4th. He met with an enthusiastic reception from all classes; while
+the unqualified praises of each of the allied sovereigns showed how
+much the successful issue of the struggle to restore liberty to Europe
+was due to his talents and constancy of purpose. The restored Spanish
+king, Ferdinand, sent him a letter of gratitude; and the Crown Prince
+of Sweden gave him the Order of the Sword. England at the same time
+conferred upon him the dukedom he so long enjoyed, and raised five of
+his lieutenants to peerages.
+
+Once more the "loud shrill clarion" of war aroused Europe to arms. Ten
+short months after his abdication, Napoleon, escaped from Elba, was
+again in Paris, resolved to incur all risks in order to gain the
+greatest prize in Europe--the crown he had so lately relinquished. The
+magic influence of his name spread through France, which became one
+vast camp; and in an incredibly short space of time Napoleon found
+himself ready to take the field with an army of one hundred and fifty
+thousand men, of whom twenty thousand were highly disciplined cavalry.
+The whole army was perfectly equipped, while three hundred pieces of
+cannon formed an overpowering artillery. To oppose this well-appointed
+force, the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Bluecher had collected an
+army of one hundred and eighty thousand men. But although the allied
+armies thus exceeded Napoleon's in numbers, his consisted of veteran
+troops of one nation, while theirs were composed, for the most part,
+of raw levies. That under the duke was "the weakest and the worst;" at
+no time did it reach eighty thousand men, and on one-half of these
+only could reliance be placed in the day of battle.
+
+"I am going to have a brush with Wellington," said Napoleon, on the
+evening of June 11, 1815; and next morning before daybreak he set out
+to join his army on the frontiers, taking every precaution to conceal
+from Wellington that he was coming. Napoleon's object was to separate
+Bluecher from Wellington, then to deal with each singly, and thus to
+crush them forever. Then France, rejoicing to see glory once more
+resting on her eagles, would again hail him as her emperor.
+
+While at dinner, Wellington received the first news of the advance of
+Napoleon. Thinking that this was merely a feint to draw the allies
+toward Ligny, while a serious attempt was made upon Brussels,
+Wellington, who had already prepared himself for any emergency,
+determined to wait till Napoleon's object was more fully displayed;
+while, therefore, he gave orders that the troops should be in
+readiness to march at a moment's notice, he, with his officers, joined
+in the festivities of a ball given that evening by the Duchess of
+Richmond.
+
+Bluecher's second courier arrived before twelve o'clock, and the
+despatches were delivered to the duke in the ball-room. While he was
+reading them, he seemed completely absorbed by their contents; and
+after he had finished, for some minutes he remained in the same
+attitude of deep reflection, totally abstracted from every surrounding
+object, while his countenance was expressive of fixed and intense
+thought. He was heard to mutter to himself, "Marshal Bluecher
+thinks"--"It is Marshal Bluecher's opinion;"--and after remaining thus
+abstracted a few minutes, and having apparently formed his decision,
+he gave his usual clear and concise orders to one of his staff
+officers, who instantly left the room, and was again as gay and
+animated as ever; he stayed to supper, and then went home.
+
+[Illustration: A review of the British Army by Wellington.]
+
+The trumpet's loud call awoke every sleeper in the city of Brussels a
+little after midnight. Then it became known that the French had
+advanced to Charleroi, which they had taken, and that the English
+troops were ordered to advance and support the Prussians. Instantly
+the place resounded with martial preparations; and as soldiers were
+quartered in every house, the whole town became one bustling scene.
+
+At daylight the troops were under arms, and at eight o'clock set out
+for Quatre Bras, the expected scene of action in advance of Charleroi;
+the fifth division taking the direct road through the forest of
+Soignies.
+
+Early in the afternoon, Marshal Ney attacked the Prince of Orange, and
+by an overwhelming superiority of troops was driving him back through
+a thick wood called "Le Bois de Bossen," when the leading columns of
+the English reached Quatre Bras. Wellington's eye at once saw the
+critical condition of his ally; and, though the troops had marched
+twenty miles under a sultry sky, he knew their spirit was indomitable,
+and gave the welcome order that the wood must be immediately regained.
+
+On came Ney's infantry, doubling that of his opponents' in number,
+supported by a crashing fire of artillery, quickly followed by the
+cavalry, which, dashing through the rye crops, more than breast high,
+charged the English regiments as soon as they reached the
+battle-ground.
+
+Yet, though unable properly to establish themselves, they formed
+squares, and roughly repelled the enemy. Fierce and frequent were the
+efforts of the French to break the squares. Showers of grape poured
+upon them; and the moment an opening appeared, on rushed the lancers.
+But the dead were quickly removed; and, though the squares were
+lessened, they still presented an unbroken line of glittering
+bayonets, which neither the spears of the lancers, nor the long swords
+of the cuirassiers could break through. A division of the Guards from
+Enghien, coming up at this crisis, gallantly charged the enemy, and in
+half an hour cleared the wood of them completely. This exploit was
+remarkable, achieved as it was by young soldiers after a toilsome
+march of fifteen hours, during which time they had been without
+anything to eat or drink. The fire of the French artillery, and the
+charges of cavalry, obliged these gallant fellows, although now joined
+by the Brunswickers, in some measure to keep the shelter of the wood.
+They, however, sallied out at intervals, until Ney, finding himself
+shaken, sent for his reserve. This force Napoleon had unexpectedly
+removed to support his attack on the Prussians at Ligny; yet the
+marshal maintained his position to the close of the day, when he fell
+back on the road to Frasnes, while the British and their brave allies
+lighted fires, and securing such provisions as they could, after a
+scanty meal, piled arms, and lay down to rest on the battle-field.
+
+Napoleon's simultaneous attack on the Prussians at Ligny was for a
+long time doubtful. Both Bluecher and Napoleon were compelled to bring
+their reserves into action; and when night closed, Bluecher still,
+"like a wounded lion," fought with ferocity. But the darkness enabled
+Napoleon to wheel a division of French infantry on the rear of the
+Prussians, while a dense body of cuirassiers forced Ligny on the other
+side, and not till then did Bluecher fall back.
+
+Wellington was prepared to accept battle at daybreak next morning;
+but, hearing of Bluecher's retreat, he also resolved to fall back, so
+as to keep a lateral communication with the right wing of the
+Prussians, and by this movement also prevent Bonaparte from placing
+himself between the two armies, when at his choice he might turn his
+forces against either, in which case the inferiority of numbers would
+have entailed certain defeat.
+
+Napoleon expected to find the English army still upon the ground it
+had occupied on the 16th. Great was his surprise when, on reaching the
+heights above Frasnes, he saw that the troops at the entrance of the
+wood were only a strong rear-guard, and that the retreat toward
+Brussels was already half effected. He bitterly rebuked Ney for his
+supposed negligence, though Wellington's own officers did not imagine
+they were to retreat till the moment it began; and the duke, by
+dexterously wheeling his troops round the wood, part of which could
+only be seen by the French, gave their marshal the idea that he was
+bringing up large reinforcements instead of drawing off his troops.
+The French squadrons immediately commenced the pursuit, but were so
+rudely handled by the Life Guards under Lord Uxbridge, who protected
+the rear, that, after several attacks, in the last of which the French
+hussars were charged and nearly cut to pieces, the pursuit was so
+severely checked as to give the infantry ample time to take up the
+ground appointed them on the heights of Mont St. Jean, covering the
+approach to Brussels by the great road from Charleroi.
+
+"Here it was that the duke had determined to make his final stand,
+staking the glory of many years on the issue of a single battle."
+
+When day broke, and Napoleon beheld his opponents, whom he feared
+would have escaped him during the night, fearlessly occupying their
+position of the evening before, and evidently prepared to defend it, a
+flush of joy overspread his face, while he exclaimed confidently,
+"Bravo! I have them then--these English!"
+
+By nine o'clock the weather moderated, the sun shone out, fires were
+kindled, the men dried and cleaned their arms, and, ammunition being
+served out, provisions were distributed, and the men breakfasted "with
+some degree of comfort."
+
+Since daybreak occasional shots had been fired; but not till eleven
+o'clock did the battle begin. A body of light troops left the French
+line, and, descending the hill at a sling trot, broke into scattered
+parties, keeping up an irregular fire as they advanced toward the
+Chateau of Hougoumont. These were closely followed by three divisions
+nearly thirty thousand strong; and the dropping fire was soon changed
+into one continued roll of musketry. As the English skirmishers fell
+back, two brigades of British artillery opened on the advancing
+columns of the French, each shot plunging and tearing through their
+masses, while the shells from the howitzers fell so truly that the
+shaken columns drew back. But now a powerful artillery opened from the
+French heights, fresh troops poured forward, and for more than an hour
+the line of each army remained spectators of the terrific attack on
+the chateau, surrounded by a dense cloud of smoke, through which
+glared forth the flashes of the artillery. The French guns had found
+their range; every shot told upon the old walls of the mansion; and
+crashing masonry, burning rafters falling, mingled with the yell of
+battle, added a frightful interest to the scene. At length the Nassau
+sharpshooters were driven back, and the French troops began to
+penetrate the orchard; but, ere they could occupy it the squadrons of
+English cavalry, under Lord Saltoun, bore down upon them, and drove
+them back. Wheeling round, they then attempted the rear of the
+chateau, but being received unflinchingly, were obliged to retire.
+Despairing of success, the French artillery now discharged shells upon
+Hougoumont; the tower and chapel were soon in a blaze, and in these
+many wounded men met a dreadful fate. Still, though surrounded by
+flames and bursting shells, with the heavy shot ploughing through wall
+and window, the Guards held their post, nor could Hougoumont be taken.
+
+"How beautifully these English fight! But they must give way,"
+exclaimed Napoleon to Marshal Soult. But evening came, and yet they
+held their ground. The men, maddened by seeing their comrades falling
+around them, longed ardently for the moment to advance; but Wellington
+felt that the crisis was not yet come. It required all his authority
+to restrain the troops; but he knew their powers of endurance.
+
+"Not yet, my brave fellows," said the duke; "be firm a little longer,
+and you shall have at them by-and-by." This homely appeal kept each
+man in his place in the ranks. But now the superior officers
+remonstrated, and advised a retreat.
+
+"Will the troops stand?" demanded Wellington.
+
+"Till they perish!" was the reply.
+
+"Then," added the duke, "I will stand with them to the last man."
+
+Yet Wellington was not insensible of the critical nature of his
+position, and longed for night or Bluecher. It was now seven, and the
+Prussians had been expected at three. In less than an hour, the sound
+of artillery was heard in the expected direction, and a staff officer
+brought word that the head of the Prussian column was at Planchenoit,
+nearly in the rear of the French reserve. Bonaparte, when told of
+their advance, maintained that it was Grouchy's long-expected force
+coming up; but when he saw them issue from the wood, and perceived the
+Prussian colors, he turned pale, but uttered not a word.
+
+Napoleon's Imperial Guards--his veteran troops--were now advancing,
+covered by a tempest of shot and shells, toward the ridge behind which
+lay the British infantry to gain a shelter from the fire. Wellington
+eagerly watched the dense cloud as it approached; and when it arrived
+within a hundred yards, advancing on horseback to the brow of the
+ridge, he exclaimed, "Up, Guards, and at them!"
+
+In a moment the men were on their feet--the French closed on them,
+when a tremendous volley drove the whole mass back; but the old
+Imperial Guard recovered, yet only to receive a second volley as
+deadly as the first, followed by a bold charge with the bayonet, which
+forced them down the slope, and up the opposite bank. In vain the
+French attempted to support them by taking the Guards in flank. Lord
+Hill brought forward the extreme right of the army, in the form of a
+crescent, which overlapping the horsemen, they were crushed as in a
+serpent's folds, while the infantry fell back, re-formed, and occupied
+their former place on the ridge.
+
+Wellington's quick eye already detected the confusion caused by the
+Prussian attack under General Buelow on the French rear. Hastily
+closing his telescope, he exclaimed, "The hour is come! Now every man
+must advance!"
+
+Forming into one long line, four men deep, the whole infantry
+advanced, with a loud cheer, the sun at the instant streaming out as
+if to shed his last glories on the conquerors of that dreadful day.
+Headed by the duke, with his hat in hand, the line advanced with
+spirit and rapidity, while the horse-artillery opened a fire of
+canister-shot on the confused masses.
+
+For a few minutes they stood their ground gallantly; and, even when
+the allied cavalry charged full upon them, four battalions of the Old
+Guard formed squares, and checked its advance. As the grapeshot tore
+through the ranks of the veterans, they closed up again, and, to every
+summons to surrender, gave the stern reply, "The Guard never
+surrender--they die!"
+
+Napoleon had already fled. Finding all hope of victory gone, he at
+first threw himself into one of the squares of the Old Guard,
+determined to die with them, but when the Prussians gained on their
+rear, and he was in danger of being made prisoner, he exclaimed, "For
+the present it is finished. Let us save ourselves!" and, turning his
+horse's head, he fled with ten or twelve of his immediate attendants.
+
+It was now half-past nine at night, and the moon rose with more than
+ordinary splendor. The French, now a mass of fugitives, were closely
+pursued by both armies, and a fearful slaughter ensued between
+Waterloo and Genappe. At the latter place the British discontinued the
+pursuit; but the Prussians, comparatively fresh, pursued without
+intermission; their light-horse putting no limit to their revenge.
+Many of the poor fugitives sought shelter in the villages on their
+route; but at the sound of a Prussian trumpet they fled again, only to
+be overtaken and cut down.
+
+Wellington re-crossed the field of Waterloo to sup at Brussels. The
+moonlight revealed all the horrors of the scene--his stern nature gave
+way--and, bursting into tears, he exclaimed, "I have never fought such
+a battle, and I hope never to fight such another."
+
+He never did. Waterloo was his last battle, though he lived for nearly
+forty years afterward, a leader in English politics, and died in 1852,
+a national hero, a worthy twin figure to the immortal Nelson.
+
+
+
+
+LORD HORATIO NELSON
+
+(1758-1805)
+
+[Illustration: Lord Nelson. [TN]]
+
+
+Horatio Nelson was born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, September 29,
+1758. His father, the rector of that parish, was burdened with a
+numerous family; and it is said to have been more with a view to
+lighten that burden than from predilection for the service, that at
+the age of twelve he expressed a wish to go to sea, under the care of
+his uncle, Captain Suckling. Of his early adventures it is unnecessary
+to speak in detail. In 1773 he served in Captain Phipps's voyage of
+discovery in the Northern Polar seas. His next station was the East
+Indies; from which, at the end of eighteen months, he was compelled to
+return by a very severe and dangerous illness. In April, 1777, he
+passed his examination, and was immediately commissioned as second
+lieutenant of the Lowestoffe frigate, then fitting out for Jamaica.
+
+Fortunate in conciliating the good-will and esteem of those with whom
+he served, he passed rapidly through the lower ranks of his
+profession, and was made post-captain, with the command of the
+Hinchinbrook, of twenty-eight guns, June 11, 1779, when not yet of
+age. In 1782 he was appointed to the Albemarle, twenty-eight; and in
+1784 to the Boreas, twenty-eight, in which he served for three years
+in the West Indies, and though in time of peace, gave signal proof of
+his resolution and strict sense of duty, by being the first to insist
+on the exclusion of the Americans from direct trade with the British
+colonies, agreeably to the terms of the Navigation Act. He had no
+small difficulties to contend with; for the planters and the colonial
+authorities were united against him, and even the admiral on the
+station coincided with their views, and gave orders that the Americans
+should be allowed free access to the islands. Still Nelson persevered.
+Transmitting a respectful remonstrance to the admiral, he seized four
+of the American ships, and after a long and tedious process at law, in
+which he incurred much anxiety and expense, he succeeded in procuring
+their condemnation by the Admiralty Court. Neither his services in
+this matter, nor his efforts to expose and remedy the peculations and
+dishonesty of the government agents, in almost all matters connected
+with naval affairs in the West Indies, were duly acknowledged by the
+Government at home; and in moments of spleen when suffering under
+inconveniences which a conscientious discharge of his duty had brought
+on him, he talked of quitting the service of an ungrateful country. In
+March, 1787, he married Mrs. Nisbet, a West-Indian lady, and in the
+same year returned to England. He continued unemployed till January,
+1793; when, on the breaking out of the French wars, he was appointed
+to the Agamemnon, sixty-four, and ordered to serve in the
+Mediterranean under the command of Lord Hood.
+
+An ample field for action was now open to him. Lord Hood, who had
+known him in the West Indies, and appreciated his merits, employed him
+to co-operate with Paoli in delivering Corsica from its subjection to
+France; and most laboriously and ably did he perform the duty
+intrusted to him. The siege and capture of Bastia was entirely owing
+to his efforts; and at the siege of Calvi, during which he lost an
+eye, and throughout the train of successes which brought about the
+temporary annexation of Corsica to the British crown, his services,
+and those of the brave crew of the Agamemnon, were conspicuous. In
+1795 Nelson was selected to co-operate with the Austrian and Sardinian
+troops in opposing the progress of the French in the north of Italy.
+The incapacity, if not dishonesty, and the bad success of those with
+whom he had to act, rendered this service irksome and inglorious; and
+his mortification was heightened when orders were sent out to withdraw
+the fleet from the Mediterranean, and evacuate Corsica and Elba. These
+reverses, however, were the prelude to a day of glory. On February 13,
+1797, the British fleet, commanded by Sir John Jervis, fell in with
+the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. In the battle which ensued,
+Nelson, who had been raised to the rank of Commodore, and removed to
+the Captain, seventy-four, bore a most distinguished part.
+Apprehensive lest the enemy might be enabled to escape without
+fighting, he did not hesitate to disobey signals, and executed a
+manoeuvre which brought the Captain into close action at once with
+three first-rates, an eighty, and two seventy-four gun ships. Captain
+Trowbridge, in the Culloden, immediately came to his support, and they
+maintained the contest for near an hour against this immense disparity
+of force. One first-rate and one seventy-four dropped astern disabled;
+but the Culloden was also crippled, and the Captain was fired on by
+five ships of the line at once; when Captain Collingwood, in the
+Excellent, came up and engaged the huge Santissima Trinidad, of one
+hundred and thirty-six guns. By this time the Captain's rigging was
+all shot away; and she lay unmanageable abreast of the eighty-gun
+ship, the San Nicolas. Nelson seized the opportunity to board, and was
+himself among the first to enter the Spanish ship. She struck after a
+short struggle; and, sending for fresh men, he led the way from his
+prize to board the San Josef, of one hundred and twelve guns,
+exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey or victory." The ships immediately
+surrendered. Nelson received the most lively and public thanks for his
+services from the admiral, who was raised to the peerage by the title
+of Earl St. Vincent. Nelson received the Order of the Bath; he had
+already been made Rear-Admiral, before tidings of the battle reached
+England.
+
+During the spring, Sir Horatio Nelson commanded the inner squadron
+employed in the blockade of Cadiz. He was afterward despatched on an
+expedition against Teneriffe, which was defeated with considerable
+loss to the assailants. The admiral himself lost his right arm, and
+was obliged to return to England, where he languished more than four
+months before the cure of his wound was completed. His services were
+rewarded by a pension of L1,000. On this occasion he was required by
+official forms to present a memorial of the services in which he had
+been engaged; and as our brief account can convey no notion of the
+constant activity of his early life, we quote the abstract of this
+paper given by Mr. Southey. "It stated that he had been in four
+actions with the fleets of the enemy, and in three actions with boats
+employed in cutting out of harbor, in destroying vessels, and in
+taking three towns; he had served on shore with the army four months,
+and commanded the batteries at the sieges of Bastia and Calvi; he had
+assisted at the capture of seven sail of the line, six frigates, four
+corvettes, and eleven privateers; taken and destroyed near fifty sail
+of merchant vessels, and actually been engaged against the enemy
+upward of a hundred and twenty times; in which service he had lost his
+right eye and right arm, and been severely wounded and bruised in his
+body."
+
+Early in 1798 Nelson went out in the Vanguard to rejoin Lord St.
+Vincent off Cadiz. He was immediately despatched with a squadron, into
+the Mediterranean, to watch an armament known to be fitting out at
+Toulon, the destination of which excited much anxiety. It sailed May
+20th, attacked and took Malta, and then proceeded, as Nelson supposed,
+to Egypt. Strengthened by a powerful reinforcement, he made all sail
+for Alexandria; but there no enemy had been seen or heard of. He
+returned in haste along the north coast of the Mediterranean to
+Sicily, refreshed the fleet, and again sailed to the eastward. On
+nearing Alexandria the second time, August 1st, he had the pleasure of
+seeing the object of his toilsome cruise moored in Aboukir Bay, in
+line of battle. It appeared afterward that the two fleets must have
+crossed each other on the night of June 22d.
+
+The French fleet consisted of thirteen ships of the line and four
+frigates; the British of the same number of ships of the line, and one
+fifty-gun ship. In number of guns and men the French had a decided
+superiority. It was evening before the British fleet came up. The
+battle began at half-past six; night closed in at seven, and the
+struggle was continued through the darkness--a magnificent and awful
+spectacle to thousands who watched the engagement with eager anxiety.
+Victory was not long doubtful. The first two ships of the French line
+were dismasted in a quarter of an hour; the third, fourth, and fifth
+were taken by half-past eight; about ten, the L'Orient, Admiral
+Bruey's flag-ship, blew up. By daybreak the two rear ships, which had
+not been engaged, cut their cables and stood out to sea, in company
+with two frigates, leaving nine ships of the line in the hands of the
+British, who were too much crippled to engage in pursuit. Two ships of
+the line and two frigates were burnt or sunk. Three out of the four
+ships which escaped were subsequently taken; and thus, of the whole
+armament, only a single frigate returned to France.
+
+This victory, the most complete and most important then known in naval
+warfare, raised Nelson to the summit of glory, and presents and honors
+were showered on him from all quarters. The gratitude of his country
+was expressed, inadequately in comparison with the rewards bestowed on
+others for less important services, by raising him to the peerage, by
+the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, with a pension of L2,000. The
+Court of Naples, to which the battle of Aboukir was as a reprieve from
+destruction, testified a due sense of its obligation by bestowing on
+him the dukedom and domain of Bronte, in Sicily.
+
+The autumn of 1798, the whole of 1799, and part of 1800, Nelson spent
+in the Mediterranean, employed in the recovery of Malta, in protecting
+Sicily, and in co-operating to expel the French from the Neapolitan
+continental dominions. In 1800 various causes of discontent led him to
+solicit leave to return to England, where he was received with the
+enthusiasm due to his services.
+
+Soon afterward he separated himself formally from Lady Nelson. In
+March, 1801, he sailed as second in command of the expedition against
+Copenhagen, led by Sir Hyde Parker. The dilatoriness with which it was
+conducted increased the difficulties of this enterprise, and might
+have caused it to fail, had not Nelson's energy and talent been at
+hand to overcome the obstacles occasioned by this delay. The attack
+was intrusted to him by Sir Hyde Parker, and executed April 2d, with
+his usual promptitude and success. After a fierce engagement, with
+great slaughter on both sides, the greater part of the Danish line of
+defence was captured or silenced. Nelson then sent a flag of truce on
+shore, and an armistice was concluded. He bore honorable testimony to
+the gallantry of his opponents. "The French," he said, "fought
+bravely, but they could not have supported for one hour the fight
+which the Danes had supported for four." May 5th Sir Hyde Parker was
+recalled, and Nelson appointed Commander-in-chief; but no further
+hostilities occurred, and suffering greatly from the climate, he
+almost immediately returned home. For this battle he was raised to the
+rank of Viscount.
+
+At this time much alarm prevailed with respect to the meditated
+invasion of England; and the command of the coast from Orfordness to
+Beachy Head was offered to him, and accepted. But he thought the alarm
+idle; he felt the service to be irksome; and gladly retired from it at
+the peace of Amiens. When war was renewed in 1803, he took the command
+of the Mediterranean fleet. For more than a year he kept his station
+off Toulon, eagerly watching for the French fleet. In January, 1805,
+it put to sea, and escaped the observation of his lookout ships. He
+made for Egypt, and failing to meet with them, returned to Malta,
+where he found information that they had been dispersed in a gale, and
+forced to put back to Toulon. Villeneuve put to sea again, March 31st,
+formed a junction with the Spanish fleet in Cadiz, and sailed for the
+West Indies. Thither Nelson followed him, after considerable delay for
+want of information and from contrary winds; but the enemy still
+eluded his pursuit, and he was obliged to retrace his anxious course
+to Europe, without the longed-for meeting, and with no other
+satisfaction than that of having frustrated by his diligence their
+designs on the English colonies. June 20, 1805, he landed at
+Gibraltar, that being the first time that he had set foot ashore
+since June 16, 1803. After cruising in search of the enemy till the
+middle of August, he was ordered to Portsmouth, where he learned that
+an indecisive action had taken place between the combined fleets
+returning from the West Indies, and the British under Sir Robert
+Calder.
+
+[Illustration: Nelson at Trafalgar.]
+
+He had not been many days established at home before certain news
+arrived that the French and Spanish fleets had entered Cadiz. Eager to
+gain the reward of his long watchings, and laborious pursuit, he again
+offered his services, which were gladly accepted. He embarked at
+Portsmouth, September 14, 1805, on board the Victory, to take the
+command of the fleet lying off Cadiz, under Admiral Collingwood, his
+early friend and companion in the race of fame. The last battle in
+which Nelson was engaged was fought off Cape Trafalgar, October 21,
+1805. The enemy were superior in number of ships, and still more in
+size and weight of metal. Nelson bore down on them in two lines,
+heading one himself, while Collingwood, in the Royal Sovereign, led
+the other, which first entered into action. "See," cried Nelson, as
+the Royal Sovereign cut through the centre of the enemy's line, and
+muzzle to muzzle engaged a three-decker, "see how that noble fellow
+Collingwood carries his ships into action." Collingwood, on the other
+hand, said to his captain, "Rotherham, what would Nelson give to be
+here?" As the Victory approached an incessant raking fire was directed
+against her, by which fifty of her men were killed and wounded before
+a single gun was returned. Nelson steered for his old opponent at Cape
+St. Vincent, the Santissima Trinidad, distinguished by her size, and
+opened his fire at four minutes after twelve, engaging the Redoubtable
+with his starboard, the Santissima Trinidad and Bucentaur with his
+larboard guns.
+
+About a quarter past one, a musket-ball, fired from the mizzen-top of
+the Redoubtable, struck him on the left shoulder, and he fell. From
+the first he felt the wound to be mortal. He suffered intense pain,
+yet still preserved the liveliest interest in the fate of the action;
+and the joy visible in his countenance as often as the hurrahs of the
+crew announced that an enemy had struck, testified how near his heart,
+even in the agonies of death, was the accomplishment of the great work
+to which his life had been devoted. He lived to know that his victory
+was complete and glorious, and expired tranquilly at half-past four.
+His last words were, "Thank God, I have done my duty."
+
+He had indeed done his duty, and completed his task; for thenceforth
+no hostile fleet presumed to contest the dominion of the sea. It may
+seem mournful that he did not survive to enjoy the thanks and honors
+with which a grateful country would have rejoiced to recompense this
+crowning triumph. But he had reached the pinnacle of fame; and his
+death in the hour of victory has tended far more than a few years of
+peaceful life, to keep alive his memory in the hearts of a people
+which loved, and a navy which adored him.
+
+
+
+
+ISRAEL PUTNAM
+
+(1718-1790)
+
+[Illustration: Men searching in rocks. [TN]]
+
+
+Israel Putnam, the redoubtable hero of Indian and French adventure in
+the old colonial wars, the survivor of many a revolutionary fight, was
+born at Salem, Mass., January 7, 1718. His grandfather, from the south
+of England, was one of the first settlers of the place. The boy was
+brought up with his father on the farm. He had little education in
+literature; much in the development of a hardy, vigorous constitution,
+in his contest with the soil and the actual world about him. He was
+fond of athletic exercises, an adept in running and wrestling, in
+which he proved himself more than a match for his village companions.
+The story is told of his being insulted for his rusticity, on his
+first visit to Boston, by a youth of twice his size, when he taught
+the citizen better manners by a sound flogging.
+
+Before he was of age, he was married to the daughter of John Pope, of
+Salem, and presently removed with his wife to a farm in the town of
+Pomfret, in Eastern Connecticut. His rugged powers were, no doubt,
+sufficiently taxed in the ordinary labors of the field. In those days
+the farmer had enemies to encounter, which have since vanished from
+the land.
+
+The well-known fable of AEsop, of the boy and the wolf, had then a
+literal application. Every child in the days of our fathers knew the
+story of Putnam, and the she-wolf which he dragged from its den. This
+and similar tales go far to make up the popular reputation of the
+hero, and it was as a man of the people that Putnam first appears upon
+the public scene.
+
+On the breaking out of the old French war, as it was termed, at the
+age of thirty-seven, he drew together a band of his neighbors and
+reported himself with the Connecticut contingent before Crown Point.
+He appears to have been employed in this service under Major Rogers,
+the celebrated partisan "ranger," whose life he is said to have saved
+in an encounter with a stalwart Frenchman. Putnam conducted himself as
+a man of resources and valor in this mixed species of warfare, in
+achieving a reputation which brought him, in 1757, the commission of a
+major from the Connecticut Legislature. It was the year of the
+memorable massacre of Fort William Henry. Putnam was with the forces
+whose head-quarters were at the neighboring Fort Edward, under command
+of General Webb, and made several vigorous attempts to assist in the
+support of the beleaguered fortress, but his efforts were not seconded
+by the commander, who ungenerously left the fort a prey to Montcalm
+and the Indians. These adventures of Putnam displayed his personal
+courage, in approaching the enemy on Lake George, and subsequently in
+command of his Rangers in rescuing a party of his fellow-soldiers from
+an Indian ambuscade at Fort Edward.
+
+The year 1758 saw Major Putnam again in the field, under the command
+of Abercrombie, at the scene of his former labors, in the vicinity of
+Lake George. In the early movements of the campaign, Putnam
+distinguished himself in an ambuscade, by a destructive night attack
+upon a party of the enemy at Wood Creek. When the main line advanced
+toward Ticonderoga, he was, with the lamented Lord Howe, in the front
+of the centre, when that much-loved officer was slain upon the march.
+It was the first meeting, after landing from Lake George, with the
+advance of the French troops. There was some skirmishing, which
+attracted the attention of the officers. Putnam advanced to the spot,
+accompanied, contrary to his dissuasions, by Lord Howe, who fell at
+the first fire. The party of Putnam, enraged by this disaster, fought
+with gallantry, and inflicted a heavy loss upon their opponents. The
+result of this miserably conducted expedition, however, made no amends
+for the loss of the gallant Howe. Two thousand men were blunderingly
+sacrificed before Ticonderoga, and the threatened siege was abandoned.
+
+The life of Putnam is full of perilous encounters incident to border
+service against the Indians. In one of these he narrowly avoided
+capture by the savages on the Hudson, near Fort Miller. He escaped
+only by shooting the rapids with his boat, a marvellous adventure,
+which is said to have wakened a superstitious veneration for him in
+the minds of his Indian assailants.
+
+Not long afterward, however, the barbarians had an opportunity of
+treating him with less respect. It was in the month of August of this
+year that he was engaged with a reconnoitring party in company with
+the partisan Rogers, near Ticonderoga. They had been employed in
+watching the movements of the enemy, and were on their return to Fort
+Edward when the attention of the French partisan officer, Molang, who
+was on the lookout, was attracted to them by a careless shooting-match
+between Rogers and a fellow British officer. A confused hand-to-hand
+action ensued in the woods, in the course of which Putnam, his gun
+missing fire, "while the muzzle was pressed against the breast of a
+large and well-proportioned savage," was captured and bound to a tree
+by that formidable personage. The English party now rallying, drove
+their pursuers backward, which brought the unfortunate Putnam to a
+central position between two fires. "Human imagination," well says
+Colonel Humphreys, "can hardly figure to itself a more deplorable
+situation." Putnam remained more than an hour deprived of all power
+save that of hearing and vision, as the musket-balls whizzed by his
+ears and a ruthless savage aimed his tomahawk repeatedly, with the
+infernal dexterity of a Chinese juggler, within a hair's breadth of
+his person. This amusement was succeeded by the attempt of a French
+petty-officer to put an end to his life by discharging his musket
+against his breast. It happily missed fire. The action was now brought
+to an end in favor of the Provincials; but Putnam was carried off in
+the retreat by his Indian captor. He was now destined to witness one
+of those scenes, since so well described by Cooper, of the peculiar
+tortures inflicted by the Indians upon their prisoners in war; but
+unhappily with less complacent feelings than the reader of the skilful
+novelist experiences, whose terrors are tempered by the delightful art
+of the narrator. With Putnam the spectator and the sufferer were the
+same. He has been bound on the march with intolerable thongs, he has
+almost perished under his burdens, he has been tomahawked in the face;
+he is now to be roasted alive. A dark forest is selected for the
+sacrifice; stripped naked, he is bound to a tree, and the inflammable
+brushwood piled around him. Savage voices sound his death-knell. Fire
+is applied, when a sudden shower dampens the flame, to burst forth
+again with renewed strength. Though securely fastened, the limbs of
+the victim are left some liberty to shrink from the accursed heat. He
+has thought his last thought of home, of wife and children, when the
+desperate French partisan, Molang, the commander of the savage hordes,
+hearing of the act, rushes upon the scene and rescues him from his
+tormentors. Putnam is now restored to the guardianship of the Indian
+chief by whom he had been captured, and from whom he was separated
+during these hours of agony, when he had fallen into the hands of the
+baser fellows of the tribe. The party now reach Ticonderoga, where
+Putnam is delivered to Montcalm, and thence courteously conducted by a
+French officer to Montreal.
+
+There he found himself within reach of a benevolent American officer,
+then a prisoner in the city, Colonel Peter Schuyler, who generously
+ministered to his necessities, and who was instrumental in procuring
+his release from the French commander, when he himself was exchanged
+after the capture of Frontenac. Putnam, on his return home, gallantly
+conducted through the wilderness the sorely tried Mrs. Howe and her
+children, whose adventures in Indian captivity and among the French,
+equal the inventive pages of romance.
+
+The next year, in Amherst's great campaign, Putnam returned to
+Montreal under better auspices. He was with that commander in his
+onward movement, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and rendered
+efficient service in the passage down the St. Lawrence, by his bravery
+and ingenuity. When the fort of Oswegatchie was to be attacked, and
+two armed vessels were in the way, he proposed to silence the latter
+by driving wedges to hinder the movement of their rudders, and to
+cross the abatis of the fortification by an attack from boats, armed
+with long planks, which were to be let down when the vessels,
+protected by fascines, were placed alongside of the work. A timely
+surrender anticipated both of these expedients. The dying Wolfe had
+conquered Canada at Quebec, making victory easy elsewhere in the
+province. Montreal surrendered to the allied forces without a blow.
+Putnam, it is recorded, availed himself of the opportunity to look up
+the Indian chief who had taken him prisoner, and exchange civilities
+and hospitalities, now that the tables were turned.
+
+We next find Putnam in charge of a Connecticut regiment, in a novel
+field of warfare, on the coast of Cuba, in Lord Albemarle's attack
+upon Havana, in 1762. He was in considerable danger in a storm, when
+the transport in which he embarked with his men was wrecked on a reef
+of the island; a landing was effected by rafts, and a fortified camp
+established on the shore. He was again fortunate in escaping the
+dangers of a climate so fatal to his countrymen. On his return home,
+he was engaged in service against the Indians, with the title of
+colonel. The war being now over, he retired to his farm, which he
+continued to cultivate till he was again called into the field by the
+stirring summons of Lexington.
+
+In the preliminary scenes of the war, he fairly represented the
+feeling of the mass of his countrymen, as it was excited by the
+successive acts of parliamentary aggression. As a soldier of the old
+French war, he had learned the weakness of British officers in
+America, and the strength of a hardy, patriotic peasantry. "If," he
+said, "it required six years for the combined forces of England and
+her colonies to conquer such a feeble colony as Canada, it would, at
+least, take a very long time for England alone to overcome her own
+widely extended colonies, which were much stronger." Another anecdote
+is characteristic of the blunt farmer. Being once asked whether he did
+not seriously believe "that a well-appointed British army of five
+thousand veterans could march through the whole continent of America,"
+he replied, "no doubt, if they behaved civilly, and paid well for
+everything they wanted; but--if they should attempt it in a hostile
+manner, though the American men were out of the question, the women,
+with their ladles and broomsticks, would knock them all on the head
+before they had got half way through."
+
+The news of Lexington--the war message--transmitted from hand to hand
+till village repeated it to village, the sea to the backwoods, "found
+the farmer of Pomfret, two days after the conflict, like Cincinnatus,
+literally at the plough." He unyoked his team and hastened in his rude
+dress to the camp. Summoning the forces of Connecticut, he was placed
+at their head, with the rank of Major-General, and stood ready at
+Cambridge for the bloody day of Bunker's Hill. He was in service in
+May, in the spirited affair checking the British supplies from
+Noddle's Island, in Boston Harbor, and resolutely counselled the
+occupation of the heights of Charlestown. When the company of Prescott
+went forth on the night of June 16th, to their gallant work, he was
+with them, taking no active command, but assisting where opportunity
+served. He was seen in different parts of the field, but his chief
+exertions appear to have been expended upon the attempted
+fortification of Bunker's Hill, where he met the fugitives in the
+retreat, and conducted "such of them as would obey him," says
+Bancroft, to the night's encampment at Prospect Hill.
+
+Putnam's was one of the first Congressional appointments, ten days
+before the battle, when the rank of Major-General was conferred upon
+him. He continued to serve at the siege of Boston, and when the
+theatre of operations was changed by the departure of the British to
+New York, was placed by Washington, in 1776, in command in that city
+until his own arrival. He employed himself during this short period,
+with several devices for the safety of the harbor. In August, on the
+landing of Howe, he was, upon the sudden illness of Greene, who had
+directed the fortifications, and after the arrival of the British,
+left in command at the battle of Long Island, and much censure has
+been thrown upon him for the neglect of the passes by which the
+American left was turned. In the actual combat there appears to have
+been a divided authority.
+
+The abandonment of New York next followed, with the retreat to
+Westchester and the passage through the Jerseys. Putnam was then, in
+January, 1777, ordered to Philadelphia to make provision for its
+defence. In May, he was put in command of the post at the Highlands,
+to secure its defences, and observe, from that central position, the
+movements of the enemy. In the summer of this year, Sir Henry Clinton,
+at New York, sent up the river a flag of truce to claim one Edmund
+Palmer, who had been taken in the American camp, as a lieutenant in
+the British service. This drew forth from Putnam a reply which has
+been often quoted:
+
+                                   "HEADQUARTERS, August 7, 1777.
+
+"Edmund Palmer, an officer in the enemy's service, was taken as a spy
+lurking within our lines; he has been tried as a spy, condemned as a
+spy, and shall be executed as a spy, and the flag is ordered to depart
+immediately.
+
+                                   "ISRAEL PUTNAM.
+
+"P.S.--He has been accordingly executed."
+
+In September, a portion of Putnam's command was withdrawn by
+Washington for the support of the army in Pennsylvania, by a
+peremptory order which, it is said, put an end to a plan formed by
+Putnam for a separate attack on the enemy at New York. Forts
+Montgomery and Clinton, at the entrance to the Highlands, fell into
+the hands of Clinton by a surprise shortly after, but the conquest of
+this important position was neutralized by the victory of Gates, at
+Saratoga. The British remained at Fort Montgomery but twenty days.
+Putnam seems still to have entertained some project in connection with
+New York, which led him to withhold troops called for by the imperious
+necessities of Washington. The neglect of these orders brought a
+pointed letter from Hamilton, and an equally significant rebuke from
+Washington himself. In the following spring, Putnam was relieved of
+his command in the Highlands by the appointment of General McDougal to
+the post, and was ordered to Connecticut to superintend the raising of
+the new levies. He was stationed the following winter at Danbury, when
+the famous descent of the precipice at Horse Neck occurred, one of the
+latest marvels of Putnam's anecdotical career. While he was on a visit
+to one of his outposts at Horse Neck, Governor Tryon of New York,
+advanced upon the place with a considerable body of troops. Putnam
+planted his small force on the hill, but was speedily compelled to
+provide for the safety of his men by a retreat, and for his own, by
+plunging down a formidable rocky steep by the roadside.
+
+In 1779, he was again in the Highlands, superintending the defences
+then erected at West Point, one of which, the fort now in ruins, bore
+his name. In the winter, he visited his family in Connecticut, and as
+he was returning to the army, at Morristown, was struck with
+paralysis. His right side was enfeebled, and his active career ceased,
+though he enjoyed the cheerful, tranquil pursuits of age. His memory
+remained unimpaired. One of his amusements was to relate to his friend
+and military companion, Colonel Humphreys, those events of his varied
+life, which that officer wrought into the pleasing narrative
+appropriately addressed to the State Society of the Cincinnati in
+Connecticut, and published by their order. The dedication of the work
+to Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth, bears date June 4, 1788, about two
+years before the decease of the hero of the story. General Putnam died
+at Brookline, Conn., May 29, 1790, in his seventy-third year.
+
+
+
+
+ANTHONY WAYNE[4]
+
+By O. C. BOSBYSHELL
+
+(1745-1796)
+
+         [Footnote 4: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Anthony Wayne. [TN]]
+
+
+Across the pages of history recording mighty conflicts that rock
+nations and governments to their foundations, flash certain grand
+characters whose career adds a charm to the dreary and often prosaic
+narrative. Some bright particular star, whose lustre flings romance
+over dry facts, firing the hearts of all patriots with enthusiasm and
+national fervor. Honoring the great commanders of the wars of the ages
+for their noble deeds, here and there sparkles out the brilliant
+genius of a warrior with less responsibility, but whose name inspires
+the ardor of men, the love of women, and the fervor of the poet and
+novelist. Such a character, such a man, was "Mad" Anthony Wayne, an
+able, fearless soldier of the American Revolution, so thoroughly
+patriotic such an earnest, honest believer in the righteous cause for
+which he fought, that he was mad indeed with all found arrayed against
+the interests of the Colonists, or with those who, having donned the
+Continental uniform, were indisposed to fight.
+
+Anthony Wayne was born in Waynesborough, Easttown Township, Chester
+County, Penn., on January 1, 1745. He sprang from good English stock.
+His grandfather resided in Yorkshire, England, but during the reign of
+Charles II. purchased an estate in the County Wicklow, Ireland, and
+settled on it. Being a thorough Protestant he espoused the cause of
+King William III., and in the service of that monarch fought in the
+Battle of the Boyne, as a captain of dragoons. In 1722 he came to
+America with his four sons, and procured some one thousand six hundred
+acres of land in Chester County, Penn., upon which he settled in 1724.
+His youngest son, Isaac, the father of Anthony Wayne, received as his
+share of his father's estate five hundred acres of land near Paoli.
+Born and brought up amid the charming surroundings of this most
+beautiful country, it is easily understood why Anthony Wayne became so
+thoroughly imbued with tastes for the beautiful. His neatness in
+dress, and earnest advocacy of a brilliant uniform for the officers
+and men of the Revolutionary Army, had its foundation in the very
+atmosphere he lived in, this magnificent Chester Valley. "Dandy" Wayne
+indeed, but only so far as neatness in dress and delicacy of taste
+were concerned, for a nobler-minded, more unselfish patriot never
+entered the army of a nation. Wayne was educated at the Philadelphia
+Academy, and he became a surveyor of some note. He attended closely,
+however, to his magnificent farm, and took a lively interest in all
+affairs affecting his fellow-citizens. In 1765 and 66, only just of
+age, he was sent to Nova Scotia to survey some lands belonging to
+Benjamin Franklin and others.
+
+In May, 1766, he married Mary, the daughter of Bartholomew Penrose, a
+Philadelphia merchant, and settled down to the life of a farmer. He
+was a stirring man in his neighborhood, fond of an active and out-door
+life. He was filled with military impulses; his choice of a
+profession, that of surveyor, evidently arose from his taste for
+exploration, and for the excitement incident to plunging into
+trackless wastes of forests and mapping out new boundaries. His love
+of military pursuits led him to study all the great works on the art
+of war, and when the time came he was prepared, as few soldiers of the
+revolution were, for the conflict with the trained soldiers of Great
+Britain. He formed companies with the men in his neighborhood, and
+drilled them assiduously. This gave him prominence and popularity, so
+that he is found a member of the Pennsylvania Legislature in 1774-75.
+Wayne seemed to have prescience of what was coming, and when the
+conflict came he was ready. In September, 1775, he raised a regiment
+of soldiers, of which he became the colonel in the January following,
+and joined General Sullivan's command in Canada in the spring of 1776.
+At the battle of Three Rivers, May, 1776, Wayne displayed remarkable
+military knowledge, and was enabled to extricate his command from
+difficulties that seemed almost insurmountable. In a letter to Dr.
+Franklin and others he gives a graphic description of this engagement.
+Of his men engaged he says, "I have lost more than the one-quarter
+part, together with a slight touch in my right leg, which is partly
+well already." This was Wayne's first battle. He displayed such
+remarkable coolness and excellent judgment throughout this engagement,
+as to command the respect and admiration of all in the army; his
+entire career during this unfortunate Canadian campaign exhibited
+clearly his soldierly qualifications. Recognizing these, General
+Schuyler, in November, 1776, appointed Colonel Wayne to the command of
+Fort Ticonderoga and Mt. Independence, which military post Wayne
+considered the second most important in the country. While stationed
+here, Wayne busied his men in rendering the place as nearly
+impregnable as possible, and by warm, fervid letters implored the
+"powers that be" in Pennsylvania, to send proper clothing, food, and
+arms to the men of that State serving in his army. So negligent did
+the State seem to the needs of its men, that this warm-hearted,
+high-spirited warrior, seriously thought of resigning his commission,
+being unable to longer witness the impoverished condition of his
+troops.
+
+Colonel Wayne was appointed Brigadier General in February, 1777, and
+ordered to join General Washington's army at Morristown, N. J., in
+April of the same year. He was given command of the "Pennsylvania
+Line" consisting of two brigades of four regiments each, with a total
+strength of about 1,700 men. His activity and alertness during the
+summer, in harassing and annoying the enemy, went far toward ridding
+the State of that enemy, and gained for him the praise of Washington,
+who publicly acknowledged his "bravery and good conduct." The British,
+unable to force their way through New Jersey, determined to go around
+by sea to Philadelphia, and after embarking at Staten Island were next
+heard from within the Chesapeake Bay. Washington moved his army to
+Wilmington, Wayne having been sent ahead to organize the militia
+rendezvousing in Chester County, Penn. He rejoined the army at
+Germantown and marched with it to Wilmington.
+
+In the battle of Brandywine, September 11, 1777, Wayne was
+particularly distinguished. He occupied the left of the American line
+at Chad's Ford, and had opposed to his forces, the Hessians commanded
+by Baron von Knyphausen. He fought all day, holding his ground
+tenaciously, repelling every effort made by the enemy to cross the
+ford and worrying them by repeated attacks of his light infantry,
+which he frequently sent over the creek for the purpose. The right
+wing of the enemy having been turned, Wayne, at sunset, retreated in
+good order, without the loss of any artillery or stores. On the
+evening of September 20th, Wayne, with a detachment of twelve hundred
+men, was suddenly and impetuously attacked at Paoli Tavern by a very
+large force of the rear guard of the British army, which rear guard he
+had been sent to annoy. By the betrayal of Tory spies at the time of
+the attack, the forces "were not more than ten yards distant."
+Notwithstanding the impetuosity of the attack, by largely overwhelming
+numbers, Wayne succeeded in extricating his command without loss of
+artillery, ammunition, or stores. Some sixty-one Americans were
+killed. A court of inquiry was instituted to inquire into Wayne's
+conduct of this affair, which resulted so distastefully to him that he
+demanded a court martial. This court acquitted "him with the highest
+honors," a conclusion approved by General Washington.
+
+Wayne's residence was searched by the British immediately after the
+Paoli fight, with the hope of capturing the general. The officer, in
+his zeal, ripped open a feather-bed with his sword. Mrs. Wayne
+indignantly exclaimed, "Did you expect to find General Wayne in a
+feather-bed? Look where the fight is the thickest!"
+
+Wayne led the right wing at the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777,
+and forced the enemy back a distance of two miles. The British claim
+that "this was the first time we had ever retreated from the
+Americans." The balance of the army, failing to accomplish the end
+desired, Wayne was compelled to retreat, but this he did in good
+order, and when General Howe, who "could not persuade himself that we
+had run from victory," as Wayne puts it, followed the Americans, Wayne
+drew up in line. "When he advanced near we gave him a few cannon shot
+with some musketry--which caused him to break and run with the utmost
+confusion." Wayne lost a horse in this engagement, and received slight
+wounds in the hand and foot. The memorable winter at Valley Forge
+followed. General Wayne, ever active, devoted his time to procuring
+necessary supplies for the army. His earnest appeals to the State
+authorities and men of influence, for the welfare of the brave men at
+Valley Forge, tell a tale of suffering and endurance hard to realize.
+Early in the spring of 1778 he successfully raided the British lines,
+carrying off horses, cattle, forage, and other supplies. After the
+evacuation of Philadelphia, Wayne kept up a constant annoyance around
+the rear of the British army, fighting whenever the opportunity came.
+
+The American army re-entered New Jersey in June, 1778, and moved
+across that State in a line parallel with the route taken by the
+British army. These lines encountered each other on June 28th, at
+Monmouth; an engagement fought, in the main, on a plan suggested to
+General Washington by General Wayne. General Charles Lee's
+half-hearted action, to call it no more severe name, resulted in the
+battle of Monmouth being less of a disaster to the British army than
+it promised. Wayne did his part gloriously. Lee, who with his own
+command was in full retreat when he should have earnestly supported
+Wayne, ordered Wayne to retire. This the latter did, chagrined and
+mortified, until the mortification was turned into delight upon
+meeting the Commander-in-Chief, who immediately ordered Wayne to
+advance to the attack again. This was just what Wayne wanted, and with
+three Pennsylvania regiments, one from Maryland, and one from
+Virginia, he stayed the assaults of the flower of the English army,
+the _corps d'elite_, and successfully held his line, causing the enemy
+to retire with great loss. General Washington commended General Wayne
+in the highest terms for his "good conduct and bravery through the
+whole action." Writing of this engagement to the Secretary of War,
+Wayne says, "Tell the Phila ladies that the heavenly, sweet, pretty
+red coats--the accomplished Gent-n of the Guards and Grenadiers have
+humbled themselves on the plains of Monmouth."
+
+The enemy retreated to New York and remained in that city the balance
+of the year. Wayne occupied the time in urging active operations and
+trying to infuse a more aggressive spirit into the management of
+affairs. At this time public affairs were very much hampered by a
+feeling of indifference as well as an illusive notion that peace would
+soon follow. This affected the nation and the army. Wayne baffled
+these false ideas with all his powers. He urged the Government to
+forward needed supplies of clothing and food. He could not be
+inactive; fervid, earnest, and aggressive, he must be ever doing. The
+American Army kept a close watch upon the movements of the British in
+New York during the summer and fall of 1779. General Washington
+organized a Light Infantry Corps and put General Wayne in command. It
+was considered one of the finest bodies of troops attached to the
+Continental Army, and was composed, besides "the choicest sons of
+Pennsylvania," of two Connecticut and one Virginia regiment. The
+Commander-in-Chief was extremely desirous of driving the British from
+the forts commanding King's Ferry on the Hudson, at Stony Point, on
+the western bank of the river, and at Verplanck's Point, directly
+opposite. This dangerous business was confided to Wayne and his Light
+Infantry Corps, the plan of operations being carefully prepared by
+General Washington. This plan was followed by Wayne, except in one
+particular, which change Washington declared to be an "improvement on
+his own plan." Wayne, after the most careful preparations, moved to
+the assault on Stony Point, a fortification strongly built on a rocky
+eminence, one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, at 12
+o'clock at night, on July 16, 1779. Wayne's report to Washington tells
+the story of the fight most graphically--he says he "gave the troops
+the most pointed orders not to attempt to fire, but put their whole
+dependence on the Bayonet--which was most faithfully and Literally
+Observed--neither the deep Morass, the formidable and double rows of
+abatis or the high and strong works in front and flank could damp the
+ardor of the troops--who in the face of a most tremendous and
+Incessant fire of Musketry and from Artillery loaded with shells and
+Grape-shot forced their way at the point of the Bayonet thro' every
+Obstacle, both Columns meeting in the Center of the Enemy's works
+nearly at the same Instant." Before entering the fort Wayne was struck
+in the head by a musket-ball; he fell stunned, but soon rallied, and
+by the assistance of two of his aides, was helped into the
+fortification and shared the capture with his troops. The Stony Point
+achievement roused the patriotic spirit of the Americans. It was
+deemed the most brilliant affair of the war. Congratulations from the
+Commander-in-Chief, and all the prominent generals, as well as
+foremost citizens and Assemblies, were heaped upon Wayne, and Congress
+voted him a gold medal to commemorate his gallant conduct, besides
+thanking him "for his brave, prudent, and soldier-like conduct in the
+well-conducted attack on Stony Point."
+
+After the treachery of Arnold, in 1780, the charge of the fort at West
+Point was committed to General Wayne. He marched his division over the
+mountain in a dark night, a distance of sixteen miles, in four hours,
+"without a single halt or a man left behind." In January, 1781, owing
+to the broken promises of Congress, a large number of the men in the
+Pennsylvania line mutinied, an event that threatened serious
+consequences to the American Army. This defection was suppressed
+peaceably, mainly through the excellent tact of General Wayne. He was
+idolized by his soldiers, who knew him as the soul of honor, and who
+placed implicit trust in his statements. Washington in a letter
+certifies to his "great share in preventing worse extremities" and
+thanks him for his exertions. In February, 1781, Wayne was ordered to
+join General Greene's Army, then operating in South Carolina, but upon
+Lord Cornwallis' rapidly transferring his forces to Virginia, this
+order was changed, and Wayne was directed to reinforce Lafayette.
+This he did at Fredericksburg in June. The enemy seemed intent upon
+destroying all military stores they could reach, and for this purpose
+continually sent raiding parties through the State. The efforts of
+Wayne were ever put forth to suppress these raids. Believing, on July
+6, 1781, that Cornwallis's forces were divided by the James River,
+Wayne was sent forward to attack them at Green Springs. He found a
+great force of the British Army in his front. Too late to retreat,
+Wayne with true soldierly instinct, having faith in the courage and
+discipline of his men, boldly charged a force five times as large as
+his own, threw them into disorder and safely brought his men away
+under cover of the enemy's confusion.
+
+Cornwallis hastened to Yorktown, the investiture and siege of which
+Wayne aided in furthering, first, by occupying the ground south of the
+James River to prevent the enemy's reaching North Carolina; and then
+in opening the first parallel with six regiments on October 6, 1781. A
+few days afterward he, with two battalions, covered the Pennsylvania
+and Maryland troops while they began the second parallel. Wayne, with
+the Pennsylvania regiments, supported the French troops in the attack
+of the 14th, and was present at the surrender on the 19th.
+Notwithstanding a wound in the fleshy part of the leg, early in the
+siege, caused by a sentry mistaking him, Wayne remained active, and
+participated in the glory of the capture of Cornwallis and his army.
+This operation over, Wayne joined the army of General Nathaniel
+Greene, in South Carolina, in January, 1782, and was instrumental in
+quelling the disturbances in that section. A very large force of
+Indians threatened the destruction of his command on the night of June
+23, 1782. These Indians were skilfully handled by a noted Creek Chief,
+as well as by a British officer. They surrounded Wayne's forces and
+held his artillery. Wayne fiercely attacked, using only the bayonet,
+and so impetuous was his onslaught, that he broke the lines of the
+Indians, and routed them completely. The dead body of the Creek
+leader, who, it is said, was felled by Wayne's own sword, was found on
+the ground the next day.
+
+Wayne commanded the forces that took possession of Savannah and
+Charleston, after their evacuation by the British. Having freed the
+South from all marauders, Wayne returned, much shattered in health
+from the effect of a low fever, to his old home in Pennsylvania, and
+settled down to civil life, desiring, as he puts it, "to pass many
+happy hours in domestic felicity with a few of our friends, unfettered
+by any public employ and consequently unenvied." He was, however, made
+a member of the Council of Censors, and in 1784 represented his county
+in the General Assembly of Pennsylvania. He was likewise, in 1787, a
+member of the Convention of the State called to ratify the
+Constitution of the United States.
+
+To better look after an estate given him by the State of Georgia, in
+recognition of the services he rendered that State, Wayne settled
+there, and was elected a member of Congress on January 3, 1791. He
+served from October, 1791, to March, 1792, when, a contest being made,
+Congress decided his election illegal and declared his seat vacant.
+Almost immediately after this action, on April 3, 1792, President
+Washington appointed Wayne Commander-in-Chief of the United States
+Army, with the rank of Major-General; an appointment confirmed by the
+Senate on the same day. No more signal act could have marked the
+approval of Wayne's great services to the nation in the War of the
+Revolution, than this great mark of approbation conferred by his
+illustrious Chief. To him was intrusted the settlement of the
+difficulties then existing with the Indians in the Northwestern
+Territory. These savages, stirred up by the British, armed with
+British guns, and often led by British officers, continued the warfare
+on the Americans after peace had been declared between the contending
+countries. Efforts to subjugate them under Generals Harmar and St.
+Clair had failed.
+
+General Wayne, whose entire life clearly shows a man prepared for what
+may come, wisely drilled the force he collected to undertake this
+work, for a year. He knew the value of a well-drilled and disciplined
+army. Having perfected his troops, he, by easy stages, advanced into
+the disturbed territory, establishing posts at various points, which
+he cleverly fortified, and upon every occasion and opportunity offered
+the savages peace. These offers were as often rejected. From Fort
+Defiance, a fort he built and named, at the junction of the Miami and
+Le Glaize rivers, he, in August, 1794, went down the Miami River, with
+about one thousand men, until he came close to a British post, at the
+foot of the rapids of the river. Here he sent a last overture to the
+Indians, promising peace if they would lay down their arms. Upon their
+rejecting this, he, on August 20th, moved to the head of the rapids,
+and attacked them with such vigor, using again his favorite weapon,
+the bayonet, that their defeat was overwhelming. The entire
+surrounding country was laid waste. The army advanced to the junction
+of the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers, where a strong fort was
+built and named Fort Wayne. The present flourishing city of that name
+in Indiana now stands upon this spot. The winter was spent in
+Greeneville, at which place the Indians, on August 3, 1795, against
+the wishes of their leaders and English allies, signed a treaty of
+peace, in which twelve tribes took part--a peace which was never
+broken, and by which an immense territory was ceded to the United
+States and opened up for settlement. Wayne returned early in 1796, on
+a short visit to Pennsylvania, and everywhere _en route_ received the
+plaudits of his fellow-citizens. His reception in Philadelphia was
+exceedingly brilliant. The unsettled condition of affairs in the
+Northwest, however, made his stay brief. Having been appointed sole
+commissioner to treat with the disaffected parties there, and directed
+to take possession of all forts held by the British in that country,
+he returned in June of the same year. With great tact he performed
+wisely and well the difficult mission intrusted to him. In November he
+left Detroit to visit the last of the posts included in his orders.
+This was then called Presque Isle, but is now the site of the city of
+Erie. When within a short sail of this post a severe and sudden attack
+of the gout came on. He was carried into the block-house at Presque
+Isle, in a dying condition, and lingered in great agony until December
+15, 1796, when he died. By his own desire he was buried "at the foot
+of the flag-staff on a high hill called 'Garrison Hill,' north of the
+present Soldiers' Home." (Stille, 343.) In 1809, his son, Colonel
+Isaac Wayne, removed the body to the family burying-ground at St.
+David's Church, Radnor, Penn., where, on July 4th of the same year,
+the Society of the Cincinnati erected a monument in his honor.
+
+So lived, so died, Anthony Wayne; gentleman, soldier, statesman,
+patriot. "Mad," "Dandy," "Black Snake," "Tornado." Angry with
+traitors--Neat-Courageous--Irresistible. None can study his life
+without feeling the nobleness of his character. Courtly in manners,
+honorable to a degree, high in aspirations, unselfishly for country,
+magnanimous in victory, loyal to authority, affectionate to family,
+pure in morality, and earnest for the right, Anthony Wayne's life is a
+bright example and legacy to the American youth of all times.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIS MARION
+
+(1732-1795)
+
+[Illustration: Francis Marion. [TN]]
+
+
+Francis Marion, the partisan general of South Carolina, was of
+Huguenot descent, the first American settlers of the name being
+Benjamin Marion and Judith Balnet, his wife, who came from France in
+1690, and established themselves in a plantation on one of the
+tributaries of the Cooper River, near Charleston. Gabriel, the son of
+Benjamin, married Esther Cordes. These were the parents of Francis
+Marion. He was born, it would appear, in St. John's Parish, Berkeley
+County, probably in 1732. His early life was passed, till his
+twenty-seventh year, in agricultural pursuits, when we first hear of
+him in connection with military matters in the period of the old
+French war. He took the field with Moultrie, and fought gallantly by
+the side of that officer in the Cherokee country against the savages
+at the battle of Etchoee. He then returned to his farm, near Eutaw
+Springs, ripening for the work of the Revolution, which found him at
+the height of manhood, at the age of forty-three. The people of his
+district relied upon his understanding, for we find them sending him
+as their delegate to the Provincial Congress of 1775, when he was
+appointed captain in the regiment of his former superior officer,
+Colonel Moultrie. His first duty was to gather a company, which he
+speedily effected in the Eastern region, where he was well known. He
+was then employed in the neighborhood of Charleston; being engaged in
+the occupation of Fort Johnson and the command of Dorchester.
+
+He was with Moultrie, at Sullivan's Island in May, 1776, during that
+fierce day of battle when the British were driven from the southern
+colonies, and particularly distinguished himself in the gallant
+defence.
+
+At the ill-managed attack upon Savannah, by the combined forces of
+D'Estaing and Lincoln, which ended so disastrously for the Americans,
+Marion was present with his regiment, which did much by its gallantry
+to redeem the honor, if not the fortunes, of the day. Next came, in
+the winter of 1780, the siege of Charleston, by Sir Henry Clinton. It
+was evident from the beginning that the city must fall, and it has
+been a point much discussed whether Lincoln should have attempted to
+defend it, whether it would not have been better for the cause that he
+should withdraw his troops, and besiege the British from the open
+country. This was what afterward took place when the conquerors were
+reduced almost to starvation. An accident which happened to Marion has
+been esteemed a piece of singular good fortune to the cause, in saving
+him from surrender. He was in command of the small body of light
+troops, outside of the city, when he was called to aid in the defence.
+During the first days of the very deliberate investment, he was dining
+with some friends in the town, when, according to a custom not unusual
+in those hard-drinking times, the door was locked that no one should
+avoid his share of the conviviality. Determined to escape the
+infliction, he threw himself from the window into the street. The fall
+fractured his ankle and incapacitated him from service. In obedience
+to an order of Lincoln, commanding all officers unfit for duty to
+retire from the city, he left while the country was still open, and
+took refuge in his native region of St. John. His freedom was thus
+preserved for the service of his country.
+
+Now came the incursions of Tarleton and the devastating warfare of
+Cornwallis--a policy of savage extermination which would have driven a
+people with less capability of exertion to despair. But it happened,
+as it has before, that the very means employed to crush, excited the
+spirit of resistance, and deliverers were raised up for the oppressed.
+It was a peculiar species of warfare which was now entered upon,
+requiring novel resources both for attack and defence. A thinly
+inhabited country was the scene of operations, cut up in all
+directions by rivers and their branches, and innumerable swamps. Large
+bodies of troops could move only with difficulty; it was a service for
+small parties of cavalry always in movement, making up by rapidity for
+want of numbers. On the side of the British, Lieutenant-Colonel
+Tarleton, an officer of spirit, whose fiery youth has been vividly
+handed down to us in the portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, was the
+leading representative of this method of warfare, harrying the land
+with his mounted troops, and overcoming by his activity and
+unscrupulousness. Success added terror to his name, as he gained
+victory after victory, and seemed destined to sweep the land of its
+patriot defenders. He was the right arm of Cornwallis, in his
+movements in the interior, and began to be deemed invincible, when his
+course was arrested by Morgan, the Virginian, and his resolute
+companies of native defenders of the State, at the battle of Cowpens.
+But it was in Marion that the chief spirit of resistance was
+incorporated. On the arrival of Gates from the North, in command of
+the Southern army, having partially recovered from his lameness, he
+presented himself before the hero of Saratoga, on his march toward the
+fatal field of Camden. American commanders were accustomed to odd
+sights of dress and equipment in the patriot soldiery who enlisted
+under their banners, and Gates must have been used to appearances with
+which the eye of Washington himself was but too familiar. The little
+band of Marion, however, seems to have astonished even their American
+brethren-in-arms. As for the well-equipped British, they always held
+the ragged American regiments in contempt, till they were soundly
+flogged by them. An intelligent looker-on at the camp, Colonel Otho
+Williams, in his narrative of the campaign, speaks of Colonel Marion's
+arrival, "attended by a very few followers, distinguished by small
+leather caps and the wretchedness of their attire; their number did
+not exceed twenty men and boys, some white, some black, and all
+mounted, but most of them miserably equipped. Their appearance was, in
+fact, so burlesque, that it was with much difficulty the diversion of
+the regular soldiery was restrained by the officers; and the general
+himself was glad of an opportunity of detaching Colonel Marion, at his
+own instance, toward the interior of South Carolina, with orders to
+watch the motions of the enemy, and furnish intelligence."
+
+It was while Marion was engaged on this service, that the battle of
+Camden was fought; but luckily, he had no share in the misadventure.
+He was employed, in fact, in quite an independent career of his own,
+organizing his own forces and acting at his own discretion. He was at
+the head of that system of partisan warfare, which, in its
+developments, was to rid the State of the foreign foe. His present
+command, "Marion's Brigade," was formed from the hardy spirited
+population of Irish descent, settled between the Santee and the Pedee,
+in the territory of Williamsburg. They were convinced of the
+intentions of the British rulers at Charleston to reduce them to
+political servitude; they knew their rights, and knowing, dared to
+maintain them. Their movement was voluntary, as they gathered their
+small but resolute force of picked men, and called Marion to its
+command. He had already assumed it, and caused the Tories to feel his
+new authority when the defeat of Gates took place. It roused him at
+once to a new effort to redeem the fortunes of war. He was already in
+the neighborhood of the field, and hearing that a British guard was on
+its way with a considerable body of prisoners, he determined to arrest
+the party on its march. Two days after the battle, he concerted an
+attack, and with the loss of but one man, killed and took 22 regulars
+and 2 Tories prisoners, and retook 150 continentals of the Maryland
+line. He was now a recognized leader in the field, and the British
+commander-in-chief directed his efforts to his overthrow. "I most
+sincerely hope," wrote Cornwallis to Tarleton, "that you will get at
+Mr. Marion." But Mr. Marion was not so easily to be caught. On the
+appearance of a superior force, under the command of Tarleton, which
+it would have been vain to resist, the skilful partisan turned his
+forces in another direction, to the borders of North Carolina, where
+he overawed the Scotch Tories in that disaffected region. The ruthless
+conduct of the British whom he had left behind, now raised the South
+Carolinians to fresh resistance, when Marion, ever mindful of his
+opportunity, returned to the State with speed, accomplishing sixty
+miles in one day, and in a bold night attack, defeated a large body of
+Tories on the Black Mingo. Following this up with some smaller
+successes of the kind, he again attracted the attention of Tarleton,
+who issued out of Charleston in force for his capture, and when he was
+fairly on his heels, wearied out and perplexed by the windings of his
+foe, gave up the chase, it is said, with the exclamation, "Come, my
+boys! let us go back. We will soon find the Game Cock [Marion's
+brother partisan, Sumter], but as for this damned Swamp-fox, the devil
+himself could not catch him."
+
+The tide was now turning, as the people felt their strength. King's
+Mountain, in the autumn of this memorable 1780, brought a vast
+accession of strength to the popular cause, in the proof that the best
+British troops were not invincible before an aroused yeomanry; but
+there was much yet to be done before the day of final deliverance was
+secured. It was a slow, weary, harassing policy which was to be
+pursued, of surprises and escapes, of self-denial and endurance, of
+the watchful, unyielding virtue of Marion and his men. They took post
+in an island fortress of wooded swamp land, at the junction of the
+Pedee and Lynch's Creek, known as the "camp of Marion," where he
+recruited his forces, husbanded his strength, and sallied forth on his
+raids against the foe. This is the spot where the popular admiration
+of Marion finds its home and centre. "His career as a partisan," says
+his faithful biographer, the novelist Simms, "in the thickets and
+swamps of Carolina, is abundantly distinguished by the picturesque;
+but it was while he held his camp at Snow's Island that it received
+its highest colors of romance. In this snug and impenetrable fortress,
+he reminds us very much of the ancient feudal baron of France and
+Germany, who, perched on a castled eminence, looked down with the
+complacency of an eagle from his eyrie, and marked all below him for
+his own. The resemblance is good in all respects but one. The plea and
+justification of Marion are complete. His warfare was legitimate." It
+is in this place the scene is laid of an interview with the British
+officer, so familiar to the public in popular narratives and pictorial
+illustration. A flag from the enemy, at the neighboring post of
+Georgetown, is received with the design of an exchange of prisoners.
+The officer is admitted blindfold into the encampment, and on the
+bandage being taken from his eyes, is surprised equally at the
+diminutive size of the General and the simplicity of his quarters. He
+had expected, it is said, to see some formidable personage of the sons
+of Anak of the standard military figure, which, as Mr. Simms remarks,
+averaged, in the opposing generals during the war, more than two
+hundred pounds. On the contrary, he saw "a swarthy, smoke-dried
+little man, with scarcely enough of threadbare homespun to cover his
+nakedness, and instead of tall ranks of gay-dressed soldiers, a
+handful of sunburnt, yellow-legged militiamen, some roasting potatoes,
+and some asleep, with their black firelocks and powder-horns lying by
+them on the logs." This is Weems's narrative, a little colored with
+his full brush, but true enough as to detail. The improvement which he
+works up from the plain potato presented as a dinner to the officer,
+is equally sound as a moral, though we will not vouch for the exact
+expression of the sentiment. As a specimen of Weems, it is
+characteristic; but certainly Marion never talked in the fashion of
+this zealous biographer.
+
+The Briton, however, entrenched at Charleston, and with his double line
+of forts encompassing the interior, was not all at once driven out. When
+he was compelled to leave, it was by the slow process of an exhaustion,
+to which even victory contributed; for every British conquest in that
+region was as costly as a defeat. Greene came with his Fabian policy,
+acquired in the school of Washington, to repair the errors of Gates. It
+was a course with which the policy of Marion was quite in agreement,
+attacking the enemy when they were vulnerable; at other moments
+retreating before them. Both officers knew well how to drain the
+vitality of the British army. Greene appreciated Marion. "I like your
+plan," he wrote to him, "of frequently shifting your ground. We must
+endeavor to keep up a partisan war." He sent Lieutenant-Colonel Lee to
+his aid, and together they attempted the capture of Georgetown in a
+night attack, which was but partially successful, in consequence of a
+loss of time and the want of artillery. Though not fully carried out, it
+served as a diversion and alarm in the rear of Cornwallis, who now,
+after the defeat of an important portion of his force under Tarleton,
+was advancing rapidly through North Carolina at the heels of Greene. Lee
+was recalled to join his commander, and Marion continued his partisan
+warfare in South Carolina. He was after a while reinforced by Greene on
+his return to the State, and assisted that general greatly in the
+movements which resulted in imprisoning the enemy in Charleston. After a
+brilliant affair with the British, in conjunction with Lee and Sumter,
+and other bold spirits, he hastened to Greene in time for the battle of
+Eutaw, in which engagement he commanded the right of the South Carolina
+militia, and gallantly sustained the fierce attack of the enemy. Toward
+the close of the war, he took his seat in the Legislative Assembly which
+met at Jacksonborough, as the representative of St. John, Berkeley. He
+was engaged in one or two further conflicts with the enemy, and the
+struggle which he had so manfully sustained was at an end.
+
+He now retired to his plantation, to find it broken up by the
+incursions of the British. While engaged in its restoration, he was
+sent as representative of the district to the Senate of the State. It
+is recorded to his credit that he displayed in this situation a ready
+magnanimity toward Tory offenders in preserving their lands from
+confiscation.
+
+[Illustration: Marion crossing the Pedee.]
+
+"It was war, then," said he; "it is peace now. God has given us the
+victory. Let us show our gratitude to heaven, which we shall not do by
+cruelty to man." In the same lofty spirit, he refused to receive
+any advantages from a bill exempting the soldiers of the militia from
+prosecution for acts committed in the service. He felt that his
+conduct needed no shelter. The Legislature rewarded him with thanks,
+and the more substantial appointment of Commandant of the Port of
+Charleston, a nominal office, with the salary of L500, which were cut
+down to dollars. A timely marriage, however, with a wealthy lady of
+Huguenot descent, Miss Mary Videau, a spinster of fifty, who was
+attracted by the hero, relieved him of pecuniary anxieties, leaving
+him an old age of ease in agricultural pursuits. He still represented
+his parish in the State Senate, and sat in 1790 in the Convention for
+forming the Constitution. In 1794 he resigned his military commission
+given to him by Rutledge, and the following year, yielding to a
+gradual decline, expired on February 27th, at the age of sixty-three.
+
+Marion was a true, unflinching patriot--a man of deeds, and not of
+words; a prudent, sagacious soldier, not sudden or quick in quarrel,
+but resolute to the end; a good disciplinarian, and beloved by his
+men, who came at his call.
+
+There was no power of coercion, such as restrains the hired soldier,
+in his little band; it was held together only by the cohesive force of
+patriotism and attachment to the leader. We hear of no acts of cruelty
+to stain the glory of his victories, but much of his magnanimity.
+
+
+
+
+PAUL JONES
+
+(1747-1792)
+
+[Illustration: Paul Jones. [TN]]
+
+
+Paul Jones, the popular naval hero of the Revolution, the son of John
+Paul, a gardener in Scotland, was born July 6, 1747, at a cottage on
+the estate of his father's employer, Mr. Craik, at Arbigland, in the
+parish of Kirkbean. His parents belonged to a respectable class of the
+population of the country. The boy, as is wont with Scottish boys,
+however humble, received the elements of education, but could not have
+advanced very far with his books, since we find him at the age of
+twelve apprenticed to the sea. The situation of Kirkbean, on the shore
+of the Solway, naturally gave a youth of spirit an inclination to life
+on the ocean; and he had not far to seek for employment in the
+trading-port of Whitehaven, in the opposite county of Cumberland.
+Paul's first adventure--the appendix of Jones was an after-thought of
+his career--was in the service of Mr. Younger, a merchant in the
+American trade, who sent his apprentice on a voyage to Virginia, where
+an elder brother of Paul had profitably established himself at
+Fredericksburg. This gave him an early introduction to the country
+with which the fame of the future soldier of fortune was to be
+especially identified.
+
+The apprenticeship of Paul was of short duration. The failure of his
+employer threw the youth upon his own resources; but he lost no time
+in taking care of himself. His studies on shipboard had already
+qualified him for the higher duties of the mercantile service; the
+slave-trade, the active pursuit of those days, offered him an
+engagement; he sailed for the African coast in the King George, a
+vessel engaged in this infamous traffic, out of Whitehaven, and in his
+nineteenth year was trusted as chief mate of the Two Friends, another
+vessel of the trade, belonging to Jamaica. Having carried his human
+cargo to the island, sickening of the pursuit, he sailed as a
+passenger to Kirkcudbright, in his native district. Opportunities are
+always presenting themselves to the watchful and the initiated. The
+chief officers of the vessel died of the fever; Paul took command and
+carried the ship in safety to the owners. They put him in command of
+the brig, the John, on another West India voyage.
+
+Finally, in 1771, he left Scotland never to return to it, save to
+carry terror among its population. He proceeded to London; found
+employment in the West India trade, and in 1773 settled himself for a
+while in Virginia on the estate of his brother, to whom he had now
+become heir. This was a grand turning-point of his career, and to
+signalize it properly, Paul, who was somewhat of a fanciful turn,
+added the name Jones to his proper appellation, John Paul.
+
+On the organization of the infant navy of the United States, in 1775,
+John Paul Jones, as he is henceforth to be called, received the
+appointment of first of the first lieutenants in the service, in
+which, in his station on the flag-ship Alfred, he claimed the honor of
+being the foremost, on the approach of the commander-in-chief,
+Commodore Hopkins, to raise the new American flag. This was the old
+device of a rattle-snake coiled on a yellow ground, with the motto,
+_Don't tread on me_, which is yet partially retained in the seal of
+the war-office.
+
+The first service of the new squadron was the attack upon the island
+of New Providence, in which Jones rendered signal assistance. On the
+return voyage, the unsatisfactory encounter with the Glasgow occurred,
+which afterward resulted in the dismissal of one of the American
+officers, and Jones's appointment in his place to the command of the
+Providence, of twelve guns and seventy men. His exploits in this
+vessel gained him his first laurels. He now received the rank of
+captain, and sailed on various expeditions, transporting troops,
+conveying merchantmen, out-sailing British frigates, and greatly
+harassing the enemy's commercial interests. His success in these
+enterprises induced Commodore Hopkins to put him in command of the
+Alfred and other vessels on an expedition to the eastward, which
+resulted in the capture of various important prizes of transport and
+other ships, and extensive injury to the fisheries at Canso. On his
+return, he was superseded in the command of the Alfred, his seniority
+in the service being set aside, a grievance which led to remonstrance
+on his part, and a correspondence with the Committee of Congress, in
+the course of which Jones made many valuable suggestions as to the
+service, and gained the friendship of that eminent business man of the
+old Confederacy, Robert Morris. There appear to have been several
+appointments for him in progress, when his somewhat unsettled position
+became determined by the resolve of Congress to send him to France for
+the purpose of taking command of a frigate to be provided for him by
+the Commissioners at Paris. By the resolution of June 14, 1777, he was
+appointed to the Ranger, newly built at Portsmouth, and--a second
+instance of the kind--had the honor of hoisting for the first time the
+new flag of the stars and stripes; at least he claimed the
+distinction, for the bristling vanity of Jones made him punctilious in
+these accidental matters of personal renown.
+
+It took some time to prepare the Ranger for sea, but Jones got off on
+his adventure in November, made a couple of prizes by the way, and at
+the end of a month reached Nantes. Disappointed in obtaining the large
+vessel which he expected, and obliged to be contented with the Ranger,
+he employed his time in making acquaintance with the French navy at
+Quiberon Bay, and offering valuable suggestions for the employment of
+D'Estaing's fleet on the American coast. He soon determined to put to
+sea on an adventure of spirit. On April 10, 1778, he sailed from Brest
+on a cruise in British waters. Directing his course to the haunts of
+his youth, he captured a brigantine off Cape Clear, and a London ship
+in the Irish Channel; planned various bold adventures on the Irish
+coast, which he was not able to carry out from adverse influences of
+wind and tide, but well-nigh succeeded in burning a large fleet of
+merchantmen in the docks of Whitehaven. In this last adventure, he
+made a landing at night, and advanced to the capture of the
+town-batteries, leaving his officers to fire the ships, of which there
+were about two hundred in the port. His orders were not obeyed, either
+from insufficient preparations or the relenting of his agents, when he
+himself set fire to one of the largest of the vessels. It was now day,
+and the people were warned by a deserter from his force, but Jones
+managed to hold the whole town at bay till he made good his retreat.
+This daring affair was an impromptu of Jones's genius, justified in
+his view by similar depredations of the British on the American coast;
+but it had an ugly look of ingratitude to the place which had
+sheltered his youth, and first given him promotion in the world.
+
+Nor was this all. He immediately crossed to his native shore of
+Scotland, with the intention of seizing the Earl of Selkirk, at his
+seat on the promontory of St. Mary's Isle, on the Solway, near
+Kirkcudbright. Landing at the spot he ascertained that the earl was
+from home. Disappointed in his object, he would have returned, when
+the officers in his boat insisted upon a demand for the family plate.
+Jones demurred, but yielded with the proviso that the thing was to be
+done in the most delicate manner possible. His lieutenant, Simpson,
+undertook the business, and introduced himself to Lady Selkirk, who
+was, conveniently enough for his purposes, engaged at breakfast. She
+had at first taken the party for a press-gang, and had offered them
+refreshments; on being informed of the nature of their visit, their
+request, backed by the armed crew at the door, was complied with.
+
+It is said that Jones apologized personally to Lady Selkirk, and we
+shall presently find him, at the first interval of leisure, taking
+measures to repair the act. For the moment, however, he had more
+serious work on hand. In his upward voyage along the Irish coast, he
+had looked into Belfast Lough, after his Majesty's sloop-of-war Drake,
+of twenty guns, which he attempted to board in a night attack by a
+bold manoeuvre, which came within an ace of success. Immediately after
+the affair of St. Mary's, he ran across the channel and had the
+fortune to meet the Drake coming out of Carrickfergus. She was getting
+to sea to check the exploits of the Ranger, which had now alarmed the
+whole region. Jones desired nothing more than an encounter. As the
+ship drew up she hailed the Ranger. Jones gave the reply through his
+sailing-master: "The American continental ship Ranger. We are waiting
+for you. Come on. The sun is little more than an hour high, and it is
+time to begin!" A broadside engagement commenced, and continued at
+close quarters for an hour, when the Drake surrendered. Her captain
+and first lieutenant were mortally wounded, her sails and rigging
+terribly cut up, and hull much shattered. The loss of the Ranger was 2
+killed and 6 wounded; that of the Drake, 42. The Drake had two guns
+the advantage of her adversary. The action took place on April 24th;
+on May 8th, Jones having traversed the channel, carried his prize
+safely into Brest.
+
+His first thought now was to make some amends to Lady Selkirk and his
+own reputation for the plundering visit of his lieutenant. He
+therefore addressed to her, the very day of his landing, an
+extraordinary letter--Jones was fond of letter-writing--full of
+high-sounding phrases, and professions of gallantry and esteem, in the
+midst of which he failed not to recite the splendid victory of the
+Ranger. He drew a picture of the terrors inflicted by the British in
+America; and in respect to that unfortunate plate, expressed his
+intention to purchase it, in the sale of the prize, and restore it at
+his own expense to the family. This, after delays and obstacles, he
+finally accomplished some years later, when we are told it was all
+returned as it was taken, the very tea-leaves of the parting breakfast
+clinging to the tea-pot.
+
+[Illustration: Paul Jones and Lady Selkirk.]
+
+The affair of the Ranger, so brilliantly conducted, the short,
+energetic cruise in narrow seas, so near the British naval stations,
+gave Jones a great reputation for gallantry in Paris. The delays and
+difficulties, however, incidental to the wretched state of the
+American finances abroad, and the imperfect relation of his country
+with the French court, were well calculated to cool any enthusiasm
+excited by his conquest; and a man of less vivacity and perseverance
+than Jones might have dropped the service. He persevered. His
+lieutenant, Simpson, after various refractory proceedings, had sailed
+home in the Ranger, when an arrangement was finally made with Le Ray
+de Chaumont, the negotiator of the French court, to furnish a jointly
+equipped and officered fleet, of which Jones was to take command. Five
+vessels were thus provided, including the American frigate Alliance.
+An old Indiaman, the Duke de Duras, fell to the lot of Jones. In
+compliment to Dr. Franklin, one of the commissioners, and especially
+in gratitude for a hint which he had accidentally lighted upon in an
+odd number of that philosopher's almanac, to the effect that whoever
+would have his business well done must do it himself--a suggestion by
+which Jones had greatly profited in giving a final spur to his
+protracted negotiations--he changed the name of his vessel, by
+permission of the French Government, to the Bon Homme Richard.
+
+Jones at length set sail, on August 14th, with his squadron. Landais,
+an incompetent Frenchman in the American service, was in command of
+the Alliance. It was altogether a weak, mongrel affair. The Bon Homme
+Richard was unseaworthy, her armament was defective, and in her motley
+crew Englishmen and foreigners outnumbered the Americans. The plan of
+the cruise was to sail round the British Islands from the westward. At
+Cape Clear the commander parted with two of the smaller vessels of the
+squadron, which now consisted of his own ship, the Alliance, the
+Pallas, and the Vengeance. The service was, however, far more impaired
+by the insubordination of Landais, who evinced great jealousy of his
+superior. Several prizes were taken, one of them by Jones off Cape
+Wrath, at the extremity of Scotland. Traversing the eastern coast, he
+arrived, with the Pallas and the Vengeance, at the Firth of Forth, and
+entertained the bold idea of attacking the armed vessels at the
+station, and putting not only Leith, but possibly the capital,
+Edinburgh itself, under contribution. He would certainly have made the
+attempt--indeed, it was in full progress--when it was defeated by a
+violent gale of wind.
+
+Jones now continued his course southwardly, casting longing eyes upon
+Hull and Newcastle, when, having been joined by the Alliance, the
+squadron suddenly, off Flamborough Head, fell in with the Baltic
+cruisers, the Serapis, forty-four. Captain Pearson, and the Countess
+of Scarborough, twenty, Captain Piercy, convoying a fleet of
+merchantmen. Jones at once prepared for action. The combat which
+ensued, between the Serapis and the Bon Homme Richard, is one of the
+most remarkable in the annals of naval warfare, for the circumstances
+under which it was fought, the persistence of the contest, and the
+well-matched valor of the commanders. The engagement was by moonlight,
+on a tranquil sea, within sight of the shore, which was crowded with
+spectators, who thronged the promontory of Flamborough Head and the
+piers of Scarborough. After various preliminary manoeuvres on the part
+of the English commander to shelter the merchantmen, the engagement
+began at half-past seven in the evening, with a series of attempts of
+the Bon Homme Richard to come to close quarters with her antagonist.
+At the first broadside of Jones's vessel, two of the old
+eighteen-pounders mounted in her gun-room burst, with fearful
+destruction to the men. This accident compelled the closing of the
+lower ports, and produced a still greater inequality between the
+combatants than at the start, for the Serapis was not only a
+well-constructed, well-furnished man-of-war, thoroughly equipped,
+while the Bon Homme Richard had even-disadvantage in these respects:
+but the absolute weight of metal was, at the outset, greatly in favor
+of the Englishman. The Richard then passed to windward of the Serapis,
+receiving her fire, which did much damage to the rotten hull of the
+old Indiaman. Jones next attempted a movement to get into position to
+rake his antagonist from stem to stern, which resulted in a momentary
+collision. There was an effort to board the Serapis, which was
+repulsed, when Captain Pearson called out, "Has your ship struck?" and
+Jones instantly replied, "I have not yet begun to fight." The ships
+then separating, were brought again to a broadside encounter, when
+Jones, feeling the superior force of the Serapis, and her better
+sailing, was fully prepared to take advantage of the next position as
+the ships fell foul of one another, to grapple with his opponent. He
+himself assisted in lashing the jib-stay of the Serapis to the
+mizzenmast of the Richard.
+
+The ships became now closely entangled for their full length on their
+starboard sides; so near were they together, that the guns of one
+touched the sides of the other, and in some places where the
+port-holes met, the guns were loaded by passing the rammers into the
+opposite vessel. Every discharge in this position was of course most
+deadly, and told fearfully upon the rotten hull of the Richard. To add
+to Jones's embarrassment, he was repeatedly fired upon by Landais,
+from the Alliance, which always kept her position with the Richard
+between her and the enemy. This extraordinary circumstance is only to
+be accounted for by an entire lack of presence of mind in the
+confusion, or by absolute treachery. The Serapis poured in her fire
+below from a full battery, while the Richard was confined to three
+guns on deck. She had efficient aid, however, in clearing the deck of
+the Serapis, from the musketry and hand-grenades of her men in the
+tops. One of these missiles reached the lower gun-deck of the Serapis,
+and there setting fire to a quantity of exposed cartridges, produced a
+destruction of life, an offset to the fearful loss of the Richard by
+the bursting of her guns in the opening of the engagement. The injury
+to the Richard, from the wounds inflicted upon her hull, was at this
+time so great that she was pronounced to be sinking, and there was a
+cry among the men of surrender; not, however, from Jones, who was as
+much himself at this extremity as ever. Seeing the English prisoners,
+who had been released below, more than a hundred in number, rushing
+upon deck, where in a moment they might have leaped into the Serapis,
+and put themselves under then country's flag, he coolly set them to
+working the pumps, to save the sinking ship. Human courage and
+resolution have seldom been more severely tried than in the exigencies
+of this terrible night on board the Richard. Jones continued to ply
+his feeble cannonade from the deck, levelled at the mainmast of the
+adversary. Both vessels were on fire, when, at half-past ten, the
+Serapis struck.
+
+The loss in this extraordinary engagement, which outstrips and
+exaggerates the usual vicissitudes of naval service, was of course
+fearful. The entire loss of the Richard is estimated by Cooper at one
+hundred and fifty, nearly one-half of all the men she had engaged.
+Captain Pearson reported at least one hundred and seventeen
+casualties. The Bon Homme Richard was so riddled by the enemy's fire,
+and disembowelled by the gun-room explosion, that she could not be
+saved from sinking. When the wind freshened, the day after the
+victory, she became no longer tenable; her living freight was taken
+from her, and Jones, in the forenoon of the 25th, "with inexpressible
+grief," saw her final plunge into the depths of the ocean.
+
+While the engagement of the Richard and Serapis was going on, the
+Pallas, better officered than the Alliance, captured the other English
+vessel, the Countess of Scarborough. The two prizes were carried to
+the Texel, where the squadron enjoyed the uneasy protection of
+Holland. Jones himself had a more satisfactory reception in an
+enthusiastic greeting on the Exchange at Amsterdam, and a brilliant
+triumph, illuminated by the smiles of the fair sex, shortly after in
+Paris. In October, 1780, he left for America in the Ariel, bearing
+with him a gift from the king, a gold-mounted sword, with the
+inscription on the blade: _Vindicati Maris Ludovicus XVI. Remunerator
+Strenuo Vindici_--"Louis XVI., rewarder, to the valiant defender of a
+liberated sea." The voyage was interrupted, at its outset, by a severe
+storm off the harbor, in which Jones displayed his usual heroism. The
+vessel was refitted, and after a partial action on the high seas with
+a mysterious stranger, reached Philadelphia in February, 1781.
+
+In 1787 he left America with the intention of serving under Louis.
+When he reached Paris, he was met by a proposition to enter the
+service of Catherine of Russia, in which he was induced to engage by
+prospects of rank and glory. On his journey to St. Petersburg, he had
+a characteristic adventure in his passage from Stockholm to Revel,
+which he made while the navigation was interrupted by ice, traversing
+the sea, with great hardihood, in an open boat, extorting the labors
+of the boatmen by his threats of violence. He was well received by the
+Empress, who forwarded him to Potemkin, then in command on the Black
+Sea, in a war with the Turks. It is not necessary to recount the
+movements of a small squadron, with a divided command and jealous
+counsels, presided over by a whimsical, despotic court favorite. Many
+as were the vexations encountered by Jones in the inefficient
+resources, the shifts and expedients of foreign allies, and the
+straits of the American commissioners, they were light compared with
+the stifling restraints of Russian tyranny. Jones did much fighting,
+in his command of the Wolodomer, on the Black Sea, against the Pasha,
+but retired with little glory. Persecution followed at St.
+Petersburg--there was an assault upon his moral character, which was
+triumphantly disproved--various projects flitted through his teeming
+mind, and his connection with the country closed after a residence of
+fifteen months. It is sad to watch the last years of Paul Jones, not,
+indeed, of age, but of growing weariness and disease, as he renews his
+broken Russian hopes, and revives the old, faded, pecuniary claims on
+the French court. A gleam of sunshine appears in his aspirations to
+serve his country--for he still looked across the Atlantic--in the
+removal of the chains from the American sailors imprisoned at Algiers.
+His country listened to his cry; he was charged to treat with the
+Regency for their ransom, but before the commission reached him, he
+had passed to that land where the weary cease from sighing, and
+prisoners are at rest. Here, with Mercy bending over the scene, let
+the curtain fall. Paul Jones died at Paris, at the age of forty-five,
+of a dropsical affection, July 18, 1792.
+
+The person of Paul Jones is well known by the numerous prints devoted
+to his brilliant exploits. You will see him, a little active man of
+medium height, not robust but vigorous, a keen black eye, lighting a
+dark, weather-beaten visage, compact and determined, with a certain
+melancholy grace.
+
+He was one of nature's self-made men; that is, nature gave the genius,
+and he supplied the industry, for he knew how to labor, and must have
+often exerted himself to secure the attainments which he possessed. He
+was a good seaman, as well as a most gallant officer; sagacious in the
+application of means; vain, indeed, and expensive, but natural and
+generous; something of a poet in verse, much more in the quickness and
+vivacity of his imagination, which led him to plan nobly; an
+accomplished writer; and as he was found worthy of the warm and
+unchanging friendship of Franklin, that sage who sought for excellence
+while he looked with a kindly eye upon human infirmity, we, too, may
+peruse the virtues of the man and smile upon his frailties.
+
+
+
+
+TECUMSEH[5]
+
+By JAMES A. GREEN
+
+(1776-1813)
+
+         [Footnote 5: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Indians. [TN]]
+
+
+It would be a difficult matter for a well-read American to recall the
+names of more than four or five notable Indians, leaving, of course,
+contemporaneous red men out of the question. The list might comprise
+Pocahontas, best known, probably, for something she did not do;
+Powhatan, that vague and shadowy Virginian chief; King Philip, who had
+a war named after him and so succeeded in having his name embalmed in
+history; Pontiac, whose great conspiracy Parkman has made immortal,
+and Tecumseh. But, of them all, Tecumseh is easily foremost. He was a
+man who, had he been born to great position among civilized nations,
+would have stamped his name and fame upon the world. He was not a mere
+savage of the ordinary type, bloodthirsty, brutal beyond description,
+going upon one aimless raid after another to glut his passion for
+rapine and murder. These savage traits were not his, though all the
+good qualities of the Indian he possessed in double measure. He was
+fearless, he was untiring, and when once started toward an end he knew
+no rest until he had accomplished his design. He had a primitive
+dignity of thought and expression that marked him as a great orator.
+At the famous council at Vincennes, when Tecumseh had finished his
+speech and was about to sit down with his braves, the interpreter,
+pointing to General W. H. Harrison, said, "Your father wishes you to
+take a chair." But the ordinary courtesy of calling the white Governor
+the father of the red men was repugnant to Tecumseh, and with lofty
+mien and unpremeditated eloquence he declined the proffered seat.
+"No," he exclaimed, "the sun is my father, the earth is my mother, and
+I will rest on her bosom." And he sat down on Mother Earth with his
+assembled warriors, this act and fiery speech more than ever binding
+them to his fortunes.
+
+Tecumseh was in reality the first of the great Ohio men. He was a
+Shawnee Indian, and his tribe, in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, had emigrated from Florida to what is now the State of Ohio,
+Tecumseh being born in what is now Clarke County, near the present
+city of Springfield, in an Indian town that bore the name of Piqua.
+This must not be confounded with the present Ohio town of Piqua, which
+is in another county altogether, the birthplace of Tecumseh now being
+the site of a straggling village bearing the name, West Boston. In his
+boyhood there was nothing unusual. He grew up in the stirring times
+when Daniel Boone, Simon Kenton, and the other hardy Kentucky
+pioneers. Long Knives the Indians called them--were leading their
+forces into the West. It was a time when the Indians were constantly
+fighting. They did not live in Kentucky, but they regarded the fertile
+woods and prairies south of the Ohio River as their hunting-grounds,
+and they attacked with savage cruelty all the whites that dared to
+encroach upon this territory. The whites in turn crossed the Ohio in
+reprisal, burnt the Indian towns, tomahawked women and children,
+destroyed corn-fields, and were as unrelenting and barbarous in their
+revenge as their savage foes.
+
+Tecumseh was born about 1776, and in 1780 the village of Piqua was
+attacked by a party of 1,000 Kentuckians, who, after a fierce battle,
+drove out the Indians and destroyed the place. It was amid such scenes
+that the Indian boy grew to manhood. In that wild time, war was the
+only science, and butchery the only trade that an Indian could follow.
+One of the favorite Indian pursuits of the day was the capture of
+parties of emigrants and traders who came floating down the Ohio in
+canoes or "broadhorns." For miles the Indians would secretly follow
+such a party, and then when their opportunity came would strike their
+deadly blow. When a boy of seventeen Tecumseh was in a party making an
+attack on some boats near the present site of Maysville, Ky. The boats
+were captured and all the people in them slaughtered on the spot
+except one person, who was spared and later burnt alive. The horror of
+the spectacle so impressed Tecumseh that he then and there said he
+would never again be guilty of such cruelty, and the vigorous manner
+in which he protested against it so moved his companions that they
+agreed with him to not repeat the act. This resolution Tecumseh never
+altered; time and time again he protected women and children from his
+infuriated followers. At the battle of Fort Meigs a party of Americans
+was captured by the British and Indians. Though they had surrendered
+as prisoners of war, yet the savages were firing into them
+promiscuously, or selecting such as they chose to tomahawk in cold
+blood. This dreadful scene was interrupted by Tecumseh, who came
+spurring up and, springing from his horse to the ground, dashed aside
+two Indians who were about to murder an American, threatening to slay
+anyone who would dare to injure another prisoner. Turning to the
+British General, Proctor, he asked why such a massacre had been
+permitted. "Sir," said Proctor, "your Indians cannot be commanded."
+"Begone," was the angry reply of the outraged Tecumseh, "you are unfit
+to command. Go, put on petticoats." This was only one incident of many
+showing how far he was above the ordinary Indian in magnanimity of
+character. At the already mentioned Vincennes conference Tecumseh
+agreed with General William Henry Harrison--his unrelenting foe and
+who judged him as harshly as any of the frontiersmen who feared and
+hated him--that in case of an outbreak of hostilities the women and
+children on both sides were to be protected and respected. Certain it
+is that General Harrison would have made no such agreement had he not
+believed that his adversary would keep it.
+
+[Illustration: Tecumseh defends the Whites at Fort Meigs.]
+
+To understand the life and work of Tecumseh it is necessary to look
+into the history of his times. His career was embraced between the
+period of the Revolution and our second war with Great Britain. The
+destiny of the Great West was not then assured. Ohio and Kentucky were
+frontier States, vastly farther from the seat of government than is
+the most remote of our Western outposts to-day. They could be reached
+only by a toilsome journey over the Alleghanies and a trip down the
+Ohio. A journey to-day to the Yellowstone, or to the regions beyond
+the Black Hills, does not mean, in the way of time, danger, or
+adventure, one-tenth what a journey to Fort Washington (Cincinnati)
+meant in 1800. Indiana was a Territory, and the Territorial Governor,
+first of the Northwest, and then of Indiana, was William Henry
+Harrison, a born fighter, a palaverer, and who, in the difficult
+position which he occupied in dealing with unruly settlers on the one
+hand and turbulent Indians on the other hand, displayed singular tact
+and ability. He was eminently the right man in the right place. But in
+spite of the claims the United States made of the West, the country
+was but little known, nor was its real importance even suspected. That
+the Mississippi Valley would one day be peopled by millions, and be
+the greatest, wealthiest, and most productive part of the country, was
+not thought of even by the most sanguine of Americans. The Eastern
+States in those days had affairs enough of their own on hand, and the
+Western frontier was not regarded as essentially important. The
+national idea--the Nation with a big N, as recent humorous newspaper
+writers have put it--had not been evolved. It was difficult for even a
+man of the persuasive powers of General Harrison, to induce the
+General Government to furnish half enough troops to adequately guard
+the outposts. If there was serious work to do the settlers had to
+do it themselves. There was little grumbling over this state of
+affairs, however, as the Kentuckians and Westerners generally had been
+brought up to do their own fighting and not to wait for the Government
+at Washington to do it for them. In those days British agents were
+actively at work among the Northern Indians to keep them in a state of
+disaffection toward the United States. Meanwhile, the Indians were in
+the midst of the great tragedy that has been enacted since the days of
+Columbus. They were the victims of traders who sold them fire-water,
+and for poor and cheap weapons, demanded furs whose value was out of
+all proportion to that given in return. Many of their women married
+white renegades who corrupted the morals of the tribes. They were
+being dispossessed of the finest homes and best hunting grounds in
+America, for the buffalo was then found in Kentucky in great herds,
+and their position was thoroughly unhappy. They had then--and happily
+this is not wholly the case at present--no rights that a white man was
+bound to respect. But the Indians were still many and the settlers
+were few. To a great leader, who of course could not take into account
+the mighty force behind the Anglo-Saxon ranks that first marched over
+the Alleghenies, it would still seem practical to band the red men
+together in a vast confederation and drive the invaders back again
+beyond the Ohio and the mountains. This was Tecumsch's splendid plan.
+This was the design to which he devoted his life, and which he pursued
+with such ardor and genius as to do what an Indian had never before
+accomplished. Pontiac, it is true, at the siege of Detroit gathered a
+number of tribes under his leadership, but he never dreamed of a
+continental confederacy, as did Tecumseh. In this vast design he was
+materially aided by his brother, best known by the name of the
+Prophet, who, while lacking in judgment, was none the less a man of
+extraordinary force of character. He proclaimed that he had received
+power from the Great Spirit to confound the enemies of the Indians,
+stay the march of disease and death, and that he was the Messiah to
+lead his people to new and greater things. But as conditions to
+success the Indians must stop drinking fire-water, they must cease
+intermarrying with the whites or trading with them, and they must hold
+all things as the property of all. They must return to their original
+dress and manners, and forget that they had ever seen or known the
+"pale faces." The fame and influence of the Prophet spread with almost
+miraculous rapidity, and young men and warriors came from afar in
+crowds to receive inspiration from him. Tecumseh with rare ability
+turned this influence to advance his own plans. And of course this
+constant stream of visitors to his brother, enabled the chief to
+spread his racial idea far and wide. One of the things that Tecumseh
+maintained was that the Indians held the land in common, that no one
+tribe owned this or that territory, but that the Great Spirit had
+given it equally to all. This he said at the conference at Vincennes,
+but General Harrison ridiculed the idea and stated that if the Great
+Spirit had intended to make one nation of the Indians, he would not
+have put different languages into their heads, but would have taught
+them all to speak alike. Tecumseh bitterly replied that no one tribe
+had the right to give away what was the joint property of all, and
+not until the United States agreed to cease purchasing lands from the
+Indians and restored the lands recently bought, would peace be
+possible. Pointing to the moon that had risen on the council, Governor
+Harrison said that the moon would sooner fall to earth than the United
+States would give up anything fairly acquired. "Then," said Tecumseh,
+"I suppose that you and I will have to fight it out."
+
+But these councils ended in nothing except a manly and impressive
+statement by Tecumseh of his position, and a strong and terribly just
+indictment of the whites for their treatment of the Indians. Tecumseh
+was constantly on the move. Now on the Lakes, now on the Wabash, then
+on the Mississippi or the plains to the westward, then on the Ohio or
+the hills that roll to the south from it. Everywhere the Indians
+received him graciously. But an accident destroyed his plans, and one
+defeat dashed his confederation to pieces. During his absence Governor
+Harrison, alarmed at the gathering of warriors at the Prophet's town
+of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River, in Indiana, marched against it.
+There was no necessity for a battle. It might easily have been
+avoided. Toward the close of day the Americans reached Tippecanoe. The
+Indians disclaimed any hostile ideas, and it was settled that the
+terms of peace were to be arranged the next day. That night, however,
+the Indians treacherously attacked the Americans. The conflict was
+fierce and bloody. The Indian braves were animated by the promises of
+the Prophet, who declared that they would be victorious and that he
+had rendered the bullets of the white men of no avail. During the
+battle he stood on a neighboring hill and chanted a war song, to
+further fill his warriors with courage and enthusiasm. But though the
+red men fought gallantly, they were doomed to defeat. They were
+scattered up and down the Wabash, their town was burnt, and the power
+of the Western Indians was by this one blow shattered. So complete was
+the victory and so far-reaching in its effects, that General Harrison
+at once became the popular idol, and the glorification of the battle
+of Tippecanoe, a generation later carried him into the Presidential
+chair. It was this battle that gave the West to the whites.
+
+As for Tecumseh, he returned suddenly from the West to find that
+despite his commands, the Prophet had permitted a battle. In his rage
+and disappointment he took his brother, now fallen and disgraced, by
+the hair and shook him. But no longer was it possible to hold his
+tribes together. The victory of the United States at Tippecanoe took
+the ardor for battle and resistance quite out of them. There were
+hundreds of them, however, who in the war of 1812, which broke out
+immediately, followed Tecumseh into the British service, in which he
+was commissioned as a major-general. In that service he was doomed to
+continued disaster. The English commander. General Proctor, was
+incompetent and, in all the qualities of real manhood, the inferior of
+his savage ally. After the battle of Put-in-Bay, on Lake Erie, he
+started to retreat. Tecumseh protested, and was induced to go on only
+by the promise that winter supplies would be delivered a few miles up
+the Thames. It was on this stream that Proctor finally determined to
+make a stand, but at the outset of the action he, coward-like,
+retreated with his red coats, leaving the Indians to bear the brunt
+of the battle. Tecumseh had gone into the fight saying that he would
+be killed, and his prediction was verified. But how he died no one can
+say with certainty. No less than four Americans claimed the honor of
+having killed him. Among the slain, in that time of fierce pursuit and
+confusion, his body was not even identified. But there it was, on the
+banks of that quiet Canadian stream, some thirty-five miles from
+Detroit, that the greatest Indian in statecraft, diplomacy, devotion
+to his people, and in dignity of thought and intellectual gifts, found
+his unmarked grave. No one yet has written a biography of him that
+does full justice to his great abilities and lofty character. But his
+name is the most familiar of all Indian names, and he is the only
+Indian after whom Western fathers and mothers have ever named their
+sons. The late General of the United States Army, William Tecumseh
+Sherman, bore his name, as have hundreds of other boys born in Ohio,
+Kentucky, and the great States that roll westward from them.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+JAMES LAWRENCE
+
+(1781-1813)
+
+[Illustration: James Lawrence. [TN]]
+
+
+Captain James Lawrence was one of that band of chivalrous spirits who,
+concentrating all their life in the work, with insufficient means, in
+the face of powerful enemies, raised our infant navy in an instant, as
+it were, to an honored rank in the world. The force and energy of the
+free national development were felt in the spontaneous movement that
+placed so many ardent, courageous spirits at the service of the
+country. These men, Barry, Barney, Decatur, Bainbridge, Perry, Somers,
+and the rest--the list is a long one--were volunteers in the cause,
+fighting more for glory than for pay. Such spirits were not to be
+hired--theirs was no mercenary service. It was limited by no
+prudential considerations. They went forth singly or united, the
+commissioned champions of the nation, with their lives in their hands,
+ready to sacrifice themselves in that cause. Punctilious on all
+points of honor, they sought but one reward--victory. There was but
+one thing for them to do--to conquer; and, failing that, to die. Of
+these fiery-souled heroes, who carried their country in their hearts,
+the men of courtesy and courage, of equal humanity and bravery, true
+sons of chivalry, Lawrence will ever be ranked among the noblest.
+
+He was born October 1, 1781, at Burlington, on the banks of the
+Delaware, in New Jersey. His father, John Lawrence, was an eminent
+counsellor at law at that place. The death of his mother, shortly
+after his birth, threw the charge of the child upon his elder sisters,
+by whom he was tenderly cared for. His disposition answered to this
+gentle culture. The boy was dutiful and affectionate, amiable in
+disposition and agreeable in manners. Such a soil is peculiarly
+favorable to the growth of the manly virtues where nature has assisted
+by her generous physical gifts. The bravest men have often been the
+gentlest. It is the union of the two conditions which, as in Sir
+Philip Sidney, makes the perfect warrior.
+
+Young Lawrence early showed a liking for the sea, and would have led a
+life on the waters from the age of twelve, had not his father firmly
+turned his attention to books and education. It was his intention to
+prepare him for his own profession, the law, and his desire that he
+should enjoy the usual preparatory finished education. This was,
+however, prevented by his pecuniary misfortunes, and the youth passed
+from his primary school at once to the law office of his brother, John
+Lawrence, then residing at Woodbury. He spent two years in this
+situation, between thirteen and fifteen, or thereabout, vainly
+endeavoring to reconcile his humors to the onerous duties of the
+unwelcome position. The death of his father left him, in a measure,
+free to follow his own inclinations, and his brother, perceiving his
+strong bent for the sea, placed him under the care of a Mr. Griscomb,
+at Burlington, to study navigation, evidently with a view to enter the
+naval service of the country, for we find him, after a brief three
+months' instruction, in possession of a midshipman's warrant. This was
+dated September 4, 1798, the year when Congress seriously directed its
+attention to the protection of our commerce, then so wantonly pillaged
+by the two great belligerents of Europe, by the creation of a distinct
+navy department, and the enlargement of our naval force. The movement
+was specially directed to the French aggressions on the Atlantic and
+in the Mediterranean. Indeed, in all but the name, war existed with
+France. It was called a quasi war.
+
+Lawrence's first service was a cruise to the West Indies, in the
+Ganges, a twenty-four gun ship, then commanded by Captain Tingey. He
+showed in this and other voyages such aptitude for his duties that he
+was made an acting lieutenant by his commander previous to his
+receiving his commission from Government. In 1802 he was appointed
+first lieutenant in the Enterprise, of twelve guns, one of the fleet
+of Commodore Morris, sent to the Mediterranean to prosecute the war
+with Tripoli. He particularly distinguished himself in that service,
+by his adventures with Lieutenant David Porter, of the New York, in an
+attack in open day on certain coasters or feluccas laden with wheat,
+which took refuge in Old Tripoli, where they were defended by a land
+force. The attack was made in boats, at close quarters, under a heavy
+fire of the enemy.
+
+Lawrence had a second opportunity of distinguishing himself in this
+war in an action likely to be better remembered by the public, the
+glorious adventure of Decatur, in the destruction of the wrecked and
+captured Philadelphia, in the harbor of Tripoli, in February, 1804.
+Lawrence was the first lieutenant of that officer in this brilliant
+adventure, and shared its full dangers and glories.
+
+Lawrence was also engaged in the Enterprise, in Preble's bombardment
+of Tripoli, the same year. He returned in the winter to the United
+States, with that commodore, in the John Adams. In the following
+spring of 1805, Lawrence successfully carried across the Atlantic one
+of the fleet of gunboats, No. 6, of which he was commander, destined
+for service in the Mediterranean. It was a small vessel, mounting two
+guns, not at all adapted for ocean navigation. The voyage was looked
+upon as a marvel. When near the Western Islands, Mr. Cooper, in his
+"Naval History" tells, he "fell in with the British frigate Lapwing,
+28, Captain Upton which ran for him, under the impression that the
+gunboat was some wrecked mariners on a raft, there being a great show
+of canvas and apparently no hull."
+
+After the war with Tripoli was ended, Lawrence returned to the United
+States, and in the interval, when the war with England, after the
+affair with the Leopard and Chesapeake, was daily becoming more
+imminent, we find him, in 1808, appointed first lieutenant of the
+Constitution. About the same time he married Miss Montaudevert, the
+daughter of a respectable merchant of New York. He was on duty in the
+Vixen, Wasp, and Argus; and, at the commencement of the war of 1812,
+was promoted to the command of the Hornet. While in this last vessel
+he sailed with Bainbridge, who had the flag-ship Constitution, on a
+cruise along the coast of South America, and, having occasion to look
+in at the port of San Salvador, found there the British sloop-of-war,
+Bonne Citoyenne, of eighteen guns, ready to sail for England with a
+large amount of specie. Lawrence, whose ship mounted an equal number
+of guns, was exceedingly anxious to engage with this vessel. He sent a
+challenge to its commander, Captain Green, through the American
+consul, inviting him to "come out," and pledging his honor that
+neither the Constitution, nor any other American vessel, should
+interfere, which Commodore Bainbridge seconded by promising to be out
+of the way, or at least non-combatant. The English captain, however,
+declined.
+
+It was an unhappy precedent which Lawrence thus established, injurious
+to the service and destined to act fatally against himself in the end,
+when from the challenger he became the challenged.
+
+The Constitution meanwhile sailed away, to close the year with her
+brilliant engagement with the Java, leaving the Hornet engaged in the
+blockade of the Bonne Citoyenne. Eighteen days since the departure of
+the flag-ship had passed while her consort was thus engaged, waiting
+till her expected prize should issue from the harbor, when the Hornet
+was robbed of her chances of victory by the arrival of his majesty's
+seventy-four, the Montague. Escape now became the policy of Lawrence,
+who luckily managed to get from the harbor in safety, and turned his
+course to the northward, along the coast. While cruising in this
+direction, after capturing a small English brig, he fell in with, on
+February 24, 1813, off the mouth of the Demerara, two brigs of war,
+with one of which, the Peacock, Captain Peake, he speedily became
+engaged. The American vessel on this occasion had somewhat the
+advantage in armament. In the words of Lawrence's dispatch, which
+gives a modest and forcible account of the affair, after mentioning
+his attempt to get at the first vessel he discovered at anchor off the
+bar, he says: "At half-past three P.M., I discovered another sail on
+my weather quarter, edging down for us. At twenty minutes past four
+she hoisted English colors, at which time we discovered her to be a
+large man-of-war brig; beat to quarters and cleared ship for action;
+kept close by the wind, in order if possible, to get the weather gage.
+At ten minutes past five, finding I could weather the enemy, I hoisted
+American colors and tacked. At twenty minutes past five, in passing
+each other, exchanged broadsides within half pistol shot. Observing
+the enemy in the act of wearing, I bore up, received his starboard
+broadside, ran him close on board on the starboard quarter, and kept
+up such a heavy and well-directed fire, that in less than fifteen
+minutes he surrendered, being literally cut to pieces, and hoisted an
+ensign, union down, from his fore-rigging, as a signal of distress."
+
+The hull of the Peacock was so riddled that she sank, while every
+exertion was made by her captors to save her by throwing over her guns
+and stopping the shot-holes. Nine of her crew went down with her, and
+three of the Hornet's men. Captain Peake was found dead on board. The
+loss of the Hornet was trifling compared with that of her adversary;
+but one man killed and four wounded or injured, one of whom afterward
+died. This superiority is attributed by Cooper, who sums up the
+testimony, "to the superior gunnery and rapid handling of the Hornet."
+
+This victory brought Lawrence a harvest of honors, public and private.
+Before he sailed, he had felt called upon to protest to the Secretary
+of the Navy against what he thought an injustice done him in the
+promotion of a younger officer to a captaincy, while he remained
+simply lieutenant-commander. He now found that the promotion had been
+conferred upon him in his absence, and was offered the command of the
+Constitution. He would have been pleased to sail in this vessel, but,
+much to his annoyance, immediately after receiving the appointment was
+ordered to the Chesapeake, then lying at Boston.
+
+Captain Lawrence took the command of the Chesapeake at Boston toward
+the end of May, 1813. The Shannon frigate, Captain Broke, a superior
+vessel of the British navy, had been for some time off the port, and
+her commander, assured of his strength, was desirous of a conflict.
+"You will feel it as a compliment," he wrote, "if I say that the
+result of our meeting may be the most grateful service I can render to
+my country; and I doubt not that you, equally confident of success,
+will feel convinced that it is only by triumphs in equal combats that
+your little navy can now hope to console your country for the loss of
+that trade it can no longer protect."
+
+[Illustration: "Don't give up the ship."]
+
+It would be complimenting the valor of Lawrence at the expense of his
+judgment, if we were to pronounce him ardent for the fight, with the
+circumstances under which it took place. In fact, as Mr. Cooper
+states, "he went into the engagement with strong reluctance, on
+account of the undisciplined state of his crew, to whom he was
+personally unknown." The challenging vessel, on the contrary, carried
+a picked crew, with every advantage of discipline and equipment. The
+presumption, of course, is that he was fully prepared. The armament of
+the two vessels was about equal, mounting forty-nine guns each.
+
+At noon, then, on June 1st, Lawrence weighed anchor and left his
+station in the bay to proceed to sea with a southwesterly breeze. The
+Shannon was in sight, and the two ships stood off the shore till about
+half-past four in the afternoon, when the Chesapeake fired a gun,
+which was the signal for a series of manoeuvres, bringing the vessels
+within range of each other about a quarter before six. The Shannon
+hove to, and the Chesapeake bore down toward her. It was Lawrence's
+intention to bring his ship fairly alongside of the enemy for a full
+discharge of his battery. He consequently first received the enemy's
+fire from the cabin guns, as, the wind having freshened, his ship came
+up to measure her length with her antagonist, which lay with her head
+to the southeast. Then the Chesapeake poured in her full fire,
+inflicting considerable damage, which was repeated in the successive
+discharges for several minutes. In this commencement of the action it
+was considered that the Shannon received most injury, particularly in
+her hull. Unhappily, the Chesapeake in turn lost the command of her
+sails. The ship was consequently brought up into the wind, and fell
+aboard of the enemy, with her mizzen rigging foul of the Shannon's
+fore-chains. This accident exposed the Chesapeake to a raking fire,
+which swept her deck, and, as she was already deprived of the services
+of the officers who had fallen in the first discharges, her guns in
+turn were deserted by the men. Captain Lawrence had already received a
+wound in the leg; his first lieutenant, Ludlow, was wounded; the
+sailing-master was killed, and other important officers were mortally
+wounded. As the ships became entangled, Lawrence gave orders to summon
+the boarders, who were ready below; but unhappily, the negro whose
+duty it was to call them up by his bugle, was too much frightened to
+sound a note. A verbal message was sent, and before it could be
+executed Lawrence was a second time struck, receiving a grapeshot in
+his body. The deck was thus left with no officer above the rank of a
+midshipman. The men of the Shannon now poured in and gained possession
+of the vessel. As Lawrence was borne below, mortally wounded, his
+dying thoughts were of his command, uttering his order not to strike
+the flag of his ship, or some equivalent expression, which is handed
+down in the popular phrase, "Don't give up the ship!" He lingered and
+died of his wounds on board on June 6th. The Chesapeake was carried
+into Halifax, and there the remains of her gallant captain were borne
+from the frigate with military honors, with every mark of respect
+which a generous enemy could pay to a fallen hero.
+
+
+
+
+STEPHEN DECATUR[6]
+
+By EDWARD S. ELLIS, A.M.
+
+(1779-1820)
+
+         [Footnote 6: Copyright 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Stephen Decatur. [TN]]
+
+
+Stephen Decatur was born on the eastern shore of Maryland, Worcester
+County, January 5, 1779. The family was of French extraction in the
+paternal line, and of Irish on the maternal side. The grandfather was
+a native of La Rochelle, in France, and married a lady of Newport, R.
+I., where Stephen, the son of the commodore, was born. When a very
+young man he removed to Philadelphia and married the daughter of an
+Irish gentleman named Pine. Decatur was bred to the sea and commanded
+a merchantman out of the port of Philadelphia, until appointed to the
+sloop-of-war, Delaware. Upon the completion of the frigate
+Philadelphia, the command of it was given to him.
+
+The elder Decatur had one daughter and three sons. The daughter was
+twice married, her first husband having been killed in a duel. The
+sons were Stephen, James, and John P., all of whom grew to manhood.
+The boys were educated at the old Philadelphia Academy in Fourth
+Street. Admiral Charles Stewart attended the same school and was an
+intimate friend of Decatur through life. Many of the incidents of this
+sketch were received by the writer from Stewart, who fully appreciated
+the manliness, courage, and nobility of the sailor, now accepted as
+the foremost type of the heroes and founders of the American navy.
+
+"Decatur was a born fighter," said Stewart; "I never knew a boy so
+fond of a bout as he. I sat near him at school and have known weeks to
+pass, without a single day in which he did not arrange a contest with
+one of the boys. We generally adjourned to the Quaker burying-ground
+opposite, and had it out among the tombs. Decatur despised meanness of
+every description, and rarely was beaten in a fight. When only
+fifteen, he half killed a partially intoxicated man who insulted his
+mother and refused to apologize. He never knew when he was whipped,
+but would hang on like a bull-dog. I was a few months older than he,
+but we were appointed midshipmen in the same year, 1798. Our intimacy
+was never broken by the slightest incident."
+
+Upon entering the navy, in March of the year named, Decatur joined the
+frigate United States, under command of Commodore Barry, who had
+obtained the warrant for him. He served with Barry until promoted to a
+lieutenancy. The United States needed repairs, and not wishing to stay
+in port, Decatur applied for orders to join the brig Norfolk, then
+bound to the Spanish Main. After one cruise he returned again to port
+and resumed his station on the United States, where he stayed until
+our naval troubles with France terminated. He was next ordered to the
+Essex and sailed with Commodore Dale's squadron to the Mediterranean.
+Returning home once more, he was appointed to the New York, one of the
+second squadron under command of Commodore Morris. When he again came
+back, he was ordered to command the Argus, to proceed with her to join
+Commodore Preble's squadron in the Mediterranean, and on his arrival
+there to resign the Argus to Lieutenant Hull and take charge of the
+schooner Enterprise, then commanded by that officer.
+
+The exchange being made, Decatur sailed to Syracuse where the squadron
+was to rendezvous. There he learned of the disaster to the
+Philadelphia. That frigate, as the reader will recall, ran aground
+while blockading Tripoli (with which country we were at war), and was
+captured by the Turks. Commodore Bainbridge and his crew of more than
+three hundred, among whom were Porter, Jones, and Biddle, were made
+prisoners and immured in a gloomy dungeon. Decatur quickly formed a
+plan for capturing or destroying the frigate. Preble, to whom the
+proposal was submitted, refused at first to give his consent, but his
+impetuous lieutenant won him over and was allowed to lead the
+expedition.
+
+Decatur selected the ketch Intrepid, which he had captured a few weeks
+before, and manned her with seventy volunteers, chiefly his own crew.
+He sailed from Syracuse, February 3, 1804, accompanied by the United
+States brig Siren, Lieutenant Stewart, who was to aid with his boats
+and to receive the crew of the ketch, should it be found expedient to
+use her as a fireship.
+
+The weather was so tempestuous that it required fifteen days to reach
+the harbor of Tripoli. It was arranged by Decatur and Stewart that the
+ketch should enter the harbor about ten o'clock that night, attended
+by the boats of the Siren. A change of wind threw the Siren six or
+eight miles away from the Intrepid, and, fearing to wait for the
+boats, Decatur decided to adventure alone in the harbor, which he did
+about eight o'clock.
+
+The Philadelphia lay within one-half gunshot of the Bashaw's castle
+and of the principal battery; two of the enemy's cruisers were only a
+couple of cables' length away on the starboard quarter, and their
+gunboats were within one-half gunshot on the starboard bow. All the
+guns of the frigate were mounted and loaded.
+
+Although it was only three miles from the entrance of the harbor to
+the frigate, the wind was so light that the Intrepid did not get
+within hail until eleven o'clock. At the distance of two hundred
+yards, the frigate hailed the ketch and ordered her to anchor under
+threat of being fired into. Decatur's Maltese pilot, by his direction,
+replied they had lost their anchor in a gale of wind off the coast and
+were unable to do as commanded. When within fifty yards Decatur sent a
+small boat with a rope to make fast to the frigate's fore-chains. This
+was done and the Americans began warping the ketch alongside. Not
+until that moment did the Tripolitans suspect the character of the
+Intrepid. They were thrown into confusion, during which the two
+vessels came together. Decatur was the first to leap aboard, followed
+immediately by Midshipman Charles Morris. A minute passed before their
+companions could join them, but the Turks were too terrified to sweep
+the daring officers from the deck, as they might have done in the
+twinkling of an eye.
+
+As soon as Decatur could form a line equal to that of the enemy, the
+charge was made. Twenty of the Turks were killed, many jumped
+overboard, and the rest scurried to the main deck whither they were
+pursued and driven into the hold.
+
+The Americans had hardly gained possession of the frigate, when a
+number of launches were seen hurrying about the harbor. Decatur
+decided that the best defence could be made by staying on the frigate,
+and he prepared to receive their attack. Meanwhile, the enemy had
+opened fire from the batteries and the castle and from two corsairs
+lying near. As the launches did not approach, the lieutenant ordered
+the ship to be set on fire in several places. The flames spread so
+fast that it was with the utmost difficulty the Americans were able to
+reach the ketch. At that critical moment, a propitious breeze sprang
+up and carried the Intrepid out of the harbor. She had not lost a man,
+only four being wounded.
+
+For this exploit, Decatur was promoted to the rank of post captain,
+there being no intermediate grade. The honor was specially gratifying,
+since the promotion was made with the consent of every officer over
+whose head he was raised. It should be stated that at that time the
+rank of captain was the highest in the navy. A commodore was simply
+the senior officer of a squadron and might be a master, commandant, a
+lieutenant, or midshipman.
+
+It was decided some weeks later to make an attack on Tripoli. The King
+of Naples loaned six gunboats and two lombards to Commodore Preble.
+These were formed in two divisions, Decatur commanding one and
+Lieutenant Somers the other. The squadron which sailed from Syracuse
+included the frigate Constitution, the brig Siren, the schooners
+Nautilus and Vixen, and the gunboats. Adverse winds deferred the
+attack for several days. Finally, on the morning of August 3d, the
+weather being favorable, the signal was given from the commodore's
+vessel to prepare for action. This signal to open the bombardment was
+made at nine o'clock. The gunboats were cast off and advanced in a
+line ahead, led by Captain Decatur and covered by the frigate
+Constitution and the brigs and schooners. The enemy's gunboats were
+moored along the harbor under the batteries and within musket-shot.
+Their sails had been taken from them and they were ordered to sink
+rather than abandon their position. They were aided and covered also
+by a brig of sixteen and a schooner of ten guns.
+
+Before entering into close action, Decatur went alongside each of the
+boats and directed them to unship their bowsprits and follow him, as
+it was his intention to board the enemy's boats. Lieutenant James
+Decatur commanded one of the boats belonging to Commodore Preble's
+division, but being farther to the windward than the rest of his
+division, he joined and took orders from his brother.
+
+When Captain Decatur in the leading boat came within range of the
+batteries, they and the gunboats opened fire. He returned it and
+pushed his way among the boats. At this juncture, Commodore Preble,
+fearing the results of Decatur's rashness, ordered the signal to be
+made for retreat. This command brought to light the singular fact,
+that in making out the signals before going into battle, no one had
+thought of that which ordered a retreat. It was impossible, therefore,
+to recall the daring Decatur.
+
+The enemy's gunboats contained forty men each and ours the same.
+Decatur had twenty-seven Americans and thirteen Neapolitans. On
+boarding the enemy, the latter held back, but our countrymen charged
+eagerly forward. Ten minutes sufficed to clear the deck. Eight of the
+Turks plunged into the hold, some fell while fighting, and others
+leaped into the sea. Only three of the Americans were wounded.
+
+As Decatur was about to withdraw with his prize, his brother's boat
+came under the stern. The men called to him that they had engaged and
+captured one of the enemy, but her commander, after surrendering, had
+treacherously shot Lieutenant James Decatur, pushed off while the crew
+were recovering the body, and was at that moment making all haste for
+the harbor.
+
+Decatur was infuriated on hearing this and resolved that the miscreant
+should not escape. With his single boat he pressed with all possible
+speed within the enemy's line, and running aside the offending boat,
+bounded over the gunwale, followed by eleven Americans, all that were
+left to him. Then followed the most desperate hand to hand fight
+conceivable, the issue being in doubt for twenty minutes.
+
+There have been many accounts of Decatur's exploit on this Tripolitan
+gunboat, with considerable variation as to particulars. That which
+follows is the story as it was told to me by Admiral Stewart, who
+received it from Decatur himself, immediately after the fight. Decatur
+presented the weapon, called an espontoon, to Stewart, and I naturally
+examined it with great interest. The handle was of ivory and the blade
+perhaps eight or ten inches long, being very narrow and curved like a
+scimetar. It had no edge, was sharply pointed, and evidently made for
+thrusting.
+
+Nothing could stay the fury of Decatur. He easily identified the
+commander by his immense size and gorgeous uniform. He eagerly sought
+out the American and they instantly came together in the fight to the
+death. Decatur had a cutlass, and the Turk a pike. The latter
+inflicted a slight wound on Decatur's breast, and in parrying the
+stroke his sword broke off at the hilt. Flinging the weapon aside, the
+American sprang like a tiger at his antagonist. The two fell to the
+deck, Decatur under, and flat on his back. The Turk had the weapon I
+have described in the front of his sash and attempted to withdraw it
+to give the finishing thrust. Decatur flung his legs over his back and
+with one arm held his enemy so tight against his body that he could
+not force his hand between. In this position, Decatur with his free
+arm drew a pistol from near his hip, reached over the back of the Turk
+and fired downward, directly toward himself.
+
+"It was just like Decatur," said Stewart; "the chances were ten to one
+that the bullet would pass through both their bodies, but luckily it
+met a bone and the huge barbarian rolled off dead. The two were
+half-smothered by others fighting and tumbling over them, and it was
+with the utmost difficulty that Decatur freed himself from them and
+rose to his feet."
+
+While this fierce struggle was going on, a Turk fought his way forward
+and aimed a fearful blow at Decatur, who was not aware of his danger.
+Reuben Jones, an American sailor, so desperately wounded that he could
+not use his arms, flung himself between them and received the blow on
+his skull, which was fractured. It is a pleasure to record, however,
+that the brave fellow finally recovered and lived many years on a
+pension from his government.
+
+Decatur succeeded in withdrawing with both prizes, and the next day
+was honored with the highest commendation in general orders from
+Commodore Preble. When the latter was superseded in command of the
+squadron, he gave the command of the Constitution to Decatur, who had
+some time before received his commission. From that ship he was
+removed to the Congress, returning home on her on the conclusion of
+peace with Tripoli.
+
+Decatur was next employed as superintendent of gunboats, and March 6,
+1806, was married to Miss Susan Wheeler of Norfolk, the only child of
+wealthy and cultured parents. The union was a most happy one, though
+no children were born to the couple.
+
+In the month of June, 1807, the British frigate Leopard, while
+cruising off the coast of Virginia, poured several broadsides into the
+American frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Barron.
+England, as will be remembered, insisted on the "right of search," and
+the British Captain Humphreys claimed that the American had several
+English deserters on board. The Chesapeake had three men killed and
+eighteen wounded, and being unprepared for action, struck her colors.
+
+Captain Barron was court-martialed and sentenced to five years'
+suspension without pay from the service, for what was deemed a
+cowardly act on his part. Commodore Decatur succeeded him in command
+of the ship, being transferred to the United States, when she was
+again put in commission.
+
+October 25, 1812, in latitude 29 deg. N., longitude 29 deg. 30' W., Decatur
+fell in with the British ship Macedonian, of 49 carriage guns (the odd
+one shifting). This frigate was the largest of her class, two years
+old, four months out of dock, and reputed one of the best sailers in
+the English service. Taking advantage of the wind, the enemy fought at
+her own distance. The battle lasted one hour and fifty minutes. The
+United States poured such an incessant fire into the Macedonian that
+the shouts of her crew were plainly heard. She lost her mizzenmast,
+fore and main topsails and main yard, and was much damaged in the
+hull. Her official list was, 36 killed and 48 wounded, that of the
+Americans being 5 killed and 7 wounded. Decatur could have continued
+his cruise, but was obliged to accompany his crippled prize into port,
+where she was equipped as an American frigate. The young officer, as
+may be supposed, was hailed by the country as its foremost naval hero.
+Congress and several of the States voted him valuable testimonials for
+his gallantry.
+
+[Illustration: Decatur's conflict with the Algerine at Tripoli.]
+
+The following year, Decatur attempted to gain the open sea from New
+York, through Long Island Sound, with the Macedonian and Hornet. A
+British squadron of superior force, however, compelled him to run into
+the Thames River in Connecticut, and he lay off New London for months
+unable to get to sea. He was naturally impatient at being thus cooped
+up, and bitterly complained that traitors on shore, by means of "blue
+lights," warned the enemy whenever at night he prepared to break out
+of his imprisonment. He sent a challenge to Commander Sir Thomas Hardy
+of the blockading squadron, offering to fight two of the British
+frigates with two of his own, but the offer was declined and Decatur's
+frigates were afterward dismantled.
+
+Returning to New York, he assumed command of a squadron bound for the
+East Indies, and put to sea in the President. January 14, 1815,
+through the blunder of his pilot, his ship heavily grounded while
+going out. The next morning, Decatur discovered the British squadron
+in pursuit, consisting of the Majestic razee, the Endymion, Tenedos,
+and Pomona frigates and a brig. Of these the Endymion was the
+fleetest. After drawing her away from the rest, Decatur turned and
+attacked her. She was crippled and her battery silenced, when the
+American resumed her flight. By this time, however, the other ships
+had come up and opened fire. Escape was impossible and Decatur
+surrendered to the British squadron.
+
+Returning to the United States under parole, he was despatched to the
+Mediterranean, on the conclusion of peace, to punish the Algerine
+pirates that were preying upon our commerce. He did his work
+thoroughly and well, compelling the Dey to sign the most humiliating
+treaty ever made with a Christian nation. He obtained similar redress
+at Tunis and Tripoli.
+
+Decatur was subsequently created Navy Commissioner and made his
+residence in Washington at Kalorama, formerly occupied by Joel Benton.
+
+Commodore Barron's suspension began February 8, 1808. He resorted to
+the merchant service, and was abroad when war was declared. His
+suspension terminated about eight months afterward, some time after
+which he reported himself to the navy department, by letter, for duty,
+the war continuing two years after his becoming available for command.
+He did not return to the United States until the close of 1818. He
+declared that he had used every effort to reach home before during
+hostilities, but was prevented. A court, presided over by Captain
+Charles Stewart, afterward declared its judgment that such effort had
+not been made by Barron.
+
+The latter felt resentful toward Decatur, and called him to account
+for certain expressions he had been told were used by him reflecting
+upon his conduct as an officer. When appealed to, Decatur, as Navy
+Commissioner, declared that he held no personal enmity toward Barron;
+he deemed it unjust to other officers of the navy that his request to
+be restored to command should be granted.
+
+Barron opened a sharp correspondence with Decatur, which continued
+nearly a year. Mutual friends, or rather enemies, fanned the trouble
+between them, which ended in a challenge from Barron which was
+promptly accepted by Decatur. The duel took place at Bladensburg, on
+the morning of March 22, 1820, Commodore Bainbridge was Decatur's
+second, and Captain Jesse D. Elliott served Barron in a similar
+capacity. Decatur chivalrously surrendered his right to name the
+distance, which Barron made the shortest possible, eight paces, on
+account of his defective eyesight. Decatur was without a superior as a
+pistol shot, and, declaring that he did not wish the life of his
+antagonist, said he would only wound him in the hip.
+
+At the word "two," both fired so exactly together, that only one
+report was heard. Barron was struck in the right hip, as Decatur
+intended, and sank to the ground. Decatur stood erect a moment and was
+seen to turn pale, compress his lips, and press his hand against his
+side. Then he fell, the ball having passed through his abdomen.
+
+"I am mortally wounded," he said, "and wish that it had been in the
+defence of my country." His attendants helped him to his feet, and
+started slowly toward the waiting carriage. His pain was so great that
+after a few paces he sank exhausted, near where Barron was stretched
+on the ground. While the two thus lay near each other, waiting to be
+carried off, they shook hands, and each freely forgave the other.
+
+Decatur was lifted into the carriage, which reached Washington at
+half-past ten. He would not allow himself to be carried into his home
+until his wife and two nieces were sent to the upper floor where they
+could not see the dreadful sight. Wishing to save the distracted ones
+from the grief of witnessing his suffering, he refused them permission
+to enter the room where he lay.
+
+The news caused consternation and sorrow in Washington, where no man
+was more honored and loved than he. He thanked his friends for their
+sympathy, told them he had not long to live, and signed his will. "I
+am a dying man," said he, "and only regret that my wound was not
+received on the quarter-deck in the service of my country."
+
+When the surgeons proposed to probe for the bullet, he said it was not
+worth while as it had done all the harm it could. He remarked that he
+did not believe it possible for a person to suffer so much pain and
+yet live. But not once did he utter a groan. His agony was beyond
+description and did not cease until half-past ten, when he died.
+
+It seemed as if the whole male population of Washington and the
+adjacent county were present at the funeral, besides most of the
+officers of the government, members of Congress, and resident foreign
+ministers. The _National Intelligencer_, in an extra, said: "A hero
+has fallen. Commodore Stephen Decatur, one of the first officers of
+our navy, the pride of his country, the gallant and noble-hearted
+gentleman, is no more. He expired a few minutes ago, of the mortal
+wound received in the duel this morning. Mourn, Columbia! for one of
+thy brightest stars is set! A son without fear and without reproach,
+in the fulness of his fame, in the prime of his usefulness, has
+descended into the tomb."
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+OLIVER HAZARD PERRY
+
+(1785-1819)
+
+[Illustration: Oliver Hazard Perry. [TN]]
+
+
+Oliver Hazard Perry was born in Rhode Island, August 23, 1785. The
+late Commodore Mackenzie, of the navy, who possessed what we may term
+a fine biographical faculty, has traced in his interesting narrative
+of the Life of Perry, with fond minuteness, the early incidents of the
+boy's career. The chief characteristics, he tells us, "were an
+uncommon share of beauty, a sweetness and gentleness of disposition
+which corroborated the expression of his countenance, and a perfect
+disregard of danger, amounting to apparent unconsciousness." This
+biographer gives some curious anecdotes of his school days.
+
+Suffice it to say, that the family removing to Newport about this
+time, Perry found good opportunities of education at that place, and
+availed himself of them in a manly spirit. He was especially
+instructed in mathematics, and their application to navigation and
+nautical astronomy. As proof of the boy's ingenuousness, and the
+interest he excited in intelligent observers, it is related that Count
+Rochambeau, the son of the General of the Revolution, then residing at
+Newport, was particularly attracted to him, and that Bishop Seabury,
+on his visitation, marked him as a boy of religious feeling. These are
+traits which shape the man; we shall find them reappearing in the
+maturity of Perry's life, in his worth, humanity, and refinement.
+
+The boy was but thirteen when his father, in 1798, was called into the
+naval service of his country in the spirited effort made by President
+Adams to resist the aggressions of France upon the ocean. He took the
+command of a small frigate, built under his direction in Rhode Island,
+named the General Greene, and carried with him to sea his son Oliver
+as a midshipman, at the express solicitation of the youth. The General
+Greene was actively employed in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico,
+giving all its officers abundant opportunity for practice in the
+infant service. The French war flurry after a while blew over, as the
+Directory, the mainspring of these aggressions, lost power; peace was
+patched up, and Jefferson shortly after inaugurated an unwholesome
+pacific policy by a sweeping reduction of the navy, as if it were not
+small enough already. In this mutilating operation the elder Perry was
+dropped, the younger one fortunately retained.
+
+The navy, however, was soon revived by the demands of the nation to
+resist the iniquitous and insulting depredations upon life and
+property inflicted by the Barbary powers. The United States had borne
+far too patiently with these injuries, though she had the honor of
+being in advance of the old powers of Europe in resisting them. The
+Mediterranean became the scene of many a chivalrous exploit of our
+early officers, a score of whom, headed by Preble, Bainbridge,
+Decatur, Somers, and others of that stamp of fiery and indomitable
+valor, gained immortal laurels by their deeds of daring in conflict
+with the infidel.
+
+The young Perry served as midshipman in the frigate Adams, which
+sailed from Newport, in 1802, to join Commodore Morris' command at
+Gibraltar. His ship was for some time employed in blockading a
+Tripolitan at that port; a tedious but instructive service in
+manoeuvring, at the close of which Perry, in consequence of his
+accomplishments, was promoted by his captain to the duties of a
+lieutenant. The frigate was then employed as a convoy, making the tour
+of the northern ports. This gave Perry an opportunity to study scenes
+of the old world, which can never lose their influence in the
+formation of the man of education and refinement.
+
+In 1809, Perry got to sea in command of an armed schooner, the
+Revenge, which was employed on the coast service. While on the
+southern coast, he had an opportunity to gain distinction, which he
+did not fail to avail himself of, in cutting out a stolen American
+vessel from under the guns of a British ship in Spanish waters, off
+Florida. Conveying his prize off the coast, he was threatened by his
+Majesty's ship Gore, of double his force, when, having, as Mackenzie
+says, "no idea of being 'Leopardized,'" he put his little schooner in
+readiness for boarding at a moment's notice--a spirited resolution of
+great bravery, which he would no doubt have carried out, had the
+British vessel insisted upon overhauling the Revenge. While engaged in
+cruising off Connecticut and Rhode Island, in the beginning of 1811,
+he unfortunately lost his vessel, through an error of the pilot, on
+the Watch Hill Reef, opposite Fisher's Island, as he was sailing from
+Newport to New London. Every seamanlike effort was made to save the
+vessel, and when all was unavailing, Perry showed equal skill and
+resolution in landing the crew in a heavy January swell, with a
+violent wind. He was himself the last to leave the vessel. He was not
+merely acquitted of neglect, but his conduct was extolled by a court
+of inquiry.
+
+He was, of course, thrown temporarily out of command by the loss of
+his vessel; an interval of repose which he hastened to turn to account
+by forming a matrimonial alliance with Miss Elizabeth Champlin Mason,
+of an influential family at Newport, to whom he had become engaged
+several years before, on his arrival from the Mediterranean. The
+wedding took place in May, 1811, affording him ample opportunity for
+the honeymoon, previous to the actual outbreak of the war impending
+with England.
+
+This event found him at Newport, with the rank of master commandant,
+in charge of the flotilla of gunboats keeping watch in the harbor. It
+was a service not altogether adapted to satisfy the ambitious spirit
+of a young officer, but it was important in itself, and became, in
+Perry's hands, a step to future eminence. His course, at this time,
+illustrates a valuable truth, that no honorable employment is
+profitless to a man of genius. He will in some way turn it to
+account. Constructing gunboats, and recruiting men in port, were
+services not calculated to make any great blaze in a despatch, but
+they conducted Perry to his glorious bulletins of victory, and the
+resounding praises of the nation.
+
+He saw the new field of military operations opening on the lakes, and
+his experienced eye must have seen as well the certain difficulties,
+as the possible honors of the situation. It was not the post which an
+officer with the claims of Perry would have sought, while brilliant
+victories were being won, in the eye of the world, on the vast theatre
+of the ocean. Others, however, were before him on that element.
+
+Despairing of a command at sea, he offered himself to Commodore
+Chauncey, who had recently been placed at the head of the lake
+service. His character was understood by this officer, and the proffer
+accepted. The necessary communications were made to the Government,
+and in the middle of February, in 1813, he was ordered to join
+Chauncey at Sackett's Harbor, with the picked men of his Newport
+flotilla. He lost no time in reporting himself at the appointed spot.
+His destination was Lake Erie, where he was to supervise the
+construction of two vessels to be employed in the next campaign, and
+he was anxious to get to the work; but Chauncey, who felt the need of
+his aid, detained him for a while on Lake Ontario. He, however, toward
+the end of March, reached Erie, where the vessels were building.
+
+His experience in constructing gunboats at Newport was now of avail to
+him. He put the defence of the works, which had been greatly
+neglected, in a state of efficiency, and set himself to the collection
+of supplies, workmen, and an armament: no easy matter at that day and
+in that place in the wilderness; for such, as compared with our own
+time, it then was. The labors of Perry in this work of preparation
+were, in fact, of the most arduous character. They should not be
+forgotten as a heavy item to his credit in the sum total of his
+victory. Three gunboats and two brigs were launched and equipped in
+May.
+
+It was at this time that he received advices that Chauncey was about
+to make an attack on the British post of Fort George, at the mouth of
+the Niagara River. He had been promised a share in this adventure, and
+hastened to the scene. The incidents of this journey show the spirit
+of the man. In his own words, in a letter describing this passage of
+his life: "On the evening of May 23d, I received information, about
+sunset, that Commodore Chauncey would in a day or two arrive at
+Niagara, when an attack would be made on Fort George. He had
+previously promised me the command of the seamen and marines that
+might land from the fleet. Without hesitation I determined to join
+him. I left Erie about dark in a small four-oared open boat. The night
+was squally and very dark. After encountering headwinds and many
+difficulties, I arrived at Buffalo on the evening of the 24th,
+refreshed, and remained there until daylight; I then passed the whole
+of the British lines in my boat, within musket-shot. Passing
+Strawberry Island, several people on our side of the river hailed and
+beckoned me on shore. On landing they pointed out about forty men on
+the end of Grand Island, who, doubtless, were placed there to
+intercept boats. In a few moments I should have been in their hands. I
+then proceeded with more caution. As we arrived at Schlosser, it
+rained violently. No horse could be procured. I determined to push
+forward on foot; walked about two miles and a half, when the rain fell
+in such torrents I was obliged to take shelter in a house at hand. The
+sailors whom I had left with the boat, hearing of public horses on the
+commons, determined to catch one for me. They found an old passing one
+which could not run away, and brought him in, rigged a rope from the
+boat into a bridle, and borrowed a saddle without either stirrup,
+girth, or crupper. Thus accoutred they pursued me, and found me at the
+house where I had stopped. The rain ceasing, I mounted; my legs hung
+down the sides of the horse, and I was obliged to steady the saddle by
+holding by the mane. In this style I entered the camp, it raining
+again most violently. Colonel Porter being the first to discover me,
+insisted upon my taking his horse, as I had some distance to ride to
+the other end of the camp, off which the Madison lay."
+
+Having thus reached head-quarters, arrangements were rapidly made, and
+the landing of the troops assigned to Perry. In the ignorance or
+inexperience of some of the officers, there was considerable confusion
+in directing the boats in the river, which was remedied by Perry's
+vigilance and decision. He was everywhere, in the midst of danger,
+guiding and directing; the unexpected attack of the British was met by
+his energy, the landing effected, and the object of the expedition
+accomplished. This victory opened the port of Black Rock, where
+several American vessels were collected, which Perry undertook to get
+into Lake Erie against the strong current of the river, a feat which
+was accomplished with extraordinary fatigue; so that he returned to
+his station at Erie, with a respectable addition of five vessels to
+his own newly launched little fleet in that harbor. The American force
+was composed of the brigs Lawrence and Niagara, of twenty guns each,
+and seven smaller vessels, numbering in all fifty-four guns. Captain
+Barclay, commander of the British forces on the lake, had the Detroit,
+of nineteen guns, the Queen Charlotte, Lady Provost, and three other
+vessels, numbering altogether sixty-three guns. The range of the
+enemy's guns gave them the advantage at a distance, when the
+corresponding American fire was ineffectual. The Americans, too, were
+under a disadvantage in the enfeebled state of the crews, by the
+general illness which prevailed among them. The British force had
+undoubtedly the superiority in trained men, as compared with Perry's
+extemporized miscellaneous command, and untried junior officers. The
+latter proved, however, to be of the right material.
+
+On the morning of the engagement the American fleet was among the
+islands off Malden at Put in Bay, when the British fleet bore up.
+There was some difficulty at first in clearing the islands, and the
+nature of the wind seemed likely to throw Perry upon the defensive,
+when a southeast breeze springing up, enabled him to bear down upon
+the enemy. This was at ten o'clock of a fine autumnal morning. Perry
+arranged his vessels in line, taking the lead in his flag-ship, the
+Lawrence, on which he now raised the signal for action, a blue flag,
+inscribed in large white letters, with the words of the dying
+Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" He accompanied this movement with
+an appeal to his men. "My brave lads, this flag contains the last
+words of Captain Lawrence. Shall I hoist it?" "Ay, ay, sir!" was the
+willing response. In this way he cheered the men in the awful pause,
+"a dead silence of an hour and a half," preceding the action, for in
+the light breeze the vessels were long in overcoming the intermediate
+distance of several miles.
+
+Perry, who knew the perils of the day, prepared his papers as if for
+death. He leaded the public documents in readiness to be cast
+overboard, and--a touching trait of these moments--gave a hurried
+perusal to his wife's letters, and tore them to pieces lest they
+should be read by the enemy.
+
+The awful silence is suddenly broken by a bugle sounded on board the
+Detroit, and the cheers of the British seamen. A shot from that vessel
+fell short of its mark. The Lawrence bears on to meet the fire,
+accompanied by the other vessels of the command in appointed order,
+each destined for its appropriate antagonist. At noon the British fire
+from the superior long guns, was telling fearfully on the American
+force, when Perry made all sail for close quarters, bringing the
+Lawrence within reach of the Detroit. He maintained a steady,
+well-directed fire from his carronades, assisted by the Scorpion and
+Ariel. The destruction on the deck of the Lawrence was fearful. Out of
+100 well men, says Mackenzie, who had gone into action, 22 were killed
+and 61 wounded. We shall not insult the humanity of the reader by the
+details of this fearful carnage. It has probably never been exceeded
+in the terrors of the "dying deck," in naval warfare.
+
+In the midst of this storm of conflict, Perry, finding his ship
+getting disabled, and seeing the Niagara uninjured at a safe distance,
+resolved to change his flag to that vessel. He had half a mile to
+traverse, exposed to the fire of the enemy, in an open boat. Nothing
+deterred, with the exclamation, "If a victory is to be gained I'll
+gain it," he made the passage, part of the time standing as a target
+for the hostile guns. Fifteen minutes were passed exposed to this
+plunging fire, which splintered the oars and covered the boat with
+spray. The Lawrence, stripped of her officers and men, was compelled
+to surrender.
+
+Perry instantly bore up to the Detroit, the guns of which were plied
+resolutely, when she became entangled with her consort, the Queen
+Charlotte, and the Niagara poured a deadly fire into both vessels.
+This cannonade decided the battle in seven minutes, when the enemy
+surrendered. The American loss in this engagement was 27 killed and 96
+wounded; that of the British 41 killed and 94 wounded. Gallant actions
+were performed and noble men fell on both sides. It was every way a
+splendid victor, placing the genius of Perry and his magnanimous,
+spirited conduct throughout, in the highest rank of naval exertion.
+
+The memorable letters, brief, at once eloquent and modest, which he
+wrote that afternoon announcing his victory, are too characteristic to
+be omitted in any personal account of the man. Addressing General
+Harrison, he writes: "Dear General--We have met the enemy and they
+are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop. Yours,
+with very great respect and esteem. O. H. Perry." The other was to the
+Secretary of the Navy: "Sir, it has pleased the Almighty to give to
+the arms of the United States a signal victory over their enemies on
+this lake. The British squadron, consisting of two ships, two brigs,
+one schooner, and one sloop, have this moment surrendered to the force
+under my command, after a sharp conflict. I have the honor to be, sir,
+very respectfully, your obedient servant. O. H. Perry." In consonance
+with this simple eloquence, the mark of a master-mind, was his
+chivalrous care of his wounded and conduct toward his prisoners.
+
+The victory having been gained, and the lake thus cleared of the foe,
+Perry was enabled to act in concert with General Harrison in driving
+the British from Michigan, and when his fleet was of no avail to
+follow them in their rapid flight, he joined that officer's land
+expedition, and was present, acting as his aid, at the battle of the
+Thames. "The appearance of the brave commodore," writes Harrison in
+his official report, "cheered and animated every heart." Perry also
+gained the gratitude of the Moravians, in whose district the contest
+took place, by his care in relieving the inevitable evils of war. He
+met everywhere on his homeward route with complimentary toasts and
+resolutions, gathering volume as he reached his native State, where he
+was received at Newport with military and civic honors. The city of
+New York paid him a grateful attention in a request communicated by De
+Witt Clinton, then mayor, to sit for his portrait for the civic
+gallery. The portrait was painted by Jarvis, representing him in the
+act of boarding the Niagara, and is preserved in the City Hall. He was
+created an honorary member of the Cincinnati; Congress voted him a
+medal and money; he was dined and feasted, and "blazed the comet of
+the season."
+
+Perry's next service was in August, 1814, in command of the Java, 44,
+a frigate recently built at Baltimore. He was, however, not able to
+get to sea, in consequence of the blockade by the enemy. On the
+conclusion of peace he sailed in this vessel to join Commodore Shaw's
+squadron in the Mediterranean. In 1819 he sailed as commodore in
+command of the John Adams, for the West Indies, bound for the State of
+Venezuela, to carry on an armed negotiation for the protection of
+American commerce from aggressions in that quarter. Arriving at the
+mouth of the Orinoco, he shifted his flag to the Nonsuch, and ascended
+the river to the capital, Angostura, where he remained twenty days
+transacting his business, in the height of the yellow-fever season.
+His vessel had hardly left the river, on her way to Trinidad, when he
+was attacked. For nearly a week he suffered the progress of the
+terrible disease on board the small schooner, under a tropical sun,
+when he reached the station whither he had sent his flag-ship, the
+Adams. But he reached port only to die at sea, within a mile of the
+anchorage, on August 23, 1819, when he had just completed his
+thirty-fourth year. Such and so early was the fate of the gallant
+Perry. His remains were interred from the John Adams at Port Spain,
+with every attention by the English governor. Subsequently they were
+brought home in a national vessel by order of Congress, and
+reinterred at the public expense in the cemetery at Newport. The
+country also provided for the support of his family. If ever America
+produced a man whom the nation delighted to honor it was Perry.
+
+
+
+
+SAM HOUSTON[7]
+
+By AMELIA E. BARR
+
+(1793-1863)
+
+         [Footnote 7: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Sam Houston. [TN]]
+
+
+The builders of the American Commonwealth were all great and
+individual men, but the most grandly picturesque, the most heroic,
+figure among them, is that of General Sam Houston. Neither modern
+history, nor the scrolls of ancient Greece or Rome, can furnish a tale
+of glory more thrilling and stirring than the epic Sam Houston wrote
+with sword and pen, as a Conqueror of Tyranny and a Liberator of Men.
+
+His life is a romance, and even his antecedents have the grandeur and
+glamour of military glory, for his ancestors, as "Sons of Old Gaul,"
+had drawn their long swords in every battle for Scottish liberty, and
+his own father died while on military duty in the Alleghanies. He had
+also a mother worthy of the son she bore; a grand, brave woman, who
+put the musket into his boyish hands with the words, "My doors are
+ever open to the brave, Sam, but are eternally closed to cowards."
+
+This was in the year 1813, when there was promise of a war with
+England, and Sam was not then twenty years old--a tall, slender,
+wonderfully handsome youth, with the air and manner of a prince. But
+nothing of this bearing was due to schools or schoolmasters, he was
+not of any man's moulding, although he had been educated for his
+future in a noble manner. For to escape the drudgery of measuring tape
+and molasses, he fled to the Indians when but a lad, and was adopted
+by their chief, and with the young braves he learned to run and leap,
+and hunt and ride, and find his way through pathless woods with all
+their skill. This was his practical education; he had only one book
+for mental enlargement, but this was Pope's translation of "The
+Iliad." He read and re-read this volume till he could recite it from
+beginning to end; till the words were living, and the spectral heroes
+were his friends and companions. So that when he joined General
+Jackson's battalion, he had the heart of a Greek demi-god and the
+physical skill and prowess of a Cherokee Indian chief.
+
+He made a glorious record in this war, and, being severely wounded,
+both by arrows and gunshot, he returned to his home to be nursed by
+his mother. When he was able to rise again peace was assured and he
+resolved to become a lawyer. He was told that eighteen months' hard
+study would be necessary, but in six months he passed a searching
+examination, and was admitted to the bar of Tennessee with _eclat_.
+Then honor after honor came as naturally to him as a tree bears fruit
+or flower--first Adjutant-General of the State with the rank of
+Colonel; then District Attorney--Major-General--Member of
+Congress--Governor of the State of Tennessee. All these places and
+honors were awarded him by large majorities during a period of nine
+years. Indeed, between A.D. 1818 and 1827, the records of Tennessee
+read like some political romance, of which the handsome and beloved
+Sam Houston was the hero.
+
+This was his second school. He was learning during these years those
+great principles of government which enabled him afterward to
+legislate so wisely for the land he conquered. And as soon as he was
+ready for his destiny, an event happened which drove him back again to
+the wilderness. Concerning this event no human being has the right to
+speak authoritatively; it was an affair strictly between himself and
+his bride of hardly three months. But whatever occurred, shattered his
+life to pieces. He separated from his wife, resigned his office as
+governor, and in the presence of a vast and sorrowing multitude, bid
+adieu to all his friends and honors, and set his face resolutely to
+his Indian father, who was then king of the Cherokees in Arkansas.
+
+He began, in fact, his journey to Texas, the theatre of the great work
+for which his previous life had been a preparation. The thought of
+Texas was not a new one to him. No man had watched the hitherto futile
+efforts of that glorious land for freedom with greater interest; and
+there is little doubt that Andrew Jackson was a sharer in all
+Houston's Texan enthusiasms, and that he also quietly encouraged and
+aided the efforts for its Americanization. Indeed, at that day Texas
+was a name full of romance and mystery. Throughout the South and West,
+up the great highway of the Mississippi, on the busy streets of New
+York, and among the silent hills of New England, men spoke of the
+charmed city of San Antonio as Europeans in the eighteenth century
+spoke of Delhi and Agra and the Great Mogul. French traders went there
+with fancy goods from New Orleans, and Spanish Dons from the wealthy
+cities of Central Mexico came there to buy. From the villages of
+Connecticut, from the woods of Tennessee, and the lagoons of the
+Mississippi, adventurous Americans entered the Spanish-Texan Territory
+at Nacogdoches, going through the land buying horses, and lending
+their stout hearts and ready rifles to every effort for freedom which
+the Texans made. For though the Americans were few in number and much
+scattered, they were like the salt in a pottage, and men caught fire
+and the idea of "freedom" from them.
+
+Texas was at this time a territory of the Empire of Mexico, and Mexico
+was making constant, though as yet ineffectual, efforts to become
+independent. Twenty years before Houston entered Texas, a number of
+Americans joined the priest Hidalgo in his struggle to make Mexico
+free. They were all shot, but this did not hinder Magee and Bernardo,
+with 1,200 Americans, raising the standard of liberty two years later.
+This party took San Antonio, and the fame of their deeds brought young
+Americans by hundreds to their aid; though they received no money, the
+love of freedom and the love of adventure being their motive and their
+reward.
+
+But these brave paladins were soon followed by men who bought land and
+made homes, and in 1821 Austin, with the sanction of the Spanish
+Viceroy, introduced three hundred families, who received every
+reasonable guarantee from the Spanish Government. They were scarcely
+settled ere there was another Mexican revolt against Spain. This time
+the Mexicans under Santa Anna achieved the independence of their
+country, and a Mexican Republic was formed, with a constitution so
+liberal that it was gladly accepted by the American colonists. But its
+promises were fallacious. For ten years Santa Anna was engaged in
+fighting for his own supremacy, and when he had subdued all opposition
+he had forgotten the traditions of freedom for which he first drew his
+sword, and assumed the authority of a dictator.
+
+In the meantime the American element had been steadily increasing, and
+Santa Anna was, not unnaturally, afraid of its growing strength and
+influence. In order to weaken it, he substituted for the constitution
+under whose guarantee they had settled, military and priestly laws of
+the most oppressive kind; and the complaints and reprisals at length
+reached such a pitch, that all Americans were ordered to deliver up
+their arms to the Mexican authorities. It was simply an order to
+disarm them in the midst of their enemies. Now the rifle is to the
+frontier American a third limb, and in Texas it was also necessary for
+the supply of food for the family, and vital for their protection from
+the Indians. The answer to this demand was a notice to Santa Anna
+posted on the very walls of the Alamo Fortress:
+
+"_If you want our arms--take them! Ten thousand Americans._" This was
+a virtual declaration of war, but the American Texans were by no means
+unprepared for the idea, nor yet for its translation into practice.
+
+Austin--who had been sent with a remonstrance to Santa Anna--was in
+the dungeons of the Inquisition in Mexico; but Houston, Lamar,
+Burleson, Burnet, Bowie, Crockett, Sherman, and many another name able
+to fire an army, were on the ground. Besides which, the sympathy of
+the whole land was with the little band of heroes. For the idea of
+Texas had been carried in the American heart for two generations. As
+far back as 1819, President Adams had wanted Texas, and Henry Clay
+would have voted three millions for it. Van Buren told Poinsett to
+offer five millions. Jackson added an additional half-million for the
+Rio Grande territory; but Jackson had more faith in Houston and the
+American settlers in Texas than in money. His brave old heart was on
+fire for the wrongs and cruelties inflicted by Santa Anna on his
+countrymen; and he was inclined to make Mexico give Texas as an
+atonement for the insults offered them. There is little doubt that the
+defiance posted on the walls of the Alamo thrilled him with a similar
+defiance, and that he instinctively put his hand on the spot where he
+had been used to wear his sword.
+
+The first step of the American-Texans was to set a civil government in
+motion. Declarations and manifestoes had to be made, and loans raised
+in order to maintain an army in the field. There were many fine
+fighters, but Houston was the only statesman; and to him the arduous
+duty naturally fell. In the meantime Lamar and Burleson with 200
+picked men attacked the Alamo Fortress. It was defended by General Cos
+with 1,000 men and forty-eight cannon; but on the afternoon of the
+third day's fighting surrendered to the Americans. This was but the
+first act in the drama, for as soon as the news reached Mexico, Santa
+Anna with a large "army of subjugation" was on the road to Texas.
+
+The Alamo was taken by the Americans during the first day of December,
+1835; on March 2, 1836, Texas was declared by the Convention assembled
+at the settlement of Washington, to be an independent republic, and 55
+out of 56 votes elected Houston commander in chief. Houston
+immediately set out for the Alamo, but when he reached Gonzales he
+heard that every man in it had died fighting, and that Santa Anna had
+made a huge hecatomb of their bodies and burned them to ashes. Houston
+immediately sent an express to Fannin, who was defending Goliad, to
+blow up the fortress of Goliad, and unite with him on the Guadalupe.
+Fannin did not obey orders. He wrote to Houston that "he had named the
+place _Fort Defiance_, and was resolved to defend it." This decision
+distressed Houston, for Fannin's men were of the finest
+material--young men from Georgia and Alabama, fired with the idea of
+freedom and the spread of Americanism, or perhaps with the fanaticism
+of religious liberty of conscience. After reading Fannin's letter,
+Houston turned to Major Hockley, and said, as he pointed to the little
+band of men around him, "Those men are the last hope of Texas; with
+them we must achieve our independence, or perish in the attempt."
+
+He immediately sent wagons into all the surrounding country to gather
+the women and the children, for he anticipated the atrocities which
+would mark every mile of Santa Anna's progress through the country;
+and he was determined that these helpless non-combatants should be
+placed in comparative safety in the eastern settlements. Then
+commenced one of the grandest and most pathetic "retreats" history has
+any record of. Encumbered by hundreds of women and children in every
+condition of helplessness, the bravery, tenderness, and patience of
+these American soldiers is as much beyond credence as it is beyond
+praise. The whole weeping, weary company were to guard, and to forage
+for; yet the men were never too weary to help mothers still more
+exhausted, or to carry some child whose swollen feet could no longer
+bear its weight. On this terrible march many children were lost, many
+died, and many were born; and the whole company suffered from
+deprivations of every kind.
+
+On March 23d Houston wrote to General Rusk, "Before my God, I have
+found the darkest hours of my life! For forty-eight hours I have
+neither eaten nor slept!" And just at this time came the news that
+Fannin with 500 men had been massacred, after fighting until their
+ammunition gave out, and surrendering as prisoners of war under
+favorable terms of capitulation. This news was answered by a
+passionate demand for vengeance, and Houston, gathering his men around
+him, spoke words which inspired them with an unconquerable courage.
+His large, bright face, serious but hopeful, seemed to sun the camp,
+and his voice, loud as a trumpet with a silver tone, set every heart
+to its loftiest key.
+
+"They live too long," he cried, "who outlive freedom, and I promise
+you a full cup of vengeance!" But in words not to be gainsayed, he
+told them they _must_ put their women and children in safety first of
+all. Then he explained the advantages they were gaining by every mile
+they made the enemy follow them--how the low Brazos land, the
+unfordable streams, the morasses, and the pathless woods were
+weakening, separating, and confusing the three great bodies of
+Mexicans behind. He declared the freedom of Texas to be sure and
+certain, and bid them prepare to achieve it.
+
+When they arrived at Harrisburgh they found Santa Anna had burned the
+place. It was evident then, that the day and the hour was at hand.
+Houston transported the two hundred families he had in charge across
+the Buffalo Bayou, which was twenty feet deep, and the very home of
+alligators. He then destroyed the only bridge across the dangerous
+stream, and wrote the following letter, now in the archives of the
+Texas Republic:
+
+"This morning we are in preparation to meet Santa Anna. We will only
+be about seven hundred to march, besides the camp guard. But we go to
+conquest. The troops are in fine spirits, and now is the time for
+action. I leave the results in the hands of an all-wise God, and I
+rely confidently in His Providence.
+
+                                   "SAM HOUSTON."
+
+Both armies were on the field of San Jacinto, and Santa Anna had with
+him nearly two thousand men, against the 700 with General Houston.
+Houston advanced to the attack at three o'clock in the afternoon, with
+the war cry of "_Remember the Alamo!_" It was taken up by 700 men with
+such a shout of vengeance as mortal ears never heard before. With it
+on their lips they advanced close to the Mexican lines, while a storm
+of bullets went over their heads. Houston and his horse were both
+wounded, but both being of the finest metal, they pressed on
+regardless of wounds. The Americans did not answer the volley until
+they could pour their lead into the bosoms of their foes. They never
+thought of reloading, but clubbing their rifles until they broke, they
+then flung them away, and fired their pistols into the very eyes of
+the Mexicans. When nothing else remained, they drew their bowie knives
+and cut their way through the walls of living flesh.
+
+Nothing comparable to that charge for freedom was ever made. Men said
+afterward that the unseen battalions--the mighty dead as well as the
+mighty living--won the battle. "Poor Fannin!" exclaimed General
+Sherman, "he has been blamed for disobeying orders; but I think he
+obeyed orders to-day!" Men fought like spirits, impetuous, invincible,
+as if they had cast off flesh and blood. The battle began at three
+o'clock in the afternoon of April 21, 1836, and after the Americans
+reached the Mexican line, it lasted _just eighteen minutes_. At four
+o'clock the whole Mexican army was flying, and the pursuit and
+slaughter continued until dark. It was a military miracle, for the
+American loss was only eight killed and seventeen wounded. Of the
+Mexicans, 630 were left dead on the field; multitudes perished in the
+bayou and morass; and there were nearly eight hundred prisoners. Only
+seven men are known to have escaped either death or capture. Santa
+Anna was found hiding in coarse clothing, and Houston had the greatest
+difficulty to save his life. For Houston knew that the lives of all
+the Americans in Mexico were in danger, besides which, he was needed
+to secure the peace and independence of Texas. It required Houston's
+influence, however, to convince men whose fathers and brothers and
+sons had been brutally massacred at Goliad and the Alamo, that their
+private vengeance must give way to the public good.
+
+Just about the time that the battle of San Jacinto was fought,
+President Jackson was one day found by Mr. Buchanan studying earnestly
+the map of Texas. He was tracing Houston's plan of retreat--of which
+he had doubtless received information--and putting his finger upon San
+Jacinto he said, "Here is the place! If Sam Houston is worth one
+bawbee, he will make a stand here, and give them a fight!" A few days
+after this declaration, news was received in Washington that the fight
+had been given and won on that very spot.
+
+The annexation of Texas was now publicly, as it had long been
+privately, the hope and goal of the Government; and for this end
+Jackson, says Mr. Parton, "displayed an energy and pugnacity seldom
+exhibited before or since, by a politician in his seventy-seventh
+year." But "failure" was a word not in Jackson's vocabulary; he
+annexed Texas, and dying as the measure was accomplished, talked only
+in his last moments of Texas and Houston.
+
+Houston was elected President of the new Republic by acclamation, and
+he served the State two terms in this capacity. Both were marked by
+the finest statesmanship; and during them the Texans suffered little
+from the ferocious Apache, Comanche, and other Indian tribes. For
+Houston fearlessly slept in their camps, and treated them as brethren;
+and his Indian "Talks" have an Ossianic poetry about them. Thus he
+writes to the Indian Chief Linney: "The red brothers know that my
+words to them have never been forgotten by me. They have never been
+swallowed up in darkness, nor has the light of the sun consumed them.
+Truth cannot perish, but the words of a liar are as nothing. Talk to
+all the red men, and tell them to make peace. War cannot make them
+happy. It has lasted too long. Let it now be ended and cease forever,"
+etc., etc.
+
+After the annexation of Texas, Houston represented the State for three
+terms in the United States Senate; but in 1859 he failed of
+re-election, because he refused to go with the South on the fatal
+subject of Secession. Yet so great was the confidence of the people in
+his honor and ability, that they elected him Governor of Texas in the
+same year; and he entered on the office in December, 1859. The
+election of Mr. Lincoln in 1860 precipitated events; and though
+Houston used all his mighty personal influence, and all his charmful,
+potent eloquence to keep Texas in _the Union_, he failed, and was
+deposed from the Governorship on his refusal to sign the Ordinance of
+Secession.
+
+Then he calmly withdrew from the scene, and there are many living who
+remember his pathetic parting words. "I have seen," he said, "the
+statesmen and patriots of my youth gathered to their fathers, and the
+government which they had reared rent in twain, and none like them are
+now left to reunite it again. I stand almost the last of a race who
+learned from them the lessons of human freedom!"
+
+These events inflicted a mortal wound upon his great spirit, and when
+he heard the roar of the cannon announcing the secession of Texas, he
+turned to his wife and said, "My heart is broken!" The words were only
+too true; for two years he lingered a sad and solemn old man, mourning
+for the woes of his country and for the defection of his eldest son
+Sam, who had joined the Confederates, and been taken prisoner by the
+Northern army. He was also suffering from the wounds received both in
+the war of 1812 and also at San Jacinto; and it was evident that he
+had come to the close of life. He himself looked forward to the event
+without fear, and with a wise and well-grounded hope.
+
+On March 2, 1863, Houston was seventy, and in response to an ovation
+in his own city of Houston, he made a short, broken little speech. It
+was his last public effort, and from it he went back home to
+Huntsville, to die. His last days were spent in incessant and
+heart-broken prayers for his country and for his family; and on July
+26, 1863, three weeks after the fall of Vicksburg, he breathed his
+last to the words "_Texas! Texas!_"
+
+So honestly and unselfishly had this great man lived that he died in
+poverty, needing many comforts; this hero, who by his valor and
+statesmanship had increased the territory of the United States by more
+than _eight hundred thousand square miles_, or about the equivalent of
+_the thirteen original States_! But the splendor of his name is not to
+be touched by such an accident as poverty; to the people of Texas,
+Houston will ever be a beloved memory; and on the Roll of Fame he
+shines forth, the noblest, the most princely, the most picturesque and
+chivalrous character in American history.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+WINFIELD SCOTT[8]
+
+By HON. THEODORE ROOSEVELT
+
+(1786-1866)
+
+         [Footnote 8: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Winfield Scott. [TN]]
+
+
+Winfield Scott was born at Petersburg, Virginia, on June 13, 1786. His
+father was a gallant Revolutionary soldier, his mother one of the
+well-known Virginia family of Masons. He attended the schools in his
+neighborhood, and graduated at the then famous college of William and
+Mary; and upon graduation began his career as a lawyer. All his tastes
+were military, however, and in 1807 he joined a volunteer organization
+to watch the coasts, which were menaced by the British frigates; there
+being then great excitement over the Leopard and Chesapeake affair.
+When this flurry subsided he went down to practice in South Carolina.
+Soon after his arrival there was another alarm of war, and back went
+Scott post-haste for Washington, again abandoning his law, with the
+hope of getting a commission in the army. Yet again, in 1808, the
+chances of war once more retiring to the background, he tried his
+fortune at the bar, this time in Virginia. Alarms of war were frequent
+during the next four years, however, and Scott rigidly confined his
+practice as a lawyer to the intervals when it was not deemed possible
+that there could be danger from abroad.
+
+In 1808 he was made a captain of light artillery, and was sent with
+his company to New Orleans. Scott was always frank in announcing his
+utter contempt for Jefferson's foreign policy as President, and his
+abhorrence of the men whom Jefferson got into the army at this period.
+West Point had only just started. Its few graduates did well in the
+war of 1812, but most of the other officers of the army were men
+appointed by political influence at the time, or else old officers who
+in their youth had had some experience in the Revolutionary War, but
+who were disabled by age, drunkenness, and long lack of acquaintance
+with military matters. Among the officers themselves there were savage
+factions, and Scott got into one or two scrapes in consequence of his
+advocacy of one of the parties. In May, 1812, the long-delayed
+hostilities were evidently close at hand, and Scott left New Orleans
+for Washington.
+
+In September, Scott, now made a lieutenant-colonel, reached Niagara,
+only to share in the humiliating though petty defeats with which the
+land war opened on our northern frontier. His first serious affair was
+at the abortive effort to storm the Heights of Queenstown. When Van
+Rensselaer, who had led the attack, was wounded so as to be unable to
+take further part, Scott himself assumed the command. At this time
+about a fourth of the American militia had crossed and were attacked
+by slightly superior numbers of British regulars and Indians. Their
+remaining companions, utterly undisciplined and with no leaders, were
+struck by panic cowardice and refused to cross to the assistance of
+their fellows. Scott behaved with distinguished personal bravery,
+rallying his raw troops and leading them in a charge with the bayonet,
+always a favorite weapon with him. Nevertheless his forces soon fell
+into disorder and were driven over the cliffs to the edge of the
+water, where, from lack of boats, most of the men were made prisoners,
+Scott among the number. Much difficulty was experienced by the British
+officers in preventing the Indians from massacring the prisoners.
+Scott was a man of gigantic proportions. This fact, and the reckless
+courage with which he had fought, had attracted the attention of the
+Indians. Some of them came into the room where he was confined and
+attempted to murder him, and only his great strength and quickness
+enabled him to beat them off until he was rescued by a British
+officer.
+
+Soon after his capture he was exchanged, and promoted to the rank of
+colonel. He joined the American armies as chief of staff to the
+major-general commanding, and being about the only man in the army who
+had any knowledge of tactical manuals and military treatises
+generally, he was kept busy from morning till night in organizing the
+staff service, drilling the officers, and the like. These duties,
+however, did not interfere with his leading and commanding his troops
+in battle. He led the advance guard in the successful assault on Fort
+George in May, 1813, took part in a number of skirmishes, and served
+with gallantry in Wilkinson's unsuccessful campaign.
+
+Early in the spring of 1814 a camp of instruction for officers and men
+was formed, with Scott in command, near Buffalo. Up to this time the
+imbecility of the administration (and of the people whom the
+administration represented) in not preparing for the war, had been
+well matched by the supineness with which they carried it on. During
+the eighteen months that had elapsed since the beginning of the
+contest, only the navy, built by the Federalists when in power fifteen
+years before, had saved the country from complete disgrace, the armies
+generally being utterly inadequate in number, and moreover models of
+all that troops ought not to be. Even in 1814 this remained true of
+the forces intrusted with the defence of the Capital itself; but on
+the northern frontier Scott, and his immediate superior, Brown, by
+laborious work succeeded in turning the inefficient mob of the first
+two campaigns into as admirable a weapon of offence and defence as
+ever was handled by a general officer.
+
+In July the little army of skeleton regiments, thus carefully drilled,
+was ready for the invasion of Canada. On July 5th the fight at
+Chippewa took place. The battle was practically between Scott's wing
+of Brown's army and Riall's British troops, the numbers being almost
+exactly equal. There was very little manoeuvring. After a tolerably
+heavy artillery fire and some skirmishing between the light troops and
+Indians on each side, in the woods, the British regulars and Scott's
+American regulars advanced against each other in line across the
+plain, occasionally halting to fire. It was noticed that the fire of
+the Americans was the more deadly; their line was thinner and more
+extended than that of the British. When within sixty or seventy paces
+of one another the two sides charged; there was a clash of bayonets;
+then the thinner American line, outflanking the more solid British
+column, closed in at the extremities, and the British broke and fled
+immediately.
+
+This was not only a needed victory for the Americans, but it was the
+first occasion for a generation that British regulars had been faced
+in the open, on equal terms, with the bayonet and defeated. At this
+very time the British had just brought to a close the terrible war
+with the French in the Peninsula. Their troops had been pitted
+successfully against the best marshals and the best troops of what was
+undoubtedly the foremost military power of Continental Europe; and now
+the American regulars, trained by Scott and under his leadership,
+performed a feat which no French general and no French troops had ever
+been able to place to the credit of their nation.
+
+Three weeks later the British and American forces again came together
+at the bloody battle of Lundy's Lane. The most desperate fighting on
+this occasion took place during the night, the Americans and British
+charging in turn with the bayonet, and the artillery of both sides
+being captured and recaptured again and again. The Americans were
+somewhat inferior in numbers to the British, and the slaughter was
+very great, considering the number of men engaged, amounting to nearly
+a third of the total of both forces. In the end the fight ceased from
+exhaustion, the armies drawing off from one another and leaving the
+field of battle untenanted; but the result was virtually a victory for
+the British, for the next day they advanced, and the Americans retired
+to Fort Erie. Scott, who had exposed himself with the reckless
+personal courage he always showed when under fire, was dismounted and
+badly injured by the rebound of a cannon ball in the early part of the
+battle, and about midnight, just before the close of the actual
+fighting, received a musket ball in the body which disabled him.
+
+Scott did not recover from his wound in time to take part in the
+remaining scenes of the war. After its close he went abroad, visiting
+London and Paris, and being very well received, returning in 1816, and
+again taking up his duties in the army. He indulged himself in the
+luxury of a sharp quarrel with Andrew Jackson, a luxury which any man
+could easily obtain by the way, but which was too much for any man not
+possessing Scott's abundant capacity to take care of himself in any
+conflict. He interested himself greatly in improving the tactics of
+the army, and went out to take command in the Black Hawk war, where he
+had no opportunity to distinguish himself. At the time of the
+nullification outbreak in South Carolina he was appointed to see to
+the interests of the United States in Charleston, where he acquitted
+himself with equal tact and resolution. He commanded in the Seminole
+war, but again had no opportunity to distinguish himself; and in the
+winter of 1837-38 was stationed on the northern frontier, where he
+succeeded in preventing invasions of Canada by American sympathizers
+with the then existing Canadian rebellion. Soon after this he
+superintended the removal of the Cherokees from Georgia, doing
+everything in his power for the Indians, who, in defiance of the
+pledged faith of the United States, were being driven out of that
+State.
+
+For the next few years Scott was comparatively inactive. He had a
+great taste for politics, and could not forbear meddling with them,
+although he was at the time general-in-chief of the army. He was a
+very sincere Union man, and was an outspoken Whig, though with a
+strong latent leaning to the Know-nothing party; for he distrusted
+both foreigners and Catholics. He would not own slaves, and
+disbelieved in slavery, but he also utterly disapproved of the actions
+of the political abolitionists of the day. He was not only a very
+ambitious but a very vain man, and at times his desire for civic
+honors led him to try for success on fields where he did not show to
+such advantage as on the field of battle.
+
+When the Mexican war broke out, the President, Polk, whom Scott
+detested, was reluctant to see Scott given a chance to make a record,
+in view of his being a pronounced Whig, and of the probability that a
+successful general, if nominated on the Whig ticket, would sweep the
+country. However, toward the end of 1846, it became impossible longer
+to pass by Scott's demands for active service, and, moreover, the
+administration felt the less reluctance inasmuch as Taylor, another
+Whig, had achieved much credit by his victories along the Rio Grande.
+Accordingly Scott was despatched with a fine army to attack Mexico
+from the seaboard of the Gulf and to penetrate to the capital of the
+country.
+
+Early in March of 1847 he landed near the city of Vera Cruz, with
+12,000 men. Trenches were opened, a bombardment begun, and the castle
+of San Juan de Ulloa surrendered on the 27th, 5,000 prisoners and four
+hundred pieces of artillery falling to the victors. Scott lost in all
+but sixty-four men killed and wounded. As soon after this victory as
+he could gather horses and mules the army started for the interior,
+and on April 18th encountered the Mexican army, about the same in
+numbers as Scott's, under Santa Anna, strongly posted at Cerro Gordo.
+Scott made his plans with great skill, and the battle is remarkable
+because of the closeness with which the methods and results of the
+actual attacks followed the outline which Scott gave of what he wished
+accomplished, in his general orders of the day previous. The Americans
+attacked with resolution. In places the Mexicans defended themselves
+well, but in other places, where their troops were raw, they gave way
+very quickly, and, as a result, the whole force was speedily routed
+and driven in headlong flight, with great loss of artillery and
+prisoners. Scott pushed closely after them, but almost immediately was
+halted by the necessity of discharging four thousand volunteers whose
+terms of service had expired. After waiting in vain for
+reinforcements, the Americans again marched forward, and halted some
+time at Puebla, where the long-looked-for additional troops finally
+arrived in August.
+
+The army had suffered a good deal from sickness, and Scott was anxious
+to bring it into contact with the enemy as soon as possible.
+Accordingly he pushed straight for Mexico. The Mexican armies,
+numerically about equal in strength to his own, occupied very strong
+positions, from which they were driven only by desperate fighting at
+Contreras, San Antonio, and Buena Vista, the Americans losing 1,000
+men killed and wounded, but capturing 3,000 of their adversaries and
+thirty-seven pieces of artillery. An armistice followed, but the
+negotiations came to nothing, and in September hostilities were
+resumed. The strong outworks of Molino Del Rey and Chapultepec were
+stormed with great loss to the Americans; for they were places of
+formidable strength, the Mexicans defended themselves well, and the
+assailants were few in numbers. The bravery of the victors, under
+these circumstances, showed that Scott had not forgotten the art which
+enabled him to turn the raw troops of 1812 into men who, alone among
+the troops of civilized nations, could meet the British infantry in
+the open on equal terms.
+
+The City of Mexico fell immediately after the storming of Chapultepec,
+and Scott marched in. There was no further fighting of consequence,
+although bands of guerillas and brigands of all kinds had to be
+dispersed. Scott treated them with proper severity. The campaign ended
+unhappily for Scott in one way, for he became embroiled with the
+administration and some of its partisans among the high officers of
+the army, the intrigues which caused this embroilment being instigated
+chiefly by Democratic jealousy of the Whig general. However, he was
+thanked by Congress.
+
+This was the end of Scott's active service. He again plunged into
+political life, and in 1852 ran for the presidency on the Whig ticket,
+but was hopelessly defeated. He continued general-in-chief of the army
+until 1861, when he retired from the command. He was too old to take
+the field and do his part toward the suppression of the rebellion, but
+he remained stanchly loyal to the flag upon which his victories had
+conferred such glory, and to which he himself had owed so much. Even
+when his State seceded it did not affect him or cause him to waver in
+his allegiance to the country for which he had so often drawn his
+sword. He died May 29, 1866.
+
+Scott had many little vanities, and peculiarities of temper and
+disposition, at which it is easy to laugh; but these are all of small
+moment in estimating the man's character and the worth of his
+services. He was a fearless, honest, loyal, and simple-hearted
+soldier, who served the nation with entire fidelity and devotion. He
+was very successful in battle, and, not only his crowning campaign
+against Mexico, but the way in which he trained and led his troops in
+the Canadian campaign against the British, show him to have possessed
+military abilities of a high order. His name will always stand well up
+on the list of American worthies.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT[9]
+
+By OLIVER OPTIC
+
+(1822-1885)
+
+         [Footnote 9: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Ulysses Grant. [TN]]
+
+
+Napoleon I. was a genius; General Grant was not. But the earnest,
+persistent, and determined efforts of men only moderately endowed by
+nature with intellectual gifts, sometimes surpass what is accomplished
+by the spasmodic flashes of those born to be conquerors. So far as the
+successful career of the most prominent hero of the War of the
+Rebellion may be used to "point a moral," it forcibly emphasizes the
+results of energy, perseverance, and a determination to succeed in
+spite of all obstacles. As a military strategist he was doubtless
+surpassed by others who were engaged in the gigantic struggle with
+him; but he accomplished, by adding to his soldierly abilities, his
+personal attributes, which seemed not to have been within the power of
+any other of the able commanders associated with him in the mighty
+conflict.
+
+It is not claimed that General Grant was born into the world with
+brilliant, or even superior, intellectual powers, and his greatness
+was in the combination of his individual qualities, and the fact that,
+like Wellington, he was "rich in saving common-sense." He was a
+soldier in the most comprehensive sense; and if he did not overtop his
+colleagues in a knowledge of the science of war, he was at least their
+equal. The career of its greatest hero illustrates the manner in which
+the loyal nation gave to posterity a victorious Union.
+
+Grant was born in humble circumstances at Point Pleasant, a village on
+the Ohio River, and there were no accidents of family to gild or cloud
+his coming into the world. He was descended from Puritan stock, and
+one of his ancestors, a captain in the Old French War, was killed in
+battle. The general's grandfather served through the Revolutionary
+War. His father was a tanner in Ohio, but his son was not inclined to
+follow that occupation, though he was willing to do so if his father
+insisted upon it until he was of age, but not a day longer. He stated
+his preferences in regard to his future employment, desiring to be a
+farmer, a trader on the river, or to obtain an education. The first
+was not practicable, and the second was not regarded as very
+reputable. His father wrote to the representative of his district in
+Congress, who obtained for the young man a nomination to the Military
+Academy at West Point.
+
+All the education the young candidate for military honors had was only
+such as he had obtained at the district school, and the examination
+for admission was considered a very trying ordeal, though it included
+only the branches taught in the common schools. He "brushed up" his
+studies, and as he was always cool and self-possessed, he did not fail
+from embarrassment, as many do on such occasions, but was passed and
+admitted. Of the class of eighty-seven only thirty-nine were
+graduated. In rank Grant was the twenty-first, indicating about the
+average ability.
+
+As a cadet he was popular with his comrades. He was honest, fair, and
+square, and was especially careful of the rights of others. The horse
+had been a favorite with him from his early childhood, and at the
+Academy he was distinguished as a bold and fearless rider. He was
+sober and rather dignified in his manner. The name given to him by his
+parents was "Hiram Ulysses;" but the Congressman had made a mistake in
+presenting the nomination, and at West Point he was known as "Ulysses
+Sidney." Failing to correct the error, he accepted the initial S., but
+made it stand for "Simpson," after his mother. The first name was
+suggested by an elderly female relative, who appears to have read the
+Odyssey, and appreciated its hero. The initials of his name as it
+finally stood had a national significance, which the newspapers were
+not tardy in using at the time of his first decided victory.
+
+He was graduated in 1843, and appointed brevet second lieutenant in
+the Fourth Regiment of Infantry. The engineers and the cavalry are
+considered more desirable arms of the service than the infantry, and
+the best scholars at the Military Academy are assigned to them.
+Grant's rank placed him in the latter. His regiment was sent to
+Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis. Frederick T. Dent, his classmate, was
+in the same command, and resided in the vicinity. He was invited to
+the house of the Dents, where he made the acquaintance of Miss Julia
+T. Dent, who became his wife five years later.
+
+In 1845, the events which led to the Mexican War assumed form, and
+Grant's regiment was ordered to Corpus Christi, where he was
+commissioned as a full second lieutenant. His post was situated at the
+mouth of the Rio Nueces, between which and the Rio Grande was a
+triangular section of territory claimed by both governments; and this
+was the nominal subject of dispute between the United States and
+Mexico. General Taylor, commanding about four thousand troops, was
+ordered to move his force to the Rio Grande, on which the Mexicans had
+concentrated an army. A body of United States dragoons, commanded by
+Captain Thornton, was surprised by an overwhelming force of the enemy,
+and all of them killed, wounded, or captured. This event fired the
+blood of the soldiers, as well as of the people of the country, and
+Taylor crossed the river with the main body of his little army.
+
+The Mexican generals declared that the advance of Taylor into the
+disputed territory was an act of war, and active hostilities had
+commenced. While the general was hastening to reinforce one of the
+forts attacked, he came upon the Mexicans drawn up in order of battle
+at Palo Alto. An action, mostly with artillery, followed, and the
+enemy were defeated and driven from the field. It was the first battle
+fought in thirty-one years with any foe other than Indians, by
+American soldiers. Grant was in that first conflict of half a century,
+as he was in the last ones.
+
+The Mexicans had fled from this first considerable battle of the war
+to Resaca de la Palma, where they had established themselves in a
+strong position. Taylor attacked them the next day, and though their
+force was triple that of their assailants, they were again defeated
+and routed. The Mexicans fought with dogged courage, however they may
+be judged from the events of the war. Three months later, General
+Taylor marched upon Monterey with an army reinforced to 6,000 men. It
+was strongly fortified, but the city was captured after a hard-fought
+battle.
+
+In the midst of the conflict in the town, while the Mexicans were
+disputing its possession from the windows of the strongly constructed
+houses, the ammunition of the brigade to which Grant was attached was
+exhausted, and it became necessary to send for a fresh supply. It was
+a service of extreme peril, and a volunteer was called for to perform
+it. Grant was a bold rider, and he promptly offered himself to execute
+the dangerous mission. Mounting a very spirited horse, he resorted to
+the Indian fashion of hanging at the side of his steed so that the
+body of the animal protected him against the shots from the windows,
+and he passed safely through the street. With a sufficient escort he
+succeeded in conveying a load of ammunition to the point where it was
+needed.
+
+Soon after the battle of Monterey, Grant's regiment was sent to Vera
+Cruz to reinforce the larger army that was to march under General
+Scott to the "Halls of the Montezumas." Lieutenant Grant, as a
+careful, substantial, and energetic officer, was selected for the
+important position of quartermaster of the Fourth Regiment. The army
+proceeded on its uninterrupted career of victory till the capital of
+Mexico was in its possession. The heights of Cerro Gordo were stormed
+and carried, and Grant, as usual, was in the thickest of the fight.
+
+The first considerable obstacle after the capture of Vera Cruz having
+been removed, the army proceeded on its march to the City of Mexico,
+occupying Jalapa and Castle Perote on the way; but at Puebla the
+forces were so reduced by sickness, death, and the expiration of
+enlistments as to compel a halt. For three months General Scott was
+compelled to wait for reinforcements; but when he could muster 11,000
+effective men, a very small number for the conquest of a country, he
+resumed his march, and in August arrived in the vicinity of the
+capital. Outside of the causeways leading to the city were the
+strongholds of Chapultepec and Cherubusco, and batteries mounting a
+hundred guns.
+
+Chapultepec was a fortification one hundred and fifty feet above the
+average level of the ground. A front of nine hundred feet bristled
+with cannon. Behind it was a mill called El Molino del Rey, fortified
+and garrisoned, which defended the approach to the castle. The capture
+of this work was assigned to General Worth, to whose command the
+Fourth Regiment belonged. The assault was a desperate one, for it was
+"the last ditch" of the Mexicans; but it was carried, though the
+assailing force lost one-fourth of its number in the assault. "Second
+Lieutenant Grant behaved with distinguished gallantry," is the
+official report of his conduct. Though custom and the precedents of
+the service permitted the quartermaster to remain at a safe distance
+from actual fighting in charge of the baggage trains, Grant never
+availed himself of this immunity from personal peril, but retained his
+place with the regiment.
+
+When the strong places which defended the city fell, Scott and his
+army marched into the capital. The Mexican forces fled, and the United
+States flag floated over the "Halls of the Montezumas." The country
+was conquered, and the war was ended. Grant had been engaged in all
+the battles near the Rio Grande, and in most of them from Vera Cruz to
+the City of Mexico, and he had won the brevet rank of captain for his
+gallantry.
+
+After the ratification of the treaty of peace, by which California was
+acquired, the army evacuated Mexico, and Captain Grant was sent to New
+York with his regiment. Its companies were separated and sent to
+various military stations. After serving at Detroit and Sackett's
+Harbor, the Fourth Infantry was sent to Oregon in 1851, the discovery
+of gold in California having attracted an immense immigration to the
+shores of the Pacific. The battalion of which Grant's company was a
+part was stationed at Fort Dallas, and had some experience in Indian
+warfare. In 1848 he had been married to Miss Dent; but in the wilds of
+Oregon he was separated from his family. There was nothing there to
+satisfy his reasonable ambition, no hope of rising in his profession,
+and he became discontented. In 1853 he was commissioned as a full
+captain; but this did not reconcile him to his situation, and he
+resigned his position in the army to enter upon an untried life as a
+civilian.
+
+Grant was now thirty-two years of age; he had a wife and two children,
+and it was necessary for him to provide for their support. His first
+choice of an occupation had been that of a farmer, and he went back to
+that in the present emergency. His wife owned a farm about nine miles
+from St. Louis, and Grant located himself there. He built a house upon
+it of hewn logs, working upon it with his own hands. He was not a
+"gentleman farmer" in any sense, for he drove one of his teams with
+wood to the city. He wore an old felt hat, a seedy blouse, and tucked
+his trousers' legs into the tops of his boots. His habits were very
+simple, and the lack of means compelled him to live on the most
+economical scale.
+
+The retired captain was not successful as a farmer; but he was known
+as an honest, upright man, faithful in all his obligations. In his
+need of a remunerative occupation he applied for the position of city
+engineer in St. Louis; but he failed to obtain it. As a real estate
+agent and as a collector he was equally unsuccessful, and his fortunes
+were at a very low ebb. He obtained a place in the custom-house, but
+at the end of two months the death of the collector compelled him to
+retire. But while fortune seemed to have completely deserted him,
+subjecting him to the fate of thousands of others in the struggle to
+live and care for his family, it was more propitious to his father,
+who was in comparatively easy circumstances, and had established
+himself in the leather business in Galena, Ill. It seemed to be
+incumbent upon him to do something for the relief of his oldest son,
+and in 1860 the ex-captain became a member of the firm of "Grant &
+Sons." This was the position in which the opening of the War of the
+Rebellion found him.
+
+For years the military spirit of the North had been repressed and
+discouraged. Sober and dignified people regarded the soldier as
+unnecessary, and military parades were looked upon as childish, and
+classed in the category with circus shows. But suddenly, when the
+cannon of the Rebellion began to resound in the South, the people were
+awakened from their dream of security, and the profession of arms,
+which had been disparaged and had almost fallen into disrepute, became
+in the highest degree honorable, for the safety of the nation depended
+upon it. Millions were ready to fight for the Union, but there were
+very few trained officers to organize and command those who were eager
+to uphold the flag and save the nation. Except here and there one who
+had served in the Mexican or Indian wars, there was not a soldier in
+the land who had any experience of actual warfare.
+
+To Galena came the intelligence that Fort Sumter had been bombarded,
+and with it the proclamation of President Lincoln calling for 75,000
+volunteers. Grant was profoundly moved by the situation of the
+country, and without seeking for or thinking of the honors and
+emoluments that might be reaped, he patriotically desired to serve his
+country in the present terrible emergency. The nation had educated him
+for military service, and though he had fought with honor through one
+war, he did not regard the debt as paid. He was a soldier, but he did
+not boast of what he had done, or even claim the rank in the gathering
+armies to which his experience entitled him.
+
+In less than a week he was drilling a company in Galena, whose members
+wished to make him their captain; but another citizen wanted the
+place, and he declined it. He consented to go to Springfield, the
+capital of the State, with the company. On the way he met the Hon.
+Elihu B. Washburn, and by him was presented to Governor Yates, who,
+however, did not appear to be greatly impressed, and did not take much
+notice of him. Then Grant wrote to the adjutant-general of the army at
+Washington, stating that he had been educated at West Point at the
+public expense, and considered it his duty to tender his services to
+the Government. He did not apply for the commission of a
+brigadier-general; but was willing to serve in any capacity where he
+might be needed.
+
+No response came to this modest offer, and Grant visited Cincinnati,
+where George B. McClellan, who had been appointed major-general of
+volunteers by the governor of Ohio, was organizing the forces. Both
+had served in Worth's brigade in Mexico; and Grant thought his former
+friend might tender him a position on his staff. Though he called upon
+him several times, he failed to find him, and returned to Springfield.
+While he was waiting at the capital, Governor Yates sent for him, and
+asked him if he knew how many men belonged in a company, how many
+companies in a regiment, and similar questions concerning details
+which were very perplexing to a civilian.
+
+Grant assured him that he was a graduate of West Point, had served
+eleven years in the regular army, and knew all about such matters.
+This reply helped the governor out of his embarrassment, and the
+soldier was invited to take a seat in the State House, and act as
+adjutant-general. One who knew Grant better than others suggested to
+the governor that he should appoint him to the command of a regiment.
+This advice was acted upon, and the patriotic seeker for military
+employment was appointed colonel of the Twenty-first Regiment of
+Illinois Infantry. Grant promptly accepted the commission, and
+hastened to Mattoon, where the regiment was encamped, and assumed the
+command.
+
+His command was a body of three months' troops, composed of excellent
+material, but in rather a demoralized condition when the colonel
+assumed command, for the men were American citizens, jealous of their
+rights as such, and military discipline was new and strange to them.
+Grant marched them to Caseyville, where he drilled them for four
+weeks, and transformed them from a mob of independent citizens into
+one of the best-disciplined bodies of troops in the country, which
+became noted for its orderly and excellent bearing. The change was
+effected so skilfully that no man believed he had sacrificed his
+citizenship. The strong will of the colonel, dignified by the genuine
+principle of patriotism, overcame the prevailing idea of equality, and
+his command was a unit. The men were proud of the leadership of a
+regular army officer, and admired him to such a degree that they
+re-enlisted for three years.
+
+While Colonel Grant was at Caseyville it was reported that Quincy, on
+the Mississippi, was menaced by rebel guerillas from Missouri, and he
+was ordered to the exposed point. In the absence of transportation he
+marched his regiment one hundred and twenty miles of the distance.
+From this point his command was sent into Missouri, where the
+discipline and the morals of the body were improved by quiet and
+judicious measures. Guarding railroads was the service in which the
+regiment was employed; and when serving with other commands Grant was
+the acting brigadier-general, though he was ranked by all the other
+colonels.
+
+In July of the opening year of the war Grant became a
+brigadier-general of volunteers. The appointment was obtained by Mr.
+Washburn, who had befriended him before. The Western Department was at
+this time under the command of General Fremont. Grant's district was a
+part of Missouri, with Western Kentucky and Tennessee, and he
+established his head-quarters at Cairo, a point of the utmost military
+importance as a depot of supplies and a gunboat rendezvous. Kentucky
+had proclaimed a suspicious neutrality, and near Cairo, on the other
+side of the river, were the three termini of a railroad from the
+South. A Confederate force seized two of them, and Grant hastened to
+secure Paducah, the third. The enemy hurriedly retired as he landed
+his force, and Grant issued a temperate and judicious proclamation,
+for he was on the soil of the enemy. He had acted without orders from
+his superior, and returning to Cairo after an absence of less than a
+day, he found Fremont's order, already executed, awaiting him. He also
+took possession of Smithland, at the mouth of the Cumberland River.
+
+With a force of 3,100 men General Grant made an incursion into
+Missouri to break up a rebel camp at Belmont, where he fought his
+first battle in the Rebellion. He had accomplished his purpose, when
+the enemy was reinforced from Columbus, on the other side of the
+river, and though he brought off his command in safety he narrowly
+escaped capture himself. Fremont was superseded by Halleck, and for
+the next two months Grant was employed in organizing and drilling
+troops. Columbus, with 140 cannon and full of men and material, closed
+the Mississippi. The Confederate line of defence against the invasion
+of the South extended from this point across the country, including
+Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, the
+latter mounting forty guns, with quarters for 20,000 soldiers.
+
+Grant was studying this line of defence, devising a plan to break
+through it. By order of General Halleck he had sent out a
+reconnoissance in force, under General Smith, who reported to him that
+the capture of Fort Henry was practicable. Grant forwarded this report
+to the commander of the department, and asked for permission to attack
+it. This was refused in sharp and curt terms. A written application,
+earnestly seconded by Commodore Foote, who had brought the gunboat
+service up to a state of efficiency in the West, secured the desired
+order. With 17,000 men, in connection with 7 gunboats under the
+command of the commodore, Grant started upon his mission the day after
+he received the order. Fort Henry was captured, though the army was
+not engaged. The main body of the Confederate force escaped to Fort
+Donelson.
+
+The capture of Fort Henry cheered the army and the people. Grant
+telegraphed the result of the attack to Halleck, and announced his
+intention to proceed against Fort Donelson. Leaving 2,500 men to
+garrison the fort, Grant marched with 15,000 from Fort Henry, while a
+considerable addition to his force came up the river. The
+fortification was invested, and after three days of persistent
+fighting in cold, snow, and hunger, the fort surrendered. The gunboats
+were severely handled by the water batteries of the enemy, and the
+commodore was badly wounded, so that most of the work fell upon the
+army.
+
+It was a brilliant victory, and the loyal nation resounded with the
+praises of Grant. This was the pointer to the fame he afterward
+achieved. His reply to the rebel general, "I propose to move
+immediately on your works," was repeated all over the country, and the
+initials of his name came to mean "Unconditional Surrender," the terms
+he had demanded of the commander of the fort.
+
+The strategetic line of the Confederates was broken, and new
+dispositions of their forces became necessary on account of this
+important victory; Columbus was abandoned, and its men and material
+sent to Island No. 10. The battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, as
+it is called in the South, followed under Grant's command. It was a
+bloody and hotly contested action, and not as decisive as that of
+Donelson. The ground was held, and the arrival of Buell with
+reinforcements caused the Confederates to retire. Sherman had a
+command in this battle under Grant, and the strong friendship between
+these two great commanders, which subsisted to the end, had its origin
+about this time.
+
+Not such were the relations between Halleck and Grant, for the latter
+was practically thrown into the shade by the former; but the hero of
+Fort Donelson continued to do his duty faithfully, making no issue
+with his superior. At this time he was in command of the Army of the
+Tennessee. While he remained in this position the Union army and navy
+had made decided progress in the West and the South; but no real
+advance was made in the direction of the rebel capital. Then McClellan
+was removed from his position of general-in-chief, and Halleck was
+appointed in his place. Grant seemed to be forgotten for the time, or
+his operations were overshadowed by those in the East. But he had
+driven the enemy out of West Tennessee, and was turning his attention
+toward Vicksburg.
+
+When he had sufficiently informed himself in regard to the situation,
+he proposed to the general-in-chief a movement upon Vicksburg, which
+was really the Gibraltar of the Mississippi, and he was invested with
+full powers to carry out his own plans. Constantly and earnestly
+supported by Sherman, he battered against this strong fortress for six
+months. Various expedients were resorted to for the reduction of the
+place, without success. With the written protest of four of his ablest
+generals in his pocket, Grant moved his army to a point four miles
+below Grand Gulf, fought several battles on his way, and came to the
+rear of Vicksburg. The Confederate engineers were doubtless as skilful
+as any in the world, and seemed to be justified in regarding the
+fortress, with its surrounding batteries, fortifications, swamps, and
+tangled jungles, as impregnable.
+
+Following up his regular siege operations, Grant exercised his
+indomitable will against those tremendous defences, and Vicksburg
+fell. The news of its surrender was spread all over the loyal nation
+with that of the great victory of Gettysburg. The Confederacy had been
+cut in two, and a decided turn in the struggle for the Union was
+clearly indicated. The name of the victorious general was again upon
+the lips of all the people. Grant himself seemed to be the only man
+who remained unmoved. President Lincoln sent him an autograph letter,
+acknowledging that Grant was right while he was wrong; and even
+Halleck was magnanimous enough to send him a very handsome letter of
+congratulation. The fortunate general had been made a major-general of
+volunteers after his victory at Donelson; and he was now promoted to
+the rank of major-general in the regular army.
+
+A new department had been created for Major-General Grant, covering
+nearly all the territory south of the Ohio. He was worn out and sick
+after the severe exertions of the summer; but when informed that
+Rosecrans was shut up and closely besieged by Bragg, in Chattanooga,
+he set out for this point with only his personal staff. On the way he
+used the telegraph and the mails, and suggested or ordered such steps
+as would relieve the place, for the Army of the Cumberland, shut off
+from supplies, was in desperate straits, sick and famished.
+Reinforcements were hurried, and the result of his preparations was
+the decided victory of the battle of Chattanooga and Missionary Ridge.
+In this battle General Sheridan came to his notice for the first time.
+
+General Grant was thanked, and presented with a gold medal by
+Congress. He had become the idol of the loyal nation; but he bore his
+honors very meekly. The grade of lieutenant-general was revived, and
+conferred upon him. All the armies of the United States were now under
+his command. He was called to Washington, and it is not possible even
+to mention the honors that were showered upon him. In due time he took
+his place at the head of the Army of the Potomac, and fought some of
+the most terrible battles of the war. Richmond was his first objective
+point, and failing in the direct approach to the capital of the
+Confederacy, he moved upon it from the south. It was a long struggle,
+but in the end Richmond fell.
+
+At Appomattox Court House Grant received the surrender of General Lee,
+granting the most magnanimous terms to the defeated army. The other
+armies of the Confederacy soon followed the example of the Army of
+Virginia, and the long and terrible conflict of over four years was
+ended in a victorious Union. As soon as the surrender was effected,
+General Grant, without any pomp or parade, proceeded to Washington,
+not even taking in Richmond on his way, and reported in person to
+President Lincoln. He advised the immediate reduction of the army,
+sustained at an enormous expense, and no longer needed.
+
+The war was ended! Perhaps no man ever stood higher in the estimation
+of his country than Grant, and it was inevitable that he should become
+a candidate for the Presidency. He had been a Democrat in politics
+before the war; but he was elected to the first office in the nation
+by the people, though the candidate of the Republican party. He was
+hardly as successful in this office as he had been in the field; but
+he carried with him the respect and admiration of the people to the
+day of his death. He was re-elected to the Presidency; and the
+objections of the people to a third term more than anything else,
+prevented his third nomination.
+
+After his return to private life he visited nearly every country in
+Europe, and was everywhere honored as no citizen of the Republic had
+ever been before. In the last years of his life he engaged in a
+financial and banking business, by which he lost all his property.
+About the same time an insidious disease was wearing away his life. He
+had been approached before to write a history of his military life, to
+which he would not listen. In his financial strait he accepted an
+offer, and wrote the work, in two octavo volumes, while suffering from
+the weakness and pain of his malady. He was doing it for his family,
+for his own days were numbered; and there is nothing on record more
+heroic than his struggle to finish this task.
+
+Four days after he had finished his literary labor of love, he died of
+the disease which had been the burden of his last days. He passed away
+at Mount McGregor, N. Y., July 23, 1885. The loyal people mourned him
+as the saviour of the nation from disruption, and even those who had
+been his enemies in war were his friends in death. The whole nation
+was present in spirit at his obsequies. His remains were interred at
+Riverside Park, New York, and only await the imposing monument which
+the metropolis of the nation he saved is to rear above his tomb.
+
+His character can never be as prominent as the victories he won for
+his imperilled country; but his honesty, his unsullied honor, and his
+self-abnegation entitle him to another crown of glory.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN[10]
+
+By ELBRIDGE S. BROOKS
+
+(1820-1891)
+
+         [Footnote 10: A Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: William Sherman. [TN]]
+
+
+Achievement wins applause. And when the steps toward achievement are
+tinged with mystery, romance, or daring, the applause is irresistible
+and continuous. So it has come to pass that by the side of Xenophon's
+masterly "retreat of the Ten Thousand," of Cortes's burning his ships
+at Vera Cruz, and of Marlborough's bold march through the heart of
+Germany to the victory at Blenheim, stands Sherman's March to the Sea
+and his "Christmas Gift" of captured Savannah. And yet this brilliant
+leader of men had never seen a hostile shot fired until he was
+forty-one, and his first battle was the defeat at Bull Run.
+
+The March to the Sea, upon which Sherman's fame as a soldier so
+largely rests, was by no means the greatest or most significant of his
+many achievements. His record as a soldier is filled with examples of
+his courage, his shrewdness, and his tenacity, while his mingling of
+gentle ways and grim determination, of restlessness and calm, of
+forethought, fearlessness, and frankness, make him at once a unique
+and central figure in the decade of war and reconstruction that forms
+so important a chapter in the story of the United States of America.
+
+William Tecumseh Sherman was born on February 8, 1820, in the town of
+Lancaster, the county-seat of that fair and fertile section known as
+Fairfield County, in the southern part of the State of Ohio--the busy
+commonwealth that furnished 300,000 men to the armies of the Union,
+and gave to the Civil War its three greatest generals; for Grant and
+Sherman were Ohio born, and Sheridan's boyhood was spent in the same
+State.
+
+But Sherman's ancestors were of stout Puritan stock, dating back
+almost to the days of the Mayflower. His first American "forebear" was
+a Puritan minister, Rev. John Sherman, an emigrant to the Connecticut
+colony from Essex in England. Of one of the collateral branches was
+Roger Sherman, drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence.
+The father of the soldier was Judge Sherman, of the Ohio Supreme
+Court; his mother was "a Hoyt of New England."
+
+William Tecumseh Sherman was the sixth of eleven children, a younger
+brother being the lad who, later, became Senator John Sherman of Ohio.
+Judge Sherman, the father of the boys, died in 1829, and William was
+adopted into the family of Senator Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, a resident
+of Lancaster, and a notable figure in American history, for he was
+senator and cabinet minister for nearly forty years.
+
+Sherman's training was that of a soldier from boyhood. At sixteen, he
+was entered as a cadet at the Military Academy at West Point, from
+which he graduated in 1840, standing sixth in a class of 42.
+Engineering was his favorite study, but devotion to his books seems
+not to have kept him out of mischief. He was not, he himself admitted
+later, "a Sunday-school cadet," his record for behavior being 124 in
+the Academy standard--not so very far from the foot. But Grant, it
+must be remembered, ranked even lower in his behavior record, standing
+at 149.
+
+The twenty years that followed Sherman's graduation from West Point
+were variously spent. He was commissioned second lieutenant in the
+Third Artillery, July 1, 1840, and ordered to Florida to face the
+hostile Seminoles. He was promoted to be first lieutenant November 30,
+1841, and in 1842 was ordered to Fort Morgan, in Alabama. From 1843 to
+1846 he was stationed at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor (where
+the afterward famous Major Robert Anderson was his superior officer),
+at Bellefontaine, Alabama, and at Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, on
+recruiting service. When the war with Mexico was declared, Lieutenant
+Sherman was sent to California, then a debatable land. He reached
+Monterey Bay, by way of "the Horn," in January, 1847, and spent three
+years in California, returning east as bearer of despatches to the War
+Department in 1850. In May, 1850, he married Miss Ellen Ewing,
+daughter of Senator Ewing, then Secretary of the Interior under
+President Taylor, and in September following he was commissioned as
+captain and sent to St. Louis.
+
+It was at this time, so Sherman notes in his "Memoirs," that he felt a
+great disappointment to think that the war with Mexico was fought to a
+finish without his having been "in it," and he adds, "of course, I
+thought it was the last and only chance in my day, and that my career
+as a soldier was at an end." It was at an end for a time, for after
+garrison duty at St. Louis and New Orleans, he resigned from the army,
+and, in 1853, sought to make his fortune in business.
+
+He first went to California as manager of the San Francisco branch of
+a St. Louis bank, but the ill success of the enterprise drove him east
+again in 1857, when he engaged in the banking business in New York
+City. To this enterprise, however, the famous panic of 1857 put an
+early end, and in 1858 he was embarked in the law, with an office at
+Leavenworth, Kan. This, too, failing to supply sufficient bread and
+butter, he tried farming in Ohio for a while, and then applied for a
+government position in Washington. Instead of this, however, he
+secured an appointment as Superintendent and Professor of Engineering
+in a new military college just started at Alexandria, in Louisiana. He
+entered upon the duties of his position on the 1st of January, 1860,
+when the mutterings of rebellion were already abroad; and just as he
+had put the academy into good working order the war-cloud became so
+black that Sherman, in a manly letter to Governor Moore, of Louisiana,
+declared his intention of maintaining his allegiance to "the old
+constitution as long as a fragment of it survives," resigned his
+office, and returned to Ohio. In April, 1861, he accepted the
+presidency of a St. Louis street railway company. Then Sumter was
+fired on, the war fever filled the land, troops were hurried to the
+front, and Sherman signified to the Secretary of War his desire to
+serve his country "in the capacity for which I was trained." On May
+14, 1861, he was appointed colonel of the Thirteenth United States
+Infantry, and assigned to inspection duty in Washington under General
+Scott, the commander-in-chief; and then the real story of his life
+began.
+
+At first fate seemed to be against him. He was too outspoken and
+hard-headed to suit the reckless and effusive boasters of those early
+days of the war, which he insisted would be long and bloody, unless
+the whole military power of the Republic was put into the field to
+crush the rebellion before it could grow into a revolution. He was as
+disgusted as Washington had been in revolutionary times, with
+short-service enlistments, and refused point-blank to go to Ohio to
+enlist "three-months men," saying, in his blunt way, "You might as
+well try to put out fire with a squirt gun as expect to put down this
+rebellion with three-months troops." He was assigned to the command of
+the Third Brigade of the First Division of McDowell's army, and had
+his "baptism of fire" upon the disastrous field of Bull Run, which he
+has characterized as "one of the best planned and worst fought battles
+of the war." That famous "skedaddle," as it was the fashion to call
+it, he frankly admitted, in his official report, began among the men
+of his brigade, and the "disorderly retreat" speedily became a
+humiliating rout, which only a few cool-headed officers, such as
+Colonel Sherman, could check or control.
+
+The chagrin over the stampede at Bull Run was so great, that the more
+conscientious Union officers expected to be held responsible for it
+and duly court-martialed; but to Colonel Sherman's surprise, his
+superiors saw beyond the demoralization of the moment, and in August,
+1861, he was made brigadier-general of volunteers and transferred to
+the Department of the Cumberland, with head-quarters at Louisville,
+Ky. From thenceforth all his fighting and all his fame was associated
+with the armies of the West.
+
+At once he saw the desperate condition of affairs in Kentucky--a
+border State, only to be held for the Union by prompt and decisive
+measures. He called for reinforcements frequently and emphatically,
+and when the Secretary of War visited him on a tour of inspection, and
+asked his views on the situation, Sherman paralyzed him by asserting
+that for the defence of Kentucky, 60,000 men were needed at once, and
+that 200,000 would be necessary there before the war in that State
+could be ended. This was so out of proportion to the Secretary's
+estimate that Sherman was declared crazy; he was deprived of his
+command at the front and relegated to a camp of instruction near St.
+Louis.
+
+But so shrewd and correct an observer, so energetic a leader, and so
+determined a fighter, could not long be left in retirement, and in
+February, 1862, General Sherman was ordered to assume command of the
+forces at Paducah, Ky. Desperate fighting soon followed. The battle of
+Shiloh (sometimes called Pittsburg Landing) showed of what stuff the
+"crazy Sherman," as the newspapers had called him, was made, and from
+Shiloh's bloody field in 1862, to Johnston's surrender at Raleigh in
+1865, Sherman's fame rose steadily, until it left him one of the three
+greatest generals of the Civil War, and one of the famous commanders
+of the century.
+
+From Shiloh to Raleigh, Sherman stood, in a measure, as Grant's right
+hand, for, even when Grant was "hammering away" in Virginia, Sherman,
+by his strategy, shrewdness, and daring in the West was giving him
+material support and help. In the three years of fighting, from 1862
+to 1865, these events stand prominently out in Sherman's military
+record--the tenacity with which he held the right of the line at
+Shiloh, the faithful service he rendered as commander of the left
+before Vicksburg, his rapid relief of Knoxville, his brilliant capture
+of Atlanta, his daring and famous march to the sea and the capture of
+Savannah, his equally daring march through the Carolinas to the help
+of Grant, and his final capture of Johnston's army, which was the real
+close of the war.
+
+In all these events the peculiar traits of character that made Sherman
+so conspicuous a success stood out in bold relief--his coolness in
+danger, his bravery in action, his daring in devices, his readiness of
+invention, his electric surprises, his scientific strategy, his
+ruthlessness in destruction, his courtesy to the conquered, his
+devotion to his soldiers, his loyalty to his superior in command, his
+restlessness, his energy, his determination to succeed. These all
+contributed to the result that made "Sherman's army" famous the world
+over, and stamped him as the hero of a campaign that, according to
+military critics, "stands alone in the history of modern warfare."
+
+His scientific fencing with General Joseph E. Johnston, the
+Confederate leader, was as masterly as it was effective. He forced his
+rival from the stand he had taken as warder of the gateways to the
+South's supply land, fighting him step by step from Dalton backward to
+Atlanta, and capturing that stronghold of the Confederacy by
+persistent and desperate fighting. Then, when Atlanta was won,
+Sherman's ability to cut the Gordian knot, as no other man dared, was
+displayed with especial force. Instead of frittering away his precious
+time by simply holding Atlanta, or wasting strength unnecessarily by
+hunting up a baffled and elusive foe, or devoting all his energy to
+keeping open his long line of communication and supply, he determined
+to strike a disastrous blow at the Confederacy, swiftly and
+unexpectedly. Cutting loose from his connection with the West, he
+would live on the enemy and lay waste the storehouse of the
+Confederacy--or, as he expressed it in outlining his plans to General
+Grant, "move through Georgia, smashing things, to the sea."
+
+The boldness of this desperate measure at first attracted, as it
+afterward alarmed, the authorities at Washington. Consent was given
+and then recalled, but, before the recall could reach him Sherman had
+acted quickly, fearing this same countermand. Upon receipt of the
+order consenting to his march, he cut the telegraph wires to the
+north, then he burned his bridges, tore up the railroad that connected
+him with the West, and, with his army reduced to its actual available
+fighting strength of 60,000 men, with banners streaming, gun-barrels
+glistening in the sun, bands playing, and the men singing lustily
+"Glory, glory, hallelujah!" Atlanta was left behind, and "Sherman's
+army" set its face eastward and commenced its memorable march to the
+sea.
+
+In two parallel columns the army of invasion and destruction moved
+through the fertile land, cutting a swath of desolation forty miles
+wide, and crippling the Confederacy by dissipating its most cherished
+resources. For fully a month the army was practically lost, so far as
+communication with the North was concerned. Then it struck the sea at
+Savannah, captured that beautiful city, and, in the celebrated
+despatch which actually reached President Lincoln on Christmas Eve,
+General Sherman presented to the President and the country "the city
+of Savannah, as a Christmas gift."
+
+Savannah taken, the more difficult march northward was determined
+upon, so as to make a junction with Grant before Richmond, and end the
+war by one final and tremendous stroke. The "Campaign of the
+Carolinas," as this northward march was called, was a really greater
+achievement than the march to the sea, for it was against more
+formidable natural odds, and was done in midwinter. The distance
+covered, from Savannah to Goldsboro, in North Carolina, was four
+hundred and twenty-five miles; five large rivers were crossed, three
+important cities were captured, and the Stars and Stripes were once
+more flung to the breeze above the ruins of Fort Sumter. And yet, in
+fifty days from the start, the army reached Goldsboro, "in superb
+order," and concluded what Sherman himself designates as "one of the
+longest and most important marches ever made by an organized army in a
+civilized country." It was a great achievement, but it was without the
+novelty, the mystery, and the dramatic qualities of the earlier
+cross-country campaign, and so it has come to pass that the first has
+been the most famous, and Sherman's march to the sea has gone into
+history as one of the romances and glories of the War of the
+Rebellion.
+
+The campaign of the Carolinas fitly ended, as had the march to the
+sea, in victory; and the successes at Averysboro and Burtonville
+culminated on April 26, 1865, in the surrender, near Raleigh, of
+Johnston, and the last organized army of the Confederacy.
+
+The war was over. Sherman's army marched northward to Washington,
+where, on May 24, 1865, on the second day of the famous Grand Review,
+General Sherman and his victorious army marched past the presidential
+reviewing stand--"sixty-five thousand men," says General Sherman, "in
+splendid physique, who had just completed a march of nearly two
+thousand miles in a hostile country." Then came the disbandment;
+Sherman bade his "boys" good-by in a ringing farewell order; the men
+departed to their waiting homes, and the splendid "Army of the West"
+was a thing of the past.
+
+After the conclusion of the war General Sherman was, for four years,
+stationed at St. Louis, as Commander of the Military Division of the
+Mississippi. He was a notable public character, with a reputation for
+bravery that none dare assail, and a record as a soldier that made him
+one of the nation's heroes. He stood next to Grant in position, merit,
+and popularity; and when, in 1869, General Grant was elected to the
+presidency, Sherman, who had been named lieutenant-general in 1866,
+was promoted to the vacant post as general of the army, with
+head-quarters at Washington.
+
+He visited Europe in 1871-72 and, both because of his own brilliant
+record, and his official position as head of the American army, he was
+everywhere received with honor and distinction. Returning home he
+wrote his "Memoirs;" they were published in 1875, and stamped him, in
+the opinion of critics, as "by far the ablest writer among America's
+military men."
+
+On February 8, 1884, he was placed upon the retired list--"turned out
+to grass," as he expressed it, "and told I could spend the rest of my
+days in peace and retirement." As an especial mark of the nation's
+pride in his record, he was, as the order stated, "placed upon the
+retired list of the army, without reduction in his current pay and
+allowances," and the President in the same order publicly put on
+record the gratitude of the American people "for the services of
+incalculable value rendered by General Sherman in the War for the
+Union, which his great military genius and daring did so much to end."
+It was a fitting tribute to the man who had worn the uniform of his
+country for forty years, faithful to every trust and equal to every
+emergency, and who had risen through every grade from a cadetship and
+a lieutenancy, to the proud eminence of General of the Armies of the
+United States.
+
+The twenty-six years that were his after the close of the great
+struggle in which he had been one of the central figures, were filled
+with a quiet enjoyment of life and a wide personal popularity.
+Wherever he went he was a living hero, welcomed and honored as such by
+the people who owed so much to his wise brain and his unsheathed
+sword. He could have been President of the United States, had he been
+willing to accept the nomination that was offered him; instead, he
+declined with peremptory and characteristic bluntness, and he is, it
+is believed, the only man who ever did refuse that high office.
+
+After his retirement he made his home, first in St. Louis and then in
+New York, where the last five years of his life were passed, and where
+he speedily became one of the great city's familiar, honored, and
+notable figures. Here, too, the final call came to him. On February
+14, 1891, when he had just passed his seventy-first birthday, sounded
+the order "parade is dismissed," and Sherman died in his own home, in
+West Seventy-first Street, mourned by an entire nation. He was buried
+in St. Louis by the side of his wife, who had died in 1890.
+
+William Tecumseh Sherman was, in the strictest sense of the word, a
+soldier. His bearing and presence told of camp and uniform. With a
+military education and military environments, he could not understand,
+and could not calmly brook, the cautious conservatism of the civilian,
+which would often temporize when swift, determined action seemed
+necessary, and which was often boastful at home, and timorous in the
+field. Able in action, fierce in assault, unerring in judgment,
+watchful in detail; with a sagacity and foresight that amounted almost
+to genius, and a memory that was marvellous, General Sherman was a
+great military leader, and one who, when the opportunity came, rode
+straight into fame and reputation. As determined as he was daring, as
+magnanimous as he was impulsive, as clear-headed as he was energetic,
+and as gentle-hearted in peace as he was ruthless in war, he was
+indeed a unique figure in America's history, and, as time goes on, his
+name will stand as that of one of the great Republic's most famous men
+and most cherished memories.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+PHILIP HENRY SHERIDAN
+
+(1831-1888)
+
+
+Philip Henry Sheridan, Commander-in-chief of the United States Army,
+and the last and most brilliant of the great generals of the North,
+was born at Albany, N. Y. March 6, 1831. He had few advantages of
+early education and training, but in 1848 he obtained a cadetship at
+West Point. Sheridan's hot blood and impulsive temperament were
+manifested even in his student days, and a quarrel with a comrade
+resulted in his suspension for a year. He was consequently unable to
+graduate in 1852, as he should have done, but in the following year he
+concluded his studies and was appointed a brevet second lieutenant of
+infantry. In 1854 he was assigned to the First Infantry in Texas, and
+the same year he received his commission as second lieutenant of the
+Fourth Infantry. With the latter regiment he served during the next
+six years in Washington Territory and Oregon. In the attack upon the
+Indians at the Cascades, Washington Territory, in April, 1856, the
+United States troops landed under fire, and routed and dispersed the
+enemy at every point. General Scott drew special attention to
+Sheridan's bravery on this occasion.
+
+[Illustration: Philip Henry Sheridan. [TN]]
+
+But it was the great Civil War which developed Sheridan's talents, as
+in the case of many other distinguished officers, and made promotion
+rapid. The resignation of commanders with Southern sympathies and the
+creation of new regiments secured Sheridan a first lieutenancy in the
+Fourth Infantry in March, 1861, and a captaincy in the Thirteenth
+Infantry in the following May. Yet that memorable year in the history
+of the United States "brought him little employment and no laurels."
+After various minor services he was commissioned as colonel of the
+Second Michigan Cavalry on May 25, 1862. He at once engaged with the
+regiment in Elliot's raid against the railroad, which was destroyed at
+Booneville. During the month of June he commanded the Second Cavalry
+Brigade in several skirmishes, and on July 1st gained a brilliant
+victory at Booneville over a superior cavalry force. His appointment
+as brigadier-general of volunteers dated from this action. In the
+autumn of 1862 Sheridan received the command of the Eleventh Division
+of the Army of the Ohio, under General Buell. Moving out of Louisville
+with Buell, against Bragg, he took part, on October 8th, in the
+stoutly contested battle of Perryville, where he manoeuvred his
+division with conspicuous skill and effect, holding the key of the
+Northern position, and using the point to its utmost advantage.
+
+At the famous battle of Murfreesboro, which was one of the bloodiest
+and most prolonged of the campaign, Sheridan held the key-point for
+several hours in the first day's fighting, "displaying superb tactical
+skill and the greatest gallantry." After repulsing four desperate
+assaults his ammunition unfortunately gave out. He then ordered a
+bayonet charge and withdrew his lines from the field; but by his
+obstinate resistance invaluable time had been gained by his chief,
+General Rosecrans, to make new dispositions. Sheridan's commission as
+major-general followed upon these services. From this time little of
+interest occurred until September 19 and 20, 1863, when Sheridan again
+distinguished himself at the battle of Chickamauga, rescuing his
+division from a perilous position. General Thomas was transferred to
+the command of Rosecrans' besieged army at Chattanooga, and thither
+General Grant arrived with reinforcements from Vicksburg. Grant was
+determined to dislodge the Southern commander, Bragg, who was posted
+on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Hooker carried Lookout
+Mountain and Thomas captured the Ridge on November 25th. In the latter
+operation Sheridan's division was the first to cross the crest, and it
+pressed the enemy's rear-guard until long after dark, seizing wagons
+and artillery. By his successful conduct in the West, Sheridan had now
+thoroughly established his military reputation.
+
+Grant, who had now become lieutenant-general, established his
+head-quarters in Virginia in March, 1864. He was very badly off for an
+energetic commander of cavalry there, and discussed the matter with
+General Halleck. The latter at once suggested Sheridan, remembering
+his splendid dash and bravery at Missionary Ridge. "The very man!"
+exclaimed the laconic Grant, and Sheridan accordingly became commander
+of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Sheridan's progress
+during the campaign of 1864 was like a whirlwind. His troops covered
+the front and flanks of the infantry through the battle of the
+"Wilderness" until May 8th, when the greater part of the force was
+withdrawn, and next morning Sheridan started on a raid against the
+enemy's points of communication with Richmond. Getting within the
+Confederate lines he dashed upon the outworks of Richmond itself,
+where he took one hundred prisoners, and thence moved to Haxall's
+Landing, from which point he returned to the Northern army, having
+destroyed many miles of railroad track, besides trains and a great
+quantity of rations, and liberated Union soldiers. This expedition
+included repulses of the enemy at Beaver Dam and Meadow Bridge, and
+the defeat of the enemy's cavalry at Yellow Tavern, where their best
+cavalry leader, J. E. B. Stuart, was killed. From May 27th to June
+24th Sheridan was engaged in almost daily engagements and skirmishes,
+harassing the enemy, and, with that good fortune which sometimes
+attends the most daring soldiers, resisting all attempts to defeat or
+capture him.
+
+The Middle Department and the Department of West Virginia, Washington,
+and Susquehanna were constituted the "Middle Military Division" in
+August, 1864, and General Grant put Sheridan in command of the same.
+He chafed for opportunities of further distinguishing himself and
+justifying his appointment; but the enemy, under General Early, had
+been reinforced, and for six weeks Sheridan was kept on the defensive
+near Harper's Ferry. At length, when Early's forces had been
+diminished, Sheridan expressed such confidence of success if he were
+allowed to attack, that Grant gave him permission in only two words of
+instruction, "Go in!" Sheridan went in, attacking Early with great
+vigor, on September 19th, at the crossing of the Opequan. After a
+severe battle the enemy was routed; Sheridan captured three thousand
+prisoners and five guns, and sent Early, as he expressed it, "whirling
+through Winchester." Next day President Lincoln, on Grant's
+recommendation, appointed the victorious soldier a brigadier-general
+in the regular army. Taking up the pursuit of Early in the Shenandoah
+Valley, Sheridan found him on the 20th strongly posted on Fisher's
+Hill, just beyond Strasburg. Quietly moving Crook's command through
+the wood, he turned the enemy's left on the 22d, and drove him from
+his stronghold, capturing sixteen guns.
+
+The losses of Sheridan and those of Early in these two battles were
+almost precisely equal, being about fifty-four hundred men each; but
+the Northern general had captured many guns and small arms. Sheridan
+continued the pursuit up the valley, but finding it impracticable to
+proceed either to Lynchburg or Charlottesville, he returned through
+the valley, devastating it on his way and rendering it untenable for
+an enemy's army. By Sheridan's successes Grant obtained the
+unobstructed use of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and the Chesapeake &
+Ohio Canal, whereas his defeat would have exposed Maryland and
+Pennsylvania to invasion.
+
+Sheridan's next operations, however, were the most important, as they
+have become the most renowned, in his career. Passing through
+Strasburg, he posted his troops on the further bank of Cedar Creek,
+while he himself, on October 16th, went to Washington, in response to
+a request from Secretary Stanton, for consultation. Before the sun
+rose on the morning of the 19th, Early, who had been reinforced,
+surprised, during a fog, the left of the Union army and uncovered the
+position also of the Nineteenth Corps, capturing twenty-four guns and
+about fourteen hundred prisoners. General Wright succeeded in
+retaining his grasp on the turnpike by moving the Sixth Corps to its
+western side and the cavalry to its eastern; but the whole army in the
+process had been driven back beyond Middletown.
+
+Sheridan was at Winchester at this time, on his return from
+Washington. Hearing the noise of battle, he dashed up the turnpike
+with an escort of twenty men, rallying the fugitives on his way, and
+after a ride of a dozen miles reached the army, where he was received
+with indescribable enthusiasm. This famous incident gave rise to
+Buchanan Read's stirring poem of Sheridan's ride, now one of the most
+popular pieces in the repertories of public readers, both in England
+and the United States. After the lapse of a few hours, spent in
+preparing his forces, Sheridan ordered an advance, and literally swept
+the enemy from the field in one of the most overwhelming and decisive
+engagements of the war. All the lost Union guns were retaken, and
+twenty-four Confederate guns and many wagons and stores were captured.
+Congress passed a vote of thanks to Sheridan and his troops for the
+"brilliant series of victories in the valley," and especially the one
+at Cedar Creek. Sheridan was appointed by the President a
+major-general in the army "for the personal gallantry, military skill,
+and just confidence in the courage and patriotism of your troops," as
+the order expressed it, "displayed by you on October 19th."
+
+On February 27, 1865, Sheridan, with his cavalry, 10,000 strong, moved
+up the valley, destroying the Virginia Central Railroad, the James
+River Canal, and immense quantities of supplies, and defeating Early
+again at Waynesboro. He then made his way toward Grant's army and
+arrived at the White House on March 19th. In subsequent operations he
+acted immediately under General Grant. The final campaign of the war
+began, and on March 31st Sheridan was attacked by a heavy force of
+Lee's infantry, under Picket and Johnson; but on the following day,
+being reinforced by Warren, he entrapped and completely routed Picket
+and Johnson's forces at Five Forks, taking thousands of prisoners.
+Sheridan displayed great tactical skill and generalship on this
+occasion, and the decisive battle of Five Forks compelled General Lee
+to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. Lee was soon in flight, but
+Sheridan was speedily on his trail, and, far away in the Northern van,
+he constantly harassed the enemy. Overtaking the flying army at
+Sailor's Creek, he captured sixteen guns and four hundred wagons, and
+detained the enemy until the Sixth Corps could come up, when a
+combined attack resulted in the capture of more than six thousand
+prisoners.
+
+On April 8th Sheridan again engaged the Confederates at Appomattox
+Station. Early on the morning of the 9th the enemy endeavored to break
+through, but abandoned the attempt when Sheridan, moving aside,
+disclosed the infantry behind. Sheridan mounted his men and was about
+to charge, when the white flag betokening surrender was displayed in
+his front. This brought the war in Virginia to a close, though in
+Alabama and other districts the conflict continued to a somewhat later
+period. The Confederate power, however, was broken by the surrender at
+Appomattox Court-house, which practically ended the Civil War.
+
+Sheridan subsequently conducted an expedition into North Carolina. On
+June 3, 1865, he took command of the Military Division of the
+Southwest, at New Orleans, and was appointed to the Fifth Military
+District (Louisiana and Texas) in March, 1867. President Johnson,
+being dissatisfied with his administration, relieved him of his
+appointment during the reconstruction troubles in Louisiana, and
+transferred him to the Department of the Missouri. He continued in
+command until March 4, 1869, when he was promoted to the rank of
+lieutenant-general, and assigned the command of the Division of the
+Missouri, with head-quarters at Chicago.
+
+During the Franco-German War of 1870-71 General Sheridan visited
+Europe, and was present as a spectator with the German forces at
+several celebrated engagements. He was held in high esteem by Prince
+Bismarck and Count Von Moltke. After the sanguinary battle of
+Gravelotte, which Sheridan witnessed, Bismarck returned with the King
+to Pont-a-Mousson, and on the evening of the next day the German
+Chancellor entertained at dinner General Sheridan and his American
+companions, "with whom he talked eagerly in good English, while
+champagne and porter circulated." At one point of the Franco-German
+War, when Bismarck was at Versailles, anxiously desiring a French
+government with which he could conclude a durable peace, "it almost
+seemed," says Mr. Lowe, in his "Life of Bismarck," "as if he had no
+other resource but to pursue the war on the principles laid down by
+General Sheridan." The American soldier had said to the Chancellor:
+"First deal as hard blows at the enemy's soldiers as possible, and
+then cause so much suffering to the inhabitants of the country that
+they will long for peace and press their government to make it.
+Nothing should be left to the people but eyes to see and lament the
+war."
+
+[Illustration: Sheridan ride.]
+
+In 1875, during the political disturbances in Louisiana, General
+Sheridan was sent to New Orleans, returning to Chicago on quiet being
+restored. On the retirement of General Sherman, in March, 1884, he was
+appointed Commander-in-chief of the Army of the United States. He
+died August 5, 1888. General Sheridan was the most brilliant cavalry
+officer whom America has produced. In addition to conspicuous personal
+bravery, he had an eagle eye for piercing through the designs of an
+enemy and for detecting at a glance all their weak points. He
+possessed wonderful energy, remained undepressed in the presence of
+overwhelming odds, and had a superb confidence in moments of the
+greatest danger. His career was one of the most romantic and
+adventurous called forth by the great American civil struggle.
+
+
+
+
+ROBERT EDMUND LEE
+
+By GENERAL VISCOUNT WOLSELEY
+
+(1807-1870)
+
+[Illustration: Robert Lee. [TN]]
+
+
+It is my wish to give a short outline of General Lee's life, and to
+describe him as I saw him in the autumn of 1862, when at the head of
+proud and victorious troops he smiled at the notion of defeat by any
+army that could be sent against him. I desire to make known to the
+reader not only the renowned soldier, whom I believe to have been the
+greatest of his age, but to give some insight into the character of
+one whom I have always considered the most perfect man I ever met.
+
+As a looker-on, I feel that both parties in the war have so much to be
+proud of that both can afford to hear what impartial Englishmen, or
+foreigners, have to say about it. Inflated and bubble reputations were
+acquired during its progress, few of which will bear the test of time.
+The idol momentarily set up, often for political reasons, crumbles in
+time into the dust from which its limbs were perhaps originally
+moulded. To me, however, two figures stand out in that history,
+towering above all others, both cast in hard metal that will be
+forever proof against the belittling efforts of all future detractors:
+one, General Lee, the great soldier; the other, Mr. Lincoln, the
+far-seeing statesman of iron will, of unflinching determination. Each
+is a good representative of the genius that characterized his country.
+As I study the history of the secession war, these seem to me the two
+men who influenced it most, and who will be recognized as its greatest
+heroes when future generations of American historians record its
+stirring events with impartiality.
+
+General Lee came from the class of landed gentry that has furnished
+England at all times with her most able and distinguished leaders. The
+first of his family who went to America was Richard Lee, who, in 1641,
+became Colonial Secretary to the Governor of Virginia. The family
+settled in Westmoreland, one of the most lovely counties in that
+historic State, and members of it from time to time held high
+positions in the government. Several of the family distinguished
+themselves during the War of Independence, among whom was Henry, the
+father of General Robert E. Lee. He raised a mounted corps known as
+"Lee's Legion," in command of which he obtained the reputation of
+being an able and gallant soldier. He was nicknamed by his comrades
+"Light-Horse Harry." He was three times Governor of his native State.
+To him is attributed the authorship of the eulogy on General
+Washington, in which occurs the so-often quoted sentence, "First in
+war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen,"
+praise that with equal truth might have been subsequently applied to
+his own distinguished son.
+
+The subject of this slight sketch, Robert Edmund Lee, was born January
+9, 1807, at the family place of Stratford, in the county of
+Westmoreland, State of Virginia. When only a few years old, his
+parents moved to the small town of Alexandria, which is on the right
+bank of the Potomac River, nearly opposite Washington, but a little
+below it.
+
+He was but a boy of eleven when his father died, leaving his family in
+straitened circumstances. Like many other great commanders, he was in
+consequence brought up in comparative poverty, a condition which has
+been pronounced by the greatest of them as the best training for
+soldiers. During his early years he attended a day-school near his
+home in Alexandria. He was thus able in his leisure hours to help his
+invalid mother in all her household concerns, and to afford her that
+watchful care which, owing to her very delicate health, she so much
+needed. She was a clever, highly gifted woman, and by her fond care
+his character was formed and stamped with honest truthfulness. By her
+he was taught never to forget that he was well born, and that, as a
+gentleman, honor must be his guiding star through life. It was from
+her lips he learned his Bible, from her teaching he drank in the
+sincere belief in revealed religion which he never lost. It was she
+who imbued her great son with an ineradicable belief in the efficacy
+of prayer, and in the reality of God's interposition in the every-day
+affairs of the true believer. No son ever returned a mother's love
+with more heartfelt intensity. She was his idol, and he worshipped her
+with the deep-seated inborn love which is known only to the son in
+whom filial affection is strengthened by respect and personal
+admiration for the woman who bore him. He was her all in all, or, as
+she described it, he was both son and daughter to her. He watched over
+her in weary hours of pain, and served her with all that soft
+tenderness which was such a marked trait in the character of this
+great, stern leader of men.
+
+He seems to have been throughout his boyhood and early youth perfect
+in disposition, in bearing, and in conduct--a model of all that was
+noble, honorable, and manly. Of the early life of very few great men
+can this be said. Many who have left behind the greatest reputations
+for usefulness, in whom middle age was a model of virtue and perhaps
+of noble self-denial, began their career in a whirlwind of wild
+excess. Often, again, we find that, like Nero, the virtuous youth
+develops into the middle-aged fiend, who leaves behind him a name to
+be execrated for all time. It would be difficult to find in history a
+great man, be he soldier or statesman, with a character so
+irreproachable throughout his whole life as that which in boyhood,
+youth, manhood, and to his death, distinguished Robert Lee from all
+contemporaries.
+
+He entered the Military Academy of West Point at the age of eighteen,
+where he worked hard, became adjutant of the cadet corps, and finally
+graduated at the head of his class. There he mastered the theory of
+war and studied the campaigns of the great masters in that most
+ancient of all sciences. Whatever he did, even as a boy, he did
+thoroughly, with order and method. Even at this early age he was the
+model Christian gentleman in thought, word, and deed; careful and
+exact in the obedience he rendered his superiors, but remarkable for
+that dignity of deportment which all through his career struck
+strangers with admiring respect.
+
+He left West Point when twenty-two, having gained its highest honors,
+and at once obtained a commission in the engineers. Two years
+afterward he married the granddaughter and heiress of Mrs. Custis,
+whose second husband had been General Washington, but by whom she left
+no children. It was a great match for a poor subaltern officer, as his
+wife was heiress to a very extensive property and to a large number of
+slaves. She was clever, very well educated, and a general favorite; he
+was handsome, tall, well made, with a graceful figure, and a good
+rider; his manners were at once easy and captivating. These young
+people had long known one another, and each was the other's first
+love. She brought with her as part of her fortune General Washington's
+beautiful property of Arlington, situated on the picturesque wooded
+heights that overhang the Potomac River, opposite the capital to which
+the great Washington had given his name. In talking to me of the
+Northern troops, whose conduct in Virginia was then denounced by every
+local paper, no bitter expression passed his lips, but tears filled
+his eyes as he referred to the destruction of his place, that had been
+the cherished home of the father of the United States. He could
+forgive their cutting down his trees, their wanton conversion of his
+pleasure-grounds into a graveyard, but he could never forget their
+reckless plunder of all the camp equipment and other relics of General
+Washington that Arlington House had contained.
+
+Robert Lee first saw active service during the American war with
+Mexico in 1846, where he was wounded, and evinced a remarkable talent
+for war that brought him prominently into notice. He was afterward
+engaged in operations against hostile Indians, and obtained the
+reputation in the army of being an able officer of great promise.
+General Scott, then the general of greatest repute in the United
+States, was especially attracted by the zeal and soldierly instinct of
+the young captain of engineers, and frequently employed him on distant
+expeditions that required cool nerve, confidence, and plenty of
+common sense. It is a curious fact that throughout the Mexican War
+General Scott in his despatches and reports made frequent mention of
+three officers--Lee, Beauregard, and McClellan--whose names became
+household words in America afterward, during the great Southern
+struggle for independence. General Scott had the highest opinion of
+Lee's military genius, and did not hesitate to ascribe much of his
+success in Mexico as due to Lee's "skill, valor, and undaunted
+energy." Indeed, subsequently, when the day came that these two men
+should part, each to take a different side in the horrible contest
+before them, General Scott is said to have urged Mr. Lincoln's
+Government to secure Lee at any price, alleging he "would be worth
+fifty thousand men to them." His valuable services were duly
+recognized at Washington by more than one step of brevet promotion: he
+obtained the rank of colonel and was given command of a cavalry
+regiment shortly afterward.
+
+I must now pass to the most important epoch of his life, when the
+Southern States left the Union and set up a government of their own.
+Mr. Lincoln was in 1860 elected President of the United States in the
+abolitionist interest. Both parties were so angry that thoughtful men
+soon began to see that war alone could end this bitter dispute.
+Shipwreck was before the vessel of state which General Washington had
+built and guided with so much care during his long and hard-fought
+contest. Civil war stared the American citizen in the face, and Lee's
+heart was well-nigh broken at the prospect. Early in 1861 the seven
+Cotton States passed acts declaring their withdrawal from the Union,
+and their establishment of an independent republic, under the title of
+"The Confederate States of America." This declaration of independence
+was in reality a revolution; war alone could ever bring all the States
+together.
+
+Lee viewed this secession with horror. Until the month of April, when
+Virginia, his own dearly cherished State, joined the Confederacy, he
+clung fondly to the hope that the gulf which separated the North from
+the South might yet be bridged over. He believed the dissolution of
+the Union to be a dire calamity not only for his own country, but for
+civilization and all mankind. "Still," he said, "a Union that can only
+be maintained by swords and bayonets, and in which strife and civil
+war are to take the place of brotherly love and kindness, has no charm
+for me." In common with all Southerners he firmly believed that each
+of the old States had a legal and indisputable right, by its
+individual constitution, and by its act of union, to leave at will the
+great Union into which each had separately entered as a sovereign
+State. This was with him an article of faith of which he was as sure
+as of any divine truths he found in the Bible. This fact must be kept
+always in mind by those who would rightly understand his character, or
+the course he pursued in 1861. He loved the Union for which his father
+and family in the previous century had fought so hard and done so
+much. But he loved his own State still more. She was the sovereign to
+whom in the first place he owed allegiance, and whose orders, as
+expressed through her legally constituted government, he was, he felt,
+bound in law, in honor, and in love to obey without doubt or
+hesitation. This belief was the mainspring that kept the Southern
+Confederacy going, as it was also the corner-stone of its
+constitution.
+
+In April, 1861, at Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, the first shot was
+fired in a war that was only ended in April, 1865, by the surrender of
+General Lee's army at Appomattox Court House, in Virginia. In duration
+it is the longest war waged since the great Napoleon's power was
+finally crushed at Waterloo. As the heroic struggle of a small
+population that was cut off from all outside help, against a great,
+populous, and very rich republic, with every market in the world open
+to it, and to whom all Europe was a recruiting ground, this secession
+war stands out prominently in the history of the world. When the vast
+numbers of men put into the field by the Northern States, and the
+scale upon which their operations were carried on, are duly
+considered, it must be regarded as a war fully equal in magnitude to
+the successful invasion of France by Germany in 1870. If the mind be
+allowed to speculate on the course that events will take in centuries
+to come, as they flow surely on with varying swiftness to the ocean of
+the unknown future, the influence which the result of this Confederate
+war is bound to exercise upon man's future history will seem very
+great. Think of what a power the re-United States will be in another
+century! Of what it will be in the twenty-first century of the
+Christian era! If, as many believe, China is destined to absorb all
+Asia and then to overrun Europe, may it not be in the possible future
+that Armageddon, the final contest between heathendom and
+Christianity, may be fought out between China and North America? Had
+secession been victorious, it is tolerably certain that the United
+States would have broken up still further, and instead of the present
+magnificent and English-speaking empire, we should now see in its
+place a number of small powers with separate interests.
+
+Most certainly it was the existence of slavery in the South that gave
+rise to the bitter antagonism of feeling which led to secession. But
+it was not to secure emancipation that the North took up arms,
+although during the progress of the war Mr. Lincoln proclaimed it, for
+the purpose of striking his enemy a serious blow. Lee hated slavery,
+but, as he explained to me, he thought it wicked to give freedom
+suddenly to some millions of people who were incapable of using it
+with profit to themselves or the State. He assured me he had long
+intended to gradually give his slaves their liberty. He believed the
+institution to be a moral and political evil, and more hurtful to the
+white than to the black man. He had a strong affection for the negro;
+but he deprecated any sudden or violent interference on the part of
+the State between master and slave. Nothing would have induced him to
+fight for the continuance of slavery; indeed, he declared that had he
+owned every slave in the South he would willingly give them all up if
+by so doing he could preserve the Union. He was opposed to secession,
+and to prevent it he would willingly sacrifice everything except honor
+and duty, which forbade him to desert his State. When in April, 1861,
+she formally and by an act of her Legislature left the Union, he
+resigned his commission in the United States army with the intention
+of retiring into private life. He endeavored to choose what was right.
+Every personal interest bade him throw in his lot with the Union. His
+property lay so close to Washington that it was certain to be
+destroyed and swept of every slave, as belonging to a rebel. But the
+die was cast; he forsook everything for principle and the stern duty
+it entailed. Then came that final temptation which opened out before
+him a vista of power and importance greater than that which any man
+since Washington had held in America. General Long's book proves
+beyond all further doubt that he was offered the post of
+commander-in-chief of the Federal army. General Scott, his great
+friend and leader, whom he loved and respected, then commanding that
+army, used all his influence to persuade him to throw in his lot with
+the North, but to no purpose. Nothing would induce him to have any
+part in the invasion of his own State, much as he abhorred the war
+into which he felt she was rushing. His love of country, his unselfish
+patriotism, caused him to relinquish home, fortune, a certain future,
+in fact, everything, for her sake.
+
+He was not, however, to remain a spectator of the coming conflict; he
+was too well known to his countrymen in Virginia as the officer in
+whom the Federal army had most confidence. The State of Virginia
+appointed him major-general and commander-in-chief of all her military
+forces. In open and crowded convention he formally accepted this
+position, saying, with all that dignity and grace of manner which
+distinguished him, that he did so "trusting in Almighty God, an
+approving conscience, and the aid of my fellow-citizens." The scene
+was most impressive. There were present all the leading men of
+Virginia, and representatives of all the first families in a State
+where great store was attached to gentle birth, and where society was
+very exclusive. General Lee's presence commanded respect, even from
+strangers, by a calm, self-possessed dignity the like of which I have
+never seen in other men. Naturally of strong passions, he kept them
+under perfect control by that iron and determined will, of which his
+expression and his face gave evidence. As this tall, handsome soldier
+stood before his countrymen, he was the picture of the ideal patriot,
+unconscious and self-possessed in his strength; he indulged in no
+theatrical display of feeling; there was in his face and about him
+that placid resolve which bespoke great confidence in self, and which
+in his case--one knows not how--quickly communicated its magnetic
+influence to others. He was then just fifty-four years old, the age of
+Marlborough when he destroyed the French army at Blenheim. In many
+ways and on many points these two great men much resembled each other.
+Both were of a dignified and commanding exterior; eminently handsome,
+with a figure tall, graceful, and erect, while a muscular,
+square-built frame bespoke great activity of body. The charm of manner
+which I have mentioned as very winning in Lee, was possessed in the
+highest degree by Marlborough. Both, at the outset of their great
+career of victory, were regarded as essentially national commanders.
+Both had married young, and were faithful husbands and devoted
+fathers. Both had in all their campaigns the same belief in an
+ever-watchful Providence, in whose help they trusted implicitly, and
+for whose interposition they prayed at all times. They were gifted
+with the same military instinct, the same genius for war. The power of
+fascinating those with whom they were associated, the spell which they
+cast over their soldiers, who believed almost superstitiously in their
+certainty of victory, their contempt of danger, their daring courage,
+constitute a parallel that is difficult to equal between any other two
+great men of modern times.
+
+From the first Lee anticipated a long and bloody struggle, although
+from the bombastic oratory of self-elected politicians and patriots
+the people were led to believe that the whole business would be
+settled in a few weeks. This folly led to a serious evil, namely, the
+enlistment of soldiers for only ninety days. Lee, who understood war,
+pleaded in favor of the engagement being for the term of war, but he
+pleaded in vain. To add to his military difficulties, the politicians
+insisted upon the officers being elected by their men. This was a
+point which, in describing to me the constitution of his army, Lee
+most deplored.
+
+The formation of an army with the means alone at his disposal was a
+colossal task. Everything had to be created by this extraordinary man.
+The South was an agricultural, not a manufacturing, country, and the
+resources of foreign lands were denied it by the blockade of its ports
+maintained by the fleet of the United States. Lee was a thorough man
+of business, quick in decision, yet methodical in all he did. He knew
+what he wanted. He knew what an army should be, and how it should be
+organized, both in a purely military as well as an administrative
+sense. In about two months he had created a little army of fifty
+thousand men, animated by a lofty patriotism and courage that made
+them unconquerable by any similarly constituted army. In another month
+this army, at Bull Run, gained a complete victory over the Northern
+invaders, who were driven back across the Potomac like herds of
+frightened sheep.
+
+The Confederates did not follow up their victory at Bull Run. A rapid
+and daring advance would have given them possession of Washington,
+their enemy's capital. Political considerations at Richmond were
+allowed to outweigh the very evident military expediency of reaping a
+solid advantage from this their first great success. Often afterward,
+when this attempt to allay the angry feelings of the North against the
+act of secession had entirely failed, was this action of their
+political rulers lamented by the Confederate commanders.
+
+In this article, to attempt even a sketch of the subsequent military
+operations is not to be thought of. Both sides fought well, and both
+have such true reason to be proud of their achievements that they can
+now afford to hear the professional criticisms of their English
+friends in the same spirit that we Britishers have learned to read of
+the many defeats inflicted upon our arms by General Washington.
+
+As a student of war I would fain linger over the interesting lessons
+to be learned from Lee's campaigns; of the same race as both
+belligerents, I could with the utmost pleasure dwell upon the many
+brilliant feats of arms on both sides; but I cannot do so here.
+
+The end came at last, when the well-supplied North, rich enough to pay
+recruits, no matter where they came from, a bounty of over five
+hundred dollars a head, triumphed over an exhausted South, hemmed in
+on all sides, and even cut off from all communication with the outside
+world. The desperate, though drawn battle of Gettysburg was the
+death-knell of Southern independence; and General Sherman's splendid
+but almost unopposed march to the sea showed the world that all
+further resistance on the part of the Confederate States could only be
+a profitless waste of blood. In the thirty-five days of fighting near
+Richmond which ended the war in 1865, General Grant's army numbered
+190,000, that of Lee only 51,000 men. Every man lost by the former was
+easily replaced, but an exhausted South could find no more soldiers.
+"The right of self-government," which Washington won and for which Lee
+fought, was no longer to be a watchword to stir men's blood in the
+United States. The South was humbled and beaten by its own flesh and
+blood in the North, and it is difficult to know which to admire most,
+the good sense with which the result was accepted in the so-called
+Confederate States, or the wise magnanimity displayed by the victors.
+The wounds are now healed on both sides; Northerners and Southerners
+are now once more a united people, with a future before them to which
+no other nation can aspire. If the English-speaking people of the
+earth cannot all acknowledge the same sovereign, they can, and I am
+sure they will, at least combine to work in the interests of truth and
+of peace for the good of mankind. The wise men on both sides of the
+Atlantic will take care to chase away all passing clouds that may at
+any time throw even a shadow of dispute or discord between the two
+great families into which our race is divided.
+
+Like all men, Lee had his faults; like all the greatest of generals,
+he sometimes made mistakes. His nature shrank with such horror from
+the dread of wounding the feelings of others, that upon occasions he
+left men in positions of responsibility to which their abilities were
+not equal. This softness of heart, amiable as that quality may be,
+amounts to a crime in the man intrusted with the direction of public
+affairs at critical moments. Lee's devotion to duty and great respect
+for obedience seem at times to have made him too subservient to those
+charged with the civil government of his country. He carried out too
+literally the orders of those whom the Confederate constitution made
+his superiors, although he must have known them to be entirely
+ignorant of the science of war. He appears to have forgotten that he
+was the great revolutionary chief engaged in a great revolutionary
+war, that he was no mere leader in a political struggle of parties
+carried on within the lines of an old, well-established form of
+government. It was very clear to many at the time, as it will be
+commonly acknowledged now, that the South could only hope to win under
+the rule of a military dictator. If General Washington had had a Mr.
+Davis over him, could he have accomplished what he did? It will, I am
+sure, be news to many that General Lee was given the command over all
+the Confederate armies a month or two only before the final collapse;
+and that the military policy of the South was all throughout the war
+dictated by Mr. Davis as President of the Confederate States. Lee had
+no power to reward soldiers or to promote officers. It was Mr. Davis
+who selected the men to command divisions and armies. Is it to be
+supposed that Cromwell, King William the Third, Washington, or
+Napoleon could have succeeded in the revolutions with which their
+names are identified, had they submitted to the will and authority of
+a politician as Lee did to Mr. Davis?
+
+Lee was opposed to the final defence of Richmond that was urged upon
+him for political, not military, reasons. It was a great strategic
+error. General Grant's large army of men was easily fed and its daily
+losses easily recruited from a near base; whereas if it had been drawn
+far into the interior after the little army with which Lee endeavored
+to protect Richmond, its fighting strength would have been largely
+reduced by the detachments required to guard a long line of
+communications through a hostile country. It is profitless, however,
+to speculate upon what might have been, and the military student must
+take these campaigns as they were carried out. No fair estimate of Lee
+as a general can be made by a simple comparison of what he achieved
+with that which Napoleon, Wellington, or Von Moltke accomplished,
+unless due allowance is made for the difference in the nature of the
+American armies, and of the armies commanded and encountered by those
+great leaders. They were at the head of perfectly organized,
+thoroughly trained, and well disciplined troops; while Lee's soldiers,
+though gallant and daring to a fault, lacked the military cohesion and
+efficiency, the trained company leaders, and the educated staff which
+are only to be found in a regular army of long standing. A trial heat
+between two jockeys mounted on untrained horses may be interesting,
+but no one would ever quote the performance as an instance of great
+racing speed.
+
+Who shall ever fathom the depth of Lee's anguish when the bitter end
+came, and when, beaten down by sheer force of numbers, and by
+absolutely nothing else, he found himself obliged to surrender! The
+handful of starving men remaining with him laid down their arms, and
+the proud Confederacy ceased to be. Surely the crushing, maddening
+anguish of awful sorrow is only known to the leader who has so failed
+to accomplish some lofty, some noble aim for which he has long striven
+with might and main, with heart and soul, in the interests of king or
+of country. A smiling face, a cheerful mien, may conceal the sore
+place from the eyes, possibly even from the knowledge of his friends;
+but there is no healing for such a wound, which eats into the very
+heart of him who has once received it.
+
+General Lee survived the destruction of the Confederacy for five
+years, when, at the age of sixty-three, and surrounded by his family,
+life ebbed slowly from him. Where else in history is a great man to be
+found whose whole life was one such blameless record of duty nobly
+done? It was consistent in all its parts, complete in all its
+relations. The most perfect gentleman of a State long celebrated for
+its chivalry, he was just, gentle, and generous, and childlike in the
+simplicity of his character. Never elated with success, he bore
+reverse, and at last, complete overthrow, with dignified resignation.
+Throughout this long and cruel struggle his was all the
+responsibility, but not the power that should have accompanied it. The
+fierce light which beats upon the throne is as that of a rush-light
+in comparison with the electric glare which our newspapers now focus
+upon the public man in Lee's position. His character has been
+subjected to that ordeal, and who can point to any spot upon it? His
+clear, sound judgment, personal courage, untiring activity, genius for
+war, and absolute devotion to his State mark him out as a public man,
+as a patriot to be forever remembered by all Americans. His amiability
+of disposition, deep sympathy with those in pain or sorrow, his love
+for children, nice sense of personal honor, and genial courtesy
+endeared him to all his friends. I shall never forget his sweet,
+winning smile, nor his clear, honest eyes, that seemed to look into
+your brain. I have met many of the great men of my time, but Lee alone
+impressed me with the feeling that I was in the presence of a man who
+was cast in a grander mould, and made of different and of finer metal
+than all other men. He is stamped upon my memory as a being apart and
+superior to all others in every way: a man with whom none I ever knew,
+and very few of whom I have read, are worthy to be classed. I have met
+but two men who realize my ideas of what a true hero should be: my
+friend Charles Gordon, was one, General Lee was the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following beautiful letter was written by Lee to his son in
+1860:[11]
+
+         [Footnote 11: Copied, with the kind permission of the
+         publisher, G. W. Dillingham, from John Esten Cooke's Life of
+         Lee.]
+
+"You must study to be frank with the world; frankness is the child of
+honesty and courage. Say just what you mean to do on every occasion,
+and take it for granted you mean to do right. If a friend asks a
+favor, you should grant it, if it is reasonable; if not, tell him
+plainly why you cannot; you will wrong him and wrong yourself by
+equivocation of any kind. Never do a wrong thing to make a friend or
+keep one; the man who requires you to do so, is dearly purchased at a
+sacrifice. Deal kindly, but firmly, with all your classmates; you will
+find it the policy which wears best. Above all, do not appear to
+others what you are not. If you have any fault to find with anyone,
+tell him, not others, of what you complain; there is no more dangerous
+experiment than that of undertaking to be one thing before a man's
+face and another behind his back. We should live, act, and say,
+nothing to the injury of anyone. It is not only best as a matter of
+principle, but it is the path to peace and honor.
+
+"In regard to duty, let me, in conclusion of this hasty letter, inform
+you that, nearly a hundred years ago, there was a day of remarkable
+gloom and darkness--still known as 'the dark day'--a day when the
+light of the sun was slowly extinguished, as if by an eclipse. The
+Legislature of Connecticut was in session, and as its members saw the
+unexpected and unaccountable darkness coming on, they shared in the
+general awe and terror. It was supposed by many that the last day--the
+day of judgment--had come. Someone, in the consternation of the hour,
+moved an adjournment. Then there arose an old Puritan legislator,
+Davenport, of Stamford, and said that, if the last day had come, he
+desired to be found at his place doing his duty, and therefore, moved
+that candles be brought in, so that the House could proceed with its
+duty. There was quietness in that man's mind, the quietness of
+heavenly wisdom and inflexible willingness to obey present duty. Duty,
+then, is the sublimest word in our language. Do your duty in all
+things, like the old Puritan. You cannot do more, you should never
+wish to do less. Never let me and your mother wear one gray hair for
+any lack of duty on your part."
+
+
+
+
+THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON[12]
+
+By MARION HARLAND
+
+(1826-1863)
+
+         [Footnote 12: Copyright, 1894, by Selmar Hess.]
+
+[Illustration: Thomas Jackson. [TN]]
+
+
+In 1842 a young man from Lewis County, Va., "dropped" discouraged out
+of his class in West Point, after a few weeks' trial of drill and
+curriculum, and returned home.
+
+The story of his defeat was canvassed freely in the neighborhood
+smithy, the head-quarters of provincial gossip, and was under
+discussion one May day while Cummins Jackson, a planter and bachelor,
+waited to have a horse shod.
+
+"There's a chance for Tom Jackson!" observed the blacksmith, with
+friendly officiousness.
+
+The early life of Cummins Jackson's nephew was well known to speaker
+and bystanders. Left an orphan at seven years of age, he, with his
+brother, older than himself, and their little sister, were thrown upon
+the charity of uncles and aunts. "Tom" was accounted steady and
+industrious, yet there was a serious break in his record. The brothers
+had run away to seek their fortunes in company when Warren was
+fourteen, Tom but twelve years old, going down the Ohio to the
+Mississippi and maintaining themselves by cutting wood for passing
+steamboats until disabled by malarial fever. Thomas took the lead in
+the juvenile prodigals' return to relatives and respectability, and
+was kindly received by his bachelor uncle. Since then he had worked in
+Cummins Jackson's mill and upon his farm as diligently as he sought to
+"get an education" in the "old field school" nearest to his home.
+
+His imagination took fire at his uncle's report of the blacksmith's
+suggestion. Armed with a letter of introduction signed by leading
+citizens of the county, to the Congressman from the district, he went
+in person to Washington and through the kindness of the
+representative obtained an interview with the Secretary of War.
+
+"Gruff and heroic with the grit of Old Hickory himself" was the
+cabinet-officer's opinion of the country lad. He commended him to the
+West Point Board of Examiners in terms that secured him admission to
+the Military Academy in spite of certain grave deficiencies in his
+early education.
+
+The story of the wrestle with these and other disabilities during the
+next four years is interesting and instructive. Three extracts from a
+list of rules for his personal conduct, set down at this time in a
+private note-book, sound the keynote of his subsequent career:
+
+"_Sacrifice your life rather than your word._
+
+"_Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you
+resolve._
+
+"_You may be whatever you resolve to be._"
+
+He was respected by all his classmates, known and liked by a few. He
+was too reserved by nature, too busy in practice, to be a general
+favorite. His labors were unremitting, his recreations few and simple.
+With no prevision of the destinies awaiting them, Jackson, McClellan,
+A. T. Hill, Reno, Picket, Foster, and Maury, as beardless boys,
+studied and were drilled side by side for four terms and were
+graduated upon the same day. There were seventy in this remarkable
+class, and the name of Thomas Jonathan Jackson stood seventeenth upon
+the roll of merit.
+
+"If we had to stay here one year more, old Jack would be at the head,"
+the witnesses of the fierce ordeal of his West Point training used to
+say.
+
+The class of '46 was ordered forthwith to the seat of war in Mexico.
+Jackson's first engagement was the siege of Vera Cruz; his next the
+battle of Cherubusco. The official report of this last mentions him
+favorably. As second lieutenant, he was called upon early in the
+action to take the place of the next in rank above him, the first
+lieutenant having fallen in the charge. After the battle Jackson was
+further promoted to the rank of brevet captain. His "devotion,
+industry, talent, and gallantry" were noted officially after
+Chapultepec, not only by his colonel, but by Generals Pillow and
+Worth, and by the Commander-in-chief, Winfield Scott.
+
+What he afterward confessed as the "one wilful lie he ever told" is
+thus reported by a brother-officer:
+
+"Lieutenant Jackson's section of Magruder's battery was subjected to a
+plunging fire from the Castle of Chapultepec. Horses were killed or
+disabled, and the men deserted the guns and sought shelter behind wall
+or embankment. Lieutenant Jackson remained at the guns, walking back
+and forth and kept saying, 'See, there is no danger; _I_ am not hit!'
+While standing with his legs wide apart, a cannon-ball passed between
+them.... No other officer in the army in Mexico was promoted so often
+for meritorious conduct, or made so great a stride in rank."
+
+After peace was declared in 1848, he was stationed for two years at
+Fort Hamilton, and six months at Fort Meade in Florida; in 1851 he was
+elected Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and
+Artillery Tactics in the Virginia Military Institute, situated in
+Lexington, Va. In the decade succeeding this event, he was to the
+casual eye the least striking figure in the group of professors who
+taught the art of war in the beautiful mountain-girt "West Point of
+the South."
+
+"I should have said that he was the least likely of our family to make
+a noise in the world," said his sister-in-law in 1862, when the
+popular voice was ranking him with Bayard, Roland, Sidney, and
+Napoleon.
+
+"I knew that what I willed to do, I could do," he had said of his
+recovery from physical weaknesses which made his acceptance of the
+Lexington professorship of doubtful expediency, in the judgment of
+friends.
+
+He never willed to be eloquent in the lecture-room or brilliant in
+society in his life as teacher, church official, and neighbor there
+was no evidence of the personal magnetism which was to make him the
+soul and genius of the Confederate army. While carrying into every
+detail of daily existence the military law of system and fidelity, he
+was aggressive in nothing. The grave, quiet gentleman who was never
+late in class, never negligent of the minutest professional duty, who
+was always punctual at religious services, and never missed a meeting
+of the Faculty of the V. M. I., or of the deacons of the Presbyterian
+Church, was reckoned a good Christian and upright citizen, exemplary
+in domestic and social relations--perhaps a trifle ultra-conscientious
+in some particulars. But for the prevalency of orthodoxy in "the
+Valley" he would have been considered eccentric in his religious views
+and practice. He established a Sunday-school for the negroes and
+superintended it in person; he gave a tenth of his substance to the
+church; he "weighed his lightest utterances in the balances of the
+sanctuary;" he would not pick up an apple in a neighbor's orchard
+unless he had permission to take it; he never wrote or read letters on
+Sunday, or mailed one that must travel on that day to reach its
+destination; used neither tobacco, tea, nor coffee, and during the war
+was "more afraid of a glass of wine than of Federal bullets." His
+reverence for women was deep and unfeigned; he was gentleness itself
+to little children; bowed down before the hoary head, and never sank
+the lover in the husband. All that he had and all he was, belonged
+first to GOD, then to his wife.
+
+"His person was tall, erect, and muscular.... His bearing was
+peculiarly English, and in the somewhat free society of America was
+regarded as constrained. Every movement was quick and decisive; his
+articulation was rapid, but distinct and emphatic, and often made the
+impression of curtness. He practised a military exactness in all the
+courtesies of society.... His brow was fair and expansive; his eyes
+blue-gray, large, and expressive; his nose Roman and well-chiselled,
+his cheeks were ruddy and sunburned; his mouth, firm and full of
+meaning; his beard was brown"--is a pen-picture drawn by a brother
+officer.
+
+On December 2, 1859, a corps of cadets was sent to Charlestown, Va.,
+to secure law and order during the execution of John Brown. Major
+Jackson's graphic description of the scene in a letter to his wife
+contains this passage:
+
+"I was much impressed with the thought that before me stood a man in
+the full vigor of health, who must in a few moments enter eternity. I
+sent up the petition that he might be saved."
+
+An officer upon duty, he saw the terrible spectacle with Cromwellian
+composure, but the man behind the impassive mask was upon his knees in
+prayer for the human soul. Under date of January 21, 1860, he writes:
+
+"Viewing things at Washington from human appearances we have great
+reason for alarm, but my trust is in God. I cannot think that He will
+permit the madness of men to interfere so materially with the
+Christian labors of this country at home and abroad."
+
+She who, of all the world, knew him best records:
+
+"He never was a secessionist and maintained that it was better for the
+South to fight for her rights in the Union than out of it.... At this
+time (March 16, 1861) he was strongly for the Union. At the same time,
+he was a firm State's rights man."
+
+At dawn, April 21st, he received an order from the Governor of
+Virginia to report to him immediately at Richmond, bringing the corps
+of cadets with him. At 1 o'clock P.M. he bade a final farewell to home
+and Lexington.
+
+On June 4th he writes incidentally to his "Little One" from Harper's
+Ferry:
+
+"The troops here have been divided into brigades, and the Virginia
+forces under General Johnston constitute the First Brigade, of which I
+am in command."
+
+This brigade was to share with the commanding officers the _sobriquet_
+by which he is known better than under his real name. In the battery
+attached to it were forty-nine graduates of colleges, besides nineteen
+divinity students.
+
+From the first victory of Manassas (June 21, 1861), when General Bee
+turned the tide of battle by shouting to the wavering lines, "Look at
+Jackson, standing like a stone wall! Rally behind the Virginians!" to
+the fatal blunder of May 2, 1863, "Stonewall" Jackson was the flashing
+star that guided the Confederate armies to glorious success. His faith
+in the God of armies was so blended with the conviction that he was a
+chosen instrument in the Omnipotent hand to repel invasion and secure
+an honorable peace for his beloved State, that his sublime confidence
+infused officers and men.
+
+A fragment of a camp ballad, popular in 1862, will give a faint idea
+of the enthusiasm excited by the "praying fighter:"
+
+  Silence! ground arms! kneel all! caps off!
+    Old Blue-light's going to pray.
+  Strangle the fool that dares to scoff!
+    Attention! 'tis his way!
+  Appealing from his native sod
+    In _forma pauperis_ to God;
+  "Lay bare Thine arm--stretch forth Thy rod!
+    Amen!" _That's_ Stonewall's way.
+
+Love-letters to his "only sweetheart," written in camp, in the saddle,
+from smoking battle-fields, red with the blood of the slain, reveal a
+heart as tender as it was stout, faith that never failed, the courage
+of a lion, the unspoiled simplicity of a child.
+
+Our last extract from war papers is significant of what might have
+been but for the fall of the South's greatest chieftain at the most
+critical period of the struggle:
+
+"Jackson alone stands forth the one advocate of 'ceaseless invasion'
+as our 'safest hope,' the first conviction of his mind and a policy in
+accord with Southern feeling."
+
+Mrs. Jackson joined her husband at his quarters near Fredericksburg,
+bringing with her the baby-girl he had never seen until then, on April
+20, 1863. On the 23d the little one, held in the proud father's arms,
+was baptized by the regimental chaplain. Nine golden days followed the
+reunion of the loving family before Hooker crossed the Rappahannock in
+force. Wife and baby were hurried off to Richmond after "a hasty,
+tender adieu," and the battle of Chancellorsville began.
+
+"From the opening of this campaign," says Jackson's biographer, "it
+was observed that a wondrous change came over him. From the quiet,
+patient, but arduous laborer over his daily tasks, he seemed
+transformed into a thunderbolt of war."
+
+During the three awful days of Chancellorsville "the thunderbolt"
+seemed omnipresent to the Confederate soldiers, oftenest in the
+hottest of the fight, always where he was most sorely needed.
+
+On the afternoon of May 2d, in making his way from one part of the
+field to another with his staff and couriers, they were mistaken for
+Federal cavalry, and a volley of musketry was poured in upon them,
+wounding General Jackson mortally.
+
+On the way to the rear a second disaster overtook the doomed band. A
+Federal battery opened a fire across the road, and the devoted
+attendants, laying the wounded chief in a shallow ditch, covered him
+with their own bodies while the tempest of shot tore up the earth on
+all sides of them. The danger was averted by a change in the range of
+the guns, and the mournful march was resumed. Meeting a North Carolina
+general who "feared," in reply to Jackson's eager questions, "that his
+troops could not maintain their position," the hero spoke out, in the
+accustomed tone of command:
+
+"You _must_ hold your ground, General Pender! you must hold your
+ground, sir!"
+
+It was his last military order. Some hours later he lay in his tent,
+weak from pain and loss of blood, one arm gone, and his other wounds
+dressed, when a messenger arrived in haste from General J. E. B.
+Stuart, relating that he was contending against fearful odds in the
+field, and asking for counsel from the friend who would never more
+ride forth at his side. At the tidings of Stuart's extremity, General
+Jackson aroused himself to interrogate the bearer of the message,
+query succeeding query with characteristic impetuosity. Suddenly the
+martial fire faded ashily, his eyes dulled into mournfulness.
+
+"I don't know. I can't tell--" as if groping for thought or words.
+"Tell General Stuart to do what _he_ thinks best."
+
+The "resolve" he and others had thought invincible, the iron nerve
+that had not quivered in the shock of fifty engagements, failed him.
+Yet he rallied as the cannonading jarred his bed and insisted upon
+receiving reports from hour to hour.
+
+"Good! good!" he ejaculated, when told how his own brigade was
+behaving. "The men will some day be proud to say to their children, 'I
+was one of the Stonewall brigade.' The name belongs to them, not to
+me. It was their steadfast heroism at First Manassas that earned it.
+They are a noble body of men."
+
+His wife and child were recalled in season to be with him for two days
+immediately preceding his death. Although confident up to the dawn of
+his last day on earth, that GOD still had work for him to do, and
+would raise him up to do it, he received the news of his approaching
+dissolution with perfect calmness.
+
+"He preferred the will of GOD to his own;" he "would be infinitely the
+gainer by the translation from earth to heaven." He gave his wife
+instructions as to his burial and her future home; smiled radiantly,
+in murmuring "Little darling! sweet one!" as the baby he had named for
+his mother was lifted for the father's last kiss.
+
+"Jackson must recover," General Lee had exclaimed upon hearing of his
+condition. "God will not take him from us now that we need him so
+much. Say to him that he has lost his left arm, _I my right!_"
+
+Men who had not blenched when brought face to face with death that
+menaced themselves, bowed to the earth, weeping like women, as mortal
+weakness stole upon the strong right arm of the Confederacy. Without
+the tent "the whole army was praying for him," while incoherent
+sentences of command and inarticulate murmurings fell from his
+lips--fainter with each utterance. The watchers thought speech and
+consciousness gone forever, when the voice that had pealed like the
+blast of Roland in charge and rally, sounded through the hushed
+chamber, sweet, distinct, and full of cheer, but in dreamy
+inflections:
+
+_"Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees!_"
+
+Forced march, and midnight raid, and mad rush of battle were over.
+Victorious Greatheart slept upon the field.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+[Illustration: Jackson at Chancellorsville.]
+
+
+
+
+DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT
+
+By L. P. BROCKETT, A.M.
+
+(1801-1870)
+
+[Illustration: David Farragut. [TN]]
+
+
+Heroes have not been wanting in the history of maritime warfare, at
+any time in these last three hundred years. Holland points with pride
+to her gallant DeRuyter and Van Tromp, who made the little republic
+among the marshes and canals that yield tribute to the Zuyder Zee,
+famous the world over. England glories in her Blake, her Collingwood,
+and most of all, in her Nelson, the model naval hero of all her
+history; and we cannot suppress our admiration of the daring of the
+reckless John Paul Jones, the matchless patriotism of Lawrence, and
+the gallant bearing and extraordinary success of Perry, Bainbridge,
+Decatur, and the elder Porter; while in the War of the Rebellion the
+heroic Foote, Dupont, Winslow, D. D. Porter, and Rogers, covered their
+names with glory.
+
+But among all these illustrious names there is none which so
+thoroughly awakens our enthusiasm, or so readily calls forth our
+applause, as that of Farragut. With all of Nelson's courage and
+daring, he had more than his executive ability and fertility of
+resource, a wider and more generous intellectual culture, and a more
+unblemished, _naive_, frank, and gentle character.
+
+He bore in his veins some traces of the best blood of Spain, his
+father, George Farragut, having been a native of Citadella, the
+capital of the island of Minorca, and a descendant of an ancient and
+honorable Catalonian family. The father came to this country in 1776,
+and united most heartily in our struggle for independence, attaining
+during the war the rank of major. After the conclusion of the war,
+Major Farragut married Miss Elizabeth Shine, of North Carolina, a
+descendant of the old Scotch family of McIven, and settled as a farmer
+at Campbell's Station, near Knoxville, Tenn. Here, on July 5, 1801,
+his illustrious son was born. The father seems to have been not
+altogether contented with a farmer's life in that mountainous region,
+for not long after we hear of him as a sailing-master in the navy, and
+an intimate friend of the father of Commodore David D. Porter, who
+then held a similar rank. Young Farragut inherited his father's love
+for the sea, and though brought up so far inland, among the Cumberland
+Mountains, he had hardly reached the age of nine and a half years,
+when the longing for a sailor's life possessed him so strongly, that
+his father consented; and after some little delay, a midshipman's
+warrant was procured for him.
+
+His first cruise was under the command of Captain (then
+master-commandant) Porter, who, in July, 1812, was promoted to the
+rank of captain, and soon after sailed in the Essex for the South
+American coast and the Pacific. To this famous frigate the young
+midshipman was ordered before her departure, and he remained on her
+through the eventful two years that followed, when she drove the
+British commerce out of the Pacific. When on March 28, 1814, the
+British frigate Phoebe, thirty-six guns, and sloop-of-war Cherub,
+twenty-eight guns, without scruple attacked the Essex in the harbor of
+Valparaiso, in violation of the rights of a neutral nation, there
+ensued one of the fiercest naval battles on record. Though fighting
+against hopeless odds, the two British vessels having twice the number
+of guns and men of the Essex, Commodore Porter, with the reckless
+daring which was so marked a trait of his character, refused to strike
+his colors till his ship had been three or four times on fire, and was
+in a sinking condition, with her rigging shot away, the flames
+threatening her magazine, and 152, out of her crew of 255, killed,
+wounded, or missing. The battle had lasted two and a half hours. On
+his surrender, the Essex Junior, a whaling-ship which he had converted
+into a sloop-of-war, but which had been unable to take any part in the
+battle, was sent home with the prisoners on parole. The young
+midshipman, then a boy under thirteen, was in the hottest of the
+fight, and was slightly wounded during the action. Before the loss of
+the Essex, he had served as acting-lieutenant on board the Atlantic,
+an armed prize.
+
+On his return to the United States, Commodore Porter placed him at
+school at Chester, Pa., where he was taught, among other studies, the
+elements of military and naval tactics; but in 1816 he was again
+afloat and on board the flag-ship of the Mediterranean squadron, where
+he had the good fortune to meet in the chaplain, Rev. Charles Folsom,
+an instructor to whom he became ardently attached, and to whose
+teachings he attributed much of his subsequent usefulness and success.
+
+This pleasant period of instruction passed all too quickly, and the
+boy, now grown to man's estate, after some further service in the
+Mediterranean, was, on January 1, 1821, at the age of nineteen and a
+half years, promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and ordered to duty on
+the West India station. In 1824 he was assigned to duty at the Norfolk
+navy-yard; and with the exception of a two years' cruise in the
+Vandalia, on the Brazil station, remained at Norfolk till 1833. Here
+he married a lady of highly respectable family, and during the long
+years of suffering through which she was called to pass, from a
+hopeless physical malady, he proved one of the most tender and
+affectionate of husbands, never wearying of administering all the
+relief and comfort to the sufferer in his power. When death at last
+terminated her protracted distress, he mourned her tenderly and long.
+He subsequently married another lady of Norfolk, Miss Virginia Loyall,
+the daughter of one of the most eminent citizens of that city.
+
+In 1860 he had spent nearly nineteen years afloat--eighteen years and
+four months on shore duty, and ten years and ten months either
+waiting orders or on leave of absence. Forty-eight of his fifty-eight
+years had been spent in the naval service.
+
+In April, 1861, came the rebellion. Captain Farragut was at his home
+in Norfolk, surrounded by those who were sympathizers with the
+rebellion, and who were already maturing plans for the seizure of the
+Government property and its conversion to rebel uses. No more loyal
+heart ever beat than his, and in frank and manly terms he denounced
+the whole proceedings of the traitors, and gave expression to his
+abhorrence of them. This roused all the hatred of the plotters of
+treason, and they told him at once, in tones of menace, that he could
+not be permitted to live there if he held such sentiments. "Very
+well," was his prompt reply, "then I will go where I can live and hold
+such sentiments." Returning to his home, he informed his family that
+they must leave Norfolk for New York in a few hours. They immediately
+made their preparations, and the next morning, April 18, 1861, bid
+adieu to Norfolk. The Navy Department was, however, anxious to give
+him employment, and in default of anything else he served for a time
+as a member of the Naval Retiring Board, which shelved the incompetent
+officers of the navy, and promoted the active, loyal, and deserving.
+
+Meantime, the Government had resolved on the capture of New Orleans,
+and entered with zeal upon the work of fitting out a squadron, as well
+as an army, for its reduction. The squadron was to consist of a fleet
+of armed steamers, and twenty bomb-schooners, each carrying gigantic
+mortars, fifteen-inch shells.
+
+The bomb-fleet was to be under the command of Commander David D.
+Porter, but he was to report to Flag-officer Farragut, who was to have
+charge of the entire squadron. Selecting the Hartford as his
+flag-ship, and having made all possible preparations for his
+expedition, Flag-officer Farragut received his orders on January 20,
+1862, and on February 3d sailed from Hampton Roads. Arriving at Ship
+Island on February 20th, he organized the West Gulf Blockading
+Squadron, and in spite of difficulties of all sorts--the delay in
+forwarding coal, naval stores, hospital stores, ammunition, etc., the
+labor of getting vessels drawing twenty-two feet over the bars at Pass
+L'Outre and Southwest Pass, where the depth was but twelve and fifteen
+feet, the ignorance and stupidity of some of the officers, and every
+other obstacle he had to encounter--made steady progress. The
+difficulties were not all surmounted until April 18th, when the
+bombardment of Fort Jackson, the lowermost of the two forts defending
+the passage of the Mississippi, was commenced. These forts were
+seventy-five miles below New Orleans and possessed great strength. A
+continuous bombardment was maintained for six days, by which the forts
+were considerably damaged, but they still held out stoutly. A heavy
+iron chain had been stretched across the river, supported by large
+logs, to obstruct the passage of vessels, and was placed at a point
+where the fire of the two forts could be most effectively
+concentrated. Above this chain lay the rebel fleet of sixteen gunboats
+and two iron-clad rams. Along the banks of the river were land
+batteries, mounting several guns each.
+
+Finding that the forts were not likely to yield to the bombardment,
+Flag-officer Farragut called a council of war, and after hearing
+their opinions, which were somewhat discordant, issued his general
+order of April 20th, in which the spirit of the hero gleams out. This
+was his language: "The flag-officer having heard all the opinions
+expressed by the different commanders, is of the opinion _that
+whatever is to be done will have to be done quickly_. When, in the
+opinion of the flag-officer, the propitious time has arrived, the
+signal will be made to weigh, and advance to the conflict.... He will
+make the signal for close action, _and abide the result--conquer or be
+conquered_."
+
+After further and severe bombardment of the forts, the flag-officer
+gave notice to the steam-vessels of the squadron, of his determination
+to break the chain and run past the forts, engage the rebel fleet, and
+having defeated it, ascend the river to New Orleans, and capture that
+city. It was a most daring movement. The chain had previously been
+broken, and the mortar-vessels moved up and anchored ready to pour in
+their fire as soon as the forts should open. The steam-fleet moved up
+in two columns, one led by Flag-officer Farragut in person, in the
+Hartford, the other by Captain Theodorus Bailey, as second in command,
+in the Cayuga. The left column (Farragut's) was composed of the
+Hartford, Brooklyn, Richmond, Sciota, Iroquois, Kennebec, Pinola,
+Itasca, and Winona; the right (Bailey's), of the Cayuga, Pensacola,
+Mississippi, Oneida, Varuna, Katahdin, Kineo, and Wissahickon. The
+right column was to engage Fort St. Philip; the left, Fort Jackson.
+The fleet were fairly abreast of the forts before they were
+discovered, and fire opened upon them; but from that moment the firing
+was terrible, and the smoke, settling down like a pall upon the river,
+produced intense darkness, and the ships could only aim at the flash
+from the forts, the forts at the flash from the ships. A fire-raft,
+pushed by the ram Manassas against the flag-ship (the Hartford), set
+it on fire, and at the same instant it ran aground; but by the prompt
+and disciplined exertions of the men the flame was extinguished in a
+few minutes and the ship got afloat, never ceasing its fire upon the
+enemy. At times the gunboats passed so near the forts as to be able to
+throw their broadsides of shrapnel, grape, and canister with most
+destructive force into their interior; and the forts, in the endeavor
+to depress their guns sufficiently to strike the vessels, lost their
+shot, which rolled into the ditches. They were nearly past the forts
+when the rebel fleet came down upon them, the iron-clad ram Manassas
+among them. Several of these gunboats were iron-clad about the bow,
+and had iron beaks or spurs. The Cayuga, Captain Bailey's flag-ship,
+was the first to encounter these; and soon after the Varuna, commanded
+by Captain Boggs, found itself in a nest of rebel steamers, and moved
+forward, delivering its broadsides, port and starboard, with fearful
+precision, into its antagonists, four of which were speedily disabled
+and sunk by its fire. The Varuna was finally attacked by the Morgan
+and another rebel gunboat, both iron-clad at the bow, which crushed in
+her sides; but crowding her steam, she drew them on, while still fast,
+and poured broadsides into both, which drove them ashore crippled and
+in flames. Running his own steamer on shore as speedily as possible,
+the gallant Boggs fought her as long as his guns were out of water,
+and then brought off his men, who were taken on board the Oneida and
+other gunboats of the fleet. Several of the gunboats were considerably
+injured, but none of them lost except the Varuna. The Itasca, Winona,
+and Kennebec were disabled and obliged to fall back. Thirteen of the
+seventeen vessels composing Flag-officer Farragut's squadron were able
+to pass in safety these forts, and had defeated a rebel fleet,
+destroying thirteen of their gunboats and rams, and the iron-clad
+Manassas, and compelling the remainder to shelter themselves under the
+guns of the forts. The entire loss of the Union squadron was but 36
+killed and 135 wounded.
+
+The gallant flag-officer now ascended the river, encountering slight
+opposition from the Chalmette batteries, about three miles below New
+Orleans; but they were silenced in twenty minutes, and at noon of
+April 25th, he lay in front of the city, and demanded its surrender.
+Four days later the forts were surrendered to Captain Porter, and
+General Butler came up the river to arrange for landing his troops,
+and taking possession of the conquered city. Meantime, Farragut had
+ascended the river above the city to Carrolton, where had been erected
+some strong works to oppose the progress of Flag-officer Foote, should
+he descend the river. These, on the approach of the gunboats, were
+abandoned, and their guns spiked. They were destroyed.
+
+New Orleans being safely in the possession of the Union forces,
+Flag-officer Farragut ascended the Mississippi, and on June 27th ran
+his vessels safely past the rebel batteries at Vicksburg, and
+communicated with Flag-officer Davis, then commanding the Mississippi
+squadron, and arranged for a joint attack upon Vicksburg. The attack
+failed, because the bluffs at Vicksburg were too high to be
+effectively bombarded by the gunboats, and the capture of the city
+required the co-operation of a land force. He therefore repassed the
+batteries in safety on July 15th, and descending the river, made
+Pensacola the head-quarters of his squadron. On July 11th, the rank of
+rear-admiral, having been created in accordance with the
+recommendation of a committee of Congress, Captain Farragut was
+advanced to that rank, and placed first on the list for his
+meritorious conduct in the capture of New Orleans. He also received
+the thanks of both houses of Congress. In the autumn of 1862 he
+directed the naval attacks on Corpus Christi, Sabine Pass, and
+Galveston, which resulted in the capture of those points. In his
+duties as the commander of a blockading and guarding squadron, there
+was much of detail: attacks of guerillas along the river shores, to be
+parried and punished; surprises of the weaker vessels of the squadron
+to be chastised and revenged; expeditions against rebel towns on or
+near the coast, to be aided and sustained; and careful lookout to be
+kept for blockade-runners, who sought their opportunities to slip into
+the ports of Mobile, Galveston, and Aransas. These occupied much of
+his time during the autumn and winter of 1862-63.
+
+The admiral had long desired to attack the defences of Mobile, and
+thus effectually check the blockade-running, which it was impossible
+wholly to prevent while that port was left unmolested. But it was not
+until August 5, 1864, that the assault was finally made.
+
+The fleet which was to take part in the attack consisted of fourteen
+sloops-of-war and gunboats, and four iron-clad monitors. The admiral
+arranged them for the attack as follows: the Brooklyn and Octorara
+were lashed together, the Brooklyn being on the starboard side,
+nearest Fort Morgan--the Brooklyn being, much against the admiral's
+wishes, allowed the lead; next the Hartford and Metacomet, followed by
+the Richmond and Port Royal, the Lackawanna and Seminole, the
+Monongahela and Kennebec, the Ossipee and Itasca, and the Oneida and
+Galena. The four monitors were arranged in the following order, to the
+right or starboard of the gunboats: the Tecumseh, Commander T. R. M.
+Craven, taking the lead, and followed by the Manhattan, Commander
+Nicholson; the Winnebago, Commander Stevens; and the Chickasaw,
+Lieutenant-commander Perkins.
+
+The rebels, in addition to three forts all manned with large
+garrisons, had a squadron consisting of the iron-clad ram Tennessee,
+regarded by them as the most formidable armed vessel ever constructed,
+and three powerful gunboats, the Selma, Morgan, and Gaines.
+
+The fleet steamed steadily up the channel, the Tecumseh firing the
+first shot at 6.47 A.M. The rebels opened upon them from Fort Morgan
+at six minutes past seven, and the Brooklyn replied, after which the
+action became general. The Brooklyn now paused, and for good
+reason--the Tecumseh, near her, careened suddenly and sank almost
+instantly, having struck and exploded a torpedo; and her gallant
+commander and nearly all her crew sank with her.
+
+Directing the commander of the Metacomet to send a boat instantly to
+rescue her crew, Admiral Farragut determined to take the lead in his
+own flag-ship, the Hartford, and putting on all steam, led off through
+a track which had been lined with torpedoes by the rebels; but he
+says, "Believing that, from their having been some time in the water,
+they were probably innocuous, I determined to take the chance of their
+explosion."
+
+Turning to the northwestward to clear the middle ground, the fleet
+were enabled to keep such a broadside fire on the batteries of Fort
+Morgan as to prevent them from doing much injury. After they had
+passed the fort, about ten minutes before eight o'clock, the ram
+Tennessee dashed out at the Hartford; but the admiral took no further
+notice of her than to return her fire. The rebel gunboats were ahead,
+and annoyed the fleet by a raking fire, and the admiral detached his
+consort, the Metacomet, ordering her commander, Lieutenant-commander
+Jouett, to go in pursuit of the Selma, and the Octorara was detached
+to pursue one of the others. Lieutenant-commander Jouett captured the
+Selma, but the other two escaped under the protection of the guns of
+Fort Morgan, though the Gaines was so much injured that she was run
+ashore and destroyed. The combat which followed between the Tennessee
+and the Union fleet, and resulted in the surrender of that formidable
+iron-clad vessel, is best described in the admiral's own words:
+
+"Having passed the forts and dispersed the enemy's gunboats, I had
+ordered most of the vessels to anchor, when I perceived the ram
+Tennessee standing up for this ship. This was at forty-five minutes
+past eight. I was not long in comprehending his intentions to be the
+destruction of the flag-ship. The monitors and such of the wooden
+vessels as I thought best adapted for the purpose, were immediately
+ordered to attack the ram, not only with their guns, but bows on at
+full speed; and then began one of the fiercest naval combats on
+record.
+
+"The Monongahela, Commander Strong, was the first vessel that struck
+her, and in doing so carried away her own iron prow, together with the
+cutwater, without apparently doing her adversary much injury. The
+Lackawanna, Captain Marchand, was the next vessel to strike her, which
+she did at full speed; but though her stem was cut and crushed to the
+plank-ends for the distance of three feet above the water's edge to
+five feet below, the only perceptible effect on the ram was to give
+her a heavy list.
+
+"The Hartford was the third vessel that struck her; but, as the
+Tennessee quickly shifted her helm, the blow was a glancing one, and,
+as she rasped along our side, we poured our whole port broadside of
+nine-inch solid shot within ten feet of her casement.
+
+"The monitors worked slowly, but delivered their fire as opportunity
+offered. The Chickasaw succeeded in getting under her stern, and a
+fifteen-inch shot from the Manhattan broke through her iron plating
+and heavy wooden backing, though the missile itself did not enter the
+vessel.
+
+"Immediately after the collision with the flag-ship, I directed
+Captain Drayton to bear down for the ram again. He was doing so at
+full speed, when, unfortunately, the Lackawanna ran into the Hartford
+just forward of the mizzenmast, cutting her down to within two feet of
+the water's edge. We soon got clear again, however, and were fast
+approaching our adversary, when she struck her colors and ran up the
+white flag.
+
+"She was at this time sore beset; the Chickasaw was pounding away at
+her stern, the Ossipee was approaching her at full speed, and the
+Monongahela, Lackawanna, and this ship were bearing down upon her,
+determined upon her destruction. Her smoke-stack had been shot away,
+her steering-chains were gone, compelling a resort to her
+relieving-tackles, and several of her port shutters were jammed.
+Indeed, from the time the Hartford struck her, until her surrender,
+she never fired a gun. As the Ossipee, Commander Le Roy, was about to
+strike her, she hoisted the white flag, and that vessel immediately
+stopped her engine, though not in time to avoid a glancing blow.
+
+"During this contest with the rebel gunboats and the ram Tennessee,
+which terminated by her surrender at ten o'clock, we lost many more
+men than from the fire of the batteries of Fort Morgan."
+
+The rebel Admiral Buchanan was severely wounded, and subsequently lost
+a leg by amputation. Admiral Farragut, as humane in his feelings
+toward a wounded foe as he was gallant and daring in action,
+immediately addressed a note to Brigadier-General Page, the commander
+of Fort Morgan, asking permission to send the rebel admiral and the
+other wounded rebel officers by ship, under flag of truce, to the
+Union hospitals at Pensacola, where they could be tenderly cared for.
+This request was granted, and the Metacomet despatched with them.
+
+The admiral had stationed himself "in an elevated position in the main
+rigging, near the top," a place of great peril, but one which enabled
+him to see much better than if he had been on deck, the progress of
+the battle; and from thence he witnessed, and testified with great
+gratification to the admirable conduct of the men at their guns,
+throughout the fleet; and, in this connection, gives utterance to a
+sentiment which shows most conclusively his sympathy and tenderness:
+"Although," he says, "no doubt their hearts sickened, as mine did,
+when their shipmates were struck down beside them, yet there was not a
+moment's hesitation to lay their comrades aside and spring again to
+their deadly work."
+
+It is said that at the moment of the collision between the Hartford
+and Lackawanna, when the men called to each other to save the admiral,
+Farragut, finding the ship would float at least long enough to serve
+his purpose, and thinking of that only, called out to his
+fleet-captain, "Go on with speed! Ram her again!"
+
+The results of this victory were the destruction of the rebel fleet;
+the capture of the armored ship Tennessee, and of 230 rebel officers
+and men; the abandonment on the next day of Fort Powell, with 18 guns;
+the surrender on the 8th of Fort Gaines, with 56 officers, 818 men,
+and 26 guns; and on August 23d, after a further bombardment of
+twenty-four hours, of Fort Morgan, with 60 guns and 600 prisoners. By
+these captures the port of Mobile was hermetically sealed against
+blockade-runners, and a serious blow given to the rebel cause.
+
+Rear-admiral Farragut remained in command of the West Gulf squadron
+till November, 1864, when he requested leave of absence, and was
+called to Washington for consultation in regard to future naval
+operations. Soon after the opening of Congress, a resolution of thanks
+to him for his brilliant victory at Mobile was passed, and the rank of
+vice-admiral, corresponding to that of lieutenant-general in the army,
+was created, and on January 1, 1865, David Glascoe Farragut promoted
+to it. This appointment made him the virtual chief commander of the
+naval forces of the United States.
+
+The West Gulf blockading squadron, during all the time Admiral
+Farragut was in command of it, had had more fighting and less prizes
+than any other blockading squadron on the coast; and while Admirals
+Dupont, Lee, Porter, and Dahlgren had accumulated immense fortunes by
+their shares of prize-money, Admiral Farragut had received little
+beyond his regular pay. The merchants of New York, understanding this,
+and recognizing the great services he had rendered to commerce and to
+the nation, subscribed the sum of fifty thousand dollars, which was
+presented to him in United States 7.30 Treasury notes, in January,
+1865, in testimony of their appreciation of his ability and success as
+a naval commander. Until 1866 the rank of vice-admiral was the highest
+known in the navy In July of that year the office of admiral was
+specially created and bestowed on Farragut. He saw no further
+important service, but died quietly at Portsmouth, N. H., August 14,
+1870.
+
+[Illustration: Farragut at Mobile Bay.]
+
+Even the English _Army and Navy Gazette_ speaks of Admiral Farragut as
+"the doughty admiral whose feats of arms place him at the head of his
+profession, and certainly constitute him the first naval officer of
+the day, as far as actual reputation won by skill, courage, and hard
+fighting goes."
+
+
+
+
+DAVID DIXON PORTER
+
+(1814-1891)
+
+[Illustration: David Porter. [TN]]
+
+
+Among the coincidences of naval and military command in the war for
+the Union, the association of the names of Farragut and Porter, in the
+important series of operations on the Mississippi, has not escaped
+attention.
+
+The former, as the reader has seen in the previous sketch, was
+introduced to the service in his childhood, under the care and
+protection of Commodore David Porter, and boy as he was, fully shared
+the adventures and perils of his famous cruise in the Pacific. Nearly
+fifty years after that event Captain Farragut, in command of the
+Department of the Gulf, entered the Mississippi in concert with the
+son of his old commander of the Essex, to vindicate the national honor
+by the restoration of New Orleans to the Union--a service which was to
+prove the ability of both officers, and lead them to the highest rank
+known to the naval service of the United States. Looking into the
+future, Commodore Porter, the hero of the War of 1812, would hardly
+have dreamt that the "boy midshipman, who had been introduced to him
+at New Orleans, would, with two of his own sons, at the end of half a
+century, receive the highest honors of their country, the reward of
+the most arduous and perilous services against a domestic foe on the
+Mississippi."
+
+Of these sons of Commodore Porter, thus distinguished in this field of
+duty, William D. Porter, the elder, on more than one occasion, in
+command of the gunboat Essex, recalled not merely the name of his
+father's vessel, but the courage and patriotism, the spirit and
+success which had given the old ship her reputation. The younger,
+David D. Porter, the subject of this notice, born in Philadelphia,
+entered the navy as midshipman in the year 1829. His first cruise was
+in the Mediterranean, under Commodore Biddle, till 1831. After a
+year's leave of absence, he returned to that station, which has ever
+proved, in its liberal intercourse with the men of other nations, and
+its undying associations of nature and art, a most important school in
+the education of the young naval officers of the United States. Having
+passed his examination in 1835, young Porter was attached to the coast
+survey service from 1836 to 1841, when he was promoted to a
+lieutenancy and was ordered to the frigate Congress, in which he
+sailed for four years on the Mediterranean and South American
+stations. In 1845, we find him attached to the National Observatory at
+Washington in special service. During the Mexican war which succeeded,
+he was in charge of the naval rendezvous at New Orleans, was
+subsequently again employed on the coast survey, and from 1849 to 1853
+was, by permission of the department, in command of the California
+mail steamers Panama and Georgia, running from New York to Aspinwall,
+a rising commercial service of national importance, to which his
+experience and personal character were of great value. After this he
+was in various home services, till 1861, when he was promoted to the
+rank of commander, and placed in command of the steam-sloop Powhatan,
+in which he joined the Gulf Blockading squadron off Pensacola. He had
+thus, at the outbreak of the Rebellion, been thirty-two years in the
+service, over nineteen of which had been spent at sea and nine on
+shore duty.
+
+A special service of great importance was presently intrusted to him.
+When in the beginning of 1862, an expedition was set on foot to open
+the Mississippi River to New Orleans, he was assigned to the command
+of a fleet of bomb-vessels to co-operate with the squadron of Captain
+Farragut in that enterprise--a service which he carried out with
+distinguished ability.
+
+After the capture of New Orleans, Commander Porter continued to
+co-operate with Captain Farragut on the Mississippi, being engaged in
+the movement on Vicksburg in May. In the following October he was
+placed in command of the Mississippi squadron, with the rank of acting
+rear-admiral, and when, in the ensuing year, operations were actively
+resumed for the capture of Vicksburg, his squadron, in concert with
+the victorious army of General Grant, was constantly employed in the
+most hazardous and honorable service.
+
+It was he who forwarded to the Secretary of the Navy at Washington the
+brief and authoritative announcement: "Sir, I have the honor to inform
+you that Vicksburg surrendered to the United States forces on July
+4th." This was the first bulletin to the country and to the world of
+this memorable event. Simultaneously with the victory of General Mead
+over Lee at Gettysburg, it was hailed as the crowning disaster to the
+Rebellion. As a reward for his services on the Mississippi, Porter was
+promoted to the full rank of rear-admiral.
+
+In December, 1864, he commanded the fleet which bombarded Fort Fisher.
+After a terrific assault the fort was captured January 13, 1865, and
+Wilmington, the last Confederate port, was closed. Porter received
+another, his fourth, vote of thanks from Congress, and in 1866 was
+made vice-admiral. On Farragut's death, in 1870, he was immediately
+appointed to succeed him as admiral, and held the rank until his
+death, on February 13, 1891.
+
+
+
+
+GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI
+
+(1807-1882)
+
+[Illustration: Guiseppe Garibaldi. [TN]]
+
+
+Garibaldi has not left the world without some account of his birth,
+parentage, and early life. Not a little of his great, naive, and
+enthusiastic character may be studied in those Memoirs, of which his
+eccentric friend, Alexander Dumas, published a free translation. He
+was born July 22, 1807. He was a native of Nice, a city inhabited by a
+mongrel race, but himself sprung from a purely Italian family The name
+of Garibaldi, common enough throughout North Italy, betokens old
+Lombard descent. He first saw light, as he states, in the very house
+and room where, forty-nine years before, Massena was born. His father,
+Domenico, had come from Chiavari, in the Riviera di Levante; he gives
+his mother's name Rosa Raguindo. Garibaldi's father and grandfather
+were seamen, and he took to the sea as his native element, developing
+great strength and skill as a swimmer, an accomplishment which enabled
+him to save drowning men on several memorable occasions. For what book
+learning he had he seems to have been indebted to the desultory
+lessons of priestly schoolmasters under the direction of his mother.
+Of this latter he always spoke with great tenderness, acknowledging
+that "to her inspiration he owed his patriotic feelings," and stating
+that "in his greatest dangers by land and sea his imagination always
+conjured up the picture of the pious woman prostrated at the feet of
+the Most High interceding for the safety of her beloved."
+
+In early life he embarked in his father's merchant vessel, a brig, and
+in that and other craft he made frequent voyages to Odessa, Rome, and
+Constantinople. Soon after the revolutionary movements of 1831 he was
+at Marseilles, where he fell in with Mazzini, busy at that time with
+the organization of "Young Italy," and with the preparations for an
+invasion of Italy by sea, which, upon Mazzini's expulsion from
+Marseilles, was attempted at Geneva, and directed against the Savoy
+frontier. The Savoy expedition turned out an egregious failure, the
+blame of which Garibaldi, on Mazzini's statement, throws on the Polish
+General Ramorino's treachery. Garibaldi himself, who had embarked on
+board the royal frigate Eurydice to gain possession of that vessel by
+a mutiny of the crew, being off Genoa, and hearing of a plot to storm
+the barracks of the Carabinieri, landed in the town to join it; but
+the attack upon the barracks miscarried, and he, not daring to go back
+to his ship, saw himself irreparably compromised, fled to Nice, and
+thence crossed the Var and found himself an exile at Marseilles. Here
+he betook himself again to his sea life, sailed for the Black Sea and
+for Tunis, and at last on board the Nageur, of Nantes, for Rio de
+Janeiro.
+
+In the commentaries before alluded to Garibaldi gives the fullest
+particulars of the exploits by which he rose to distinction beyond the
+Atlantic during the twelve years elapsing from his leaving Europe in
+1836 to his return to Italy in 1848. It is the romance of his career,
+and will some day be wrought into an epic blending the charms of the
+Odyssey with those of the Iliad--a battle and a march being the theme
+of the eventful tale almost from beginning to end.
+
+Garibaldi took service with the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul, a vast
+territory belonging to Brazil, then in open rebellion and war against
+that empire. He took the command of a privateer's boat with a crew of
+twelve men, to which he gave the name of Mazzini, and by the aid of
+which he soon helped himself to a larger and better-armed vessel, a
+prize taken from the enemy. In his many encounters with the Imperial
+or Brazilian party the hero bought experience both of wonderfully
+propitious and terribly adverse fortune, and had every imaginable
+variety of romantic adventure and hair-breadth escapes. He was
+severely wounded, taken prisoner, and in one instance at Gualeguay, in
+the Argentine territory, he found himself in the power of one Leonardo
+Millan, a type of Spanish South American brutality, by whom he was
+savagely struck in the face with a horsewhip, submitted to several
+hours' rack and torture, and thrown into a dungeon in which his
+sufferings were soothed by the ministration of that "angel of
+charity," a woman, by name Madame Alleman.
+
+Escaping from his tormentor by the intervention of the Governor of
+Gualeguay, Paolo Echague, Garibaldi crossed from the territories of
+the Plate into those of the Rio Grande, and faithful to the cause of
+that republic, he fought with better success, winning battles,
+storming fortresses, standing his ground with a handful of men, or
+even single-handed, against incredible odds, beating strong squadrons
+with a few small vessels, giving through all proofs of the rarest
+disinterestedness, humanity, and generosity, disobeying orders to sack
+and ravage vanquished cities, and exercising that mixture of authority
+and glamour over his followers which almost enabled him to dispense
+with the ties of stern rule and discipline. At last, after losing a
+flotilla in a hurricane on the coast of Santa Caterina, where he
+landed wrecked and forlorn, having seen his bravest and most cherished
+Italian friends shot down or drowned, he fell in with his Anita--not,
+apparently, the first fair one for whom he had a passing fancy--with
+whom he united his destinies, for better for worse, in life and till
+death, in some off-hand manner, about which he is reticent and
+mysterious. Anita turned out almost as great and daring and
+long-enduring a being as her heroic mate, and was by his side in all
+fights by land and sea, till the fortunes of the Republic of Rio
+Grande declined, when, after giving birth to her first-born, Menotti
+Garibaldi, September 16, 1840, she went with that infant and his
+father through unheard of hardships and dangers in the disastrous
+retreat of Las Antas; when at last, Garibaldi, beginning to feel the
+responsibilities of a growing family, and despairing of the issues of
+an ill-conducted war, took leave of his Republican friends at Rio
+Grande and went for a short respite in his adventurous career to
+Montevideo.
+
+After trying on the journey to find employment as a cattle-driver,
+Garibaldi settled at Montevideo in the capacity of a general broker
+and teacher of mathematics; but war having broken out between the
+Republic of the Uruguay and Buenos Ayres, the Condottiere was
+solicited to draw his sword for the former state which afforded him
+hospitality, and was trusted with the command of a little squadron
+destined to operate on the Parana River against a largely superior
+Argentine force. This expedition was contrived by enemies high in
+power in the Montevidean Government, who, jealous of the reputation
+won by Garibaldi at Rio Grande, vainly plotted to have him
+assassinated with his friend Anzani, and hoped to rid themselves of
+him by exposing him to dangers from which it seemed impossible that he
+could extricate himself. Garibaldi, however, made the best of his
+desperate position, and escaped, not only with his life, but also with
+"honor--the only thing that was not lost."
+
+Presently, danger pressing sorely on the republic, he organized his
+Italian Legion, which behaved well through a new series of land and
+sea combats, its band of only 400 combatants often beating the enemy's
+corps 600 men strong, at the close of which exploits its soldiers
+refused grants of land offered to them by a grateful state, "the
+stimulus of their exertions," as their commander said, "being only the
+triumph of the Republican cause." The legion was afterward as a mark
+of honor, allowed precedence over all the other troops of the
+republic. The war continued, and under the auspices of their commander
+the soldiers of the Italian Legion rose to such distinction that at
+the affairs of the Boyada and of Salto Sant' Antonio, February, 1846,
+Garibaldi was empowered to write to the government of the republic
+that the brilliant successes of those deeds of arms were entirely due
+to their gallantry.
+
+Meanwhile, however, news from Europe came to turn the attention of
+Italian patriots to the momentous events which were rapidly changing
+the conditions of the peninsula. Years had passed. Pius IX. was Pope;
+Sicily had risen in open and successful revolt; a republic had been
+proclaimed in France; Constitutions were being wrested from the
+reluctant hands of most European despots. Austria was convulsed with
+insurrectionary attempts; the Milanese drove Radetsky from their city
+after five days' fighting, and Charles Albert unfurled the national
+standard and crossed the Ticino.
+
+The theatre of the exploits of the hero of Montevideo was soon
+changed. All who had a heart and soul in Italy were up and doing, and
+could Italy's greatest heart and soul remain beyond the seas?
+Garibaldi, on the first reports of the Pope's liberal leanings, wrote
+to the Nuncio Bedini at Montevideo, October 17, 1847, offering the
+services of the Italian Legion to his Holiness, who was now almost on
+the eve of a war with Austria, "although," the letter said, "the
+writer was well aware that St. Peter's throne rests on a solid basis,
+proof against all human attacks and needing no mortal defenders." The
+Nuncio returned thanks and praises and referred Garibaldi's tender to
+the Pontifical Government at Rome. But Garibaldi, never well disposed
+to losing time, after vainly waiting for further communication from
+Pope or Nuncio, brooked no longer delay. With incredible difficulty he
+scraped together money and means, and embarked with his brave friend,
+Anzani (who died at Genoa soon after landing), having with him only 85
+men and two cannon, and leaving the remainder of his legion to follow
+when and how it could.
+
+He crossed the ocean, landed at Nice, proceeded to Genoa and Milan,
+and when Charles Albert, defeated at Custozza, withdrew from the
+Lombard city and accepted an armistice, which saved Piedmont from
+invasion, August, 1848, Garibaldi passed over to Mazzini, and at the
+head of a volunteer force, of which Mazzini was the standard-bearer,
+issued a manifesto in which he proclaimed the Sardinian king a
+traitor, and declared that "the royal war was at an end, and that of
+the people was now to begin." That proclamation was, however, only an
+idle bravado. Mazzini, even if he had the spirit, lacked the physical
+strength of a fighting man. The Garibaldians, on hearing the news of
+the fall of Milan, lost heart, and many crossed over the frontier to
+Switzerland. With thinned and dispirited bands, Garibaldi, aided by
+his friend Medici, ventured on a few desultory fights near Luino, on
+Lake Maggiore, but soon fell back and withdrew to Lugano in the Canton
+Ticino, his health, it is said, breaking down, and his immediate
+followers being reduced to some three hundred.
+
+A few months later Pius IX., fallen from his popularity and pressed
+hard by his disaffected subjects, who murdered his minister and almost
+stormed him in his palace at the Quirinal, ran away to Gaeta, and a
+Roman Republic was proclaimed, of which Mazzini, in a triumvirate with
+two others, mere men of straw, became the head. Attacked by the French
+in flagrant violation of all rights of nations, Rome undertook to
+defend itself, and whatever Italy could boast of generous hearts,
+regardless of party differences, rallied round Garibaldi, who drove
+back the French from Porta Pancrazia, April 29 and 30, 1849, defeated
+the Neapolitans in that campaign of Velletri, which was like the farce
+contrasting with the tragic drama soon to be acted at Rome, and
+withstood a three months' siege, in which many of the noblest
+champions of the Italian cause lavished their lives in a hopeless,
+yet, as it proved, not a fruitless struggle.
+
+The French having gained possession of the city July 13, 1849,
+Garibaldi left it with a band of devoted volunteers, retired via Terni
+and Orvieto, gathering together about 2,000 men in his progress,
+crossed the Apennines, and pressed by the Austrians with overwhelming
+forces, sought a refuge at San Marino, gave the enemy the slip in the
+night, embarked at Cesenatico for Venice, which was still withstanding
+the Austrian siege, was met by four Austrian men-of-war, which
+compelled him to put back and land on the coast near Ravenna, and
+wandered ashore in the woods, where Anita, his inseparable companion
+in this disastrous march, succumbed to the fatigues of the journey,
+and expired in the hero's arms. Garibaldi's devoted friends Ugo Bassi
+and Ciceruacchio, falling into the hands of the Austrians, were shot
+by them without any forms of trial and by an act of barbarism which no
+human or divine law could justify. The heart-broken hero, with a few
+trusty men, made his way from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, was
+arrested by the Sardinian Carabinieri at Chiaveri, conveyed to Genoa,
+where La Marmora was in command, and there embarked for Tunis; hence,
+finding nowhere a refuge, he proceeded to the Island of La Maddalena,
+off the shore of Sardinia, and hence again to Gibraltar and Tangier.
+
+La Marmora received the heart-broken fugitive as a brother, supplied
+him with ample means for his journey to Tunis, and obtained for him
+from the Turin Government the assignment of an honorable pension,
+which Garibaldi did not in his straits disdain to accept. But, in his
+opinion, all seemed now over for Italy; Charles Albert's son, Victor
+Emmanuel, after the defeat of Navara, had made his peace with Austria
+in March, 1849. Venice had succumbed after heroic sufferings in
+August, and Garibaldi, again crossing the ocean, settled at New York
+as a tallow chandler, and only came back to Europe in 1855.
+
+When Garibaldi returned from America he did not look out for Mazzini
+or his Republicans in England or Switzerland, but sought a home in
+Piedmont, a Constitutional State, which allowed him an obscure but
+peaceful retreat in his hermitage at Caprera, an island rock on the
+Sardinian coast near the Maddalena, and conveyed to him a hint that
+the time might soon come in which his country's cause would summon him
+from retirement. And, truly, four years later (1859) the destinies of
+Italy were nearing their fulfilment. France and Piedmont took the
+field against Austria. Garibaldi, leaving his island home, was met and
+highly welcomed by Victor Emmanuel, to whom he swore fealty as the
+only hope of Italy. He now took the command of the Chasseurs des
+Alpes, aided the royal army in its defence of the territory previous
+to the arrival of its great French auxiliary, and, following in the
+upper region a line parallel to that kept in the plain by the conquest
+of Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino, beat the Austrians at Varese and
+San Fermo, bewildered his adversary Urban, by the rashness of his
+movements on the mountains above Como, advanced upon Bergamo and
+Brescia, and pushed on to the Valtellina up to the very summit of the
+Stelvia Pass. Here the peace of Villafranca put an end to the
+struggle, and Garibaldi, afflicted by the arthritic pains to which he
+was a martyr all his life, travelled for a few days' rest to Tuscany
+and Genoa.
+
+At Genoa, during the autumn and winter, Garibaldi, hospitably
+entertained by his friend Augusto Vecchi outside the city, busied
+himself with that expedition of "the Thousand" which made one state of
+the south and north of Italy. He embarked on May 11, 1860, at Genoa,
+landed in Sicily, at Marsala, beat the Neapolitans at Calatafimi,
+followed up his success to Palermo, and, aided by the insurgent city,
+compelled the garrison to surrender. He again routed the Bourbon
+troops at Milazzo, and had soon the whole island at his discretion
+with the exception of the citadel of Messina. He then crossed over
+into Calabria, and, almost without firing a shot, drove the Neapolitan
+king's troops before him all over the mainland, compelled the king to
+abandon the strong pass of La Cava and to withdraw his forces from
+his capital, where Garibaldi, with only a few of his staff, made his
+triumphal entry on September 7, 1860.
+
+After a few days' rest Garibaldi followed the disheartened king to
+Capua, obtained new signal successes on the Volturno, at Santa Maria,
+and Caserta; but would probably have been unable to accomplish the
+enterprise had not the Piedmontese, whose government had aided
+Garibaldi's expedition while pretending to oppose it, overrun the
+Marches, beaten Lamoriciere and the Papal forces at Castel Fidardo,
+and, crossing the frontier and the Apennines, besieged and reduced the
+strong places of Capua and Gaeta. Garibaldi, who, as a dictator, had
+with doubtful success endeavored to establish something like rule in
+the Two Sicilies, aware of the arduousness of a task which would have
+exceeded many wiser men's powers, met Victor Emmanuel at Naples,
+delivered the two kingdoms into his hands, and, declining all the
+proffered honors and emoluments for himself, took leave of his
+sovereign and embarked for the solitude of his rock-farm at Caprera.
+
+Rome alone now remained outside of the United Italian Kingdom, and
+Garibaldi, raising bands of adventurers, made two or three attempts to
+capture it, but was repulsed by its French garrison, and it was not
+until 1870 that, the French troops being recalled to their own sorely
+distressed country, the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel became an
+accomplished fact, though in the great liberator's absence. Garibaldi
+once more was seen in Rome, April, 1879. He was supposed to be
+proposing great purchases of arms, to be enlisting hosts of
+volunteers, to be planning thorough reforms and preparing formidable
+expeditions against Austria. But Garibaldi, away from Caprera, could
+not fail to have his good as well as his evil angels about him. He saw
+the king; he listened to General Medici, his own right arm in so many
+campaigns, and now first aide-de-camp to King Humbert, as he had
+before been to King Victor Emmanuel. He listened, while they showed
+him the folly of further war, and, though not convinced, he was
+silenced. Although too proud to acknowledge the absurdity of his
+schemes in words, he was too wise not to give them up in deeds. He
+withdrew from the vain popular acclamation; shut his door against the
+crowd of his visitors, and although he announced his intention to take
+up his domicile in Rome, he pleaded indisposition as an excuse for
+inaction and retirement. Unfortunately there was only too much ground
+in the plea. The arthritic pains, of which symptoms had manifested
+themselves as early as during the Lombard campaign of 1849, had been
+seriously aggravated by his toils, and the sight of his helplessness
+in Rome as he hobbled up the steps of Montecitorio in 1874, was
+saddening to all beholders, and prepared his friends for that end
+which, however, was to be put off for several years. The fatigue of
+the voyage from Caprera in 1879, and still more the excitement of
+incessant calls, objectless conferences, and endless exhibitions soon
+entirely prostrated the hero, and before the backward spring had fully
+set in it became evident that Garibaldi's life could only be a
+lingering agony.
+
+[Illustration: Meeting of Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi.]
+
+His life, if life it may be called, and at all events his sufferings,
+were prolonged yet a few years. He left home in the spring of 1881 on
+a mad scheme of liberating, "by force if necessary," his
+son-in-law, Canzio, who had been arrested as a plotter for the
+republic. But having obtained the man's release from the king's
+government as a favor, he once more sought the peace of his hermitage
+where he died, June 2, 1882.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT VON MOLTKE
+
+(1800-1891)
+
+[Illustration: Count von Moltke. [TN]]
+
+
+Suddenly, but quietly and painlessly, on the evening of April 24,
+1891, passed away one of the most remarkable men of the present
+century. Hellmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke was born, October 26, 1800,
+at Parshim, in Mecklenburg, where his father, previously a captain in
+the Prussian army, had retired, impoverished in circumstances, to an
+estate which he inherited. When little Hellmuth was three years old,
+his father, Baron Moltke, settled at the free town of Lubeck, the once
+famous head of the Hanseatic League. Here, in 1806, on the retreat
+from the disastrous battle of Jena, Marshal Bluecher, who like Von
+Moltke was of Mecklenburg origin, sought refuge with his shattered
+troops; and little Moltke was a witness of the sack and plunder of the
+town by the troops of Napoleon, his father's house being one of those
+that suffered most severely. It is said that the incidents of this
+event made a lasting impression upon the mind of the boy. At the age
+of nine, with his elder brother Fritz, young Hellmuth was placed under
+the care of Pastor Knickbein, at Hohenfelde, near Horst, a scholarly
+man of a kindly and genial disposition, for whom he always retained a
+deep regard. His sense of indebtedness appears in the inscription
+which he wrote on the title-page when forwarding to him a copy of his
+first work, his "Letters from Turkey;" "To my dear teacher and
+fatherly friend to whom I owe so much, I send this, my first work, as
+a slight testimony of respect."
+
+The favorite recreation of the two brothers while here at school was
+playing at war, as perhaps was natural at such a period. They were
+accustomed to collect the peasant boys of the village and divide them
+into two rival armies, Fritz commanding the one, and Hellmuth the
+other. Once, when the mimic warfare was at its height, the weaker
+force of Hellmuth was routed, and some were taken prisoners. Called
+upon to surrender, Hellmuth cried out, "All is not lost!" and hastily
+rallying his men he marched them straight to a pond in Pastor
+Knickbein's garden, and hurried them to a little island which the boy
+himself had constructed with great labor, and accessible only by a
+single plank. Facing the enemy with a few of his strongest men, he
+kept them at bay until all his troops had passed into the fortress, he
+himself being the last to enter. Then the drawbridge was raised and
+the victory won. The island, preserved by the good pastor, long since
+gone to his rest, still exists, and is pointed out with great pride by
+the villagers to curious visitors as the scene of one of the early
+exploits of Germany's greatest strategist.
+
+His experiences at the Royal Academy at Copenhagen, to which he was
+sent at the age of twelve, were not of the happiest. Relating his
+reminiscences of that period, in reply to the question, "Do you retain
+pleasant recollections of cadet life?" he remarked, "I have little
+reason to do so. Without relations or acquaintances in a strange city,
+we spent a joyless youth. The discipline was strict, even hard, and
+now, when my judgment of it is unprejudiced, I must say that it was
+too strict, too hard. The only benefit we received from this treatment
+was that we became accustomed to deprivations."
+
+Passing over the period of his service in the Danish army, and his
+entrance into that of Prussia, we find him, after making heroic
+efforts on his scanty pay to acquire foreign languages, in which he
+attained in after-life so remarkable a proficiency, attached to a
+commission for topographical surveys in Silesia and the Grand Duchy of
+Posen.
+
+Consolidating and extending his knowledge of military science and of
+foreign peoples, as in the case of his visits to the East, Russia,
+Rome, and elsewhere, Moltke rose steadily in his profession. In 1845,
+he became aide-de-camp to the invalid Prince Henry of Prussia, uncle
+of the king; and subsequently, after holding commands of increasing
+importance, he was made first aide-de-camp to the Crown Prince
+Frederick. Ultimately, in 1859, he was appointed permanent chief of
+the staff. His later military career, and brilliant successes against
+the Danes, Austrians, and the French, and the various honors accorded
+him, are so well known and have been so often and so recently
+narrated, that any further reference to them in this present sketch is
+unnecessary, the purpose of our notice being to briefly indicate some
+of the leading points of the great field-marshal's character. One fact
+is memorable, that he had passed the age when men frequently retire
+from the public service before the time of his greater achievements.
+His splendid career began to the eye of the world at sixty-five.
+
+The guiding principle of his life is well illustrated by the ancient
+motto of his family, _Caute et candide_ (warily and gently), and by
+his own favorite maxim, _Erst waegen, dann wagen_ (first weigh, then
+venture). He was slow, cautious, and careful in laying his plans, but
+having formed his design, he was bold, daring even to the verge of
+apparent recklessness in its execution. The same calm, immovable
+spirit characterized him even in moments when most ordinary
+mortals--he was a man _sui generis_--might, with some show of reason,
+be perturbed or excited. Even in the most critical period of the
+Franco-German war his unruffled quietness remained the same, sterner
+perhaps in look, more silent than ever. Though the warrior king,
+amidst the carnage of the battle-field might feel depressed; though
+Bismarck, man of "iron and blood," might be anxious at the progress
+of events, Moltke, seated on his great black horse, calmly surveyed,
+telescope in hand, the movements of the troops, or later, resting
+quietly in his room at Versailles, awaited the result undismayed. When
+war was declared, a friend met him with the remark: "You must indeed
+be overworked at present." "No," replied the General, "the work was
+done beforehand; all orders are gone out; I really have nothing to
+do."
+
+Married in 1842, shortly after his return home from the East, to Miss
+Burt, an English lady, he lived with her in the bonds of a rare union
+of happiness, concord, and mutual sympathy. On the occasion of her
+death, which took place Christmas Eve, 1868, he withdrew still more
+from public life, and found in quiet, studious, and laborious life
+some slight relief for his grief. Very touching was his devotion to
+the memory of his wife. Upon his estate at Kreisau he built a little
+mausoleum, situated on a beautiful eminence, embowered in foliage.
+This little chapel, constructed of red brick and sandstone, was lined
+inside with black and white marble, and in front of the altar was
+placed the simple oak coffin in which the remains of his wife reposed,
+covered at all seasons of the year with wreaths. Sculptured in the
+apse was a finely carved figure of our Lord in an attitude of
+blessing, copied from Thorwaldsen. Above were inscribed the words of
+St. Paul, "Love is the fulfilment of the Law." When at his
+country-seat the aged warrior visited the tomb morning and evening.
+Now at her side slumbers the veteran, awaiting with her the signal of
+the resurrection.
+
+Of his bearing in the time of his bereavement, the following incident
+was related by the late Mr. George Bancroft, the distinguished
+historian, at that period United States Minister at Berlin. Mr.
+Bancroft was one of the favored few who were accustomed to accompany
+Von Moltke in his daily rides in the Thiergarten or to the Grunewald.
+Seeing the general on horseback, "my first impulse," said Mr.
+Bancroft, "was to trot into another lane. On second thoughts, however,
+I turned my horse alongside his, remembering that it was for him to
+talk or be silent. To my surprise, he forthwith began a lively
+conversation, describing the happiness with which Miss Burt had
+blessed her husband, and expatiating upon her manifold virtues as one
+crushed by an overwhelming, irreparable loss. Then of a sudden he grew
+silent, as if a new current of thought had carried him sheer away. 'Do
+you know,' he said, when his lips were again opened, 'it has just been
+brought home to me that, after all, perhaps it was better that this
+happened now than at another time? You see, I am convinced that a
+French invasion is impending; it will burst upon us sooner or later,
+whatever the plea may eventually be. Now think if the fortune of war
+was to be adverse to our arms! Why, her grief over the country's
+adversities must have cut her life short. No, no; that would have been
+worse!'"
+
+Von Moltke was a passionate lover of children, and is said to have
+been quite the slave to the caprices of his little grandnephew, the
+son of Major Hellmuth von Moltke, the aide-de-camp of the count, whom
+the emperor, as a special mark of his royal favor, immediately after
+the funeral of his chief, made one of his own aides-de-camp.
+
+As far as Count von Moltke's religious views could be ascertained,
+they were of a simple type, and characterized by a strict adherence to
+the path of duty and virtue. Daily was he accustomed to read his
+Bible, one of ancient date, its well-marked pages indicating how
+frequently its owner was in the habit of consulting its inspired
+pages. An extract from a letter the aged field-marshal wrote on the
+eve of his eightieth birthday is peculiarly interesting. "I stand,"
+said he, "close upon the end of my life; but how different from that
+here will be the measure in a future world according to which our
+earthly actions will be judged! Not the brilliancy of success, but the
+purity of our endeavors and faithful perseverance in duty, even when
+the result was scarcely visible, will decide as to the value of a
+man's life. What a wonderful displacement of high and low will be
+witnessed at that great review! We do not even know ourselves what we
+have to ascribe to ourselves, to others, or to a higher will. It will
+be well not to set too great a value on externals." In a passage in
+one of his books, referring to our Lord's life here upon earth, he
+remarks: "His life was humble. He was the descendant of a people in
+bondage, and He had not a place where to lay His head. To the
+fishermen He talked in parables about God; He healed the sick, and
+died the death of an evil-doer. And yet there has never been anything
+on this earth that could be purer, more elevated, and also--even seen
+from the worldly point of view--more successful than His conduct, His
+teaching, and His death."
+
+The old soldier's habits of life were, like those of the majority of
+really great men, extremely simple and singularly free from
+ostentation of any kind. Very characteristic of the late field-marshal
+are the following data of his life, written by himself on the occasion
+of his ninetieth birthday. An Austrian Association for the Promotion
+of Popular Knowledge addressed a number of interrogatories to various
+European celebrities of great age, which were to explain the
+circumstances and conditions under which an exceptionally long life
+might be attained. The answers received were collected in a book and
+subsequently published.
+
+Field-Marshal von Moltke answered the questions submitted to him in
+his own peculiarly laconic manner, as follows:
+
+_Q._ In which year of your life and on which date did you begin to
+learn, and for how many hours a day?--_A._ 1808, in my eighth year,
+with four; after 1810, with ten hours a day.
+
+_Q._ Was your health in your youth delicate or robust?--_A._ Tough
+nature.
+
+_Q._ Did you grow up in the country or in town?--_A._ Up to my tenth
+year in the country.
+
+_Q._ How many hours did you spend in the open air? Regularly?--_A._
+Irregularly, and but few hours.
+
+_Q._ Did you cultivate hardening games and other exercises?--_A._ Not
+methodically.
+
+_Q._ How many hours did you sleep in childhood?--_A._ Ten hours.
+
+_Q._ Special remarks?--_A._ Joyless youth, scanty nourishment, absence
+from the paternal home.
+
+_Q._ Where did you complete your studies--in town or in the
+country?--_A._ In town.
+
+_Q._ How many hours a day do you devote to mental work?--_A._ Very
+different.
+
+_Q._ Do you attribute to any particular habit of your life a favorable
+influence upon your health?--_A._ Moderation in all habits of life. In
+all weathers exercise in the open air. No day altogether at home.
+
+_Q._ How long did you sleep at a mature age?--_A._ From eight to nine
+hours on an average.
+
+_Q._ What alterations have you made at an advanced age in your mode of
+life?--_A._ None.
+
+_Q._ How long did you work daily in your fiftieth, sixtieth,
+seventieth, eightieth years?--_A._ Quite as circumstances required it;
+often, therefore, very long.
+
+_Q._ What were your recreations?--_A._ Riding on horseback up to my
+eighty-sixth year.
+
+_Q._ How many hours do you spend in the open air?--_A._ Now, in summer
+on my estate, half the day.
+
+_Q._ How long do you sleep at present?--_A._ Always eight hours still.
+
+_Q._ What are your habits with regard to eating, etc.?--_A._ I eat
+very little, and take concentrated food.
+
+_Q._ To what circumstances do you particularly attribute your stalwart
+old age (which may God long preserve!)?--_A._ To God's grace and
+temperate habits.
+
+An interesting anecdote is related, apropos of his dislike to display,
+on the occasion of the opening of new barracks at Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
+to which, as the oldest and most distinguished officer of the regiment
+in which he first served, he was invited. His acceptance of the
+invitation was accompanied by the stipulation that no ceremony should be
+made; but the officers, desiring to do honor to their illustrious guest,
+had provided the best carriage that the town afforded to meet him at the
+station. On his arrival, the field-marshal thanked the officer in
+waiting, took a common cab, and with his nephew, who was with him as
+aide-de-camp, drove off to the barracks, to the astonishment of the
+honest burghers.
+
+His favorite recreations were chess, in which he excelled; music,
+especially that of the school of Schubert and Mozart--he entertained
+very decided opinions about the "music of the future"--and whist,
+which he rarely missed playing after dinner, even when at the seat of
+war. The count was an authority on the culture of roses, and at
+Kreisau, where he spent most of his time after his retirement from
+more active service, he possessed one of the finest and most unique
+collections of roses in Germany, a fact which lends an additional
+grace to the tribute of respect paid to the field-marshal's memory,
+when, the day after his death, the empress visited the head-quarters
+of the General Staff and placed a magnificent wreath of his favorite
+flower upon the bed of the departed hero.
+
+Had not his reputation as a military strategist overshadowed his other
+gifts, the count would have gained distinction in the world of
+letters. In the twenties, while engaged in the Topographical
+Department, he wrote a pamphlet, published at Berlin, entitled
+"Holland and Belgium," by H. von Moltke, in which he calls the
+attention of Europe to the Belgian Revolution; this was followed, in
+1845, by a critical military work of great merit, "The Russo-Turkish
+Campaign of 1828-29 in European Turkey," which created a deep
+impression in military circles, and proved of considerable service in
+the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. Moltke's pithy and laconic
+style was founded on the model of his chief, General von Mueffling, his
+instructor in practical and theoretical tactics, in which the members
+of the German General Staff are required to excel. He was a graphic
+writer and shrewd observer of men and things, as his charming letters
+from Russia, France, Turkey, and other places show. Especially
+sagacious were his observations on the Turks, made to his sister,
+married to Mr. John Burt, an Englishman settled at Holstein, in which
+he affirms that the kingdom is rotten, that Turkey had fallen under a
+ban, and that ban the Koran, which teaches so warped a doctrine that
+its laws and decrees must of necessity oppose all social progress. His
+views on Russia, as indicated in his letters written in the form of a
+diary to his wife on the occasion of his visit in 1856, when
+accompanying Prince Frederick William at the coronation of the Czar
+Alexander II. at Moscow, show the same keen powers of observation. He
+considered that Russia had a great future before her, but this could
+only be realized when her officials became more honest. "Honesty among
+Russian officials," he thinks, "can only be brought about by many
+years of iron severity." Of the difficulty of governing the French
+nation, he wrote, when visiting the court of Napoleon III.: "It would
+be as impossible to allow the liberty of the press in France as to
+admit discussion of the orders given by generals to their armies when
+in the field." We have not the advantage of knowing his views on
+England and the English on the three occasions, in 1856, 1858, and
+1861, when he visited the country in company with the crown prince to
+be present at his betrothal and marriage to the princess royal, and
+again at the funeral of the prince consort. How highly his opinion as
+an authority was esteemed as early as 1867, is seen by an incident
+which occurred during the Universal Exhibition, when Count Moltke, in
+company with King William of Prussia and Count Bismarck, dined with
+Napoleon III. at St. Cloud. Subsequently, the emperor and Moltke
+engaged in an animated conversation apart from the rest. At this
+moment Marshal Randon, Minister of War, walked across the room, and
+the emperor, noticing him, raised his voice, saying, "Come here,
+marshal. General Moltke says that with the needle-gun he would be
+strong enough to fight even the French army." Marshal Randon drew
+near, and, turning toward Moltke, said, in a tone loud enough to be
+heard by all in the room, "Pardon me, general; but, in spite of the
+high opinion I have of your judgment, I cannot share your belief. I
+venture to affirm, that even with the needle-gun, the French army
+would not suffer the fate of the Austrian army;" and the conversation
+continued without the bystanders being able to follow it. But after
+the departure of the King of Prussia and his suite, Napoleon III.,
+struck by these words, energetically busied himself in overhauling
+the equipment of the French army. He examined various models of guns
+that were submitted to him, and among these the Martini rifle, which
+he found excellent, but which was after all rejected for the
+Chassepot. The making of this gun was pushed forward so actively that
+the French army was provided with it by 1870.
+
+[Illustration: Moltke at Versailles, 1870.]
+
+In respect of his literary efforts, as of his military achievements,
+Moltke was singularly modest. Herr G. von Bunsen tells us how,
+"meeting the general one day at a dinner-party, I expressed my regret
+at his having neglected to write some letter-press to accompany his
+well-known map of the environs of Ancient Rome. 'But a companion book
+for it was written,' he replied; 'or rather,' correcting himself, 'he
+had begun writing one at Rome, and was prevented from finishing the
+MS. when the Government ordered him to convey Prince Henry's body to
+Berlin, and there set him engrossing tasks to do.' Hereupon I ventured
+to ask him for a loan of this fragment. Of course he believed it to be
+lost; but, as a matter of course likewise, it was brought to my door
+by an orderly at an early hour next morning. When returning the MS., I
+advised the publication of parts of it, which would be found
+acceptable independently of his being the author; and if my humble
+advice should be followed, would he accept my humble services as
+editor? His reply," adds Herr von Bunsen, "has been carefully
+preserved. Its purport was that he must lay down three conditions:
+First, I must omit what I pleased; secondly, transpose at my pleasure;
+and thirdly, _alter the text_ wherever it seemed desirable." "Will any
+editor in the world," Herr von Bunsen pithily remarks, "hesitate to
+confirm my belief that no MS. of the last unfledged stripling of an
+author was ever offered on similar conditions?"
+
+Fitting tributes of respect and admiration were paid to the aged
+field-marshal on the occasion of his celebrating his ninetieth
+birthday, on October 26, 1890. Telegrams from all sorts and conditions
+of men poured in upon him, including, among the princes and sovereigns
+of Europe, one from Queen Victoria, who held Count von Moltke in high
+esteem. The 26th falling upon Sunday, the schools throughout the
+length and breadth of Germany were closed on the previous Saturday to
+enable the scholars to add their quota to the general rejoicing. In
+Berlin a torchlight procession of vast extent, composed of 20,000
+students, artists, members of trades and guilds, marched with banners
+and groups of historically dressed personages and impersonifications,
+from the old gray Schloss down the Linden, through the Brandenburg
+Gate to the Koenigsplatz, where are situated the buildings of the Grand
+Staff. Here addresses were presented to Von Moltke.
+
+On the following day, in the Conference Hall of the General Staff, the
+emperor, surrounded by the military magnates of the Reichsrath, the
+generals of the twenty army corps specially summoned to be present,
+the officers of the General Staff, Chancellor von Caprivi, successor
+to Prince Bismarck, the King of Saxony, the grand dukes and the Duke
+of Connaught, addressed the marshal in the following terms:
+
+"I thank you in the name of those who have fought together with you,
+and whose most faithful and devoted servant you have been. I thank
+you for all you have done for my House and for the greatness of the
+Fatherland. We greet in you not only a Prussian leader who has won for
+the army the reputation of being invincible, but one of the founders
+of the German Empire. The presence of the King of Saxony, who has made
+a point of personally congratulating you, recalls the time when he and
+you fought for Germany's greatness. The distinctions conferred upon
+you by my grandfather leave nothing in which I can personally show my
+thanks to you.... I call upon all those present to express their
+feelings of gratitude that Field-Marshal von Moltke has known how not
+to stand alone in his greatness, but to form a school of leaders of
+the army for time to come, and for all future generations, by giving
+cheers for his excellency."
+
+This, the last occasion on which public honors were accorded to the
+field-marshal during his life, appropriately emphasized the universal
+esteem in which "Father Moltke," as he was affectionally designated by
+the army, was held as one of the founders of the German Empire.
+
+
+
+
+GEORGE DEWEY
+
+By MAJOR-GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER
+
+(Born 1837)
+
+[Illustration: George Dewey. [TN]]
+
+
+Every occasion finds a _man_ to meet the exigencies of the hour, every
+conflict brings forth its hero, and every war educates soldiers for a
+war to come. War begets the warrior. Washington came out of the French
+and Indian wars, Jackson from the Creek wars; Scott and Taylor both
+emerged from Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, Grant and Lee from Mexico. So,
+George Dewey came out of the fierce internecine strife of our Civil
+War. He came, too, from one of the great sources of the best elements
+of our American population. The Puritans of New England and the
+Cavaliers of Virginia sprung from the same soil and a common ancestry,
+worked side by side, in a widely different manner, but to the same
+end; and from these two classes have sprung nearly all our great
+soldiers, statesmen, and authors. From the former came the great naval
+hero of the Spanish-American War.
+
+[Illustration: Admiral Dewey at Manila Bay.]
+
+George Dewey was born in Montpelier, Vermont, on December 26, 1837, of
+direct descent, in the ninth generation, from Thomas Dewey, who came
+from Sandwich, England, to Dorchester, in the Massachusetts Bay
+Colony, in 1633.
+
+His father, Dr. Julius Dewey, was a physician, eminent in his
+profession, and loved and respected, not only for his ability but for
+his innate nobility of character; and his mother was Mary Perrin. His
+ancestors on both sides were patriots in the days that tried men's
+souls, the hard and bitter days of the Colonial and Revolutionary
+Wars. He was the third of four children, and even in his boyhood he
+was a leader among his fellows. His breaches of discipline culminated
+in his heading an insurrection against the village school-master; but
+the pedagogue came off victorious, and administered a severe flogging
+to the young rebel, which punishment his father is said to have
+reinforced with some home-brewed medicine. The lesson was well
+learned, for we hear of no more insurrections.
+
+George Dewey entered the Naval Academy September 23, 1854, and was
+graduated fifth in a class of fourteen. He was attached to the frigate
+Wabash of the Mediterranean Squadron, and after his two years' cruise
+as a midshipman passed his final examination, in which he stood number
+one, gaining a final rating of three in his class. War was already
+imminent, and rapidly passing through the next grades he was on April
+19th attached as lieutenant to the Mississippi, belonging to the West
+Gulf Squadron. Early in 1862 Commodores Farragut and Porter prepared
+to capture New Orleans. Throughout this campaign Lieutenant Dewey
+distinguished himself by his cool courage, quick perception, and ready
+skill, winning the praise of Commodore Farragut. In running by the
+forts, he stood upon the bridge of the Mississippi, unmoved amid a
+storm of shot and shell, and unerringly guided her up the river,
+although he knew not a foot of the channel. The next year he was
+attached to one of Farragut's gunboats, and later to the Monongahela,
+which he commanded temporarily. In 1864, attached to the Colorado, he
+again distinguished himself in the attack on Fort Fisher, by a display
+not only of great courage, but of marked tactical skill, and by the
+fighting of his ship, which, though a junior, he really directed, and
+won the enthusiastic congratulations of his superior officers. Made
+lieutenant-commander March 3, 1865, Dewey emerged from the Civil War a
+matured naval officer at the age of twenty-seven, ripe in experience
+and ready for any service or sacrifice for the welfare of his country.
+
+His career from this time until the close of the year 1897, although
+important in his development and replete with valuable services in all
+directions, must be summed up in a few words.
+
+For two years subsequent to the war, he served with the European
+Squadron, first on the Kearsarge, later on the Colorado. 1867 found
+him at the Naval Academy. Promoted commander, April 13, 1872, he was
+assigned to the Narragansett until 1875. After seven years of bureau
+duty in the Navy Department, October 18, 1882, he commanded the
+Juniata of the Asiatic Squadron, and then learned the topography of
+Manila Bay, where he gave his first lesson to the Spaniard in the
+person of the Port Captain of Manila, who impudently proposed that he
+"parade his crew," so that some sailors accused of riot might be
+identified, Dewey's reply being: "The deck of this vessel is United
+States territory, and I'll parade my men for no foreigner that ever
+drew breath."
+
+Dewey's health broke down, and in 1884 he was at the Navy Department,
+but September 27th was commissioned captain and took command of the
+Dolphin, one of the "White Squadron," the beginning of our "New Navy."
+He reached the rank of commodore February 28, 1896. On shore he has
+served as a member of the Lighthouse Board, Chief of the Bureau of
+Equipment, and Chief of the Board of Inspection and Survey. Late in
+the year 1897 it became necessary to select a commander of the Asiatic
+Station. War with Spain was a possibility. It was therefore essential
+that the Asiatic Station be in command of an able and experienced
+officer.
+
+It has been said that Commodore Dewey, as also the other commodores,
+sought the North Atlantic and European Stations, believing that the
+Atlantic would be "the theatre of the war," and that he was averse to
+service in the Asiatic. It has also been said that the appointment of
+Dewey was a mere chance, a matter of routine. I think that these
+statements are not correct. I believe that Commodore Dewey was too old
+a sailor, too good a sailor, and too experienced a sailor to attempt
+to dictate his own orders. Furthermore, in a conversation with the
+President, this subject being mentioned, the President told me that he
+had carefully considered the appointment of an officer to command the
+Asiatic Station and had finally determined upon Dewey--that he wrote
+upon a card which he sent to the Secretary, of the Navy: "Appoint
+Dewey to Asiatic Squadron."
+
+In pursuance of the President's action, Commodore George Dewey was
+detached on November 30th from Bureau work and ordered to the Asiatic
+Station, of which he took command on January 3, 1898. The opportunity
+came, and the right man was in the right place.
+
+Commodore Dewey's squadron was composed of four protected cruisers,
+two gunboats, and a despatch-boat, as follows: The Olympia
+(flag-ship), a protected cruiser of 5,870 tons, mounting fourteen
+guns, Captain Gridley and flag-officer, Captain Benjamin P. Lamberton;
+the Baltimore, a protected cruiser of 4,413 tons and ten guns, Captain
+Nehemiah M. Dyer; the Raleigh, a protected cruiser of 3,213 tons and
+eleven guns, Captain Joseph B. Coghlan; the Boston, a protected
+cruiser of 3,000 tons and eight guns, Captain Frank Wildes; the
+Concord, a gunboat of 1,710 tons and six guns, Commander Asa Walker;
+the Petrel, a gunboat of 892 tons and four guns, Commander Wood; and
+the revenue cutter McCulloch, despatch-boat. Also the transports
+Zaffiro and Nanshan with provisions and coal. There was no armored
+vessel in the squadron.
+
+[Illustration: Admiral Dewey Loving Cup. [TN]]
+
+From the day Commodore Dewey took command of the Asiatic Station until
+April 24th, active preparations for war were going forward. The ships
+were kept stored to their full capacity with provisions, coal, and
+ammunition, and there was a continuous round of drill, target
+practice, manoeuvres, and evolutions. Dewey would be ready when
+action should become necessary. On April 24th the British authorities
+notified the American commander that he must quit Hong Kong within
+twenty-four hours. Dewey moved his squadron to Mirs Bay immediately.
+At six o'clock on the evening of April 25th, he received the following
+despatch:
+
+                                   "WASHINGTON, April 24, 1898.
+
+"Dewey, Hong Kong:
+
+"War has commenced between the United States and Spain. Proceed at
+once to the Philippine Islands. Commence operations at once,
+particularly against the Spanish fleet. You must capture vessels or
+destroy. Use utmost endeavors.
+
+                                   LONG."
+
+These orders were all sufficient for Dewey. Even without them he had
+no alternative. Obliged to leave British, he would soon be debarred
+from Chinese, waters; he was nearly 8,000 miles from a home-port, and
+Honolulu, his nearest coaling station, was 6,000 miles away.
+
+The following day was spent in consultation with his commanders in
+final preparation for his campaign, and waiting for the arrival from
+Manila of Williams, the American Consul, until the evening of the
+27th, when at two o'clock he sailed out of Mirs Bay to find the fleet
+of Spain. Proceeding across the China Sea, the squadron sighted Cape
+Bolinas one hundred and fifteen miles north of the entrance to Manila
+Bay, at 3.30 A.M., on Saturday, April 30th. About thirty miles north
+of the entrance, a conference of commanders was held. Dewey announced
+his plans. Rumors of mines and torpedoes had no terrors for Dewey,
+and, steaming slowly into Manila Bay, his squadron passed between
+Corregidor and Caballos about midnight.
+
+They arrived opposite Cavite about five o'clock, and, as daylight
+increased, the Spanish fleet could be seen in the harbor. This fleet,
+under Admiral Montejo, comprised ten vessels, viz.: The Reina Maria
+Cristina, a protected cruiser of 3,520 tons; the Castilla, a wooden
+cruiser of 3,340 tons; the Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don Juan de Austria,
+and Velasco, steel cruisers of 1,152 tons each; the Isla de Luzon and
+Isla de Cuba, gunboats of 1,040 tons each; the General Lezo and El
+Correo, gun vessels of 524 tons each; and the Marques del Duero,
+despatch-boat of 500 tons; besides tugs, transports, and launches, the
+latter used as torpedo-boats. There was no armored vessel in this
+fleet.
+
+Though counting more fighting vessels, the Spanish fleet was inferior
+to the American squadron in size and armament. The Spanish vessels
+mounted 116 guns, the American 135. But the Spanish fleet was
+protected by land batteries and forts armed with modern guns. The
+Spaniards were, therefore, much superior to the Americans in force and
+armament.
+
+At ten minutes past five the battle began, the Spaniards opening fire
+from ships and forts, at a distance of more than four miles. Two great
+mines were exploded in the path of the Olympia, but too far away to
+cause damage.
+
+At twenty-three minutes past five Dewey said to Captain Gridley: "You
+may fire when ready." Almost instantly an eight-inch gun roared out
+American defiance. As with one voice the blue-jackets of the squadron
+gave forth the American war-cry, "Remember the Maine!" and the battle
+was on.
+
+The Castilla lay moored head and stern under the protection of the
+guns, and surrounded by barges, which made it impossible to strike her
+below the water-line. The Reina Cristina, Admiral Montejo's flag-ship,
+and the other vessels of his fleet moved out to the battle protected
+by the forts and batteries. The Olympia in the lead, followed by the
+other vessels of the American squadron, headed straight for the centre
+of the Spanish line; then changing course, ran parallel to the Spanish
+line at a distance of four thousand yards. After passing the Spanish
+position the American squadron turned and again passed the Spanish
+line, decreasing the distance. The Spaniards were in strong position
+and fighting with consummate courage, but it soon became apparent that
+nothing could withstand the effects of American gunnery. Still, the
+Spaniards, knowing the exact distance of our vessels, were doing some
+damage. Early in the battle a shot struck and passed clean through the
+Baltimore, and another disabled a six-inch gun and exploded a box of
+ammunition, wounding eight men but killing no one. The Olympia was
+struck by a shell which, exploding outside, did little damage, and the
+signal halyards were cut out of the flag-officer's hands. The lines
+were immediately replaced by a blue-jacket. The Boston was struck by
+three shells, one starting a fire in a stateroom and another in the
+hammock-netting, while a third passed through the foremast near
+Captain Wildes. The squadron passed four times before the enemy,
+slightly decreasing the distance on each run, and on the fifth,
+believing that the depth of water was greater than he had supposed,
+Dewey took the Olympia closer, until on this last run he was within
+two thousand yards of the enemy. The Spaniards were suffering terribly
+and fought with courage and desperation. Admiral Montejo on the Reina
+Cristina sallied forth alone and made straight for the Olympia at full
+speed, but the concentrated fire of the whole American squadron drove
+him back to the protection of the breakwater, and as the flag-ship
+sped away, a shell from the Olympia struck her, passed through her
+entire length, and set her on fire.
+
+Captain Cadarso was mortally wounded. Admiral Montejo in an open boat
+transferred his flag to the gunboat Isla de Cuba. The Castilla was
+repeatedly hit and was soon burning fiercely. The Don Juan de Austria
+was blown up by a shell entering the magazine. The other Spanish
+vessels and all the forts and batteries maintained a terrific firing.
+The heavy guns of Manila took part in the fight until Dewey sent a
+message to Governor-General Augusti, that unless they were immediately
+silenced he would shell the city. The message had its effect. Two
+small launches or torpedo-boats started out from the Castilla, headed
+for the Olympia, but the danger to her was averted by the concentrated
+fire of the squadron, and they hasted in their backward flight. A
+shell struck and sank one; the other was disabled. A Spanish gunboat
+slipping out of line made for the McCulloch, lying off with the
+transports, but nothing escaped the eagle eye on the bridge of the
+Olympia, and a hail of shells sent the adventurer scurrying back to
+cover.
+
+[Illustration: The Dewey triumphal Arch.]
+
+It was half-past seven; the battle had raged incessantly for two
+hours, during which Commodore Dewey with his flag-officer had remained
+exposed on the bridge of the Olympia. The men had been undergoing a
+constant strain for twenty-four hours and had been served only with
+coffee, so at a quarter before eight the Olympia ceased firing, and
+the Commodore ordered the squadron to retire. It was time for "Dewey's
+Breakfast."
+
+When the marvellous news was signalled from ship to ship: "No damage,
+not a man killed," the joy and enthusiasm was unbounded.
+
+The Spanish Admiral, not comprehending the meaning of the American
+withdrawal, wired to Madrid a report of a wonderful victory. The
+Minister of Marine replied with fulsome compliments. This was the last
+news sent out of Manila by cable, and for a week the American people
+were in painful suspense.
+
+In the meantime a sumptuous breakfast was served aboard the American
+squadron and a conference of commanders held. The two functions
+consumed more than three hours, and at a quarter after eleven the
+battle was renewed. The big guns at Cavite were hard at work, and the
+Baltimore was ordered to silence them. This she speedily accomplished,
+destroying the entire battery. The Olympia and other ships soon took
+part, and in an hour nothing was left of the Spanish fleet except
+sunken and burning hulks. More than a thousand of the enemy were
+killed and drowned and six hundred wounded. At half-past twelve the
+Americans ceased to fire, and at twelve-forty the Spanish flag was
+lowered and the white flag of surrender took its place.
+
+Commodore Dewey immediately requested Governor-General Augusti to
+allow him to cable to Washington. On the Governor-General's refusal
+the Commodore promptly cut the cable to Hong Kong. The only means of
+communication left to him was by despatch-boat to Hong Kong, but he
+was unable to start the McCulloch for several days, when he sent two
+despatches, one penned on the day of battle, the other on May 4th.
+These two telegrams, announcing what Captain Mahan has characterized
+as "the greatest naval victory recorded in history," reached Hong Kong
+on the 8th of May, one week after the battle, and were received in
+Washington on the same evening. The intense anxiety which had pervaded
+America and the whole English-speaking world, from the day Dewey
+sailed from Mirs Bay, was changed to enthusiasm and gratification.
+These two despatches, which will go down in history alongside Perry's
+from Lake Erie, formed the clearest and most concise account of the
+Battle of Manila and its immediate results.
+
+The first despatch: "May 1st.--Squadron arrived at Manila at daybreak
+this morning. Immediately engaged the enemy and destroyed the
+following vessels: Reina Cristina, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa,
+Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marques del Duero, Correo,
+Velasco, Isla de Mindanao, a transport and a water battery. The
+squadron is uninjured, and only a few men are slightly wounded. Only
+means of telegraphing is to American Consul at Hong Kong. Shall
+communicate with him.
+
+                                   DEWEY."
+
+The second despatch: "Cavite, May 4th.--I have taken possession of
+naval station at Cavite on Philippine Islands. Have destroyed the
+fortifications at bay entrance, paroling garrison. I control bay
+completely and can take city at any time. The squadron is in excellent
+health and spirits. The Spanish loss not fully known, but very heavy;
+one hundred and fifty killed, including captain of Reina Cristina. Am
+assisting in protecting Spanish sick and wounded; two hundred and
+fifty sick and wounded in hospitals within our lines. Much excitement
+at Manila. Will protect foreign residents.
+
+                                   DEWEY."
+
+Cavite in his possession, Dewey now entered upon the most difficult
+part of his enterprise. Although to take possession of Manila would be
+comparatively easy, to hold it with his force would be another matter.
+He had to cope with Spanish deceit and Malay craft, with the
+ill-concealed antagonism of the German and the unexpressed jealousy of
+Japan. Not knowing when to expect another Spanish fleet, he was
+obliged to force the representative of Germany to observe the decorum
+and etiquette demanded by the situation. Hence the friction with Von
+Diederich, when Dewey demanded to know whether his country and ours
+were at war, for if so, he was ready to do his part of the fighting.
+By July 31st troops in sufficient numbers, under General Merritt, had
+arrived; and on August 13th the city was assaulted and surrendered.
+
+The grade of Admiral has been revived by Congress and bestowed upon
+Dewey. Never was enacted a more dramatic scene in the House of
+Representatives than that when Mr. Moody of Massachusetts, fearing
+that in the hurry of the latter days of the Fifty-fifth Congress the
+bill passed by the Senate might be overlooked, offered it as a new
+section of the Naval Appropriation Bill then under consideration. The
+suggestion was received with bursts of applause and acted upon
+immediately. A few days afterward the senate bill was passed by the
+House.
+
+Only twice before has the grade of Admiral been conferred on an
+officer of the United States Navy. Farragut and Porter earned it by
+their work in the Civil War. Numerous as are the heroes of our naval
+history, none surpass Dewey, and the country is grateful to the
+President and Congress that his worth has been recognized.
+
+The fighting in the Philippines is not over, and Dewey remains to
+secure the territory won by his fearless entry into Manila Bay and the
+magnificent plan of battle that made him victorious on that first May
+morning of 1898.
+
+[Signature of the author.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Great Men and Famous Women. Vol. 2 of 8, by Various
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
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