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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient America, in Notes on American Archaeology
+
+Author: John D. Baldwin
+
+Release Date: August 21, 2008 [EBook #26382]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from scans of public domain material produced by
+Microsoft for their Live Search Books site.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
+[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Gateway at Labna. [See p. 144.]
+
+
+
+
+           ANCIENT AMERICA,
+                  IN
+    NOTES ON AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY.
+
+
+      BY JOHN D. BALDWIN, A.M.,
+  AUTHOR OF "PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS."
+
+
+        _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+
+              NEW YORK:
+    HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+           FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+  Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by
+  JOHN D. BALDWIN,
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The purpose of this volume is to give a summary of what is known of
+American Antiquities, with some thoughts and suggestions relative to
+their significance. It aims at nothing more. No similar work, I believe,
+has been published in English or in any other language. What is known of
+American Archæology is recorded in a great many volumes, English,
+French, Spanish, and German, each work being confined to some particular
+department of the subject, or containing only an intelligent traveler’s
+brief sketches of what he saw as he went through some of the districts
+where the old ruins are found. Many of the more important of these works
+are either in French or Spanish, or in great English quartos and folios
+which are not accessible to general readers, and not one of them
+attempts to give a comprehensive view of the whole subject.
+
+Therefore I have prepared this work for publication, believing it will
+be acceptable to many who are not now much acquainted with the remains
+of Ancient America, and that some who read it may be induced to study
+the but as Ancient America covers all time previous to the discovery by
+Columbus, they may not be deemed out of place. Materials for the paper
+on “Antiquities of the Pacific Islands� came to me from the Pacific
+World while I was preparing the others. The discovery of the Pacific is
+so intimately connected with the discovery of America, that this paper
+would not be out of place even if the Mexican and Peruvian traditions
+did not mention that a foreign people communicated with the western
+coast of America in very ancient times.
+
+WORCESTER, MASS., _November_, 1871.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                              Page
+     I. ANCIENT AMERICA.--THE MOUND-BUILDERS                    13
+        Works of the Mound-Builders                             14
+        Extent of their Settlements                             31
+        Their Civilization                                      33
+        Their Ancient Mining Works                              43
+
+    II. ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS                         47
+        How long were they here?                                51
+
+   III. WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?                            57
+        Not Ancestors of the Wild Indians                       58
+        Brereton’s Story                                        62
+        American Ethnology                                      65
+        Who the Mound-Builders were                             70
+
+    IV. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA                              76
+        Their Northern Remains                                  77
+        The “Seven Cities of Cevola�                            85
+        Central Mexico                                          89
+        The great Ruins at the South                            93
+
+     V. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA                             103
+        Palenque                                               104
+        Copan and Quiragua[TN-1]                               111
+        Mitla                                                  117
+        An Astronomical Monument                               122
+        Ruins farther South                                    123
+        The Ruins in Yucatan                                   125
+        Mayapan                                                127
+        Uxmal                                                  131
+        Kabah                                                  137
+        Chichen-Itza                                           140
+        Other Ruins                                            144
+
+    VI. ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS                                 151
+        Distinct Eras traced                                   155
+        Nothing perishable left                                156
+        “The Oldest of Civilizations�                          159
+        American Cities seen by Tyrians                        161
+
+   VII. WHENCE CAME THIS CIVILIZATION?                         165
+        The “Lost Tribes of Israel�                            166
+        The “Malay� Theory                                     167
+        The Phœnician Theory                                   171
+        The “Atlantic� Theory                                  174
+        It was an original Civilization                        184
+
+  VIII. AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY                               187
+        The Old Books not all lost                             189
+        The Ancient History sketched                           197
+        The Toltecs our Mound-Builders                         200
+        Some confirmation of the History                       205
+
+    IX. THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION                                 207
+        The Discovery and Invasion                             209
+        The City of Mexico                                     211
+        The Conquest                                           213
+        Who were the Aztecs?                                   216
+        They came from the South                               217
+
+     X. ANCIENT PERU                                           222
+        The Spanish Hunt for Peru                              223
+        The Ruins near Lake Titicaca                           226
+        Other Ruins in Peru                                    237
+        The great Peruvian Roads                               243
+        The Peruvian Civilization                              246
+
+    XI. PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY                               257
+        Garcilasso’s History                                   258
+        Fernando Montesinos                                    261
+        His Scheme of Peruvian History                         264
+        Probabilities                                          268
+        Conclusion                                             272
+
+  APPENDIX                                                     277
+        A. The Northmen in America                             279
+        B. The Welsh in America                                285
+        C. Antiquities of the Pacific Islands                  288
+        D. Deciphering the Inscriptions                        292
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                              Page
+   1. Gateway at Labna                             _Frontispiece._
+   2. Great Mound near Miamisburg                               16
+   3. Square Mound near Marietta                                18
+   4. Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio                                 19
+   5. Works in Washington County, Mississippi                   20
+   6. Works at Hopeton, Ohio                                    22
+   7. Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works                    23
+   8. Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio                             25
+   9. Great Serpent Inclosure                                   29
+  10. Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio                       30
+  11. Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio                    35
+  12. Work on North Fork of Paint Creek                         36
+  13. Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio                           38
+  14. Work near Brownsville, Ohio                               38
+  15. Works near Liberty, Ohio                                  39
+  16. Work in Randolph County, Indiana                          40
+  17. } Vases from the Mounds                                   41
+  18. }
+  19. Ancient Mining Shaft                                      45
+  20. Pueblo Ruin at Pecos                                      80
+  21. Modern Zuni                                               81
+  22. Ruins in the Valley of the Gila                           83
+  23. Pueblo Building restored                                  87
+  24. Ground Plan of the Building                               88
+  25. Arch of Los[TN-2] Monjas, Uxmal                           98
+  26. Arch most common in the Ruins                            100
+  27. Casa No. 1, Palenque                                     107
+  28. Casa No. 2 (La Cruz), Palenque                           108
+  29. Great Wall at Copan                                      112
+  30. Ruins at Mitla                                           116
+  31. Great Hall at Mitla                                      118
+  32. A ruined “Palace� at Mitla                               119
+  33. Mosaic Decoration at Mitla                               120
+  34. Great Mound at Mayapan                                   127
+  35. Circular Edifice at Mayapan                              129
+  36. Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal                               132
+  37. Ground Plan                                              132
+  38. Two-headed Figure at Uxmal                               133
+  39. Decorations over Doorway, Uxmal                          134
+  40. Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal                         136
+  41. Ruined Arch at Kabah                                     139
+  42. Casa Colorada, Chichen-Itza                              141
+  43. Great Stone Ring                                         143
+  44. Great Mound at Xcoch                                     145
+  45. Bottom of an Aguada                                      146
+  46. Subterranean Reservoir                                   147
+  47. Plan of the Walls of Tuloom                              148
+  48. Watch-tower at Tuloom                                    149
+  49. Specimen of Inscriptions on Stone                        190
+  50. Specimen of the Manuscript Writing                       191
+  51. Ancient Masonry at Cuzco                                 227
+  52. Ruins of a “Temple� on the Island of Titicaca            228
+  53. Ruin on the Island of Titicaca                           229
+  54. Ruin on the Island of Coati                              231
+  55. Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco                         233
+  56. Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco                       234
+  57. End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco                      235
+  58. End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu                          238
+  59. } Decorations at Chimu-Canchu                            238
+  60. }
+  61. Edifice at Old Huanuco                                   239
+  62. Ground Plan of the Edifice                               240
+  63. “Look-out� at Old Huanuco                                240
+  64. Ruins at Pachacamac                                      242
+  65. Peruvian Copper Knives                                   249
+  66. Copper Tweezers                                          249
+  67. Golden Vase of Ancient Peru                              251
+  68. Ancient Peruvian Silver Vase                             251
+  69. Ancient Peruvian Pottery                                 252
+  70. Ancient Peruvian Pottery                                 253
+
+
+
+
+ANCIENT AMERICA.
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+
+One of the most learned writers on American antiquities, a Frenchman,
+speaking of discoveries in Peru, exclaims, “America is to be again
+discovered! We must remove the veil in which Spanish politics has sought
+to bury its ancient civilization!� In this case, quite as much is due to
+the ignorance, indifference, unscrupulous greed, and religious
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, as to Spanish politics. The gold-hunting
+marauders who subjugated Mexico and Peru could be robbers and
+destroyers, but they were not qualified in any respect to become
+intelligent students of American antiquity. What a select company of
+investigators, such as could be organized in our time, might have done
+in Mexico and Central America, for instance, three hundred and fifty
+years ago, is easily understood. In what they did, and in what they
+failed to do, the Spaniards who went there acted in strict accordance
+with such character as they had; and yet we are not wholly without
+obligation to some of the more intelligent Spaniards connected with the
+Conquest.
+
+There are existing monuments of an American ancient history which invite
+study, and most of which might, doubtless, have been studied more
+successfully in the first part of the sixteenth century, before nearly
+all the old books of Central America had been destroyed by Spanish
+fanaticism, than at present. Remains of ancient civilizations, differing
+to some extent in degree and character, are found in three great
+sections of the American continent: the west side of South America,
+between Chili and the first or second degree of north latitude; Central
+America and Mexico; and the valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio.
+These regions have all been explored to some extent--not completely, but
+sufficiently to show the significance and importance of their
+archæological remains, most of which were already mysterious antiquities
+when the continent was discovered by Columbus. I propose to give some
+account of these antiquities, not for the edification of those already
+learned in American archæology, but for general readers who have not
+made the subject a study. My sketches will begin with the Mississippi
+Valley and the regions connected with it.
+
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS--THEIR WORKS.
+
+An ancient and unknown people left remains of settled life, and of a
+certain degree of civilization, in the valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries. We have no authentic name for them either as a nation
+or a race; therefore they are called “Mound-Builders,� this name
+having been suggested by an important class of their works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The Great Mound, near Miamisburg.]
+
+Prominent among the remains by which we know that such a people once
+inhabited that region are artificial mounds constructed with
+intelligence and great labor. Most of them are terraced and truncated
+pyramids. In shape they are usually square or rectangular, but sometimes
+hexagonal or octagonal, and the higher mounds appear to have been
+constructed with winding stairways on the outside leading to their
+summits. Many of these structures have a close resemblance to the
+_teocallis_ of Mexico. They differ considerably in size. The great mound
+at Grave Creek, West Virginia, is 70 feet high and 1000 feet in
+circumference at the base. A mound in Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high
+and 852 feet in circumference. The great truncated pyramid at Cahokia,
+Illinois, is 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 in height. Generally,
+however, these mounds range from 6 to 30 feet high. In the lower valley
+of the Mississippi they are usually larger in horizontal extent, with
+less elevation.
+
+Figure 2 represents the great mound near Miamisburg, Ohio, which may be
+compared with a similar structure at Mayapan, Yucatan (Fig. 34). Figure
+3 shows a square mound near Marietta, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Square Mound, near Marietta.]
+
+There have been a great many conjectures in regard to the purposes for
+which these mounds were built, some of them rather fanciful. I find it
+most reasonable to believe that the mounds in this part of the continent
+were used precisely as similar structures were used in Mexico and
+Central America. The lower mounds, or most of them, must have been
+constructed as foundations of the more important edifices of the
+mound-building people. Many of the great buildings erected on such
+pyramidal foundations, at Palenque, Uxmal, and elsewhere in that region,
+have not disappeared, because they were built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar. For reasons not difficult to understand, the Mound-Builders,
+beginning their works on the lower Mississippi, constructed such
+edifices of wood or some other perishable material; therefore not a
+trace of them remains. The higher mounds, with broad, flat summits,
+reached by flights of steps on the outside, are like the Mexican
+_teocallis_, or temples. In Mexico and Central America these structures
+were very numerous. They are described as solid pyramidal masses of
+earth, cased with brick or stone, level at the top, and furnished with
+ascending ranges of steps on the outside. The resemblance is striking,
+and the most reasonable explanation seems to be that in both regions
+mounds of this class were intended for the same uses. Figure 4 shows the
+works at Cedar Bank, Ohio, inclosing a mound. The mound within the
+inclosure is 245 feet long by 150 broad. Figure 5 shows a group of
+mounds in Washington County, Mississippi, some of which are connected by
+means of causeways.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4--Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Works in Washington County, Mississippi.]
+
+Another class of these antiquities consists of inclosures formed by
+heavy embankments of earth and stone. There is nothing to explain these
+constructions so clearly as to leave no room for conjecture and
+speculation. It has been suggested that some of them may have been
+intended for defense, others for religious purposes. A portion of them,
+it may be, encircled villages or towns. In some cases the ditches or
+fosses were on the inside, in others on the outside. But no one can
+fully explain why they were made. We know only that they were
+prepared intelligently, with great labor, for human uses. “Lines of
+embankment varying from 5 to 30 feet in height, and inclosing from 1 to
+50 acres, are very common, while inclosures containing from 100 to 200
+acres are not infrequent, and occasional works are found inclosing as
+many as 400 acres.� Figures 6 and 7 give views of the Hopeton works,
+four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio. Combinations of the square and
+circle are common in these ancient works, and the figures are always
+perfect. This perfection of the figures proves, as Squier and Davis
+remark, that “the builders possessed a standard of measurement, and had
+a means of determining angles.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Works at Hopeton, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works.]
+
+About 100 inclosures and 500 mounds have been examined in Ross County,
+Ohio. The number of mounds in the whole state is estimated at over
+10,000, and the number of inclosures at more than 1500. The great number
+of these ancient remains in the regions occupied by the Mound-Builders
+is really surprising. They are more numerous in the regions on the lower
+Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico than any where else; and here, in
+some cases, sun-dried brick was used in the embankments.
+
+One peculiarity at the South is, that while the inclosures are generally
+smaller and comparatively less numerous, there is a greater proportion
+of low mounds, and these are often larger in extent. Harrison Mound, in
+South Carolina, is 480 feet in circumference and 15 feet high. Another
+is described as 500 feet in circumference at the base, 225 at the
+summit, and 34 feet high. In a small mound near this, which was opened,
+there was found “an urn holding 46 quarts,� and also a considerable
+deposit of beads and shell ornaments very much decomposed. Broad
+terraces of various heights, mounds with several stages, elevated
+passages, and long avenues, and aguadas or artificial ponds, are common
+at the South. Figure 8 shows the remains of a graded way of this ancient
+people near Piketon, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.]
+
+At Seltzertown, Mississippi, there is a mound 600 feet long, 400 wide,
+and 40 feet high. The area of its level summit measures 4 acres. There
+was a ditch around it, and near it are smaller mounds. Mr. J. R.
+Bartlett says, on the authority of Dr. M. W. Dickeson, “The north side
+of this mound is supported by a wall of sun-dried brick two feet thick,
+filled with grass, rushes, and leaves.� Dr. Dickeson mentions angular
+tumuli, with corners “still quite perfect,� and “formed of large bricks
+bearing the impression of human hands.� In Louisiana, near the Trinity,
+there is a great inclosure partially faced with sun-dried bricks of
+large size; and in this neighborhood ditches and artificial ponds have
+been examined. In the Southern States these works appear to assume a
+closer resemblance to the mound work of Central America.
+
+The result of intelligent exploration and study of these antiquities is
+stated as follows: “Although possessing throughout certain general
+points of resemblance going to establish a kindred origin, these works
+nevertheless resolve themselves into three grand geographical divisions,
+which present in many respects striking contrasts, yet so gradually
+merge into each other that it is impossible to determine where one
+series terminates and another begins.� On the upper lakes, and to a
+certain extent in Michigan, Iowa, and Missouri, but particularly in
+Wisconsin, the outlines of the inclosures (elsewhere more regular in
+form) were designed in the forms of animals, birds, serpents, and even
+men, appearing on the surface of the country like huge _relievos_. The
+embankment of an irregular inclosure in Adams County, Ohio, is
+described as follows by Squier and Davis, Mr. Squier having made the
+drawing of it for the work published by the Smithsonian Institution:
+
+“It is in the form of a serpent, upward of 1000 feet in length, extended
+in graceful curves, and terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The
+embankment constituting this figure is more than 5 feet high, with a
+base 30 feet wide at the centre of the body, diminishing somewhat toward
+the head and tail. The neck of the figure is stretched out and slightly
+curved. The mouth is wide open, and seems in the act of swallowing or
+ejecting an oval figure which rests partly within the distended jaws.
+This oval is formed by an embankment 4 feet high, and is perfectly
+regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being
+respectively 160 and 80 feet. The combined figure has been regarded as a
+symbolical illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the serpent
+and the egg; but, however this may be, little doubt can exist of the
+symbolical character of the monument.�
+
+Figure 9 gives a view of this work.
+
+No symbolic device is more common among the antiquities of Mexico and
+Central America than the form of the serpent, and it was sometimes
+reproduced in part in architectural constructions. One of the old books,
+giving account of a temple dedicated to Quetzalcohuatl, says, “It was
+circular in form, and the entrance represented the mouth of a serpent,
+opened in a frightful manner, and extremely terrifying to those who
+approached it for the first time.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Great Serpent, Adams County, Ohio.]
+
+On the Ohio and its tributaries, and farther south, where the mounds are
+numerous, the inclosures have more regular forms; and in the Ohio Valley
+very often their great extent has incited speculation. At Newark, Ohio,
+when first discovered, they were spread over an area more than two miles
+square, and still showed more than twelve miles of embankment from two to
+twenty feet high. Farther south, as already stated, the inclosures are
+fewer and smaller, or, to speak more exactly, the great inclosures and
+high mounds are much less common than low truncated pyramids, and
+pyramidal platforms or foundations with dependent works. Passing up the
+valley, it is found that Marietta, Newark, Portsmouth, Chillicothe,
+Circleville, Ohio; St. Louis, Missouri, and Frankfort, Kentucky, were
+favorite seats of the Mound-Builders. This leads one of the most
+intelligent investigators to remark that “the centres of population are
+now where they were when the mysterious race of Mound-Builders existed.�
+There is, however, this difference: the remains indicate that their most
+populous and advanced communities were at the South. Figure 10 shows a
+fortified hill in Butler County, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio.]
+
+Among those who have examined and described remains of the
+Mound-Builders, Messrs. Squier and Davis rank first in importance,
+because they have done most to give a particular and comprehensive
+account of them. Their great work, published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, must be regarded as the highest authority, and those who
+desire to study the whole subject more in detail will find that work
+indispensable.
+
+
+EXTENT OF THEIR SETTLEMENTS.
+
+Careful study of what is shown in the many reports on these ancient
+remains seems plainly to authorize the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders entered the country at the South, and began their
+settlements near the Gulf. Here they must have been very numerous, while
+their works at every point on the limit of their distribution, north,
+east, and west, indicate a much less numerous border population. Remains
+of their works have been traced through a great extent of country. They
+are found in West Virginia, and are spread through Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and Iowa to Nebraska. Lewis and Clarke reported seeing them on the
+Missouri River, a thousand miles above its junction with the
+Mississippi; but this report has not been satisfactorily verified. They
+have been observed on the Kansas, Platte, and other remote Western
+rivers, it is said. They are found all over the intermediate and the
+more southern country, being most numerous in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
+Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas.
+
+This ancient race seems to have occupied nearly the whole basin of the
+Mississippi and its tributaries, with the fertile plains along the Gulf,
+and their settlements were continued across the Rio Grande into Mexico;
+but toward their eastern, northern, and western limit the population was
+evidently smaller, and their occupation of the territory less complete
+than in the Valley of the Ohio, and from that point down to the Gulf. No
+other united people previous to our time can be supposed to have
+occupied so large an extent of territory in this part of North America.
+
+It has heretofore been stated that remains of this people exist in
+Western New York, but a more intelligent and careful examination shows
+that the works in Western New York are not remains of the
+Mound-Builders. This is now the opinion of Mr. Squier, formed on
+personal investigation since the great work of Squier and Davis was
+published.
+
+
+THEIR CIVILIZATION.
+
+It is usual to rank the civilized life of the Mound-Builders much below
+that of the ancient people of Mexico and Central America. This may be
+correct, for the remains as they now exist appear to justify it. But if
+all the ancient stone-work in Central America, with its finely-carved
+inscriptions and wonderful decorations, had disappeared in the ages
+before Europeans visited this continent, the difference might not appear
+to be so great; for then the Central American remains, consisting only
+of earth-works, truncated pyramids, pyramidal foundations, and their
+connected works made of earth, would have a closer resemblance to works
+of the Mound-Builders, to those especially found on the lower
+Mississippi. On the other hand, if we now had in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys remains of the more important edifices anciently
+constructed there, the Mound-Builders might be placed considerably
+higher in the scale of civilization than it has been customary to allow.
+
+It can be seen, without long study of their works as we know them, that
+the Mound-Builders had a certain degree of civilization which raised
+them far above the condition of savages. To make such works possible
+under any circumstances, there must be settled life, with its
+accumulations and intelligently organized industry. Fixed habits of
+useful work, directed by intelligence, are what barbarous tribes lack
+most of all. A profound change in this respect is indispensable to the
+beginning of civilization in such tribes.
+
+No savage tribe found here by Europeans could have undertaken such
+constructions as those of the Mound-Builders. The wild Indians found in
+North America lived rudely in tribes. They had only such organization as
+was required by their nomadic habits, and their methods of hunting and
+fighting. These barbarous Indians gave no sign of being capable of the
+systematic application to useful industry which promotes intelligence,
+elevates the condition of life, accumulates wealth, and undertakes great
+works. This condition of industry, of which the worn and decayed works
+of the Mound-Builders are unmistakable monuments, means civilization.
+
+Albert Gallatin, who gave considerable attention to their remains,
+thought their works indicated not only “a dense agricultural
+population,� but also a state of society essentially different from that
+of the Iroquois and Algonquin Indians. He was sure that the people who
+established such settlements and built such works must have been
+“eminently agricultural.� No trace of their ordinary dwellings is left.
+These must have been constructed of perishable materials, which went to
+dust long before great forests had again covered most of the regions
+through which they were scattered. Doubtless their dwellings and other
+edifices were made of wood, and they must have been numerous. It is
+abundantly evident that there were large towns at such places as Newark,
+Circleville, and Marietta, in Ohio. Figures 11 and 12 give views of
+works on Paint Creek, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio.]
+
+Their agricultural products may have been similar to many of those found
+in Mexico; and it is not improbable that the barbarous Indians, who
+afterward occupied the country, learned from them the cultivation of
+maize. Their unity as a people, which is every where so manifest, must
+have been expressed in political organization, else it could not have
+been maintained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Work on North Fork of Paint Creek.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Elliptical Work near Brownsville, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Works near Liberty, Ohio.]
+
+In the details of their works, and in manufactured articles taken from
+the mounds, there is evidence of considerable civilization. For
+instance, it has been ascertained that the circular inclosures are
+perfect circles, and the square inclosures perfect squares. They were
+constructed with a geometrical precision which implies a kind of
+knowledge in the builders that may be called scientific. Figures 13, 14,
+15, 16 show some of the more important works of the Mound-Builders,
+chiefly in Ohio. Relics of art have been dug from some of the mounds,
+consisting of a considerable variety of ornaments and implements, made
+of copper, silver, obsidian, porphyry, and greenstone, finely wrought.
+There are axes, single and double; adzes, chisels, drills or gravers,
+lance-heads, knives, bracelets, pendants, beads, and the like, made of
+copper. There are articles of pottery, elegantly designed and finished;
+ornaments made of silver, bone, mica from the Alleghanies, and shells
+from the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Rectangular Work, Randolph County, Indiana.]
+
+The articles made of stone show fine workmanship; some of them are
+elaborately carved. Tools of some very hard material must have been
+required to work the porphyry in this manner. Obsidian is a volcanic
+product largely used by the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians for arms and
+cutting instruments. It is found in its natural state nowhere nearer the
+Mississippi Valley than the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo.
+
+There appears to be evidence that the Mound-Builders had the art of
+spinning and weaving, for cloth has been found among their remains. At
+the meeting of the International Congress of Pre-Historic Archæology
+held at Norwich, England, in 1868, one of the speakers stated this fact
+as follows: “Fragments of charred cloth made of spun fibres have been
+found in the mounds. A specimen of such cloth, taken from a mound in
+Butler County, Ohio, is in Blackmore Museum, Salisbury. In the same
+collection are several lumps of burnt clay which formed part of the
+‘altar,’ so called, in a mound in Ross County, Ohio: to this clay a few
+charred threads are still attached.� Figures 17 and 18 represent
+specimens of vases taken from the mounds.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 17, 18.--Vases from the Mounds.]
+
+Mr. Schoolcraft gives this account of a discovery made in West Virginia:
+“_Antique tube: telescopic device._ In the course of excavations made in
+1842 in the easternmost of the three mounds of the Elizabethtown group,
+several tubes of stone were disclosed, the precise object of which has
+been the subject of various opinions. The longest measured twelve
+inches, the shortest eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite,
+being skillfully cut and polished. The diameter of the tube externally
+was one inch and four tenths; the bore, eight tenths of an inch. This
+calibre was continued till within three eighths of an inch of the sight
+end, when it diminishes to two tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at
+the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and
+distant objects are more clearly discerned.�
+
+He points out that the carving and workmanship generally are very
+superior to Indian pipe carvings, and adds, if this article was a work
+of the Mound-Builders “intended for a telescopic tube, it is a most
+interesting relic.� An ancient Peruvian relic, found a few years since,
+shows the figure of a man wrought in silver, in the act of studying the
+heavens through such a tube. Similar tubes have been found among relics
+of the Mound-Builders in Ohio and elsewhere. In Mexico, Captain Dupaix
+saw sculptured on a peculiar stone structure the figure of a man making
+use of one. Astronomical devices were sculptured below the figure. This
+structure he supposed to have been used for observation of the stars.
+His account of it will be given in the chapter on Mexican and Central
+American ruins.
+
+The Mound-Builders used large quantities of copper such as that taken
+from the copper beds on Lake Superior, where the extensive mines yield
+copper, not in the ore, but as pure metal. It exists in those beds in
+immense masses, in small veins, and in separated lumps of various sizes.
+The Mound-Builders worked this copper without smelting it. Spots of pure
+silver are frequently found studding the surface of Lake Superior
+copper, and appearing as if welded to it, but not alloyed with it. No
+other copper has this peculiarity; but copper with similar blotches of
+silver has been dug from the mounds. It was naturally inferred from this
+fact that the ancient people represented by these antiquities had some
+knowledge of the art of mining copper which had been used in the copper
+region of Lake Superior. This inference finally became an ascertained
+fact.
+
+
+THEIR ANCIENT MINING WORKS.
+
+Remains of their mining works were first discovered in 1848 by Mr. S. O.
+Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, and in 1849 they were
+described by Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in his geological report to the
+national government. Those described were found at the Minnesota mine,
+in upper Michigan, near Lake Superior. Their mining was chiefly surface
+work; that is to say, they worked the surface of the veins in open pits
+and trenches. At the Minnesota mine, the greatest depth of their
+excavations was thirty feet; and here, “not far below the bottom of a
+trough-like cavity, among a mass of leaves, sticks, and water, Mr. Knapp
+discovered a detached mass of copper weighing nearly six tons. It lay
+upon a cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter,
+the ends of which showed plainly the marks of a small axe or cutting
+tool about two and a half inches wide. They soon shriveled and decayed
+when exposed to the air. The mass of copper had been raised several
+feet, along the foot of the lode, on timbers, by means of wedges.� At
+this place was found a stone maul weighing thirty-six pounds, and also a
+copper maul or sledge weighing twenty-five pounds. Old trees showing 395
+rings of annual growth stood in the débris, and “the fallen and decayed
+trunks of trees of a former generation were seen lying across the pits.�
+Figure 19 (opposite) presents a section of this mining shaft of the
+Mound-Builders: _a_ shows the mass of copper; _b_ the bottom of the
+shaft; _c_ the earth and débris which had been thrown out. The dark
+spots are masses of copper.
+
+The modern mining works are mostly confined to that part of the copper
+region known as Keweenaw Point. This is a projection of land extending
+into Lake Superior, and described as having the shape of an immense
+horn. It is about eighty miles in length, and, at the place where it
+joins the main land, about forty-five miles in width. All through this
+district, wherever modern miners have worked, remains of ancient mining
+works are abundant; and they are extensive on the adjacent island, known
+as Isle Royale. The area covered by the ancient works is larger than
+that which includes the modern mines, for they are known to exist in the
+dense forests of other districts, to which the modern mining has not
+yet been extended.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Ancient Mining Shaft.]
+
+One remarkable mining excavation of the Mound-Builders was found near
+the Waterbury mine. Here, in the face of a vertical bluff, was
+discovered “an ancient, artificial, cavern-like recess, twenty-five feet
+in horizontal length, fifteen feet high, and twelve feet deep. In front
+of it is a pile of excavated rock on which are standing, in full size,
+the forest trees common to this region.� Some of the blocks of stone
+removed from this recess would weigh two or three tons, and must have
+required levers to get them out. Beneath the surface rubbish were the
+remains of a gutter or trough made of cedar, placed there to carry off
+water from the mine. At the bottom of the excavation a piece of white
+cedar timber was found on which were the marks of an axe. Cedar shovels,
+mauls, copper gads or wedges, charcoal, and ashes were discovered, over
+which “primeval� forest trees had grown to full size.
+
+Modern mining on Lake Superior began effectively in 1845. The whole
+copper region has not been fully explored. Works of the ancient miners
+are found at all the mines of any importance; and they show remarkable
+skill in discovering and tracing actual veins of the metal. Colonel
+Charles Whittlesey, one of the best authorities on this point, believes
+the Mound-Builders worked the copper-beds of that region during “a great
+length of time,� and more of their works will undoubtedly be explored
+when the forests shall be cleared away from those portions of the copper
+region not yet worked by modern miners. So far as they have been traced,
+they every where show the same methods, the same implements, and the
+same peculiarities of both knowledge and lack of knowledge in the old
+miners.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+
+That the Mound-Builders and their works belong to a distant period in
+the past is evident; but, of course, we have no means of determining
+their antiquity with any approach to accuracy, no scheme of chronology
+by which their distance from us in time can be measured. Nevertheless,
+some things observed in their remains make it certain that the works are
+very ancient.
+
+1. One fact showing this is pointed out by those who have examined them
+carefully as follows: None of these works (mounds and inclosures) occur
+on the lowest-formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence of
+the western streams; and as there is no good reason why their builders
+should have avoided erecting them on that terrace, while they raised
+them promiscuously on all the others, it follows, not unreasonably, that
+this terrace has been formed since the works were erected. It is
+apparent, also, that in some cases the works were long ago partly
+destroyed by streams which have since receded more than half a mile, and
+at present could not reach them under any circumstances. Those streams
+generally show four successive terraces, which mark four distinct eras
+of their subsidence since they began to flow in their present courses.
+The fourth terrace, on which none of the works are found, marks the
+last and longest of these periods; and it marks also the time since the
+Mound-Builders ceased to occupy the river-valleys where it was formed.
+The period marked by this fourth terrace must be the longest, because
+the excavating power of such streams necessarily diminishes as their
+channels grow deeper. This geological change, which has taken place
+since the latest of the mounds and inclosures were constructed, shows
+that the works are very old; no one can tell how old. To count the years
+is impossible; but we can see that the date, if found, would take us
+back to a remote period in the past.
+
+2. Great antiquity is indicated by the skeletons taken from the mounds.
+Every skeleton of a Mound-Builder is found in a condition of extreme
+decay. It sometimes appears that the surface of a mound has been used by
+the wild Indians for interments; but their skeletons, which are always
+found well preserved, can be readily distinguished by their position in
+the mounds, as well as by other peculiarities. The decayed bones of
+Mound-Builders are invariably found within the mounds, never on the
+surface, usually at the bottom of the structure, and nearly always “in
+such a state of decay as to render all attempts to restore the skull,
+or, indeed, any part of the skeleton, entirely hopeless.� Not more than
+one or two skeletons of that people have been recovered in a condition
+suitable for intelligent examination. It is stated in the work of Squier
+and Davis that the only skull belonging incontestably to an individual
+of the Mound-Building race, which has been preserved entire, was taken
+from a mound situated on a knoll (itself artificial apparently) on the
+summit of a hill, in the Scioto Valley, four miles below Chillicothe.
+
+What, save time itself, can have brought these skeletons to a condition
+in which they fall to pieces when touched, and are ready to dissolve and
+become dust? All the circumstances attending their burial were unusually
+favorable for their preservation. The earth around them has invariably
+been found “wonderfully compact and dry.� And yet, when exhumed, they
+are in such a decomposed and crumbling condition that to restore them is
+impossible. Sound and well-preserved skeletons, known to be nearly two
+thousand years old, have been taken from burial-places in England, and
+other European countries less favorable for preserving them. The
+condition of an ancient skeleton can not be used as an accurate measure
+of time, but it is sufficiently accurate to show the difference between
+the ancient and the modern, and in this case it allows us to assume that
+these extremely decayed skeletons of the Mound-Builders are much more
+than two thousand years old.
+
+Those familiar with the facts established by geologists and
+palæontologists are aware that remains of human skeletons have been
+discovered in deposits of the “Age of Stone� in Western Europe; not to
+any great extent, it is true, although the discoveries are sufficient to
+show that fragments of skeletons belonging to that age still exist. It
+is not without reason, therefore, that the condition of decay in which
+all skeletons of the Mound-Builders are exhumed from their burial-places
+is considered a proof of their great antiquity. There is no other
+explanation which, so far as appears, can be reasonably accepted.
+
+3. The great age of these mounds and inclosures is shown by their
+relation to the primeval forests in which most of them were discovered.
+I say _primeval_ forests, because they seemed primeval to the first
+white men who explored them. Of course there were no unbroken forests at
+such points as the Ohio Valley, for instance, while they were occupied
+by the Mound-Builders, who were a settled agricultural people, whose
+civilized industry is attested by their remains. If they found forests
+in the valleys they occupied, these were cleared away to make room for
+their towns, inclosures, mounds, and cultivated fields; and when, after
+many ages of such occupation, they finally left, or were driven away, a
+long period must have elapsed before the trees began to grow freely in
+and around their abandoned works. Moreover, observation shows that the
+trees which first make their appearance in such deserted places are not
+regular forest trees. The beginning of such growths as will cover them
+with great forests comes later, when other preliminary growths have
+appeared and gone to decay.
+
+When the Ohio Valley was first visited by Europeans it was covered by an
+unbroken forest, most of the trees being of great age and size; and it
+was manifest that several generations of great forest trees had preceded
+those found standing in the soil. The mounds and inclosures were
+discovered in this forest, with great trees growing in them. Eight
+hundred rings of annual growth were counted in the trunk of a tree
+mentioned by Sir Charles Lyell and others, which was found growing on a
+mound at Marietta. In the same way, successive generations of forest
+trees had grown over their extensive mining works near Lake Superior,
+and many of those works are still hidden in what seem to be primeval
+forests.
+
+General Harrison made the following suggestion in regard to the
+establishment of these forests in Ohio. When the individual trees that
+first got possession of the soil had died out one after another, they
+would, in many cases, be succeeded by other kinds, till at last, after a
+great number of centuries, that remarkable diversity of species
+characteristic of North America would be established. His suggestion,
+the result of practical observation and study, is not without reason. It
+is certain, in any case, that the period when these old constructions
+were deserted is so far back in the past, that sufficient time has since
+passed for the abandoned towns and fields to remain for years, and
+perhaps centuries, as waste places, pass through the transition from
+waste lands to the beginning of forest growths, and then be covered by
+several generations of such great forest trees as were cleared away to
+prepare the soil for the settlements, towns, and farms of our people.
+
+
+HOW LONG WERE THEY HERE?
+
+There are many indications to warrant the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders occupied their principal seats in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys during a very long period. If they came from the
+south, as appears evident, their settlements must have been extended up
+the valley gradually. After their first communities were established in
+the Gulf regions, considerable time must have elapsed before their
+advancing settlements were extended northward, through the intervening
+region, into the Valley of the Ohio. On the Ohio and in the valleys of
+its tributaries their settlements were very numerous, and evidently
+populous. The surprising abundance of their works in this region, which
+have been traced in our time, shows that they dwelt here in great
+numbers, and had no lack of industry.
+
+This region seems to have been one of the principal centres from which
+their settlements were advanced into the western part of Virginia; into
+Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. The spread
+of their settlements was necessarily gradual, and a long period must
+have been required to extend them over all the country where remains of
+their works are known to exist. If their civilization was chiefly
+developed after their arrival in the country, which is unlikely, many
+years must have elapsed before colonies went forth, to any great extent,
+from the original seat of its development. In any case, time was
+required to make their chief settlements sufficiently old and populous
+to send forth colonies. It is manifest in their remains that the
+communities of this ancient people most remote from the populous centres
+on the Ohio, east, north, and west, were, like all border settlements,
+the rudest and least populous. The remains at these points do not
+indicate either as much wealth or as many workers, and the places where
+these borderers settled must have been the latest occupied and the
+earliest abandoned. One diligent investigator, who believes they came
+originally from Mexico, speaks of the time of their stay in the country
+as follows:
+
+“When we consider the time required to people the whole extent of the
+territory where their remains are found, and bring that people into a
+condition to construct such monuments, and when we reflect on the
+interval that must have passed after their construction until the epoch
+of their abandonment, we are constrained to accord them a very high
+antiquity.�
+
+He points out that they were sun worshipers, like the Mexicans and
+Peruvians, and calls attention to the disks dug from their mounds, which
+appear to have been designed as representations of the sun and moon.
+
+Their long occupation of the country is suggested by the great extent of
+their mining works. All who have examined these works agree with Colonel
+Whittlesey that they worked the Lake Superior copper mines “for a great
+length of time.� How long they had dwelt in the Ohio Valley when this
+mining began can not be told, but a very considerable period must have
+elapsed after their arrival at that point before the mines were
+discovered. We can not suppose the first settlers who came up from the
+Gulf region to the Ohio Valley went on immediately, through the
+wilderness a thousand miles, to hunt for copper mines on Lake Superior;
+and, even after they began to explore that region, some time must have
+passed before the copper was found.
+
+After they discovered the mines and began to work them, their progress
+could not have been rapid. As their open trenches and pits could be
+worked only in the summers, and by methods that made their operations
+much slower than those of modern miners, no great advance of their work
+was possible during the working time of each season; and yet remains of
+their mining works have been discovered wherever mines have been opened
+in our day; and, as previously stated, they are known to exist in heavy
+forests, where the modern mining works have not yet been established.
+There is nothing to indicate that they had settlements any where in the
+mining region. Colonel Whittlesey, and others whose study of the subject
+gives their opinion much weight, believe the Mound-Builders went up from
+the settlements farther south in the summers, remained in the copper
+region through the season, and worked the mines in organized companies
+until the advance of winter terminated their operations.
+
+Colonel Whittlesey says: “As yet, no remains of cities, graves,
+domiciles, or highways have been found in the copper region;� and adds,
+“as the race appears to have been farther advanced in civilization than
+their successors, whom we call aborigines, they probably had better
+means of transportation than bark canoes.� It may be said, also, that
+the accumulations called wealth were necessary to make this regular and
+systematic mining possible. Without these they could not have provided
+the supplies of every kind required to sustain organized companies of
+miners through a single season. A great many summers must have passed
+away before such companies of miners, with all needed tools and
+supplies, could have made their works so extensive by means of such
+methods as they were able to use.
+
+They probably occupied the country on the Gulf and Lower Mississippi
+much longer than any other portion of the great valley. Their oldest and
+latest abandoned settlements appear to have been in this region, where,
+we may reasonably suppose, they continued to dwell long after they were
+driven from the Ohio Valley and other places at the north.
+
+The Natchez Indians found settled on the Lower Mississippi may have been
+a degenerate remnant of the Mound-Builders. They differed in language,
+customs, and condition from all other Indians in the country; and their
+own traditions connected them with Mexico. Like the Mexicans, they had
+temples or sacred buildings in which the “perpetual fire� was
+maintained. Each of their villages was furnished with a sacred building
+of this kind. They had also peculiarities of social and political
+organization different from those of other tribes. They were
+sun-worshipers, and claimed that their chief derived his descent from
+the sun. The Natchez were more settled and civilized than the other
+Indians, and, in most respects, seemed like another race. One learned
+investigator classes them with the Nahuatl or Toltec race, thinks they
+came from Mexico, and finds that, like the ancient people of Panuco and
+Colhuacan, they had the phallic ceremonies among their religious
+observances. Their history can not be given, and there is little or
+nothing but conjecture to connect them with the Mound-Builders. The
+Natchez were exterminated in 1730 by the French, whom they had treated
+with great kindness. Of the few who escaped death, some were received
+among the Chickasaws and Muskogees, but more were sent to Santo Domingo
+and sold as slaves.
+
+No view that can be taken of the relics left by the Mound-Builders will
+permit us to believe their stay in the country was short. Any hypothesis
+based on the shortest possible estimate of the time must count the years
+by centuries.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?
+
+
+This ancient people, whose remains indicate unity and civilization, must
+have been organized as a nation, with a central administration which all
+recognized. They must have had a national name, but nobody can tell
+certainly what it was. No record or tradition has preserved it, unless
+discovery of it can be made in a national designation found, without
+clear explanation, in the old books and traditions of Central America,
+and applied to some country situated at a distance from that part of the
+continent in the northeast. These old books and traditions mention
+“Huehue-Tlapalan� as a distant northeastern country, from which the
+Nahuas or Toltecs came to Mexico; and Brasseur de Bourbourg, who has
+translated one of the old books and given much attention to others,
+supposes the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders to be the same people, or
+did suppose this previous to the appearance of his “Atlantic theory.�
+But this point will be more fully considered when we come to the Central
+American antiquities.
+
+Some antiquaries suggest that the Mound-Builders were the people called
+“Allighewi� in old traditions of the Iroquois, but we have nothing to
+make this very probable. The Iroquois were somewhat superior to the
+other great family of barbarous Indians in organization for the business
+of fighting. There are some reasons for believing they came to the lake
+regions and the Ohio Valley much earlier than the Algonquin branch of
+the wild Indian race. It is permissible, at least, to conjecture, if one
+feels inclined to do so, that it was the Iroquois migration from the
+northwest, or that of the great family to which the Iroquois family
+belonged, which expelled the Mound-Builders from their border
+settlements, cut them off from the copper mines, and finally pushed them
+down the Mississippi; but nothing more than conjecture is possible in
+this case, and the supposition gives the Iroquois migration a greater
+antiquity than may be allowable. Moreover, the traditionary lore of the
+wild Indians had nothing to say of the Mound-Builders, who appear to
+have been as unknown and mysterious to these Indians as they are to us.
+
+
+NOT ANCESTORS OF THE WILD INDIANS.
+
+Some inquirers, not always without hesitation, suggest that the Indians
+inhabiting the United States two hundred years ago were degenerate
+descendants of the Mound-Builders. The history of the world shows that
+civilized communities may lose their enlightenment, and sink to a
+condition of barbarism; but the degraded descendants of a civilized
+people usually retain traditional recollections of their ancestors, or
+some traces of the lost civilization, perceptible in their customs and
+their legendary lore. The barbarism of the wild Indians of North America
+had nothing of this kind. It was original barbarism. There was nothing
+to indicate that either the Indians inhabiting our part of the
+continent, or their ancestors near or remote, had ever been civilized,
+even to the extent of becoming capable of settled life and organized
+industry. And, besides, the constant tradition of these Indians,
+supported by concurring circumstantial evidence, appears to warrant the
+belief that they came to this part of the continent originally from the
+west or northwest, at a period too late to connect them in this way with
+the Mound-Builders.
+
+Two hundred years ago the Valley of the Mississippi, and the regions
+east of it, were occupied by two great families of Indians, the Iroquois
+and the Algonquins, each divided into separate tribes. Between these two
+families there was a radical difference of language. The Indians of New
+England were Algonquins. The Iroquois dwelt chiefly in New York, and
+around Lake Erie, from Niagara to Detroit, although separate communities
+of the group to which they immediately belonged were found in other
+places, such as the Dacotahs and Winnebagoes at the West, and the
+isolated Tuscaroras of the Carolinas. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who has
+discussed “Indian Migrations� in several interesting papers printed in
+the North American Review, thinks the Iroquois were separated very early
+from the same original stem which produced the great Dacotah family. The
+Algonquins were spread most widely over the country when it was first
+visited by Europeans.
+
+Among all these Indians there was a tradition that their ancestors came
+from a distant region in the Northwest, and this tradition is accepted
+as true by those who have studied them most carefully. Mr. Morgan
+supposes they came across the continent, and estimates that not less
+than a thousand years must have passed between the departure of the
+various groups of the Algonquin family from a common centre in the
+northwest and the condition in which they were found two hundred years
+ago. When Europeans began to explore North America, this family had
+become divided into several branches, and each of these branches had a
+modified form of the common language, which, in turn, had developed
+several dialects. A long period was required to effect so great a
+change; but, whatever estimate of the time may be accepted, it seems to
+be a fact that the Algonquins came to the Mississippi Valley long after
+the Mound-Builders left it, and also later than the Iroquois or Dacotah
+family. That the Iroquois preceded the Algonquins at the East appears to
+be indicated by the relative position of the two families in this part
+of the country. Mr. Parkman, in his work on “The Jesuits in North
+America,� describes it as follows: “Like a great island in the midst of
+the Algonquins lay the country of tribes speaking the generic tongue of
+the Iroquois.�
+
+There is no trace or probability of any direct relationship whatever
+between the Mound-Builders and the barbarous Indians found in the
+country. The wild Indians of this continent had never known such a
+condition as that of the Mound-Builders. They had nothing in common with
+it. In Africa, Asia, and elsewhere among the more uncultivated families
+of the human race, there is not as much really _original_ barbarism as
+some anthropologists are inclined to assume; but there can be no serious
+doubt that the wild Indians of North America were original barbarians,
+born of a stock which had never, at any time, been either civilized or
+closely associated with the influences of civilization.
+
+Some of the pottery and wrought ornaments of the Mound-Builders is equal
+in finish and beauty to the finest manufactured by the ancient
+Peruvians. They constructed artificial ponds like the aguadas in Central
+America. They used sun-dried brick, especially at the South, where walls
+of this material have been discovered supporting some of the mounds and
+embankments. They manufactured cloth. But their intelligence, skill, and
+civilized ways are shown not only by their constructions and
+manufactures, but also by their mining works. Who can imagine the
+Iroquois or the Algonquins working the copper mines with such
+intelligence and skill, and such a combination of systematic and
+persistent industry! They had no tradition of such a condition of life,
+no trace of it. It is absurd to suppose a relationship, or a connection
+of any kind, between the original barbarism of these Indians and the
+civilization of the Mound-Builders. The two peoples were entirely
+distinct and separate from each other. If they really belonged to the
+same race, which is extremely doubtful, we must go back through
+unnumbered ages to find their common origin and the date of their
+separation.
+
+
+BRERETON’S STORY.
+
+Those who seek to identify the Mound-Builders with the barbarous Indians
+find nothing that will support their hypothesis. Nevertheless, some of
+them have tried very strangely to give it aid by one or two quotations
+from early voyagers to America. The most important are taken from
+Brereton’s account of Gosnold’s voyage in 1602. The following occurred
+on the coast of Maine:
+
+“Eight Indians, in a Basque shallop, with mast and sail, an iron
+grapple, and a kettle, came boldly aboard us, one of them appareled with
+a waistcoat and breeches of black serge, made after our sea fashion,
+hose and shoes on his feet: all the rest (saving one that had a pair of
+breeches of blue cloth) were naked.�
+
+It is known that the Basques were accustomed to send fishing vessels to
+the northeastern coast of America long before this continent was
+discovered by Columbus. They continued to do this after the discovery.
+These Indians had evidently become well acquainted with the Basques,
+and, therefore, did not fear to approach Gosnold’s ship. Probably some
+of them had been employed on board Basque fishing vessels. Certainly
+their boat and apparel came from the Basque fishermen, and did not show
+them to be Mound-Builders. Of the Indians on the coast of Massachusetts,
+Brereton says:
+
+“They had great store of copper, some very red, some of a paler color;
+none of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal. They
+had some of their arrows herewith, much like our broad arrow-heads,
+very workmanly made. Their chains are many hollow pieces cemented
+together, each piece of the bigness of one of our reeds, a finger in
+length, ten or twelve of them together on a string, which they wear
+about their necks: their collars they wear about their bodies like
+bandeliers a handful broad, all hollow pieces like the other, but
+somewhat shorter, four hundred pieces in a collar, very fine and evenly
+set together.� He adds: “I am persuaded they have great store (of flax)
+growing upon the main, as also mines and many other rich commodities,
+which we, wanting time, could not possibly discover.�
+
+If all this had been true, it would not serve the purpose for which it
+is quoted; for remains of the Mound-Builders have never existed in
+Massachusetts, and we should necessarily suppose these Indians had
+procured copper and copper ornaments by trading with the Basques or with
+other French voyagers. If only one or two Indians had been represented
+as wearing ornaments made of copper, this explanation could be readily
+accepted. But he avers that they had “great store of copper,� and adds,
+“None of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal.�
+Therefore his statement is incredible. The following considerations will
+show why it must not be regarded as honest, unadorned truth.
+
+1. Those interested in Gosnold’s voyage aimed to establish a colony on
+that coast; and all who served them, or were controlled by them, were
+easily moved to tell seductive stories of the country “upon the main.�
+The chief aim of Brereton’s account of this voyage was to incite
+emigration. Therefore he gave this wonderfully colored account of
+mines, flax-growing, copper chains and collars, and “other rich
+commodities� among the wild Indians of Massachusetts. Settlements on
+that coast, it was believed, would bring profit to those in whose
+interest he wrote. Gosnold actually proposed at that time to establish a
+colony on one of the islands in Buzzard’s Bay, and had with him twenty
+men who were expected to stay as colonists, but finally refused to do
+so. He saw a great deal of the Indians, and knew much more of their
+actual condition than the story admits.
+
+2. Eighteen years later the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth from the
+Mayflower. Neither copper mines nor flax fields were then known in
+Massachusetts. No Indians with “great store� of copper and flax, and
+covered with copper ornaments, were seen or heard of by the Pilgrims,
+either at that time or afterward. In 1602, Brereton, or any other writer
+employed to write in such a way as would promote emigration, could tell
+such stories, and romance freely concerning the Indians, without fear of
+contradiction. Afterward, when the actual barbarism of the Indian tribes
+in New England and other parts of the country had become generally
+known, no one could describe any of these Indians as successful miners
+and flax-growers, and assert gravely that they had such stores of copper
+that “none of them� lacked great abundance of copper “chains, earrings,
+collars,� and the like, without being laughed at. Brereton’s story must
+be regarded as an invention designed to serve a special purpose, but not
+warranted by any thing seen during the voyage he describes. Neither in
+New England nor any where else in our part of the continent did the
+early colonists find Indians who worked copper mines and had “great
+store of copper.� What Brereton says was not true of any Indians known
+to our first colonists or to their successors. It corresponds to no
+reality found in any part of our territory during the last two hundred
+and fifty years. Therefore, to use his story in support of an absurd
+hypothesis is not a satisfactory proceeding.
+
+
+AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
+
+It may be true that all the aboriginal peoples found inhabiting North
+and South America, save the Esquimaux, belonged originally to the same
+race. Some writers assume it to be true, although it seems strongly
+improbable, not to say impossible. If they were all of the same race,
+time and development, under different conditions of life, had divided
+this race into at least two extremely unlike branches. The wild Indians
+of North America were profoundly different from the ancient people of
+Central America and Peru. The Pueblo or Village Indians of New Mexico
+have scarcely any thing in common with the Apaches, Comanches, and
+Sioux. Even the uncivilized Indians of South America are different from
+those in the United States. Our wild Indians have more resemblance to
+the nomadic Koraks and Chookchees found in Eastern Siberia, throughout
+the region that extends to Behring’s Strait, than to any people on this
+continent. Those who have seen these Siberians, traveled with them, and
+lived in their tents, have found the resemblance very striking; but I
+infer from what they say that the Korak or Chookchee is superior to the
+Indian. See Kennan’s “Tent Life in Siberia.�
+
+Mr. Lewis H. Morgan finds evidence that the American aborigines had a
+common origin in what he calls “their systems of consanguinity and
+affinity.� If it can be made to appear beyond question that these
+systems prevail and are identical every where from Patagonia to the
+Arctic Zone, his argument will have great force. But this has not yet
+been shown. He says: “The Indian nations, from the Atlantic to the Rocky
+Mountains, and from the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico, with the
+exception of the Esquimaux, have the same system. It is elaborate and
+complicated in its general form and details; and, while deviations from
+uniformity occur in the systems of different stocks, the radical
+features are, in the main, constant. This identity in the essential
+characteristics of a system so remarkable tends to show that it must
+have been transmitted with the blood to each stock from a common
+original source. It affords the strongest evidence yet obtained of unity
+in origin of the Indian nations within the region defined.�
+
+But unity in race among wild Indians found within the region specified
+would be sufficiently manifest without this evidence. That the same
+system of consanguinity and affinity, with precisely the same features
+of identity, ever was extended over the whole continent, remains
+unproved. The supposed traces of it among the Pueblos are by no means
+clear. A more complete and accurate research is required to show that
+identically the same system ever has existed any where between the
+United States and Patagonia. A system not wholly unlike it, though not
+the same, might grow up any where in widely separated tribal communities
+of barbarous peoples, without doing any thing more than the tribal
+system itself to show a common origin in race.
+
+The aborigines of America may have been originally all of the same race.
+There are some considerations in favor of this hypothesis which have
+been used by writers entitled to great respect; but it can not yet be
+claimed with reason that they have been able to settle this question
+beyond the reach of doubt, even in their own minds. Therefore, to speak
+moderately, it would be premature to assume that the Mound-Builders were
+even remotely of the same race with the wild Indians, from whom they
+were so different in all we know of them.
+
+The attempt to establish this hypothesis of identity in race has given
+rise to a tendency to underrate the development of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and to lower the estimate of their
+attainments sufficiently to bring them within reach of close
+relationship to the wild Indians. The difficulty being reduced in this
+way, there follows an attempt to get rid of it entirely, and establish
+connection between these unlike peoples, by talking of “Semi-Village
+Indians.� But the hypothesis used in this case is not well warranted by
+facts. Such “Semi-Village Indians� as are supposed, really standing half
+way between the savages and the Pueblos, and being actually savages half
+developed into Pueblos, have never had a clearly defined and
+unquestionable existence here since the continent became known to
+Europeans. In the border region between the northern wild Indians and
+the old Mexican race there are exceptional communities formed by
+association or mixture, but we can not reasonably give them the
+significance claimed for the supposed “Semi-Village Indians.� Moreover,
+these exceptional communities are usually Pueblos whose habits have been
+changed and their civilization lessened by association with wild
+Indians, or in some other way. The Navajos began their present condition
+by fleeing to the mountains from the Spaniards. The Mound-Builders, who
+must have been, still more than the Pueblos, unlike the barbarous
+Indians, can not be explained by any reference whatever to such
+communities. If they were of the same race, they were far from being the
+same people.
+
+Some ethnologists, whose suggestions are entitled to respectful
+attention whether accepted or rejected, specify considerations which
+they believe forbid us to regard the ancient Mexicans and the northern
+wild Indians as identical in race. They point to the well known fact
+that the fauna of the American continent below the northern frontier of
+Mexico is remarkably different from that between this line and the
+Arctic Sea. At the north, America abounds in species similar to those of
+Europe and Asia, with some admixture of forms wholly American, while at
+the south the old-world forms disappear, and the fauna of the whole
+region between Mexico and Cape Horn becomes “as peculiar as that of
+Australia.�
+
+The explanation given is, that during the glacial period the larger
+part of North America, like Northern Asia and Europe, was covered with
+ice and partly submerged, and that the fauna found in this part of North
+America was introduced after the glacial period by immigration from Asia
+and Europe over connecting lands or islands at the northwest and the
+northeast, and perhaps by some migration from the south; the fauna at
+the south meanwhile remaining very much as it was before, with very
+little change through later migrations from the north.
+
+Professor Huxley called attention to this subject in a brief address to
+the London Ethnological Society in 1869. After stating the case, he
+presented the following queries and suggestions: “The Austro-Columbian
+fauna, as a whole, therefore, existed antecedently to the glacial epoch.
+Did man form part of that fauna? To this profoundly interesting question
+no positive answer can be given; but the discovery of human remains
+associated with extinct animals in the caves of Brazil, by Lund, lends
+some color to the supposition. Assuming this supposition to be correct,
+we should have to look in the human population of America, as in the
+fauna generally, for an indigenous or Austro-Columbian element, and an
+immigrant or ‘Arctogeal’ element.� He then suggests that the Esquimaux
+may now represent the immigrant element, and the old Mexican and South
+American race that which was indigenous, and that the “Red Indians of
+North America� may have appeared originally as a mixture of these two
+races. He adds, very reasonably, “It is easy to suggest such problems as
+these, but quite impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
+solve them.�
+
+
+WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?
+
+They were unquestionably American aborigines, and not immigrants from
+another continent. That appears to me the most reasonable suggestion
+which assumes that the Mound-Builders came originally from Mexico and
+Central America. It explains many facts connected with their remains. In
+the Great Valley their most populous settlements were at the south.
+Coming from Mexico and Central America, they would begin their
+settlements on the Gulf coast, and afterward advance gradually up the
+river to the Ohio Valley. It seems evident that they came by this route;
+and their remains show that their only connection with the coast was at
+the south. Their settlements did not reach the coast at any other point.
+
+Their constructions were similar in design and arrangement to those
+found in Mexico and Central America. Like the Mexicans and Central
+Americans, they had many of the smaller structures known as _teocallis_,
+and also large high mounds, with level summits, reached by great flights
+of steps. Pyramidal platforms or foundations for important edifices
+appear in both regions, and are very much alike. In Central America
+important edifices were built of hewn stone, and can still be examined
+in their ruins. The Mound-Builders, like some of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Yucatan, used wood, sun-dried brick, or some other material
+that could not resist decay. There is evidence that they used timber for
+building purposes. In one of the mounds opened in the Ohio Valley two
+chambers were found with remains of the timber of which the walls were
+made, and with arched ceilings precisely like those in Central America,
+even to the overlapping stones. Chambers have been found in some of the
+Central American and Mexican mounds, but there hewn stones were used for
+the walls. In both regions the elevated and terraced foundations remain,
+and can be compared. I have already called attention to the close
+resemblance between them, but the fact is so important in any endeavor
+to explain the Mound-Builders that I must bring it to view here.
+
+Consider, then, that elevated and terraced foundations for important
+buildings are peculiar to the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans;
+that this method of construction, which, with them, was the rule, is
+found nowhere else, save that terraced elevations, carefully
+constructed, and precisely like theirs in form and appearance, occupy a
+chief place among the remaining works of the Mound-Builders. The use
+made of these foundations at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen-Itza, shows
+the purpose for which they were constructed in the Mississippi Valley.
+The resemblance is not due to chance. The explanation appears to me very
+manifest. This method of construction was brought to the Mississippi
+Valley from Mexico and Central America, the ancient inhabitants of that
+region and the Mound-Builders being the same people in race, and also in
+civilization, when it was brought here.
+
+A very large proportion of the old structures in Ohio and farther south
+called “mounds,� namely, those which are low in proportion to their
+horizontal extent, are terraced foundations for buildings, and if they
+were situated in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Southern Mexico, they would
+never be mistaken for any thing else. The high mounds also in the two
+regions are remarkably alike. In both cases they are pyramidal in shape,
+and have level summits of considerable extent, which were reached by
+means of stairways on the outside. The great mound at Chichen-Itza is 75
+feet high, and has on its summit a ruined stone edifice; that at Uxmal
+is 60 feet high, and has a similar ruin on its summit; that at Mayapan
+is 60 feet high; the edifice placed on its summit has disappeared. The
+great mound at Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high; and that at Grave
+Creek, West Virginia, is 75 feet high. Both had level summits, and
+stairways on the outside, but no trace of any structure remains on them.
+All these mounds were constructed for religious uses, and they are, in
+their way, as much alike as any five Gothic churches.
+
+Could these works of the Mound-Builders be restored to the condition in
+which they were when the country was filled with their busy communities,
+we should doubtless see great edifices, similar in style to those in
+Yucatan, standing on the upper terraces of all the low and extended
+“mounds,� and smaller structures on the high mounds, such as those above
+named. There would seem to be an extension of ancient Mexico and Central
+America through Texas into the Mississippi and Ohio valleys; and so, if
+there were no massive stone-work in the old ruins of those countries, it
+might seem that the Mound-Builders’ works were anciently extended into
+them by way of Texas.
+
+The fact that the settlements and works of the Mound-Builders extended
+through Texas and across the Rio Grande indicates very plainly their
+connection with the people of Mexico, and goes far to explain their
+origin. We have other evidence of intercourse between the two peoples;
+for the obsidian dug from the mounds, and perhaps the porphyry also, can
+be explained only by supposing commercial relations between them.
+
+We can not suppose the Mound-Builders to have come from any other part
+of North America, for nowhere else north of the Isthmus was there any
+other people capable of producing such works as they left in the places
+where they dwelt. Beyond the relics of the Mound-Builders themselves, no
+traces of the former existence of such a people have been discovered in
+any part of North America save Mexico, and Central America, and
+districts immediately connected with them. At the same time, it is not
+unreasonable to suppose the civilized people of these regions extended
+their settlements through Texas, and also migrated across the Gulf into
+the Mississippi Valley. In fact, the connection of settlements by way of
+Texas appears to have been unbroken from Ohio to Mexico.
+
+This colonizing extension of the old Mexican race must have taken place
+at a remote period in the past; for what has been said of the antiquity
+of the Mound-Builders shows that a very long period, far more than two
+thousand years, it may be, must have elapsed since they left the Valley
+of the Ohio. Perhaps they found the country mostly unoccupied, and saw
+there but little of any other people until an irruption of warlike
+barbarians came upon them from the Northwest.
+
+In speculating on the causes of their withdrawal after centuries of
+occupation, absolute certainty is impossible, and we have no means of
+going much beyond mere conjecture. We may suppose as most probable that
+an influx of barbarians destroyed their border settlements, interrupted
+their mining operations, and caused them to retire gradually toward the
+Gulf. Fragments of their communities may have become incorporated with
+the barbarous tribes. This conjecture has been used to explain certain
+exceptional peculiarities noticed in some of the wild Indian tribes. For
+instance, it has been suggested that the Mandan Indians were a separated
+and lost fragment of the mound-building people, they being noticeably
+unlike other Indians in many respects, lighter in color, and peculiar in
+manners and customs. What is conjectured may be true, but we have no
+means of proving its truth. That the Mandans were like what a lost
+community of Mound-Builders might have become by degeneration through
+mixture and association with barbarians may be supposed, but the actual
+history of that remarkable tribe might give its peculiarities a very
+different explanation. The Mandans were supposed to be a branch of the
+Dacotahs. They may have been, like the Navajos, a changed community of
+Pueblos, but any attempt to explain them by means of conjecture is
+useless.
+
+The supposition that the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders were the same
+people seems to me not improbable. The reasons for it will be stated
+when we come to a discussion of the antiquities, books, and traditions
+of Central America. I will only say here that, according to dates given
+in the Central American books, the Toltecs came from “Huehue-Tlapalan,�
+a distant country in the northeast, long previous to the Christian era.
+They played a great part and had a long career in Mexico previous to the
+rise of their successors in power, the Aztecs, who were overthrown by
+the Spaniards.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+
+Ruins and other vestiges revealing an ancient civilization are found
+throughout the whole southern section of North America, extending as far
+north as New Mexico and Arizona. But here the antiquities do not all
+belong to the same period in the past, nor exhibit unvarying likeness
+and unity of civilized life. They are somewhat less homogeneous, and do
+not constantly represent the same degree of civilization. In this
+region, the monuments suggest successive and varying periods in the
+civilized condition of the old inhabitants, some of the oldest and most
+mysterious monuments seeming to indicate the highest development.
+
+In the northern part of this region we find ruins of great buildings
+similar in plan and arrangement to those still used by the Pueblos, but
+far superior as monuments of architecture, science, and skill, and much
+more unlike those farther south than is apparent in the principal
+structures of the Mound-Builders. They show that the old settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley did not belong to the Pueblo branch of the Mexican
+race. Farther south, in the central part of the region specified,
+development was more advanced. Here, in the last ages of American
+ancient history, was the seat of the Mexican or Aztec civilization,
+but the monuments in this part of the country are mostly older than the
+Aztec period. The most astonishing remains are found still farther
+south, in Chiapa, Tabasco, Oxaca, Yucatan, Honduras, Tehuantepec,
+Guatemala, and other parts of Central America. In this southern region,
+mostly buried in heavy forests, are wonderful ruins of great cities and
+temples. Only a small part of modern Mexico is included in the region
+where these ruins are situated, and most of them, probably, were not
+much better understood by the ancient Mexicans than they are by us. Many
+of those explored in later times were unknown to that people, just as
+others, more in number, doubtless, than those already described, still
+remain unvisited and unknown in the great and almost impenetrable
+forests of the country.
+
+
+THE NORTHERN REMAINS.
+
+The ruins in Northern Mexico, including New Mexico and Arizona, consist
+chiefly, as already stated, of the remains of structures similar in
+general design and purpose to those of the Village Indians, the Pueblos.
+In the more ancient times, doubtless, as at present, a large proportion
+of the dwellings and other edifices, like those in the Mississippi
+Valley, were built of perishable materials which have left no trace.
+Many of them, however, were built of stone, and have left ruins which
+show their character. Stone ruins are common in this northern region,
+although wood and adobe seems to have been more commonly used as
+building material. Some of the ruined stone edifices were inhabited when
+the country was conquered by the Spaniards. The remains present every
+where the same characteristics. They represent a people who built always
+in the same way, with some variations in the forms of their structures,
+and had substantially the same condition of life; but the ruins are not
+all of the same age. Their character can be sufficiently shown by
+describing a few of them.
+
+In New Mexico, west of the Rio Grande, between the head waters of the
+San Jose and Zuni rivers, a bluff or ridge rises in a valley two hundred
+feet high. The Spaniards named it “El Moro.� One side of this bluff is
+vertical, and shows yellowish-white sandstone rock, on the face of which
+are inscriptions; “Spanish inscriptions and Indian hieroglyphics.� It
+was carefully described in 1849 by Lieutenant Simpson, and was explored
+again four or five years later by Lieutenant A. W. Whipple, who
+described it in his report to the government, published in the third
+volume of “Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route to the
+Pacific.� On the summit of this height, which Lieutenant Simpson named
+“Inscription Rock,� are the ruins of an extensive Pueblo edifice built
+of stone. The walls were built “with considerable skill.� In some places
+they are still “perfect to the height of six or eight feet, vertical,
+straight, and smooth; and the masonry is well executed, the stones being
+of uniform size--about fourteen inches long and six wide.� The layers
+are horizontal, each successive layer breaking joints with that below
+it. Remains of cedar beams were discovered, and also obsidian
+arrow-heads, painted pottery, and other relics. Another ruin was seen on
+a height across the gorge. It was found to be similar to this, both in
+character and condition of decay.
+
+Lieutenant Whipple went westward along the thirty-fifth parallel. We can
+not do better than follow the report of what he saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Pueblo Ruin at Pecos.]
+
+His next stopping-place, after leaving “El Moro,� was in the beautiful
+valley of Ojo Pescado. Here, close by a spring that showed artificial
+stone-work of ancient date, were two old Pueblo buildings in ruins, “so
+ancient that the traditions of present races do not reach them.� Not far
+away is a deserted town of later date. The two ancient structures were
+circular in form and equal in size, each being about eight hundred feet
+in circumference. They were built of stone, but the walls have crumbled
+and become chiefly heaps of rubbish. The pottery found here, like that
+at “El Moro,� is “painted with bright colors, in checks, bands, and
+wavy stripes; many fragments show a beautiful polish. A few pieces were
+discovered larger in size, inferior in color and quality, but indicating
+a more fanciful taste. United, they formed an urn with a curious handle;
+a frog painted on the outside and a butterfly within.� In the same
+neighborhood, on the summit of a cliff twenty feet high, was another old
+ruin “strongly walled around.� In the centre was a mound on which were
+traces of a circular edifice.
+
+The next place of encampment was at Zuni, where, as shown in Figure 21,
+can be seen one of these great Pueblo buildings inhabited by two
+thousand people (Lieutenant Whipple’s estimate). It has five stories,
+the walls of each receding from those below it. Looking from the top, he
+says it reminded him of a busy ant-hill, turkeys and tamed eagles
+constituting a portion of its inhabitants. Not more than a league away
+is an “old Zuni� which shows nothing but ruins. Its crumbling walls,
+worn away until they are only from two to twelve feet high, are “crowded
+together in confused heaps over several acres of ground.� This old town
+became a ruin in ancient times. After remaining long in a ruined
+condition it was again rebuilt, and again deserted after a considerable
+period of occupation. It is still easy to distinguish the differences in
+construction between the two periods. “The standing walls rest upon
+ruins of greater antiquity;� and while the primitive masonry is about
+six feet thick, that of the later period is only from a foot to a foot
+and a half thick. Small blocks of sandstone were used for the latter.
+Heaps of débris cover a considerable space, in which, among other
+things, are relics of pottery and of ornaments made of sea-shells.
+Pieces of quaintly-carved cedar posts were found here, and their
+condition of decay, compared with that of the cedar beams at “El Moro,�
+“indicated great antiquity.� The place of this ruin is now one of the
+consecrated places of the Village Indians; it has “a Zuni altar� which
+is constantly used and greatly venerated. On leaving the place, their
+guide blew a white powder toward the altar three times, and muttered a
+prayer. This, he explained, was “asking a blessing of Montezuma and the
+sun.� This altar seems to represent recollections of the ancient
+sun-worship.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21--Modern Zuni.]
+
+At a place west of Zuni ancient relics were found, indicating that an
+extensive Pueblo town had formerly stood there, but “the structures were
+probably of adobes,� as there was no débris of stone walls, and only
+very faint traces of foundations. Near the Colorado Chiquito is an
+extensive ruin, on the summit of an isolated hill of sandstone, the
+faces of its walls being here and there visible above heaps of débris.
+It appears to be very old. As near as could be ascertained, the great
+rectangular Pueblo building was three hundred and sixty feet in extent
+on one side, and one hundred and twenty on the other. In some places the
+walls are ten feet thick, “with small rooms inserted in them.� Stone
+axes, painted pottery, and other articles are found in the débris: “The
+indented pottery, said to be so very ancient, is found here in many
+patterns.� On a ridge overlooking the valley of Pueblo Creek are traces
+of an old settlement of large extent, supposed to have been that heard
+of in 1539 by the friar Marco de Niça as “the kingdom of Totonteac.�
+Adobe seems to have been used here for building. Traces of other ruins
+were seen in various places, and springs along the route showing ancient
+stone-work are mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pueblo Ruins in the Valley of the Gila.]
+
+Ruins are abundant in the Rio Verde Valley down to the confluence of
+that river with the Rio Salinas. It is manifest that this whole region
+was anciently far more populous than it is now. Lieutenant Whipple says,
+“Large fields in the valley of the Rio Gila, and many spots among the
+Pinal Lena Mountains, are marked with the foundations of adobe houses.�
+Figure 22 represents a Pueblo ruin in the Valley of the Gila. “In
+Cañon Chelly, near San Francisco Mountain, and upon Rio Verde, there
+are ruins of more permanent structures of stone, which in their day must
+have excelled the famed Pueblos of New Mexico.� There was a higher
+degree of civilization in the ancient times, so far as relates to
+architecture and skill in the arts and appliances of life, than has been
+shown by people of the same race dwelling there in our time; but the
+ancient condition of life seems to have been maintained from age to age
+without material change.
+
+
+THE “SEVEN CITIES OF CEVOLA.�
+
+In the New Mexican valley of the Chaco, one degree or more north of
+Zuni, are ruins of what some suppose to have been the famous “Seven
+Cities of Cevola.� In 1540, Spanish cupidity having been strongly
+incited by tales of the greatness and vast wealth of Cevola, Coronado,
+then governor of New Galicia, set out with an army to conquer and rob
+its cities. The report in which he tells the story of this conquest and
+of his disappointment is still in existence. The Cevolans defended
+themselves with arrows and spears, and hurled stones upon his army from
+the tops of their buildings. But resistance was of no avail; Cevola was
+conquered by Coronado, and immediately deserted by all its inhabitants
+who escaped death. The conquering buccaneer, however, did not find the
+treasures of gold and silver he expected. Three hundred and thirty years
+or more have passed away since this expedition of the Spanish marauders
+was undertaken, but the “Seven Cities of Cevola� (if they really were
+the “cities� whose remains are found in the Chaco Valley), although much
+dilapidated, are still sufficiently well preserved to show us what they
+were.
+
+There are seven ruins in the Chaco Valley, all of the same age, from one
+to three miles apart, the whole line along which they are situated being
+not more than ten miles in extent. Coronado said of Cevola, “The seven
+cities are seven small towns, standing all within four leagues
+together;� and “all together they are called Cevola.� The Chaco ruins
+show that each of these “cities� was, Pueblo fashion, a single edifice
+of vast size, capable of accommodating from five hundred to three
+thousand people. They were all built of stone, around three sides of a
+square, the side opposite the main building being left open. Figure 23
+represents one of these buildings restored, according to Lieutenant
+Simpson. Figure 24 is a ground plan of this structure. The outer faces
+of the walls were constructed with thin and regular blocks of sandstone;
+the inner surfaces were made of cobblestone laid in mortar, and the
+outer walls were three feet thick. They were four or five stories high,
+and the only entrances to them were “window openings� in the second
+story. Above the cañon inclosing the valley containing these ruins, at a
+distance of thirteen miles, are the remains of another “city� of
+precisely the same kind. Its walls are at present between twenty and
+thirty feet high, their foundations being deeply sunk into the earth.
+Lieutenant Simpson, who explored that region in 1849, says it was built
+of tabular pieces of hard, fine-grained, compact gray sandstone, none of
+the layers being more than three inches thick. He adds, “It discovers
+in the masonry a combination of science and art which can only be
+referred to a higher stage of civilization and refinement than is
+discoverable in the work of Mexicans or Pueblos of the present day.
+Indeed, so beautifully diminutive and true are the details of the
+structure as to cause it at a little distance to have all the appearance
+of a magnificent piece of mosaic.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pueblo Building, restored.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Ground Plan of Pueblo Building.]
+
+Other ruins have been examined in this northern part of the old Mexican
+territory, and more will be brought to light, for the whole region has
+not been carefully examined, and new discoveries are constantly
+reported.
+
+
+CENTRAL MEXICO.
+
+As we go down into Central Mexico, the remains assume another character,
+and become more important; but the antiquities in this part of the
+country have not been very completely explored and described, the
+attention of explorers having been drawn more to the south. Some of them
+are well known, and it can be seen that to a large extent they are much
+older than the time of the Aztecs whom Cortez found in power.
+
+In the northern part of the Mexican Valley was the city of Tulha, the
+ancient capital of the Toltecs. At the time of the conquest its site was
+an extensive field of ruins. At Xochicalco, in the State of Mexico, is a
+remarkable pyramid, with a still more remarkable base. It was
+constructed with five stages or stories, and stands on a hill consisting
+chiefly of rock, which was excavated and hollowed for the construction
+of galleries and chambers. The opening serves as an entrance to several
+galleries, which are six feet high and paved with cement, their sides
+and ceilings seeming to have been covered with some very durable
+preparation which made them smooth and glistening. Captain Dupaix found
+the main gallery sixty yards, or one hundred and eighty feet long,
+terminating at two chambers which are separated only by two massive
+square pillars carefully fashioned of portions of the rock left for the
+purpose by the excavators. Over a part of the inner chamber, toward one
+corner, is a dome or cupola six feet in diameter at the base, and rather
+more in height. It has a regular slope, and was faced with square stones
+well prepared and admirably laid in cement. From the top went up a tube
+or circular aperture nine inches in diameter, which probably reached the
+open air or some point in the pyramid.
+
+In this part of Mexico can be seen, among other things, the great
+pyramid or mound of Cholulu, the very ancient and remarkable pyramidal
+structures at Teotihuacan, and an uncounted number of _teocallis_ or
+pyramids of smaller size. The pyramid of Cholulu covers an area of
+forty-five acres. It was terraced and built with four stages. When
+measured by Humboldt it was 1400 feet square at the base, and 160 feet
+high. At present it is a ruin, and, to superficial observers, seems
+little more than a huge artificial mound of earth. Its condition of
+decay indicates that it is much older than even the Toltec period. The
+largest structure at Teotihuacan covers eleven acres. These structures,
+and the Mexican _teocallis_ generally, were made of earth, and faced
+with brick or stone.
+
+Captain Dupaix saw, not far from Antequera, two truncated pyramids which
+were penetrated by two carefully constructed galleries. A gallery lined
+with hewn stone, bearing sculptured decorations, went through one of
+them. A similar gallery went partly through the other, and two branches
+were extended at right angles still farther, but terminating within. He
+mentions also the ruins of elaborately decorated edifices which had
+stood on elevated terraces. At one place he excavated a terraced mound,
+and discovered burnt brick; and he describes two ancient bridges of the
+Tlascalans, both built of hewn stone laid in cement, one of them being
+200 feet long and 36 wide. Obelisks or pillars 42 feet high stood at the
+corners of these bridges. Important remains of the ancient people exist
+in many other places; and “thousands of other monuments unrecorded by
+the antiquaries invest every sierra and valley of Mexico with profound
+interest.�
+
+At Papantla, in the State of Vera Cruz, there is a very ancient
+pyramidal structure somewhat peculiar in style and character. It is
+known that important ruins exist in the forests of Papantla and Mesantla
+which have never been described. The remarkable pyramid at Papantla was
+examined and described by Humboldt. The only material employed in
+constructing it was hewn stone. The stone was prepared in immense
+blocks, which were laid in mortar. The pyramid was an exact square at
+the base, each side being 82 feet in length, and the height about 60
+feet. The stones were admirably cut and polished, and the structure was
+remarkably symmetrical. Six stages could be discerned by Humboldt, and
+his account of it says, “A seventh appears to be concealed by the
+vegetation which covers the sides of the pyramid.� A great flight of
+steps leads to the level summit, by the sides of which are smaller
+nights. “The facing of the stones is decorated with hieroglyphics, in
+which serpents and crocodiles carved in relievo are visible. Each story
+contains a great number of square niches symmetrically distributed. In
+the first story there are 24 on each side, in the second 20, and in the
+third 16. There are 366 of these niches on the whole pyramid, and 12 in
+the stairs toward the east.�
+
+The civilization of the Aztecs who built the old city of Mexico will be
+made a separate topic; but it may be said here that when they came into
+the Valley of Mexico they were much less advanced in civilization than
+their predecessors. There is no reason whatever to doubt that they had
+always resided in the country as an obscure branch of the aboriginal
+people. Some have assumed, without much warrant, that they came to
+Mexico from the North. Mr. Squier shows, with much probability, that
+they came from the southern part of the country, where communities are
+still found speaking the Aztec language. When they rose to supremacy
+they adopted, so far as their condition allowed, the superior knowledge
+of their predecessors, and continued, in a certain way, and with a lower
+standard, the civilization of the Toltecs. It has been said, not without
+reason, that the civilization found in Mexico by the Spanish conquerors
+consisted, to a large extent, of “fragments from the wreck that befell
+the American civilization of antiquity.�
+
+
+THE GREAT RUINS AT THE SOUTH.
+
+To find the chief seats and most abundant remains of the most remarkable
+civilization of this old American race, we must go still farther south
+into Central America and some of the more southern states of Mexico.
+Here ruins of many ancient cities have been discovered, cities which
+must have been deserted and left to decay in ages previous to the
+beginning of the Aztec supremacy. Most of these ruins were found buried
+in dense forests, where, at the time of the Spanish Conquest, they had
+been long hidden from observation.
+
+The ruins known as Palenque, for instance, seem to have been entirely
+unknown to both natives and Spaniards until about the year 1750. Cortez
+and some of his companions went through the open region near the forest
+in which these ruins are situated without hearing of them or suspecting
+their existence. The great ruins known as Copan were in like manner
+unknown in the time of Cortez. The Spaniards assaulted and captured a
+native town not far from the forest that covered them, but heard nothing
+of the ruins. The captured town, called Copan, afterward gave its name
+to the remains of this nameless ancient city, which were first
+discovered in 1576, and described by the Spanish licentiate Palacios.
+This was little more than forty years after the native town was
+captured; but, although Palacios tried, “in all possible ways,� to get
+from the older and more intelligent natives some account of the origin
+and history of the ruined city, they could tell him nothing about it.
+To them the ruins were entirely mythical and mysterious. With the facts
+so accessible, and the antiquity of the ruins so manifest, it is very
+singular that Mr. Stephens fell into the mistake of confounding this
+ruined city, situated in an old forest that was almost impenetrable,
+with the town captured by the Spaniards. The ruins here were discovered
+accidentally; and to approach them it was necessary, as at Palenque, to
+cut paths through the dense tropical undergrowth of the forest.
+
+To understand the situation of most of the old ruins in Central America,
+one must know something of the wild condition of the country. Mr. Squier
+says:
+
+“By far the greater proportion of the country is in its primeval state,
+and covered with dense, tangled, and almost impenetrable tropical
+forests, rendering fruitless all attempts at systematic investigation.
+There are vast tracts untrodden by human feet, or traversed only by
+Indians who have a superstitious reverence for the moss-covered and
+crumbling monuments hidden in the depths of the wilderness. * * * For
+these and other reasons, it will be long before the treasures of the
+past, in Central America, can become fully known.�
+
+A great forest of this character covers the southern-half of Yucatan,
+and extends far into Guatemala, which is half covered by it. It extends
+also into Chiapa and Tabasco, and reaches into Honduras. The ruins known
+as Copan and Palenque are in this forest, not far from its southern
+edge. Its vast depths have never been much explored. There are ruins in
+it which none but wandering natives have ever seen, and some, perhaps,
+which no human foot has approached for ages. It is believed that ruins
+exist in nearly every part of this vast wilderness.
+
+According to the old Central American books and traditions, some of the
+principal seats of the earliest civilization, that of the “Colhuas,� was
+in this forest-covered region. In their time the whole was cultivated
+and filled with inhabitants. Here was a populous and important part of
+the Colhuan kingdom of “Xibalba,� which, after a long existence, was
+broken up by the Toltecs, and which had a relation, in time, to the
+Aztec dominion of Montezuma, much like that of the old monarchy of Egypt
+to the kingdom of the Ptolemies.
+
+In the time of the Spaniards there was in the forest at Lake Peten a
+solitary native town, founded nearly a century previous to their time by
+a Maya prince of Itza, who, with a portion of his people, fled from
+Yucatan to that lonely region to escape from the disorder and bloodshed
+of a civil war. This was the civil war which destroyed Mayapan, and
+broke up the Maya kingdom of Yucatan. In 1695, Don Martin Ursua, a
+Spanish official, built a road from Yucatan to Lake Peten, captured the
+town, and destroyed it. He reported that the builders of this road found
+evidence that “wrecks of ancient cities lie buried in this wilderness.�
+All along the route they discovered vestiges of ruins, and special
+mention is made of “remains of edifices on raised terraces, deserted and
+overgrown, and apparently very ancient.�
+
+
+CHARACTER OF THE SOUTHERN RUINS.
+
+Should you visit the ruins of one of these mysterious old cities, you
+would see scattered over a large area great edifices in different stages
+of decay, which were erected on the level summits of low pyramidal
+mounds or platforms. The summits of these mounds are usually of
+sufficient extent to furnish space for extensive terraces or “grounds,�
+as well as room for the buildings. The edifices were built of hewn stone
+laid in a mortar of lime and sand, the masonry being admirable, and the
+ornamentation, in most cases, very abundant. The pyramid-foundations of
+earth were faced with hewn stone, and provided with great stone
+stairways. These, we may suppose, were the most important buildings in
+the old city. The ordinary dwellings, and all the other less important
+structures, must have been made chiefly of wood or some other material,
+which had perished entirely long ago and left no trace, for at present
+their remains are no more visible than those of the forest leaves which
+grew five hundred years ago.
+
+One explorer of Palenque says: “For five days did I wander up and down
+among these crumbling monuments of a city which, I hazard little in
+saying, must have been one of the largest ever seen.� There is, however,
+nothing to show us certainly the actual size of any of these ancient
+cities. It is manifest that some of them were very large; but, as only
+the great structures made of stone remain to be examined, the actual
+extent of the areas covered by the other buildings can not be
+determined.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Arch of Las Monjas.]
+
+The chief peculiarity of these ruins, that which especially invites
+attention, is the evidence they furnish that their builders had
+remarkable skill in architecture and architectural ornamentation. All
+who have visited them bear witness that the workmanship was of a high
+order. The rooms and corridors in these edifices were finely and often
+elaborately finished, plaster, stucco, and sculpture being used. In one
+room of a great building at Uxmal Mr. Stephens says “the walls were
+coated with a very fine plaster of Paris, equal to the best seen on
+walls in this country.� Speaking of the construction of this edifice, he
+says, “throughout, the laying and polishing of the stones are as perfect
+as under the rules of the best modern masonry.� All the ruins explored
+have masonry of the same character. The floors, especially of the courts
+and corridors, were made sometimes of flat stones admirably wrought and
+finely polished, and sometimes of cement, which is now “as hard as
+stone.� Mr. Stephens, describing corridors of the “Palace� at Palenque,
+says “the floors are of cement, as hard as the best seen in the remains
+of Roman baths and cisterns.� We give two illustrations of their method
+of constructing the arch. Figure 25 shows an arch of Las Monjas, at
+Uxmal. Figure 26 shows the most common form of the arch in the older
+ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26--Common Form of Arch.]
+
+The ornamentation is no less remarkable than the masonry and
+architectural finish. It is found on the walls within and without, and
+appears in elaborate designs on the heavy cornices. The exterior
+ornamentation is generally carved or sculptured on the smooth surface
+of the stone, and must have required a vast amount of time and labor, as
+well as skillful artists. In some of the ruins inscriptions are
+abundant, being found on walls, tablets, and pillars. The general effect
+of the exterior decoration is thus described by Mr. Stephens in the
+account of his first view of the ruins at Palenque: “We saw before us a
+large building richly ornamented with stuccoed figures on pilasters,
+curious and elegant; trees growing close to it, and their branches
+entering the doors; the style and effect of structure and ornament
+unique, extraordinary, and mournfully beautiful.� In a description of
+the walls around an interior court of a building at Uxmal, we have this
+tribute to the artistic skill of the decorators: “It would be
+difficult, in arranging four sides facing a court-yard, to have more
+variety, and, at the same time, more harmony of ornament.�
+
+In some of the ruins, and especially at Copan, there are clusters of
+four-sided stone pillars or obelisks varying from twelve to over twenty
+feet high. These are elaborately sculptured, and show human figures,
+ornamental designs, and many inscriptions. One or two statues have been
+discovered, and a statuette twelve inches high is described; “it is made
+of baked clay, very hard, and the surface is smooth as if coated with
+enamel.� At Palenque are remains of a well-built aqueduct; and near the
+ruins, especially in Yucatan, are frequently found the remains of many
+finely constructed aguadas or artificial lakes. The bottoms of these
+lakes were made of flat stones laid in cement, several layers deep. In
+Yucatan traces of a very ancient paved road have been found. This road
+ran north and south, and probably led to cities in the region now
+covered by the great wilderness. It was raised above the graded level of
+the ground, and made very smooth.
+
+These antiquities show that this section of the continent was anciently
+occupied by a people admirably skilled in the arts of masonry, building,
+and architectural decoration. Some of their works can not be excelled by
+the best of our constructors and decorators. They were highly skilled,
+also, in the appliances of civilized life, and they had the art of
+writing, a fact placed beyond dispute by their many inscriptions.
+
+A more particular account of some of these ruins will be given in the
+next chapter. Among the more important works relating to them are those
+of Stephens and Catherwood, some of the volumes of Mr. Squier, Frederick
+Waldeck’s work, and a recent French volume by Desiré Charnay, which is
+accompanied by a folio volume of photographs. Palacios, who described
+Copan in 1576, may properly be called the first explorer. A brief
+account of Palenque was prepared by Captain Del Rio in 1787, and
+published in 1822. Captain Dupaix’s folios, in French, with the drawings
+of Casteñada, contain the first really important memoir on these ruins.
+It was prepared in 1807, detained in Mexico during the Mexican
+Revolution, and finally published at Paris in 1834-5. The volumes of
+Brasseur de Bourbourg are valuable. They relate chiefly to matters not
+always understood, and seldom discussed with care, by those who merely
+visit and describe the monuments, such as the writing, books, and
+traditions of the ancient Mexican and Central American people. His style
+is diffuse, sometimes confused, and rather tedious; and some of his
+theories are very fanciful. But he has discovered the key to the Maya
+alphabet and translated one of the old Central American books. No
+careful student of American archæology can afford to neglect what he has
+written on this subject.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+
+To understand the situation and historical significance of the more
+important antiquities in Southern Mexico and Central America, we must
+keep in view their situation relative to the great unexplored forest to
+which attention has been called. Examine carefully any good map of
+Mexico and Central America, and consider well that the ruins already
+explored or visited are wholly in the northern half of Yucatan, or far
+away from this region, at the south, beyond the great wilderness, or in
+the southern edge of it. Uxmal, Mayapan, Chichen-Itza, and many others,
+are in Yucatan. Palenque, Copan, and others are in the southern part of
+the wilderness, in Chiapa, Honduras, and Guatemala. Mr. Squier visited
+ruins much farther south, in San Salvador, and in the western parts of
+Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
+
+The vast forest which is spread over the northern half of Guatemala and
+the southern half of Yucatan, and extended into other states, covers an
+area considerably larger in extent than Ohio or Pennsylvania. Does its
+position relative to the known ruins afford no suggestion concerning the
+ancient history of this forest-covered region? It is manifest that, in
+the remote ages when the older of the cities now in ruins were built,
+this region was a populous and important part of the country. And this
+is shown also by the antiquities found wherever it has been penetrated
+by explorers who knew how to make discoveries, as well as by the old
+books and traditions. Therefore it is not unreasonable to assume that
+Copan and Palenque are specimens of great ruins that lie buried in it.
+The ruins of which something is known have merely been visited and
+described in part by explorers, some of whom brought away drawings of
+the principal objects. In giving a brief account of the more important
+ruins, I will begin with the old city of which most has been heard.
+
+
+PALENQUE.
+
+No one can tell the true name of the ancient city now called Palenque.
+It is known to us by this name because the ruins are situated a few
+miles distant from the town of Palenque, now a village, but formerly a
+place of some importance. The ruins are in the northern part of the
+Mexican State of Chiapa, hidden out of sight in the forest, where they
+seem to have been forgotten long before the time of Cortez. More than
+two hundred years passed after the arrival of the Spaniards before their
+existence became known to Europeans. They were discovered about the year
+1750. Since that year decay has made some progress in them. Captain Del
+Rio, who visited and described them in 1787, examined “fourteen
+edifices� admirably built of hewn stone, and estimated the extent of the
+ruins to be “seven or eight leagues one way [along the River Chacamas],
+and half a league the other.� He mentions “a subterranean aqueduct of
+great solidity and durability, which passes under the largest building.�
+
+Other explorers have since visited Palenque, and reported on the ruins
+by pen and pencil; but it is not certain that all the ruined edifices
+belonging to them have been seen, nor that the explorations have made it
+possible to determine the ancient extent of the city with any approach
+to accuracy. The very great difficulties which obstruct all attempts at
+complete exploration have not allowed any explorer to say he has
+examined or discovered all the mouldering monuments hidden in the dense
+and tangled forest, even within the space allowed by Del Rio’s “half
+league� from the river, not to speak of what may lie buried and unknown
+in the dense mass of trees and undergrowth beyond this limit.
+
+The largest known building at Palenque is called the “Palace.� It stands
+near the river, on a terraced pyramidal foundation 40 feet high and 310
+feet long, by 260 broad at the base. The edifice itself is 228 feet
+long, 180 wide, and 25 feet high. It faces the east, and has 14 doorways
+on each side, with 11 at the ends. It was built entirely of hewn stone,
+laid with admirable precision in mortar which seems to have been of the
+best quality. A corridor 9 feet wide, and roofed by a pointed arch, went
+round the building on the outside; and this was separated from another
+within of equal width. The “Palace� has four interior courts, the
+largest being 70 by 80 feet in extent. These are surrounded by
+corridors, and the architectural work facing them is richly decorated.
+Within the building were many rooms. From the north side of one of the
+smaller courts rises a high tower, or pagoda-like structure, thirty feet
+square at the base, which goes up far above the highest elevation of the
+building, and seems to have been still higher when the whole structure
+was in perfect condition. The great rectangular mound used for the
+foundation was cased with hewn stone, the workmanship here, and every
+where else throughout the structure, being very superior. The piers
+around the courts are “covered with figures in stucco, or plaster,
+which, where broken, reveals six or more coats or layers, each revealing
+traces of painting.� This indicates that the building had been used so
+long before it was deserted that the plastering needed to be many times
+renewed. There is some evidence that painting was used as a means of
+decoration; but that which most engages attention is the artistic
+management of the stone-work, and, above all, the beautifully executed
+sculptures for ornamentation.
+
+Two other buildings at Palenque, marked by Mr. Stephens, in his plan of
+the ruins, as “Casa No. 1� and “Casa No. 2,� views of which are shown in
+Figures 27 and 28, are smaller, but in some respects still more
+remarkable. The first of these, 75 feet long by 25 wide, stands on the
+summit of a high truncated pyramid, and has solid walls on all sides
+save the north, where there are five doorways. Within are a corridor and
+three rooms. Between the doorways leading from the corridor to these
+rooms are great tablets, each 13 feet long and 8 feet high, and all
+covered with elegantly-carved inscriptions. A similar but smaller
+tablet, covered with an inscription, appears on the wall of the central
+room.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Casa No. 1, Palenque--Front View and Ground
+Plan.]
+
+“Casa No. 2� consists of a steep and lofty truncated pyramid, which
+stands on a terraced foundation, and has its level summit crowned with a
+building 50 feet long by 31 wide, which has three doorways at the south,
+and within a corridor and three rooms. This edifice, sometimes called
+“La Cruz,� has, above the height required for the rooms, what is
+described as “two stories of interlaced stucco-work, resembling a high,
+fanciful lattice.� Here, too, inscribed tablets appear on the walls; but
+the inscriptions, which are abundant at Palenque, are by no means
+confined to tablets. As to the ornamentation, the walls, piers, and
+cornices are covered with it. Every where the masterly workmanship and
+artistic skill of the old constructors compel admiration; Mr. Stephens
+going so far as to say of sculptured human figures found in fragments,
+“In justness of proportion and symmetry they must have approached the
+Greek models.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Casa No. 2, Palenque (La Cruz)--Front View and
+Ground Plan.]
+
+“Casa No. 2� of Mr. Stephens is usually called “La Cruz� because the
+most prominent object within the building is a great bas-relief on which
+are sculptured a cross and several human figures. This building stands
+on the high pyramid, and is approached by a flight of steps. Dupaix
+says, “It is impossible to describe adequately the interior decorations
+of this sumptuous temple.� The cross is supposed to have been the
+central object of interest. It was wonderfully sculptured and decorated;
+human figures stand near it, and some grave ceremony seems to be
+represented. The infant held toward the cross by one of the figures
+suggests a christening ceremony. The cross is one of the most common
+emblems present in all the ruins. This led the Catholic missionaries to
+assume that knowledge of Christianity had been brought to that part of
+America long before their arrival; and they adopted the belief that the
+Gospel was preached there by St. Thomas. This furnished excellent
+material for the hagiologists of that age; but, like every thing else
+peculiar to these monkish romancers, it betrayed great lack of
+knowledge.
+
+The cross, even the so-called Latin cross, is not exclusively a
+Christian emblem. It was used in the Oriental world many centuries
+(perhaps millenniums) before the Christian era. It was a religious
+emblem of the Phœnicians, associated with Astarte, who is usually
+figured bearing what is called a Latin cross. She is seen so figured on
+Phœnician coin. The cross is found in the ruins of Nineveh. Mr. Layard,
+describing one of the finest specimens of Assyrian sculpture (the figure
+of “an early Nimrod king� he calls it), says: “Round his neck are hung
+the four sacred signs; the crescent, the star or sun, the trident, and
+_the cross_.� These “signs,� the cross included, appear suspended from
+the necks or collars of Oriental prisoners figured on Egyptian monuments
+known to be fifteen hundred years older than the Christian era. The
+cross was a common emblem in ancient Egypt, and the Latin form of it was
+used in the religious mysteries of that country, in connection with a
+monogram of the moon. It was to degrade this religious emblem of the
+Phœnicians that Alexander ordered the execution of two thousand
+principal citizens of Tyre by crucifixion.
+
+The cross, as an emblem, is very common among the antiquities of Western
+Europe, where archæological investigation has sometimes been embarrassed
+and confused by the assumption that any old monument bearing the figure
+of a cross can not be as old as Christianity.
+
+What more will be found at Palenque, when the whole field of its ruins
+has been explored, can not now be reported. The chief difficulty by
+which explorers are embarrassed is manifest in this statement of Mr.
+Stephens: “Without a guide, we might have gone within a hundred feet of
+the buildings without discovering one of them.� More has been discovered
+there than I have mentioned, my purpose being to give an accurate view
+of the style, finish, decoration, and general character of the
+architecture and artistic work found in the ruins rather than a
+complete account of every thing connected with them. The ruins of
+Palenque are deemed important by archæologists partly on account of the
+great abundance of inscriptions found there, which, it is believed, will
+at length be deciphered, the written characters being similar to those
+of the Mayas, which are now understood.
+
+
+COPAN AND QUIRIGUA.
+
+The ruins known as Copan are situated in the extreme western part of
+Honduras, where they are densely covered by the forest. As already
+stated, they were first discovered by Europeans about forty years after
+the war of the conquest swept through that part of the country, and were
+at that time wholly mysterious to the natives. The monuments seem older
+than those at Palenque, but we have only scant descriptions of them.
+They are situated in a wild and solitary part of the country, where the
+natives “see as little of strangers as the Arabs about Mount Sinai, and
+are more suspicious.� For this reason they have not been very carefully
+explored. It is known that these ruins extend two or three miles along
+the left bank of the River Copan. Not much has been done to discover how
+far they extend from the river into the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Great Wall at Copan.]
+
+Mr. Stephens describes as follows his first view of them: “We came to
+the right bank of the river, and saw directly opposite a stone wall from
+60 to 90 feet high, with furze growing out of the top, running north and
+south along the river 624 feet, in some places fallen, in others
+entire.� This great wall supported the rear side of the elevated
+foundation of a great edifice. It was made of cut stone well laid in
+mortar or cement, the blocks of stone being 6 feet long. Figure 29 shows
+the wall somewhat imperfectly. He saw next a square stone column
+standing by itself, 14 feet high and 3 feet on each side. From top to
+bottom it was richly ornamented with sculptured designs on two opposite
+sides, the other sides being covered with inscriptions finely carved on
+the stone. On the front face, surrounded by the sculptured ornaments,
+was the figure of a man. Fourteen other obelisks of the same kind were
+seen, some of them being higher than this. Some of them had fallen.
+These sculptured and inscribed pillars constitute the chief peculiarity
+of Copan. Mr. Squier says of them: “The ruins of Copan, and the
+corresponding monuments which I examined in the valley of the
+Chamelican, are distinguished by singular and elaborately carved
+_monoliths_, which seem to have been replaced at Palenque by equally
+elaborate _basso relievos_, belonging, it would seem, to a later and
+more advanced period of art.�
+
+The great building first noticed stands, or stood, on a pyramidal
+foundation, which is supported along the river by that high back wall.
+The structure extends 624 feet on the river line. Mr. Stephens described
+it as an “oblong inclosure,� and states that it has a wide terrace
+nearly 100 feet above the river, on which great trees are growing, some
+of them more than 20 feet in circumference. Here, as at Palenque, the
+ornamentation was “rich and abundant.� The ruins, greatly worn by decay,
+still show that “architecture, sculpture, painting, and all the arts
+that embellish life had flourished in this overgrown forest.� Some
+beautifully executed sculptures were found buried in the earth, and
+there can be no doubt that extensive excavation, if it were possible in
+that almost invincible forest, would lead to important and valuable
+discoveries. Besides the great building and the monoliths, several
+pyramidal structures are mentioned by Mr. Stephens, who points out that
+extensive exploration is impossible unless one shall first clear away
+the forest and burn up the trees.
+
+Palacios, who described this ruined city nearly three hundred years ago,
+saw much more than Mr. Stephens. He described “the ruins of superb
+edifices, built of hewn stone, which manifestly belonged to a large
+city.� He mentions, in connection with the great wall, an enormous
+eagle carved in stone, which bore a square shield on its breast covered
+with undecipherable characters. He mentions, also, a “stone giant,� and
+a “stone cross� with one arm broken. He saw a “plaza,� circular in form,
+surrounded by ranges of steps or seats, which reminded him of the
+Coliseum at Rome, “as many as eighty ranges still remaining in some
+places.� This “plaza� was “paved with beautiful stones, all square and
+well worked.� Six of the great obelisks, which he described as
+“statues,� stood in this inclosure, and in its centre was a great stone
+basin.
+
+A history of Guatemala, by a writer named Huarros, states that the
+“Circus of Copan,� as he calls the “plaza� described by Palacios, was
+still entire in the year 1700. He mentions gateways which led into the
+inclosure, and says it was surrounded on the outside by stone pyramids
+six yards high, near which were standing sculptured figures or obelisks.
+No doubt, remains of this remarkable “circus� would be found now, if the
+forest should be removed. What else could be found there by means of
+careful and thorough exploration may never be known, for the region is
+uninviting, the forest very difficult, and such an exploration would
+require much more than the means and efforts of one or two individuals.
+
+Not very far away, in the neighboring State of Guatemala, on the right
+bank of the River Motagua, to which the Copan is a tributary, are the
+ruins called Quirigua. It is manifest that a great city once stood here.
+These ruins have a close resemblance to those at Copan, but they appear
+to be much older, for they have, to a great extent, become little
+more than heaps of rubbish. Over a large space of ground traces of what
+has gone to decay are visible. Doubtless important relics of the old
+city are now more abundant below the surface than above it. Mr.
+Stephens, describing what he saw there, confines his attention chiefly
+to a pyramidal structure with flights of steps, and monoliths larger and
+higher than those at Copan, but otherwise similar. He states, however,
+that while they have the same general style, the sculptures are in lower
+relief and hardly so rich in design. One of the obelisks here is twenty
+feet high, five feet six inches wide, and two feet eight inches thick.
+The chief figures carved on it are that of a man on the front, and that
+of a woman on the back. The sides are covered with inscriptions similar
+in appearance to those at Copan. Some of the other standing obelisks are
+higher than this. It seems reasonable to infer that the structures at
+Quirigua were more ancient than those at Copan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Ruins at Mitla.]
+
+
+MITLA.
+
+The ruins called Mitla are in the Mexican State of Oxaca, about twelve
+leagues east from the city of Oxaca. They are situated in the upper part
+of a great valley, and surrounded by a waste, uncultivated region. At
+the time of the Spanish Conquest they were old and much worn by time and
+the elements, but a very large area was then covered by remains of
+ancient buildings. At present only six decaying edifices and three
+ruined pyramids, which were very finely terraced, remain for
+examination, the other structures being now reduced to the last stage
+of decay. Figures 30 and 31 present views of some of these structures,
+as given by Von Temski. Figure 32, from Charnay’s photograph, shows a
+ruin at Mitla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Great Hall at Mitla.]
+
+These important ruins were not described by Stephens and Catherwood.
+Captain Dupaix’s work gives some account of them, and Desiré Charnay,
+who saw them since 1860, brought away photographs of some of the
+monuments. Four of the standing edifices are described by Dupaix as
+“palaces,� and these, he says, “were erected with lavish magnificence;
+* * * they combine the solidity of the works of Egypt with the elegance
+of those of Greece.� And he adds, “But what is most remarkable,
+interesting, and striking in these monuments, and which alone would be
+sufficient to give them the first rank among all known orders of
+architecture, is the execution of their mosaic relievos, very different
+from plain mosaic, and consequently requiring more ingenious combination
+and greater art and labor. They are inlaid on the surface of the wall,
+and their duration is owing to the method of fixing the prepared stones
+into the stone surface, which made their union with it perfect.� Figure
+33, taken from Charnay’s photograph, shows part of the mosaic decoration
+on a wall of one of the great edifices at Mitla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Ruined Palace at Mitla.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Mosaics at Mitla.]
+
+The general character of the architecture and masonry is much like that
+seen in the structures at Palenque, but the finish of the workmanship
+appears to have been more artistic and admirable. These ruins are
+remarkable among those of the country where they are found. All who have
+seen them speak much as Dupaix speaks of the perfection of the masonry,
+the admirable design and finish of the work, and the beauty of the
+decorations. Their beauty, says M. Charnay, can be matched only by the
+monuments of Greece and Rome in their best days. One fact presented by
+some of the edifices at Mitla has a certain degree of historical
+significance. There appears to be evidence that they were occupied at
+some period by people less advanced in civilization than their builders.
+M. Charnay, describing one of them, points out this fact. He says of the
+structure:
+
+“It is a bewildering maze of courts and buildings, with facings
+ornamented with mosaics in relief of the purest design; but under the
+projections are found traces of paintings wholly primitive in style, in
+which the right line is not even respected. These are rude figures of
+idols, and meandering lines that have no significance. Similar paintings
+appear, with the same imperfection, on every great edifice, in places
+which have allowed them shelter against the ravages of time. These rude
+designs, associated with palaces so correct in architecture, and so
+ornamented with panels of mosaic of such marvelous workmanship, put
+strange thoughts in the mind. To find the explanation of this
+phenomenon, must we not suppose these palaces were occupied by a race
+less advanced in civilization than their first builders?�
+
+Two miles or more away from the great edifices here mentioned, toward
+the west, is the “Castle of Mitla.� It was built on the summit of an
+isolated and precipitous hill of rock, which is accessible only on the
+east side. The whole leveled summit of this hill is inclosed by a solid
+wall of hewn stone twenty-one feet thick and eighteen feet high. This
+wall has salient and retiring angles, with curtains interposed. On the
+east side it is flanked by double walls. Within the inclosure are the
+remains of several small buildings. The field of these ruins was very
+large three hundred years ago. At that time it may have included this
+castle.
+
+
+AN ASTRONOMICAL MONUMENT.
+
+In this part of Mexico Captain Dupaix examined a peculiar ruin, of which
+he gave the following account: “Near the road from the village of
+Tlalmanalco to that called Mecamecan, about three miles east of the
+latter, there is an isolated granite rock, which was artificially
+formed into a kind of pyramid with six hewn steps facing the east. The
+summit of this structure is a platform, or horizontal plane, well
+adapted to observation of the stars on every side of the hemisphere. It
+is almost demonstrable that this very ancient monument was exclusively
+devoted to astronomical observations, for on the south side of the rock
+are sculptured several hieroglyphical figures having relation to
+astronomy. The most striking figure in the group is that of a man in
+profile, standing erect, and directing his view to the rising stars in
+the sky. He holds to his eye a tube or optical instrument. Below his
+feet is a frieze divided into six compartments, with as many celestial
+signs carved on its surface.� It has been already stated that
+finely-wrought “telescopic tubes� have been found among remains of the
+Mound-Builders. They were used, it seems, by the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and they were known also in ancient Peru,
+where a silver figure of a man in the act of using such a tube has been
+discovered in one of the old tombs.
+
+
+RUINS FARTHER SOUTH.
+
+Old ruins, of which but little is known, exist in Guatemala, Honduras,
+San Salvador, and the more southern portion of Central America. Mr.
+Squier, who tells us more of them than any other explorer, says, “I
+heard of remains and monuments in Honduras and San Salvador equal to
+those of Copan in extent and interest.� He mentions the ruins of Opico,
+near San Vincente, in San Salvador, which “cover nearly two square
+miles, and consist of vast terraces, ruins of edifices, circular and
+square towers, and subterranean galleries, all built of cut stones: a
+single carving has been found here on a block of stone.� Remains of
+“immense works� exist in the district of Chontales, near the northern
+shore of Lake Nicaragua; and pottery found in Nicaragua “equals the best
+specimens of Mexico and Peru.� Don Jose Antonio Urritia, curé of
+Jutiapa, gave the following account of a great ruin on a mountain in San
+Salvador, near the town of Comapa: it is called Cinaca-Mecallo:
+
+“The walls, or remains of the city wall, describe an oval figure, within
+which roads or streets may be traced, and there are various subterranean
+passages and many ruined edifices. The materials of construction are
+chiefly thin stones, or a species of slate, united by a kind of cement
+which in appearance resembles melted lead.� It does not appear that he
+made a complete examination of the monuments, but he mentions three that
+gained his attention, and left upon his mind a very strong impression.
+“The first is a temple consecrated to the sun, chiefly excavated in the
+solid rock, and having its entrance toward the east. On the archway of
+the entrance are carved representations of the sun and moon.
+Hieroglyphics are found in the interior. Besides the sculptured _bassi
+relievi_, these stones bear hieroglyphics painted with a kind of red
+varnish which remains unimpaired. The second is a great stone slab
+covered with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. The third is the figure of a
+wild animal sculptured on a rock or stone, of “great size.�[TN-3]
+
+
+THE RUINS IN YUCATAN.
+
+The remains of ancient cities are abundant in the settled portion of
+Yucatan, which lies north of the great forest. Charnay found “the
+country covered with them from north to south.� Stephens states, in the
+Preface to his work on Yucatan, that he visited “forty-four ruined
+cities or places� in which such remains are still found, most of which
+were unknown to white men, even to those inhabiting the country; and he
+adds that “time and the elements are hastening them to utter
+destruction.�
+
+Previous to the Spanish Conquest, the region known to us as Yucatan was
+called Maya. It is still called Maya by the natives among themselves,
+and this is the true name of the country. Why the Spaniards called it
+Yucatan is unknown, but the name is wholly arbitrary and without reason.
+It is said to have arisen from an odd mistake like that which occasioned
+the name given to one of the capes by Hernandez de Cordova. Being on the
+coast in 1517, he met some of the natives. Their cacique said to him,
+“Conèx cotoch,� meaning “Come to our town.� The Spaniard, supposing he
+had mentioned the name of the place, immediately named the projecting
+point of land “Cape Cotoche,� and it is called so still.
+
+At that time the country was occupied by the people still known as
+Mayas. They all spoke the same language, which was one of a closely
+related family of tongues spoken in Guatemala, Chiapas, Western
+Honduras, and in some other districts of Central America and Mexico.
+Yucatan was then much more populous than at present. The people had more
+civilization, more regular industry, and more wealth. They were much
+more highly skilled in the arts of civilized life. They had cities and
+large towns; and dwelling-houses, built of timber and covered with
+thatch, like those common in England, were scattered over all the rural
+districts. Some of the cities now found in ruins were then inhabited.
+This peninsula had been the seat of an important feudal monarchy, which
+arose probably after the Toltecs overthrew the very ancient kingdom of
+Xibalba. It was broken up by a rebellion of the feudal lords about a
+hundred years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. According to the
+Maya chronicles, its downfall occurred in the year 1420. Mayapan, the
+capital of this kingdom, was destroyed at that time, and never afterward
+inhabited.
+
+Merida, the present capital of Yucatan, was built on the site of an
+ancient Maya city called Tihoo. It is stated in the old Spanish accounts
+of Merida that it was built on that site because there was in the ruins
+an abundance of building material. There is mention of two “mounds�
+which furnished a vast amount of hewn stone. Mr. Stephens noticed in
+some of the edifices stones with “sculptured figures, from the ruins of
+ancient buildings;� and he mentions that a portion of an ancient
+building, including an arch in the Maya style, was retained in the
+construction of the Franciscan convent.
+
+
+MAYAPAN.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Great Mound at Mayapan.]
+
+We shall notice only some of the principal ruins in Yucatan, beginning
+with Mayapan, the ancient capital. The remains of this city are situated
+about ten leagues, in a southern direction, from Merida. They are spread
+over an extensive plain, and overgrown by trees and other vegetation.
+The most prominent object seen by the approaching explorer is a great
+mound, 60 feet high and 100 feet square at the base. It is an imposing
+structure, seen through the trees, and is itself overgrown like a wooded
+hill. Figure 34 shows one view of this. Four stairways, in a ruinous
+condition, 25 feet wide, lead up to an esplanade within 6 feet of the
+top, which is reached by a smaller stairway. The summit is a plain stone
+platform 15 feet square. This, of course, was a temple. Sculptured
+stones are scattered around the base, and within the mound subterranean
+chambers have been discovered.
+
+It is probable that the principal edifices at Mayapan were not all built
+wholly of stone, for they have mostly disappeared. Only one remains, a
+circular stone building 25 feet in diameter, which stands on a pyramidal
+foundation 35 feet high. This is represented in Figure 35. On the
+southwest side of it, on a terrace projecting from the mound, was a
+double row of columns without capitals, 8 feet apart. There are
+indications that this city was old, and that the buildings had been more
+than once renewed. Brasseur de Bourbourg classes some of the foundations
+at Mayapan with the oldest seen at Palenque and Copan. This point,
+however, can not be determined with sufficient accuracy to remove all
+doubt. Mayapan may have stood upon the foundations of a very ancient
+city which was several times rebuilt, but the city destroyed in 1420
+could not have been as old as either Palenque or Copan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Circular Edifice at Mayapan.]
+
+
+UXMAL.
+
+The ruins of Uxmal have been regarded as the most important in Yucatan,
+partly on account of the edifices that remain standing, but chiefly
+because they have been more visited and explored than the others. It is
+supposed, and circumstantial evidence appears to warrant the
+supposition, that this city had not been wholly deserted at the time of
+the Spanish Conquest, although it had previously begun to be a ruin. It
+was wholly a ruin in 1673. The area covered by its remains is extensive.
+Charnay makes it a league or more in diameter; but most of the
+structures have fallen, and exist now only in fragments scattered over
+the ground. It may be that many of them were not built wholly of hewn
+stone, and had not “Egyptian solidity� with their other characteristics.
+
+The most important of those remaining was named “Casa del Gobernador� by
+the Spaniards. It is 320 feet long, and was built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar or cement. The faces of the walls are smooth up to the cornice.
+Then follows, on all the four sides, “one solid mass of rich,
+complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments, forming a sort of
+arabesque.� Figure 36 gives a view of the south end of this edifice, but
+no engraving can show all the details of the ornamentation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.]
+
+This building has eleven doorways in front, and one at each end, all
+having wooden lintels, which have fallen. The two principal rooms are 60
+feet long, and from 11 to 13 feet wide. This structure is long and
+narrow The arrangement and number of the rooms are shown in the
+following ground plan of the building (Figure 37):
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Ground Plan of Casa del Gobernador]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Double-headed Figure, Casa del Gobernador.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Decorations over Doorway, Casa del
+Gobernador.]
+
+It stands on the summit of one of the grandest of the terraced
+foundations. This foundation, like all the others, is pyramidal. It has
+three terraces. The lowest is 3 feet high, 15 wide, and 575 long; the
+second is 20 feet high, 275 wide, and 545 long; the third, 19 feet high,
+30 wide, and 360 long. Structures formerly existed on the second
+terrace, remains of which are visible. At the northwest corner one of
+them still shows its dilapidated walls, portions of them being
+sufficiently complete to show what they were. This edifice was 94 feet
+long and 34 wide. It seems to have been finely finished in a style more
+simple than that of the great “casa� on the upper terrace. The figures
+of turtles sculptured along the upper edge of the cornice have given it
+the current designation, “House of the Turtles.� Sculptured monuments
+have been found buried in the soil of the second terrace. The opening of
+a small, low mound situated on it brought to view the double-headed
+figure shown in No. 38. Figure 39 shows part of the sculptured
+decoration over the centre doorway of Casa del Gobernador.
+
+Another important edifice at Uxmal has been named “Casa de las Monjas,�
+House of the Nuns. It stands on a terraced foundation, and is arranged
+around a quadrangular court-yard 258 feet one way and 214 the other. The
+front structure is 279 feet long, and has a gateway in the centre 10
+feet 8 inches wide leading into the court, and four doors on each side
+of it. The outer face of the wall, above the cornice, is ornamented with
+sculptures. The terrace without and within the inclosure was found
+covered with a very dense growth of vegetation, which it was necessary
+to clear away before the walls could be carefully examined. All the
+doorways, save those in front, open on the court. Mr. Stephens found the
+four great façades fronting the court-yard “ornamented from one end to
+the other with the richest and most intricate carving known to the
+builders of Uxmal, presenting a scene of strange magnificence which
+surpasses any other now seen among its ruins.� The long outer
+structure, on the side facing the entrance, had high turret-like
+elevations over each of its thirteen doorways, all covered with
+sculptured ornaments. This building appears to have inclosed another of
+older date. Figure 40 shows the ground plan of “Las Monjas.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal.]
+
+Other less important edifices in the ruins of Uxmal have been described
+by explorers, some of which stand on high pyramidal mounds; and
+inscriptions are found here, but they are not so abundant as at Palenque
+and Copan.
+
+
+KABAH.
+
+The ruins known as Kabah are on the site of what must have been one of
+the most imposing and important of the more ancient cities. Here the
+most conspicuous object is a stone-faced mound 180 feet square at the
+base, with a range of ruined apartments at the bottom. Three or four
+hundred yards from this mound is a terraced foundation 20 feet high and
+200 by 142 in extent, on which stand the remains of a great edifice. At
+the right of the esplanade before it is a “high range of ruined
+structures overgrown with trees, with an immense back wall on the outer
+line of the esplanade perpendicular to the bottom of the terrace.� On
+the left is another range of ruined buildings, and in the centre a stone
+inclosure 27 feet square and 7 feet high, with sculptures and
+inscriptions around the base. Some of the ornamentation of this building
+has been described in the strongest terms of admiration. Mr. Stephens
+said of it, “The cornice running over the doorways, tried by the
+severest rules of art recognized among us, would embellish the
+architecture of any known era.� At Uxmal the walls were smooth below the
+cornice; here they are covered with decorations from top to bottom.
+
+This field of ruins is extensive, and only a portion of it has been
+examined. It is so overgrown that exploration is very difficult. The
+buildings and mounds are much decayed, and they seem to be very old. It
+is believed that ruined edifices of which nothing is known are hidden
+among the trees in places which no explorer has approached. Mr. Stephens
+gave the first account of Kabah, and described three other important
+edifices besides that already named. One of these he thought was, when
+entire, the most imposing structure at Kabah. It was 147 feet long by
+106 wide, and had three distinct stories, each successive story being
+smaller than that below it. Another, standing on the upper terrace of an
+elevated foundation 170 feet long by 110 broad, was 164 feet in length,
+and comparatively narrow. It is mentioned as a peculiarity of this
+edifice that it had pillars in its doorways, used as supports. The
+other, found standing on a terrace, is also long and narrow, and has a
+comparatively plain front.
+
+Remains of other buildings are visible, but in all cases they are so
+completely in ruins as to be little more than heaps of débris. Some of
+the ruins in the woods beyond that part of the field which is most
+accessible, are visible from the great mound described. A resolute
+attempt to penetrate the forest brought the explorers in view of great
+edifices standing on an elevated terrace estimated to be 800 feet long
+by 100 feet wide. The decorations seemed to have been abundant and very
+rich, but the structures were in a sad state of dilapidation. One
+remarkable monument found at Kabah resembles a triumphal arch. It stands
+by itself on a ruined mound apart from the other structures. It is
+described as a “lonely arch, having a span of 14 feet,� rising on the
+field of ruins “in solitary grandeur.� Figure 41 gives a view of it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Ruined Arch at Kabah.]
+
+Kabah was an ancient city. The ruins are old, and the city may have
+belonged to the first age of the Maya period.
+
+
+CHICHEN-ITZA.
+
+The ruins of Chichen-Itza are situated east of Mayapan, about half way
+between the eastern and western coasts of the peninsula of Yucatan. A
+public road runs through the space of ground over which they are spread.
+The area covered by them is something less than a mile in diameter. The
+general character of the ruined structures found here is in every
+respect like that shown by ruins already described.
+
+One of the great buildings at this place has a rude, unornamental
+exterior, and does not stand on an artificial terrace, although the
+ground before it was excavated so as to give the appearance of an
+elevated foundation. It is one hundred and forty-nine feet long by
+forty-eight deep. Its special peculiarity consists of a stone lintel, in
+a very dark inner room, which has an inscription and a sculptured figure
+on the under side. The writing closely resembles that seen at Palenque
+and Copan. Was this sculptured stone made originally for the place it
+now occupies, or was it taken from the ruins of some older city which
+flourished and went to decay before Chichen-Itza was built?
+
+Another structure seen here closely resembles Las Monjas at Uxmal, and
+bears the same name, but it differs somewhat from the Uxmal Monjas in
+arrangement. In the descriptions, special mention is made of “the
+richness and beauty� of its ornaments.
+
+A noticeable edifice connected with the Monjas, called the “Church,� is
+26 feet long, 14 deep, 31 high, and has three cornices, the spaces
+between them being covered with carved ornaments. There is but one room
+in it. One of the most picturesque ruins at Chichen-Itza is circular in
+form, and stands on the upper level of a double-terraced platform. It is
+22 feet in diameter, and has four doors, which face the cardinal points.
+Above the cornice it slopes gradually almost to a point, and the top is
+about 60 feet above the ground. The grand staircase of 20 steps, leading
+up to this building, is 45 feet wide, and has a sort of balustrade
+formed of the entwined bodies of huge serpents. At some distance from
+this is the ruined structure known as the “Casa Colorada,� or Red House.
+This is shown in Figure 42.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Casa Colorada.]
+
+It is 43 feet long by 23 deep, and stands on a platform 62 feet long by
+55 wide. It was ornamented above the cornice, but the decorations are
+much defaced by decay. A stone tablet extending the whole length of the
+back wall, inside, is covered by an inscription.
+
+A remarkable structure is found at this place, which Mr. Stephens called
+the “Gymnasium, or Tennis Court.� It consists of two immense parallel
+walls 274 feet long, 30 thick, and 120 apart. On elevations facing the
+two ends of the open space between them, 100 feet from the ends of the
+walls, stand two edifices much ruined, but showing, in their remains,
+that they were richly ornamented. Midway in the length of the walls,
+facing each other, and 20 feet above the ground, are two massive stone
+rings or circles 4 feet in diameter, each having in the centre a hole 1
+foot and 7 inches in diameter. On the borders around these holes two
+entwined serpents are sculptured, as seen in Figure 43.
+
+There was a similar structure in the old city of Mexico, and remains of
+one like it are found at Mayapan. They were, probably, used for games of
+some kind. Among the other ruins at Chichen-Itza are the remains of a
+lofty edifice which has two high ranges or stories. On the outside the
+ornamentation is simple and tasteful, but the walls of its chambers are
+very elaborately decorated, mostly with sculptured designs, which seem
+to have been painted. In one of the upper rooms Mr. Stephens found a
+beam of sapote wood used as a lintel, which was covered with very
+elegantly carved decorations. The walls of this room were covered, from
+the bottom to the top of the arched ceiling, with painted designs
+similar to those seen in the Mexican “picture writing.� Decay had
+mutilated these “pictures,� but the colors were still bright. There are
+indications that painting was generally used by the aboriginal builders,
+even on their sculptures. The colors seen in this room were green, red,
+yellow, blue, and reddish-brown. Another edifice, standing on a high
+mound, is reached by means of the usual great stairway, which begins at
+the bottom, with a sort of balustrade on each side, the ends of which
+are stone figures of heads of immense serpents.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Great Stone Ring.]
+
+Not far from this is a singular ruin, consisting of groups of small
+columns standing in rows five abreast, the tallest being not more than
+six feet high. Many of them have fallen. It is impossible to determine
+how they were used, or what they mean.
+
+
+OTHER RUINS IN YUCATAN.
+
+Izamal, Labna, Zayi, and some of the other ruins are sufficiently
+important for special notice; but they present every where the same
+characteristics, differing a little in the style or method of
+ornamentation. At Labna there is among the ruins an ancient gateway,
+beautiful in design and construction, a view of which is given in the
+Frontispiece. The best account of some of the other ruins on this
+peninsula can be found in the volumes of Mr. Stephens, entitled
+“Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.� At Zayi there is a singular building,
+which, as seen at a distance by Mr. Stephens, “had the appearance of a
+New England factory.� But what seemed to be a “factory� is, in fact,
+nothing more than a massive wall with oblong openings, which runs along
+the middle of the roof, and rises thirty feet above it. The building was
+below this wall, but the front part of it had fallen. Among the remains
+at Xcoch is the great mound represented in Figure 44.
+
+There is a remarkable ruin at Ake, at the south, which deserves mention.
+Here, on the summit of a great mound, very level, and 225 feet by 50 in
+extent, stand 36 shafts or columns, in three parallel rows. The columns
+are about 15 feet high and 4 feet square. The ruins of Ake, which cover
+a great space, are ruder and more massive than most of the others. The
+island of Cozumel and the adjacent coast of Yucatan were populous when
+the Spaniards first went there, but the great towns then inhabited are
+now in ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Great Mound at Xcoch.]
+
+Water is scarce on this peninsula, and a sufficient supply is not
+obtained without considerable difficulty. The ancient inhabitants
+provided for this lack of water by constructing aguadas or artificial
+ponds. These, or many of them, doubtless, are as old as the oldest of
+the ruined cities. Intelligence, much skill in masonry, and much labor
+were required to construct them. They were paved with several courses of
+stone laid in cement, and in their bottoms wells or cavities were
+constructed. More than forty such wells were found in the bottom of one
+of these aguadas at Galal, which has been repaired and restored to use.
+A section of the bottom of this aguada is shown in Figure 45. In some
+places long subterranean passages lead down to pools of water, which are
+used in the dry season. One of these subterranean reservoirs, and the
+cavernous passage leading to it, are shown in Figure 46. The reservoir
+is 450 feet below the surface of the ground, and the passage leading to
+it is about 1400 feet long. Branching passages, not shown, lead to two
+or three other basins of water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Bottom of an Aguada.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Subterranean Reservoir.]
+
+The wooden lintels, which are common in Yucatan, do not appear in the
+other ruins, and there is a difference in the style of ornamentation
+between those at Palenque or Copan, for instance, and those at Uxmal,
+but every where the architecture is regulated by the same idea, the
+differences indicating nothing more than different periods and
+different phases of development in the history of the same people.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Plan of the Walls at Tuloom.]
+
+Some of the great edifices in these old ruins, such as the “Palace� at
+Palenque, and the “Casa del Gobernador� at Uxmal, remind us of the
+“communal buildings� of the Pueblos, and yet there is a wide difference
+between them. They are not alike either in character or purpose,
+although such great buildings as the “Palace� may have been designed for
+the occupation of several families. There is no indication that
+“communal� residences were ever common in this part of the country. At
+the time of the Conquest the houses of the people were ordinary family
+dwellings, made of wood, and we may reasonably suppose this fashion of
+building was handed down from the earlier ages. Herrera, who supposed,
+mistakenly, that all the great stone edifices were temples, said, in
+his account of Yucatan, “There were so many and such stately stone
+buildings that it was amazing; and the greatest wonder was that, having
+no use of any metal, they were able to raise such structures, which seem
+to have been temples; for their houses were all of timber, and
+thatched.� But they had the use of metals, and they had the art of
+making some of them admirable for use in cutting stone and carving wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Watch-tower at Tuloom.]
+
+Among the buildings of later date are some of those on the western
+coast, which were still inhabited three hundred and fifty years ago. The
+city of Tuloom was inhabited then. Figure 47 shows a ground plan of the
+walls of this city, with the position of some of the ruined monuments.
+
+Within the walls are remains of finely constructed buildings on elevated
+foundations, none of them, however, very large. One of them had a wooden
+roof, and timber seems to have been considerably used here. The walls
+still standing were made of hewn stone. Remains of stone edifices exist
+all along this coast, but the whole region is now covered by a dense
+growth of trees and other vegetation. Tuloom was seen in 1518 by
+Grijalva, who sailed along the coast. At that time the island of
+Cozumel, where noteworthy ruins are found, was inhabited by many people.
+Figure 48 shows one of the watch-towers on the walls of Tuloom.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS.
+
+
+The Mexican and Central American ruins make it certain that in ancient
+times an important civilization existed in that part of the continent,
+which must have begun at a remote period in the past. If they have any
+significance, this must be accepted as an ascertained fact. A large
+proportion of them had been forgotten in the forests, or become mythical
+and mysterious, long before the arrival of the Spaniards.
+
+In 1520, three hundred and fifty years ago, the forest which so largely
+covers Yucatan, Guatemala, and Chiapa was growing as it grows now; yes,
+four hundred and fifty years ago, for it was there a century previous to
+this date, when, the Maya kingdom being broken up, one of its princes
+fled into this forest with a portion of his people, the Itzas, and
+settled at Lake Peten. It was the same then as now. How many additional
+centuries it had existed no one can tell. If its age could be told, it
+would still be necessary to consider that the ruins hidden in it are
+much older than the forest, and that the period of civilization they
+represent closed long before it was established.
+
+In the ages previous to the beginning of this immense forest, the region
+it covers was the seat of a civilization which grew up to a high degree
+of development, flourished a long time, and finally declined, until its
+cities were deserted, and its cultivated fields left to the wild
+influences of nature. It may be safely assumed that both the
+forest-covered ruins and the forest itself are far older than the Aztec
+period; but who can tell how much older? Copan, first discovered and
+described three hundred years ago, was then as strange to the natives
+dwelling near it as the old Chaldean ruins are to the Arabs who wander
+over the wasted plains of Lower Mesopotamia. Native tradition had
+forgotten its history and become silent in regard to it. How long had
+ruined Copan been in this condition? No one can tell. Manifestly it was
+forgotten, left buried in the forest without recollection of its
+history, long before Montezuma’s people, the Aztecs, rose to power; and
+it is easily understood that this old city had an important history
+previous to that unknown time in the past when war, revolution, or some
+other agency of destruction put an end to its career and left it to
+become what it is now.
+
+Moreover, these old ruins, in all cases, show us only the cities last
+occupied in the periods to which they belong. Doubtless others still
+older preceded them; and, besides, it can be seen that some of the
+ruined cities which can now be traced were several times renewed by
+reconstructions. We must consider, also, that building magnificent
+cities is not the first work of an original civilization. The
+development was necessarily gradual. Its first period was more or less
+rude. The art of building and ornamenting such edifices arose slowly.
+Many ages must have been required to develop such admirable skill in
+masonry and ornamentation. Therefore the period between the beginning of
+this mysterious development of civilized life and the first builders who
+used cut stone laid in mortar and cement, and covered their work with
+beautifully sculptured ornaments and inscriptions, must have been very
+long.
+
+We have no measure of the time, no clew to the old dates, nothing
+whatever, beyond such considerations as I have stated, to warrant even a
+vague hypothesis. It can be seen clearly that the beginning of this old
+civilization was much older than the earliest great cities, and, also,
+that these were much more ancient than the time when any of the later
+built or reconstructed cities whose relics still exist, were left to
+decay. If we suppose Palenque to have been deserted some six hundred
+years previous to the Spanish Conquest, this date will carry us back
+only to the last days of its history as an inhabited city. Beyond it, in
+the distant past, is a vast period, in which the civilization
+represented by Palenque was developed, made capable of building such
+cities, and then carried on through the many ages during which cities
+became numerous, flourished, grew old, and gave place to others, until
+the long history of Palenque itself began.
+
+Those who have sought to discredit what is told of the Aztec
+civilization and the empire of Montezuma have never failed to admit
+fully the significance of Copan, Palenque, and Mitla. One or two
+writers, pursuing the assumption that the barbarous tribes at the north
+and the old Mexicans were of the same race, and substantially the same
+people, have undertaken to give us the history of Montezuma’s empire
+“entirely rewritten,� and show that his people were “Mexican savages.�
+In their hands Montezuma is transformed into a barbarous Indian chief,
+and the city of Mexico becomes a rude Indian village, situated among the
+islands and lagoons of an everglade which afforded unusual facilities
+“for fishing and snaring birds.� One goes so far as to maintain this
+with considerable vehemence and amusing unconsciousness of absurdity. He
+is sure that Montezuma was nothing more than the principal chief of a
+parcel of wild Indian tribes, and that the Pueblos are wild Indians
+changed to their present condition by Spanish influence. There is
+something in this akin to lunacy.
+
+But this topic will receive more attention in another place. I bring it
+to view here because those who maintain so strangely that the Aztecs
+were Indian savages, admit all that is claimed for the wonderful ruins
+at the south, and give them a very great antiquity. They maintain,
+however, that the civilization represented by these ruins was brought to
+this continent in remote pre-historic times by the people known as
+Phœnicians, and their method of finding the Phœnicians at Palenque,
+Copan, and every where else, is similar in character and value to that
+by which they transform the Aztec empire into a rude confederacy of wild
+Indians.
+
+
+DISTINCT ERAS TRACED.
+
+It is a point of no little interest that these old constructions belong
+to different periods in the past, and represent somewhat different
+phases of civilization. Uxmal, which is supposed to have been partly
+inhabited when the Spaniards arrived in the country, is plainly much
+more modern than Copan or Palenque. This is easily traced in the ruins.
+Its edifices were finished in a different style, and show fewer
+inscriptions. Round pillars, somewhat in the Doric style, are found at
+Uxmal, but none like the square, richly-carved pillars, bearing
+inscriptions, discovered in some of the other ruins. Copan and Palenque,
+and even Kabah, in Yucatan, may have been very old cities, if not
+already old ruins, when Uxmal was built. Accepting the reports of
+explorers as correct, there is evidence in the ruins that Quirigua is
+older than Copan, and that Copan is older than Palenque. The old
+monuments in Yucatan represent several distinct epochs in the ancient
+history of that peninsula. Some of them are kindred to those hidden in
+the great forest, and remind us more of Palenque than of Uxmal. Among
+those described, the most modern, or most of these, are in Yucatan; they
+belong to the time when the kingdom of the Mayas flourished. Many of the
+others belong to ages previous to the rise of this kingdom; and in ages
+still earlier, ages older than the great forest, there were other
+cities, doubtless, whose remains have perished utterly, or were long ago
+removed for use in the later constructions.
+
+The evidence of repeated reconstructions in some of the cities before
+they were deserted has been pointed out by explorers. I have quoted what
+Charnay says of it in his description of Mitla. At Palenque, as at
+Mitla, the oldest work is the most artistic and admirable. Over this
+feature of the monuments, and the manifest signs of their difference in
+age, the attention of investigators has lingered in speculation. They
+find in them a significance which is stated as follows by Brasseur de
+Bourbourg: “Among the edifices forgotten by time in the forests of
+Mexico and Central America, we find architectural characteristics so
+different from each other, that it is as impossible to attribute them
+all to the same people as to believe they were all built at the same
+epoch.� In his view, “the substructions at Mayapan, some of those at
+Tulha, and a great part of those at Palenque,� are among the older
+remains. These are not the oldest cities whose remains are still
+visible, but they may have been built, in part, upon the foundations of
+cities much more ancient.
+
+
+NOTHING PERISHABLE LEFT.
+
+No well considered theory of these ruins can avoid the conclusion that
+most of them are very ancient, and that, to find the origin of the
+civilization they represent, we must go far back into the “deeps of
+antiquity.� On all the fields of desolation where they exist, every
+thing perishable has disappeared. Wooden lintels are mentioned, but
+these can hardly be regarded as constituting an exception when the
+character of the wood, and the circumstances that contributed to their
+preservation, are considered. Moreover, wooden lintels seem to have been
+peculiar to Yucatan, where many of the great edifices were constructed
+in the later times, and some of them of perishable materials. Every
+where in the older ruins, nothing remains but the artificial mounds and
+foundations of earth, the stone, the cement, the stucco hard as marble,
+and other imperishable materials used by the builders.
+
+If the edifices had all been made of wood, there would now be nothing to
+show us that the older cities had ever existed. Every trace of them
+would have been obliterated long before our time, and most of them would
+have disappeared entirely long before the country was seen by the
+Spaniards. The places where they stood, with no relics save the mounds
+and pyramidal platforms, would resemble the works of our Mound-Builders,
+and not a few “sound historical critics� would consider it in the
+highest degree absurd to suggest that cities with such structures have
+ever existed there. Under the circumstances supposed, how wisely
+skepticism could talk against a suggestion of this kind at Copan, Mitla,
+or Palenque! and how difficult it would be to find a satisfactory answer
+to its reasonings! Nevertheless, those mysterious structures have not
+wholly disappeared, and we can easily understand that there was a time
+when large areas connected with them were covered with buildings of a
+less durable character.
+
+I have referred to a writer who maintains, with more vehemence than
+candor, that the Aztecs, and all the other people found in the
+country, were “savages� not greatly different from the wild Indians
+farther north, while he admits the significance and great antiquity of
+these ruins. His conception of their antiquity is somewhat extreme, for
+he says they must have existed “for thousands of years� when the
+Spaniards arrived. If he had maintained that civilized communities were
+there “thousands of years� previous to that time, developing the skill
+in architecture, decoration, and writing, to which the monuments bear
+witness, it might be possible to agree with him. Some of us, however,
+would probably stipulate that he should not count too many “thousands,�
+nor claim a similar antiquity for the ruins now visible. It is not easy
+to suppose that any of these old monuments, with their well-preserved
+sculptures and inscriptions, represent the first period of the ancient
+history they suggest, nor that they have existed as ruins many
+“thousands of years,� for the climate of Mexico and Central America does
+not preserve such remains like that of Egypt.
+
+Nevertheless, some of them must be very old. The forest established
+since the ruin began, the entire disappearance of every thing more
+perishable than stone, the utter oblivion which veiled their history in
+the time of Montezuma, and probably long previous to his time, all these
+facts bear witness to their great antiquity. In many of them, as at
+Quirigua and Kabah, the stone structures have become masses of débris;
+and even at Copan, Palenque, and Mitla, only a few of them are
+sufficently[TN-4] well preserved to show us what they were in the
+great days of their history. Meanwhile, keep in mind that the ruined
+cities did not begin their present condition until the civilization that
+created them had declined; and, also, that if we could determine exactly
+the date when they were deserted and left to decay, we should only reach
+that point in the past where their history as inhabited cities was
+brought to a close.
+
+Take Copan, for instance. This city may have become a ruin during the
+time of the Toltecs, which began long before the Christian era, and
+ended some five or six centuries probably before the country was invaded
+by Cortez. It was built before their time, for the style of writing, and
+many features of the architecture and ornamentation, show the
+workmanship of their predecessors, judging by the historical intimations
+found in the old books and traditions. We may suppose it to have been an
+old city at the time of the Toltec invasion, although not one of the
+first cities built by that more ancient and more cultivated people by
+whom this old American civilization was originated. The present
+condition of the monuments at Quirigua is still more suggestive of great
+age.
+
+
+“THE OLDEST OF CIVILIZATIONS.�
+
+Some investigators, who have given much study to the antiquities,
+traditions, old books, and probable geological history of Mexico and
+Central America, believe that the first civilization the world ever saw
+appeared in this part of Ancient America, or was immediately connected
+with it. They hold that the human race first rose to civilized life in
+America, which is, geologically, the oldest of the continents; and that,
+ages ago, the portion of this continent on which the first civilizers
+appeared was sunk beneath the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Usually the
+ingulfing of this portion of the land is supposed to have been effected
+by some tremendous convulsion of nature; and there is appeal to
+recollections of such a catastrophe, said to have been preserved in the
+old books of Central America, and also in those of Egypt, from which
+Solon received an account of the lost Atlantis.
+
+According to this hypothesis, the American continent formerly extended
+from Mexico, Central America, and New Granada far into the Atlantic
+Ocean toward Europe and Africa, covering all the space now occupied by
+the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the West India islands, and
+going far beyond them toward the east and northeast. This lost portion
+of the continent was the Atlantis of which the old annals of Egypt told
+so much in the time of Solon, as we learn from Plato; and it was the
+original seat of the first human civilization, which, after the great
+cataclysm, was renewed and perpetuated in the region where we now trace
+the mysterious remains of ancient cities. Those desiring to know what
+can be said in support of this view of Ancient America must read the
+later volumes of Brasseur de Bourbourg, especially his “Quatre Lettres
+sur le Mexique,� and his “Sources de l’Histoire Primitive du Mexique,�
+etc. He is not a perspicuous writer; he uses but little system in
+treating the subject, and he introduces many fanciful speculations which
+do more to embarrass than to help the discussion; but those who read
+the books patiently can find and bring together all that relates to the
+point in question, and consider it in their own way. They can also find
+it set forth and defended in a small volume by George Catlin, entitled
+“The Lifted and Subsided Rocks of America,� published in London, not
+long since, by Trübner and Company.
+
+I shall give more attention to this theory in the next chapter. I refer
+to it here on account of the very great antiquity it claims for the
+ancient American civilization. It represents that the advanced human
+development whose crumbling monuments are studied at Copan, Mitla, and
+Palenque antedates every thing else in the human period of our globe,
+excepting, perhaps, an earlier time of barbarism and pastoral
+simplicity; that its history goes back through all the misty ages of
+pre-historic time to an unknown date previous to the beginning of such
+civilization in any part of the Old World. It is hardly possible to make
+it more ancient.
+
+
+AMERICAN CITIES SEEN BY TYRIANS.
+
+The view just stated touches the imagination and stirs the feelings like
+a genuine “wonder story;� but this should not be allowed to deny it a
+fair hearing. Those who reject it should disprove it before they hasten
+to pronounce it “absurd� and “impossible,� else it may be suspected that
+their accustomed views of antiquity are due more to education, and to
+the habit of following a given fashion of thinking, than to actual
+reflection. It needs demonstration; and we may reasonably suggest that,
+in the present state of our knowledge of the past, demonstration is
+impossible. Meanwhile, a clear historical record appears to make it
+certain that flourishing towns and cities were seen and visited in
+America three thousand years ago, by persons who went to them across the
+Atlantic.
+
+It is said, more or less clearly, by more than one Greek writer, that
+the Phœnicians and Carthaginians knew the way to a continent beyond
+the Atlantic. One fact preserved in the annals of Tyrian commerce, and
+mentioned by several ancient writers, is related by Diodorus Siculus
+very particularly as a matter of authentic history. His narration begins
+with the following statement:
+
+“Over against Africa lies a very great island, in the vast ocean, many
+days’ sail from Libya westward. The soil there is very fruitful, a great
+part whereof is mountainous, but much likewise champaign, which is the
+most sweet and pleasant part, for it is watered by several navigable
+streams, and beautified with many gardens of pleasure planted with
+divers sorts of trees and an abundance of orchards. The towns are
+adorned with stately buildings and banqueting houses pleasantly situated
+in their gardens and orchards.� The great ruins in Yucatan, and
+elsewhere in Mexico and Central America, bear witness that there was,
+anciently, such a country as this, across the ocean, “many days’ sail
+from Libya westward;� but Diodorus Siculus lived before the Christian
+era, and how was this known to him and others more than fifteen hundred
+years before America was discovered by Columbus? He tells us as follows:
+“The Phœnicians (Tyrians) having found out the coasts beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, sailed along by the coast of Africa. One of their
+ships, on a sudden, was driven by a furious storm far off into the main
+ocean. After they had lain under this violent tempest many days, they at
+length arrived at this island.�
+
+This reminds us of the constrained voyage of Biarni, the Northman, from
+Iceland to the coast of Massachusetts, in the year 985 A.D.[163-*] He,
+too, was storm-driven “many days,� and in this way forced to the
+discovery of New England. He started for Greenland, and finally reached
+it by way of Martha’s Vineyard and Cape Cod. The tempest-driven ship of
+the Tyrians must have been carried to the West Indies, and to the coast
+of Honduras or Yucatan, where the Tyrians saw the gardens, cities, and
+stately edifices. The description of what they saw brings to mind
+similar accounts of what was seen in Yucatan by the Spaniards, when they
+began to sail along the coast of that peninsula in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century; Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincente Yañez Pinçon in 1506,
+and Hernandez de Cordova in 1517. They, too, saw handsome towns and
+stately buildings.
+
+This undesigned voyage of the Tyrian ship seems to have been made
+previous to the building of Gadir, or Gades. Perhaps they made other
+voyages to that region, but it was a custom of the Phœnicians to be
+very secret in regard to the methods and paths of their commerce. A
+complete history of their commerce and navigation from the earliest
+times would unquestionably give us views of the past quite as startling
+to the prevalent assuming, unreasoning habits of belief, or rather
+disbelief, concerning antiquity, as that hypothesis of Atlantis and the
+earliest civilization. What is told by Diodorus authorizes us to suppose
+that the Tyrians who went across the Atlantic as described beheld some
+of the ancient American cities which are now found in ruins, for it is
+certain that nothing of the kind existed any where else “many days’ sail
+from Libya [Northern Africa] westward.� Their voyage was made more than
+eleven hundred years previous to the Christian era. If the old Central
+American books may be trusted, this was not very long previous to the
+beginning of the Toltec domination.
+
+Beyond this date, the history of the “Colhuas,� who are described as the
+original civilizers, must have covered a very long period; how long we
+may imagine, but can not know. Gadir, now Cadiz, founded eleven hundred
+years previous to the Christian era, is still an inhabited city; it has
+been several times reconstructed, but never deserted. When it was built,
+Tartessus, then a very old city, still existed, although it was in ruins
+long before Christ appeared. How long had Palenque been in existence
+when that Tyrian ship was driven across the Atlantic? And how long had
+that region been a region of cities and civilization? There is no
+history which can answer these questions.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[163-*] See Appendix A.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+WHENCE CAME THAT OLD CIVILIZATION?
+
+
+Various theories, some of them very wild and irrational, have been
+advanced to explain the origin of what is seen in these relics of
+Ancient America. If it had been the fashion to explore and study them as
+their importance deserves, as Egypt and Nineveh have been explored and
+studied, our knowledge of them would now be much more extensive and
+valuable, and it might be possible to go farther toward a solution of
+the problem they present. But not many persons have sought to explore
+and understand these remains, and not more than two or three have really
+sought in earnest to examine the old traditions and books of the
+country. The abundant inscriptions at Palenque fade in their forest
+solitude while waiting for the Champollion who shall interpret their
+mysteries. Something is known, but we have no history of these old
+cities, no authentic historical record of the people who built them.
+Therefore theorizing has very naturally been stimulated to great
+activity, and most of this theorizing has been regulated by the old,
+unreasoning assumption that civilization found in any place, especially
+in the olden times, must have been brought and established there as a
+foreign production. Generally the hypotheses used in this case have
+presumed as a matter of course that the original civilizers came to
+this continent from Europe or Asia.
+
+
+THE “LOST TRIBES OF ISRAEL.�
+
+One of these theories is (or was), that the original civilizers of
+Mexico and Central America were the “lost ten tribes of Israel.� This
+extremely remarkable explanation of the mystery was devised very early,
+and it has been persistently defended by some persons, although nothing
+can be more unwarranted or more absurd. It was put forward by the
+Spanish monks who first established missions in the country, a class of
+men to whom the world is indebted for a great variety of amazing
+contributions to the literature of hagiology; and the same men, in a way
+equally conclusive, explained the sculptured crosses found in the old
+ruins by assuming that the Gospel was preached in America by St. Thomas.
+Lord Kingsborough adopted their views, and gave up nearly the whole of
+one of his immense volumes on Mexican Antiquities to an elaborate digest
+of all that had been written to explain and support these absurdities.
+Others have maintained this Israelitish hypothesis without deeming it
+necessary to estimate in a reasonable way what was possible to those
+Israelites.
+
+According to this truly monkish theory, the “lost ten tribes of Israel�
+left Palestine, Syria, Assyria, or whatever country they dwelt in at the
+time, traversed the whole extent of Asia, crossed over into America at
+Behring’s Strait, went down the Pacific coast, and established a
+wonderful civilization in that part of the continent where the great
+ruins are found. The kingdom of the ten tribes was destroyed not long
+previous to the year 700 B.C. How many years are allowed, after their
+escape from captivity, for this unparalleled journey, has not yet been
+ascertained. But, if such a journey had been possible, it would have
+resulted in utter barbarism rather than any notable phase of civilized
+life. Even the Jews who remained faithful to Moses, although important
+on account of their scriptures and their religion, were not remarkable
+for civilization. They were incapable of building their own Temple
+without aid from the Tyrians. Moreover, there is not any where either a
+fact, a suggestion, or a circumstance of any kind to show that the “lost
+ten tribes� ever left the countries of Southwestern Asia, where they
+dwelt after the destruction of their kingdom. They were “lost� to the
+Jewish nation because they rebelled, apostatized, and, after their
+subjugation by the Assyrians in 721 B.C., were to a great extent
+absorbed by other peoples in that part of Asia. Some of them probably
+were still in Palestine when Christ appeared. This wild notion, called a
+theory, scarcely deserves so much attention. It is a lunatic fancy,
+possible only to men of a certain class, which in our time does not
+multiply.
+
+
+THE “MALAY� THEORY.
+
+Another hypothesis, much less improbable, though not satisfactory, is
+that civilization was brought to America in ancient times by the Malays.
+There was a great island empire of the Malays, whose history extended
+far back into pre-historic times, how far back can not now be known. It
+was still in existence when the Portuguese first went to India around
+the Cape of Good Hope; and we have several accounts of this empire
+written by travelers who saw and described it six hundred years before
+this first Indian voyage of the Portuguese was undertaken. El Mas’údí,
+who was one of these travelers, used very strong terms to describe its
+extent, intelligence, and power. Speaking of its sovereign, he said,
+“The islands under his sceptre are so numerous that the fastest sailing
+vessel is not able to go round them in two years,� implying that his
+sway was acknowledged by the island world over a large portion of the
+Pacific. This Malayan empire was maritime and commercial; it had fleets
+of great ships; and there is evidence that its influence reached most of
+the Pacific islands. This is shown by the fact that dialects of the
+Malay language have been found in most of these islands as far in this
+direction as Easter Island. The language of the Sandwich Islanders, for
+instance, is Malayan, and has a close relationship to that now spoken in
+the Malay islands.
+
+The metropolis of this great empire was in the island of Java, where old
+ruins still bear witness to the former “civilization, wealth, and
+splendor� celebrated by El Mas’údí. Mr. A. R. Wallace, in his work on
+the Malay Archipelago, says, “Few Englishmen are aware of the number and
+beauty of the architectural remains in Java. They have never been
+popularly illustrated or described, and it will therefore take most
+persons by surprise to learn that they far surpass those of Central
+America, perhaps even those of India.� The purpose of his visit to the
+island did not allow him to explore ruins, but he describes some of
+them. He saw what still remains of an ancient city called “Modjo-pahit,�
+and says, “There were two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a
+gateway. The extreme perfection and beauty of the brick-work astonished
+me. The bricks are exceedingly fine and hard, with sharp angles and true
+surfaces. They were laid with great exactness, without visible mortar or
+cement, yet somehow fastened together so that the joints are hardly
+perceptible, and sometimes the two surfaces coalesce in a most
+incomprehensible manner. Such admirable brick-work I have never seen
+before or since. There was no sculpture here, but abundance of bold
+projections and finely-worked mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for
+many miles in every direction, and almost every road and pathway shows a
+foundation of brick-work beneath it, the paved roads of the old city.�
+In other places he saw sculptures and beautifully carved figures in high
+relief.
+
+The Malays still read and write, have some literature, and retain many
+of the arts and usages of civilization, but they are now very far below
+the condition indicated by these ruins, and described by El Mas’údí, who
+traveled among them a thousand years ago. It is by no means improbable
+that their ships visited the western coast of America, and traded with
+the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the days of their greatest power
+and activity. It is not easy to believe they could fail to do so after
+taking such control of Easter Island as to leave their language there;
+and, according to the old traditions of both Mexico and Peru, the
+Pacific coast in both countries was anciently visited by a foreign
+people who came in ships. But they did not come to America as
+civilizers; there is nothing Malayan in either the antiquities or the
+ancient speech of these countries.
+
+What is known of the former great condition and power of the Malays
+furnishes important suggestions relative to the ancient history of the
+islands of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean,[170-*] as well as those
+of the Indian Ocean.
+
+The people who inhabit the eastern side of Formosa, it is said, use a
+Malay dialect, and have no resemblance whatever to the Mongols. Who can
+fully explain the little known Ainos, who formerly occupied the whole,
+or nearly the whole of Japan? The unmistakable traces of Malay influence
+every where in the islands of the Pacific can have but one meaning. The
+Malays formerly sailed on that ocean, occupied its islands, and
+doubtless visited America.
+
+That there was communication between Eastern Asia and America in very
+ancient times, through the Malays or otherwise, is in a high degree
+probable. This continent was known to the Japanese and Chinese long
+before the time of Columbus. Accounts of it were recorded in their books
+previous to his time. They called it “Fusang,� and evidently, at some
+period, had been accustomed to make voyages to some part of the American
+coast. But neither the Malays, the Chinese, nor the Japanese came here
+as civilizers, for there is no trace of either of these peoples in the
+old ruins, in the ancient language of the country, or in any thing we
+know of the people whom these American ruins represent.
+
+
+THE PHÅ’NICIAN THEORY.
+
+Some of the more intelligent investigators have maintained, with no
+little confidence, that this ancient American civilization came
+originally from the Phœnicians. Among those who use reason in their
+inquiries sufficiently to be incapable of accepting the absurdities of
+monkish fancy, this hypothesis has found more favor than any other.
+Wherever inquiry begins by assuming that the original civilizers came
+from some other part of the world, it seems more reasonable than any
+other, for more can be said to give it the appearance of probability.
+
+The people known to us as Phœnicians were pre-eminent as the colonizing
+navigators of antiquity. They were an enlightened and enterprising
+maritime people, whose commerce traversed every known sea, and extended
+its operations beyond the “Pillars of Hercules� into the “great exterior
+ocean.� The early Greeks called them Ethiopians (not meaning either
+black men or Africans), and said they went every where, establishing
+their colonies and their commerce in all the coast regions, “from the
+extreme east to the extreme west.� But the great ages of this people are
+in the distant past, far beyond the beginning of what we call history.
+History has knowledge only of a few of their later communities, the
+Sabeans of Southern Arabia, the Phœnicians (meaning chiefly the
+Tyrians), and the Carthaginians. What a change there would be in the
+prevalent conceptions of the past if we could have a complete record of
+this race from the beginning of its development!
+
+It is not difficult to believe that communities of the Phœnician or
+Ethiopian race were established all around the Mediterranean, and even
+beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, in ages quite as old as Egypt or
+Chaldea, and that they had communication with America before Tyre or
+Sidon was built. Why did the ancients say so much of a “great Saturnian
+continent� beyond the Atlantic if nobody in the pre-historic ages had
+ever seen that continent? It was there, as they said and as we know; but
+whence came their knowledge of it, and such knowledge as led them to
+describe it as “larger than Asia (meaning Asia Minor), Europe, and Libya
+together?� This ancient belief must have been due to Phœnician or
+Ethiopian communication with America in earlier times, which was
+imperfectly recollected, or perhaps never completely revealed to other
+nations; and this must have taken place at a very remote period, for
+imperfect recollection of the great continent across the Atlantic,
+including what Solon heard in Egypt of Atlantis, was more ancient than
+the constrained voyage of that Tyrian ship of which Diodorus Siculus
+gives an account; and it can be seen that the early Greeks had a better
+knowledge even of Western Europe than those of later times. A dark age,
+so far as relates to geographical knowledge, set in upon the countries
+around the Ægean Sea and on the coast of Asia Minor after the
+independence and enterprise of Tyre and the other Phœnician cities were
+destroyed by the Assyrians, toward the close of the ninth century before
+Christ, which was disturbed some four hundred and fifty or five hundred
+years later by the conquests of Alexander the Great.
+
+The known enterprise of the Phœnician race, and this ancient knowledge
+of America, so variously expressed, strongly encourage the hypothesis
+that the people called Phœnicians came to this continent, established
+colonies in the region where ruined cities are found, and filled it with
+civilized life. It is argued that they made voyages on the “great
+exterior ocean,� and that such navigators must have crossed the
+Atlantic; and it is added that symbolic devices similar to those of the
+Phœnicians are found in the American ruins, and that an old tradition of
+the native Mexicans and Central Americans described the first civilizers
+as “bearded white men,� who “came from the East in ships.� Therefore, it
+is urged, the people described in the native books and traditions as
+“Colhuas� must have been Phœnicians.
+
+But if it were true that the civilization found in Mexico and Central
+America came from people of the Phœnician race, it would be true also
+that they built in America as they never built any where else, that they
+established a language here radically unlike their own, and that they
+used a style of writing totally different from that which they carried
+into every other region occupied by their colonies. All the forms of
+alphabetical writing used at present in Europe and Southwestern Asia
+came directly or indirectly from that anciently invented by the race to
+which the Phœnicians belonged, and they have traces of a common
+relationship which can easily be detected. Now the writing of the
+inscriptions at Palenque, Copan, and elsewhere in the ruins has no more
+relatedness to the Phœnician than to the Chinese writing. It has not a
+single characteristic that can be called Phœnician any more than the
+language of the inscriptions or the style of architecture with which it
+is associated; therefore we can not reasonably suppose this American
+civilization was originated by people of the Phœnician race, whatever
+may be thought relative to the supposed ancient communication between
+the two continents and its probable influence on civilized communities
+already existing here.
+
+
+THE “ATLANTIC� THEORY.
+
+I have already stated in general terms the hypothesis advanced by
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and some other writers. This may be called the
+“Atlantic� theory, for it attributes the civilization of Ancient America
+to the Atlantides or Atlantic race, who occupied the lost “island of
+Atlantis.� Brasseur de Bourbourg has studied the monuments, writings,
+and traditions left by this civilization more carefully and thoroughly
+than any other man living. He has fancies which may be safely rejected,
+and he has theories which, doubtless, will always lack confirmation; but
+he has much, also, which demands respectful consideration. There is a
+great deal in his books to provoke criticism; those well acquainted with
+the antiquities and ancient speech of Egypt may reasonably give way to
+a smile of incredulity while reading what he says in support of the
+notion that the great civilization of Egypt also came originally from
+this Atlantic race. Nevertheless, his volumes are important, because
+they furnish materials which others can use more carefully, and because
+he has learned to decipher some of the Central American writings and
+brought to view certain paths of inquiry which others may pursue with a
+more rigid method.
+
+As already stated, his Atlantic theory of the old American civilization
+is, that it was originated on this continent, but on a portion of the
+continent which is now below the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It
+supposes the continent extended, anciently, from New Granada, Central
+America, and Mexico in a long, irregular peninsula, so far across the
+Atlantic that the Canary, Madeira, and Azores or Western Islands may be
+remains of this portion of it. High mountains stood where we now find
+the West India islands. Beyond these, toward Africa and Europe, was a
+great extent of fertile and beautiful land, and here arose the first
+civilization of mankind, which flourished many ages, until at length
+this extended portion of the continent was ingulfed by a tremendous
+convulsion of nature, or by a succession of such convulsions which made
+the ruin complete. After the cataclysm, a part of the Atlantic people
+who escaped destruction settled in Central America, where perhaps their
+civilization had been previously introduced. The reasons urged in
+support of this hypothesis make it seem plausible, if not probable, to
+imaginative minds.
+
+In the first place, Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that there is in the
+old Central American books a constant tradition of an immense
+catastrophe of the character supposed; that this tradition existed every
+where among the people when they first became known to Europeans; and
+that recollections of the catastrophe were preserved in some of their
+festivals, especially in one celebrated in the month of _Izcalli_, which
+was instituted to commemorate this frightful destruction of land and
+people, and in which “princes and people humbled themselves before the
+divinity, and besought Him to withhold a return of such terrible
+calamities.� This tradition affirms that a part of the continent
+extending into the Atlantic was destroyed in the manner supposed, and
+appears to indicate that the destruction was accomplished by a
+succession of frightful convulsions. Three are constantly mentioned, and
+sometimes there is mention of one or two others. “The land was shaken by
+frightful earthquakes, and the waves of the sea combined with volcanic
+fires to overwhelm and ingulf it.� Each convulsion swept away portions
+of the land, until the whole disappeared, leaving the line of the coast
+as it is now. Most of the inhabitants, overtaken amid their regular
+employments, were destroyed; but some escaped in ships, and some fled
+for safety to the summits of high mountains, or to portions of the land
+which, for the time, escaped immediate destruction. Quotations are made
+from the old books in which this tradition is recorded which appear to
+verify his report of what is found in them. To criticise intelligently
+his interpretation of their significance, one needs to have a knowledge
+of those books and traditions equal at least to his own.
+
+In the second place, he appeals to the story of Atlantis, preserved in
+the annals of Egypt, and related to Solon by the priests of Sais. It is
+stated in Plutarch’s life of Solon that while in Egypt “he conferred
+with the priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis, and Sais, and
+learned from them the story of Atlantis.� Brasseur de Bourbourg cites
+Cousin’s translation of Plato’s record of this story as follows:
+
+“Among the great deeds of Athens, of which recollection is preserved in
+our books, there is one which should be placed above all others. Our
+books tell that the Athenians destroyed an army which came across the
+Atlantic Sea, and insolently invaded Europe and Asia; for this sea was
+then navigable, and beyond the strait where you place the Pillars of
+Hercules there was an island larger than Asia [Minor] and Libya
+combined. From this island one could pass easily to the other islands,
+and from these to the continent which lies around the interior sea. The
+sea on this side of the strait (the Mediterranean) of which we speak
+resembles a harbor with a narrow entrance; but there is a genuine sea,
+and the land which surrounds it is a veritable continent. In the island
+of Atlantis reigned three kings with great and marvelous power. They had
+under their dominion the whole of Atlantis, several other islands, and
+some parts of the continent. At one time their power extended into
+Libya, and into Europe as far as Tyrrhenia; and, uniting their whole
+force, they sought to destroy our countries at a blow, but their defeat
+stopped the invasion and gave entire independence to all the countries
+on this side of the Pillars of Hercules. Afterward, in one day and one
+fatal night, there came mighty earthquakes and inundations, which
+ingulfed that warlike people; Atlantis disappeared beneath the sea, and
+then that sea became inaccessible, so that navigation on it ceased on
+account of the quantity of mud which the ingulfed island left in its
+place.�
+
+This invasion took place many ages before Athens was known as a Greek
+city. It is referred to an extremely remote antiquity. The festival
+known as the “Lesser Panathenæa,� which, as symbolic devices used in it
+show, commemorated this triumph over the Atlantes, is said to have been
+instituted by the mythical Erichthonius in the earliest times remembered
+by Athenian tradition. Solon had knowledge of the Atlantes before he
+went to Egypt, but he heard there, for the first time, this account of
+their “island� and of its disappearance in a frightful cataclysm. But
+Atlantis is mentioned by other ancient writers. An extract preserved in
+Proclus, taken from a work now lost, which is quoted by Boeckh in his
+commentary on Plato, mentions islands in the exterior sea beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, and says it was known that in one of these islands
+“the inhabitants preserved from their ancestors a remembrance of
+Atlantis, an extremely large island, which for a long time held dominion
+over all the islands of the Atlantic Ocean.�
+
+Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that these traditions, on both sides of the
+Atlantic, mean the same thing. The “island of Atlantis,� larger than
+Libya and Asia Minor together, was the extended portion of the American
+continent. These concurring traditions can not be devoid of historical
+significance. The constant references by ancient Greek writers to the
+Atlantes, who are always placed at the extremity of Europe and Africa,
+on the ocean which bears their name, may reasonably be regarded as vague
+and faded recollections of such a history connected with that ocean as
+that implied by what was said of their island in the annals of Egypt. In
+support of his view of what is meant by the traditions, he adds this
+philological argument:
+
+“The words _Atlas_ and _Atlantic_ have no satisfactory etymology in any
+language known to Europe. They are not Greek, and can not be referred to
+any known language of the Old World. But in the Nahuatl language we find
+immediately the radical _a_, _atl_, which signifies water, war, and the
+top of the head. (Molina, _Vocab. en lengua mexicana y castellana_,
+etc.) From this comes a series of words, such as _atlan_, on the border
+of or amid the water, from which we have the adjective _Atlantic_. We
+have also atlaça, to combat or be in agony; it means likewise to hurl or
+dart from the water, and in the preterit makes _atlaz_. A city named
+_Atlan_ existed when the continent was discovered by Columbus, at the
+entrance of the Gulf of Uraba, in Darien, with a good harbor; it is now
+reduced to an unimportant pueblo named _Acla_.�
+
+In the third place, he quotes opinions expressed without any regard
+whatever to his theory to show that scientific men who have considered
+the question believe that there was formerly a great extension of the
+land into the Atlantic in the manner supposed. The first quotation is
+from Moreau de Saint-Mery’s “Description topographique et politique de
+la Partie Espagnole a l’Isle de Saint-Domingue,� published in 1796, as
+follows:
+
+“There are those who, in examining the map of America, do not confine
+themselves to thinking with the French Pliny that the innumerable
+islands situated from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Bahama Channel
+(islands which include several _Grenadins_ not always visible in very
+high tides or great agitations of the sea) should be considered as
+summits of vast mountains whose bases and sides are covered with water,
+but who go farther, and suppose these islands to be the tops of the most
+elevated of a chain of mountains which crowned a portion of the
+continent whose submersion has produced the Gulf of Mexico. But to
+sustain this opinion it must be added that another vast surface of land
+which united the islands of this archipelago to the continent, from
+Yucatan to the mouth of the Orinoco, was submerged in the same way, and
+also a third surface which connected them with the peninsula of Florida
+and with whatever land may have constituted the northern termination;
+for we can not imagine that these mountains whose summits appear above
+water stood on the terminating line of the continent.�
+
+He quotes, also, another authority which “can not be suspected,� namely,
+M. Charles Martins, who said, in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ for March
+1, 1867, “Now, hydrography, geology, and botany agree in teaching us
+that the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira are the remains of a great
+continent which formerly united Europe to North America.� He could have
+added other quotations in the same strain. Those geologists who believe
+that “our continents have long remained in nearly the same relative
+position� would probably give the supposed change a much greater
+antiquity than Brasseur de Bourbourg would be likely to accept; and the
+geological “Uniformitarians� would deny with emphasis that so great a
+change in the shape of a continent was ever effected by such means, or
+with such rapidity as he supposes. But the latest and most advanced
+school of geological speculation does not exclude “Catastrophism,� and,
+therefore, will not deny the possibility of sudden and great changes by
+this method.
+
+Doubtless the antiquity of the human race is much greater than is
+usually assumed by those whose views of the past are still regulated by
+mediæval systems of chronology. Archæology and linguistic science, not
+to speak here of geology, make it certain that the period between the
+beginning of the human race and the birth of Christ would be more
+accurately stated if the centuries counted in the longest estimate of
+the rabbinical chronologies should be changed to millenniums. And they
+present also another fact, namely, that the antiquity of civilization is
+very great, and suggest that in remote ages it may have existed, with
+important developments, in regions of the earth now described as
+barbarous, and even, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes, on ancient
+continents or portions of continents now out of sight below the surface
+of the oceans. The representation of some speculators that the condition
+of the human race since its first appearance on earth has been a
+condition of universal and hopeless savagery down to a comparatively
+modern date, is an assumption merely, an unwarranted assumption used in
+support of an unproved and unprovable theory of man’s origin. Its use in
+the name of science by advocates of this theory, like the theory itself,
+shows that the constructive power of fancy and imagination will
+sometimes supersede every thing else, and substitute its ingenious
+constructions for legitimate conclusions, even in scientific
+speculation.
+
+We may claim reasonably that Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Atlantic theory is
+not proved, and on this ground refuse to accept it. So far as appears,
+it is a fanciful theory which can not be proved. No one is under
+obligation to attempt disproving it. It may, in some cases, win
+supporters by enlisting in its favor all the forces of imagination, to
+which it appeals with seductive plausibility. On the other hand, it will
+be rejected without much regard to what can be said in its favor, for it
+interferes with current unreasoning beliefs concerning antiquity and
+ancient history, and must encounter vehement contradiction from habits
+of thought fixed by these beliefs. True, some of the stock views of
+antiquity, by which it will be earnestly opposed, are themselves far
+more destitute of foundation in either fact or reason; but this will
+make no difference, as the habit of never allowing them to be subjected
+to the searching power of reason does not permit such persons either to
+believe or deny any thing connected with this topic in a reasonable
+manner.
+
+Some of the uses made of this theory can not endure criticism. For
+instance, when he makes it the basis of an assumption that all the
+civilization of the Old World went originally from America, and claims
+particularly that the supposed “Atlantic race� created Egypt, he goes
+quite beyond reach of the considerations used to give his hypothesis a
+certain air of probability. It may be, as he says, that for every
+pyramid in Egypt there are a thousand in Mexico and Central America, but
+the ruins in Egypt and those in America have nothing in common. The two
+countries were entirely different in their language, in their styles of
+architecture, in their written characters, and in the physical
+characteristics of their earliest people, as they are seen sculptured or
+painted on the monuments. An Egyptian pyramid is no more the same thing
+as a Mexican pyramid than a Chinese pagoda is the same thing as an
+English light-house. It was not made in the same way, nor for the same
+uses. The ruined monuments show, in generals and in particulars, that
+the original civilizers in America were profoundly different from the
+ancient Egyptians. The two peoples can not explain each other.
+
+This, however, does not require us to assert positively that the Central
+American “Colhuas� and the legendary Atlantes could not possibly have
+been the same people, or people of the same race. Room may be left for
+any amount of conjecture not inconsistent with known facts, without
+making it necessary to accept a theory of the origin of the old Mexican
+race which at present can neither be proved nor disproved.
+
+
+IT WAS AN ORIGINAL CIVILIZATION.
+
+It has been said, very justly, by one explorer of the Mexican and
+Central American ruins, that “the American monuments are different from
+those of any other known people, of a new order, and entirely and
+absolutely anomalous; they stand alone.� The more we study them, the
+more we find it necessary to believe that the civilization they
+represent was originated in America, and probably in the region where
+they are found. It did not come from the Old World; it was the work of
+some remarkably gifted branch of the race found on the southern part of
+this continent when it was discovered in 1492. Undoubtedly it was very
+old. Its original beginning may have been as old as Egypt, or even
+farther back in the past than the ages to which Atlantis must be
+referred; and it may have been later than the beginning of Egypt. Who
+can certainly tell its age? Whether earlier or later, it was original.
+
+Its constructions seem to have been a refined and artistic development
+of a style of building different from that of any other people, which
+began with ruder forms, but in all the periods of its history preserved
+the same general conception. They show us the idea of the Mound-Builders
+wrought out in stone and embellished by art. The decorations, and the
+writing also, are wholly original. There is no imitation of the work of
+any people ever known in Asia, Africa, or Europe. It appears evident
+that the method of building seen in the great ruins began with the ruder
+forms of mound-work, and became what we find it by gradual development,
+as the advancing civilization supplied new ideas and gave higher skill.
+But the culture and the work were wholly original, wholly American.
+
+The civilized life of the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans may
+have had its original beginning somewhere in South America, for they
+seem more closely related to the ancient South Americans than to the
+wild Indians north of the Mexican border; but the peculiar development
+of it represented by the ruins must have begun in the region where they
+are found. I find myself more and more inclined to the opinion that the
+aboriginal South Americans are the oldest people on this continent; that
+they are distinct in race; and that the wild Indians of the North came
+originally from Asia, where the race to which they belong seems still
+represented by the Koraks and Chookchees found in that part of Asia
+which extends to Behring’s Strait.
+
+If, as there is reason to believe, the countries on the Mediterranean
+had communication with America in very ancient times, they found here a
+civilization already developed, and contributed nothing to change its
+style of building and decorating cities. They may have influenced it in
+other respects; for, if such communication was opened across the
+Atlantic, it was probably continued for a long time, and its
+interruption may or may not be due, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes,
+to the cataclysm which ingulfed Atlantis. Religious symbols are found
+in the American ruins which remind us of those of the Phœnicians, such
+as figures of the serpent, which appear constantly, and the cross,
+supposed by some to represent the mounting of the magnetic needle,
+which was among the emblems peculiar to the goddess Astarte. A figure
+appears occasionally in the sculptures, in which some have sought to
+recognize Astarte, one at Palenque being described as follows: “It is a
+female figure moulded in stucco, holding a child on her left arm and
+hand, just as Astarte appears on the Sidonian medals.� I find it
+impossible to see that this figure has any resemblance whatever to the
+Phœnician goddess. They are not alike either in dress, posture, or
+expression. Dupaix describes it correctly in saying it represents a
+person apparently “absorbed in devotion�--a worshiper, and not a
+goddess. Moreover, Astarte usually appears on the medals standing on
+the forward deck of a vessel, holding a cross with one hand, and
+pointing forward with the other. And, finally, this figure seems to
+represent, not a woman, but a priest. There was sun-worship in America,
+and the phallic ceremonies existed in some places in the time of
+Cortez. In Asia these ceremonies and figures of the serpent were
+usually associated with sun-worship. Humboldt was sure that these
+symbols came to America from the Old World. A more careful study of the
+subject might have led him to modify this belief. But, whether we adopt
+his explanation or some other, the traditions on both sides of the
+Atlantic are without meaning unless it be admitted that there was
+communication between the two continents in times of which we have no
+history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[170-*] See Appendix C.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+If a consecutive history of the ancient people of Central America and
+Mexico were ever written, it has been lost. Probably nothing of the kind
+ever was written in the manner which we call history, although there
+must have been regular annals of some kind. The ruins show that they had
+the art of writing, and that, at the south, this art was more developed,
+more like a phonetic system of writing than that found in use among the
+Aztecs. The inscriptions of Palenque, and the characters used in some of
+the manuscript books that have been preserved, are not the same as the
+“Mexican Picture Writing.� It is known that books or manuscript writings
+were abundant among them in the ages previous to the Aztec period. They
+had an accurate measure of the solar year and a system of chronology,
+and many of their writings were historical. Among the Mayas, and in
+other communities of the same family, writing was largely used in the
+time of the Spaniards. It was common also among the Aztecs, but they
+used “picture writing.� Las Casas wrote on this point as follows:
+
+“It should be known that in all the commonwealths of these countries, in
+the kingdoms of New Spain and elsewhere, among other professions duly
+filled by suitable persons was that of chronicler and historian. These
+chroniclers had knowledge of the origin of the kingdoms, and of whatever
+related to religion and the gods, as well as to the founders of towns
+and cities. They recorded the history of kings, and of the modes of
+their election and succession; of their labors, actions, wars, and
+memorable deeds, good and bad; of the virtuous men or heroes of former
+days, their great deeds, the wars they had waged, and how they had
+distinguished themselves; who had been the earliest settlers, what had
+been their ancient customs, their triumphs, and defeats. They knew, in
+fact, whatever pertained to history, and were able to give an account of
+all past events. * * * These chroniclers had likewise to calculate the
+days, months, and years; and though they had no writing like ours, they
+had their symbols and characters through which they understood every
+thing; and they had great books, which were composed with such ingenuity
+and art that our characters were really of no great assistance to them.
+Our priests have seen those books, and I myself have seen them likewise,
+though many were burned at the instigation of the monks, who were afraid
+they might impede the work of conversion.�
+
+Books such as those here described by Las Casas must have contained
+important historical information. The older books, belonging to the ages
+of Copan and Palenque, went to decay doubtless long previous to his
+time, in the wars and revolutions of the Toltec period, or by the wear
+of time. The later books, not otherwise lost, were destroyed by Aztec
+and Spanish vandalism. According to tradition, and the testimony of
+writings still in existence when the Spaniards went there, the Aztec or
+Mexican sovereign Ytzcoatl destroyed many of the old Toltec books. His
+aim was probably to exterminate among the people all memory of the
+previous times. Such things have been done with similar motives, as we
+know, in other countries, by successful usurpers and conquerors. We
+learn from Spanish writers that a still greater destruction of the old
+books was effected by the more ignorant and fanatical of the Spanish
+priests who were established in the country as missionaries after the
+Conquest. This is stated by Las Casas, himself one of the missionaries.
+Besides the many smaller bonfires of this fanaticism, there is record of
+a great conflagration, under the auspices of Bishop Zumarraga, in which
+a vast collection of these old writings was consumed. As the writing was
+all on paper (which had long been used in the country), the burning was
+easily accomplished.
+
+
+THE OLD BOOKS NOT ALL LOST.
+
+The Franciscan and Dominican fanatics, whose learning and religion
+consisted of ignorance and bigotry, hoped to exterminate among the
+people all recollection of their former history, ideas, and religious
+customs. A few of the books, however, escaped; none, indeed, that were
+very old, for it does not appear that any of the manuscripts rescued
+from destruction were written or copied earlier than the age which
+closed the Aztec domination. None of the great books of annals
+described by Las Casas are among them, but they relate to the ancient
+times, and most of them are copies or reproductions of much older books.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Inscriptions carved on Stone.]
+
+Among these destroying Spanish ecclesiastics, there was here and there
+one who quietly secured some of the manuscripts, or copies of them.
+These were kept from the flames. Others were secreted by the people; and
+subsequently, in years after the conquest was completed, some of the
+more intelligent churchmen wrote histories of the country, or portions
+of it, which were preserved in manuscript. Sahagun wrote such a history,
+which shows that he had studied the traditions and some of the old
+books; this work is printed in the great collection of Lord
+Kingsborough. Diego de Landa, first bishop of Yucatan, wrote a history
+of the Mayas and their country, which was preserved in manuscript at
+Madrid in the library of the Royal Academy of History. It is one of the
+most important works on the country written by a Spaniard, because it
+contains a description and explanation of the phonetic alphabet of the
+Mayas. Landa’s manuscript seems to have lain neglected in the library,
+for little or nothing was heard of it until it was discovered and
+studied by Brasseur de Bourbourg, who, by means of it, has deciphered
+some of the old American writings. He says “the alphabet and signs
+explained by Landa have been to me a Rosetta stone.� Figure 49
+represents a specimen of the inscriptions as carved upon stone. Figure
+50 gives them as they appear in manuscript.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Manuscript Writing.]
+
+An extensive and important manuscript work, written two hundred years
+ago by Francisco Ximenes, an ecclesiastic, is preserved in Guatemala.
+He, being drawn to inquiries concerning the antiquities and ancient
+history of the country, was able to get possession of several of the
+old books, one of them being that known as “Popol-Vuh.� His manuscript,
+arranged in four great volumes (one of which, it is said, has
+disappeared), contains valuable information in regard to the ancient
+history and traditions of Guatemala. One of the volumes has a copy of
+the “Popol-Vuh� in the native tongue, and another has a Spanish
+translation of the work. He left also a manuscript Dictionary of the
+principal Guatemalan dialects (which belong to the Maya family),
+entitled “Tesoro de las Lenguas Quiché, Cakchiquel, y Tzutohil.�
+Probably other manuscripts of the same character exist at Madrid and in
+Central America which are not yet known to those who can understand
+their importance.
+
+As already stated, none of the great books of annals have been
+discovered, but some of the old American manuscripts now preserved in
+several of the libraries and private collections of Europe are
+important. Three are specified as particularly valuable to students of
+American antiquity: that called the “Codex Chimalpopoca,� an old Toltec
+book, written in the Toltec language; one now entitled the “Codex
+Cakchiquel;� and the “Popol-Vuh.� The latter, written in the Quiché
+dialect, was translated into Spanish two hundred years ago by Ximenes,
+but his translation remained in Guatemala unprinted and quite unknown
+until it was discovered in our time. Brasseur de Bourbourg, who is
+master of the Quiché language, and to whom we are indebted for most that
+is known of the manuscripts of Ximenes, thought this Spanish translation
+very imperfect; therefore he has translated the work into French.
+
+The “Popol-Vuh� was written in 1558 as an abridged reproduction of a
+very ancient Quiché book which contained an account of the history,
+traditions, religion, and cosmogony of the Quichés. The first part of it
+is devoted to the cosmogony and traditional lore; the rest gives an
+account of the Quichés, who, at the time of the Conquest, were the
+dominant people in the Central American regions south of the great
+forest. If the history were consecutive and clear, it would not take us
+back into the past more than three or four centuries beyond 1558, for
+the Quiché domination was probably not much older than that of the
+Aztecs. But the history is not clear. Putting aside the mythical and
+legendary portion of it which relates to origins and migrations, we can
+see that it extends over some fourteen generations, which may indicate
+that Quiché became an independent and ruling power about 1200 A.D.
+
+For those who study the book it is full of interest. It shows us their
+conceptions of the Supreme Being and his relation to the world; it
+enables us to see what they admired in character as virtue, heroism,
+nobleness, and beauty; it discloses their mythology and their notions of
+religious worship; in a word, it bears witness to the fact that the
+various families of mankind are all of “one blood,� so far, at least, as
+to be precisely alike in nature.
+
+The cosmogony and mythical lore of the Quichés seem to have their root
+in the beliefs and facts of a time far more ancient than the national
+beginning of this people. In assuming the form in which we find them,
+they must have passed through several phases of growth, which changed
+their appearance and obscured their meaning. Manifestly the history of
+the country did not begin with the Quichés. The account of the creation,
+with every thing else in this cosmogony and mythology, is original, like
+the civilization to which they belong.
+
+According to the “Popol-Vuh,� the world had a beginning. There was a
+time when it did not exist. Only “Heaven� existed, below which all space
+was an empty, silent, unchanging solitude. Nothing existed there,
+neither man, nor animal, nor earth, nor tree. Then appeared a vast
+expanse of water on which divine beings moved in brightness. “They said
+‘earth!’ and instantly the earth was created. It came into being like a
+vapor; mountains rose above the waters like lobsters and were made. Thus
+was the earth created by the Heart of Heaven.� Next came the creation of
+animals; but the gods were disappointed because the animals could
+neither tell their names nor worship the Heart of Heaven.
+
+Therefore it was resolved that man should be created. First, man was
+made of earth, but his flesh had no cohesion; he was inert, could not
+turn his head, and had no mind, although he could speak; therefore he
+was consumed in the water. Next, men were made of wood, and these
+multiplied, but they had neither heart nor intellect, and could not
+worship, and so they withered up and disappeared in the waters. A third
+attempt followed: man was made of a tree called tzité, and woman of the
+pith of a reed; but these failed to think, speak, or worship, and were
+destroyed, all save a remnant which still exists as a race of small
+monkeys found in forests.
+
+A fourth attempt to create the human race was successful, but the
+circumstances attending this creation are veiled in mystery. It took
+place before the beginning of dawn, when neither sun nor moon had risen,
+and was a wonder-work of the Heart of Heaven. Four men were created, and
+they could reason, speak, and see in such a manner as to know all things
+at once. They worshiped the Creator with thanks for existence, but the
+gods, dismayed and scared, breathed clouds on their eyes to limit their
+vision, and cause them to be men and not gods. Afterward, while the four
+men were asleep, the gods made for them beautiful wives, and from these
+came all the tribes and families of the earth.
+
+No account of the rescued fragments of this old literature of Ancient
+America should omit giving due credit to Chevalier Boturini, the
+Milanese, who went from Italy to America in 1735 as an agent of the
+Countess Santibañey, who claimed to be a descendant of Montezuma. He,
+too, was a devotee, and believed that St. Thomas preached the Gospel in
+America; but he had antiquarian tastes, and was sufficiently intelligent
+to understand the importance of the old manuscripts which had furnished
+so much fuel for the bonfires of fanaticism. During the eight years of
+his residence in Mexico and Central America he hunted diligently for
+those still in existence, and made a considerable collection, including
+in it some of the Mexican “picture writings.� But when about to leave,
+he was despoiled of his treasure and flung into prison by the Spanish
+viceroy. He finally left the country with a portion of them, but was
+captured by an English cruiser and again despoiled. The manuscripts
+left in Mexico were finally sold at auction while Humboldt was there; he
+secured a portion of them. Another portion was brought to France about
+1830 by M. Aubin, who made important additions to it. M. Aubin himself
+spent years searching for remains of the old writings, and he has now,
+it is supposed, the most valuable collection in Europe.
+
+It is likely that most of the recovered books may be translated by those
+who can bring to the work habits of patient study and a thorough
+knowledge of the native dialects. Dictionaries of these dialects, as
+they were spoken at the time of the Conquest, were prepared by some of
+the Spanish priests, and other facilities are not wanting. It is
+surprising, however, that no one has translated the “Codex Chimalpopoca�
+(which seems the most important) if the language in which it is written
+is in fact sufficiently modern to be managed as easily as that of “Popol
+Vuh.� It must be translatable, for its general tenor is known, and
+passages of it are quoted. Brasseur de Bourbourg states that he has
+undertaken a translation. But who will translate the inscriptions at
+Copan and Palenque? Is the language in which they were written an old
+form of speech, from which the dialects of the Maya family, or a portion
+of them, were derived? They have not been translated. No one has found a
+clew to their meaning. The characters are understood, but they appear to
+show an older form of the language, which at present can not be
+deciphered. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s “Rosetta Stone,� discovered in
+Landa’s manuscript, will not serve him here. Another more potent must
+be found before these old inscriptions can be made to give up their
+secrets.[197-*]
+
+
+THE ANCIENT HISTORY SKETCHED.
+
+It is impossible to know what was contained in the books of annals
+written by the official chroniclers of these ancient American countries,
+for these books are lost. They existed at the time of the Conquest; some
+of them were seen and described by Las Casas; but, so far as is known,
+not one of these books of regular annals, such as he described, has
+escaped destruction; therefore it is impossible to know any thing
+certainly of their character as histories.
+
+The books preserved furnish little more than vague outlines of the past,
+with obscure views of distinct periods in the history, created by
+successive dominations of different peoples or different branches of the
+same people. What they enable us to know of the old history resembles
+what is known of the early times of the Greeks, who had no ancient
+histories excepting such as were furnished by their “poets of the
+cycle.� In one case we are told of Pelasgians, Leleges, Cadmeans,
+Argives, and Eolians very much as in the other we are told of Colhuas,
+Chichimecs, Quinames, and Nahuas.
+
+But the outline is not wholly dark; it does not exclude the possibility
+of a reasonable attempt at hypothesis. When Cortez entered Mexico, the
+Aztecs, Montezuma’s people, had been in power more than two centuries.
+Most of the ancient history, of which something is said in these books,
+relates to ages previous to their time, and chiefly to their
+predecessors, the Toltecs. According to these writings, the country
+where the ruins are found was occupied in successive periods by three
+distinct peoples, the Chichimecs, the Colhuas, and the Toltecs or
+Nahuas. The Toltecs are said to have come into the country about a
+thousand years before the Christian era. Their supremacy appears to have
+ceased, and left the country broken up into small states, two or three
+centuries before the Aztecs appeared. They were preceded by the Colhuas,
+by whom this old civilization was originated and developed. The most
+ancient people, those found in the country by the Colhuas, are called
+Chichimecs. They are described as a barbarous people who lived by
+hunting and fishing, and had neither towns nor agriculture. This term
+Chichimecs appears to have been a generic appellation for all
+uncivilized aborigines. Brasseur de Bourbourg says, “Under the generic
+name Chichimecs, which has much embarrassed some writers, the Mexican
+traditions include the whole aboriginal population of the New World, and
+especially the people by whom it was first occupied at the beginning of
+time.�
+
+Some of the traditions state that the Colhuas came from the east in
+ships. Sahagun mentions that a tradition to this effect was current in
+Yucatan. The precise value of these traditional reports is uncertain;
+but, if accepted as vague historical recollections, they could be
+explained by supposing the civilized people called Colhuas came from
+South America through the Caribbean Sea, and landed in Yucatan and
+Tabasco. They are uniformly described as the people who first
+established civilization and built great cities. They taught the
+Chichimecs to cook their food, cultivate the earth, and adopt the ways
+of civilized life; and the Chichimecs civilized by their influence are
+sometimes called Quinames.
+
+The Colhuas are connected with vague references to a long and important
+period in the history previous to the Toltec ages. They seem to have
+been, in some respects, more advanced in civilization than the Toltecs.
+What is said of events in their history relates chiefly to their great
+city called Xibalba, the capital of an important kingdom to which this
+name was given. The Toltecs, in alliance with the uncivilized Chichimecs
+of the mountains, subjugated this city and kingdom, and thus brought to
+a close the period which may be termed Colhuan. This kingdom appears to
+have included Guatemala, Yucatan, Tabasco, Tehuantepec, Chiapa,
+Honduras, and other districts in Central America; and it may have
+included all Southern Mexico, for places north of the Tampico River are
+mentioned as being within its limits when the Toltecs came into the
+country. Some of the principal seats of the Colhuan civilization were in
+the region now covered by the great forest. Some investigators have
+sought to identify the city of Xibalba with the ruined city known to us
+as Palenque. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: “Palenque appears to have been
+the same city to which the books give the name of Xibalba;� but this is
+nothing but conjecture. We may as reasonably suppose Copan, Quirigua, or
+some other old ruin, to have been Xibalba.
+
+Those who attempt to believe this old American civilization was brought
+across the Atlantic by the Phœnicians in very remote times, assume,
+against the plain testimony of the monuments, that the Colhuas came to
+America from some country on the Mediterranean. They may have come from
+some other part of this continent. In my judgment, it is not improbable
+that they came by sea from South America. Brasseur de Bourbourg would
+say they were people of the Atlantic race, who, having escaped
+destruction by the cataclysm, found their way to Yucatan and Tabasco.
+But there is little beside conjecture to support any theory of their
+origin. We have only the fact that, according to the old books and
+traditions of the country, they occupied that region at a remote period,
+and originated the civilization whose monuments are found there.
+Tradition places their first settlements on the Gulf coast in Tabasco,
+between Tehuantepec and Yucatan. It is inferred that the Mayas,
+Tzendals, Quichés, and some other communities of the old race, were
+descendants of the Colhuas, their speech being more highly developed
+than that of any native community not connected with this family, and
+their written characters having a close resemblance to those of the
+oldest inscriptions.
+
+
+THE TOLTECS OUR MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+As the remains of the Mound-Builders show clearly that they had
+commercial intercourse with the Mexican and Central American countries,
+and as it seems probable that they had otherwise a very close relation
+to the people of those countries, it would be surprising to find no
+mention of their country in the old books and traditions of the Central
+Americans and Mexicans. If we could have the lost books, especially
+those of the more ancient time, and learn to read them, it might be
+possible to know something of the origin and history of the
+Mound-Builders. It is believed that distinct reference to their country
+has been found in the books still in existence, and there appears to be
+reason for this belief. Brasseur de Bourbourg, one of the few
+investigators who have explored them, says:
+
+“Previous to the history of the Toltec domination in Mexico, we notice
+in the annals of the country two facts of great importance, but equally
+obscure in their details: first, the tradition concerning the landing of
+a foreign race, conducted by an illustrious personage, who came from an
+eastern country; and, second, the existence of an ancient empire known
+as Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs or Nahuas came to Mexico, in
+consequence of a revolution or invasion, and from which they had a long
+and toilsome migration to the Aztec plateau.�
+
+He believes that Huehue-Tlapalan was the country of the Mound-Builders
+in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. According to the native books he
+has examined, it was somewhere at a distance in the northeast; and it is
+constantly said that some of the Toltecs came by land and some by sea.
+Sahagun learned from the old books and traditions, and stated in the
+introduction to the first book of his history, that the Toltecs came
+from that distant northeastern country; and he mentions a company that
+came by sea, settled near the Tampico River, and built a town called
+Panuco. Brasseur de Bourbourg finds that an account of this or another
+company was preserved at Xilanco, an ancient city situated on the point
+of an island between Lake Terminos and the sea, and famous for its
+commerce, wealth, and intelligence. The company described in this
+account came from the northeast in the same way, it is said, to the
+Tampico River, and landed at Panuco. It consisted of twenty chiefs and a
+numerous company of people. Torquemada found a record which describes
+them as people of fine appearance. They went forward into the country
+and were well received. He says they were industrious, orderly, and
+intelligent, and that they worked metals, and were skillful artists and
+lapidaries. All the accounts say the Toltecs came at different times, by
+land and sea, mostly in small companies, and always from the northeast.
+This can be explained only by supposing they came by sea from the mouth
+of the Mississippi River or from the Gulf coast near it, and by land
+through Texas. But the country from which they came was invariably
+Huehue-Tlapalan.
+
+Cabrera says Huehue-Tlapalan was the ancient country of the Toltecs. Its
+simple name was Tlapalan, but they called it Huehue, old, to distinguish
+it from three other Tlapalans which they founded in the districts of
+their new kingdom. Torquemada says the same. We are not authorized to
+reject a fact so distinctly stated and so constantly reported in the old
+books. The most we can do against it with any show of reason is to
+receive it with doubt. Therefore it seems not improbable that the “Old
+Tlapalan� of Central American tradition was the country of our
+Mound-Builders.
+
+Another circumstance mentioned is not without significance. It is said,
+in connection with this account of the Toltec migration, that
+Huehue-Tlapalan was successfully invaded by Chichimecs, meaning
+barbarous aboriginal tribes, who were united under one great leader.
+Here is one statement (a little condensed) touching this point: “There
+was a terrible struggle, but, after about thirteen years, the Toltecs,
+no longer able to resist successfully, were obliged to abandon their
+country to escape complete subjugation. Two chiefs guided the march of
+the emigrating nation. At length they reached a region near the sea
+named ‘Tlapalan-Conco,’ where they remained several years. But they
+finally undertook another migration and reached Mexico, where they built
+a town called ‘Tollanzinco,’ and later the city of Tullan, which became
+the seat of their government.�
+
+This is substantially what is told of the defeat and migrations of the
+Toltecs. The history of Ixtlilxochitl adds doubtful modifications and
+particulars not found in the “Codex Chimalpopoca.� (See Quatre Lettres,
+etc.) This Chichimec invasion of Huehue-Tlapalan is placed at a period
+which, in the chronology of the native books, was long previous to the
+Christian era, and is mentioned to explain the beginning of the Toltec
+movement toward Mexico; but the account of it is obscure.
+
+To find a system of chronology in these old books is not surprising when
+we consider that even the Aztecs of Montezuma’s time knew enough of
+astronomy to have a correct measure of the year. The Aztecs adopted the
+methods of astronomy and chronology which were used by their
+predecessors. They divided the year into eighteen months of twenty days
+each; but, as this gave the year only three hundred and sixty days, five
+supplementary days were added to each year, and a sixth day to every
+fourth year. The bissextile is known to have been used by the Mayas,
+Tzendals, and Quichés, and it was probably common.
+
+We can not reasonably refuse to give some attention to their chronology,
+even while doubting its value as a means of fixing dates and measuring
+historical periods. Its method was to count by equal periods of years,
+as we count by centuries, and their chronology presents a series of
+periods which carries back their history to a very remote time in the
+past. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: “In the histories written in the
+Nahuatl language, the oldest certain date is nine hundred and fifty-five
+years before Christ.� This, he means, is the oldest date in the history
+of the Nahuas or Toltecs which has been accurately determined. The
+calculation by which it is found is quoted from the later portion of the
+“Codex Chimalpopoca� as follows: “Six times 400 years plus 113 years�
+previous to the year 1558 A.D. This is given as the date of a division
+of the land by the Nahuas. The division was made 2513 years previous to
+1558 A.D., or in 955 B.C. If this date could be accepted as authentic,
+it would follow that the Nahuas or Toltecs left Huehue-Tlapalan more
+than a thousand years previous to the Christian era, for they dwelt a
+long time in the country of Xibalba as peaceable settlers before they
+organized the civil war which raised them to power.
+
+
+SOME CONFIRMATION OF THIS HISTORY.
+
+That the ancient history of the country was something like what is
+reported in the old writings seems not improbable when we consider the
+condition in which the native population was found three hundred and
+fifty years ago. This shows that Mexico and Central America had been
+subjected to disrupting political changes caused by violent transfers of
+supreme influence from one people to another several times in the course
+of a long history. Such a history is indicated by the monuments, and its
+traces were noticeable in peculiarities of the native inhabitants of the
+various districts at the time of the Spanish Conquest. They are still
+manifest to travelers who study the existing representatives of the old
+race and the old dialects sufficiently to find them. There were several
+distinct families or groups of language, and, in many cases, the people
+represented by each family of dialects were in a state of separation or
+disruption. To a considerable extent they existed in fragmentary
+communities, sometimes widely separated.
+
+The most important group of related dialects was that which included the
+speech of the Mayas, Quichés, and Tzendals, which, it is supposed,
+represented the language of the original civilizers, the Colhuas.
+Dialects of this family are found on both sides of the great forest.
+There were other dialects supposed to indicate Toltec communities; and
+there were communities south of Mexico, in Nicaragua, and even farther
+south, which used the Aztec speech. Very likely all these differing
+groups of language came originally from the same source, and really
+represent a single race, but comparative philology has not yet reported
+on them. Mention is made of another people, called Waiknas or Caribs,
+and conjecture sees in them remains of the aboriginal barbarians termed
+Chichimecs. They dwelt chiefly in the “dense, dank forests� found
+growing on the low alluvion of the Atlantic coast. So far as is known,
+their speech had no affinity with that of any other native community.
+People of this race constitute a chief element in the mixed population
+of the “Mosquito Coast,� known as Moscos.
+
+In Yucatan the old inhabitants were Mayas, and people using dialects
+related to theirs were numerous in Tabasco, Chiapa, Guatemala, and the
+neighboring districts, while all around the country were scattered
+communities supposed to be of Toltec origin, as their speech could not
+be classed with these dialects nor with that of the Aztecs. The most
+reasonable explanation of this condition of the people is that furnished
+by the old chronicles and traditions. The country must have been
+occupied, during successive periods, by different peoples, who are
+represented by these broken communities and unlike groups of language.
+When all the native writings still in existence shall have been
+translated, and especially when the multitude of inscriptions found in
+the ruins shall have been deciphered, we may be able to see in a clearer
+light the ruins, the people, and their history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[197-*] See Appendix D.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION.
+
+
+If a clever gleaner of the curious and notable things in literature
+should write on the curiosities of historical speculation, he would be
+sure to take some account of “A New History of the Conquest of Mexico�
+published in Philadelphia in 1859. The special aim of this work is to
+deny utterly the civilization of the Aztecs. The author has ability,
+earnestness, and knowledge of what has been written on the subject; he
+writes with vigor, and with a charming extravagance of dogmatic
+assumption, which must be liked for its heartiness, while it fails to
+convince those who study it. This writer fully admits the significance
+of the old ruins, and maintains that a great civilization formerly
+existed in that part of the continent. This he ascribes to the
+Phœnicians, while he gives it an extreme antiquity, and thinks the
+present ruins have existed as ruins “for thousands of years,� explaining
+these words to mean that their history “is separated by a cycle of
+thousands of years from the civilization of our day.� In his view, the
+people who constructed the old cities were subjugated and destroyed,
+long ages since, “by inroads of northern savages,� who were the only
+people in the country when the Spaniards arrived.
+
+The chief business of this “New History� is to set forth these views.
+Under the treatment of its author, Montezuma becomes a rude Indian
+sachem, his kingdom a confederation of barbarous Indian tribes like that
+of the Iroquois, the city of Mexico a cluster of mud huts or wigwams in
+an everglade, its causeways rude Indian footpaths, its temples and
+palaces pure fictions of lying Spanish romance, and all previous
+histories of the Aztecs and their country extravagant inventions with a
+“Moorish coloring.� He would have us believe that what he calls “the
+pretended civilization of Montezuma and his Aztecs� was a monstrous
+fable of the Spaniards, a “pure fabrication,� encouraged by the civil
+authority in Spain, and supported by the censorship of the Inquisition.
+Therefore he undertakes to destroy “the fabric of lies,� unveil those
+“Mexican savages� the Aztecs, and tell a “new� story of their actual
+character and condition.
+
+Of course, views so preposterous do not find much favor. If the Mexicans
+had been nothing more than this, the experience of Cortez among them
+would have been like that of De Soto in his long and disastrous march
+through Florida, the Gulf regions, and the country on the lower
+Mississippi. Cortez and his men had a different fortune, because their
+march was among people who had towns, cities, settled communities, and
+the appliances and accumulations of civilized life. Doubtless some of
+the Spaniards exaggerated and romanced for effect in Spain, but they did
+not invent either the city of Mexico or the kingdom of Montezuma. We can
+see clearly that the Mexicans were a civilized people, that Montezuma’s
+city of Mexico was larger than the present city, and that an important
+empire was substantially conquered when that city was finally subjugated
+and destroyed.
+
+That the ancient city of Mexico was a great city, well built partly of
+timber and partly of cut stone laid in a mortar of lime, appears in all
+that is said of the siege, and of the dealings of Cortez with its people
+and their rulers. Montezuma, wishing to remove false notions of the
+Spaniards concerning his wealth, said to Cortez during their first
+interview, “The Tlascalans, I know, have told you that I am like a god,
+and that all about me is gold, silver, and precious stones; but you now
+see that I am mere flesh and blood, and that _my houses are built of
+lime, stone, and timber_.� Lime, stone, and timber! This was the poorest
+view of the old city of Mexico that could be given to those who saw it.
+It is not easy to understand how a denial of the Aztec civilization was
+possible.
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY AND INVASION.
+
+The first inhabitants of that part of the continent seen by Spaniards
+were Mayas from Yucatan. Columbus met them in 1502 at an island near
+Ruatan, off the coast of Honduras. While he was stopping at this island,
+these Mayas came there “in a vessel of considerable size� from a port in
+Yucatan, thirty leagues distant. It was a trading vessel, freighted with
+a variety of merchandise, and it used sails. Its cargo consisted of a
+variety of textile fabrics of divers colors, wearing apparel, arms,
+household furniture, and cacao, and the crew numbered twenty men.
+Columbus, who treated them very kindly, described these strangers as
+well clothed, intelligent, and altogether superior to any other people
+he had discovered in America. Adventurers hunting for prey soon began to
+make voyages in that direction and report what they saw. Sailing along
+the coast of Yucatan, they discovered cities, and “the grandeur of the
+buildings filled them with astonishment.� On the main land and on one or
+two islands they saw great edifices built of stone. The seeming riches
+and other attractions of the country led the Spaniards to invade
+Yucatan, but they were defeated and driven off. At this time they gained
+considerable knowledge of Mexico, and persuaded themselves that immense
+wealth could be found there.
+
+Finally, in March, 1519, Cortez landed near the place where Vera Cruz
+was afterward built, and moved on through the country toward the city of
+Mexico. Studying, in all the histories of the Conquest, only their
+incidental references to the civilized condition of the people, we can
+see plainly what it was. As the invaders approached Tlascala, they found
+“beautiful whitewashed houses� scattered over the country. The
+Tlascalans had towns, cities, agriculture, and markets. Cortez found
+among them all that was needed by his troops. His supremacy in Tlascala
+was easily established; and it was not difficult to induce the people to
+aid him cordially in his operations against Mexico, for they hated the
+Aztecs, by whom they had recently been subjugated. In a description of
+their capital, he stated that it was as large as the city of Granada, in
+Spain.
+
+He went next to Cholulu, where, near the great mound, was an important
+city, in which they saw a “great plaza.� Bernal Diaz said of this city,
+“I well remember, when we first entered this town and looked up to the
+elevated white temples, how the whole place put us completely in mind of
+Valladolid.� The “white temples� were “elevated� because they stood on
+high pyramidal foundations, just as they are seen in the old ruins. It
+is probable, however, that these were built of adobe bricks or of
+timber. The city very likely was much older than the Aztec empire. A
+Spanish officer named Ordaz ascended Mount Popocatapetl, and one thing
+he saw was “the Valley of Mexico, with its city, its lagunas and
+islands, and its scattered hamlets, a busy throng of life being every
+where visible.�
+
+
+THE CITY OF MEXICO.
+
+At the city of Mexico Cortez had a great reception, negotiation having
+established the form of friendly relations between him and Montezuma.
+Quarters were provided in the city for the Spanish portion of his army,
+a vast edifice being set apart for their use which furnished ample
+accommodations for the whole force. The place could be entered only by
+causeways. They marched on a wide avenue which led through the heart of
+the city, beholding the size, architecture, and beauty of the Aztec
+capital with astonishment. This avenue was lined with some of the finest
+houses, built of a porous red stone dug from quarries in the
+neighborhood. The people gathered in crowds on the streets, on the flat
+roofs, in the doorways, and at the windows to witness the arrival of the
+Spaniards. Most of the streets were narrow, and had houses of a much
+less imposing character. The great streets went over numerous canals, on
+well-built bridges. Montezuma’s palace was a low, irregular pile of
+stone structures extending over a large space of ground.
+
+Among the _teocallis_ of the Aztec capital the “great temple� stood
+foremost. It was situated in the centre of a vast inclosure, which was
+surrounded by a heavy wall eight feet high, built of prepared stone.
+This inclosure was entered by four gateways opening on the four
+principal streets of the city. The “temple� was a solid structure built
+of earth and pebbles, and faced from top to bottom with hewn stone laid
+in mortar. It had five stages, each receding so as to be smaller than
+that below it. In general outline it was a rectangular pyramid three
+hundred feet square at the base, with a level summit of considerable
+extent, on which were two towers, and two altars where “perpetual fires�
+were maintained. Here the religious ceremonies were conducted. The
+ascent was by a circular flight of steps on the outside which went four
+times around the structure. The water in the lagoons being salt, the
+city was supplied with water by means of an aqueduct which extended to
+Chapultepec.
+
+Such substantially is the account given of the old city of Mexico and
+its great temple by every writer who saw them before the Conquest, and
+all the struggles which took place for possession of this capital had a
+character that would have been impossible any where save in a large
+city. In every account of the attacks on the great temple, we can see
+that it was a great temple; and we may perceive what the old city was by
+reading any account of the desperate and bloody battles in which the
+Spaniards were driven from it, after standing a ten days’ siege in the
+great stone building they occupied.
+
+
+THE CONQUEST.
+
+This battle took place in the latter part of June, 1520, several months
+after the friendly reception, and was occasioned by the treacherous and
+most atrocious proceedings of the Spaniards, which drove the Mexicans to
+madness. Nearly a year passed before Cortez made another attack on the
+Mexican capital. During this time he found means among the Tlascalans to
+build a flotilla of thirteen vessels, which were transported in pieces
+to Lake Tezcuco and there put together. This would have been impossible
+if he had not found in the country suitable tools and mechanics. By
+means of these vessels armed with cannon, and assisted by a great army
+of native allies consisting of Tlascalans, Cholulans, and many others,
+he took control of the lagunas, secured possession of the causeways, and
+attacked the city in vain for forty-five days, although his men several
+times penetrated to the great square. He now resolved to enter by
+gradual advances, and destroy every thing as he went. This he did,
+burning what was combustible, and tearing down most of the edifices
+built of stone; nevertheless, thirty or forty days more passed before
+this work of destruction was complete. The inhabitants of the city were
+given over to extermination.
+
+The conquerors proceeded immediately to rebuild the city, native
+architects chiefly being employed to do the work. Materials for the
+rebuilding were taken from the ruins; probably many of the old Aztec
+foundations were retained, and there may now be edifices in the city of
+Mexico which stand on some of these foundations. Twelve acres of the
+great inclosure of the Aztec temple were taken for a Spanish plaza, and
+are still used for this purpose, while the site of the temple is
+occupied by a cathedral. The plaza is paved with marble. Like the rest
+of the great inclosure, it was paved when the Spaniards first saw it,
+and the paving was so perfect and so smooth that their horses were
+liable to slip and fall when they attempted to ride over it.
+
+Some relics recovered from ruins of the old temple have been preserved.
+Among them is the great Aztec calendar which belonged to it, on which
+are carved hieroglyphics representing the months of the year. This
+calendar was found in 1790 buried in the great square. It was carved
+from a mass of porous basalt, and made eleven feet eight inches in
+diameter. It was a fixture of the Aztec temple; it is now walled into
+one side of the cathedral. The “stone of sacrifice,� another relic of
+the temple, nine feet in diameter, and covered with sculptured
+hieroglyphics, can still be seen in the city, and in the suburbs, it is
+said, vestiges of the ruins of long lines of edifices can be traced.
+Calendars made of gold and silver were common in Mexico. Before Cortez
+reached the capital, Montezuma sent him two “as large as cartwheels,�
+one representing the sun, the other the moon, both “richly carved.�
+During the sack of the city a calendar of gold was found by a soldier in
+a pond of Guatemozin’s garden. But these Spaniards did not go to Mexico
+to study Aztec astronomy, nor to collect curiosities. In their hands
+every article of gold was speedily transformed into coin.
+
+In every Spanish description of the city we can see its resemblance to
+cities whose ruins are found farther south. If the Spaniards had
+invented the temple, they would not have made it unlike any thing they
+had ever before seen or heard of, by placing its altar on the summit of
+a high pyramid. This method of constructing temples is seen in the old
+ruins, but it was unknown to Cortez and his men until they found it in
+Mexico. The only reasonable or possible explanation of what they said of
+it is, that the temple actually existed at the Aztec capital, and that
+the Spaniards, being there, described what they saw. The uniform
+testimony of all who saw the country at that time shows that the
+edifices of towns and cities, wherever they went, were most commonly
+built of cut stone laid in mortar, or of timber, and that in the more
+rural districts thatch was frequently used for the roofs of dwellings.
+Moreover, we are told repeatedly that the Spaniards employed “Mexican
+masons,� and found them “very expert� in the arts of building and
+plastering. There is no good reason to doubt that the civilized
+condition of the country, when the Spaniards found it, was superior to
+what it has been at any time since the Conquest.
+
+
+WHO WERE THE AZTECS?
+
+The Mexicans, or Aztecs, subjugated by Cortez, were themselves invaders,
+whose extended dominion was probably less than two hundred and fifty
+years old, although they had been much longer in the Valley of Mexico.
+There were important portions of the country, especially at the south,
+to which their rule had not been extended. In several districts besides
+those of the Mayas and the Quichés the natives still maintained
+independent governments. The Aztec conquest of the central region,
+between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, was completed only a few
+years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards, and the conquest of this
+region had not been fully secured at some points, as appeared in the
+readiness of the Tlascalans and others to act in alliance with Cortez.
+But the Aztecs did not come from abroad. They belonged in the country,
+and seem to have been originally an obscure and somewhat rude branch of
+the native race.
+
+It is very probable that the Colhuas and Nahuas or Toltecs of the old
+books and traditions, together with the Aztecs, were all substantially
+the same people. They established in the country three distinct family
+groups of language, it is said, but the actual significance of this
+difference in speech has not been clearly determined. These unlike
+groups of language have not been sufficiently analyzed and studied to
+justify us in assuming that they did not all come from the same original
+source, or that there is a more radical difference between them than
+between the Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Scandinavian groups in Europe.
+These ancient Americans were distinct from each other at the time of the
+Conquest, but not so distinct as to show much difference in their
+religious ideas, their mythology, their ceremonies of worship, their
+methods of building, or in the general character of their civilization.
+
+If the Toltecs and our Mound-Builders were the same people, they
+probably went from Mexico and Central America to the Valley of the
+Mississippi at a very remote period, as Colhuan colonies, and after a
+long residence there returned so much changed in speech and in other
+respects as to seem a distinct people. The Aztecs appear to have dwelt
+obscurely in the south before they rose to power. They must have been at
+first much less advanced in civilization than their predecessors, but
+ready to adopt the superior knowledge and methods of the country they
+invaded.
+
+
+THEY CAME FROM THE SOUTH.
+
+It has sometimes been assumed that the Aztecs came to Mexico from the
+north, but there is nothing to warrant this assumption, nothing to make
+it probable, nothing even to explain the fact that some persons have
+entertained it. People of the ancient Mexican and Central American race
+are not found farther north than New Mexico and Arizona, where they are
+known as Pueblos, or Village Indians. In the old times that was a
+frontier region, and the Pueblos seem to represent ancient settlers who
+went there from the south. There was the border line between the Mexican
+race and the wild Indians, and the distinction between the Pueblos and
+the savage tribes is every way so uniform and so great that it is
+well-nigh impossible to believe they all belong to the same race. In
+fact, no people really like our wild Indians of North America have ever
+been found in Mexico, Central America, or South America.
+
+Investigation has made it probable that the Mexicans or Aztecs went to
+the Valley of Mexico from the south. Mr. Squier says: “The hypothesis of
+a migration from Nicaragua and Cuscutlan to Anahuac is altogether more
+consonant with probabilities and with tradition than that which derives
+the Mexicans from the north; and it is a significant fact, that in the
+map of their migrations presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of
+the Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (_atl_ standing for
+Aztlan), a pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a palm-tree.�
+Humboldt thought this indicated a southern origin.
+
+Communities of Aztecs still exist as far south as Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica, with some variations in their speech, but not so great, probably,
+as to make them unintelligible to each other. The Spanish historian,
+Oviedo, called attention to the fact that an isolated community of
+Aztecs was found occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the
+Pacific. They were called Niquirans, and Mr. Squier seems to have
+verified this fact. The result of his investigation is that the people
+of the district specified are Aztecs, and that, “from the comparative
+lateness of the separation or some other cause,� their distinguishing
+features were easily recognized, their speech being nearly identical
+with the native speech heard in the Valley of Mexico. Oviedo said of
+them: “The Niquirans who speak the Mexican language have the same
+manners and appearance as the people of New Spain (Mexico).� In the
+neighboring districts, communities closely related to the Mayas are
+found, and others that appear to belong to the Toltec family. Aztecs are
+found still farther south, and there appear to be conclusive reasons for
+believing that Montezuma’s people went from the south to Anahuac or
+Mexico.
+
+According to the native histories as reported by Clavigero, the Aztecs
+began their migration northward from Aztlan about the year 1160 A.D.,
+and founded the more important of their first settlements in the Valley
+of Mexico about the year 1216 A.D., a little over three hundred years
+previous to the Spanish invasion. Another result of investigation adds a
+century to this estimate. This result is reached as follows: the
+Mexicans stated constantly that their calendar was reformed some time
+after they left Aztlan, and that in the year 1519 eight cycles of
+fifty-two years each and thirteen years of a ninth cycle had passed
+since that reform was made. This carries back the beginning of their
+migration considerably beyond the year 1090 A.D.
+
+Their sway seems to have been confined for a long time to Anahuac. They
+grew to supremacy in part probably by the arrival of new immigrants,
+but chiefly by conquest of the small states into which the country was
+divided. They could learn from their more cultivated neighbors to reform
+their calendar, compute time with greater accuracy, and make important
+improvements in other respects. They must also have modified their
+religious system to some extent, for it does not appear that they had
+adopted the worship of Kukulcan (whose name they transformed into
+Quetzalcohuatl) before they came to Mexico. But they brought with them
+an effective political organization, and very likely they were better
+fitted than most of their new neighbors for the rude work of war.
+
+Before the city of Mexico was built, the seat of their government was at
+Tezcuco. The character of their civilization after they rose to
+pre-eminence was shown in their organization, in their skill as
+builders, in the varied forms of their industry, and in the development
+of their religious ceremonies. It is manifest that they adopted all the
+astronomical knowledge and appliances found in the neighboring states
+which they subjugated. Their measure of the solar year and their
+numbering of the months were precisely like what had long existed in
+this part of the country; and they had the same astronomical implements
+or contrivances. One of these contrivances, found at Chapultepec, is
+described as follows:
+
+“On the horizontal plane of a large, carefully-worked stone, three
+arrows were cut in relief, so that the shaft ends came together and made
+equal angles in the centre. The points were directed eastward, the two
+outside showing the two solstitial points, and that in the centre the
+equinoctial. A line on the carved band holding them together was in
+range with holes in two stones which stood exactly north and south. A
+cord drawn tightly through the holes in these two stones would, at the
+moment of noon, cast its shadow on the line drawn across the band. It
+was a perfect instrument for ascertaining east and west with precision,
+and for determining the exact time by the rising and setting of the sun
+at the equinoxes and solstices. This stone has now been broken up and
+used to construct a furnace.�
+
+These Aztecs were manifestly something very different from “Mexican
+savages.� At the same time, they were less advanced in many things than
+their predecessors. Their skill in architecture and architectural
+ornamentation did not enable them to build such cities as Mitla and
+Palenque, and their “picture writing� was a much ruder form of the
+graphic art than the phonetic system of the Mayas and Quichés. It does
+not appear that they ever went so far in literary improvement as to
+adopt this simpler and more complete system for any purpose whatever. If
+the country had never, in the previous ages, felt the influence of a
+higher culture than that of the Aztecs, it would not have now, and never
+could have had, ruined cities like Mitla, Copan, and Palenque. Not only
+was the system of writing shown by the countless inscriptions quite
+beyond the attainments of Aztec art, but also the abundant sculptures
+and the whole system of decoration found in the old ruins.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+ANCIENT PERU.
+
+
+The ruins of Ancient Peru are found chiefly on the elevated table-lands
+of the Andes, between Quito and Lake Titicaca; but they can be traced
+five hundred miles farther south, to Chili, and throughout the region
+connecting these high plateaus with the Pacific coast. The great
+district to which they belong extends north and south about two thousand
+miles. When the marauding Spaniards arrived in the country, this whole
+region was the seat of a populous and prosperous empire, complete in its
+civil organization, supported by an efficient system of industry, and
+presenting a very notable development of some of the more important arts
+of civilized life. These ruins differ from those in Mexico and Central
+America. No inscriptions are found in Peru; there is no longer a
+“marvelous abundance of decorations;� nothing is seen like the monoliths
+of Copan or the bas-reliefs of Palenque. The method of building is
+different; the Peruvian temples were not high truncated pyramids, and
+the great edifices were not erected on pyramidal foundations. The
+Peruvian ruins show us remains of cities, temples, palaces, other
+edifices of various kinds, fortresses, aqueducts (one of them four
+hundred and fifty miles long), great roads (extending through the whole
+length of the empire), and terraces on the sides of mountains. For all
+these constructions the builders used cut stone laid in mortar or
+cement, and their work was done admirably, but it is every where seen
+that the masonry, although sometimes ornamented, was generally plain in
+style and always massive. The antiquities in this region have not been
+as much explored and described as those north of the isthmus, but their
+general character is known, and particular descriptions of some of them
+have been published.
+
+
+THE SPANISH HUNT FOR PERU.
+
+The Spanish conquest of Peru furnishes one of the most remarkable
+chapters in the history of audacious villainy. It was the work of
+successful buccaneers as unscrupulous as any crew of pirates that ever
+robbed and murdered on the ocean. After their settlements began on the
+islands and the Atlantic coast, rumors came to them of a wonderful
+country somewhere at a distance in the west. They knew nothing of
+another ocean between them and the Indies; the western side of the
+continent was a veiled land of mystery, but the rumors, constantly
+repeated, assured them that there was a country in that unknown region
+where gold was more abundant than iron among themselves. Their strongest
+passions were moved; greed for the precious metals and thirst for
+adventures.
+
+Balboa was hunting for Peru when he discovered the Pacific, about 1511
+A.D. He was guided across the isthmus by a young native chief, who told
+him of that ocean, saying it was the best way to the country where all
+the common household utensils were made of gold. At the Bay of Panama
+Balboa heard more of Peru, and went down the coast to find it, but did
+not go south much beyond the eighth degree of north latitude. In his
+company of adventurers at this time was Francisco Pizarro, by whom Peru
+was found, subjugated, robbed, and ruined, some fifteen or twenty years
+later. Balboa was superseded by Pedrarias, another greedy adventurer,
+whose jealousy arrested his operations and finally put him to death. The
+town of Panama was founded in 1519 by this Pedrarias, chiefly as a point
+on the Pacific from which he could seek and attack Peru. Under his
+direction, in 1522, the search was attempted by Pascual de Andagoya, but
+he failed to get down the coast beyond the limit of Balboa’s
+exploration. Meanwhile clearer and more abundant reports of the rich and
+marvelous nation to be found somewhere below that point were circulated
+among the Spaniards, and their eagerness to reach it became intense.
+
+In 1524, three men could have been seen in Panama busily engaged
+preparing another expedition to go in search of the golden country.
+These were Francisco Pizarro, a bold and capable adventurer, who could
+neither read nor write; Diego de Almagro, an impulsive, passionate,
+reckless soldier of fortune, and Hernando de Luque, a Spanish
+ecclesiastic, Vicar of Panama, and a man well acquainted with the world
+and skilled in reading character, acting at this time, it is said, for
+another person who kept out of view. They had formed an alliance to
+discover and rob Peru. Luque would furnish most of the funds, and wait
+in Panama for the others to do the work. Pizarro would be
+commander-in-chief. The vessels used would necessarily be such as could
+be built at Panama, and, therefore, not very efficient.
+
+Pizarro went down the coast, landing from time to time to explore and
+rob villages, until he reached about the fourth degree of north
+latitude, when he was obliged to return for supplies and repairs. It
+became necessary to reconstruct the contract and allow Pedrarias an
+interest in it. On the next voyage, one of the vessels went half a
+degree south of the equator, and encountered a vessel “like a European
+caravel,� which was, in fact, a Peruvian _balsa_, loaded with
+merchandise, vases, mirrors of burnished silver, and curious fabrics of
+cotton and woolen.
+
+It became again indispensable to send back to Panama for supplies and
+repairs, and Pizarro was doomed to wait for them seven months on an
+island. He next visited Tumbez, in Peru, and went to the ninth degree of
+south latitude; but he was obliged to visit Spain to get necessary aid
+before he could attempt any thing more, and it was not until the year
+1531 that the conquest of Peru was actually undertaken.
+
+In 1531 Pizarro finally entered Tumbez with his buccaneers, and marched
+into the country, sending word to the Inca that he came to aid him
+against his enemies. There had been a civil war in the country, which
+had been divided by the great Inca, Huayna Capac, the conqueror of
+Quito, between his two sons, Huascar and Atahuallpa, and Huascar had
+been defeated and thrown into prison, and finally put to death. At a
+city called Caxamalca, Pizarro contrived, by means of the most atrocious
+treachery, to seize the Inca and massacre some ten thousand of the
+principal Peruvians, who came to his camp unarmed on a friendly visit.
+This threw the whole empire into confusion, and made the conquest easy.
+The Inca filled a room with gold as the price of his ransom; the
+Spaniards took the gold, broke their promise, and put him to death.
+
+
+THE RUINS NEAR LAKE TITICACA.
+
+It is now agreed that the Peruvian antiquities represent two distinct
+periods in the ancient history of the country, one being much older than
+the other. Mr. Prescott accepts and repeats the opinion that “there
+existed in the country a race advanced in civilization before the time
+of the Incas,� and that the ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+older than the reign of the first Inca. In the work of Rivero and Von
+Tschudi, it is stated that a critical examination of the monuments
+“indicates two very different epochs in Peruvian art, at least so far as
+concerns architecture; one before and the other after the arrival of the
+first Inca.� Among the ruins which belong to the older civilization are
+those at Lake Titicaca, old Huanuco, Tiahuanaco, and Gran-Chimu, and it
+probably originated the roads and aqueducts. At Cuzco and other places
+are remains of buildings which represent the later time; but Cuzco of
+the Incas appears to have occupied the site of a ruined city of the
+older period. Figure 51 gives a view of the ancient Peruvian masonry.
+Montesinos supposes the name of Cuzco was derived from _cosca_, a
+Peruvian word signifying to level, or from heaps of earth called
+_coscos_, which abounded there. In his account of the previous times
+there is mention that an old city built there was in ruins. Perhaps the
+first Inca found on its site nothing but _coscos_, or heaps of ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Ancient Peruvian Masonry.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Ruins of “Temple� on the Island of Titicaca.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Ruins on Titicaca Island.]
+
+At Lake Titicaca some of the more important remains are on the islands.
+On Titicaca Island are the ruins of a great edifice described as “a
+palace or temple.� Remains of other structures exist, but their ruins
+are old, much older than the time of the Incas. Figures 52 and 53
+represent different ruins on the island of Titicaca. They were all built
+of hewn stone, and had doors and windows, with posts, sills, and
+thresholds of stone, the doorways being narrower above than below. On
+the island of Coati there are remarkable ruins. The largest building
+here is also described as “a palace or temple,� although it may have
+been something else. It was not high, but very large in extent. It stood
+around three sides of a parallelogram, with some peculiarities of
+construction connected with the ends or wings. Making allowance for the
+absence of the pyramidal foundations, it has more resemblance to some of
+the great constructions in Central America than to any thing peculiar to
+the later period of Peruvian architecture. Another ruin on this island
+is shown in Figure 54. The antiquities on the islands and shores of this
+lake need to be more completely explored and described, and probably
+interesting discoveries could be made at some points by means of
+well-directed excavations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Ruins on the Island of Coati.]
+
+A few miles from Lake Titicaca, at Tiahuanaco, are ruins which were very
+imposing when first seen by the Spaniards in the time of Pizarro. It is
+usual to speak of them as the oldest ruins in Peru, which may or may
+not be correct. They must, however, be classed with those at the lake.
+Not much now remains of the edifices, which were in a very ruinous
+condition three hundred and forty years ago. They were described by
+Cieça de Leon, who accompanied Pizarro, and also by Diego d’Alcobaça.
+Cieça de Leon mentions “great edifices� that were in ruins, “an
+artificial hill raised on a groundwork of stone,� and “two stone idols
+resembling the human figure, and apparently made by skillful
+artificers.� These “idols� were great statues, ten or twelve feet high.
+One of them, which was carried to La Paz in 1842, measured “three and a
+half yards� in length. Sculptured decorations appear on them, and,
+according to Cieça de Leon, the figures seemed to be “clothed in long
+vestments� different from those worn in the time of the Incas. Of a very
+remarkable edifice, whose foundations could be traced near these
+statues, nothing remained then “but a well-built wall, which must have
+been there for ages, the stones being very much worn and crumbled.�
+Cieça de Leon’s description goes on as follows:
+
+“In this place, also, there are stones so large and so overgrown that
+our wonder is incited, it being incomprehensible how the power of man
+could have placed them where we see them. They are variously wrought,
+and some of them, having the form of men, must have been idols. Near the
+walls are many caves and excavations under the earth, but in another
+place, farther west, are other and greater monuments, such as large
+gateways with hinges, platforms, and porches, each made of a single
+stone. It surprised me to see these enormous gateways made of great
+masses of stone, some of which were thirty feet long, fifteen high, and
+six thick.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco.]
+
+Many of the stone monuments at Tiahuanaco have been removed, some for
+building, some for other purposes. In one case, “large masses of
+sculptured stone ten yards in length and six in width� were used to make
+grinding stones for a chocolate mill. The principal monuments now seen
+on this field of ruins are a vast mound covering several acres, where
+there seems to have been a great edifice, fragments of columns, erect
+slabs of stone which formed parts of buildings, and several of the
+monolithic gateways, the largest of which was made of a single stone ten
+feet high and thirteen broad. Figure 55 gives a view of one. The doorway
+is six feet four inches high, and three feet two inches wide. Above it,
+along the whole length of the stone, which is now broken, is a cornice
+covered with sculptured figures. “The whole neighborhood,� says Mr.
+Squier, “is strewn with immense blocks of stone elaborately wrought,
+equaling, if not surpassing in size, any known to exist in Egypt or
+India.�
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.]
+
+At Cuzco, two or more degrees north of Lake Titicaca, there are ruins of
+buildings that were occupied until the rule of the Incas was overthrown.
+Remains of the old structures are seen in various parts of the present
+town, some of them incorporated into new edifices built by the
+Spaniards. Cyclopean remains of walls of the Temple of the Sun now
+constitute a portion of the Convent of St. Domingo. In the days of the
+Incas, this temple stood “a circuit of more than four hundred paces,�
+and was surrounded by a great wall built of cut stone. Remains of the
+old fortifications are seen; and there is an extensive ruin here which
+shows what is supposed to be all that remains of the palace of the
+Incas. Figures 56 and 57 give views of remains of the ancient fortress
+walls at Cuzco. Occasionally there is search at Cuzco, by means of
+excavation, for antiquities. Within a few years an important discovery
+has been made; a lunar calendar of the Incas, made of gold, has been
+exhumed. At first it was described as “a gold breastplate or sun;� but
+William Bollaert, who gives an account of it, finds that it is a
+calendar, the first discovered in Peru. Many others, probably, went to
+the melting-pot at the time of the Conquest. This is not quite circular.
+The outer ring is five inches and three tenths in diameter, and the
+inner four inches. It was made to be fastened to the breast of an Inca
+or priest. The figures were stamped on it, and there “seem to be
+twenty-four compartments, large and small, including three at the top.
+At the bottom are two spaces; figures may or may not have been there,
+but it looks as if they had been worn away.� It was found about the year
+1859.
+
+The uniform and constant report of Peruvian tradition places the
+beginning of this old civilization in the Valley of Cuzco, near Lake
+Titicaca. There appeared the first civilizers and the first civilized
+communities. This beautiful valley is the most elevated table-land on
+the continent, Lake Titicaca being 12,846 feet above the sea level. Were
+it not within the tropics, it would be a region of eternal snow, for it
+is more than 4000 feet higher than the beginning of perpetual snow on
+Mont Blanc. Near it are some of the higher peaks of the Andes, among
+them Sorato, Illimani, and Sahama.
+
+
+OTHER RUINS IN PERU.
+
+The ancient Peru conquered and robbed by Pizarro is now divided into
+Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili as far down as the thirty-seventh
+degree of south latitude. Its remains are found to some extent in all
+these countries, although most abundantly in Peru.
+
+The ruins known as “the Palaces of Gran-Chimu� are situated in the
+northwestern part of Peru, near Truxillo. Here, in the time of the first
+Incas, was an independent state, which was subjugated by the Inca set
+down in the list of Montesinos as the grandfather of Huayna Capac, about
+a century before the Spaniards arrived. For what is known of these ruins
+we are chiefly indebted to Mariano Rivero, director of the National
+Museum at Lima. They cover a space of three quarters of a league,
+without including the walled squares found on every side. The chief
+objects of interest are the remains of two great edifices called
+palaces. “These palaces are immense areas surrounded by high walls of
+brick, the walls being now ten or twelve yards high and six feet thick
+at the base.� There was in each case another wall exterior to this.
+Within the palace walls were squares and dwellings, with narrow passages
+between them, and the walls are decorated. In the largest palace are the
+remains of a great reservoir for water, which was brought to it by
+subterranean aqueducts from the River Moche, two miles distant. Outside
+the inclosures of these palaces are remains of a vast number of
+buildings, which indicate that the city contained a great population.
+The Spaniards took vast quantities of gold from the _huacas_ or tombs
+at this place. The amount taken from a single tomb in the years 1566 and
+1592 was officially estimated at nearly a million dollars. Figure 58
+presents an end view of the walls at Gran-Chimu. Figures 59 and 60
+represent some of the decorations at Chimu-Canchu.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 59 and 60.--Decorations at Chimu-Canchu.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Edifice, with Gateway, at Old Huanuco.]
+
+Remarkable ruins exist at Cuelap, in Northern Peru. “They consist of a
+wall of wrought stones 3600 feet long, 560 broad, and 150 high,
+constituting a solid mass with a level summit.� Probably the interior
+was made of earth. On this mass was another, “600 feet long, 500 broad,
+and 150 high.� In this, and also in the lower structure, there are many
+rooms made of wrought stone, in which are a great number of niches or
+cells one or two yards deep, which were used as tombs. Other old
+structures exist in that neighborhood. Farther south, at Huanuco el
+Viego, or Old Huanuco, are two peculiar edifices and a terrace, and near
+them the faded traces of a large town. The two edifices were built of a
+composition of pebbles and clay, faced with hewn stone. One of them is
+called the “Look-out,� but it is impossible to discover the purpose for
+which it was built. The interior of the other is crossed by six walls,
+in each of which is a gateway, the outer one being finely finished, and
+showing a sculptured animal on each of the upper corners. It has a large
+court, and rooms made of cut stones. Connected with this structure was a
+well-built aqueduct. Figures 61 and 62 give views of the so-called
+palace and its ground plan. Figure 63 represents the Look-out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Ground Plan of Edifice at Old Huanuco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--“Look-out� at Old Huanuco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Ruins at Pachacamac.]
+
+Seven leagues from Lima, near the sea, are the much-dilapidated ruins,
+shown in Figure 64, of a large city of the Incas, which was built
+chiefly of adobes or sun-dried bricks. It is called Pachacamac. Ruins of
+towns, castles, fortresses, and other structures are found all about the
+country. At one place, near Chavin de Huanta, there are remarkable ruins
+which are very old. The material used here was like that seen at Old
+Huanuco. From the interior of one of the great buildings there is a
+subterranean passage which, it is said, goes under the river to the
+opposite bank. Very ancient ruins, showing remains of large and
+remarkable edifices, were seen near Huamanga, and described by Cieça de
+Leon. The native traditions said this city was built by “bearded white
+men, who came there long before the time of the Incas, and established a
+settlement.� It is noticed every where that the ancient Peruvians made
+large use of aqueducts, which they built with notable skill, using hewn
+stones and cement, and making them very substantial. Some of them are
+still in use. They were used to carry water to the cities and to
+irrigate the cultivated lands. A few of them were very long. There is
+mention of one which was a hundred and fifty miles long, and of another
+which was extended four hundred and fifty miles across sierras and over
+rivers, from south to north.
+
+
+THE GREAT PERUVIAN ROADS.
+
+Nothing in Ancient Peru was more remarkable than the public roads. No
+ancient people has left traces of works more astonishing than these, so
+vast was their extent, and so great the skill and labor required to
+construct them. One of these roads ran along the mountains through the
+whole length of the empire, from Quito to Chili. Another, starting from
+this at Cuzco, went down to the coast and extended northward to the
+equator. These roads were built on beds or “deep under-structures� of
+masonry. The width of the roadways varied from twenty to twenty-five
+feet, and they were made level and smooth by paving, and in some places
+by a sort of macadamizing with pulverized stone mixed with lime and
+bituminous cement. This cement was used in all the masonry. On each side
+of the roadway was “a very strong wall more than a fathom in thickness.�
+These roads went over marshes, rivers, and great chasms of the sierras,
+and through rocky precipices and mountain sides. The great road passing
+along the mountains was a marvelous work. In many places its way was cut
+through rock for leagues. Great ravines were filled up with solid
+masonry. Rivers were crossed by means of a curious kind of suspension
+bridges, and no obstruction was encountered which the builders did not
+overcome. The builders of our Pacific Railroad, with their superior
+engineering skill and mechanical appliances, might reasonably shrink
+from the cost and the difficulties of such a work as this. Extending
+from one degree north of Quito to Cuzco, and from Cuzco to Chili, it was
+quite as long as the two Pacific railroads, and its wild route among the
+mountains was far more difficult.
+
+Sarmiento, describing it, said, “It seems to me that if the emperor
+(Charles V.) should see fit to order the construction of another road
+like that which leads from Quito to Cuzco, or that which from Cuzco goes
+toward Chili, I certainly think he would not be able to make it, with
+all his power.� Humboldt examined some of the remains of this road, and
+described as follows a portion of it seen in a pass of the Andes,
+between Mansi and Loxa: “Our eyes rested continually on superb remains
+of a paved road of the Incas. The roadway, paved with well-cut, dark
+porphyritic stone, was twenty feet wide, and rested on deep foundations.
+This road was marvelous. None of the Roman roads I have seen in Italy,
+in the South of France, or in Spain, appeared to me more imposing than
+this work of the ancient Peruvians.� He saw remains of several other
+shorter roads which were built in the same way, some of them between
+Loxa and the River Amazon. Along these roads at equal distances were
+edifices, a kind of caravanseras, built of hewn stone, for the
+accommodation of travelers.
+
+These great works were described by every Spanish writer on Peru, and in
+some accounts of them we find suggestions in regard to their history.
+They are called “roads of the Incas,� but they were probably much older
+than the time of these rulers. The mountain road running toward Quito
+was much older than the Inca Huayna Capac, to whom it has sometimes been
+attributed. It is stated that when he started by this route to invade
+the Quitús, the road was so bad that “he found great difficulties in the
+passage.� It was then an old road, much out of repair, and he
+immediately ordered the necessary reconstructions. Gomara says, “Huayna
+Capac restored, enlarged, and completed these roads, but he did not
+build them, as some pretend.� These great artificial highways were
+broken up and made useless at the time of the Conquest, and the
+subsequent barbarous rule of the Spaniards allowed them to go to decay.
+Now only broken remains of them exist to show their former character.
+
+
+THE PERUVIAN CIVILIZATION.
+
+The development of civilization in Peru was very different from that in
+Mexico and Central America. In both regions the people were
+sun-worshipers, but their religious organizations, as well as their
+methods of building temples, were unlike. Neither of these peoples seems
+to have borrowed from the other. It may be that all the old American
+civilizations had a common origin in South America, and that all the
+ancient Americans whose civilization can be traced in remains found
+north of the Isthmus came originally from that part of the continent.
+This hypothesis appears to me more probable than any other I have heard
+suggested. But, assuming this to be true, the first migration of
+civilized people from South America must have taken place at a very
+distant period in the past, for it preceded not only the history
+indicated by the existing antiquities, but also an earlier history,
+during which the Peruvians and Central Americans grew to be as different
+from their ancestors as from each other. In each case, the development
+of civilization represented by existing monuments, so far as we can
+study it, appears to have been original.
+
+In some respects the Peruvian civilization was developed to such a
+degree as challenged admiration. The Peruvians were highly skilled in
+agriculture and in some kinds of manufactures. No people ever had a more
+efficient system of industry. This created their wealth and made
+possible their great public works. All accounts of the country at the
+time of the Conquest agree in the statement that they cultivated the
+soil in a very admirable way and with remarkable success, using
+aqueducts for irrigation, and employing guano as one of their most
+important fertilizers. Europeans learned from them the value of this
+fertilizer, and its name, _guano_, is Peruvian. The remains of their
+works show what they were as builders. Their skill in cutting stone and
+their wonderful masonry can be seen and admired by modern builders in
+what is left of their aqueducts, their roads, their temples, and their
+other great edifices.
+
+They had great proficiency in the arts of spinning, weaving, and dyeing.
+For their cloth they used cotton and the wool of four varieties of the
+llama, that of the vicuña being the finest. Some of their cloth had
+interwoven designs and ornaments very skillfully executed. Many of their
+fabrics had rare excellence in the eyes of the Spaniards. Garcilasso
+says, “The coverings of the beds were blankets and friezes of the wool
+of the vicuña, which is so fine and so much prized that, among other
+precious things from that land, they have been brought for the bed of
+Don Philip II.� Of their dyes, this account is given in the work of
+Rivero and Von Tschudi:
+
+“They possessed the secret of fixing the dye of all colors,
+flesh-color, yellow, gray, blue, green, black, etc., so firmly in the
+thread, or in the cloth already woven, that they never faded during the
+lapse of ages, even when exposed to the air or buried (in tombs) under
+ground. Only the cotton became slightly discolored, while the woolen
+fabrics preserved their primitive lustre. It is a circumstance worth
+remarking that chemical analyses made of pieces of cloth of all the
+different dyes prove that the Peruvians extracted all their colors from
+the vegetable and none from the mineral kingdom. In fact, the natives of
+the Peruvian mountains now use plants unknown to Europeans, producing
+from them bright and lasting colors.�
+
+They had great skill in the art of working metals, especially gold and
+silver. Besides these precious metals, they had copper, tin, lead, and
+quicksilver. Figures 65 and 66 show some of the implements used by the
+Peruvians. Iron was unknown to them in the time of the Incas, although
+some maintain that they had it in the previous ages, to which belong the
+ruins at Lake Titicaca. Iron ore was and still is very abundant in Peru.
+It is impossible to conceive how the Peruvians were able to cut and work
+stone in such a masterly way, or to construct their great roads and
+aqueducts without the use of iron tools. Some of the languages of the
+country, and perhaps all, had names for iron; in official Peruvian it
+was called _quillay_, and in the old Chilian tongue _panilic_. “It is
+remarkable,� observes Molina, “that iron, which has been thought unknown
+to the ancient Americans, has particular names in some of their
+tongues.� It is not easy to understand why they had names for this
+metal, if they never at any time had knowledge of the metal itself. In
+the Mercurio Peruano, tome i., p. 201, 1791, it is stated that,
+anciently, the Peruvian sovereigns “worked magnificent iron mines at
+Ancoriames, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca;� but I can not give the
+evidence used in support of this statement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Copper Knives.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Copper Tweezers.]
+
+Their goldsmiths and silversmiths had attained very great proficiency.
+They could melt the metals in furnaces, cast them in moulds made of clay
+and gypsum, hammer their work with remarkable dexterity, inlay it, and
+solder it with great perfection. The gold and silver work of these
+artists was extremely abundant in the country at the time of the
+Conquest, but Spanish greed had it all melted for coinage. It was with
+articles of this gold-work that the Inca Atahuallpa filled a room in
+his vain endeavor to purchase release from captivity. One of the old
+chroniclers mentions “statuary, jars, vases, and every species of
+vessels, all of fine gold.� Describing one of the palaces, he said:
+“They had an artificial garden, the soil of which was made of small
+pieces of fine gold, and this was artificially sowed with different
+kinds of maize which were of gold, their stems, leaves, and ears.
+Besides this, they had more than twenty sheep (llamas), with their
+lambs, attended by shepherds, all made of gold.� This may be the same
+artificial garden which was mentioned by Francisco Lopez de Gomara, who
+places it on “an island near Puna.� Similar gardens of gold are
+mentioned by others. It is believed that a large quantity of Peruvian
+gold-work was thrown into Lake Titicaca to keep it from the Spanish
+robbers. In a description of one lot of golden articles sent to Spain in
+1534 by Pizarro, there is mention of “four llamas, ten statues of women
+of full size, and a cistern of gold so curious that it incited the
+wonder of all.�
+
+Nothing is more constantly mentioned by the old Spanish chroniclers than
+the vast abundance of gold in Peru. It was more common than any other
+metal. Temples and palaces were covered with it, and it was very
+beautifully wrought into ornaments, temple furniture, articles for
+household use, and imitations of almost every object in nature. In the
+course of twenty-five years after the Conquest, the Spaniards sent from
+Peru to Spain more than four hundred million ducats (800,000,000
+dollars) worth of gold, all or nearly all of it having been taken from
+the subjugated Peruvians as “booty.�
+
+Figures 67 and 68 show a golden and a silver vase, reduced from the
+actual size. Figures 69 and 70 represent various articles of pottery;
+all these illustrations are copies from articles taken from old Peruvian
+tombs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Golden Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Silver Vase.]
+
+The most perfectly manufactured articles of Peruvian pottery were used
+in the tombs. Some of those made for other uses were very curious. A
+considerable number of articles made for common use have been preserved.
+Mariano Rivero, a Peruvian, says: “At this day there exist in many
+houses pitchers, large jars, and earthen pots of this manufacture, which
+are preferred for their solidity to those manufactured by our own
+potters.� The ancient Peruvians were inferior to the Central Americans
+in the arts of ornamentation and sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Articles of Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Articles of Pottery.]
+
+Science among the Peruvians was not very highly developed, but
+engineering skill of some kind is indicated by the great roads and
+aqueducts. Their knowledge of the art of preparing colors and certain
+useful medicines implied a study of plants. Their progress in astronomy
+was not equal to that found in Central America; nevertheless, they had
+an accurate measure of the solar year, but, unlike the Central
+Americans, they divided the year into twelve months, and they used
+mechanical contrivances successfully to fix the times of the solstices
+and equinoxes. A class of men called _amautas_ was trained to preserve
+and teach whatever knowledge existed in the country. It was their
+business to understand the _quippus_, keep in memory the historical
+poems, give attention to the science and practice of medicine, and train
+their pupils in knowledge. These were not priests; they were the
+“learned men� of Peru, and the government allowed them every facility
+for study and for communicating instruction. How much they knew of
+astronomy it is not easy to say. They had knowledge of some of the
+planets, and it is claimed that there is some reason to believe they
+used aids to eyesight in studying the heavens, such as some suppose
+were used by our Mound-Builders. A discovery made in Bolivia a few years
+since is cited in support of this belief. It is the figure of a man in
+the act of using a tube to aid vision, which was taken from an ancient
+tomb. Mr. David Forbes, an English chemist and geologist, obtained it in
+Bolivia, and carried it to England in 1864. William Bollaert describes
+it as follows in a paper read to the London Anthropological Society:
+
+“It is a nude figure, of silver, two inches and a half in height, on a
+flat, pointed pedestal. In the right hand it has the mask of a human
+face, but in the left a tube over half an inch in length, the narrow
+part placed to the left eye in a diagonal position, as if observing some
+celestial object. This is the first specimen of a figure in the act of
+looking through a hollow tube directed to the heavens that has been
+found in the New World. We can not suppose the Peruvians had any thing
+that more nearly resembled a telescope. It was found in a chulpa, or
+ancient Indian tomb, at Caquingora, near Corocoro (lat. 17° 15' S., and
+long. 68° 35' W.), in Bolivia.� He forgets the astronomical monument
+described by Captain Dupaix.
+
+The art of writing in alphabetical characters, so far as appears, was
+unknown to the Peruvians in the time of the Incas. No Peruvian books
+existed at that time, and no inscriptions have been found in any of the
+ruins. They had a method of recording events, keeping accounts, and
+making reports to the government by means of the _quippu_. This was made
+of cords of twisted wool fastened to a base prepared for the purpose.
+These cords were of various sizes and colors, and every size and color
+had its meaning. The record was made by means of an elaborate system of
+knots and artificial intertwinings. The _amautas_ were carefully
+educated to the business of understanding and using the _quippus_, and
+“this science was so much perfected that those skilled in it attained
+the art of recording historical events, laws, and decrees, so as to
+transmit to their descendants the most striking events of the empire;
+thus the _quippus_ could supply the place of documents.� Each _quippu_
+was a book full of information for those who could read it.
+
+Among the _amautas_ memory was educated to retain and transmit to
+posterity songs, historical narratives, and long historical poems. It is
+said, also, that tragedies and comedies were composed and preserved in
+this way, and that dramatic performances were among the regular
+entertainments encouraged and supported by the Incas. Whether the art of
+writing ever existed in the country can not now be determined. Some of
+the Peruvian tongues had names for paper; the people knew that a kind of
+paper or parchment could be made of plantain leaves, and, according to
+Montesinos, writing and books were common in the older times, that is to
+say, in ages long previous to the Incas. He explains how the art was
+lost, as I shall presently show.
+
+It is not improbable that a kind of hieroglyphical writing existed in
+some of the Peruvian communities, especially among the Aymaraes.
+Humboldt mentions books of hieroglyphical writing found among the
+Panoes, on the River Ucayali, which were “bundles of their paper
+resembling our volumes in quarto.� A Franciscan missionary found an old
+man sitting at the foot of a palm-tree and reading one of these books to
+several young persons. The Franciscan was told that the writing
+“contained hidden things which no stranger ought to know.� It was seen
+that the pages of the book were “covered with figures of men, animals,
+and isolated characters, deemed hieroglyphical, and arranged in lines
+with order and symmetry.� The Panoes said these books “were transmitted
+to them by their ancestors, and had relation to wanderings and ancient
+wars.� There is similar writing on a prepared llama skin found among
+other antiquities on a peninsula in Lake Titicaca, which is now in the
+museum at La Paz, Bolivia. It appears to be a record of atrocities
+perpetrated by the Spaniards at the time of the Conquest, and shows that
+some of the Aymaraes could at that time write hieroglyphics.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+The Peruvians, like most other important peoples in all ages, had
+mythical wonder-stories instead of authentic ancient history to explain
+the origin of their nation. These were told in traditions and legends
+preserved and transmitted from generation to generation by the
+_amautas_. If they were also recorded in secret books of hieroglyphical
+writing, such as those found among the Panoes on the Ucayali, which
+“contained hidden things that no stranger ought to know,� satisfactory
+evidence of the fact has never been brought to light. In addition to
+these, they had many historical traditions of much more importance,
+related in long poems and preserved in the same way; and there were
+annals and national documents recorded in the _quippus_.
+
+Some of the Spanish writers on Peru, who described what they saw in the
+country at the time of the Conquest, discussed its history. If they had
+used the proper sources of information with a more penetrating and
+complete investigation, and studied the subject as it might have been
+studied at that time, their historical sketches would now have great
+value. The two most important works written at this time, the “Relacion�
+of Sarmiento and the “Relaciones� of Polo de Ondegardo, were never
+printed. But none of these writers sought to study Peruvian antiquity
+beyond the period of the Incas, although some of them (Acosta for
+instance) inquired sufficiently to see that Manco Capac was a mythical
+personage prefixed to the dynastic line of the Incas without actually
+belonging to it. This limited view of the ancient history, which was
+inconsistent with what could be seen in the antiquities and traditions
+of the country, was generally accepted, because nothing more could be
+known in Europe, and its influence was established by the undue
+importance accorded to the “Commentarios Reales� of Garcilasso de la
+Vega, published in 1609.
+
+
+GARCILASSO’S HISTORY.
+
+Garcilasso de la Vega, the son of a distinguished Spaniard of the same
+name, was born at Cuzco in 1540. His mother, named Ñusta, was a niece of
+the great Inca Huayna Capac, and granddaughter of his no less eminent
+predecessor, Tupac Yupanqui. The intimate blood relationship which
+connected him with the Incas naturally drew attention to his work, and,
+with more haste than reason, was treated as the best possible
+qualification for writing Peruvian history; therefore his “Commentarios�
+acquired a very great celebrity, and came to be regarded as the highest
+authority on all questions relating to Peru previous to the Conquest.
+The work never deserved this reputation, although it was not without
+value as an addition to what had been written on the subject by
+Spaniards. Garcilasso was not well qualified to write a faithful history
+of Peru either by his knowledge or by the temper of his mind. His aim
+was to glorify the Incas and their times, and much of his work was in
+the strain of tales heard in childhood from his mother.
+
+The “Commentarios Reales� were written just as their author’s training
+had prepared him to write them. He lived in Cuzco without education
+until he was nearly twenty years old, his intellectual development being
+confined to the instruction necessary to make him a good Catholic. He
+then went to Spain and never returned to Peru. The next period of his
+life was devoted to seeking distinction in the Spanish military service;
+but political influence was against him, and he could not attain the
+object of his ambition. He finally retired to Cordova, acquired some
+literary culture, and resolved to win distinction by writing a history
+of his native country. His materials for such a history, in addition to
+what could be learned from the earlier Spanish writers, consisted
+entirely of what he had learned of his mother and his early Peruvian
+associates at Cuzco, and of such acquisitions as could be gained by
+means of correspondence with his acquaintances in Peru, after the
+purpose to write a history was formed. It can be seen readily that
+Garcilasso’s history written in this way might have a certain value,
+while it could not be safely accepted as an authority. The first part of
+his work was published in 1609, when he was nearly seventy years old.
+
+According to his version of the Peruvian annals, the rule of the Incas
+began with the mythical Manco Capac, and lasted over five hundred years;
+and this version, with some variations in estimates of the time, has
+been repeated ever since. The dynastic line of the Incas thus determined
+is given in the work of Rivero and Von Tschudi as follows:
+
+1. Manco-Capac, mysterious “son of the sun,� who began to reign in 1021
+A.D., and died in 1062, having reigned forty years. 2. Sinchi-Rocca,
+who reigned thirty years, from 1062 to 1091. 3. Lloque-Yupanqui,
+reigned thirty-five years, from 1091 to 1126. 4. Mayta-Capac, thirty
+years, from 1126 to 1156. 5. Capac-Yupanqui, forty-one years, from 1156
+to 1197. 6. Inca Rocca, fifty-one years, from 1197 to 1249. 7.
+Yahuar-Capac, forty years, from 1249 to 1289. 8. Viracocha, fifty-one
+years, from 1289 to 1340; his son Inca Urco reigned after him eleven
+days, and was then deposed “as a fool incapable of governing.� 9.
+Titu-Manco-Capac-Pachacutec, sixty years, from 1340 to 1400, living,
+says tradition, to be one hundred and three years old. 10. Yupanqui,
+thirty-nine years, from 1400 to 1439. 11. Tupac-Yupanqui (Garcilasso’s
+great-grandfather) thirty-six years, from 1439 to 1475. 12.
+Huayna-Capac, “the most glorious of the Incas,� fifty years, from 1475
+to 1525. After his death the empire was divided between his two sons
+Huascar and Atahuallpa. This caused a civil war, which ended with the
+death of Huascar in 1532. One year later Atahuallpa was himself
+destroyed by Cortez.
+
+Manco-Capac, here set down as the first Inca, with a marvelous story of
+his mysterious origin and his miraculous powers as a civilizer, was
+undoubtedly borrowed from traditions of the origin of civilization in
+the more ancient times, which had been used by the Incas in support of
+their claim to direct descent from the sun. In reality, the first Inca
+was Rocca, or Sinchi-Rocca, and several of the early Spanish writers
+were sufficiently well informed to see this. The period of the Incas
+must have been less than five hundred years if their dynasty consisted
+of no more than twelve or thirteen sovereigns. In other respects, this
+table of the sovereigns may be substantially correct, for there is a
+general agreement in regard to the names and the order of succession,
+although Montesinos maintains that the fifth Inca on the list was
+borrowed by Garcilasso from traditions of a much more ancient sovereign
+who was greatly celebrated in the historical poems, or confounded with
+him. The period of the Incas was very distinct in Peruvian history, but
+it is now understood that they represent only the last period in the
+history of a civilization which began much farther back in the past.
+
+
+FERNANDO MONTESINOS.
+
+The only Spanish writer who really studied the ancient history of Peru
+in the traditional and other records of the country was Fernando
+Montesinos, who went there about a century after the Conquest. He was
+sent from Spain on service which took him to every part of Peru, and
+gave him the best possible opportunities for investigation. He was a
+scholar and a worker, with a strong inclination to such studies, and,
+during two periods of residence in the country, he devoted fifteen years
+to these inquiries with unremitting industry and great success. He soon
+learned to communicate freely with the Peruvians in their own language;
+then he applied himself to collect the historical poems, narratives, and
+traditions. He succeeded in getting assistance from many of the older
+men who had learned of the _amautas_, and especially of those who were
+trained to read the _quippus_. Nothing was omitted which could aid his
+purpose. In this way Montesinos made a great collection of what may be
+called the _old Peruvian documents_, and gained a vast amount of
+information which no other writer had used or even sought to acquire.
+
+The materials collected were more important than is at once understood
+by those accustomed to depend wholly on writing and printing for the
+preservation of literature, because they can not easily realize to what
+extent the faculty of memory may be sharpened and developed by a class
+of men devoted to this culture in communities where such mechanical aids
+do not exist. It is known that long poems, stories, and historical
+narratives have been preserved by unlettered peoples much below the
+civilized condition of the Peruvians. Long poems, extending to three and
+four hundred lines, were retained by memory, and transmitted from
+generation to generation among the Sandwich Islanders. Many scholars
+have believed that all the early literature of Greece, including the
+Iliad, the Odyssey, and all other “poems of the Cycle,� was preserved in
+this way by the Rhapsodists for centuries, down to the time of
+Peisistratus, and then for the first time reduced to writing. This shows
+at least what they have believed was possible. In Max Müller’s “History
+of Ancient Sanskrit Literature� it is argued strongly that the Vedas
+were not written at first, but were transmitted orally, being learned by
+heart in the great religious schools of the Indo-Aryans as an
+indispensable part of education. This is likely to be true, whether we
+assume that the Indo-Aryans had or had not the art of writing; for, in
+the Vaidic age, the divine songs of the Veda were so intimately
+associated with the mysteries of their religion that they may have been
+held too sacred to be made common by written characters.
+
+Therefore it is no wise incredible, nor even surprising, that a
+considerable amount of literature existed in Peru without the aid of
+writing. On the contrary, it would be surprising if they had failed to
+do what has been done by every other people in like circumstances. The
+schools of the _amautas_ were national institutions specially set apart
+for the business of preserving and increasing knowledge, teaching, and
+literary work of every kind. In a country where civilization was so much
+advanced in many respects, they could not have been entirely barren.
+Those who criticise Montesinos admit that “his advantages were great,�
+that “no one equaled him in archæological knowledge of Peru,� and that
+“he became acquainted with original instruments which he occasionally
+transferred to his own pages, and which it would now be difficult to
+meet elsewhere.� The results of his investigation are embodied in a work
+entitled “Memorias Antiguas Historiales del Peru.� This, with another
+work on the Conquest entitled “Annales,� remained in manuscript at
+Madrid until the “Memorias� was translated into French by M.
+Ternaux-Compans, and printed in his collection of original documents
+relating to the discovery and exploration of America.
+
+
+HIS SCHEME OF PERUVIAN HISTORY.
+
+According to Montesinos, there were three distinct periods in the
+history of Peru. First, there was a period which began with the origin
+of civilization, and lasted until the first or second century of the
+Christian era. Second, there was a period of disintegration, decline,
+and disorder, introduced by successful invasions from the east and
+southeast, during which the country was broken up into small states, and
+many of the arts of civilization were lost; this period lasted more than
+a thousand years. Third and last came the period of the Incas, who
+revived civilization and restored the empire. He discards the
+wonder-stories told of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and gives the
+Peruvian nation a beginning which is, at least, not incredible. It was
+originated, he says, by a people led by four brothers, who settled in
+the Valley of Cuzco, and developed civilization there in a very human
+way. The youngest of these brothers assumed supreme authority, and
+became the first of a long line of sovereigns.
+
+Montesinos gives a list of sixty-four sovereigns who reigned in the
+first period. The first was Pûhua Manco, or Ayar-Uchu-Topa, the youngest
+of the four brothers, whose power was increased by the willing
+submission of “neighboring nations.� His successor, called Manco-Capac,
+is described as a remarkable character; “adjacent nations dreaded his
+power,� and in his time the kingdom was much increased. Next came
+Huainaevi-Pishua, and “during his reign was known the use of letters,
+and the _amautas_ taught astrology and the art of writing on leaves of
+the plantain tree.� Sinchi-Cozque won victories, and “adorned and
+fortified the city of Cuzco.� Inti-Capac-Yupanqui, another remarkable
+character, divided the kingdom into districts and subdistricts,
+introduced a complete civil organization, instituted the solar year of
+three hundred and sixty-five days, and established the system of
+couriers. Manco-Capac II. “made great roads from Cuzco to the
+provinces.� These are the first six rulers named on the list.
+
+In the next thirteen reigns nothing special is noted save attention to
+civil affairs, occasional conquests, and “a great plague.� The twentieth
+sovereign, called Huascar-Titupac, “gave all the provinces new governors
+of royal blood, and introduced in the army a cuirass made of cotton and
+copper.� The twenty-first, Manco-Capac-Amauta, “being addicted to
+astronomy, convened a scientific council, which agreed that the sun was
+at a greater distance from the earth than the moon, and that they
+followed different courses.� In the next twelve reigns, wars, conquests,
+and some indications of religious controversy are noted. The
+thirty-fourth ruler, called Ayay-Manco, “assembled the _amautas_ in
+Cuzco to reform the calendar, and it was decided that the year should be
+divided into months of thirty days, and weeks of ten days, calling the
+five days at the end of the year a small week; they also collected the
+years into decades or groups of tens, and determined that each group of
+ten decades should form a sun.�
+
+Among the next twenty-nine sovereigns, Capac-Raymi-Amauta, the
+thirty-eighth of the line, and Yahuar-Huquiz, the fifty-first, were
+“celebrated for astronomical knowledge,� and the latter “intercalated a
+year at the end of four centuries.� Manco-Capac III., the sixtieth
+sovereign of this line, is supposed to have reigned at the beginning of
+the Christian era, and in his time “Peru had reached her greatest
+elevation and extension.� The next three reigns covered thirty-two
+years, it is said. Then came Titu-Yupanqui-Pachacuti, the sixty-fourth
+and last sovereign of the old kingdom, who was killed in battle with a
+horde of invaders who came from the east and southeast across the Andes.
+His death threw the kingdom into confusion. There was rebellion as well
+as invasion, by which it was broken up into small states. The account of
+what happened says: “Many ambitious ones, taking advantage of the new
+king’s youth, denied him obedience, drew away from him the people, and
+usurped several provinces. Those who remained faithful to the heir of
+Titu-Yupanqui conducted him to Tambotoco, whose inhabitants offered him
+obedience. From this it happened that this monarch took the title of
+King of Tambotoco.�
+
+During the next twenty-six reigns the sway of the old royal house was
+confined to this little state. These twenty-six successors of the old
+sovereigns were merely kings of Tambotoco. The country, overrun by rude
+invaders, torn by civil war, and harried by “many simultaneous
+tyrants,� became semi-barbarous; “all was found in great confusion; life
+and personal safety were endangered, and civil disturbances caused an
+entire loss of the use of letters.� The art of writing seems to have
+been mixed up with the issues of a religious controversy in the time of
+the old kingdom. It was proscribed now, even in the little state of
+Tambotoco, for we read that the fourteenth of its twenty-six rulers
+“prohibited, under the severest penalties, the use of _quellca_ for
+writing, and forbade, also, the invention of letters. _Quellca_ was a
+kind of parchment made of plantain leaves.� It is added that an
+_amauta_, who sought to restore the art of writing was put to death.
+This period of decline, disorder, and disintegration, which covered the
+“dark ages� of Peru, lasted until the rise of the Incas brought better
+times and reunited the country.
+
+Rocca, called Inca-Rocca, was the first of the Incas. He was connected
+with the old royal family, but did not stand in the direct line of
+succession. The story of his rise to power is told as follows: “A
+princess of royal blood, named Mama-Ciboca, contrived, by artifice and
+intrigue, to raise to the throne her son called Rocca, a youth of twenty
+years, and so handsome and valiant that his admirers called him _Inca_,
+which means lord. This title of _Inca_ began with him, and was adopted
+by all his successors.� He appears to have had great qualities as a
+ruler. Not much time passed before he secured possession of Cuzco, made
+war successfully against the neighboring princes, and greatly extended
+his dominions. Under his successors, the empire thus begun continued to
+grow, until it was extended from Quito to Chili, and became the Peruvian
+empire which the Spaniards robbed and destroyed.
+
+
+PROBABILITIES.
+
+It has been the fashion to depreciate Montesinos, but I find it
+impossible to discover the reasons by which this depreciation can be
+justified. It is alleged that he uses fanciful hypotheses to explain
+Peru. The reply to this seems to me conclusive. In the first place, he
+is, in this respect, like all other writers of his time. That was an age
+of fanciful theories. Montesinos is certainly no worse than others in
+this respect, while he has the merit of being somewhat more original. He
+brought the Peruvian civilization from Armenia, and argued that Peru was
+Solomon’s Ophir. Undue importance has been accorded to several of the
+old Spanish chroniclers, whose works contain suggestions and fancies
+much more irrational. In the second place, his theories have nothing
+whatever to do with his facts, by which they are sometimes contradicted.
+He found in Peru materials for the scheme of its ancient history, which
+he sets forth. Readers will form their own estimates of its value, but
+no reasonable critic will confound this part of his work with his
+fanciful explanations, which are sometimes inconsistent with it. For
+instance, his theory assumes that the first monarch of the old kingdom
+began his reign as far back in the past as the year 2500 B.C. But he
+reports only sixty-four rulers of that old kingdom. Now, if there were
+so many as sixty-four, and if we allow an average of twenty years to
+each reign (which is sufficient), we can not carry back the beginning of
+that first reign to the year 1200 B.C.
+
+There is another objection, which must be stated in the words of one of
+the critics who have urged it: “Montesinos treats the ancient history of
+Peru in a mode so original and distinct from all others that we can
+perceive it to be a production alike novel and unknown.� If this means
+any thing, it means that it was highly improper for Montesinos to find
+in Peru what was “unknown� to poorly-informed and superficial Spanish
+writers, who had already been accepted as “authorities.� It would have
+been singular if his careful investigation, continued through fifteen
+years, had not given him a great amount of information which others had
+never taken pains to acquire. His treatment of the subject was “original
+and distinct from all others,� because he knew what other writers did
+not know. His information did not allow him to repeat the marvelous
+story of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, nor to confine Peruvian history to
+the time of the Incas. But when the result of his inquiries was
+announced in Europe, Garcilasso and others regulated the fashion of
+Peruvian studies, and the influence of their limited and superficial
+knowledge of the subject has been felt ever since.
+
+The curious theories of Montesinos may be brushed aside as rubbish, or
+be studied with other vagaries of that age in order to understand its
+difference from ours; but whoever undertakes to criticise his facts
+needs to be his equal in knowledge of Peru. His works, however, tell us
+all that can ever be known of Peruvian ancient history, for the
+facilities for investigation which existed in his time are no longer
+possible. It may, however, be useful to consider that the main fact in
+his report on the subject is no more “original and distinct� than the
+testimony of the monuments around Lake Titicaca. The significance of
+this testimony is now generally admitted. There _was_ a period in the
+history of Peruvian civilization much earlier than that of the Incas, a
+period still represented by these old monuments which, so far as relates
+to this point, are as “novel� and “original� as Montesinos himself.
+
+That the civilization found in the country was much older than the Incas
+can be seen in what we know of their history. Their empire had grown to
+be what Pizarro found it by subjugating and absorbing a considerable
+number of small states, which had existed as civilized states before
+their time. The conquest of Quito, which was not inferior to the Valley
+of Cuzco in civilization, had just been completed when the Spaniards
+arrived. The Chimus, subjugated a few years earlier, are described as
+even more advanced in civilization than any other Peruvian community.
+The small states thus absorbed by Peru were much alike in manners,
+customs, manufactures, methods of building, and general culture. It is
+manifest that their civilization had a common origin, and that to find
+its origin we must go back into the past far beyond Inca-Rocco, the
+first of his line, who began the work of uniting them under one
+government.
+
+Moreover, there were civilized communities in that part of the
+continent which the Incas had not subjugated, such as the Muyscas on the
+table-land of Bogota, north of Quito, who had a remarkable civil and
+religious organization, a temple of the sun built with stone columns, a
+regular system of computing time, a peculiar calendar, and who used
+small circular gold plates as coin. They were described by Humboldt.
+
+The condition of the people composing the Peruvian empire at the time of
+the Conquest bore witness to an ancient history something like that
+reported by Montesinos. There were indications that the country had
+undergone important revolutionary changes before this empire was
+established. The Peruvians at that time were not all one people. The
+political union was complete, but there were differences of speech, and,
+to some extent, of physical characteristics. Three numerous and
+important branches of the population were known as Aymaraes, Chinchas,
+and Huancas. They used different tongues, although the Quichua dialect,
+spoken by the Incas, and doubtless a dialect of the Aymaraes, to whom
+the Incas belonged, was the official language in every part of the
+empire. There was a separated and fragmentary condition of the
+communities with respect to their unlike characteristics, which implied
+something different from a quiet and uniform political history. These
+differences and peculiarities suggest that there was a period when Peru,
+after an important career of civilization and empire, was subjected to
+great political changes brought about by invasion and revolution, by
+which the nation was for a long time broken up into separate states.
+
+Here, as in Mexico and Central America, there was in the traditions
+frequent mention of strangers or foreigners who came by sea to the
+Pacific coast and held intercourse with the people; but this was in the
+time of the old kingdom. As the Malays and other island people under
+their influence formerly traversed the Pacific, this is not improbable.
+Some have assumed that the Peruvians had no communication with the
+Mexicans and Central Americans, and that the two peoples were unknown to
+each other. This, however, seems to be contradicted by the fact that an
+accurate knowledge of Peru was found among the people inhabiting the
+Isthmus and the region north of it. The Spaniards heard of Peru on the
+Atlantic coast of South America, but on the Isthmus Balboa gained clear
+information in regard to that country from natives who had evidently
+seen it. To what extent there was intercourse between the two civilized
+portions of the continent is unknown. They had vessels quite as good as
+most of those constructed at Panama by the Spanish hunters for Peru,
+such as the _balsas_ of the Peruvians and the “shallop� of the Mayas
+seen by Columbus, which made communication possible up and down the
+coast; but whether regular intercourse between them was ever
+established, and every thing else relating to this matter, must
+necessarily be left to a calculation of probabilities.
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+If, as seems most likely, there was in South America an ancient
+development of civilized human life, out of which arose the
+civilizations found in Peru and Central America, its antiquity was much
+greater than can be comprehended by the current chronologies. This,
+however, can not make it improbable, for these chronologies are really
+no more reasonable than the monkish fancies used in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries to explain these civilizations. We find the
+hagiologists very absurd, but the condition of mind which made them
+possible is closely akin to that which moves some men in our time to
+deny or limit the past, and reject the results of any investigation
+which tend to enlarge it. Rational inquiry constantly forces upon us the
+suggestion that there was more in the unwritten history of the human
+race than our inherited modes of thinking have allowed us to suppose,
+and that the beginning of civilization is far more ancient than our long
+accepted theories of antiquity are able to admit.
+
+What may be discovered in South America by a more complete geological
+and palæontological investigation it is not now possible to say.
+Professor Orton, in his recent book, “The Andes and the Amazon,� far
+exceeds Montesinos in his estimate of the antiquity of Peruvian
+civilization. He says on this point:
+
+“Geology and archæology are combining to prove that Sorato and
+Chimborazo have looked down upon a civilization far more ancient than
+that of the Incas, and perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall
+and the shell-mounds of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+extensive ruins which antedate the advent of Manco-Capac, and may be as
+venerable as the lake-dwellings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six
+terraces in going up from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas
+toward Quito, and underneath the living forest, which is older than the
+Spanish invasion, many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost
+population were found. In all cases these relics are situated below the
+high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which he infers that
+this part of the country formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be
+true, vast must be the antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and
+subsidence of the coast is exceedingly slow.�--P. 109.
+
+This refers to discoveries made on the coast of Ecuador in 1860, by
+James S. Wilson, Esq. At various points along this coast he found
+“ancient or fossil pottery, vessels, images,� and other manufactured
+articles, all finely wrought. Some of these articles were made of gold.
+The most remarkable fact connected with them is that they were taken
+from “a stratum of ancient surface earth� which was covered with a
+marine deposit six feet thick. The geological formation where these
+remains were found is reported to be “as old as the drift strata of
+Europe,� and “identical with that of Guayaquil in which bones of the
+mastodon are met with.� The ancient surface earth or vegetable mould,
+with its pottery, gold-work, and other relics of civilized human life,
+was, therefore, below the sea when that marine deposit was spread over
+it. This land, after being occupied by men, had subsided and settled
+below the ocean, remained there long enough to accumulate the marine
+deposit, and again been elevated to its former position above the sea
+level. Since this elevation, forests have been established over it
+which are older than the Spanish Conquest, and now it is once more
+subsiding. In 1862, at a meeting of the Royal Geological Society, Sir
+Roderick Murchison spoke of these discoveries as follows:
+
+“The discoveries Mr. Wilson has made of the existence of the works of
+man in a stratum of mould beneath the sea level, and covered by several
+feet of clay, the phenomenon being persistent for sixty miles, are of
+the highest interest to physical geographers and geologists. The facts
+seem to demonstrate that, within the human period, the lands on the west
+coast of Equatorial America were depressed and submerged, and that after
+the accumulation of marine clays above the terrestrial relics the whole
+coast was elevated to its present position.�
+
+Assuming the facts to be as Mr. Wilson reports (and they have not been
+called in question), it follows that there was human civilization to a
+certain extent in South America at the time of the older stone age of
+Western Europe. The oldest Peruvian date of Montesinos is quite modern
+compared with this. The fact may be considered in connection with
+another mentioned in the section on American Ethnology, namely, that the
+most ancient fauna on this continent, man probably included, is that of
+South America. But, without regard to what may be signified by these
+discoveries of Mr. Wilson, there is good reason for believing that the
+Peruvian civilization was much more ancient than it has been the fashion
+to admit.
+
+Peru would now be a very different country if the Spaniards had been
+sufficiently controlled by Christianity and civilization to treat the
+Peruvians justly, and seek nothing more than friendly intercourse with
+them. But they went there as greedy buccaneers, unscrupulous robbers,
+and brought every thing to ruin. At no time since the Spanish Conquest
+has the country been as orderly, as prosperous, or as populous as they
+found it. It has fallen to a much lower condition. Industry and thrift
+have been supplanted by laziness and beggarly poverty. Ignorance and
+incapacity have taken the place of that intelligence and enterprise
+which enabled the old Peruvians to maintain their remarkable system of
+agriculture, complete their great works, and made them so industrious
+and skillful in their manufactures. The region covered by the Peruvian
+empire has not half as many people now as it had in the time of the
+Incas. Is it possible to imagine the present inhabitants of Ecuador,
+Peru, and Bolivia cultivating their soil with intelligent industry,
+building aqueducts five hundred miles long, and constructing
+magnificently paved roads through the rocks and across the ravines of
+the Andes, from Quito to Chili? One of the scholars connected with the
+scientific expedition which visited South America in 1867, describing
+the ancient greatness and present inferior condition of Quito, exclaims,
+“May the future bring it days equal to those when it was called the
+‘City of the Incas!’� He might appropriately utter a similar wish for
+the whole country.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+
+A.
+
+THE NORTHMEN IN AMERICA.
+
+It is generally known, I suppose, that original manuscript records of
+Norse voyages to this continent have been carefully preserved in
+Iceland, and that they were first published at Copenhagen in 1837, with
+a Danish and a Latin translation. These narratives are plain,
+straightforward, business-like accounts of actual voyages made by the
+Northmen, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, to Greenland,
+Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the coast of Massachusetts and Rhode
+Island. Within the whole range of the literature of discovery and
+adventure no volumes can be found which have more abundant internal
+evidence of authenticity. It always happens, when something important is
+unexpectedly added to our knowledge of the past, that somebody will
+blindly disbelieve. Dugald Stewart could see nothing but “frauds of
+arch-forgers� in what was added to our knowledge of ancient India when
+the Sanskrit language and literature were discovered. In the same way,
+here and there a doubter has hesitated to accept the fact communicated
+by these Norse records; but, with the evidence before us, we may as
+reasonably doubt any unquestioned fact of history which depends on
+similar testimony.
+
+Any account of these voyages should be prefaced by some notice of
+Iceland. Look on a map at the position of Iceland, and you will see at
+once that it should not be classed as a European island. It belongs to
+North America. It was, in fact, unknown to modern Europe until the year
+861 A.D., when it was discovered by Nadodd, a Norse rover. There is some
+reason to believe the Irish had previously sailed to this island, but no
+settlement was established in it previous to the year 875, when it was
+occupied by a colony of Norwegians under a chief named Ingolf. Owing to
+civil troubles in Norway, he was soon followed by many of the most
+intelligent, wealthy, and honorable of his countrymen.
+
+Thus Iceland, away in the Northern Ocean, became a place of great
+interest. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the Icelanders had
+become eminent among the Norse communities for intellectual culture
+and accomplishment. They were far superior to their countrymen in
+Norway. To them we are indebted for the existing records of Scandinavian
+mythology. They were daring and adventurous navigators, and, when we
+consider how near Iceland is to America, it should not surprise us to
+hear that they found the American continent; on the contrary, it would
+have been surprising if they had failed to find it. They first
+discovered Greenland, and in 982 established a colony there. Afterward,
+in the course of many voyages, they explored the coast of America much
+farther south.
+
+Narratives of some of these voyages were carefully written and
+preserved. There are two principal records. One is entitled “An Account
+of Eirek the Red and Greenland.� This appears to have been written in
+Greenland, where Eirek settled, and where the Northmen had a colony
+consisting of two hundred and eighty settlements. The other record is an
+“Account of Thorfinn Karlsefne.� This was written in Iceland by a
+bishop, one of Thorfinn’s immediate descendants. The Norse narrative
+introduces Eirek’s voyage of discovery as follows:
+
+“There was a man of noble family, whose name was Thorvald. He and his
+son Eirek, surnamed the Red, were obliged to flee from Jadir (in the
+southwest part of Norway) because, in some feud that arose, they
+committed a homicide. They went to Iceland, which, at that time, was
+thoroughly colonized.�
+
+Thorvald died soon after reaching Iceland, but Eirek inherited his
+restless spirit. The record says he was at length involved in another
+feud in Iceland. Eirek, being unjustly treated by some of his neighbors,
+committed another homicide, and the narrative relates what followed:
+“Having been condemned by the court, he resolved to leave Iceland. His
+vessel being prepared, and every thing ready, Eirek’s partisans in the
+quarrel accompanied him some distance. He told them he had determined to
+quit Iceland and settle somewhere else, adding that he was going in
+search of the land Gunniborn had seen when driven by a storm into the
+Western Ocean, and promising to revisit them if his search should be
+successful. Sailing from the western side of Iceland, Eirek steered
+boldly to the west. At length he found land, and called the place
+Midjokul. Then, coasting along the shore in a southerly direction, he
+sought to find a place more suitable for settlement. He spent the winter
+on a part of the coast which he named “Eirek’s Island.� A satisfactory
+situation for his colony was found, and he remained there two
+years.[TN-5]
+
+On returning to Iceland he called the discovered country “Greenland,�
+saying to his confidential friends, “A name so inviting will induce men
+to emigrate thither.� Finally, he went again to Greenland, accompanied
+by “twenty-five ships� filled with emigrants and stores, and his colony
+was established. “This happened,� says the chronicle, “fifteen winters
+before the Christian religion was introduced into Iceland;� that is to
+say, Eirek made this second voyage to Greenland fifteen years previous
+to 1000 A.D. Biarni, son of Heriulf, a chief man among these colonists,
+was absent in Norway when his father left Iceland. On returning, he
+decided to follow and join the colony, although neither he nor any of
+his companions had ever seen Greenland, or sailed on the “Greenland
+Ocean.� Having arranged his business, he set sail, and made one of the
+most remarkable and fearful voyages on record.
+
+On leaving Iceland they sailed three days with a fair wind; then arose a
+storm of northeasterly winds, accompanied by very cloudy, thick weather.
+They were driven before this storm for many days, they knew not whither.
+At length the weather cleared, and they could see the sky. Then they
+sailed west another day, and saw land different from any they had
+previously known, for it “was not mountainous.� In reply to the anxious
+sailors, Biarni said this could not be Greenland. They put the ship
+about and steered in a northeasterly direction two days more. Again they
+saw land which was low and level. Biarni thought this could not be
+Greenland. For three more days they sailed in the same direction, and
+came to a land that was “mountainous, and covered with ice.� This proved
+to be an island, around which they sailed. Steering toward the north,
+they sailed four days and again discovered land, which Biarni thought
+was Greenland, and so it proved. They were on the southern coast, near
+the new settlement.
+
+It is manifest that the first land Biarni saw was either Nantucket or
+Cape Cod; the next was Nova Scotia, around Cape Sable; and the island
+around which they coasted was Newfoundland. This voyage was made five
+hundred and seven years earlier than the first voyage of Columbus.
+
+Biarni’s report of his discoveries was heard with great interest, and
+caused much speculation; but the settlers in Greenland were too busy
+making their new homes to undertake voyages in that direction
+immediately. Fourteen years later, Leif, a son of Eirek the Red, being
+in Norway, was incited to fit out an expedition to go in search of the
+strange lands Biarni had seen. On returning to Greenland “he had an
+interview with Biarni, and bought his ship, which he fitted out and
+manned with thirty-five men.� The first land seen by Leif, after he
+sailed from Greenland, was the island around which Biarni sailed. This
+he named Helluland (the land of broad stones). Sailing on toward the
+south, they came next to a land that was low and level, and covered with
+wood. This they called Markland (the land of woods). The narrative goes
+on: “They now put to sea with a northeast wind, and, sailing still
+toward the south, after two days touched at an island [Nantucket?] which
+lay opposite the northeast part of the main land.� Then they “sailed
+through a bay between this island and a cape running northeast, and,
+going westward, sailed past the Cape;� and at length they “passed up a
+river into a bay,� where they landed. They had probably reached Mount
+Hope Bay.
+
+They constructed rude dwellings, and prepared to spend the winter at
+this place. It was about mid-autumn, and, finding wild grapes, they
+called the country Vinland. Leif and his people were much pleased with
+“the mildness of the climate and goodness of the soil.� The next spring
+they loaded their vessels with timber and returned to Greenland, where,
+Eirek the Red having died, Leif inherited his estate and authority, and
+left exploring expeditions to others.
+
+The next year Leif’s brother Thorvald went to Vinland with one ship and
+thirty men, and there passed the winter. The following summer he
+explored the coast westward and southward, and seems to have gone as far
+south as the Carolinas. In the autumn they returned to Vinland, where
+they passed another winter. The next summer they coasted around Cape Cod
+toward Boston Harbor, and, getting aground on Cape Cod, they called it
+_Kialarness_, Keel Cape. Here the chronicle first speaks of the natives,
+whom it calls “Skrællings.� It says: “They perceived on the sandy shore
+of the bay three small elevations. On going to them they found three
+boats made of skins, and under each boat three men. They seized all the
+men but one, who was so nimble as to escape with his boat;� and “_they
+killed all those whom they had taken_.� The doctrine of “natural
+enemies� was more current among the old Northmen than that of human
+brotherhood.
+
+A retribution followed swiftly. They were presently attacked by a swarm
+of natives in boats. The “Skrællings� were beaten off; but Thorvald,
+being fatally wounded in the skirmish, died, and was buried on a
+neighboring promontory. His companions, after passing a third winter in
+Vinland, returned to Greenland, having been absent three years. This,
+considering the circumstances, was an adventurous voyage, a brave
+exploring expedition sent from the arctic regions to make discoveries in
+the mysterious world at the south. On reading the narrative, one longs
+for that more ample account of the voyage which would have been given if
+Thorvald himself had lived to return.
+
+The “Account of Eirek the Red and Greenland� tells of an expedition
+planned by Eirek’s youngest son, Thorstein, which was prevented by
+Thorstein’s death. It relates the particulars of a voyage to Vinland
+made by Eirek’s daughter, Freydis, with her husband and his two
+brothers. Freydis is described as a cruel, hard-hearted, enterprising
+woman, “mindful only of gain.� The chronicle says her husband, named
+Thorvald, was “weak-minded,� and that she married him because he was
+rich. During the voyage she contrived to destroy her husband’s brothers
+and seize their ship, for which evil deed she was made to feel her
+brother Leif’s anger on her return. The same chronicle gives an account
+of a voyage northward, up Baffin’s Bay, and through what is now called
+Wellington Channel. There is also a romantic story of Thorstein’s widow,
+Gudrid, an exceedingly beautiful and noble-minded woman, which tells how
+she was courted and married by Thorfinn Karlsefne, a man of
+distinguished character and rank, who came from Iceland with ships, and
+was entertained by Leif.
+
+Thorfinn came to Greenland in the year 1006, and, having married Gudrid,
+Thorstein’s widow, was induced by her to undertake a voyage to Vinland.
+They left Greenland with three ships and a hundred and sixty men, taking
+with them livestock and all things necessary to the establishment of a
+colony. The vessels touched at Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and, having
+reached Vinland, they passed up Buzzard’s Bay, disembarked their
+livestock, and preparations were made for winter residence. Here they
+passed the winter; and here Gudrid gave birth to a son, who lived and
+grew to manhood, and among whose lineal descendants was Thorvaldsen, the
+Danish sculptor.
+
+The winter was severe; their provisions began to fail, and they were
+threatened with famine. This occasioned many anxieties and some
+adventures. One of the company, a fierce, resolute man, bewailed their
+apostasy from the old religion, and declared that to find relief they
+must return to the worship of Thor. But they found a supply of
+provisions without trying this experiment. Thor’s worshiper afterward
+left the company with a few companions to pursue an expedition of his
+own, and was killed by the natives.
+
+The next spring Thorfinn explored the coast farther west and south. Then
+he went to the bay where Leif spent the winter, and there passed his
+second winter in Vinland. He called the bay Hóp. The Indians called it
+Haup; we call it Hope. During the next season they saw many natives and
+had much intercourse with them, which finally led to hostilities. The
+natives, in great numbers, attacked them fiercely, but were signally
+defeated. Freydis, being with the company, fought desperately in this
+battle, and greatly distinguished herself as a terrible combatant,
+although in that peculiar condition which does not specially qualify a
+woman for such exploits. Thorfinn afterward explored Massachusetts Bay,
+spent a third winter in Vinland, and then, with part of the company,
+returned to Greenland. He finally went back to his home in Iceland, and
+there remained during the rest of his life.
+
+The Indians had traditions which appear to have preserved recollections
+of these visits of the Northmen. In 1787, Michael Lort, Vice-president
+of the London Antiquarian Society, published a work, in which he quoted
+the following extract of a letter from New England, dated more than half
+a century earlier: “There was a tradition current with the oldest
+Indians in these parts that there came a wooden house, and men of
+another country in it, swimming up the Assoonet, as this (Taunton) river
+was then called, who fought the Indians with mighty success.�
+
+There was now a settlement in Vinland, at Hóp Bay, and voyages to that
+region became frequent. The old Norse narrative says: “Expeditions to
+Vinland now became very frequent matters of consideration, for these
+expeditions were considered both lucrative and honorable.� The following
+appears in Wheaton’s History of the Northmen: “A part of Thorfinn’s
+company remained in Vinland, and were afterward joined by two Icelandic
+chieftains. * * In the year 1059, it is said, an Irish or Saxon priest
+named Jon or John, who had spent some time in Iceland, went to preach to
+the colonists in Vinland, where he was murdered by the heathen.� The
+following is from the Introduction to Henderson’s Iceland: “In the year
+1121, Eirek, bishop of Greenland, made a voyage to Vinland.�
+
+Thus it appears to be an authenticated fact that the Northmen had a
+settlement or settlements in New England six hundred years previous to
+the arrival of English settlers. It is probable that their Vinland
+settlements consisted chiefly of trading and lumbering establishments.
+The first explorers “loaded their vessels with timber� when ready to
+return to Greenland, where the lack of timber was so great that the
+settlers found it necessary to use stone for building material. The
+Vinland timber-trade became naturally an important business, but neither
+Greenland nor Iceland could furnish emigrants to occupy the country.
+Traces of the old Norse settlements in Greenland are still visible in
+the ruins of stone buildings. Near the Bay of Igalito, in Greenland, are
+remains of a stone church. Vinland was covered with great forests, and
+there it was much easier and cheaper to build houses of wood.
+
+The Norse records speak also of a region south of Vinland to which
+voyages were made. It is called Huitramannaland. Indeed, two great
+regions farther south are mentioned. There is a romantic story of one
+Biorn Asbrandson, a noble Icelander, who, being crossed in his
+matrimonial desires, went away toward Vinland; but his vessel was driven
+much farther south by a storm. Nothing was heard of him until part of
+the crew of a Norse vessel, on a voyage to Huitramannaland, were
+captured by the natives, among whom Biorn was living as a chief. He
+discovered an old acquaintance among the prisoners whom he found means
+to release. He talked freely with his old friend of the past, and of
+Iceland, but would not leave his savage friends.
+
+How little we know of what has been in the past ages, notwithstanding
+our many volumes of history! We listen attentively to what gets a wide
+and brilliant publication, and either fail to hear or doubt every thing
+else. If these Norse adventurers had sailed from England or Spain, those
+countries being what they were in the time of Columbus, their colonies
+would not have failed, through lack of men and means to support and
+extend them, and the story of their discoveries would have been told in
+every language and community of the civilized world. But the little
+communities in Iceland and Greenland were very different from rich and
+powerful nations. Instead of being in direct communication with the
+great movements of human life in Europe, recorded in what we read as
+history, they were far off in the Northern Ocean, and, out of Norway,
+almost unknown to Europe. Afterward, when the name and discoveries of
+Columbus had taken control of thought and imagination, it became
+difficult for even intelligent men, with the old Norse records before
+them, to see the claims of the Northmen.
+
+
+B.
+
+THE WELSH IN AMERICA.
+
+The story of the emigration to America of Prince Madoc, or Madog, is
+told in the old Welsh books as follows:
+
+About the year 1168 or 1169 A.D., Owen Gwynedd, ruling prince of North
+Wales, died, and among his sons there was a contest for the succession,
+which, becoming angry and fierce, produced a civil war. His son Madoc,
+who had “command of the fleet,� took no part in this strife. Greatly
+disturbed by the public trouble, and not being able to make the
+combatants hear reason, he resolved to leave Wales and go across the
+ocean to the land at the west. Accordingly, in the year 1170 A.D., he
+left with a few ships, going south of Ireland, and steering westward.
+The purpose of this voyage was to explore the western land and select a
+place for settlement. He found a pleasant and fertile region, where his
+settlement was established. Leaving one hundred and twenty persons, he
+returned to Wales, prepared ten ships, prevailed on a large company,
+some of whom were Irish, to join him, and sailed again to America.
+Nothing more was ever heard in Wales of Prince Madog or his settlement.
+
+All this is related in old Welsh annals preserved in the abbeys of
+Conway and Strat Flur. These annals were used by Humphrey Llwyd in his
+translation and continuation of Caradoc’s History of Wales, the
+continuation extending from 1157 to 1270 A.D. This emigration of Prince
+Madog is mentioned in the preserved works of several Welsh bards who
+lived before the time of Columbus. It is mentioned by Hakluyt, who had
+his account of it from writings of the bard Guttun Owen. As the Northmen
+had been in New England over one hundred and fifty years when Prince
+Madog went forth to select a place for his settlement, he knew very well
+there was a continent on the other side of the Atlantic, for he had
+knowledge of their voyages to America; and knowledge of them was also
+prevalent in Ireland. His emigration took place when Henry II. was king
+of England, but in that age the English knew little or nothing of Welsh
+affairs in such a way as to connect them with English history very
+closely.
+
+It is supposed that Madog settled somewhere in the Carolinas, and that
+his colony, unsupported by new arrivals from Europe, and cut off from
+communicated[TN-6] with that side of the ocean, became weak, and, after
+being much reduced, was destroyed or absorbed by some powerful tribe of
+Indians. In our colony times, and later, there was no lack of reports
+that relics of Madog’s Welshmen, and even their language, had been
+discovered among the Indians; but generally they were entitled to no
+credit. The only report of this kind having any show of claim to
+respectful consideration is that of Rev. Morgan Jones, made in 1686, in
+a letter giving an account of his adventures among the Tuscaroras. These
+Tuscarora Indians were lighter in color than the other tribes, and this
+peculiarity was so noticeable that they were frequently mentioned as
+“White Indians.� Mr. Jones’s account of his experiences among them was
+written in March, 1686, and published in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
+the year 1740, as follows:
+
+     “REV. MORGAN JONES’S STATEMENT.
+
+     “These presents certify all persons whatever, that in the year
+     1660, being an inhabitant of Virginia, and chaplain to Major
+     General Bennet, of Mansoman County, the said Major General Bennet
+     and Sir William Berkeley sent two ships to Port Royal, now called
+     South Carolina, which is sixty leagues southward of Cape Fair, and
+     I was sent therewith to be their minister. Upon the 8th of April we
+     set out from Virginia, and arrived at the harbor’s mouth of Port
+     Royal the 19th of the same month, where we waited for the rest of
+     the fleet that was to sail from Barbadoes and Bermuda with one Mr.
+     West, who was to be deputy governor of said place. As soon as the
+     fleet came in, the smallest vessels that were with us sailed up the
+     river to a place called the Oyster Point; there I continued about
+     eight months, all which time being almost starved for want of
+     provisions: I and five more traveled through the wilderness till we
+     came to the Tuscarora country.
+
+     “There the Tuscarora Indians took us prisoners because we told them
+     that we were bound to Roanock. That night they carried us to their
+     town and shut us up close, to our no small dread. The next day they
+     entered into a consultation about us, and, after it was over, their
+     interpreter told us that we must prepare ourselves to die next
+     morning, whereupon, being very much dejected, I spoke to this
+     effect in the British [Welsh] tongue: ‘Have I escaped so many
+     dangers, and must I now be knocked on the head like a dog!’ Then
+     presently came an Indian to me, which afterward appeared to be a
+     war captain belonging to the sachem of the Doegs (whose original, I
+     find, must needs be from the Old Britons), and took me up by the
+     middle, and told me in the British [Welsh] tongue I should not die,
+     and thereupon went to the emperor of Tuscarora, and agreed for my
+     ransom and the men that were with me.
+
+     “They (the Doegs) then welcomed us to their town, and entertained
+     us very civilly and cordially four months, during which time I had
+     the opportunity of conversing with them familiarly in the British
+     [Welsh] language, and did preach to them in the same language three
+     times a week, and they would confer with me about any thing that
+     was difficult therein, and at our departure they abundantly
+     supplied us with whatever was necessary to our support and well
+     doing. They are settled upon Pontigo River, not far from Cape
+     Atros. This is a brief recital of my travels among the Doeg
+     Indians.
+
+     MORGAN JONES,
+
+     “the son of John Jones, of Basateg, near Newport, in the County of
+     Monmouth. I am ready to conduct any Welshman or others to the
+     country.
+
+     “New York, March 10th, 1685-6.�
+
+Other accounts of his “travels� among the “Doegs� of the Tuscarora
+nation were published much earlier, but no other has been preserved. His
+veracity was never questioned. What shall be said of his statement? Were
+the remains of Prince Madog’s company represented in these “Doeg�
+Tuscaroras? He is very explicit in regard to the matter of language, and
+it is not easy to see how he could be mistaken. They understood his
+Welsh, not without needing explanation of some things “difficult
+therein.� He was able to converse with them and preach to them in Welsh;
+and yet, if he got an explanation of the existence of the Welsh language
+among these “Doegs,� or sought to know any thing in regard to their
+traditional history, he omits entirely to say so. Without meaning to
+doubt his veracity, one feels skeptical, and desires a more intelligent
+and complete account of these “travels.�
+
+
+C.
+
+ANTIQUITIES OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS.
+
+There are indications that the Pacific world had an important ancient
+history, and these multiply as our knowledge of that world increases.
+The wide diffusion of Malay dialects in the Pacific islands suggests the
+controlling influence by which that ancient history was directed. The
+ancient remains at Easter Island are known; two of the “great images�
+found there are now in the British Museum. All who have examined this
+island believe these remains “were the work of a former race,� and that
+it had formerly “an abundant population.� It is not generally known that
+antiquities more important than these exist on many of the other islands
+of the Pacific Ocean.
+
+An educated and very intelligent gentleman, who has lived many years on
+one of these islands, and visited a considerable portion of Polynesia,
+finds that the Pacific has antiquities which deserve attention. He has
+sent me papers containing descriptions of some of them, taken from the
+diary of an intelligent and observant shipmaster, much of whose life as
+a mariner has been passed on the Pacific. These papers were prepared for
+publication in a newspaper at Sydney. The gentleman sending them says in
+his letter: “These researches are not very minute or accurate, but they
+indicate that there is a vast field ready for exploration in the
+Pacific, as well as in Central America and Egypt.�
+
+The papers to which I refer begin with ruins observed in the island of
+Ascension or Fanipe, and describe “the great temple� at Metallanine.
+This was a large edifice, well built of stone, and connected with canals
+and earth-works. “Vaults, passages, and platforms, all of basaltic
+stones,� are mentioned; also, “below the pavement of the main
+quadrangle, on opposite sides, are two passages or gateways, each about
+ten feet square, pierced through the outer wall down to the waters of
+the canal.� Within the walls is a “central pyramidal chamber or temple,�
+with a tree growing on it. The whole ruin is now covered with trees and
+other vegetation.
+
+Other ruins exist in the island, one or two of which are described.
+“Some are close upon the sea-shore, others are on the tops of solitary
+hills, and some are found on plateaus or cleared spaces far inland, but
+commanding views of the sea. One of the latter kind is a congeries of
+ruinous heaps of square stones, covering at least five or six acres. It
+is situated on a piece of table-land, surrounded by dense forest
+growths, and itself covered with low jungle. There is the appearance of
+a ditch, in the form of a cross, at the intersecting angles of which are
+tall mounds of ruin, of which the original form is now undistinguishable
+beyond the fact that the basements, constructed of large stones,
+indicate that the structures were square. The natives can not be induced
+to go near this place, although it abounds in wild pigeons, which they
+are extremely fond of hunting.�
+
+These ruined structures were not built by barbarous people such as now
+inhabit the island of Ascension. There is no tradition relating to their
+origin or history among the present inhabitants, who, it is said,
+attribute them to “mauli,� evil spirits. The “great temple� was occupied
+for a time, “several generations ago,� according to the natives, by the
+shipwrecked crew of a Spanish buccaneer; and relics of these outlaws are
+still found in its vaults, which they used as storehouses.
+
+On many low islands of the Marshall and Gilbert groups are curious
+pyramids, tall and slender, built of stones. The natives regard them
+with superstitious fear. The author of these papers, being a mariner,
+suggests that they are “landmarks or relics of ancient copper-colored
+voyagers of the Polynesian race during their great migrations.�
+Remarkable structures of this kind are found on Tapituea, one of the
+Kingsmill islands, and on Tinian, one of the Ladrones, where, also,
+remarkable Cyclopean structures are found. They are solid, truncated
+pyramidal columns, generally about twenty feet high and ten feet square
+at the base. The monuments on Tinian were seen by M. Arago, who
+accompanied Bougainville. According to his description they form two
+long colonnades, the two rows being thirty feet apart, and seeming to
+have once been connected by something like roofing. On Swallow’s Island,
+some twelve degrees eastward of Tapituea, is a pyramid similar in
+construction; and on the west side of this island is “a vast
+quadrangular inclosure of stone, containing several mounds, or probably
+edifices of some kind, of which the form and contents are not known by
+reason of their being buried under drift-sand and guano.�
+
+On Strong’s Island, and others connected with it, are ruins similar to
+those at Metallanine. On Lele, which is separated from Strong’s Island
+at the harbor by a very narrow channel, there is a “conical mountain
+surrounded by a wall some twenty feet high, and of enormous thickness.�
+The whole island appears to present “a series of Cyclopean inclosures
+and lines of great walls every where overgrown with forest.� Some of the
+inclosures are parallelograms 200 by 100 feet in extent; one is much
+larger. The walls are generally twelve feet thick, and within are
+vaults, artificial caverns, and secret passages. No white man is allowed
+to live on Lele, and strangers are forbidden to examine the ruins, in
+which, it is supposed, is concealed the plunder taken by the natives
+from captured or stranded ships. On the southwest side of the harbor, at
+Strong’s Island, “are many canals lined with stone. They cross each
+other at right angles, and the islands between their intersections were
+artificially raised, and had tall buildings erected on them, some of
+which are still entire. One quadrangular tower, about forty feet high,
+is very remarkable. The forest around them is dense and gloomy; the
+canals are broken and choked with mangroves.� Not more than 500 people
+now inhabit these islands; their tradition is, that an ancient city
+formerly stood around this harbor, mostly on Lele, occupied by a
+powerful people whom they call “Anut,� and who had large vessels, in
+which they made long voyages east and west, “many moons� being required
+for one of these voyages.
+
+Great stone structures on some of Navigator’s Islands, of which the
+natives can give no account, are mentioned without being particularly
+described. Some account is given of one remarkable structure. On a
+mountain ridge 1500 feet above the sea, and near the edge of a precipice
+500 feet high, is a circular platform built of huge blocks of volcanic
+stone. It is 150 feet in diameter, and about 20 feet high. On one side
+was the precipice, and on the other a ditch that may have been
+originally 20 feet deep. Trees six feet in diameter are now growing in
+the ruins of this platform. Remarkable ruins exist on some of the
+Marquesas Islands, but they have not been clearly described.
+
+At first, when these antiquities were noticed by seamen, it was
+suggested that they were the remains of works constructed by the old
+buccaneers; but closer examination soon put aside this theory. Neither
+the buccaneers, nor any other people from Europe, would have constructed
+such works; and, besides, it is manifest that they were ruins before any
+crew of buccaneers sailed on the Pacific. The remains on Easter Island
+were described by Captain Cook. It has now been discovered that such
+remains exist at various points throughout Polynesia, and greater
+familiarity with the islands will very likely bring to light many that
+have not yet been seen by Europeans. The author of these papers,
+referring to the old discarded suggestion relative to the buccaneers,
+says: “Centuries of European occupation would have been required for the
+existence of such extensive remains, which are, moreover, not in any
+style of architecture practiced by people of the Old World.�
+
+It is stated that similar stone-work, consisting of “walls, strongholds,
+and great inclosures,� exists on the eastern side of Formosa, which is
+occupied by a people wholly distinct in race from the Mongols who
+invaded and occupied the other side. The influence to which these
+ancient works are due seems to have pervaded Polynesia from the
+Marquesas Islands at the east, to the Ladrone and Carolina Islands at
+the west, and what is said of the present inhabitants of Ascension
+Island might have a wider application, namely, “They create on the mind
+of a stranger the impression of a people who have degenerated from
+something higher and better.� At a few points in Polynesia a small
+portion of the people show Mongol traits. Dark-colored people, evidently
+of the Papuan variety, somewhat mixed with the brown race it may be, are
+found at various points in larger numbers; but the great body of the
+Polynesians are a brown race, established (at a very remote period,
+perhaps) by a mixture of the Papuans with the Malays. Now take into
+consideration the former existence of a great Malayan empire, the wide
+distribution of Malay dialects on the Pacific, and the various
+indications that there was formerly in Polynesia something higher and
+better in the condition of the people, and the ancient history indicated
+by these ruins will not seem mysterious, nor shall we feel constrained
+to treat as incredible the Central American and Peruvian traditions that
+anciently strangers came from the Pacific world in ships to the west
+coast of America for commercial intercourse with the civilized countries
+existing here.
+
+Ruins similar in character are found in the Sandwich Islands, but here
+the masonry is occasionally superior to that found elsewhere. A
+gentleman interested in archæological inquiries gives the following
+account of a Hawaiian ruin which he visited in the interior, about
+thirty miles from Hilo. He says he went with several companions to the
+hill of Kukii, which he describes as follows:
+
+“The hill is so regular in its outline that it appears like a work of
+art, a giant effort of the Mound-Builders. Its general form resembles
+very much the pyramid of Cholulu in Mexico, and from this fact I felt a
+great interest in climbing it. We proceeded, Conway, Eldhardt, Kaiser,
+and I, on foot up the grassy slope of the hill. There was an absence of
+all volcanic matter; no stone on the hill except what had been brought
+there by the hand of man. As we arrived near the summit we came upon
+great square blocks of hewn stone overgrown by shrubbery, and on
+reaching the summit we found that it had been leveled and squared
+according to the cardinal points, and paved. We found two square blocks
+of hewn stone imbedded in the earth in an upright position, some fifteen
+feet apart, and ranging exactly east and west. Over the platform was
+rank grass, and a grove of cocoanuts some hundred years old. Examining
+farther, I found that the upper portion of the hill had been terraced;
+the terraces near the summit could be distinctly traced, and they had
+evidently been faced with hewn stone. The stones were in perfect squares
+of not less than three feet in diameter, many of them of much greater
+size. They were composed of a dark vitreous basalt, the most durable of
+all stone. It is remarkable that every slab was faced and polished upon
+every side, so that they could fit together like sheets of paper. They
+reminded me much of the polished stones in some of the walls of
+Tiahuanuco, and other ruins in Peru. Many of the blocks were lying
+detached; probably some had been removed; but there were still some
+thirty feet of the facing on the lower terrace partly in position. But
+all showed the ravages of time and earthquakes, and were covered with
+accumulated soil, grass, and shrubbery. Conway and myself, in descending
+the hill, had our attention attracted by a direct line of shrubbery
+running from the summit to the base of the hill, on the western side, to
+the cocoanut grove below. Upon examination, we found it to be the
+remains of a stairway, evidently of hewn stone, that had led from the
+foot of the hill to the first terrace, a height of nearly 300 feet.
+Within this stairway, near the base, we found a cocoanut-tree growing,
+more than 200 years old, the roots pressing out the rocks. The site for
+a temple is grand and imposing, and the view extensive, sweeping the
+ocean, the mountains, and the great lava plain of Puna. It was also
+excellent in a military point of view as a lookout. From the summit it
+appeared as an ancient green island, around which had surged and rolled
+a sea of lava; and so it evidently has been.
+
+“By whom and when was this hill terraced and these stones hewn? There is
+a mystery hanging around this hill which exists nowhere else in the
+Sandwich Islands. The other structures so numerously scattered over the
+group are made of rough stone; there is no attempt at a terrace; there
+is no flight of steps leading to them; there is no hewn or polished
+stone, nor is there any evidence of the same architectural skill
+evinced. They are the oldest ruins yet discovered, and were evidently
+erected by a people considerably advanced in arts, acquainted with the
+use of metallic instruments, the cardinal points, and some mathematical
+knowledge. Were they the ancestors of the present Hawaiians, or of a
+different race that has passed away?�
+
+He inquired of the oldest natives concerning the history of this ruin,
+but “they could give only vague and confused traditions in regard to it,
+and these were contradictory. The only point on which they agreed was
+that it had never been used within the memory of man.� They also said
+there was another old structure of the same kind in Kona, whose history
+is lost. The language of the Sandwich Islands is so manifestly a dialect
+of the Malayan tongue, that the influence of the Malays must have been
+paramount in these islands in ancient times.
+
+
+D.
+
+DECIPHERING THE INSCRIPTIONS.
+
+In the “Actes de la Société Philologique,� Paris, for March, 1870, Mons.
+H. de Charencey gives some particulars of his attempt to decipher
+“fragments� of one or two very brief inscriptions on the bas-relief of
+the cross at Palenque. I know nothing of his qualifications for this
+work, but he appears to have studied the characters of the Maya
+alphabet preserved and explained by Landa. It is seen, however, that his
+attempt to decipher the inscriptions is a complete failure. In fact, he
+professes to have done no more than reproduce two or three words in
+Roman characters. He gives us _Hunab-ku_, _Eznab_, and _Kukulcan_ as
+words found on the cross. _Eznab_ is supposed to be the name of a month,
+or of a day of the week, and the others names of divinities. He finds
+that the characters of the inscriptions are not in all respects
+identical with those found in Landa, and that Landa’s list, especially
+when tested by the inscriptions, is incomplete. There is not absolute
+certainty in regard to the name Kukulcan; nevertheless, M. de Charencey
+makes this speculative use of it:
+
+“The presence of the name ‘Kukulcan’ on the bas-relief of the cross is
+important in a historical point of view. The name of this demigod, which
+signifies ‘the serpent with the quetzal plumes,’ is the Maya form of the
+Mexican name ‘Quetzalcohuatl,’ which has precisely the same meaning. But
+we know that the name and worship of this god were brought to the high
+plateaus of Central America toward the ninth century of our era,
+consequently the bas-relief in question can not be more ancient.�
+
+This assumes that the worship of Kukulcan was never heard of by the
+Mayas until the Aztecs arrived in Mexico, an assumption for which there
+is no warrant, and which proceeds in utter disregard of facts. It was
+the Aztecs who had never heard of Kukulcan, or, at least, had not
+adopted his worship, previous to this time. The Aztecs, when they
+settled in Anahuac, did not impart new ideas, religion, or culture to
+any body; on the contrary, they received much from the civilization of
+their new neighbors, which was more advanced than their own. It is very
+certain that neither the Mayas nor the Quichés borrowed any thing from
+them.
+
+We need not go back so far as the ninth century to find the time when
+the Aztecs adopted, or at least organized in Mexico, the worship of
+Kukulcan, whose name they transformed into Quetzalcohuatl. His worship
+did not begin with them; they did not introduce it; they found it in the
+country as a very ancient worship, and adopted their form of it from the
+people who yielded to their sway.
+
+If M. de Charencey will inquire with a little more care, he will
+discover that Kukulcan was one of the very oldest personages in Central
+American mythology, as _Con_ was one of the oldest in that of Peru.
+Kukulcan, sometimes as Zamnà, was associated with almost every thing in
+civilization. He introduced the beginnings of civilized life, invented
+the art of writing, and was to the Central Americans not wholly unlike
+what Thoth was to the Egyptians, and Tautus, or Taut, to the Phœnicians.
+If the bas-relief of the cross at Palenque were half as old as his
+worship in Central America, it would be far more ancient than any one
+has supposed.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX.
+
+
+[The figures in this Index refer to pages.]
+
+  Adobe used in Northern Mexico, 82;
+    in Peru for later constructions, 243;
+    used by Mound-Builders, 27.
+
+  Ancient history of Mexico and Central America in the old books and
+      traditions, 197-200;
+    Aztecs preceded by Toltecs, and Toltecs by Colhuas, 198;
+    Colhuas the original civilizers, 198-9;
+    they may have come from South America, 198, 200;
+    Chichimecs the original barbarians, 198;
+    the Colhuas first settled in Tabasco, 199;
+    Mayas, Quichés, Tzendals, etc., originally Colhuas, 200, 205;
+    Colhuan kingdom of Xibalba, 199;
+    Colhuas, Toltecs, and Aztecs branches of the same people, 206;
+    such a history implied by the political condition in which the
+      country was found, 206;
+    theories of this old civilization considered, 165-183;
+    it was original in America, 184-6.
+
+  Antiquity of man and civilization, 181-2, 273-5.
+
+  Antiquity of the Mexican and Central American ruins, 151-59, 184;
+    the great forest was 450 years ago what it is now, 151;
+    it covers an ancient seat of civilization, 95, 151, 152;
+    Copan forgotten and mysterious before the Conquest, 152;
+    there was a long period of history preceded by development of the
+      civilization, 152, 153;
+    distinct epochs traced, 155, 156;
+    no perishable materials left in the ruins, 156-159;
+    an extreme notion of their antiquity, 157, 158, 207;
+    another notion makes this the “oldest civilization in the world,�
+      159-61;
+    Tyrians saw the old cities 3000 years ago, 162-64.
+
+  Antiquity of the Mound-Builders, 45-51;
+    a new river terrace formed since they left, 47;
+    decayed condition of their skeletons shows antiquity, 48-9;
+    “primeval� forests found growing over their works, 50-1.
+
+  Astronomical monument in Southern Mexico, 122-3;
+    at Chapultepec, 220-1;
+    in Peru, 254;
+    Mexican calendars, 214-15;
+    Peruvian calendars, 236. See Telescopic Tubes.
+
+  Atlantis supposed to be an ingulfed part of America, 175-7;
+    its destruction recorded in Egypt and related to Solon, 177-8;
+    said to be recorded in old Central American books, 176;
+    Proclus on remembrance of Atlantis, 178;
+    derivation of the words Atlas, Atlantes, and Atlantic, 179;
+    opinions relative to former existence of such land, 180-1;
+    geological probabilities, 181;
+    memory of war with the Atlantes preserved at Athens, 178.
+
+  Aztec civilization denied in a “New History,� 207-8;
+    facts discredit this denial, 208-9;
+    Cortez found abundant supplies, 208, 210;
+    found Mexican mechanics, masons, and the like, 213, 214, 215;
+    the city of Mexico and its great temple, realities, 208, 212, 215;
+    both described, 211-12;
+    present remains of them, 214-15.
+
+  Aztecs, the, were less civilized than their predecessors, 221;
+    they came from the south, 217-18;
+    when they left Aztlan, 219;
+    how long they had been in Mexico, 219;
+    what they learned and borrowed of their neighbors, 220-1;
+    did not adopt the phonetic system of writing, 221;
+    could not have left such ruined cities as Palenque and Mitla, 221;
+    Aztecs still found at the south, 218-19.
+
+
+  Balboa’s hunt for Peru, 223-4.
+
+  Basques, their fishing voyages to America, 62.
+
+  Books of ancient America destroyed in Mexico and Central America by
+      the Aztec Ytzcoatl, 189;
+    by Spanish fanaticism, 188-9;
+    a few of the later books saved, 180-196;
+    some of the more important, 195-6;
+    books of hieroglyphics in Peru, 256.
+
+  Boturini collected Mexican and Central American books, 195;
+    misfortunes of his collection, 195-6.
+
+  Brasseur de Bourbourg on the antiquity of the Mound-Builders, 53;
+    on their Mexican origin, 57;
+    on their religion, 53;
+    on the Chichimecs, 198;
+    on Huehue Tlapalan, 201;
+    on Nahuatl chronology, 204;
+    his “Atlantic theory,� 159, 160, 174-83;
+    he has great knowledge of American traditions and antiquities, 174;
+    discovered the works of Ximenes and Landa’s Maya alphabet, 191, 192;
+    translated “Popol-Vuh,� 192;
+    he is unsystematic, confused, and fanciful, 102, 160.
+
+  Brereton on the wild Indians of New England, 62-5;
+    his invented stories of their copper and flax, 62, 63.
+
+
+  Calendars in Mexico, 214-15;
+    in Peru, 236.
+
+  Central American and Southern Mexican ruins most important, 93;
+    their masonry and ornamentation, 99-101;
+    a great forest covers most of them, 94, 103, 104;
+    a road built into the forest in 1695, 95, 151-2;
+    this forest covers a chief seat of the ancient civilization, 95;
+    Cinaca-Mecallo, 124.
+
+  Cevola, “Seven Cities� of, 85-9.
+
+  Charencey, M. de, attempts to decipher an inscription, 292-3;
+    his singular speculation concerning the worship of Kukulcan, 293.
+
+  Charnay, Desiré, his account of Mitla, 121, 122.
+
+  Chronology of the Mexican race, 203-4;
+    of the Peruvians, 265-6.
+
+  Civilization, antiquity of, underrated, 181-2, 273.
+
+  Cloth of Mound-Builders, fragments of, 41.
+
+  Coin among the Muyscas, 271.
+
+  “Coliseum� at Copan, 114.
+
+  Columbus and the Mayas, 209-10.
+
+  Copan, its ruins situated in wild region, 111;
+    first discovered in 1576, and were then mysterious to the natives,
+      93, 111;
+    what Mr. Stephens saw there, 111, 112;
+    what Palacios found there 300 years ago, 113, 114;
+    the inscriptions, monoliths, and decorations, 112;
+    seems older than Palenque, 112, 113, 155.
+
+  Copper of Lake Superior described, 43.
+
+  Coronado’s conquest of “Cevola,� 85, 86.
+
+  Cortez invades Mexico, 210;
+    his progress, 210-11;
+    well received at the city of Mexico, 211;
+    driven from the city, 213;
+    how the city was taken, 213-14;
+    it was immediately rebuilt, 214;
+    the plaza made of part of the inclosure of the great temple, 214;
+    Cortez could not have invented the temple, 215.
+
+  Cross, the, not originally a Christian emblem, 109;
+    vastly older than Christianity as a symbolic device, 109, 110;
+    common in Central American ruins, 109;
+    the assumption that it was first used as a Christian emblem has
+      misled inquiry as to the age and origin of antiquities, 110.
+
+  Cuzco, Montesinos on its name, 227;
+    was probably built by the Incas on the site of a ruined city of the
+      older times, 226-7;
+    the ruins at Cuzco, 226, 234-5.
+
+
+  Egyptian pyramids totally unlike those in America, 183;
+    no resemblance between Egyptians and the Mexican race, 183.
+
+  Ethnology, American, discussed, 65-9;
+    South Americans the oldest aborigines, 68, 69, 185;
+    Huxley’s suggestion, 69.
+
+
+  Gallatin, Albert, on Mound-Builders, 34.
+
+  Garcilasso partly of Inca blood, 258;
+    not well qualified to write a history of Peru, 258-9;
+    he began with the fable of Manco-Capac, and confined all history
+      to the Incas, 259-61;
+    was received as an “authority,� 269;
+    his influence has misdirected Peruvian studies, 269.
+
+  Gila, valley of, its ruins, 82.
+
+  Gold the most common metal in Peru, 250;
+    astonishing abundance of Peruvian gold-work, 249-50;
+    their gardens made of gold, 250;
+    amount of gold sent from Peru to Spain, 238, 250;
+    gold calendar found recently at Cuzco, 236.
+
+
+  Herrara[TN-7] on the buildings in Yucatan, 149.
+
+  Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs went to Mexico, 57, 75, 201-3;
+    supposed to be the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, 202, 203;
+    described in old Central American books, 202;
+    the Toltecs driven from Huehue-Tlapalan by the Chichimecs, or wild
+      Indians, 203;
+    it was at a distance northeast of Mexico, 201, 202;
+    Cabrera and others on Huehue-Tlapalan, 202.
+
+  Humboldt on Phœnician symbols in America, 186;
+    on the origin of the Aztecs, 218;
+    on Peruvian great roads, 245;
+    on books of hieroglyphics found in Peru, 246, 255;
+    describes the pyramid of Papantla, 91, 92.
+
+  Huxley on American ethnology, 69.
+
+
+  Incas of Peru, origin of the title, 267;
+    they represent only the last period of Peruvian history, 261;
+    their dynasty began 500 years or less before the Conquest, 260-1;
+    list of the Incas, 261;
+    Manco-Capac a fable, 260-1.
+
+  Indians of North America, vain endeavors to connect them with the
+      Mound-Builders, 62;
+    came toward the Atlantic from the northwest, 59;
+    the Iroquois group may have come first, 58;
+    their distribution relative to the Algonquins, 59, 60;
+    date of Algonquin migration estimated, 60;
+    these Indians resemble the Koraks and Chookchees, 65, 185;
+    they are entirely distinct from Mound-Builders and Pueblos, 60, 65;
+    their barbarism original, 61.
+
+  “Inscription Rock,� 78.
+
+  Inscriptions in Central America written in Maya characters, 196;
+    written perhaps in an old form of speech from which the Maya family
+      of dialects was derived, 196;
+    attempts to decipher them, 292.
+
+  Iron, names for, in ancient Peru, 248.
+
+  Israelitish theory of ancient America, 166-7.
+
+
+  Keweenaw Point, a copper district, 44.
+
+  Kukulcan, his worship, 220, 293.
+
+
+  Lake Peten in the forest, Maya settlement there, 95;
+    Ursua’s road from Yucatan to the lake, 95.
+
+  Landa wrote on the Mayas of Yucatan, 191;
+    preserved the Maya alphabet, with explanations, 191.
+
+  Languages in Mexico and Central America, 200, 205;
+    three groups, 216;
+    probably not radically distinct, 206, 216;
+    the most important group supposed to be Colhuan, 205.
+
+  Las Casas on Central American annalists, 187-8;
+    what he says of the old books and their destruction, 188.
+
+
+  Maize, did Indians get it from Mound-Builders? 35.
+
+  Malays, their ancient empire, 167-8;
+    their navigation of the Pacific, 168;
+    spread of their dialects, 168;
+    came to America, 169, 170, 272;
+    El Masúdí[TN-8] on the Malays, 168;
+    were not civilizers in America, 170-1;
+    ruins of Malayan cities in Java, 163-9.
+
+  Manco-Capac a fiction of the Incas, 260-1;
+    discarded by Montesinos and other early Spanish writers, 261, 269.
+
+  Mandan Indians supposed Mound-Builders, 74.
+
+  Mayas first seen by Columbus, 209;
+    their phonetic alphabet preserved, 191;
+    descendants of the first civilizers, 170.
+
+  Mexican cities noticed by Spaniards, 211, 215;
+    what Montezuma said of his building materials, 209.
+
+  Mexican “picture-writing� a peculiarity of the Aztecs, 221;
+    much inferior to the Maya writing, 221;
+    something like it at Chichen-Itza, 143;
+    Aztecs could not have left such inscriptions as those seen in the
+      ruined cities, 221.
+
+  Mexican ruins in the central region, 89-92;
+    Tulha, 89;
+    Xochicalco, 89, 90;
+    Papantla, 91, 92;
+    Cholula, 90;
+    Teotihuacan, 90;
+    pyramids with galleries, 91;
+    unexplored antiquities in this region, 91.
+
+  Mining works of Mound-Builders, 43-6;
+    mining method of the Mound-Builders, 43;
+    their mining tools found, 44, 46;
+    they left a detached mass of copper in a mine, 43-4;
+    antiquity of their mining works, 46, 53, 64.
+
+  Mitla, its ruins show refined skill in the builders, 118, 121;
+    the decorations, 121;
+    present state of the ruins, 117-122.
+
+  Montesinos, Fernando, explored and studied Peru fifteen years, 261;
+    unequaled in knowledge of its antiquities and traditional history,
+      263;
+    his means of information, 262;
+    how historical narratives and poems were preserved by the _amautas_, 263;
+    how literature can be preserved by trained memory, 262-3;
+    Homer and the Vedas, 262-3.
+
+  Montesinos on Peruvian history, 264-7;
+    there were three distinct periods, 264;
+    he rejects the Manco-Capac fable, 264;
+    does not begin the history with such stories, 264;
+    reports 64 kings in the first period, 264;
+    his account of the Peruvian sovereigns, 264-7;
+    the art of writing existed in the older time, 265;
+    how the first period closed, 266;
+    the second period, for 1000 years, a period of invasions, divisions,
+      small states, and general decline of civilization, 264, 267;
+    in this period the art of writing was lost, 267;
+    in it the 26 successors of the 64 kings were merely kings of
+      Tambotoco, 266;
+    how this period ended, 267-8;
+    the third period began with Rocca, the first Inca, 267;
+    why Montesinos has not been duly appreciated, 268-9;
+    his facts stand apart from his theories, 268;
+    probabilities favor his report of three periods, 270-1.
+
+  Montezuma on his building-material, 209.
+
+  Morgan, Lewis H., on the Indians, 59, 60, 66.
+
+  Mound-Builders, their national name unknown, 14, 57;
+    their mound-work and its uses, 17-19;
+    like mound-work in Mexico and Central America, 70, 71, 72;
+    their civilization, 33-39;
+    used wood for building material, 70, 71;
+    their inclosures, 19-24;
+    their works at the south, 24, 27;
+    their principal settlements, 30, 31, 34;
+    their border settlements, 52;
+    had commerce with Mexico, 73;
+    relics of their manufactures, 40, 41, 61;
+    their long stay in the country, 51-55;
+    were not ancestors of wild Indians, 58-61;
+    came from Mexico, 70;
+    were connected with Mexico through Texas, 73;
+    probably were Toltecs, 74, 200-3.
+
+  Muyscas, their civilization, 271.
+
+
+  Nahuatl or Toltec chronology, 203-4.
+
+  Natchez Indians, were they degenerate Mound-Builders, 58, 56.
+
+  Northmen in America, 279-85;
+    they discovered Greenland, 280;
+    their settlements in Greenland, 280-1, 284;
+    Biarni’s constrained voyage to Massachusetts in 985 A.D., 163, 281;
+    subsequent voyages to New England, 281-4;
+    encounters with the Indians, 282, 283;
+    the Norse settlements in Vinland were probably lumbering and trading
+      establishments, 284;
+    not people enough in Greenland and Iceland to make extensive
+      settlements, 284;
+    written narratives of these discoveries, 279-80.
+
+
+  Origin of Mexican and Central American civilization, theories of,
+      165-183;
+    the “lost tribes� theory absurd, 166-7;
+    the Malay theory untenable, 170-1;
+    the Phœnician theory fails to explain it, 173-4;
+    the Atlantic theory explained by Brasseur de Bourbourg not likely
+      to be received, 182;
+    it was an original American civilization, 184;
+    may have begun in South America, 185, 246, 272-3.
+
+  Orton, Prof., on Peruvian antiquity, 273, 274.
+
+
+  Pacific islands, their antiquities, 288-92.
+
+  Palenque, Stephens’s first view of, 100;
+    this city’s name unknown, 104;
+    supposed to have been the ancient Xibalba, 199;
+    some of its ruins described, 105-9;
+    extent of the old city can not be determined, 96, 105;
+    difficulties of exploration, 105, 110;
+    the cross at Palenque, 109;
+    aqueduct, 105.
+
+  Papantla, its remarkable stone pyramid, 91, 92;
+    important ruins in the forests of Papantla and Misantla, 91.
+
+  Paper, Peruvian name of, 267;
+    manufacture of, for writing, proscribed in the second period of
+      Peruvian history, 267.
+
+  Peruvian ancient history, 257-67.
+
+  Peruvian civilization, 246;
+    differed from Central American, 222-3, 246;
+    is seen in the civil and industrial organization, 247;
+    in their agriculture, 247;
+    in their manufactures, 247-51;
+    their dyes, 247-8;
+    their skill in gold-work, 249;
+    the abundance of gold-work, 249-50;
+    their schools of the _amautas_, 253, 263;
+    their literature, 255;
+    anciently had the art of writing, 255, 267;
+    had names for iron, and said to have worked iron mines, 248-9.
+
+  Peruvian ruins, where found, 222, 237;
+    they represent two periods of civilization, 226;
+    remains on islands in Lake Titicaca, 227-8;
+    at Tiahuanaco, 233-4;
+    remarkable monolithic gateways, 233-4;
+    at old Huanuco, 239-40;
+    at Gran-Chimu, 237-8;
+    ruins of a large and populous city, 237;
+    Cuelap, 239;
+    Pachacamac, 243;
+    subterranean passage under a river, 243;
+    the aqueducts, 222, 237, 243;
+    the great roads, 243-6;
+    ruins at Cuzco, 234.
+
+  Phœnicians, or people of that race, came probably to America in very
+      ancient times, 172, 173;
+    decline of geographical knowledge around the Ægean after Phœnicia
+      was subjugated, about B.C. 813, 272-3;
+    supposed Phœnician symbols in Central America, 186;
+    Phœnician race may have influenced Central American civilization,
+      but did not originate it, 173, 185;
+    Tyrians storm-driven to America, 162, 163.
+
+  Pizarro seeks Peru, 224-5;
+    discovers the country, 225;
+    goes to Spain for aid, 225;
+    finally lands at Tumbez, 225;
+    marches to Caxamalca, 220;
+    perpetrates wholesale murder and seizes the Inca, 220;
+    the Inca fills a room with gold for ransom, and is murdered, 220, 249.
+
+  “Popol-Vuh,� an old Quiché book translated, 192;
+    what it contains, 193;
+    Quiché account of the creation, 194;
+    four attempts to create man, 194-5;
+    its mythology grew out of an older system, 193-4;
+    kingdom of Quiché not older than 1200 A.D., 193.
+
+  Pueblos, 76, 77;
+    Pueblo ruins, 77-89;
+    occupied northern frontier of the Mexican race, 68, 217-18;
+    unlike the wild Indians, 67-8.
+
+
+  Quichés, notices of, 193.
+
+  Quippus, Peruvian, 254-5.
+
+  Quirigua, its ruins like those of Copan, but older, 114;
+    it is greatly decayed, 117;
+    has inscriptions, 117.
+
+  Quito subjugated by Huayna-Capac, 225;
+    was civilized like Peru, 270;
+    modern traveler’s remark on, 276.
+
+
+  Savage theory of human history, 182.
+
+  “Semi-Village Indians,� 67, 68.
+
+  Serpent, figures of, 28;
+    great serpent inclosure, 28.
+
+  Simpson, Lieut., describes a Pueblo ruin, 88, 89.
+
+  Spinning and weaving in Peru, 247;
+    vestiges of these arts among the Mound-Builders, 41;
+    the Mayas had textile fabrics, 209.
+
+  Squier on the Aztecs, 92;
+    on the more southern ruins in Central America, 123, 124;
+    on the monoliths of Copan, 112;
+    on Central American forests, 94;
+    on the ruins of Tiahuanaco, 234.
+
+
+  Telescopic tubes of the Mound-Builders, 42;
+    silver figure of a Peruvian using such a tube, 254;
+    such a tube on a Mexican monument, 123.
+
+  “Tennis Court� at Chichen-Itza, 142.
+
+  Titicaca Lake, its elevation above sea-level, 236.
+
+  Tlascalans, what Cortez found among them, 210;
+    their capital, 211;
+    aided the Spaniards, 211.
+
+  Toltecs identified with the Mound-Builders, 201-205;
+    how they came to Mexico, 201, 202;
+    date of their migration, 204. See Huehue Tlapalan.
+
+  Tuloom, in Yucatan, 150.
+
+
+  Uxmal described, 131-137;
+    more modern than Palenque, 155;
+    partly inhabited, perhaps, when Cortez invaded Mexico, 131, 155.
+
+
+  Valley of Rio Verde, its ruins, 82, 85.
+
+
+  Wallace, A. R., on ruins in Java, 168-9.
+
+  Welsh, the, in America, 285-7;
+    Prince Madog’s emigration, 285;
+    his colony supposed to have been destroyed or absorbed by the
+      Indians, 286;
+    letter of Rev. Morgan Jones on his “travels� among the Doeg Indians
+      who spoke Welsh, 286-7.
+
+  Whipple, Lieut., on Pueblo ruins, 78-85.
+
+  Whittlesey on the ancient mining, 46, 54.
+
+  Wilson’s discoveries in Ecuador, 274-5.
+
+  Writing, phonetic, among the Mayas, 187-91;
+    Aztec writing much ruder, 221;
+    writing in Peru, 254-6, 267;
+    Peruvian books of hieroglyphics, 256;
+    such writing on a llama skin found at Lake Titicaca, 256.
+
+
+  Xibalba, an ancient Colhuan kingdom, where it was situated, 199;
+    subjugated by the Toltecs, 199.
+
+  Ximenes, Father Francisco, his manuscript work on Guatemala, 191-2;
+    his dictionary of the native tongues, 192;
+    discovered and translated “Popol Vuh,� 192.
+
+  Xochicalco, its pyramidal temple situated on an excavated and chambered
+      hill, 89, 90.
+
+
+  Yucatan, its native name is Maya, 125;
+    what is seen at Mayapan, 127, 128;
+    the old edifices at Uxmal, 131-137;
+    very ancient ruins at Kabah, 137-139;
+    curious construction at Chichen-Itza, 142;
+    remarkable remains at Ake, 144;
+    aguadas in Yucatan, 145, 146;
+    subterranean reservoirs, 146;
+    Merida built on the site of a ruined city, 126;
+    what the Spaniards saw when they first sailed along its coast,
+      163, 210.
+
+
+  Zuni, an inhabited Pueblo described by Lieut. Whipple, 79, 80;
+    ruins of an “old Zuni� near it, 80, 81.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+The following errors were found:
+
+         Page  Error
+  TN-1   ix    Quiragua should read Quirigua
+  TN-2   xi    Los Monjas should read Las Monjas
+  TN-3   124   of “great size.� should read of ‘great size.’�
+  TN-4   158   sufficently should read sufficiently
+  TN-5   280   there two years. should read there two years.�
+  TN-6   286   communicated should read communication
+  TN-7   296   Herrara should read Herrera
+  TN-8   297   El Masúdí should read El Mas’údí
+
+  The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  Cholula / Cholulu
+  Chiapa / Chiapas
+  Inca-Rocca / Inca-Rocco
+  Mesantla / Misantla
+  Popol-Vuh / Popol Vuh
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient America, in Notes on American Archaeology
+
+Author: John D. Baldwin
+
+Release Date: August 21, 2008 [EBook #26382]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from scans of public domain material produced by
+Microsoft for their Live Search Books site.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
+[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text. Oe ligatures have been expanded.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Gateway at Labna. [See p. 144.]
+
+
+
+
+           ANCIENT AMERICA,
+                  IN
+    NOTES ON AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY.
+
+
+      BY JOHN D. BALDWIN, A.M.,
+  AUTHOR OF "PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS."
+
+
+        _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+
+              NEW YORK:
+    HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+           FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+  Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by
+  JOHN D. BALDWIN,
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The purpose of this volume is to give a summary of what is known of
+American Antiquities, with some thoughts and suggestions relative to
+their significance. It aims at nothing more. No similar work, I believe,
+has been published in English or in any other language. What is known of
+American Archæology is recorded in a great many volumes, English,
+French, Spanish, and German, each work being confined to some particular
+department of the subject, or containing only an intelligent traveler's
+brief sketches of what he saw as he went through some of the districts
+where the old ruins are found. Many of the more important of these works
+are either in French or Spanish, or in great English quartos and folios
+which are not accessible to general readers, and not one of them
+attempts to give a comprehensive view of the whole subject.
+
+Therefore I have prepared this work for publication, believing it will
+be acceptable to many who are not now much acquainted with the remains
+of Ancient America, and that some who read it may be induced to study
+the but as Ancient America covers all time previous to the discovery by
+Columbus, they may not be deemed out of place. Materials for the paper
+on "Antiquities of the Pacific Islands" came to me from the Pacific
+World while I was preparing the others. The discovery of the Pacific is
+so intimately connected with the discovery of America, that this paper
+would not be out of place even if the Mexican and Peruvian traditions
+did not mention that a foreign people communicated with the western
+coast of America in very ancient times.
+
+WORCESTER, MASS., _November_, 1871.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                              Page
+     I. ANCIENT AMERICA.--THE MOUND-BUILDERS                    13
+        Works of the Mound-Builders                             14
+        Extent of their Settlements                             31
+        Their Civilization                                      33
+        Their Ancient Mining Works                              43
+
+    II. ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS                         47
+        How long were they here?                                51
+
+   III. WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?                            57
+        Not Ancestors of the Wild Indians                       58
+        Brereton's Story                                        62
+        American Ethnology                                      65
+        Who the Mound-Builders were                             70
+
+    IV. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA                              76
+        Their Northern Remains                                  77
+        The "Seven Cities of Cevola"                            85
+        Central Mexico                                          89
+        The great Ruins at the South                            93
+
+     V. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA                             103
+        Palenque                                               104
+        Copan and Quiragua[TN-1]                               111
+        Mitla                                                  117
+        An Astronomical Monument                               122
+        Ruins farther South                                    123
+        The Ruins in Yucatan                                   125
+        Mayapan                                                127
+        Uxmal                                                  131
+        Kabah                                                  137
+        Chichen-Itza                                           140
+        Other Ruins                                            144
+
+    VI. ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS                                 151
+        Distinct Eras traced                                   155
+        Nothing perishable left                                156
+        "The Oldest of Civilizations"                          159
+        American Cities seen by Tyrians                        161
+
+   VII. WHENCE CAME THIS CIVILIZATION?                         165
+        The "Lost Tribes of Israel"                            166
+        The "Malay" Theory                                     167
+        The Phoenician Theory                                  171
+        The "Atlantic" Theory                                  174
+        It was an original Civilization                        184
+
+  VIII. AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY                               187
+        The Old Books not all lost                             189
+        The Ancient History sketched                           197
+        The Toltecs our Mound-Builders                         200
+        Some confirmation of the History                       205
+
+    IX. THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION                                 207
+        The Discovery and Invasion                             209
+        The City of Mexico                                     211
+        The Conquest                                           213
+        Who were the Aztecs?                                   216
+        They came from the South                               217
+
+     X. ANCIENT PERU                                           222
+        The Spanish Hunt for Peru                              223
+        The Ruins near Lake Titicaca                           226
+        Other Ruins in Peru                                    237
+        The great Peruvian Roads                               243
+        The Peruvian Civilization                              246
+
+    XI. PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY                               257
+        Garcilasso's History                                   258
+        Fernando Montesinos                                    261
+        His Scheme of Peruvian History                         264
+        Probabilities                                          268
+        Conclusion                                             272
+
+  APPENDIX                                                     277
+        A. The Northmen in America                             279
+        B. The Welsh in America                                285
+        C. Antiquities of the Pacific Islands                  288
+        D. Deciphering the Inscriptions                        292
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                              Page
+   1. Gateway at Labna                             _Frontispiece._
+   2. Great Mound near Miamisburg                               16
+   3. Square Mound near Marietta                                18
+   4. Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio                                 19
+   5. Works in Washington County, Mississippi                   20
+   6. Works at Hopeton, Ohio                                    22
+   7. Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works                    23
+   8. Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio                             25
+   9. Great Serpent Inclosure                                   29
+  10. Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio                       30
+  11. Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio                    35
+  12. Work on North Fork of Paint Creek                         36
+  13. Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio                           38
+  14. Work near Brownsville, Ohio                               38
+  15. Works near Liberty, Ohio                                  39
+  16. Work in Randolph County, Indiana                          40
+  17. } Vases from the Mounds                                   41
+  18. }
+  19. Ancient Mining Shaft                                      45
+  20. Pueblo Ruin at Pecos                                      80
+  21. Modern Zuni                                               81
+  22. Ruins in the Valley of the Gila                           83
+  23. Pueblo Building restored                                  87
+  24. Ground Plan of the Building                               88
+  25. Arch of Los[TN-2] Monjas, Uxmal                           98
+  26. Arch most common in the Ruins                            100
+  27. Casa No. 1, Palenque                                     107
+  28. Casa No. 2 (La Cruz), Palenque                           108
+  29. Great Wall at Copan                                      112
+  30. Ruins at Mitla                                           116
+  31. Great Hall at Mitla                                      118
+  32. A ruined "Palace" at Mitla                               119
+  33. Mosaic Decoration at Mitla                               120
+  34. Great Mound at Mayapan                                   127
+  35. Circular Edifice at Mayapan                              129
+  36. Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal                               132
+  37. Ground Plan                                              132
+  38. Two-headed Figure at Uxmal                               133
+  39. Decorations over Doorway, Uxmal                          134
+  40. Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal                         136
+  41. Ruined Arch at Kabah                                     139
+  42. Casa Colorada, Chichen-Itza                              141
+  43. Great Stone Ring                                         143
+  44. Great Mound at Xcoch                                     145
+  45. Bottom of an Aguada                                      146
+  46. Subterranean Reservoir                                   147
+  47. Plan of the Walls of Tuloom                              148
+  48. Watch-tower at Tuloom                                    149
+  49. Specimen of Inscriptions on Stone                        190
+  50. Specimen of the Manuscript Writing                       191
+  51. Ancient Masonry at Cuzco                                 227
+  52. Ruins of a "Temple" on the Island of Titicaca            228
+  53. Ruin on the Island of Titicaca                           229
+  54. Ruin on the Island of Coati                              231
+  55. Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco                         233
+  56. Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco                       234
+  57. End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco                      235
+  58. End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu                          238
+  59. } Decorations at Chimu-Canchu                            238
+  60. }
+  61. Edifice at Old Huanuco                                   239
+  62. Ground Plan of the Edifice                               240
+  63. "Look-out" at Old Huanuco                                240
+  64. Ruins at Pachacamac                                      242
+  65. Peruvian Copper Knives                                   249
+  66. Copper Tweezers                                          249
+  67. Golden Vase of Ancient Peru                              251
+  68. Ancient Peruvian Silver Vase                             251
+  69. Ancient Peruvian Pottery                                 252
+  70. Ancient Peruvian Pottery                                 253
+
+
+
+
+ANCIENT AMERICA.
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+
+One of the most learned writers on American antiquities, a Frenchman,
+speaking of discoveries in Peru, exclaims, "America is to be again
+discovered! We must remove the veil in which Spanish politics has sought
+to bury its ancient civilization!" In this case, quite as much is due to
+the ignorance, indifference, unscrupulous greed, and religious
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, as to Spanish politics. The gold-hunting
+marauders who subjugated Mexico and Peru could be robbers and
+destroyers, but they were not qualified in any respect to become
+intelligent students of American antiquity. What a select company of
+investigators, such as could be organized in our time, might have done
+in Mexico and Central America, for instance, three hundred and fifty
+years ago, is easily understood. In what they did, and in what they
+failed to do, the Spaniards who went there acted in strict accordance
+with such character as they had; and yet we are not wholly without
+obligation to some of the more intelligent Spaniards connected with the
+Conquest.
+
+There are existing monuments of an American ancient history which invite
+study, and most of which might, doubtless, have been studied more
+successfully in the first part of the sixteenth century, before nearly
+all the old books of Central America had been destroyed by Spanish
+fanaticism, than at present. Remains of ancient civilizations, differing
+to some extent in degree and character, are found in three great
+sections of the American continent: the west side of South America,
+between Chili and the first or second degree of north latitude; Central
+America and Mexico; and the valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio.
+These regions have all been explored to some extent--not completely, but
+sufficiently to show the significance and importance of their
+archæological remains, most of which were already mysterious antiquities
+when the continent was discovered by Columbus. I propose to give some
+account of these antiquities, not for the edification of those already
+learned in American archæology, but for general readers who have not
+made the subject a study. My sketches will begin with the Mississippi
+Valley and the regions connected with it.
+
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS--THEIR WORKS.
+
+An ancient and unknown people left remains of settled life, and of a
+certain degree of civilization, in the valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries. We have no authentic name for them either as a nation
+or a race; therefore they are called "Mound-Builders," this name
+having been suggested by an important class of their works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The Great Mound, near Miamisburg.]
+
+Prominent among the remains by which we know that such a people once
+inhabited that region are artificial mounds constructed with
+intelligence and great labor. Most of them are terraced and truncated
+pyramids. In shape they are usually square or rectangular, but sometimes
+hexagonal or octagonal, and the higher mounds appear to have been
+constructed with winding stairways on the outside leading to their
+summits. Many of these structures have a close resemblance to the
+_teocallis_ of Mexico. They differ considerably in size. The great mound
+at Grave Creek, West Virginia, is 70 feet high and 1000 feet in
+circumference at the base. A mound in Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high
+and 852 feet in circumference. The great truncated pyramid at Cahokia,
+Illinois, is 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 in height. Generally,
+however, these mounds range from 6 to 30 feet high. In the lower valley
+of the Mississippi they are usually larger in horizontal extent, with
+less elevation.
+
+Figure 2 represents the great mound near Miamisburg, Ohio, which may be
+compared with a similar structure at Mayapan, Yucatan (Fig. 34). Figure
+3 shows a square mound near Marietta, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Square Mound, near Marietta.]
+
+There have been a great many conjectures in regard to the purposes for
+which these mounds were built, some of them rather fanciful. I find it
+most reasonable to believe that the mounds in this part of the continent
+were used precisely as similar structures were used in Mexico and
+Central America. The lower mounds, or most of them, must have been
+constructed as foundations of the more important edifices of the
+mound-building people. Many of the great buildings erected on such
+pyramidal foundations, at Palenque, Uxmal, and elsewhere in that region,
+have not disappeared, because they were built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar. For reasons not difficult to understand, the Mound-Builders,
+beginning their works on the lower Mississippi, constructed such
+edifices of wood or some other perishable material; therefore not a
+trace of them remains. The higher mounds, with broad, flat summits,
+reached by flights of steps on the outside, are like the Mexican
+_teocallis_, or temples. In Mexico and Central America these structures
+were very numerous. They are described as solid pyramidal masses of
+earth, cased with brick or stone, level at the top, and furnished with
+ascending ranges of steps on the outside. The resemblance is striking,
+and the most reasonable explanation seems to be that in both regions
+mounds of this class were intended for the same uses. Figure 4 shows the
+works at Cedar Bank, Ohio, inclosing a mound. The mound within the
+inclosure is 245 feet long by 150 broad. Figure 5 shows a group of
+mounds in Washington County, Mississippi, some of which are connected by
+means of causeways.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4--Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Works in Washington County, Mississippi.]
+
+Another class of these antiquities consists of inclosures formed by
+heavy embankments of earth and stone. There is nothing to explain these
+constructions so clearly as to leave no room for conjecture and
+speculation. It has been suggested that some of them may have been
+intended for defense, others for religious purposes. A portion of them,
+it may be, encircled villages or towns. In some cases the ditches or
+fosses were on the inside, in others on the outside. But no one can
+fully explain why they were made. We know only that they were
+prepared intelligently, with great labor, for human uses. "Lines of
+embankment varying from 5 to 30 feet in height, and inclosing from 1 to
+50 acres, are very common, while inclosures containing from 100 to 200
+acres are not infrequent, and occasional works are found inclosing as
+many as 400 acres." Figures 6 and 7 give views of the Hopeton works,
+four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio. Combinations of the square and
+circle are common in these ancient works, and the figures are always
+perfect. This perfection of the figures proves, as Squier and Davis
+remark, that "the builders possessed a standard of measurement, and had
+a means of determining angles."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Works at Hopeton, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works.]
+
+About 100 inclosures and 500 mounds have been examined in Ross County,
+Ohio. The number of mounds in the whole state is estimated at over
+10,000, and the number of inclosures at more than 1500. The great number
+of these ancient remains in the regions occupied by the Mound-Builders
+is really surprising. They are more numerous in the regions on the lower
+Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico than any where else; and here, in
+some cases, sun-dried brick was used in the embankments.
+
+One peculiarity at the South is, that while the inclosures are generally
+smaller and comparatively less numerous, there is a greater proportion
+of low mounds, and these are often larger in extent. Harrison Mound, in
+South Carolina, is 480 feet in circumference and 15 feet high. Another
+is described as 500 feet in circumference at the base, 225 at the
+summit, and 34 feet high. In a small mound near this, which was opened,
+there was found "an urn holding 46 quarts," and also a considerable
+deposit of beads and shell ornaments very much decomposed. Broad
+terraces of various heights, mounds with several stages, elevated
+passages, and long avenues, and aguadas or artificial ponds, are common
+at the South. Figure 8 shows the remains of a graded way of this ancient
+people near Piketon, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.]
+
+At Seltzertown, Mississippi, there is a mound 600 feet long, 400 wide,
+and 40 feet high. The area of its level summit measures 4 acres. There
+was a ditch around it, and near it are smaller mounds. Mr. J. R.
+Bartlett says, on the authority of Dr. M. W. Dickeson, "The north side
+of this mound is supported by a wall of sun-dried brick two feet thick,
+filled with grass, rushes, and leaves." Dr. Dickeson mentions angular
+tumuli, with corners "still quite perfect," and "formed of large bricks
+bearing the impression of human hands." In Louisiana, near the Trinity,
+there is a great inclosure partially faced with sun-dried bricks of
+large size; and in this neighborhood ditches and artificial ponds have
+been examined. In the Southern States these works appear to assume a
+closer resemblance to the mound work of Central America.
+
+The result of intelligent exploration and study of these antiquities is
+stated as follows: "Although possessing throughout certain general
+points of resemblance going to establish a kindred origin, these works
+nevertheless resolve themselves into three grand geographical divisions,
+which present in many respects striking contrasts, yet so gradually
+merge into each other that it is impossible to determine where one
+series terminates and another begins." On the upper lakes, and to a
+certain extent in Michigan, Iowa, and Missouri, but particularly in
+Wisconsin, the outlines of the inclosures (elsewhere more regular in
+form) were designed in the forms of animals, birds, serpents, and even
+men, appearing on the surface of the country like huge _relievos_. The
+embankment of an irregular inclosure in Adams County, Ohio, is
+described as follows by Squier and Davis, Mr. Squier having made the
+drawing of it for the work published by the Smithsonian Institution:
+
+"It is in the form of a serpent, upward of 1000 feet in length, extended
+in graceful curves, and terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The
+embankment constituting this figure is more than 5 feet high, with a
+base 30 feet wide at the centre of the body, diminishing somewhat toward
+the head and tail. The neck of the figure is stretched out and slightly
+curved. The mouth is wide open, and seems in the act of swallowing or
+ejecting an oval figure which rests partly within the distended jaws.
+This oval is formed by an embankment 4 feet high, and is perfectly
+regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being
+respectively 160 and 80 feet. The combined figure has been regarded as a
+symbolical illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the serpent
+and the egg; but, however this may be, little doubt can exist of the
+symbolical character of the monument."
+
+Figure 9 gives a view of this work.
+
+No symbolic device is more common among the antiquities of Mexico and
+Central America than the form of the serpent, and it was sometimes
+reproduced in part in architectural constructions. One of the old books,
+giving account of a temple dedicated to Quetzalcohuatl, says, "It was
+circular in form, and the entrance represented the mouth of a serpent,
+opened in a frightful manner, and extremely terrifying to those who
+approached it for the first time."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Great Serpent, Adams County, Ohio.]
+
+On the Ohio and its tributaries, and farther south, where the mounds are
+numerous, the inclosures have more regular forms; and in the Ohio Valley
+very often their great extent has incited speculation. At Newark, Ohio,
+when first discovered, they were spread over an area more than two miles
+square, and still showed more than twelve miles of embankment from two to
+twenty feet high. Farther south, as already stated, the inclosures are
+fewer and smaller, or, to speak more exactly, the great inclosures and
+high mounds are much less common than low truncated pyramids, and
+pyramidal platforms or foundations with dependent works. Passing up the
+valley, it is found that Marietta, Newark, Portsmouth, Chillicothe,
+Circleville, Ohio; St. Louis, Missouri, and Frankfort, Kentucky, were
+favorite seats of the Mound-Builders. This leads one of the most
+intelligent investigators to remark that "the centres of population are
+now where they were when the mysterious race of Mound-Builders existed."
+There is, however, this difference: the remains indicate that their most
+populous and advanced communities were at the South. Figure 10 shows a
+fortified hill in Butler County, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio.]
+
+Among those who have examined and described remains of the
+Mound-Builders, Messrs. Squier and Davis rank first in importance,
+because they have done most to give a particular and comprehensive
+account of them. Their great work, published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, must be regarded as the highest authority, and those who
+desire to study the whole subject more in detail will find that work
+indispensable.
+
+
+EXTENT OF THEIR SETTLEMENTS.
+
+Careful study of what is shown in the many reports on these ancient
+remains seems plainly to authorize the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders entered the country at the South, and began their
+settlements near the Gulf. Here they must have been very numerous, while
+their works at every point on the limit of their distribution, north,
+east, and west, indicate a much less numerous border population. Remains
+of their works have been traced through a great extent of country. They
+are found in West Virginia, and are spread through Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and Iowa to Nebraska. Lewis and Clarke reported seeing them on the
+Missouri River, a thousand miles above its junction with the
+Mississippi; but this report has not been satisfactorily verified. They
+have been observed on the Kansas, Platte, and other remote Western
+rivers, it is said. They are found all over the intermediate and the
+more southern country, being most numerous in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
+Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas.
+
+This ancient race seems to have occupied nearly the whole basin of the
+Mississippi and its tributaries, with the fertile plains along the Gulf,
+and their settlements were continued across the Rio Grande into Mexico;
+but toward their eastern, northern, and western limit the population was
+evidently smaller, and their occupation of the territory less complete
+than in the Valley of the Ohio, and from that point down to the Gulf. No
+other united people previous to our time can be supposed to have
+occupied so large an extent of territory in this part of North America.
+
+It has heretofore been stated that remains of this people exist in
+Western New York, but a more intelligent and careful examination shows
+that the works in Western New York are not remains of the
+Mound-Builders. This is now the opinion of Mr. Squier, formed on
+personal investigation since the great work of Squier and Davis was
+published.
+
+
+THEIR CIVILIZATION.
+
+It is usual to rank the civilized life of the Mound-Builders much below
+that of the ancient people of Mexico and Central America. This may be
+correct, for the remains as they now exist appear to justify it. But if
+all the ancient stone-work in Central America, with its finely-carved
+inscriptions and wonderful decorations, had disappeared in the ages
+before Europeans visited this continent, the difference might not appear
+to be so great; for then the Central American remains, consisting only
+of earth-works, truncated pyramids, pyramidal foundations, and their
+connected works made of earth, would have a closer resemblance to works
+of the Mound-Builders, to those especially found on the lower
+Mississippi. On the other hand, if we now had in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys remains of the more important edifices anciently
+constructed there, the Mound-Builders might be placed considerably
+higher in the scale of civilization than it has been customary to allow.
+
+It can be seen, without long study of their works as we know them, that
+the Mound-Builders had a certain degree of civilization which raised
+them far above the condition of savages. To make such works possible
+under any circumstances, there must be settled life, with its
+accumulations and intelligently organized industry. Fixed habits of
+useful work, directed by intelligence, are what barbarous tribes lack
+most of all. A profound change in this respect is indispensable to the
+beginning of civilization in such tribes.
+
+No savage tribe found here by Europeans could have undertaken such
+constructions as those of the Mound-Builders. The wild Indians found in
+North America lived rudely in tribes. They had only such organization as
+was required by their nomadic habits, and their methods of hunting and
+fighting. These barbarous Indians gave no sign of being capable of the
+systematic application to useful industry which promotes intelligence,
+elevates the condition of life, accumulates wealth, and undertakes great
+works. This condition of industry, of which the worn and decayed works
+of the Mound-Builders are unmistakable monuments, means civilization.
+
+Albert Gallatin, who gave considerable attention to their remains,
+thought their works indicated not only "a dense agricultural
+population," but also a state of society essentially different from that
+of the Iroquois and Algonquin Indians. He was sure that the people who
+established such settlements and built such works must have been
+"eminently agricultural." No trace of their ordinary dwellings is left.
+These must have been constructed of perishable materials, which went to
+dust long before great forests had again covered most of the regions
+through which they were scattered. Doubtless their dwellings and other
+edifices were made of wood, and they must have been numerous. It is
+abundantly evident that there were large towns at such places as Newark,
+Circleville, and Marietta, in Ohio. Figures 11 and 12 give views of
+works on Paint Creek, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio.]
+
+Their agricultural products may have been similar to many of those found
+in Mexico; and it is not improbable that the barbarous Indians, who
+afterward occupied the country, learned from them the cultivation of
+maize. Their unity as a people, which is every where so manifest, must
+have been expressed in political organization, else it could not have
+been maintained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Work on North Fork of Paint Creek.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Elliptical Work near Brownsville, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Works near Liberty, Ohio.]
+
+In the details of their works, and in manufactured articles taken from
+the mounds, there is evidence of considerable civilization. For
+instance, it has been ascertained that the circular inclosures are
+perfect circles, and the square inclosures perfect squares. They were
+constructed with a geometrical precision which implies a kind of
+knowledge in the builders that may be called scientific. Figures 13, 14,
+15, 16 show some of the more important works of the Mound-Builders,
+chiefly in Ohio. Relics of art have been dug from some of the mounds,
+consisting of a considerable variety of ornaments and implements, made
+of copper, silver, obsidian, porphyry, and greenstone, finely wrought.
+There are axes, single and double; adzes, chisels, drills or gravers,
+lance-heads, knives, bracelets, pendants, beads, and the like, made of
+copper. There are articles of pottery, elegantly designed and finished;
+ornaments made of silver, bone, mica from the Alleghanies, and shells
+from the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Rectangular Work, Randolph County, Indiana.]
+
+The articles made of stone show fine workmanship; some of them are
+elaborately carved. Tools of some very hard material must have been
+required to work the porphyry in this manner. Obsidian is a volcanic
+product largely used by the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians for arms and
+cutting instruments. It is found in its natural state nowhere nearer the
+Mississippi Valley than the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo.
+
+There appears to be evidence that the Mound-Builders had the art of
+spinning and weaving, for cloth has been found among their remains. At
+the meeting of the International Congress of Pre-Historic Archæology
+held at Norwich, England, in 1868, one of the speakers stated this fact
+as follows: "Fragments of charred cloth made of spun fibres have been
+found in the mounds. A specimen of such cloth, taken from a mound in
+Butler County, Ohio, is in Blackmore Museum, Salisbury. In the same
+collection are several lumps of burnt clay which formed part of the
+'altar,' so called, in a mound in Ross County, Ohio: to this clay a few
+charred threads are still attached." Figures 17 and 18 represent
+specimens of vases taken from the mounds.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 17, 18.--Vases from the Mounds.]
+
+Mr. Schoolcraft gives this account of a discovery made in West Virginia:
+"_Antique tube: telescopic device._ In the course of excavations made in
+1842 in the easternmost of the three mounds of the Elizabethtown group,
+several tubes of stone were disclosed, the precise object of which has
+been the subject of various opinions. The longest measured twelve
+inches, the shortest eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite,
+being skillfully cut and polished. The diameter of the tube externally
+was one inch and four tenths; the bore, eight tenths of an inch. This
+calibre was continued till within three eighths of an inch of the sight
+end, when it diminishes to two tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at
+the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and
+distant objects are more clearly discerned."
+
+He points out that the carving and workmanship generally are very
+superior to Indian pipe carvings, and adds, if this article was a work
+of the Mound-Builders "intended for a telescopic tube, it is a most
+interesting relic." An ancient Peruvian relic, found a few years since,
+shows the figure of a man wrought in silver, in the act of studying the
+heavens through such a tube. Similar tubes have been found among relics
+of the Mound-Builders in Ohio and elsewhere. In Mexico, Captain Dupaix
+saw sculptured on a peculiar stone structure the figure of a man making
+use of one. Astronomical devices were sculptured below the figure. This
+structure he supposed to have been used for observation of the stars.
+His account of it will be given in the chapter on Mexican and Central
+American ruins.
+
+The Mound-Builders used large quantities of copper such as that taken
+from the copper beds on Lake Superior, where the extensive mines yield
+copper, not in the ore, but as pure metal. It exists in those beds in
+immense masses, in small veins, and in separated lumps of various sizes.
+The Mound-Builders worked this copper without smelting it. Spots of pure
+silver are frequently found studding the surface of Lake Superior
+copper, and appearing as if welded to it, but not alloyed with it. No
+other copper has this peculiarity; but copper with similar blotches of
+silver has been dug from the mounds. It was naturally inferred from this
+fact that the ancient people represented by these antiquities had some
+knowledge of the art of mining copper which had been used in the copper
+region of Lake Superior. This inference finally became an ascertained
+fact.
+
+
+THEIR ANCIENT MINING WORKS.
+
+Remains of their mining works were first discovered in 1848 by Mr. S. O.
+Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, and in 1849 they were
+described by Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in his geological report to the
+national government. Those described were found at the Minnesota mine,
+in upper Michigan, near Lake Superior. Their mining was chiefly surface
+work; that is to say, they worked the surface of the veins in open pits
+and trenches. At the Minnesota mine, the greatest depth of their
+excavations was thirty feet; and here, "not far below the bottom of a
+trough-like cavity, among a mass of leaves, sticks, and water, Mr. Knapp
+discovered a detached mass of copper weighing nearly six tons. It lay
+upon a cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter,
+the ends of which showed plainly the marks of a small axe or cutting
+tool about two and a half inches wide. They soon shriveled and decayed
+when exposed to the air. The mass of copper had been raised several
+feet, along the foot of the lode, on timbers, by means of wedges." At
+this place was found a stone maul weighing thirty-six pounds, and also a
+copper maul or sledge weighing twenty-five pounds. Old trees showing 395
+rings of annual growth stood in the débris, and "the fallen and decayed
+trunks of trees of a former generation were seen lying across the pits."
+Figure 19 (opposite) presents a section of this mining shaft of the
+Mound-Builders: _a_ shows the mass of copper; _b_ the bottom of the
+shaft; _c_ the earth and débris which had been thrown out. The dark
+spots are masses of copper.
+
+The modern mining works are mostly confined to that part of the copper
+region known as Keweenaw Point. This is a projection of land extending
+into Lake Superior, and described as having the shape of an immense
+horn. It is about eighty miles in length, and, at the place where it
+joins the main land, about forty-five miles in width. All through this
+district, wherever modern miners have worked, remains of ancient mining
+works are abundant; and they are extensive on the adjacent island, known
+as Isle Royale. The area covered by the ancient works is larger than
+that which includes the modern mines, for they are known to exist in the
+dense forests of other districts, to which the modern mining has not
+yet been extended.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Ancient Mining Shaft.]
+
+One remarkable mining excavation of the Mound-Builders was found near
+the Waterbury mine. Here, in the face of a vertical bluff, was
+discovered "an ancient, artificial, cavern-like recess, twenty-five feet
+in horizontal length, fifteen feet high, and twelve feet deep. In front
+of it is a pile of excavated rock on which are standing, in full size,
+the forest trees common to this region." Some of the blocks of stone
+removed from this recess would weigh two or three tons, and must have
+required levers to get them out. Beneath the surface rubbish were the
+remains of a gutter or trough made of cedar, placed there to carry off
+water from the mine. At the bottom of the excavation a piece of white
+cedar timber was found on which were the marks of an axe. Cedar shovels,
+mauls, copper gads or wedges, charcoal, and ashes were discovered, over
+which "primeval" forest trees had grown to full size.
+
+Modern mining on Lake Superior began effectively in 1845. The whole
+copper region has not been fully explored. Works of the ancient miners
+are found at all the mines of any importance; and they show remarkable
+skill in discovering and tracing actual veins of the metal. Colonel
+Charles Whittlesey, one of the best authorities on this point, believes
+the Mound-Builders worked the copper-beds of that region during "a great
+length of time," and more of their works will undoubtedly be explored
+when the forests shall be cleared away from those portions of the copper
+region not yet worked by modern miners. So far as they have been traced,
+they every where show the same methods, the same implements, and the
+same peculiarities of both knowledge and lack of knowledge in the old
+miners.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+
+That the Mound-Builders and their works belong to a distant period in
+the past is evident; but, of course, we have no means of determining
+their antiquity with any approach to accuracy, no scheme of chronology
+by which their distance from us in time can be measured. Nevertheless,
+some things observed in their remains make it certain that the works are
+very ancient.
+
+1. One fact showing this is pointed out by those who have examined them
+carefully as follows: None of these works (mounds and inclosures) occur
+on the lowest-formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence of
+the western streams; and as there is no good reason why their builders
+should have avoided erecting them on that terrace, while they raised
+them promiscuously on all the others, it follows, not unreasonably, that
+this terrace has been formed since the works were erected. It is
+apparent, also, that in some cases the works were long ago partly
+destroyed by streams which have since receded more than half a mile, and
+at present could not reach them under any circumstances. Those streams
+generally show four successive terraces, which mark four distinct eras
+of their subsidence since they began to flow in their present courses.
+The fourth terrace, on which none of the works are found, marks the
+last and longest of these periods; and it marks also the time since the
+Mound-Builders ceased to occupy the river-valleys where it was formed.
+The period marked by this fourth terrace must be the longest, because
+the excavating power of such streams necessarily diminishes as their
+channels grow deeper. This geological change, which has taken place
+since the latest of the mounds and inclosures were constructed, shows
+that the works are very old; no one can tell how old. To count the years
+is impossible; but we can see that the date, if found, would take us
+back to a remote period in the past.
+
+2. Great antiquity is indicated by the skeletons taken from the mounds.
+Every skeleton of a Mound-Builder is found in a condition of extreme
+decay. It sometimes appears that the surface of a mound has been used by
+the wild Indians for interments; but their skeletons, which are always
+found well preserved, can be readily distinguished by their position in
+the mounds, as well as by other peculiarities. The decayed bones of
+Mound-Builders are invariably found within the mounds, never on the
+surface, usually at the bottom of the structure, and nearly always "in
+such a state of decay as to render all attempts to restore the skull,
+or, indeed, any part of the skeleton, entirely hopeless." Not more than
+one or two skeletons of that people have been recovered in a condition
+suitable for intelligent examination. It is stated in the work of Squier
+and Davis that the only skull belonging incontestably to an individual
+of the Mound-Building race, which has been preserved entire, was taken
+from a mound situated on a knoll (itself artificial apparently) on the
+summit of a hill, in the Scioto Valley, four miles below Chillicothe.
+
+What, save time itself, can have brought these skeletons to a condition
+in which they fall to pieces when touched, and are ready to dissolve and
+become dust? All the circumstances attending their burial were unusually
+favorable for their preservation. The earth around them has invariably
+been found "wonderfully compact and dry." And yet, when exhumed, they
+are in such a decomposed and crumbling condition that to restore them is
+impossible. Sound and well-preserved skeletons, known to be nearly two
+thousand years old, have been taken from burial-places in England, and
+other European countries less favorable for preserving them. The
+condition of an ancient skeleton can not be used as an accurate measure
+of time, but it is sufficiently accurate to show the difference between
+the ancient and the modern, and in this case it allows us to assume that
+these extremely decayed skeletons of the Mound-Builders are much more
+than two thousand years old.
+
+Those familiar with the facts established by geologists and
+palæontologists are aware that remains of human skeletons have been
+discovered in deposits of the "Age of Stone" in Western Europe; not to
+any great extent, it is true, although the discoveries are sufficient to
+show that fragments of skeletons belonging to that age still exist. It
+is not without reason, therefore, that the condition of decay in which
+all skeletons of the Mound-Builders are exhumed from their burial-places
+is considered a proof of their great antiquity. There is no other
+explanation which, so far as appears, can be reasonably accepted.
+
+3. The great age of these mounds and inclosures is shown by their
+relation to the primeval forests in which most of them were discovered.
+I say _primeval_ forests, because they seemed primeval to the first
+white men who explored them. Of course there were no unbroken forests at
+such points as the Ohio Valley, for instance, while they were occupied
+by the Mound-Builders, who were a settled agricultural people, whose
+civilized industry is attested by their remains. If they found forests
+in the valleys they occupied, these were cleared away to make room for
+their towns, inclosures, mounds, and cultivated fields; and when, after
+many ages of such occupation, they finally left, or were driven away, a
+long period must have elapsed before the trees began to grow freely in
+and around their abandoned works. Moreover, observation shows that the
+trees which first make their appearance in such deserted places are not
+regular forest trees. The beginning of such growths as will cover them
+with great forests comes later, when other preliminary growths have
+appeared and gone to decay.
+
+When the Ohio Valley was first visited by Europeans it was covered by an
+unbroken forest, most of the trees being of great age and size; and it
+was manifest that several generations of great forest trees had preceded
+those found standing in the soil. The mounds and inclosures were
+discovered in this forest, with great trees growing in them. Eight
+hundred rings of annual growth were counted in the trunk of a tree
+mentioned by Sir Charles Lyell and others, which was found growing on a
+mound at Marietta. In the same way, successive generations of forest
+trees had grown over their extensive mining works near Lake Superior,
+and many of those works are still hidden in what seem to be primeval
+forests.
+
+General Harrison made the following suggestion in regard to the
+establishment of these forests in Ohio. When the individual trees that
+first got possession of the soil had died out one after another, they
+would, in many cases, be succeeded by other kinds, till at last, after a
+great number of centuries, that remarkable diversity of species
+characteristic of North America would be established. His suggestion,
+the result of practical observation and study, is not without reason. It
+is certain, in any case, that the period when these old constructions
+were deserted is so far back in the past, that sufficient time has since
+passed for the abandoned towns and fields to remain for years, and
+perhaps centuries, as waste places, pass through the transition from
+waste lands to the beginning of forest growths, and then be covered by
+several generations of such great forest trees as were cleared away to
+prepare the soil for the settlements, towns, and farms of our people.
+
+
+HOW LONG WERE THEY HERE?
+
+There are many indications to warrant the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders occupied their principal seats in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys during a very long period. If they came from the
+south, as appears evident, their settlements must have been extended up
+the valley gradually. After their first communities were established in
+the Gulf regions, considerable time must have elapsed before their
+advancing settlements were extended northward, through the intervening
+region, into the Valley of the Ohio. On the Ohio and in the valleys of
+its tributaries their settlements were very numerous, and evidently
+populous. The surprising abundance of their works in this region, which
+have been traced in our time, shows that they dwelt here in great
+numbers, and had no lack of industry.
+
+This region seems to have been one of the principal centres from which
+their settlements were advanced into the western part of Virginia; into
+Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. The spread
+of their settlements was necessarily gradual, and a long period must
+have been required to extend them over all the country where remains of
+their works are known to exist. If their civilization was chiefly
+developed after their arrival in the country, which is unlikely, many
+years must have elapsed before colonies went forth, to any great extent,
+from the original seat of its development. In any case, time was
+required to make their chief settlements sufficiently old and populous
+to send forth colonies. It is manifest in their remains that the
+communities of this ancient people most remote from the populous centres
+on the Ohio, east, north, and west, were, like all border settlements,
+the rudest and least populous. The remains at these points do not
+indicate either as much wealth or as many workers, and the places where
+these borderers settled must have been the latest occupied and the
+earliest abandoned. One diligent investigator, who believes they came
+originally from Mexico, speaks of the time of their stay in the country
+as follows:
+
+"When we consider the time required to people the whole extent of the
+territory where their remains are found, and bring that people into a
+condition to construct such monuments, and when we reflect on the
+interval that must have passed after their construction until the epoch
+of their abandonment, we are constrained to accord them a very high
+antiquity."
+
+He points out that they were sun worshipers, like the Mexicans and
+Peruvians, and calls attention to the disks dug from their mounds, which
+appear to have been designed as representations of the sun and moon.
+
+Their long occupation of the country is suggested by the great extent of
+their mining works. All who have examined these works agree with Colonel
+Whittlesey that they worked the Lake Superior copper mines "for a great
+length of time." How long they had dwelt in the Ohio Valley when this
+mining began can not be told, but a very considerable period must have
+elapsed after their arrival at that point before the mines were
+discovered. We can not suppose the first settlers who came up from the
+Gulf region to the Ohio Valley went on immediately, through the
+wilderness a thousand miles, to hunt for copper mines on Lake Superior;
+and, even after they began to explore that region, some time must have
+passed before the copper was found.
+
+After they discovered the mines and began to work them, their progress
+could not have been rapid. As their open trenches and pits could be
+worked only in the summers, and by methods that made their operations
+much slower than those of modern miners, no great advance of their work
+was possible during the working time of each season; and yet remains of
+their mining works have been discovered wherever mines have been opened
+in our day; and, as previously stated, they are known to exist in heavy
+forests, where the modern mining works have not yet been established.
+There is nothing to indicate that they had settlements any where in the
+mining region. Colonel Whittlesey, and others whose study of the subject
+gives their opinion much weight, believe the Mound-Builders went up from
+the settlements farther south in the summers, remained in the copper
+region through the season, and worked the mines in organized companies
+until the advance of winter terminated their operations.
+
+Colonel Whittlesey says: "As yet, no remains of cities, graves,
+domiciles, or highways have been found in the copper region;" and adds,
+"as the race appears to have been farther advanced in civilization than
+their successors, whom we call aborigines, they probably had better
+means of transportation than bark canoes." It may be said, also, that
+the accumulations called wealth were necessary to make this regular and
+systematic mining possible. Without these they could not have provided
+the supplies of every kind required to sustain organized companies of
+miners through a single season. A great many summers must have passed
+away before such companies of miners, with all needed tools and
+supplies, could have made their works so extensive by means of such
+methods as they were able to use.
+
+They probably occupied the country on the Gulf and Lower Mississippi
+much longer than any other portion of the great valley. Their oldest and
+latest abandoned settlements appear to have been in this region, where,
+we may reasonably suppose, they continued to dwell long after they were
+driven from the Ohio Valley and other places at the north.
+
+The Natchez Indians found settled on the Lower Mississippi may have been
+a degenerate remnant of the Mound-Builders. They differed in language,
+customs, and condition from all other Indians in the country; and their
+own traditions connected them with Mexico. Like the Mexicans, they had
+temples or sacred buildings in which the "perpetual fire" was
+maintained. Each of their villages was furnished with a sacred building
+of this kind. They had also peculiarities of social and political
+organization different from those of other tribes. They were
+sun-worshipers, and claimed that their chief derived his descent from
+the sun. The Natchez were more settled and civilized than the other
+Indians, and, in most respects, seemed like another race. One learned
+investigator classes them with the Nahuatl or Toltec race, thinks they
+came from Mexico, and finds that, like the ancient people of Panuco and
+Colhuacan, they had the phallic ceremonies among their religious
+observances. Their history can not be given, and there is little or
+nothing but conjecture to connect them with the Mound-Builders. The
+Natchez were exterminated in 1730 by the French, whom they had treated
+with great kindness. Of the few who escaped death, some were received
+among the Chickasaws and Muskogees, but more were sent to Santo Domingo
+and sold as slaves.
+
+No view that can be taken of the relics left by the Mound-Builders will
+permit us to believe their stay in the country was short. Any hypothesis
+based on the shortest possible estimate of the time must count the years
+by centuries.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?
+
+
+This ancient people, whose remains indicate unity and civilization, must
+have been organized as a nation, with a central administration which all
+recognized. They must have had a national name, but nobody can tell
+certainly what it was. No record or tradition has preserved it, unless
+discovery of it can be made in a national designation found, without
+clear explanation, in the old books and traditions of Central America,
+and applied to some country situated at a distance from that part of the
+continent in the northeast. These old books and traditions mention
+"Huehue-Tlapalan" as a distant northeastern country, from which the
+Nahuas or Toltecs came to Mexico; and Brasseur de Bourbourg, who has
+translated one of the old books and given much attention to others,
+supposes the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders to be the same people, or
+did suppose this previous to the appearance of his "Atlantic theory."
+But this point will be more fully considered when we come to the Central
+American antiquities.
+
+Some antiquaries suggest that the Mound-Builders were the people called
+"Allighewi" in old traditions of the Iroquois, but we have nothing to
+make this very probable. The Iroquois were somewhat superior to the
+other great family of barbarous Indians in organization for the business
+of fighting. There are some reasons for believing they came to the lake
+regions and the Ohio Valley much earlier than the Algonquin branch of
+the wild Indian race. It is permissible, at least, to conjecture, if one
+feels inclined to do so, that it was the Iroquois migration from the
+northwest, or that of the great family to which the Iroquois family
+belonged, which expelled the Mound-Builders from their border
+settlements, cut them off from the copper mines, and finally pushed them
+down the Mississippi; but nothing more than conjecture is possible in
+this case, and the supposition gives the Iroquois migration a greater
+antiquity than may be allowable. Moreover, the traditionary lore of the
+wild Indians had nothing to say of the Mound-Builders, who appear to
+have been as unknown and mysterious to these Indians as they are to us.
+
+
+NOT ANCESTORS OF THE WILD INDIANS.
+
+Some inquirers, not always without hesitation, suggest that the Indians
+inhabiting the United States two hundred years ago were degenerate
+descendants of the Mound-Builders. The history of the world shows that
+civilized communities may lose their enlightenment, and sink to a
+condition of barbarism; but the degraded descendants of a civilized
+people usually retain traditional recollections of their ancestors, or
+some traces of the lost civilization, perceptible in their customs and
+their legendary lore. The barbarism of the wild Indians of North America
+had nothing of this kind. It was original barbarism. There was nothing
+to indicate that either the Indians inhabiting our part of the
+continent, or their ancestors near or remote, had ever been civilized,
+even to the extent of becoming capable of settled life and organized
+industry. And, besides, the constant tradition of these Indians,
+supported by concurring circumstantial evidence, appears to warrant the
+belief that they came to this part of the continent originally from the
+west or northwest, at a period too late to connect them in this way with
+the Mound-Builders.
+
+Two hundred years ago the Valley of the Mississippi, and the regions
+east of it, were occupied by two great families of Indians, the Iroquois
+and the Algonquins, each divided into separate tribes. Between these two
+families there was a radical difference of language. The Indians of New
+England were Algonquins. The Iroquois dwelt chiefly in New York, and
+around Lake Erie, from Niagara to Detroit, although separate communities
+of the group to which they immediately belonged were found in other
+places, such as the Dacotahs and Winnebagoes at the West, and the
+isolated Tuscaroras of the Carolinas. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who has
+discussed "Indian Migrations" in several interesting papers printed in
+the North American Review, thinks the Iroquois were separated very early
+from the same original stem which produced the great Dacotah family. The
+Algonquins were spread most widely over the country when it was first
+visited by Europeans.
+
+Among all these Indians there was a tradition that their ancestors came
+from a distant region in the Northwest, and this tradition is accepted
+as true by those who have studied them most carefully. Mr. Morgan
+supposes they came across the continent, and estimates that not less
+than a thousand years must have passed between the departure of the
+various groups of the Algonquin family from a common centre in the
+northwest and the condition in which they were found two hundred years
+ago. When Europeans began to explore North America, this family had
+become divided into several branches, and each of these branches had a
+modified form of the common language, which, in turn, had developed
+several dialects. A long period was required to effect so great a
+change; but, whatever estimate of the time may be accepted, it seems to
+be a fact that the Algonquins came to the Mississippi Valley long after
+the Mound-Builders left it, and also later than the Iroquois or Dacotah
+family. That the Iroquois preceded the Algonquins at the East appears to
+be indicated by the relative position of the two families in this part
+of the country. Mr. Parkman, in his work on "The Jesuits in North
+America," describes it as follows: "Like a great island in the midst of
+the Algonquins lay the country of tribes speaking the generic tongue of
+the Iroquois."
+
+There is no trace or probability of any direct relationship whatever
+between the Mound-Builders and the barbarous Indians found in the
+country. The wild Indians of this continent had never known such a
+condition as that of the Mound-Builders. They had nothing in common with
+it. In Africa, Asia, and elsewhere among the more uncultivated families
+of the human race, there is not as much really _original_ barbarism as
+some anthropologists are inclined to assume; but there can be no serious
+doubt that the wild Indians of North America were original barbarians,
+born of a stock which had never, at any time, been either civilized or
+closely associated with the influences of civilization.
+
+Some of the pottery and wrought ornaments of the Mound-Builders is equal
+in finish and beauty to the finest manufactured by the ancient
+Peruvians. They constructed artificial ponds like the aguadas in Central
+America. They used sun-dried brick, especially at the South, where walls
+of this material have been discovered supporting some of the mounds and
+embankments. They manufactured cloth. But their intelligence, skill, and
+civilized ways are shown not only by their constructions and
+manufactures, but also by their mining works. Who can imagine the
+Iroquois or the Algonquins working the copper mines with such
+intelligence and skill, and such a combination of systematic and
+persistent industry! They had no tradition of such a condition of life,
+no trace of it. It is absurd to suppose a relationship, or a connection
+of any kind, between the original barbarism of these Indians and the
+civilization of the Mound-Builders. The two peoples were entirely
+distinct and separate from each other. If they really belonged to the
+same race, which is extremely doubtful, we must go back through
+unnumbered ages to find their common origin and the date of their
+separation.
+
+
+BRERETON'S STORY.
+
+Those who seek to identify the Mound-Builders with the barbarous Indians
+find nothing that will support their hypothesis. Nevertheless, some of
+them have tried very strangely to give it aid by one or two quotations
+from early voyagers to America. The most important are taken from
+Brereton's account of Gosnold's voyage in 1602. The following occurred
+on the coast of Maine:
+
+"Eight Indians, in a Basque shallop, with mast and sail, an iron
+grapple, and a kettle, came boldly aboard us, one of them appareled with
+a waistcoat and breeches of black serge, made after our sea fashion,
+hose and shoes on his feet: all the rest (saving one that had a pair of
+breeches of blue cloth) were naked."
+
+It is known that the Basques were accustomed to send fishing vessels to
+the northeastern coast of America long before this continent was
+discovered by Columbus. They continued to do this after the discovery.
+These Indians had evidently become well acquainted with the Basques,
+and, therefore, did not fear to approach Gosnold's ship. Probably some
+of them had been employed on board Basque fishing vessels. Certainly
+their boat and apparel came from the Basque fishermen, and did not show
+them to be Mound-Builders. Of the Indians on the coast of Massachusetts,
+Brereton says:
+
+"They had great store of copper, some very red, some of a paler color;
+none of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal. They
+had some of their arrows herewith, much like our broad arrow-heads,
+very workmanly made. Their chains are many hollow pieces cemented
+together, each piece of the bigness of one of our reeds, a finger in
+length, ten or twelve of them together on a string, which they wear
+about their necks: their collars they wear about their bodies like
+bandeliers a handful broad, all hollow pieces like the other, but
+somewhat shorter, four hundred pieces in a collar, very fine and evenly
+set together." He adds: "I am persuaded they have great store (of flax)
+growing upon the main, as also mines and many other rich commodities,
+which we, wanting time, could not possibly discover."
+
+If all this had been true, it would not serve the purpose for which it
+is quoted; for remains of the Mound-Builders have never existed in
+Massachusetts, and we should necessarily suppose these Indians had
+procured copper and copper ornaments by trading with the Basques or with
+other French voyagers. If only one or two Indians had been represented
+as wearing ornaments made of copper, this explanation could be readily
+accepted. But he avers that they had "great store of copper," and adds,
+"None of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal."
+Therefore his statement is incredible. The following considerations will
+show why it must not be regarded as honest, unadorned truth.
+
+1. Those interested in Gosnold's voyage aimed to establish a colony on
+that coast; and all who served them, or were controlled by them, were
+easily moved to tell seductive stories of the country "upon the main."
+The chief aim of Brereton's account of this voyage was to incite
+emigration. Therefore he gave this wonderfully colored account of
+mines, flax-growing, copper chains and collars, and "other rich
+commodities" among the wild Indians of Massachusetts. Settlements on
+that coast, it was believed, would bring profit to those in whose
+interest he wrote. Gosnold actually proposed at that time to establish a
+colony on one of the islands in Buzzard's Bay, and had with him twenty
+men who were expected to stay as colonists, but finally refused to do
+so. He saw a great deal of the Indians, and knew much more of their
+actual condition than the story admits.
+
+2. Eighteen years later the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth from the
+Mayflower. Neither copper mines nor flax fields were then known in
+Massachusetts. No Indians with "great store" of copper and flax, and
+covered with copper ornaments, were seen or heard of by the Pilgrims,
+either at that time or afterward. In 1602, Brereton, or any other writer
+employed to write in such a way as would promote emigration, could tell
+such stories, and romance freely concerning the Indians, without fear of
+contradiction. Afterward, when the actual barbarism of the Indian tribes
+in New England and other parts of the country had become generally
+known, no one could describe any of these Indians as successful miners
+and flax-growers, and assert gravely that they had such stores of copper
+that "none of them" lacked great abundance of copper "chains, earrings,
+collars," and the like, without being laughed at. Brereton's story must
+be regarded as an invention designed to serve a special purpose, but not
+warranted by any thing seen during the voyage he describes. Neither in
+New England nor any where else in our part of the continent did the
+early colonists find Indians who worked copper mines and had "great
+store of copper." What Brereton says was not true of any Indians known
+to our first colonists or to their successors. It corresponds to no
+reality found in any part of our territory during the last two hundred
+and fifty years. Therefore, to use his story in support of an absurd
+hypothesis is not a satisfactory proceeding.
+
+
+AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
+
+It may be true that all the aboriginal peoples found inhabiting North
+and South America, save the Esquimaux, belonged originally to the same
+race. Some writers assume it to be true, although it seems strongly
+improbable, not to say impossible. If they were all of the same race,
+time and development, under different conditions of life, had divided
+this race into at least two extremely unlike branches. The wild Indians
+of North America were profoundly different from the ancient people of
+Central America and Peru. The Pueblo or Village Indians of New Mexico
+have scarcely any thing in common with the Apaches, Comanches, and
+Sioux. Even the uncivilized Indians of South America are different from
+those in the United States. Our wild Indians have more resemblance to
+the nomadic Koraks and Chookchees found in Eastern Siberia, throughout
+the region that extends to Behring's Strait, than to any people on this
+continent. Those who have seen these Siberians, traveled with them, and
+lived in their tents, have found the resemblance very striking; but I
+infer from what they say that the Korak or Chookchee is superior to the
+Indian. See Kennan's "Tent Life in Siberia."
+
+Mr. Lewis H. Morgan finds evidence that the American aborigines had a
+common origin in what he calls "their systems of consanguinity and
+affinity." If it can be made to appear beyond question that these
+systems prevail and are identical every where from Patagonia to the
+Arctic Zone, his argument will have great force. But this has not yet
+been shown. He says: "The Indian nations, from the Atlantic to the Rocky
+Mountains, and from the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico, with the
+exception of the Esquimaux, have the same system. It is elaborate and
+complicated in its general form and details; and, while deviations from
+uniformity occur in the systems of different stocks, the radical
+features are, in the main, constant. This identity in the essential
+characteristics of a system so remarkable tends to show that it must
+have been transmitted with the blood to each stock from a common
+original source. It affords the strongest evidence yet obtained of unity
+in origin of the Indian nations within the region defined."
+
+But unity in race among wild Indians found within the region specified
+would be sufficiently manifest without this evidence. That the same
+system of consanguinity and affinity, with precisely the same features
+of identity, ever was extended over the whole continent, remains
+unproved. The supposed traces of it among the Pueblos are by no means
+clear. A more complete and accurate research is required to show that
+identically the same system ever has existed any where between the
+United States and Patagonia. A system not wholly unlike it, though not
+the same, might grow up any where in widely separated tribal communities
+of barbarous peoples, without doing any thing more than the tribal
+system itself to show a common origin in race.
+
+The aborigines of America may have been originally all of the same race.
+There are some considerations in favor of this hypothesis which have
+been used by writers entitled to great respect; but it can not yet be
+claimed with reason that they have been able to settle this question
+beyond the reach of doubt, even in their own minds. Therefore, to speak
+moderately, it would be premature to assume that the Mound-Builders were
+even remotely of the same race with the wild Indians, from whom they
+were so different in all we know of them.
+
+The attempt to establish this hypothesis of identity in race has given
+rise to a tendency to underrate the development of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and to lower the estimate of their
+attainments sufficiently to bring them within reach of close
+relationship to the wild Indians. The difficulty being reduced in this
+way, there follows an attempt to get rid of it entirely, and establish
+connection between these unlike peoples, by talking of "Semi-Village
+Indians." But the hypothesis used in this case is not well warranted by
+facts. Such "Semi-Village Indians" as are supposed, really standing half
+way between the savages and the Pueblos, and being actually savages half
+developed into Pueblos, have never had a clearly defined and
+unquestionable existence here since the continent became known to
+Europeans. In the border region between the northern wild Indians and
+the old Mexican race there are exceptional communities formed by
+association or mixture, but we can not reasonably give them the
+significance claimed for the supposed "Semi-Village Indians." Moreover,
+these exceptional communities are usually Pueblos whose habits have been
+changed and their civilization lessened by association with wild
+Indians, or in some other way. The Navajos began their present condition
+by fleeing to the mountains from the Spaniards. The Mound-Builders, who
+must have been, still more than the Pueblos, unlike the barbarous
+Indians, can not be explained by any reference whatever to such
+communities. If they were of the same race, they were far from being the
+same people.
+
+Some ethnologists, whose suggestions are entitled to respectful
+attention whether accepted or rejected, specify considerations which
+they believe forbid us to regard the ancient Mexicans and the northern
+wild Indians as identical in race. They point to the well known fact
+that the fauna of the American continent below the northern frontier of
+Mexico is remarkably different from that between this line and the
+Arctic Sea. At the north, America abounds in species similar to those of
+Europe and Asia, with some admixture of forms wholly American, while at
+the south the old-world forms disappear, and the fauna of the whole
+region between Mexico and Cape Horn becomes "as peculiar as that of
+Australia."
+
+The explanation given is, that during the glacial period the larger
+part of North America, like Northern Asia and Europe, was covered with
+ice and partly submerged, and that the fauna found in this part of North
+America was introduced after the glacial period by immigration from Asia
+and Europe over connecting lands or islands at the northwest and the
+northeast, and perhaps by some migration from the south; the fauna at
+the south meanwhile remaining very much as it was before, with very
+little change through later migrations from the north.
+
+Professor Huxley called attention to this subject in a brief address to
+the London Ethnological Society in 1869. After stating the case, he
+presented the following queries and suggestions: "The Austro-Columbian
+fauna, as a whole, therefore, existed antecedently to the glacial epoch.
+Did man form part of that fauna? To this profoundly interesting question
+no positive answer can be given; but the discovery of human remains
+associated with extinct animals in the caves of Brazil, by Lund, lends
+some color to the supposition. Assuming this supposition to be correct,
+we should have to look in the human population of America, as in the
+fauna generally, for an indigenous or Austro-Columbian element, and an
+immigrant or 'Arctogeal' element." He then suggests that the Esquimaux
+may now represent the immigrant element, and the old Mexican and South
+American race that which was indigenous, and that the "Red Indians of
+North America" may have appeared originally as a mixture of these two
+races. He adds, very reasonably, "It is easy to suggest such problems as
+these, but quite impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
+solve them."
+
+
+WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?
+
+They were unquestionably American aborigines, and not immigrants from
+another continent. That appears to me the most reasonable suggestion
+which assumes that the Mound-Builders came originally from Mexico and
+Central America. It explains many facts connected with their remains. In
+the Great Valley their most populous settlements were at the south.
+Coming from Mexico and Central America, they would begin their
+settlements on the Gulf coast, and afterward advance gradually up the
+river to the Ohio Valley. It seems evident that they came by this route;
+and their remains show that their only connection with the coast was at
+the south. Their settlements did not reach the coast at any other point.
+
+Their constructions were similar in design and arrangement to those
+found in Mexico and Central America. Like the Mexicans and Central
+Americans, they had many of the smaller structures known as _teocallis_,
+and also large high mounds, with level summits, reached by great flights
+of steps. Pyramidal platforms or foundations for important edifices
+appear in both regions, and are very much alike. In Central America
+important edifices were built of hewn stone, and can still be examined
+in their ruins. The Mound-Builders, like some of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Yucatan, used wood, sun-dried brick, or some other material
+that could not resist decay. There is evidence that they used timber for
+building purposes. In one of the mounds opened in the Ohio Valley two
+chambers were found with remains of the timber of which the walls were
+made, and with arched ceilings precisely like those in Central America,
+even to the overlapping stones. Chambers have been found in some of the
+Central American and Mexican mounds, but there hewn stones were used for
+the walls. In both regions the elevated and terraced foundations remain,
+and can be compared. I have already called attention to the close
+resemblance between them, but the fact is so important in any endeavor
+to explain the Mound-Builders that I must bring it to view here.
+
+Consider, then, that elevated and terraced foundations for important
+buildings are peculiar to the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans;
+that this method of construction, which, with them, was the rule, is
+found nowhere else, save that terraced elevations, carefully
+constructed, and precisely like theirs in form and appearance, occupy a
+chief place among the remaining works of the Mound-Builders. The use
+made of these foundations at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen-Itza, shows
+the purpose for which they were constructed in the Mississippi Valley.
+The resemblance is not due to chance. The explanation appears to me very
+manifest. This method of construction was brought to the Mississippi
+Valley from Mexico and Central America, the ancient inhabitants of that
+region and the Mound-Builders being the same people in race, and also in
+civilization, when it was brought here.
+
+A very large proportion of the old structures in Ohio and farther south
+called "mounds," namely, those which are low in proportion to their
+horizontal extent, are terraced foundations for buildings, and if they
+were situated in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Southern Mexico, they would
+never be mistaken for any thing else. The high mounds also in the two
+regions are remarkably alike. In both cases they are pyramidal in shape,
+and have level summits of considerable extent, which were reached by
+means of stairways on the outside. The great mound at Chichen-Itza is 75
+feet high, and has on its summit a ruined stone edifice; that at Uxmal
+is 60 feet high, and has a similar ruin on its summit; that at Mayapan
+is 60 feet high; the edifice placed on its summit has disappeared. The
+great mound at Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high; and that at Grave
+Creek, West Virginia, is 75 feet high. Both had level summits, and
+stairways on the outside, but no trace of any structure remains on them.
+All these mounds were constructed for religious uses, and they are, in
+their way, as much alike as any five Gothic churches.
+
+Could these works of the Mound-Builders be restored to the condition in
+which they were when the country was filled with their busy communities,
+we should doubtless see great edifices, similar in style to those in
+Yucatan, standing on the upper terraces of all the low and extended
+"mounds," and smaller structures on the high mounds, such as those above
+named. There would seem to be an extension of ancient Mexico and Central
+America through Texas into the Mississippi and Ohio valleys; and so, if
+there were no massive stone-work in the old ruins of those countries, it
+might seem that the Mound-Builders' works were anciently extended into
+them by way of Texas.
+
+The fact that the settlements and works of the Mound-Builders extended
+through Texas and across the Rio Grande indicates very plainly their
+connection with the people of Mexico, and goes far to explain their
+origin. We have other evidence of intercourse between the two peoples;
+for the obsidian dug from the mounds, and perhaps the porphyry also, can
+be explained only by supposing commercial relations between them.
+
+We can not suppose the Mound-Builders to have come from any other part
+of North America, for nowhere else north of the Isthmus was there any
+other people capable of producing such works as they left in the places
+where they dwelt. Beyond the relics of the Mound-Builders themselves, no
+traces of the former existence of such a people have been discovered in
+any part of North America save Mexico, and Central America, and
+districts immediately connected with them. At the same time, it is not
+unreasonable to suppose the civilized people of these regions extended
+their settlements through Texas, and also migrated across the Gulf into
+the Mississippi Valley. In fact, the connection of settlements by way of
+Texas appears to have been unbroken from Ohio to Mexico.
+
+This colonizing extension of the old Mexican race must have taken place
+at a remote period in the past; for what has been said of the antiquity
+of the Mound-Builders shows that a very long period, far more than two
+thousand years, it may be, must have elapsed since they left the Valley
+of the Ohio. Perhaps they found the country mostly unoccupied, and saw
+there but little of any other people until an irruption of warlike
+barbarians came upon them from the Northwest.
+
+In speculating on the causes of their withdrawal after centuries of
+occupation, absolute certainty is impossible, and we have no means of
+going much beyond mere conjecture. We may suppose as most probable that
+an influx of barbarians destroyed their border settlements, interrupted
+their mining operations, and caused them to retire gradually toward the
+Gulf. Fragments of their communities may have become incorporated with
+the barbarous tribes. This conjecture has been used to explain certain
+exceptional peculiarities noticed in some of the wild Indian tribes. For
+instance, it has been suggested that the Mandan Indians were a separated
+and lost fragment of the mound-building people, they being noticeably
+unlike other Indians in many respects, lighter in color, and peculiar in
+manners and customs. What is conjectured may be true, but we have no
+means of proving its truth. That the Mandans were like what a lost
+community of Mound-Builders might have become by degeneration through
+mixture and association with barbarians may be supposed, but the actual
+history of that remarkable tribe might give its peculiarities a very
+different explanation. The Mandans were supposed to be a branch of the
+Dacotahs. They may have been, like the Navajos, a changed community of
+Pueblos, but any attempt to explain them by means of conjecture is
+useless.
+
+The supposition that the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders were the same
+people seems to me not improbable. The reasons for it will be stated
+when we come to a discussion of the antiquities, books, and traditions
+of Central America. I will only say here that, according to dates given
+in the Central American books, the Toltecs came from "Huehue-Tlapalan,"
+a distant country in the northeast, long previous to the Christian era.
+They played a great part and had a long career in Mexico previous to the
+rise of their successors in power, the Aztecs, who were overthrown by
+the Spaniards.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+
+Ruins and other vestiges revealing an ancient civilization are found
+throughout the whole southern section of North America, extending as far
+north as New Mexico and Arizona. But here the antiquities do not all
+belong to the same period in the past, nor exhibit unvarying likeness
+and unity of civilized life. They are somewhat less homogeneous, and do
+not constantly represent the same degree of civilization. In this
+region, the monuments suggest successive and varying periods in the
+civilized condition of the old inhabitants, some of the oldest and most
+mysterious monuments seeming to indicate the highest development.
+
+In the northern part of this region we find ruins of great buildings
+similar in plan and arrangement to those still used by the Pueblos, but
+far superior as monuments of architecture, science, and skill, and much
+more unlike those farther south than is apparent in the principal
+structures of the Mound-Builders. They show that the old settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley did not belong to the Pueblo branch of the Mexican
+race. Farther south, in the central part of the region specified,
+development was more advanced. Here, in the last ages of American
+ancient history, was the seat of the Mexican or Aztec civilization,
+but the monuments in this part of the country are mostly older than the
+Aztec period. The most astonishing remains are found still farther
+south, in Chiapa, Tabasco, Oxaca, Yucatan, Honduras, Tehuantepec,
+Guatemala, and other parts of Central America. In this southern region,
+mostly buried in heavy forests, are wonderful ruins of great cities and
+temples. Only a small part of modern Mexico is included in the region
+where these ruins are situated, and most of them, probably, were not
+much better understood by the ancient Mexicans than they are by us. Many
+of those explored in later times were unknown to that people, just as
+others, more in number, doubtless, than those already described, still
+remain unvisited and unknown in the great and almost impenetrable
+forests of the country.
+
+
+THE NORTHERN REMAINS.
+
+The ruins in Northern Mexico, including New Mexico and Arizona, consist
+chiefly, as already stated, of the remains of structures similar in
+general design and purpose to those of the Village Indians, the Pueblos.
+In the more ancient times, doubtless, as at present, a large proportion
+of the dwellings and other edifices, like those in the Mississippi
+Valley, were built of perishable materials which have left no trace.
+Many of them, however, were built of stone, and have left ruins which
+show their character. Stone ruins are common in this northern region,
+although wood and adobe seems to have been more commonly used as
+building material. Some of the ruined stone edifices were inhabited when
+the country was conquered by the Spaniards. The remains present every
+where the same characteristics. They represent a people who built always
+in the same way, with some variations in the forms of their structures,
+and had substantially the same condition of life; but the ruins are not
+all of the same age. Their character can be sufficiently shown by
+describing a few of them.
+
+In New Mexico, west of the Rio Grande, between the head waters of the
+San Jose and Zuni rivers, a bluff or ridge rises in a valley two hundred
+feet high. The Spaniards named it "El Moro." One side of this bluff is
+vertical, and shows yellowish-white sandstone rock, on the face of which
+are inscriptions; "Spanish inscriptions and Indian hieroglyphics." It
+was carefully described in 1849 by Lieutenant Simpson, and was explored
+again four or five years later by Lieutenant A. W. Whipple, who
+described it in his report to the government, published in the third
+volume of "Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route to the
+Pacific." On the summit of this height, which Lieutenant Simpson named
+"Inscription Rock," are the ruins of an extensive Pueblo edifice built
+of stone. The walls were built "with considerable skill." In some places
+they are still "perfect to the height of six or eight feet, vertical,
+straight, and smooth; and the masonry is well executed, the stones being
+of uniform size--about fourteen inches long and six wide." The layers
+are horizontal, each successive layer breaking joints with that below
+it. Remains of cedar beams were discovered, and also obsidian
+arrow-heads, painted pottery, and other relics. Another ruin was seen on
+a height across the gorge. It was found to be similar to this, both in
+character and condition of decay.
+
+Lieutenant Whipple went westward along the thirty-fifth parallel. We can
+not do better than follow the report of what he saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Pueblo Ruin at Pecos.]
+
+His next stopping-place, after leaving "El Moro," was in the beautiful
+valley of Ojo Pescado. Here, close by a spring that showed artificial
+stone-work of ancient date, were two old Pueblo buildings in ruins, "so
+ancient that the traditions of present races do not reach them." Not far
+away is a deserted town of later date. The two ancient structures were
+circular in form and equal in size, each being about eight hundred feet
+in circumference. They were built of stone, but the walls have crumbled
+and become chiefly heaps of rubbish. The pottery found here, like that
+at "El Moro," is "painted with bright colors, in checks, bands, and
+wavy stripes; many fragments show a beautiful polish. A few pieces were
+discovered larger in size, inferior in color and quality, but indicating
+a more fanciful taste. United, they formed an urn with a curious handle;
+a frog painted on the outside and a butterfly within." In the same
+neighborhood, on the summit of a cliff twenty feet high, was another old
+ruin "strongly walled around." In the centre was a mound on which were
+traces of a circular edifice.
+
+The next place of encampment was at Zuni, where, as shown in Figure 21,
+can be seen one of these great Pueblo buildings inhabited by two
+thousand people (Lieutenant Whipple's estimate). It has five stories,
+the walls of each receding from those below it. Looking from the top, he
+says it reminded him of a busy ant-hill, turkeys and tamed eagles
+constituting a portion of its inhabitants. Not more than a league away
+is an "old Zuni" which shows nothing but ruins. Its crumbling walls,
+worn away until they are only from two to twelve feet high, are "crowded
+together in confused heaps over several acres of ground." This old town
+became a ruin in ancient times. After remaining long in a ruined
+condition it was again rebuilt, and again deserted after a considerable
+period of occupation. It is still easy to distinguish the differences in
+construction between the two periods. "The standing walls rest upon
+ruins of greater antiquity;" and while the primitive masonry is about
+six feet thick, that of the later period is only from a foot to a foot
+and a half thick. Small blocks of sandstone were used for the latter.
+Heaps of débris cover a considerable space, in which, among other
+things, are relics of pottery and of ornaments made of sea-shells.
+Pieces of quaintly-carved cedar posts were found here, and their
+condition of decay, compared with that of the cedar beams at "El Moro,"
+"indicated great antiquity." The place of this ruin is now one of the
+consecrated places of the Village Indians; it has "a Zuni altar" which
+is constantly used and greatly venerated. On leaving the place, their
+guide blew a white powder toward the altar three times, and muttered a
+prayer. This, he explained, was "asking a blessing of Montezuma and the
+sun." This altar seems to represent recollections of the ancient
+sun-worship.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21--Modern Zuni.]
+
+At a place west of Zuni ancient relics were found, indicating that an
+extensive Pueblo town had formerly stood there, but "the structures were
+probably of adobes," as there was no débris of stone walls, and only
+very faint traces of foundations. Near the Colorado Chiquito is an
+extensive ruin, on the summit of an isolated hill of sandstone, the
+faces of its walls being here and there visible above heaps of débris.
+It appears to be very old. As near as could be ascertained, the great
+rectangular Pueblo building was three hundred and sixty feet in extent
+on one side, and one hundred and twenty on the other. In some places the
+walls are ten feet thick, "with small rooms inserted in them." Stone
+axes, painted pottery, and other articles are found in the débris: "The
+indented pottery, said to be so very ancient, is found here in many
+patterns." On a ridge overlooking the valley of Pueblo Creek are traces
+of an old settlement of large extent, supposed to have been that heard
+of in 1539 by the friar Marco de Niça as "the kingdom of Totonteac."
+Adobe seems to have been used here for building. Traces of other ruins
+were seen in various places, and springs along the route showing ancient
+stone-work are mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pueblo Ruins in the Valley of the Gila.]
+
+Ruins are abundant in the Rio Verde Valley down to the confluence of
+that river with the Rio Salinas. It is manifest that this whole region
+was anciently far more populous than it is now. Lieutenant Whipple says,
+"Large fields in the valley of the Rio Gila, and many spots among the
+Pinal Lena Mountains, are marked with the foundations of adobe houses."
+Figure 22 represents a Pueblo ruin in the Valley of the Gila. "In
+Cañon Chelly, near San Francisco Mountain, and upon Rio Verde, there
+are ruins of more permanent structures of stone, which in their day must
+have excelled the famed Pueblos of New Mexico." There was a higher
+degree of civilization in the ancient times, so far as relates to
+architecture and skill in the arts and appliances of life, than has been
+shown by people of the same race dwelling there in our time; but the
+ancient condition of life seems to have been maintained from age to age
+without material change.
+
+
+THE "SEVEN CITIES OF CEVOLA."
+
+In the New Mexican valley of the Chaco, one degree or more north of
+Zuni, are ruins of what some suppose to have been the famous "Seven
+Cities of Cevola." In 1540, Spanish cupidity having been strongly
+incited by tales of the greatness and vast wealth of Cevola, Coronado,
+then governor of New Galicia, set out with an army to conquer and rob
+its cities. The report in which he tells the story of this conquest and
+of his disappointment is still in existence. The Cevolans defended
+themselves with arrows and spears, and hurled stones upon his army from
+the tops of their buildings. But resistance was of no avail; Cevola was
+conquered by Coronado, and immediately deserted by all its inhabitants
+who escaped death. The conquering buccaneer, however, did not find the
+treasures of gold and silver he expected. Three hundred and thirty years
+or more have passed away since this expedition of the Spanish marauders
+was undertaken, but the "Seven Cities of Cevola" (if they really were
+the "cities" whose remains are found in the Chaco Valley), although much
+dilapidated, are still sufficiently well preserved to show us what they
+were.
+
+There are seven ruins in the Chaco Valley, all of the same age, from one
+to three miles apart, the whole line along which they are situated being
+not more than ten miles in extent. Coronado said of Cevola, "The seven
+cities are seven small towns, standing all within four leagues
+together;" and "all together they are called Cevola." The Chaco ruins
+show that each of these "cities" was, Pueblo fashion, a single edifice
+of vast size, capable of accommodating from five hundred to three
+thousand people. They were all built of stone, around three sides of a
+square, the side opposite the main building being left open. Figure 23
+represents one of these buildings restored, according to Lieutenant
+Simpson. Figure 24 is a ground plan of this structure. The outer faces
+of the walls were constructed with thin and regular blocks of sandstone;
+the inner surfaces were made of cobblestone laid in mortar, and the
+outer walls were three feet thick. They were four or five stories high,
+and the only entrances to them were "window openings" in the second
+story. Above the cañon inclosing the valley containing these ruins, at a
+distance of thirteen miles, are the remains of another "city" of
+precisely the same kind. Its walls are at present between twenty and
+thirty feet high, their foundations being deeply sunk into the earth.
+Lieutenant Simpson, who explored that region in 1849, says it was built
+of tabular pieces of hard, fine-grained, compact gray sandstone, none of
+the layers being more than three inches thick. He adds, "It discovers
+in the masonry a combination of science and art which can only be
+referred to a higher stage of civilization and refinement than is
+discoverable in the work of Mexicans or Pueblos of the present day.
+Indeed, so beautifully diminutive and true are the details of the
+structure as to cause it at a little distance to have all the appearance
+of a magnificent piece of mosaic."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pueblo Building, restored.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Ground Plan of Pueblo Building.]
+
+Other ruins have been examined in this northern part of the old Mexican
+territory, and more will be brought to light, for the whole region has
+not been carefully examined, and new discoveries are constantly
+reported.
+
+
+CENTRAL MEXICO.
+
+As we go down into Central Mexico, the remains assume another character,
+and become more important; but the antiquities in this part of the
+country have not been very completely explored and described, the
+attention of explorers having been drawn more to the south. Some of them
+are well known, and it can be seen that to a large extent they are much
+older than the time of the Aztecs whom Cortez found in power.
+
+In the northern part of the Mexican Valley was the city of Tulha, the
+ancient capital of the Toltecs. At the time of the conquest its site was
+an extensive field of ruins. At Xochicalco, in the State of Mexico, is a
+remarkable pyramid, with a still more remarkable base. It was
+constructed with five stages or stories, and stands on a hill consisting
+chiefly of rock, which was excavated and hollowed for the construction
+of galleries and chambers. The opening serves as an entrance to several
+galleries, which are six feet high and paved with cement, their sides
+and ceilings seeming to have been covered with some very durable
+preparation which made them smooth and glistening. Captain Dupaix found
+the main gallery sixty yards, or one hundred and eighty feet long,
+terminating at two chambers which are separated only by two massive
+square pillars carefully fashioned of portions of the rock left for the
+purpose by the excavators. Over a part of the inner chamber, toward one
+corner, is a dome or cupola six feet in diameter at the base, and rather
+more in height. It has a regular slope, and was faced with square stones
+well prepared and admirably laid in cement. From the top went up a tube
+or circular aperture nine inches in diameter, which probably reached the
+open air or some point in the pyramid.
+
+In this part of Mexico can be seen, among other things, the great
+pyramid or mound of Cholulu, the very ancient and remarkable pyramidal
+structures at Teotihuacan, and an uncounted number of _teocallis_ or
+pyramids of smaller size. The pyramid of Cholulu covers an area of
+forty-five acres. It was terraced and built with four stages. When
+measured by Humboldt it was 1400 feet square at the base, and 160 feet
+high. At present it is a ruin, and, to superficial observers, seems
+little more than a huge artificial mound of earth. Its condition of
+decay indicates that it is much older than even the Toltec period. The
+largest structure at Teotihuacan covers eleven acres. These structures,
+and the Mexican _teocallis_ generally, were made of earth, and faced
+with brick or stone.
+
+Captain Dupaix saw, not far from Antequera, two truncated pyramids which
+were penetrated by two carefully constructed galleries. A gallery lined
+with hewn stone, bearing sculptured decorations, went through one of
+them. A similar gallery went partly through the other, and two branches
+were extended at right angles still farther, but terminating within. He
+mentions also the ruins of elaborately decorated edifices which had
+stood on elevated terraces. At one place he excavated a terraced mound,
+and discovered burnt brick; and he describes two ancient bridges of the
+Tlascalans, both built of hewn stone laid in cement, one of them being
+200 feet long and 36 wide. Obelisks or pillars 42 feet high stood at the
+corners of these bridges. Important remains of the ancient people exist
+in many other places; and "thousands of other monuments unrecorded by
+the antiquaries invest every sierra and valley of Mexico with profound
+interest."
+
+At Papantla, in the State of Vera Cruz, there is a very ancient
+pyramidal structure somewhat peculiar in style and character. It is
+known that important ruins exist in the forests of Papantla and Mesantla
+which have never been described. The remarkable pyramid at Papantla was
+examined and described by Humboldt. The only material employed in
+constructing it was hewn stone. The stone was prepared in immense
+blocks, which were laid in mortar. The pyramid was an exact square at
+the base, each side being 82 feet in length, and the height about 60
+feet. The stones were admirably cut and polished, and the structure was
+remarkably symmetrical. Six stages could be discerned by Humboldt, and
+his account of it says, "A seventh appears to be concealed by the
+vegetation which covers the sides of the pyramid." A great flight of
+steps leads to the level summit, by the sides of which are smaller
+nights. "The facing of the stones is decorated with hieroglyphics, in
+which serpents and crocodiles carved in relievo are visible. Each story
+contains a great number of square niches symmetrically distributed. In
+the first story there are 24 on each side, in the second 20, and in the
+third 16. There are 366 of these niches on the whole pyramid, and 12 in
+the stairs toward the east."
+
+The civilization of the Aztecs who built the old city of Mexico will be
+made a separate topic; but it may be said here that when they came into
+the Valley of Mexico they were much less advanced in civilization than
+their predecessors. There is no reason whatever to doubt that they had
+always resided in the country as an obscure branch of the aboriginal
+people. Some have assumed, without much warrant, that they came to
+Mexico from the North. Mr. Squier shows, with much probability, that
+they came from the southern part of the country, where communities are
+still found speaking the Aztec language. When they rose to supremacy
+they adopted, so far as their condition allowed, the superior knowledge
+of their predecessors, and continued, in a certain way, and with a lower
+standard, the civilization of the Toltecs. It has been said, not without
+reason, that the civilization found in Mexico by the Spanish conquerors
+consisted, to a large extent, of "fragments from the wreck that befell
+the American civilization of antiquity."
+
+
+THE GREAT RUINS AT THE SOUTH.
+
+To find the chief seats and most abundant remains of the most remarkable
+civilization of this old American race, we must go still farther south
+into Central America and some of the more southern states of Mexico.
+Here ruins of many ancient cities have been discovered, cities which
+must have been deserted and left to decay in ages previous to the
+beginning of the Aztec supremacy. Most of these ruins were found buried
+in dense forests, where, at the time of the Spanish Conquest, they had
+been long hidden from observation.
+
+The ruins known as Palenque, for instance, seem to have been entirely
+unknown to both natives and Spaniards until about the year 1750. Cortez
+and some of his companions went through the open region near the forest
+in which these ruins are situated without hearing of them or suspecting
+their existence. The great ruins known as Copan were in like manner
+unknown in the time of Cortez. The Spaniards assaulted and captured a
+native town not far from the forest that covered them, but heard nothing
+of the ruins. The captured town, called Copan, afterward gave its name
+to the remains of this nameless ancient city, which were first
+discovered in 1576, and described by the Spanish licentiate Palacios.
+This was little more than forty years after the native town was
+captured; but, although Palacios tried, "in all possible ways," to get
+from the older and more intelligent natives some account of the origin
+and history of the ruined city, they could tell him nothing about it.
+To them the ruins were entirely mythical and mysterious. With the facts
+so accessible, and the antiquity of the ruins so manifest, it is very
+singular that Mr. Stephens fell into the mistake of confounding this
+ruined city, situated in an old forest that was almost impenetrable,
+with the town captured by the Spaniards. The ruins here were discovered
+accidentally; and to approach them it was necessary, as at Palenque, to
+cut paths through the dense tropical undergrowth of the forest.
+
+To understand the situation of most of the old ruins in Central America,
+one must know something of the wild condition of the country. Mr. Squier
+says:
+
+"By far the greater proportion of the country is in its primeval state,
+and covered with dense, tangled, and almost impenetrable tropical
+forests, rendering fruitless all attempts at systematic investigation.
+There are vast tracts untrodden by human feet, or traversed only by
+Indians who have a superstitious reverence for the moss-covered and
+crumbling monuments hidden in the depths of the wilderness. * * * For
+these and other reasons, it will be long before the treasures of the
+past, in Central America, can become fully known."
+
+A great forest of this character covers the southern-half of Yucatan,
+and extends far into Guatemala, which is half covered by it. It extends
+also into Chiapa and Tabasco, and reaches into Honduras. The ruins known
+as Copan and Palenque are in this forest, not far from its southern
+edge. Its vast depths have never been much explored. There are ruins in
+it which none but wandering natives have ever seen, and some, perhaps,
+which no human foot has approached for ages. It is believed that ruins
+exist in nearly every part of this vast wilderness.
+
+According to the old Central American books and traditions, some of the
+principal seats of the earliest civilization, that of the "Colhuas," was
+in this forest-covered region. In their time the whole was cultivated
+and filled with inhabitants. Here was a populous and important part of
+the Colhuan kingdom of "Xibalba," which, after a long existence, was
+broken up by the Toltecs, and which had a relation, in time, to the
+Aztec dominion of Montezuma, much like that of the old monarchy of Egypt
+to the kingdom of the Ptolemies.
+
+In the time of the Spaniards there was in the forest at Lake Peten a
+solitary native town, founded nearly a century previous to their time by
+a Maya prince of Itza, who, with a portion of his people, fled from
+Yucatan to that lonely region to escape from the disorder and bloodshed
+of a civil war. This was the civil war which destroyed Mayapan, and
+broke up the Maya kingdom of Yucatan. In 1695, Don Martin Ursua, a
+Spanish official, built a road from Yucatan to Lake Peten, captured the
+town, and destroyed it. He reported that the builders of this road found
+evidence that "wrecks of ancient cities lie buried in this wilderness."
+All along the route they discovered vestiges of ruins, and special
+mention is made of "remains of edifices on raised terraces, deserted and
+overgrown, and apparently very ancient."
+
+
+CHARACTER OF THE SOUTHERN RUINS.
+
+Should you visit the ruins of one of these mysterious old cities, you
+would see scattered over a large area great edifices in different stages
+of decay, which were erected on the level summits of low pyramidal
+mounds or platforms. The summits of these mounds are usually of
+sufficient extent to furnish space for extensive terraces or "grounds,"
+as well as room for the buildings. The edifices were built of hewn stone
+laid in a mortar of lime and sand, the masonry being admirable, and the
+ornamentation, in most cases, very abundant. The pyramid-foundations of
+earth were faced with hewn stone, and provided with great stone
+stairways. These, we may suppose, were the most important buildings in
+the old city. The ordinary dwellings, and all the other less important
+structures, must have been made chiefly of wood or some other material,
+which had perished entirely long ago and left no trace, for at present
+their remains are no more visible than those of the forest leaves which
+grew five hundred years ago.
+
+One explorer of Palenque says: "For five days did I wander up and down
+among these crumbling monuments of a city which, I hazard little in
+saying, must have been one of the largest ever seen." There is, however,
+nothing to show us certainly the actual size of any of these ancient
+cities. It is manifest that some of them were very large; but, as only
+the great structures made of stone remain to be examined, the actual
+extent of the areas covered by the other buildings can not be
+determined.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Arch of Las Monjas.]
+
+The chief peculiarity of these ruins, that which especially invites
+attention, is the evidence they furnish that their builders had
+remarkable skill in architecture and architectural ornamentation. All
+who have visited them bear witness that the workmanship was of a high
+order. The rooms and corridors in these edifices were finely and often
+elaborately finished, plaster, stucco, and sculpture being used. In one
+room of a great building at Uxmal Mr. Stephens says "the walls were
+coated with a very fine plaster of Paris, equal to the best seen on
+walls in this country." Speaking of the construction of this edifice, he
+says, "throughout, the laying and polishing of the stones are as perfect
+as under the rules of the best modern masonry." All the ruins explored
+have masonry of the same character. The floors, especially of the courts
+and corridors, were made sometimes of flat stones admirably wrought and
+finely polished, and sometimes of cement, which is now "as hard as
+stone." Mr. Stephens, describing corridors of the "Palace" at Palenque,
+says "the floors are of cement, as hard as the best seen in the remains
+of Roman baths and cisterns." We give two illustrations of their method
+of constructing the arch. Figure 25 shows an arch of Las Monjas, at
+Uxmal. Figure 26 shows the most common form of the arch in the older
+ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26--Common Form of Arch.]
+
+The ornamentation is no less remarkable than the masonry and
+architectural finish. It is found on the walls within and without, and
+appears in elaborate designs on the heavy cornices. The exterior
+ornamentation is generally carved or sculptured on the smooth surface
+of the stone, and must have required a vast amount of time and labor, as
+well as skillful artists. In some of the ruins inscriptions are
+abundant, being found on walls, tablets, and pillars. The general effect
+of the exterior decoration is thus described by Mr. Stephens in the
+account of his first view of the ruins at Palenque: "We saw before us a
+large building richly ornamented with stuccoed figures on pilasters,
+curious and elegant; trees growing close to it, and their branches
+entering the doors; the style and effect of structure and ornament
+unique, extraordinary, and mournfully beautiful." In a description of
+the walls around an interior court of a building at Uxmal, we have this
+tribute to the artistic skill of the decorators: "It would be
+difficult, in arranging four sides facing a court-yard, to have more
+variety, and, at the same time, more harmony of ornament."
+
+In some of the ruins, and especially at Copan, there are clusters of
+four-sided stone pillars or obelisks varying from twelve to over twenty
+feet high. These are elaborately sculptured, and show human figures,
+ornamental designs, and many inscriptions. One or two statues have been
+discovered, and a statuette twelve inches high is described; "it is made
+of baked clay, very hard, and the surface is smooth as if coated with
+enamel." At Palenque are remains of a well-built aqueduct; and near the
+ruins, especially in Yucatan, are frequently found the remains of many
+finely constructed aguadas or artificial lakes. The bottoms of these
+lakes were made of flat stones laid in cement, several layers deep. In
+Yucatan traces of a very ancient paved road have been found. This road
+ran north and south, and probably led to cities in the region now
+covered by the great wilderness. It was raised above the graded level of
+the ground, and made very smooth.
+
+These antiquities show that this section of the continent was anciently
+occupied by a people admirably skilled in the arts of masonry, building,
+and architectural decoration. Some of their works can not be excelled by
+the best of our constructors and decorators. They were highly skilled,
+also, in the appliances of civilized life, and they had the art of
+writing, a fact placed beyond dispute by their many inscriptions.
+
+A more particular account of some of these ruins will be given in the
+next chapter. Among the more important works relating to them are those
+of Stephens and Catherwood, some of the volumes of Mr. Squier, Frederick
+Waldeck's work, and a recent French volume by Desiré Charnay, which is
+accompanied by a folio volume of photographs. Palacios, who described
+Copan in 1576, may properly be called the first explorer. A brief
+account of Palenque was prepared by Captain Del Rio in 1787, and
+published in 1822. Captain Dupaix's folios, in French, with the drawings
+of Casteñada, contain the first really important memoir on these ruins.
+It was prepared in 1807, detained in Mexico during the Mexican
+Revolution, and finally published at Paris in 1834-5. The volumes of
+Brasseur de Bourbourg are valuable. They relate chiefly to matters not
+always understood, and seldom discussed with care, by those who merely
+visit and describe the monuments, such as the writing, books, and
+traditions of the ancient Mexican and Central American people. His style
+is diffuse, sometimes confused, and rather tedious; and some of his
+theories are very fanciful. But he has discovered the key to the Maya
+alphabet and translated one of the old Central American books. No
+careful student of American archæology can afford to neglect what he has
+written on this subject.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+
+To understand the situation and historical significance of the more
+important antiquities in Southern Mexico and Central America, we must
+keep in view their situation relative to the great unexplored forest to
+which attention has been called. Examine carefully any good map of
+Mexico and Central America, and consider well that the ruins already
+explored or visited are wholly in the northern half of Yucatan, or far
+away from this region, at the south, beyond the great wilderness, or in
+the southern edge of it. Uxmal, Mayapan, Chichen-Itza, and many others,
+are in Yucatan. Palenque, Copan, and others are in the southern part of
+the wilderness, in Chiapa, Honduras, and Guatemala. Mr. Squier visited
+ruins much farther south, in San Salvador, and in the western parts of
+Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
+
+The vast forest which is spread over the northern half of Guatemala and
+the southern half of Yucatan, and extended into other states, covers an
+area considerably larger in extent than Ohio or Pennsylvania. Does its
+position relative to the known ruins afford no suggestion concerning the
+ancient history of this forest-covered region? It is manifest that, in
+the remote ages when the older of the cities now in ruins were built,
+this region was a populous and important part of the country. And this
+is shown also by the antiquities found wherever it has been penetrated
+by explorers who knew how to make discoveries, as well as by the old
+books and traditions. Therefore it is not unreasonable to assume that
+Copan and Palenque are specimens of great ruins that lie buried in it.
+The ruins of which something is known have merely been visited and
+described in part by explorers, some of whom brought away drawings of
+the principal objects. In giving a brief account of the more important
+ruins, I will begin with the old city of which most has been heard.
+
+
+PALENQUE.
+
+No one can tell the true name of the ancient city now called Palenque.
+It is known to us by this name because the ruins are situated a few
+miles distant from the town of Palenque, now a village, but formerly a
+place of some importance. The ruins are in the northern part of the
+Mexican State of Chiapa, hidden out of sight in the forest, where they
+seem to have been forgotten long before the time of Cortez. More than
+two hundred years passed after the arrival of the Spaniards before their
+existence became known to Europeans. They were discovered about the year
+1750. Since that year decay has made some progress in them. Captain Del
+Rio, who visited and described them in 1787, examined "fourteen
+edifices" admirably built of hewn stone, and estimated the extent of the
+ruins to be "seven or eight leagues one way [along the River Chacamas],
+and half a league the other." He mentions "a subterranean aqueduct of
+great solidity and durability, which passes under the largest building."
+
+Other explorers have since visited Palenque, and reported on the ruins
+by pen and pencil; but it is not certain that all the ruined edifices
+belonging to them have been seen, nor that the explorations have made it
+possible to determine the ancient extent of the city with any approach
+to accuracy. The very great difficulties which obstruct all attempts at
+complete exploration have not allowed any explorer to say he has
+examined or discovered all the mouldering monuments hidden in the dense
+and tangled forest, even within the space allowed by Del Rio's "half
+league" from the river, not to speak of what may lie buried and unknown
+in the dense mass of trees and undergrowth beyond this limit.
+
+The largest known building at Palenque is called the "Palace." It stands
+near the river, on a terraced pyramidal foundation 40 feet high and 310
+feet long, by 260 broad at the base. The edifice itself is 228 feet
+long, 180 wide, and 25 feet high. It faces the east, and has 14 doorways
+on each side, with 11 at the ends. It was built entirely of hewn stone,
+laid with admirable precision in mortar which seems to have been of the
+best quality. A corridor 9 feet wide, and roofed by a pointed arch, went
+round the building on the outside; and this was separated from another
+within of equal width. The "Palace" has four interior courts, the
+largest being 70 by 80 feet in extent. These are surrounded by
+corridors, and the architectural work facing them is richly decorated.
+Within the building were many rooms. From the north side of one of the
+smaller courts rises a high tower, or pagoda-like structure, thirty feet
+square at the base, which goes up far above the highest elevation of the
+building, and seems to have been still higher when the whole structure
+was in perfect condition. The great rectangular mound used for the
+foundation was cased with hewn stone, the workmanship here, and every
+where else throughout the structure, being very superior. The piers
+around the courts are "covered with figures in stucco, or plaster,
+which, where broken, reveals six or more coats or layers, each revealing
+traces of painting." This indicates that the building had been used so
+long before it was deserted that the plastering needed to be many times
+renewed. There is some evidence that painting was used as a means of
+decoration; but that which most engages attention is the artistic
+management of the stone-work, and, above all, the beautifully executed
+sculptures for ornamentation.
+
+Two other buildings at Palenque, marked by Mr. Stephens, in his plan of
+the ruins, as "Casa No. 1" and "Casa No. 2," views of which are shown in
+Figures 27 and 28, are smaller, but in some respects still more
+remarkable. The first of these, 75 feet long by 25 wide, stands on the
+summit of a high truncated pyramid, and has solid walls on all sides
+save the north, where there are five doorways. Within are a corridor and
+three rooms. Between the doorways leading from the corridor to these
+rooms are great tablets, each 13 feet long and 8 feet high, and all
+covered with elegantly-carved inscriptions. A similar but smaller
+tablet, covered with an inscription, appears on the wall of the central
+room.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Casa No. 1, Palenque--Front View and Ground
+Plan.]
+
+"Casa No. 2" consists of a steep and lofty truncated pyramid, which
+stands on a terraced foundation, and has its level summit crowned with a
+building 50 feet long by 31 wide, which has three doorways at the south,
+and within a corridor and three rooms. This edifice, sometimes called
+"La Cruz," has, above the height required for the rooms, what is
+described as "two stories of interlaced stucco-work, resembling a high,
+fanciful lattice." Here, too, inscribed tablets appear on the walls; but
+the inscriptions, which are abundant at Palenque, are by no means
+confined to tablets. As to the ornamentation, the walls, piers, and
+cornices are covered with it. Every where the masterly workmanship and
+artistic skill of the old constructors compel admiration; Mr. Stephens
+going so far as to say of sculptured human figures found in fragments,
+"In justness of proportion and symmetry they must have approached the
+Greek models."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Casa No. 2, Palenque (La Cruz)--Front View and
+Ground Plan.]
+
+"Casa No. 2" of Mr. Stephens is usually called "La Cruz" because the
+most prominent object within the building is a great bas-relief on which
+are sculptured a cross and several human figures. This building stands
+on the high pyramid, and is approached by a flight of steps. Dupaix
+says, "It is impossible to describe adequately the interior decorations
+of this sumptuous temple." The cross is supposed to have been the
+central object of interest. It was wonderfully sculptured and decorated;
+human figures stand near it, and some grave ceremony seems to be
+represented. The infant held toward the cross by one of the figures
+suggests a christening ceremony. The cross is one of the most common
+emblems present in all the ruins. This led the Catholic missionaries to
+assume that knowledge of Christianity had been brought to that part of
+America long before their arrival; and they adopted the belief that the
+Gospel was preached there by St. Thomas. This furnished excellent
+material for the hagiologists of that age; but, like every thing else
+peculiar to these monkish romancers, it betrayed great lack of
+knowledge.
+
+The cross, even the so-called Latin cross, is not exclusively a
+Christian emblem. It was used in the Oriental world many centuries
+(perhaps millenniums) before the Christian era. It was a religious
+emblem of the Phoenicians, associated with Astarte, who is usually
+figured bearing what is called a Latin cross. She is seen so figured on
+Phoenician coin. The cross is found in the ruins of Nineveh. Mr. Layard,
+describing one of the finest specimens of Assyrian sculpture (the figure
+of "an early Nimrod king" he calls it), says: "Round his neck are hung
+the four sacred signs; the crescent, the star or sun, the trident, and
+_the cross_." These "signs," the cross included, appear suspended from
+the necks or collars of Oriental prisoners figured on Egyptian monuments
+known to be fifteen hundred years older than the Christian era. The
+cross was a common emblem in ancient Egypt, and the Latin form of it was
+used in the religious mysteries of that country, in connection with a
+monogram of the moon. It was to degrade this religious emblem of the
+Phoenicians that Alexander ordered the execution of two thousand
+principal citizens of Tyre by crucifixion.
+
+The cross, as an emblem, is very common among the antiquities of Western
+Europe, where archæological investigation has sometimes been embarrassed
+and confused by the assumption that any old monument bearing the figure
+of a cross can not be as old as Christianity.
+
+What more will be found at Palenque, when the whole field of its ruins
+has been explored, can not now be reported. The chief difficulty by
+which explorers are embarrassed is manifest in this statement of Mr.
+Stephens: "Without a guide, we might have gone within a hundred feet of
+the buildings without discovering one of them." More has been discovered
+there than I have mentioned, my purpose being to give an accurate view
+of the style, finish, decoration, and general character of the
+architecture and artistic work found in the ruins rather than a
+complete account of every thing connected with them. The ruins of
+Palenque are deemed important by archæologists partly on account of the
+great abundance of inscriptions found there, which, it is believed, will
+at length be deciphered, the written characters being similar to those
+of the Mayas, which are now understood.
+
+
+COPAN AND QUIRIGUA.
+
+The ruins known as Copan are situated in the extreme western part of
+Honduras, where they are densely covered by the forest. As already
+stated, they were first discovered by Europeans about forty years after
+the war of the conquest swept through that part of the country, and were
+at that time wholly mysterious to the natives. The monuments seem older
+than those at Palenque, but we have only scant descriptions of them.
+They are situated in a wild and solitary part of the country, where the
+natives "see as little of strangers as the Arabs about Mount Sinai, and
+are more suspicious." For this reason they have not been very carefully
+explored. It is known that these ruins extend two or three miles along
+the left bank of the River Copan. Not much has been done to discover how
+far they extend from the river into the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Great Wall at Copan.]
+
+Mr. Stephens describes as follows his first view of them: "We came to
+the right bank of the river, and saw directly opposite a stone wall from
+60 to 90 feet high, with furze growing out of the top, running north and
+south along the river 624 feet, in some places fallen, in others
+entire." This great wall supported the rear side of the elevated
+foundation of a great edifice. It was made of cut stone well laid in
+mortar or cement, the blocks of stone being 6 feet long. Figure 29 shows
+the wall somewhat imperfectly. He saw next a square stone column
+standing by itself, 14 feet high and 3 feet on each side. From top to
+bottom it was richly ornamented with sculptured designs on two opposite
+sides, the other sides being covered with inscriptions finely carved on
+the stone. On the front face, surrounded by the sculptured ornaments,
+was the figure of a man. Fourteen other obelisks of the same kind were
+seen, some of them being higher than this. Some of them had fallen.
+These sculptured and inscribed pillars constitute the chief peculiarity
+of Copan. Mr. Squier says of them: "The ruins of Copan, and the
+corresponding monuments which I examined in the valley of the
+Chamelican, are distinguished by singular and elaborately carved
+_monoliths_, which seem to have been replaced at Palenque by equally
+elaborate _basso relievos_, belonging, it would seem, to a later and
+more advanced period of art."
+
+The great building first noticed stands, or stood, on a pyramidal
+foundation, which is supported along the river by that high back wall.
+The structure extends 624 feet on the river line. Mr. Stephens described
+it as an "oblong inclosure," and states that it has a wide terrace
+nearly 100 feet above the river, on which great trees are growing, some
+of them more than 20 feet in circumference. Here, as at Palenque, the
+ornamentation was "rich and abundant." The ruins, greatly worn by decay,
+still show that "architecture, sculpture, painting, and all the arts
+that embellish life had flourished in this overgrown forest." Some
+beautifully executed sculptures were found buried in the earth, and
+there can be no doubt that extensive excavation, if it were possible in
+that almost invincible forest, would lead to important and valuable
+discoveries. Besides the great building and the monoliths, several
+pyramidal structures are mentioned by Mr. Stephens, who points out that
+extensive exploration is impossible unless one shall first clear away
+the forest and burn up the trees.
+
+Palacios, who described this ruined city nearly three hundred years ago,
+saw much more than Mr. Stephens. He described "the ruins of superb
+edifices, built of hewn stone, which manifestly belonged to a large
+city." He mentions, in connection with the great wall, an enormous
+eagle carved in stone, which bore a square shield on its breast covered
+with undecipherable characters. He mentions, also, a "stone giant," and
+a "stone cross" with one arm broken. He saw a "plaza," circular in form,
+surrounded by ranges of steps or seats, which reminded him of the
+Coliseum at Rome, "as many as eighty ranges still remaining in some
+places." This "plaza" was "paved with beautiful stones, all square and
+well worked." Six of the great obelisks, which he described as
+"statues," stood in this inclosure, and in its centre was a great stone
+basin.
+
+A history of Guatemala, by a writer named Huarros, states that the
+"Circus of Copan," as he calls the "plaza" described by Palacios, was
+still entire in the year 1700. He mentions gateways which led into the
+inclosure, and says it was surrounded on the outside by stone pyramids
+six yards high, near which were standing sculptured figures or obelisks.
+No doubt, remains of this remarkable "circus" would be found now, if the
+forest should be removed. What else could be found there by means of
+careful and thorough exploration may never be known, for the region is
+uninviting, the forest very difficult, and such an exploration would
+require much more than the means and efforts of one or two individuals.
+
+Not very far away, in the neighboring State of Guatemala, on the right
+bank of the River Motagua, to which the Copan is a tributary, are the
+ruins called Quirigua. It is manifest that a great city once stood here.
+These ruins have a close resemblance to those at Copan, but they appear
+to be much older, for they have, to a great extent, become little
+more than heaps of rubbish. Over a large space of ground traces of what
+has gone to decay are visible. Doubtless important relics of the old
+city are now more abundant below the surface than above it. Mr.
+Stephens, describing what he saw there, confines his attention chiefly
+to a pyramidal structure with flights of steps, and monoliths larger and
+higher than those at Copan, but otherwise similar. He states, however,
+that while they have the same general style, the sculptures are in lower
+relief and hardly so rich in design. One of the obelisks here is twenty
+feet high, five feet six inches wide, and two feet eight inches thick.
+The chief figures carved on it are that of a man on the front, and that
+of a woman on the back. The sides are covered with inscriptions similar
+in appearance to those at Copan. Some of the other standing obelisks are
+higher than this. It seems reasonable to infer that the structures at
+Quirigua were more ancient than those at Copan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Ruins at Mitla.]
+
+
+MITLA.
+
+The ruins called Mitla are in the Mexican State of Oxaca, about twelve
+leagues east from the city of Oxaca. They are situated in the upper part
+of a great valley, and surrounded by a waste, uncultivated region. At
+the time of the Spanish Conquest they were old and much worn by time and
+the elements, but a very large area was then covered by remains of
+ancient buildings. At present only six decaying edifices and three
+ruined pyramids, which were very finely terraced, remain for
+examination, the other structures being now reduced to the last stage
+of decay. Figures 30 and 31 present views of some of these structures,
+as given by Von Temski. Figure 32, from Charnay's photograph, shows a
+ruin at Mitla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Great Hall at Mitla.]
+
+These important ruins were not described by Stephens and Catherwood.
+Captain Dupaix's work gives some account of them, and Desiré Charnay,
+who saw them since 1860, brought away photographs of some of the
+monuments. Four of the standing edifices are described by Dupaix as
+"palaces," and these, he says, "were erected with lavish magnificence;
+* * * they combine the solidity of the works of Egypt with the elegance
+of those of Greece." And he adds, "But what is most remarkable,
+interesting, and striking in these monuments, and which alone would be
+sufficient to give them the first rank among all known orders of
+architecture, is the execution of their mosaic relievos, very different
+from plain mosaic, and consequently requiring more ingenious combination
+and greater art and labor. They are inlaid on the surface of the wall,
+and their duration is owing to the method of fixing the prepared stones
+into the stone surface, which made their union with it perfect." Figure
+33, taken from Charnay's photograph, shows part of the mosaic decoration
+on a wall of one of the great edifices at Mitla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Ruined Palace at Mitla.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Mosaics at Mitla.]
+
+The general character of the architecture and masonry is much like that
+seen in the structures at Palenque, but the finish of the workmanship
+appears to have been more artistic and admirable. These ruins are
+remarkable among those of the country where they are found. All who have
+seen them speak much as Dupaix speaks of the perfection of the masonry,
+the admirable design and finish of the work, and the beauty of the
+decorations. Their beauty, says M. Charnay, can be matched only by the
+monuments of Greece and Rome in their best days. One fact presented by
+some of the edifices at Mitla has a certain degree of historical
+significance. There appears to be evidence that they were occupied at
+some period by people less advanced in civilization than their builders.
+M. Charnay, describing one of them, points out this fact. He says of the
+structure:
+
+"It is a bewildering maze of courts and buildings, with facings
+ornamented with mosaics in relief of the purest design; but under the
+projections are found traces of paintings wholly primitive in style, in
+which the right line is not even respected. These are rude figures of
+idols, and meandering lines that have no significance. Similar paintings
+appear, with the same imperfection, on every great edifice, in places
+which have allowed them shelter against the ravages of time. These rude
+designs, associated with palaces so correct in architecture, and so
+ornamented with panels of mosaic of such marvelous workmanship, put
+strange thoughts in the mind. To find the explanation of this
+phenomenon, must we not suppose these palaces were occupied by a race
+less advanced in civilization than their first builders?"
+
+Two miles or more away from the great edifices here mentioned, toward
+the west, is the "Castle of Mitla." It was built on the summit of an
+isolated and precipitous hill of rock, which is accessible only on the
+east side. The whole leveled summit of this hill is inclosed by a solid
+wall of hewn stone twenty-one feet thick and eighteen feet high. This
+wall has salient and retiring angles, with curtains interposed. On the
+east side it is flanked by double walls. Within the inclosure are the
+remains of several small buildings. The field of these ruins was very
+large three hundred years ago. At that time it may have included this
+castle.
+
+
+AN ASTRONOMICAL MONUMENT.
+
+In this part of Mexico Captain Dupaix examined a peculiar ruin, of which
+he gave the following account: "Near the road from the village of
+Tlalmanalco to that called Mecamecan, about three miles east of the
+latter, there is an isolated granite rock, which was artificially
+formed into a kind of pyramid with six hewn steps facing the east. The
+summit of this structure is a platform, or horizontal plane, well
+adapted to observation of the stars on every side of the hemisphere. It
+is almost demonstrable that this very ancient monument was exclusively
+devoted to astronomical observations, for on the south side of the rock
+are sculptured several hieroglyphical figures having relation to
+astronomy. The most striking figure in the group is that of a man in
+profile, standing erect, and directing his view to the rising stars in
+the sky. He holds to his eye a tube or optical instrument. Below his
+feet is a frieze divided into six compartments, with as many celestial
+signs carved on its surface." It has been already stated that
+finely-wrought "telescopic tubes" have been found among remains of the
+Mound-Builders. They were used, it seems, by the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and they were known also in ancient Peru,
+where a silver figure of a man in the act of using such a tube has been
+discovered in one of the old tombs.
+
+
+RUINS FARTHER SOUTH.
+
+Old ruins, of which but little is known, exist in Guatemala, Honduras,
+San Salvador, and the more southern portion of Central America. Mr.
+Squier, who tells us more of them than any other explorer, says, "I
+heard of remains and monuments in Honduras and San Salvador equal to
+those of Copan in extent and interest." He mentions the ruins of Opico,
+near San Vincente, in San Salvador, which "cover nearly two square
+miles, and consist of vast terraces, ruins of edifices, circular and
+square towers, and subterranean galleries, all built of cut stones: a
+single carving has been found here on a block of stone." Remains of
+"immense works" exist in the district of Chontales, near the northern
+shore of Lake Nicaragua; and pottery found in Nicaragua "equals the best
+specimens of Mexico and Peru." Don Jose Antonio Urritia, curé of
+Jutiapa, gave the following account of a great ruin on a mountain in San
+Salvador, near the town of Comapa: it is called Cinaca-Mecallo:
+
+"The walls, or remains of the city wall, describe an oval figure, within
+which roads or streets may be traced, and there are various subterranean
+passages and many ruined edifices. The materials of construction are
+chiefly thin stones, or a species of slate, united by a kind of cement
+which in appearance resembles melted lead." It does not appear that he
+made a complete examination of the monuments, but he mentions three that
+gained his attention, and left upon his mind a very strong impression.
+"The first is a temple consecrated to the sun, chiefly excavated in the
+solid rock, and having its entrance toward the east. On the archway of
+the entrance are carved representations of the sun and moon.
+Hieroglyphics are found in the interior. Besides the sculptured _bassi
+relievi_, these stones bear hieroglyphics painted with a kind of red
+varnish which remains unimpaired. The second is a great stone slab
+covered with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. The third is the figure of a
+wild animal sculptured on a rock or stone, of "great size."[TN-3]
+
+
+THE RUINS IN YUCATAN.
+
+The remains of ancient cities are abundant in the settled portion of
+Yucatan, which lies north of the great forest. Charnay found "the
+country covered with them from north to south." Stephens states, in the
+Preface to his work on Yucatan, that he visited "forty-four ruined
+cities or places" in which such remains are still found, most of which
+were unknown to white men, even to those inhabiting the country; and he
+adds that "time and the elements are hastening them to utter
+destruction."
+
+Previous to the Spanish Conquest, the region known to us as Yucatan was
+called Maya. It is still called Maya by the natives among themselves,
+and this is the true name of the country. Why the Spaniards called it
+Yucatan is unknown, but the name is wholly arbitrary and without reason.
+It is said to have arisen from an odd mistake like that which occasioned
+the name given to one of the capes by Hernandez de Cordova. Being on the
+coast in 1517, he met some of the natives. Their cacique said to him,
+"Conèx cotoch," meaning "Come to our town." The Spaniard, supposing he
+had mentioned the name of the place, immediately named the projecting
+point of land "Cape Cotoche," and it is called so still.
+
+At that time the country was occupied by the people still known as
+Mayas. They all spoke the same language, which was one of a closely
+related family of tongues spoken in Guatemala, Chiapas, Western
+Honduras, and in some other districts of Central America and Mexico.
+Yucatan was then much more populous than at present. The people had more
+civilization, more regular industry, and more wealth. They were much
+more highly skilled in the arts of civilized life. They had cities and
+large towns; and dwelling-houses, built of timber and covered with
+thatch, like those common in England, were scattered over all the rural
+districts. Some of the cities now found in ruins were then inhabited.
+This peninsula had been the seat of an important feudal monarchy, which
+arose probably after the Toltecs overthrew the very ancient kingdom of
+Xibalba. It was broken up by a rebellion of the feudal lords about a
+hundred years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. According to the
+Maya chronicles, its downfall occurred in the year 1420. Mayapan, the
+capital of this kingdom, was destroyed at that time, and never afterward
+inhabited.
+
+Merida, the present capital of Yucatan, was built on the site of an
+ancient Maya city called Tihoo. It is stated in the old Spanish accounts
+of Merida that it was built on that site because there was in the ruins
+an abundance of building material. There is mention of two "mounds"
+which furnished a vast amount of hewn stone. Mr. Stephens noticed in
+some of the edifices stones with "sculptured figures, from the ruins of
+ancient buildings;" and he mentions that a portion of an ancient
+building, including an arch in the Maya style, was retained in the
+construction of the Franciscan convent.
+
+
+MAYAPAN.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Great Mound at Mayapan.]
+
+We shall notice only some of the principal ruins in Yucatan, beginning
+with Mayapan, the ancient capital. The remains of this city are situated
+about ten leagues, in a southern direction, from Merida. They are spread
+over an extensive plain, and overgrown by trees and other vegetation.
+The most prominent object seen by the approaching explorer is a great
+mound, 60 feet high and 100 feet square at the base. It is an imposing
+structure, seen through the trees, and is itself overgrown like a wooded
+hill. Figure 34 shows one view of this. Four stairways, in a ruinous
+condition, 25 feet wide, lead up to an esplanade within 6 feet of the
+top, which is reached by a smaller stairway. The summit is a plain stone
+platform 15 feet square. This, of course, was a temple. Sculptured
+stones are scattered around the base, and within the mound subterranean
+chambers have been discovered.
+
+It is probable that the principal edifices at Mayapan were not all built
+wholly of stone, for they have mostly disappeared. Only one remains, a
+circular stone building 25 feet in diameter, which stands on a pyramidal
+foundation 35 feet high. This is represented in Figure 35. On the
+southwest side of it, on a terrace projecting from the mound, was a
+double row of columns without capitals, 8 feet apart. There are
+indications that this city was old, and that the buildings had been more
+than once renewed. Brasseur de Bourbourg classes some of the foundations
+at Mayapan with the oldest seen at Palenque and Copan. This point,
+however, can not be determined with sufficient accuracy to remove all
+doubt. Mayapan may have stood upon the foundations of a very ancient
+city which was several times rebuilt, but the city destroyed in 1420
+could not have been as old as either Palenque or Copan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Circular Edifice at Mayapan.]
+
+
+UXMAL.
+
+The ruins of Uxmal have been regarded as the most important in Yucatan,
+partly on account of the edifices that remain standing, but chiefly
+because they have been more visited and explored than the others. It is
+supposed, and circumstantial evidence appears to warrant the
+supposition, that this city had not been wholly deserted at the time of
+the Spanish Conquest, although it had previously begun to be a ruin. It
+was wholly a ruin in 1673. The area covered by its remains is extensive.
+Charnay makes it a league or more in diameter; but most of the
+structures have fallen, and exist now only in fragments scattered over
+the ground. It may be that many of them were not built wholly of hewn
+stone, and had not "Egyptian solidity" with their other characteristics.
+
+The most important of those remaining was named "Casa del Gobernador" by
+the Spaniards. It is 320 feet long, and was built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar or cement. The faces of the walls are smooth up to the cornice.
+Then follows, on all the four sides, "one solid mass of rich,
+complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments, forming a sort of
+arabesque." Figure 36 gives a view of the south end of this edifice, but
+no engraving can show all the details of the ornamentation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.]
+
+This building has eleven doorways in front, and one at each end, all
+having wooden lintels, which have fallen. The two principal rooms are 60
+feet long, and from 11 to 13 feet wide. This structure is long and
+narrow The arrangement and number of the rooms are shown in the
+following ground plan of the building (Figure 37):
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Ground Plan of Casa del Gobernador]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Double-headed Figure, Casa del Gobernador.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Decorations over Doorway, Casa del
+Gobernador.]
+
+It stands on the summit of one of the grandest of the terraced
+foundations. This foundation, like all the others, is pyramidal. It has
+three terraces. The lowest is 3 feet high, 15 wide, and 575 long; the
+second is 20 feet high, 275 wide, and 545 long; the third, 19 feet high,
+30 wide, and 360 long. Structures formerly existed on the second
+terrace, remains of which are visible. At the northwest corner one of
+them still shows its dilapidated walls, portions of them being
+sufficiently complete to show what they were. This edifice was 94 feet
+long and 34 wide. It seems to have been finely finished in a style more
+simple than that of the great "casa" on the upper terrace. The figures
+of turtles sculptured along the upper edge of the cornice have given it
+the current designation, "House of the Turtles." Sculptured monuments
+have been found buried in the soil of the second terrace. The opening of
+a small, low mound situated on it brought to view the double-headed
+figure shown in No. 38. Figure 39 shows part of the sculptured
+decoration over the centre doorway of Casa del Gobernador.
+
+Another important edifice at Uxmal has been named "Casa de las Monjas,"
+House of the Nuns. It stands on a terraced foundation, and is arranged
+around a quadrangular court-yard 258 feet one way and 214 the other. The
+front structure is 279 feet long, and has a gateway in the centre 10
+feet 8 inches wide leading into the court, and four doors on each side
+of it. The outer face of the wall, above the cornice, is ornamented with
+sculptures. The terrace without and within the inclosure was found
+covered with a very dense growth of vegetation, which it was necessary
+to clear away before the walls could be carefully examined. All the
+doorways, save those in front, open on the court. Mr. Stephens found the
+four great façades fronting the court-yard "ornamented from one end to
+the other with the richest and most intricate carving known to the
+builders of Uxmal, presenting a scene of strange magnificence which
+surpasses any other now seen among its ruins." The long outer
+structure, on the side facing the entrance, had high turret-like
+elevations over each of its thirteen doorways, all covered with
+sculptured ornaments. This building appears to have inclosed another of
+older date. Figure 40 shows the ground plan of "Las Monjas."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal.]
+
+Other less important edifices in the ruins of Uxmal have been described
+by explorers, some of which stand on high pyramidal mounds; and
+inscriptions are found here, but they are not so abundant as at Palenque
+and Copan.
+
+
+KABAH.
+
+The ruins known as Kabah are on the site of what must have been one of
+the most imposing and important of the more ancient cities. Here the
+most conspicuous object is a stone-faced mound 180 feet square at the
+base, with a range of ruined apartments at the bottom. Three or four
+hundred yards from this mound is a terraced foundation 20 feet high and
+200 by 142 in extent, on which stand the remains of a great edifice. At
+the right of the esplanade before it is a "high range of ruined
+structures overgrown with trees, with an immense back wall on the outer
+line of the esplanade perpendicular to the bottom of the terrace." On
+the left is another range of ruined buildings, and in the centre a stone
+inclosure 27 feet square and 7 feet high, with sculptures and
+inscriptions around the base. Some of the ornamentation of this building
+has been described in the strongest terms of admiration. Mr. Stephens
+said of it, "The cornice running over the doorways, tried by the
+severest rules of art recognized among us, would embellish the
+architecture of any known era." At Uxmal the walls were smooth below the
+cornice; here they are covered with decorations from top to bottom.
+
+This field of ruins is extensive, and only a portion of it has been
+examined. It is so overgrown that exploration is very difficult. The
+buildings and mounds are much decayed, and they seem to be very old. It
+is believed that ruined edifices of which nothing is known are hidden
+among the trees in places which no explorer has approached. Mr. Stephens
+gave the first account of Kabah, and described three other important
+edifices besides that already named. One of these he thought was, when
+entire, the most imposing structure at Kabah. It was 147 feet long by
+106 wide, and had three distinct stories, each successive story being
+smaller than that below it. Another, standing on the upper terrace of an
+elevated foundation 170 feet long by 110 broad, was 164 feet in length,
+and comparatively narrow. It is mentioned as a peculiarity of this
+edifice that it had pillars in its doorways, used as supports. The
+other, found standing on a terrace, is also long and narrow, and has a
+comparatively plain front.
+
+Remains of other buildings are visible, but in all cases they are so
+completely in ruins as to be little more than heaps of débris. Some of
+the ruins in the woods beyond that part of the field which is most
+accessible, are visible from the great mound described. A resolute
+attempt to penetrate the forest brought the explorers in view of great
+edifices standing on an elevated terrace estimated to be 800 feet long
+by 100 feet wide. The decorations seemed to have been abundant and very
+rich, but the structures were in a sad state of dilapidation. One
+remarkable monument found at Kabah resembles a triumphal arch. It stands
+by itself on a ruined mound apart from the other structures. It is
+described as a "lonely arch, having a span of 14 feet," rising on the
+field of ruins "in solitary grandeur." Figure 41 gives a view of it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Ruined Arch at Kabah.]
+
+Kabah was an ancient city. The ruins are old, and the city may have
+belonged to the first age of the Maya period.
+
+
+CHICHEN-ITZA.
+
+The ruins of Chichen-Itza are situated east of Mayapan, about half way
+between the eastern and western coasts of the peninsula of Yucatan. A
+public road runs through the space of ground over which they are spread.
+The area covered by them is something less than a mile in diameter. The
+general character of the ruined structures found here is in every
+respect like that shown by ruins already described.
+
+One of the great buildings at this place has a rude, unornamental
+exterior, and does not stand on an artificial terrace, although the
+ground before it was excavated so as to give the appearance of an
+elevated foundation. It is one hundred and forty-nine feet long by
+forty-eight deep. Its special peculiarity consists of a stone lintel, in
+a very dark inner room, which has an inscription and a sculptured figure
+on the under side. The writing closely resembles that seen at Palenque
+and Copan. Was this sculptured stone made originally for the place it
+now occupies, or was it taken from the ruins of some older city which
+flourished and went to decay before Chichen-Itza was built?
+
+Another structure seen here closely resembles Las Monjas at Uxmal, and
+bears the same name, but it differs somewhat from the Uxmal Monjas in
+arrangement. In the descriptions, special mention is made of "the
+richness and beauty" of its ornaments.
+
+A noticeable edifice connected with the Monjas, called the "Church," is
+26 feet long, 14 deep, 31 high, and has three cornices, the spaces
+between them being covered with carved ornaments. There is but one room
+in it. One of the most picturesque ruins at Chichen-Itza is circular in
+form, and stands on the upper level of a double-terraced platform. It is
+22 feet in diameter, and has four doors, which face the cardinal points.
+Above the cornice it slopes gradually almost to a point, and the top is
+about 60 feet above the ground. The grand staircase of 20 steps, leading
+up to this building, is 45 feet wide, and has a sort of balustrade
+formed of the entwined bodies of huge serpents. At some distance from
+this is the ruined structure known as the "Casa Colorada," or Red House.
+This is shown in Figure 42.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Casa Colorada.]
+
+It is 43 feet long by 23 deep, and stands on a platform 62 feet long by
+55 wide. It was ornamented above the cornice, but the decorations are
+much defaced by decay. A stone tablet extending the whole length of the
+back wall, inside, is covered by an inscription.
+
+A remarkable structure is found at this place, which Mr. Stephens called
+the "Gymnasium, or Tennis Court." It consists of two immense parallel
+walls 274 feet long, 30 thick, and 120 apart. On elevations facing the
+two ends of the open space between them, 100 feet from the ends of the
+walls, stand two edifices much ruined, but showing, in their remains,
+that they were richly ornamented. Midway in the length of the walls,
+facing each other, and 20 feet above the ground, are two massive stone
+rings or circles 4 feet in diameter, each having in the centre a hole 1
+foot and 7 inches in diameter. On the borders around these holes two
+entwined serpents are sculptured, as seen in Figure 43.
+
+There was a similar structure in the old city of Mexico, and remains of
+one like it are found at Mayapan. They were, probably, used for games of
+some kind. Among the other ruins at Chichen-Itza are the remains of a
+lofty edifice which has two high ranges or stories. On the outside the
+ornamentation is simple and tasteful, but the walls of its chambers are
+very elaborately decorated, mostly with sculptured designs, which seem
+to have been painted. In one of the upper rooms Mr. Stephens found a
+beam of sapote wood used as a lintel, which was covered with very
+elegantly carved decorations. The walls of this room were covered, from
+the bottom to the top of the arched ceiling, with painted designs
+similar to those seen in the Mexican "picture writing." Decay had
+mutilated these "pictures," but the colors were still bright. There are
+indications that painting was generally used by the aboriginal builders,
+even on their sculptures. The colors seen in this room were green, red,
+yellow, blue, and reddish-brown. Another edifice, standing on a high
+mound, is reached by means of the usual great stairway, which begins at
+the bottom, with a sort of balustrade on each side, the ends of which
+are stone figures of heads of immense serpents.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Great Stone Ring.]
+
+Not far from this is a singular ruin, consisting of groups of small
+columns standing in rows five abreast, the tallest being not more than
+six feet high. Many of them have fallen. It is impossible to determine
+how they were used, or what they mean.
+
+
+OTHER RUINS IN YUCATAN.
+
+Izamal, Labna, Zayi, and some of the other ruins are sufficiently
+important for special notice; but they present every where the same
+characteristics, differing a little in the style or method of
+ornamentation. At Labna there is among the ruins an ancient gateway,
+beautiful in design and construction, a view of which is given in the
+Frontispiece. The best account of some of the other ruins on this
+peninsula can be found in the volumes of Mr. Stephens, entitled
+"Incidents of Travel in Yucatan." At Zayi there is a singular building,
+which, as seen at a distance by Mr. Stephens, "had the appearance of a
+New England factory." But what seemed to be a "factory" is, in fact,
+nothing more than a massive wall with oblong openings, which runs along
+the middle of the roof, and rises thirty feet above it. The building was
+below this wall, but the front part of it had fallen. Among the remains
+at Xcoch is the great mound represented in Figure 44.
+
+There is a remarkable ruin at Ake, at the south, which deserves mention.
+Here, on the summit of a great mound, very level, and 225 feet by 50 in
+extent, stand 36 shafts or columns, in three parallel rows. The columns
+are about 15 feet high and 4 feet square. The ruins of Ake, which cover
+a great space, are ruder and more massive than most of the others. The
+island of Cozumel and the adjacent coast of Yucatan were populous when
+the Spaniards first went there, but the great towns then inhabited are
+now in ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Great Mound at Xcoch.]
+
+Water is scarce on this peninsula, and a sufficient supply is not
+obtained without considerable difficulty. The ancient inhabitants
+provided for this lack of water by constructing aguadas or artificial
+ponds. These, or many of them, doubtless, are as old as the oldest of
+the ruined cities. Intelligence, much skill in masonry, and much labor
+were required to construct them. They were paved with several courses of
+stone laid in cement, and in their bottoms wells or cavities were
+constructed. More than forty such wells were found in the bottom of one
+of these aguadas at Galal, which has been repaired and restored to use.
+A section of the bottom of this aguada is shown in Figure 45. In some
+places long subterranean passages lead down to pools of water, which are
+used in the dry season. One of these subterranean reservoirs, and the
+cavernous passage leading to it, are shown in Figure 46. The reservoir
+is 450 feet below the surface of the ground, and the passage leading to
+it is about 1400 feet long. Branching passages, not shown, lead to two
+or three other basins of water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Bottom of an Aguada.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Subterranean Reservoir.]
+
+The wooden lintels, which are common in Yucatan, do not appear in the
+other ruins, and there is a difference in the style of ornamentation
+between those at Palenque or Copan, for instance, and those at Uxmal,
+but every where the architecture is regulated by the same idea, the
+differences indicating nothing more than different periods and
+different phases of development in the history of the same people.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Plan of the Walls at Tuloom.]
+
+Some of the great edifices in these old ruins, such as the "Palace" at
+Palenque, and the "Casa del Gobernador" at Uxmal, remind us of the
+"communal buildings" of the Pueblos, and yet there is a wide difference
+between them. They are not alike either in character or purpose,
+although such great buildings as the "Palace" may have been designed for
+the occupation of several families. There is no indication that
+"communal" residences were ever common in this part of the country. At
+the time of the Conquest the houses of the people were ordinary family
+dwellings, made of wood, and we may reasonably suppose this fashion of
+building was handed down from the earlier ages. Herrera, who supposed,
+mistakenly, that all the great stone edifices were temples, said, in
+his account of Yucatan, "There were so many and such stately stone
+buildings that it was amazing; and the greatest wonder was that, having
+no use of any metal, they were able to raise such structures, which seem
+to have been temples; for their houses were all of timber, and
+thatched." But they had the use of metals, and they had the art of
+making some of them admirable for use in cutting stone and carving wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Watch-tower at Tuloom.]
+
+Among the buildings of later date are some of those on the western
+coast, which were still inhabited three hundred and fifty years ago. The
+city of Tuloom was inhabited then. Figure 47 shows a ground plan of the
+walls of this city, with the position of some of the ruined monuments.
+
+Within the walls are remains of finely constructed buildings on elevated
+foundations, none of them, however, very large. One of them had a wooden
+roof, and timber seems to have been considerably used here. The walls
+still standing were made of hewn stone. Remains of stone edifices exist
+all along this coast, but the whole region is now covered by a dense
+growth of trees and other vegetation. Tuloom was seen in 1518 by
+Grijalva, who sailed along the coast. At that time the island of
+Cozumel, where noteworthy ruins are found, was inhabited by many people.
+Figure 48 shows one of the watch-towers on the walls of Tuloom.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS.
+
+
+The Mexican and Central American ruins make it certain that in ancient
+times an important civilization existed in that part of the continent,
+which must have begun at a remote period in the past. If they have any
+significance, this must be accepted as an ascertained fact. A large
+proportion of them had been forgotten in the forests, or become mythical
+and mysterious, long before the arrival of the Spaniards.
+
+In 1520, three hundred and fifty years ago, the forest which so largely
+covers Yucatan, Guatemala, and Chiapa was growing as it grows now; yes,
+four hundred and fifty years ago, for it was there a century previous to
+this date, when, the Maya kingdom being broken up, one of its princes
+fled into this forest with a portion of his people, the Itzas, and
+settled at Lake Peten. It was the same then as now. How many additional
+centuries it had existed no one can tell. If its age could be told, it
+would still be necessary to consider that the ruins hidden in it are
+much older than the forest, and that the period of civilization they
+represent closed long before it was established.
+
+In the ages previous to the beginning of this immense forest, the region
+it covers was the seat of a civilization which grew up to a high degree
+of development, flourished a long time, and finally declined, until its
+cities were deserted, and its cultivated fields left to the wild
+influences of nature. It may be safely assumed that both the
+forest-covered ruins and the forest itself are far older than the Aztec
+period; but who can tell how much older? Copan, first discovered and
+described three hundred years ago, was then as strange to the natives
+dwelling near it as the old Chaldean ruins are to the Arabs who wander
+over the wasted plains of Lower Mesopotamia. Native tradition had
+forgotten its history and become silent in regard to it. How long had
+ruined Copan been in this condition? No one can tell. Manifestly it was
+forgotten, left buried in the forest without recollection of its
+history, long before Montezuma's people, the Aztecs, rose to power; and
+it is easily understood that this old city had an important history
+previous to that unknown time in the past when war, revolution, or some
+other agency of destruction put an end to its career and left it to
+become what it is now.
+
+Moreover, these old ruins, in all cases, show us only the cities last
+occupied in the periods to which they belong. Doubtless others still
+older preceded them; and, besides, it can be seen that some of the
+ruined cities which can now be traced were several times renewed by
+reconstructions. We must consider, also, that building magnificent
+cities is not the first work of an original civilization. The
+development was necessarily gradual. Its first period was more or less
+rude. The art of building and ornamenting such edifices arose slowly.
+Many ages must have been required to develop such admirable skill in
+masonry and ornamentation. Therefore the period between the beginning of
+this mysterious development of civilized life and the first builders who
+used cut stone laid in mortar and cement, and covered their work with
+beautifully sculptured ornaments and inscriptions, must have been very
+long.
+
+We have no measure of the time, no clew to the old dates, nothing
+whatever, beyond such considerations as I have stated, to warrant even a
+vague hypothesis. It can be seen clearly that the beginning of this old
+civilization was much older than the earliest great cities, and, also,
+that these were much more ancient than the time when any of the later
+built or reconstructed cities whose relics still exist, were left to
+decay. If we suppose Palenque to have been deserted some six hundred
+years previous to the Spanish Conquest, this date will carry us back
+only to the last days of its history as an inhabited city. Beyond it, in
+the distant past, is a vast period, in which the civilization
+represented by Palenque was developed, made capable of building such
+cities, and then carried on through the many ages during which cities
+became numerous, flourished, grew old, and gave place to others, until
+the long history of Palenque itself began.
+
+Those who have sought to discredit what is told of the Aztec
+civilization and the empire of Montezuma have never failed to admit
+fully the significance of Copan, Palenque, and Mitla. One or two
+writers, pursuing the assumption that the barbarous tribes at the north
+and the old Mexicans were of the same race, and substantially the same
+people, have undertaken to give us the history of Montezuma's empire
+"entirely rewritten," and show that his people were "Mexican savages."
+In their hands Montezuma is transformed into a barbarous Indian chief,
+and the city of Mexico becomes a rude Indian village, situated among the
+islands and lagoons of an everglade which afforded unusual facilities
+"for fishing and snaring birds." One goes so far as to maintain this
+with considerable vehemence and amusing unconsciousness of absurdity. He
+is sure that Montezuma was nothing more than the principal chief of a
+parcel of wild Indian tribes, and that the Pueblos are wild Indians
+changed to their present condition by Spanish influence. There is
+something in this akin to lunacy.
+
+But this topic will receive more attention in another place. I bring it
+to view here because those who maintain so strangely that the Aztecs
+were Indian savages, admit all that is claimed for the wonderful ruins
+at the south, and give them a very great antiquity. They maintain,
+however, that the civilization represented by these ruins was brought to
+this continent in remote pre-historic times by the people known as
+Phoenicians, and their method of finding the Phoenicians at Palenque,
+Copan, and every where else, is similar in character and value to that
+by which they transform the Aztec empire into a rude confederacy of wild
+Indians.
+
+
+DISTINCT ERAS TRACED.
+
+It is a point of no little interest that these old constructions belong
+to different periods in the past, and represent somewhat different
+phases of civilization. Uxmal, which is supposed to have been partly
+inhabited when the Spaniards arrived in the country, is plainly much
+more modern than Copan or Palenque. This is easily traced in the ruins.
+Its edifices were finished in a different style, and show fewer
+inscriptions. Round pillars, somewhat in the Doric style, are found at
+Uxmal, but none like the square, richly-carved pillars, bearing
+inscriptions, discovered in some of the other ruins. Copan and Palenque,
+and even Kabah, in Yucatan, may have been very old cities, if not
+already old ruins, when Uxmal was built. Accepting the reports of
+explorers as correct, there is evidence in the ruins that Quirigua is
+older than Copan, and that Copan is older than Palenque. The old
+monuments in Yucatan represent several distinct epochs in the ancient
+history of that peninsula. Some of them are kindred to those hidden in
+the great forest, and remind us more of Palenque than of Uxmal. Among
+those described, the most modern, or most of these, are in Yucatan; they
+belong to the time when the kingdom of the Mayas flourished. Many of the
+others belong to ages previous to the rise of this kingdom; and in ages
+still earlier, ages older than the great forest, there were other
+cities, doubtless, whose remains have perished utterly, or were long ago
+removed for use in the later constructions.
+
+The evidence of repeated reconstructions in some of the cities before
+they were deserted has been pointed out by explorers. I have quoted what
+Charnay says of it in his description of Mitla. At Palenque, as at
+Mitla, the oldest work is the most artistic and admirable. Over this
+feature of the monuments, and the manifest signs of their difference in
+age, the attention of investigators has lingered in speculation. They
+find in them a significance which is stated as follows by Brasseur de
+Bourbourg: "Among the edifices forgotten by time in the forests of
+Mexico and Central America, we find architectural characteristics so
+different from each other, that it is as impossible to attribute them
+all to the same people as to believe they were all built at the same
+epoch." In his view, "the substructions at Mayapan, some of those at
+Tulha, and a great part of those at Palenque," are among the older
+remains. These are not the oldest cities whose remains are still
+visible, but they may have been built, in part, upon the foundations of
+cities much more ancient.
+
+
+NOTHING PERISHABLE LEFT.
+
+No well considered theory of these ruins can avoid the conclusion that
+most of them are very ancient, and that, to find the origin of the
+civilization they represent, we must go far back into the "deeps of
+antiquity." On all the fields of desolation where they exist, every
+thing perishable has disappeared. Wooden lintels are mentioned, but
+these can hardly be regarded as constituting an exception when the
+character of the wood, and the circumstances that contributed to their
+preservation, are considered. Moreover, wooden lintels seem to have been
+peculiar to Yucatan, where many of the great edifices were constructed
+in the later times, and some of them of perishable materials. Every
+where in the older ruins, nothing remains but the artificial mounds and
+foundations of earth, the stone, the cement, the stucco hard as marble,
+and other imperishable materials used by the builders.
+
+If the edifices had all been made of wood, there would now be nothing to
+show us that the older cities had ever existed. Every trace of them
+would have been obliterated long before our time, and most of them would
+have disappeared entirely long before the country was seen by the
+Spaniards. The places where they stood, with no relics save the mounds
+and pyramidal platforms, would resemble the works of our Mound-Builders,
+and not a few "sound historical critics" would consider it in the
+highest degree absurd to suggest that cities with such structures have
+ever existed there. Under the circumstances supposed, how wisely
+skepticism could talk against a suggestion of this kind at Copan, Mitla,
+or Palenque! and how difficult it would be to find a satisfactory answer
+to its reasonings! Nevertheless, those mysterious structures have not
+wholly disappeared, and we can easily understand that there was a time
+when large areas connected with them were covered with buildings of a
+less durable character.
+
+I have referred to a writer who maintains, with more vehemence than
+candor, that the Aztecs, and all the other people found in the
+country, were "savages" not greatly different from the wild Indians
+farther north, while he admits the significance and great antiquity of
+these ruins. His conception of their antiquity is somewhat extreme, for
+he says they must have existed "for thousands of years" when the
+Spaniards arrived. If he had maintained that civilized communities were
+there "thousands of years" previous to that time, developing the skill
+in architecture, decoration, and writing, to which the monuments bear
+witness, it might be possible to agree with him. Some of us, however,
+would probably stipulate that he should not count too many "thousands,"
+nor claim a similar antiquity for the ruins now visible. It is not easy
+to suppose that any of these old monuments, with their well-preserved
+sculptures and inscriptions, represent the first period of the ancient
+history they suggest, nor that they have existed as ruins many
+"thousands of years," for the climate of Mexico and Central America does
+not preserve such remains like that of Egypt.
+
+Nevertheless, some of them must be very old. The forest established
+since the ruin began, the entire disappearance of every thing more
+perishable than stone, the utter oblivion which veiled their history in
+the time of Montezuma, and probably long previous to his time, all these
+facts bear witness to their great antiquity. In many of them, as at
+Quirigua and Kabah, the stone structures have become masses of débris;
+and even at Copan, Palenque, and Mitla, only a few of them are
+sufficently[TN-4] well preserved to show us what they were in the
+great days of their history. Meanwhile, keep in mind that the ruined
+cities did not begin their present condition until the civilization that
+created them had declined; and, also, that if we could determine exactly
+the date when they were deserted and left to decay, we should only reach
+that point in the past where their history as inhabited cities was
+brought to a close.
+
+Take Copan, for instance. This city may have become a ruin during the
+time of the Toltecs, which began long before the Christian era, and
+ended some five or six centuries probably before the country was invaded
+by Cortez. It was built before their time, for the style of writing, and
+many features of the architecture and ornamentation, show the
+workmanship of their predecessors, judging by the historical intimations
+found in the old books and traditions. We may suppose it to have been an
+old city at the time of the Toltec invasion, although not one of the
+first cities built by that more ancient and more cultivated people by
+whom this old American civilization was originated. The present
+condition of the monuments at Quirigua is still more suggestive of great
+age.
+
+
+"THE OLDEST OF CIVILIZATIONS."
+
+Some investigators, who have given much study to the antiquities,
+traditions, old books, and probable geological history of Mexico and
+Central America, believe that the first civilization the world ever saw
+appeared in this part of Ancient America, or was immediately connected
+with it. They hold that the human race first rose to civilized life in
+America, which is, geologically, the oldest of the continents; and that,
+ages ago, the portion of this continent on which the first civilizers
+appeared was sunk beneath the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Usually the
+ingulfing of this portion of the land is supposed to have been effected
+by some tremendous convulsion of nature; and there is appeal to
+recollections of such a catastrophe, said to have been preserved in the
+old books of Central America, and also in those of Egypt, from which
+Solon received an account of the lost Atlantis.
+
+According to this hypothesis, the American continent formerly extended
+from Mexico, Central America, and New Granada far into the Atlantic
+Ocean toward Europe and Africa, covering all the space now occupied by
+the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the West India islands, and
+going far beyond them toward the east and northeast. This lost portion
+of the continent was the Atlantis of which the old annals of Egypt told
+so much in the time of Solon, as we learn from Plato; and it was the
+original seat of the first human civilization, which, after the great
+cataclysm, was renewed and perpetuated in the region where we now trace
+the mysterious remains of ancient cities. Those desiring to know what
+can be said in support of this view of Ancient America must read the
+later volumes of Brasseur de Bourbourg, especially his "Quatre Lettres
+sur le Mexique," and his "Sources de l'Histoire Primitive du Mexique,"
+etc. He is not a perspicuous writer; he uses but little system in
+treating the subject, and he introduces many fanciful speculations which
+do more to embarrass than to help the discussion; but those who read
+the books patiently can find and bring together all that relates to the
+point in question, and consider it in their own way. They can also find
+it set forth and defended in a small volume by George Catlin, entitled
+"The Lifted and Subsided Rocks of America," published in London, not
+long since, by Trübner and Company.
+
+I shall give more attention to this theory in the next chapter. I refer
+to it here on account of the very great antiquity it claims for the
+ancient American civilization. It represents that the advanced human
+development whose crumbling monuments are studied at Copan, Mitla, and
+Palenque antedates every thing else in the human period of our globe,
+excepting, perhaps, an earlier time of barbarism and pastoral
+simplicity; that its history goes back through all the misty ages of
+pre-historic time to an unknown date previous to the beginning of such
+civilization in any part of the Old World. It is hardly possible to make
+it more ancient.
+
+
+AMERICAN CITIES SEEN BY TYRIANS.
+
+The view just stated touches the imagination and stirs the feelings like
+a genuine "wonder story;" but this should not be allowed to deny it a
+fair hearing. Those who reject it should disprove it before they hasten
+to pronounce it "absurd" and "impossible," else it may be suspected that
+their accustomed views of antiquity are due more to education, and to
+the habit of following a given fashion of thinking, than to actual
+reflection. It needs demonstration; and we may reasonably suggest that,
+in the present state of our knowledge of the past, demonstration is
+impossible. Meanwhile, a clear historical record appears to make it
+certain that flourishing towns and cities were seen and visited in
+America three thousand years ago, by persons who went to them across the
+Atlantic.
+
+It is said, more or less clearly, by more than one Greek writer, that
+the Phoenicians and Carthaginians knew the way to a continent beyond
+the Atlantic. One fact preserved in the annals of Tyrian commerce, and
+mentioned by several ancient writers, is related by Diodorus Siculus
+very particularly as a matter of authentic history. His narration begins
+with the following statement:
+
+"Over against Africa lies a very great island, in the vast ocean, many
+days' sail from Libya westward. The soil there is very fruitful, a great
+part whereof is mountainous, but much likewise champaign, which is the
+most sweet and pleasant part, for it is watered by several navigable
+streams, and beautified with many gardens of pleasure planted with
+divers sorts of trees and an abundance of orchards. The towns are
+adorned with stately buildings and banqueting houses pleasantly situated
+in their gardens and orchards." The great ruins in Yucatan, and
+elsewhere in Mexico and Central America, bear witness that there was,
+anciently, such a country as this, across the ocean, "many days' sail
+from Libya westward;" but Diodorus Siculus lived before the Christian
+era, and how was this known to him and others more than fifteen hundred
+years before America was discovered by Columbus? He tells us as follows:
+"The Phoenicians (Tyrians) having found out the coasts beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, sailed along by the coast of Africa. One of their
+ships, on a sudden, was driven by a furious storm far off into the main
+ocean. After they had lain under this violent tempest many days, they at
+length arrived at this island."
+
+This reminds us of the constrained voyage of Biarni, the Northman, from
+Iceland to the coast of Massachusetts, in the year 985 A.D.[163-*] He,
+too, was storm-driven "many days," and in this way forced to the
+discovery of New England. He started for Greenland, and finally reached
+it by way of Martha's Vineyard and Cape Cod. The tempest-driven ship of
+the Tyrians must have been carried to the West Indies, and to the coast
+of Honduras or Yucatan, where the Tyrians saw the gardens, cities, and
+stately edifices. The description of what they saw brings to mind
+similar accounts of what was seen in Yucatan by the Spaniards, when they
+began to sail along the coast of that peninsula in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century; Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincente Yañez Pinçon in 1506,
+and Hernandez de Cordova in 1517. They, too, saw handsome towns and
+stately buildings.
+
+This undesigned voyage of the Tyrian ship seems to have been made
+previous to the building of Gadir, or Gades. Perhaps they made other
+voyages to that region, but it was a custom of the Phoenicians to be
+very secret in regard to the methods and paths of their commerce. A
+complete history of their commerce and navigation from the earliest
+times would unquestionably give us views of the past quite as startling
+to the prevalent assuming, unreasoning habits of belief, or rather
+disbelief, concerning antiquity, as that hypothesis of Atlantis and the
+earliest civilization. What is told by Diodorus authorizes us to suppose
+that the Tyrians who went across the Atlantic as described beheld some
+of the ancient American cities which are now found in ruins, for it is
+certain that nothing of the kind existed any where else "many days' sail
+from Libya [Northern Africa] westward." Their voyage was made more than
+eleven hundred years previous to the Christian era. If the old Central
+American books may be trusted, this was not very long previous to the
+beginning of the Toltec domination.
+
+Beyond this date, the history of the "Colhuas," who are described as the
+original civilizers, must have covered a very long period; how long we
+may imagine, but can not know. Gadir, now Cadiz, founded eleven hundred
+years previous to the Christian era, is still an inhabited city; it has
+been several times reconstructed, but never deserted. When it was built,
+Tartessus, then a very old city, still existed, although it was in ruins
+long before Christ appeared. How long had Palenque been in existence
+when that Tyrian ship was driven across the Atlantic? And how long had
+that region been a region of cities and civilization? There is no
+history which can answer these questions.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[163-*] See Appendix A.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+WHENCE CAME THAT OLD CIVILIZATION?
+
+
+Various theories, some of them very wild and irrational, have been
+advanced to explain the origin of what is seen in these relics of
+Ancient America. If it had been the fashion to explore and study them as
+their importance deserves, as Egypt and Nineveh have been explored and
+studied, our knowledge of them would now be much more extensive and
+valuable, and it might be possible to go farther toward a solution of
+the problem they present. But not many persons have sought to explore
+and understand these remains, and not more than two or three have really
+sought in earnest to examine the old traditions and books of the
+country. The abundant inscriptions at Palenque fade in their forest
+solitude while waiting for the Champollion who shall interpret their
+mysteries. Something is known, but we have no history of these old
+cities, no authentic historical record of the people who built them.
+Therefore theorizing has very naturally been stimulated to great
+activity, and most of this theorizing has been regulated by the old,
+unreasoning assumption that civilization found in any place, especially
+in the olden times, must have been brought and established there as a
+foreign production. Generally the hypotheses used in this case have
+presumed as a matter of course that the original civilizers came to
+this continent from Europe or Asia.
+
+
+THE "LOST TRIBES OF ISRAEL."
+
+One of these theories is (or was), that the original civilizers of
+Mexico and Central America were the "lost ten tribes of Israel." This
+extremely remarkable explanation of the mystery was devised very early,
+and it has been persistently defended by some persons, although nothing
+can be more unwarranted or more absurd. It was put forward by the
+Spanish monks who first established missions in the country, a class of
+men to whom the world is indebted for a great variety of amazing
+contributions to the literature of hagiology; and the same men, in a way
+equally conclusive, explained the sculptured crosses found in the old
+ruins by assuming that the Gospel was preached in America by St. Thomas.
+Lord Kingsborough adopted their views, and gave up nearly the whole of
+one of his immense volumes on Mexican Antiquities to an elaborate digest
+of all that had been written to explain and support these absurdities.
+Others have maintained this Israelitish hypothesis without deeming it
+necessary to estimate in a reasonable way what was possible to those
+Israelites.
+
+According to this truly monkish theory, the "lost ten tribes of Israel"
+left Palestine, Syria, Assyria, or whatever country they dwelt in at the
+time, traversed the whole extent of Asia, crossed over into America at
+Behring's Strait, went down the Pacific coast, and established a
+wonderful civilization in that part of the continent where the great
+ruins are found. The kingdom of the ten tribes was destroyed not long
+previous to the year 700 B.C. How many years are allowed, after their
+escape from captivity, for this unparalleled journey, has not yet been
+ascertained. But, if such a journey had been possible, it would have
+resulted in utter barbarism rather than any notable phase of civilized
+life. Even the Jews who remained faithful to Moses, although important
+on account of their scriptures and their religion, were not remarkable
+for civilization. They were incapable of building their own Temple
+without aid from the Tyrians. Moreover, there is not any where either a
+fact, a suggestion, or a circumstance of any kind to show that the "lost
+ten tribes" ever left the countries of Southwestern Asia, where they
+dwelt after the destruction of their kingdom. They were "lost" to the
+Jewish nation because they rebelled, apostatized, and, after their
+subjugation by the Assyrians in 721 B.C., were to a great extent
+absorbed by other peoples in that part of Asia. Some of them probably
+were still in Palestine when Christ appeared. This wild notion, called a
+theory, scarcely deserves so much attention. It is a lunatic fancy,
+possible only to men of a certain class, which in our time does not
+multiply.
+
+
+THE "MALAY" THEORY.
+
+Another hypothesis, much less improbable, though not satisfactory, is
+that civilization was brought to America in ancient times by the Malays.
+There was a great island empire of the Malays, whose history extended
+far back into pre-historic times, how far back can not now be known. It
+was still in existence when the Portuguese first went to India around
+the Cape of Good Hope; and we have several accounts of this empire
+written by travelers who saw and described it six hundred years before
+this first Indian voyage of the Portuguese was undertaken. El Mas'údí,
+who was one of these travelers, used very strong terms to describe its
+extent, intelligence, and power. Speaking of its sovereign, he said,
+"The islands under his sceptre are so numerous that the fastest sailing
+vessel is not able to go round them in two years," implying that his
+sway was acknowledged by the island world over a large portion of the
+Pacific. This Malayan empire was maritime and commercial; it had fleets
+of great ships; and there is evidence that its influence reached most of
+the Pacific islands. This is shown by the fact that dialects of the
+Malay language have been found in most of these islands as far in this
+direction as Easter Island. The language of the Sandwich Islanders, for
+instance, is Malayan, and has a close relationship to that now spoken in
+the Malay islands.
+
+The metropolis of this great empire was in the island of Java, where old
+ruins still bear witness to the former "civilization, wealth, and
+splendor" celebrated by El Mas'údí. Mr. A. R. Wallace, in his work on
+the Malay Archipelago, says, "Few Englishmen are aware of the number and
+beauty of the architectural remains in Java. They have never been
+popularly illustrated or described, and it will therefore take most
+persons by surprise to learn that they far surpass those of Central
+America, perhaps even those of India." The purpose of his visit to the
+island did not allow him to explore ruins, but he describes some of
+them. He saw what still remains of an ancient city called "Modjo-pahit,"
+and says, "There were two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a
+gateway. The extreme perfection and beauty of the brick-work astonished
+me. The bricks are exceedingly fine and hard, with sharp angles and true
+surfaces. They were laid with great exactness, without visible mortar or
+cement, yet somehow fastened together so that the joints are hardly
+perceptible, and sometimes the two surfaces coalesce in a most
+incomprehensible manner. Such admirable brick-work I have never seen
+before or since. There was no sculpture here, but abundance of bold
+projections and finely-worked mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for
+many miles in every direction, and almost every road and pathway shows a
+foundation of brick-work beneath it, the paved roads of the old city."
+In other places he saw sculptures and beautifully carved figures in high
+relief.
+
+The Malays still read and write, have some literature, and retain many
+of the arts and usages of civilization, but they are now very far below
+the condition indicated by these ruins, and described by El Mas'údí, who
+traveled among them a thousand years ago. It is by no means improbable
+that their ships visited the western coast of America, and traded with
+the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the days of their greatest power
+and activity. It is not easy to believe they could fail to do so after
+taking such control of Easter Island as to leave their language there;
+and, according to the old traditions of both Mexico and Peru, the
+Pacific coast in both countries was anciently visited by a foreign
+people who came in ships. But they did not come to America as
+civilizers; there is nothing Malayan in either the antiquities or the
+ancient speech of these countries.
+
+What is known of the former great condition and power of the Malays
+furnishes important suggestions relative to the ancient history of the
+islands of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean,[170-*] as well as those
+of the Indian Ocean.
+
+The people who inhabit the eastern side of Formosa, it is said, use a
+Malay dialect, and have no resemblance whatever to the Mongols. Who can
+fully explain the little known Ainos, who formerly occupied the whole,
+or nearly the whole of Japan? The unmistakable traces of Malay influence
+every where in the islands of the Pacific can have but one meaning. The
+Malays formerly sailed on that ocean, occupied its islands, and
+doubtless visited America.
+
+That there was communication between Eastern Asia and America in very
+ancient times, through the Malays or otherwise, is in a high degree
+probable. This continent was known to the Japanese and Chinese long
+before the time of Columbus. Accounts of it were recorded in their books
+previous to his time. They called it "Fusang," and evidently, at some
+period, had been accustomed to make voyages to some part of the American
+coast. But neither the Malays, the Chinese, nor the Japanese came here
+as civilizers, for there is no trace of either of these peoples in the
+old ruins, in the ancient language of the country, or in any thing we
+know of the people whom these American ruins represent.
+
+
+THE PHOENICIAN THEORY.
+
+Some of the more intelligent investigators have maintained, with no
+little confidence, that this ancient American civilization came
+originally from the Phoenicians. Among those who use reason in their
+inquiries sufficiently to be incapable of accepting the absurdities of
+monkish fancy, this hypothesis has found more favor than any other.
+Wherever inquiry begins by assuming that the original civilizers came
+from some other part of the world, it seems more reasonable than any
+other, for more can be said to give it the appearance of probability.
+
+The people known to us as Phoenicians were pre-eminent as the colonizing
+navigators of antiquity. They were an enlightened and enterprising
+maritime people, whose commerce traversed every known sea, and extended
+its operations beyond the "Pillars of Hercules" into the "great exterior
+ocean." The early Greeks called them Ethiopians (not meaning either
+black men or Africans), and said they went every where, establishing
+their colonies and their commerce in all the coast regions, "from the
+extreme east to the extreme west." But the great ages of this people are
+in the distant past, far beyond the beginning of what we call history.
+History has knowledge only of a few of their later communities, the
+Sabeans of Southern Arabia, the Phoenicians (meaning chiefly the
+Tyrians), and the Carthaginians. What a change there would be in the
+prevalent conceptions of the past if we could have a complete record of
+this race from the beginning of its development!
+
+It is not difficult to believe that communities of the Phoenician or
+Ethiopian race were established all around the Mediterranean, and even
+beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, in ages quite as old as Egypt or
+Chaldea, and that they had communication with America before Tyre or
+Sidon was built. Why did the ancients say so much of a "great Saturnian
+continent" beyond the Atlantic if nobody in the pre-historic ages had
+ever seen that continent? It was there, as they said and as we know; but
+whence came their knowledge of it, and such knowledge as led them to
+describe it as "larger than Asia (meaning Asia Minor), Europe, and Libya
+together?" This ancient belief must have been due to Phoenician or
+Ethiopian communication with America in earlier times, which was
+imperfectly recollected, or perhaps never completely revealed to other
+nations; and this must have taken place at a very remote period, for
+imperfect recollection of the great continent across the Atlantic,
+including what Solon heard in Egypt of Atlantis, was more ancient than
+the constrained voyage of that Tyrian ship of which Diodorus Siculus
+gives an account; and it can be seen that the early Greeks had a better
+knowledge even of Western Europe than those of later times. A dark age,
+so far as relates to geographical knowledge, set in upon the countries
+around the Ægean Sea and on the coast of Asia Minor after the
+independence and enterprise of Tyre and the other Phoenician cities
+were destroyed by the Assyrians, toward the close of the ninth century
+before Christ, which was disturbed some four hundred and fifty or five
+hundred years later by the conquests of Alexander the Great.
+
+The known enterprise of the Phoenician race, and this ancient knowledge
+of America, so variously expressed, strongly encourage the hypothesis
+that the people called Phoenicians came to this continent, established
+colonies in the region where ruined cities are found, and filled it with
+civilized life. It is argued that they made voyages on the "great
+exterior ocean," and that such navigators must have crossed the
+Atlantic; and it is added that symbolic devices similar to those of the
+Phoenicians are found in the American ruins, and that an old tradition
+of the native Mexicans and Central Americans described the first
+civilizers as "bearded white men," who "came from the East in ships."
+Therefore, it is urged, the people described in the native books and
+traditions as "Colhuas" must have been Phoenicians.
+
+But if it were true that the civilization found in Mexico and Central
+America came from people of the Phoenician race, it would be true also
+that they built in America as they never built any where else, that they
+established a language here radically unlike their own, and that they
+used a style of writing totally different from that which they carried
+into every other region occupied by their colonies. All the forms of
+alphabetical writing used at present in Europe and Southwestern Asia
+came directly or indirectly from that anciently invented by the race to
+which the Phoenicians belonged, and they have traces of a common
+relationship which can easily be detected. Now the writing of the
+inscriptions at Palenque, Copan, and elsewhere in the ruins has no more
+relatedness to the Phoenician than to the Chinese writing. It has not a
+single characteristic that can be called Phoenician any more than the
+language of the inscriptions or the style of architecture with which it
+is associated; therefore we can not reasonably suppose this American
+civilization was originated by people of the Phoenician race, whatever
+may be thought relative to the supposed ancient communication between
+the two continents and its probable influence on civilized communities
+already existing here.
+
+
+THE "ATLANTIC" THEORY.
+
+I have already stated in general terms the hypothesis advanced by
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and some other writers. This may be called the
+"Atlantic" theory, for it attributes the civilization of Ancient America
+to the Atlantides or Atlantic race, who occupied the lost "island of
+Atlantis." Brasseur de Bourbourg has studied the monuments, writings,
+and traditions left by this civilization more carefully and thoroughly
+than any other man living. He has fancies which may be safely rejected,
+and he has theories which, doubtless, will always lack confirmation; but
+he has much, also, which demands respectful consideration. There is a
+great deal in his books to provoke criticism; those well acquainted with
+the antiquities and ancient speech of Egypt may reasonably give way to
+a smile of incredulity while reading what he says in support of the
+notion that the great civilization of Egypt also came originally from
+this Atlantic race. Nevertheless, his volumes are important, because
+they furnish materials which others can use more carefully, and because
+he has learned to decipher some of the Central American writings and
+brought to view certain paths of inquiry which others may pursue with a
+more rigid method.
+
+As already stated, his Atlantic theory of the old American civilization
+is, that it was originated on this continent, but on a portion of the
+continent which is now below the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It
+supposes the continent extended, anciently, from New Granada, Central
+America, and Mexico in a long, irregular peninsula, so far across the
+Atlantic that the Canary, Madeira, and Azores or Western Islands may be
+remains of this portion of it. High mountains stood where we now find
+the West India islands. Beyond these, toward Africa and Europe, was a
+great extent of fertile and beautiful land, and here arose the first
+civilization of mankind, which flourished many ages, until at length
+this extended portion of the continent was ingulfed by a tremendous
+convulsion of nature, or by a succession of such convulsions which made
+the ruin complete. After the cataclysm, a part of the Atlantic people
+who escaped destruction settled in Central America, where perhaps their
+civilization had been previously introduced. The reasons urged in
+support of this hypothesis make it seem plausible, if not probable, to
+imaginative minds.
+
+In the first place, Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that there is in the
+old Central American books a constant tradition of an immense
+catastrophe of the character supposed; that this tradition existed every
+where among the people when they first became known to Europeans; and
+that recollections of the catastrophe were preserved in some of their
+festivals, especially in one celebrated in the month of _Izcalli_, which
+was instituted to commemorate this frightful destruction of land and
+people, and in which "princes and people humbled themselves before the
+divinity, and besought Him to withhold a return of such terrible
+calamities." This tradition affirms that a part of the continent
+extending into the Atlantic was destroyed in the manner supposed, and
+appears to indicate that the destruction was accomplished by a
+succession of frightful convulsions. Three are constantly mentioned, and
+sometimes there is mention of one or two others. "The land was shaken by
+frightful earthquakes, and the waves of the sea combined with volcanic
+fires to overwhelm and ingulf it." Each convulsion swept away portions
+of the land, until the whole disappeared, leaving the line of the coast
+as it is now. Most of the inhabitants, overtaken amid their regular
+employments, were destroyed; but some escaped in ships, and some fled
+for safety to the summits of high mountains, or to portions of the land
+which, for the time, escaped immediate destruction. Quotations are made
+from the old books in which this tradition is recorded which appear to
+verify his report of what is found in them. To criticise intelligently
+his interpretation of their significance, one needs to have a knowledge
+of those books and traditions equal at least to his own.
+
+In the second place, he appeals to the story of Atlantis, preserved in
+the annals of Egypt, and related to Solon by the priests of Sais. It is
+stated in Plutarch's life of Solon that while in Egypt "he conferred
+with the priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis, and Sais, and
+learned from them the story of Atlantis." Brasseur de Bourbourg cites
+Cousin's translation of Plato's record of this story as follows:
+
+"Among the great deeds of Athens, of which recollection is preserved in
+our books, there is one which should be placed above all others. Our
+books tell that the Athenians destroyed an army which came across the
+Atlantic Sea, and insolently invaded Europe and Asia; for this sea was
+then navigable, and beyond the strait where you place the Pillars of
+Hercules there was an island larger than Asia [Minor] and Libya
+combined. From this island one could pass easily to the other islands,
+and from these to the continent which lies around the interior sea. The
+sea on this side of the strait (the Mediterranean) of which we speak
+resembles a harbor with a narrow entrance; but there is a genuine sea,
+and the land which surrounds it is a veritable continent. In the island
+of Atlantis reigned three kings with great and marvelous power. They had
+under their dominion the whole of Atlantis, several other islands, and
+some parts of the continent. At one time their power extended into
+Libya, and into Europe as far as Tyrrhenia; and, uniting their whole
+force, they sought to destroy our countries at a blow, but their defeat
+stopped the invasion and gave entire independence to all the countries
+on this side of the Pillars of Hercules. Afterward, in one day and one
+fatal night, there came mighty earthquakes and inundations, which
+ingulfed that warlike people; Atlantis disappeared beneath the sea, and
+then that sea became inaccessible, so that navigation on it ceased on
+account of the quantity of mud which the ingulfed island left in its
+place."
+
+This invasion took place many ages before Athens was known as a Greek
+city. It is referred to an extremely remote antiquity. The festival
+known as the "Lesser Panathenæa," which, as symbolic devices used in it
+show, commemorated this triumph over the Atlantes, is said to have been
+instituted by the mythical Erichthonius in the earliest times remembered
+by Athenian tradition. Solon had knowledge of the Atlantes before he
+went to Egypt, but he heard there, for the first time, this account of
+their "island" and of its disappearance in a frightful cataclysm. But
+Atlantis is mentioned by other ancient writers. An extract preserved in
+Proclus, taken from a work now lost, which is quoted by Boeckh in his
+commentary on Plato, mentions islands in the exterior sea beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, and says it was known that in one of these islands
+"the inhabitants preserved from their ancestors a remembrance of
+Atlantis, an extremely large island, which for a long time held dominion
+over all the islands of the Atlantic Ocean."
+
+Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that these traditions, on both sides of the
+Atlantic, mean the same thing. The "island of Atlantis," larger than
+Libya and Asia Minor together, was the extended portion of the American
+continent. These concurring traditions can not be devoid of historical
+significance. The constant references by ancient Greek writers to the
+Atlantes, who are always placed at the extremity of Europe and Africa,
+on the ocean which bears their name, may reasonably be regarded as vague
+and faded recollections of such a history connected with that ocean as
+that implied by what was said of their island in the annals of Egypt. In
+support of his view of what is meant by the traditions, he adds this
+philological argument:
+
+"The words _Atlas_ and _Atlantic_ have no satisfactory etymology in any
+language known to Europe. They are not Greek, and can not be referred to
+any known language of the Old World. But in the Nahuatl language we find
+immediately the radical _a_, _atl_, which signifies water, war, and the
+top of the head. (Molina, _Vocab. en lengua mexicana y castellana_,
+etc.) From this comes a series of words, such as _atlan_, on the border
+of or amid the water, from which we have the adjective _Atlantic_. We
+have also atlaça, to combat or be in agony; it means likewise to hurl or
+dart from the water, and in the preterit makes _atlaz_. A city named
+_Atlan_ existed when the continent was discovered by Columbus, at the
+entrance of the Gulf of Uraba, in Darien, with a good harbor; it is now
+reduced to an unimportant pueblo named _Acla_."
+
+In the third place, he quotes opinions expressed without any regard
+whatever to his theory to show that scientific men who have considered
+the question believe that there was formerly a great extension of the
+land into the Atlantic in the manner supposed. The first quotation is
+from Moreau de Saint-Mery's "Description topographique et politique de
+la Partie Espagnole a l'Isle de Saint-Domingue," published in 1796, as
+follows:
+
+"There are those who, in examining the map of America, do not confine
+themselves to thinking with the French Pliny that the innumerable
+islands situated from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Bahama Channel
+(islands which include several _Grenadins_ not always visible in very
+high tides or great agitations of the sea) should be considered as
+summits of vast mountains whose bases and sides are covered with water,
+but who go farther, and suppose these islands to be the tops of the most
+elevated of a chain of mountains which crowned a portion of the
+continent whose submersion has produced the Gulf of Mexico. But to
+sustain this opinion it must be added that another vast surface of land
+which united the islands of this archipelago to the continent, from
+Yucatan to the mouth of the Orinoco, was submerged in the same way, and
+also a third surface which connected them with the peninsula of Florida
+and with whatever land may have constituted the northern termination;
+for we can not imagine that these mountains whose summits appear above
+water stood on the terminating line of the continent."
+
+He quotes, also, another authority which "can not be suspected," namely,
+M. Charles Martins, who said, in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ for March
+1, 1867, "Now, hydrography, geology, and botany agree in teaching us
+that the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira are the remains of a great
+continent which formerly united Europe to North America." He could have
+added other quotations in the same strain. Those geologists who believe
+that "our continents have long remained in nearly the same relative
+position" would probably give the supposed change a much greater
+antiquity than Brasseur de Bourbourg would be likely to accept; and the
+geological "Uniformitarians" would deny with emphasis that so great a
+change in the shape of a continent was ever effected by such means, or
+with such rapidity as he supposes. But the latest and most advanced
+school of geological speculation does not exclude "Catastrophism," and,
+therefore, will not deny the possibility of sudden and great changes by
+this method.
+
+Doubtless the antiquity of the human race is much greater than is
+usually assumed by those whose views of the past are still regulated by
+mediæval systems of chronology. Archæology and linguistic science, not
+to speak here of geology, make it certain that the period between the
+beginning of the human race and the birth of Christ would be more
+accurately stated if the centuries counted in the longest estimate of
+the rabbinical chronologies should be changed to millenniums. And they
+present also another fact, namely, that the antiquity of civilization is
+very great, and suggest that in remote ages it may have existed, with
+important developments, in regions of the earth now described as
+barbarous, and even, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes, on ancient
+continents or portions of continents now out of sight below the surface
+of the oceans. The representation of some speculators that the condition
+of the human race since its first appearance on earth has been a
+condition of universal and hopeless savagery down to a comparatively
+modern date, is an assumption merely, an unwarranted assumption used in
+support of an unproved and unprovable theory of man's origin. Its use in
+the name of science by advocates of this theory, like the theory itself,
+shows that the constructive power of fancy and imagination will
+sometimes supersede every thing else, and substitute its ingenious
+constructions for legitimate conclusions, even in scientific
+speculation.
+
+We may claim reasonably that Brasseur de Bourbourg's Atlantic theory is
+not proved, and on this ground refuse to accept it. So far as appears,
+it is a fanciful theory which can not be proved. No one is under
+obligation to attempt disproving it. It may, in some cases, win
+supporters by enlisting in its favor all the forces of imagination, to
+which it appeals with seductive plausibility. On the other hand, it will
+be rejected without much regard to what can be said in its favor, for it
+interferes with current unreasoning beliefs concerning antiquity and
+ancient history, and must encounter vehement contradiction from habits
+of thought fixed by these beliefs. True, some of the stock views of
+antiquity, by which it will be earnestly opposed, are themselves far
+more destitute of foundation in either fact or reason; but this will
+make no difference, as the habit of never allowing them to be subjected
+to the searching power of reason does not permit such persons either to
+believe or deny any thing connected with this topic in a reasonable
+manner.
+
+Some of the uses made of this theory can not endure criticism. For
+instance, when he makes it the basis of an assumption that all the
+civilization of the Old World went originally from America, and claims
+particularly that the supposed "Atlantic race" created Egypt, he goes
+quite beyond reach of the considerations used to give his hypothesis a
+certain air of probability. It may be, as he says, that for every
+pyramid in Egypt there are a thousand in Mexico and Central America, but
+the ruins in Egypt and those in America have nothing in common. The two
+countries were entirely different in their language, in their styles of
+architecture, in their written characters, and in the physical
+characteristics of their earliest people, as they are seen sculptured or
+painted on the monuments. An Egyptian pyramid is no more the same thing
+as a Mexican pyramid than a Chinese pagoda is the same thing as an
+English light-house. It was not made in the same way, nor for the same
+uses. The ruined monuments show, in generals and in particulars, that
+the original civilizers in America were profoundly different from the
+ancient Egyptians. The two peoples can not explain each other.
+
+This, however, does not require us to assert positively that the Central
+American "Colhuas" and the legendary Atlantes could not possibly have
+been the same people, or people of the same race. Room may be left for
+any amount of conjecture not inconsistent with known facts, without
+making it necessary to accept a theory of the origin of the old Mexican
+race which at present can neither be proved nor disproved.
+
+
+IT WAS AN ORIGINAL CIVILIZATION.
+
+It has been said, very justly, by one explorer of the Mexican and
+Central American ruins, that "the American monuments are different from
+those of any other known people, of a new order, and entirely and
+absolutely anomalous; they stand alone." The more we study them, the
+more we find it necessary to believe that the civilization they
+represent was originated in America, and probably in the region where
+they are found. It did not come from the Old World; it was the work of
+some remarkably gifted branch of the race found on the southern part of
+this continent when it was discovered in 1492. Undoubtedly it was very
+old. Its original beginning may have been as old as Egypt, or even
+farther back in the past than the ages to which Atlantis must be
+referred; and it may have been later than the beginning of Egypt. Who
+can certainly tell its age? Whether earlier or later, it was original.
+
+Its constructions seem to have been a refined and artistic development
+of a style of building different from that of any other people, which
+began with ruder forms, but in all the periods of its history preserved
+the same general conception. They show us the idea of the Mound-Builders
+wrought out in stone and embellished by art. The decorations, and the
+writing also, are wholly original. There is no imitation of the work of
+any people ever known in Asia, Africa, or Europe. It appears evident
+that the method of building seen in the great ruins began with the ruder
+forms of mound-work, and became what we find it by gradual development,
+as the advancing civilization supplied new ideas and gave higher skill.
+But the culture and the work were wholly original, wholly American.
+
+The civilized life of the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans may
+have had its original beginning somewhere in South America, for they
+seem more closely related to the ancient South Americans than to the
+wild Indians north of the Mexican border; but the peculiar development
+of it represented by the ruins must have begun in the region where they
+are found. I find myself more and more inclined to the opinion that the
+aboriginal South Americans are the oldest people on this continent; that
+they are distinct in race; and that the wild Indians of the North came
+originally from Asia, where the race to which they belong seems still
+represented by the Koraks and Chookchees found in that part of Asia
+which extends to Behring's Strait.
+
+If, as there is reason to believe, the countries on the Mediterranean
+had communication with America in very ancient times, they found here a
+civilization already developed, and contributed nothing to change its
+style of building and decorating cities. They may have influenced it in
+other respects; for, if such communication was opened across the
+Atlantic, it was probably continued for a long time, and its
+interruption may or may not be due, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes,
+to the cataclysm which ingulfed Atlantis. Religious symbols are found
+in the American ruins which remind us of those of the Phoenicians,
+such as figures of the serpent, which appear constantly, and the cross,
+supposed by some to represent the mounting of the magnetic needle, which
+was among the emblems peculiar to the goddess Astarte. A figure appears
+occasionally in the sculptures, in which some have sought to recognize
+Astarte, one at Palenque being described as follows: "It is a female
+figure moulded in stucco, holding a child on her left arm and hand, just
+as Astarte appears on the Sidonian medals." I find it impossible to see
+that this figure has any resemblance whatever to the Phoenician
+goddess. They are not alike either in dress, posture, or expression.
+Dupaix describes it correctly in saying it represents a person
+apparently "absorbed in devotion"--a worshiper, and not a goddess.
+Moreover, Astarte usually appears on the medals standing on the forward
+deck of a vessel, holding a cross with one hand, and pointing forward
+with the other. And, finally, this figure seems to represent, not a
+woman, but a priest. There was sun-worship in America, and the phallic
+ceremonies existed in some places in the time of Cortez. In Asia these
+ceremonies and figures of the serpent were usually associated with
+sun-worship. Humboldt was sure that these symbols came to America from
+the Old World. A more careful study of the subject might have led him to
+modify this belief. But, whether we adopt his explanation or some other,
+the traditions on both sides of the Atlantic are without meaning unless
+it be admitted that there was communication between the two continents
+in times of which we have no history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[170-*] See Appendix C.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+If a consecutive history of the ancient people of Central America and
+Mexico were ever written, it has been lost. Probably nothing of the kind
+ever was written in the manner which we call history, although there
+must have been regular annals of some kind. The ruins show that they had
+the art of writing, and that, at the south, this art was more developed,
+more like a phonetic system of writing than that found in use among the
+Aztecs. The inscriptions of Palenque, and the characters used in some of
+the manuscript books that have been preserved, are not the same as the
+"Mexican Picture Writing." It is known that books or manuscript writings
+were abundant among them in the ages previous to the Aztec period. They
+had an accurate measure of the solar year and a system of chronology,
+and many of their writings were historical. Among the Mayas, and in
+other communities of the same family, writing was largely used in the
+time of the Spaniards. It was common also among the Aztecs, but they
+used "picture writing." Las Casas wrote on this point as follows:
+
+"It should be known that in all the commonwealths of these countries, in
+the kingdoms of New Spain and elsewhere, among other professions duly
+filled by suitable persons was that of chronicler and historian. These
+chroniclers had knowledge of the origin of the kingdoms, and of whatever
+related to religion and the gods, as well as to the founders of towns
+and cities. They recorded the history of kings, and of the modes of
+their election and succession; of their labors, actions, wars, and
+memorable deeds, good and bad; of the virtuous men or heroes of former
+days, their great deeds, the wars they had waged, and how they had
+distinguished themselves; who had been the earliest settlers, what had
+been their ancient customs, their triumphs, and defeats. They knew, in
+fact, whatever pertained to history, and were able to give an account of
+all past events. * * * These chroniclers had likewise to calculate the
+days, months, and years; and though they had no writing like ours, they
+had their symbols and characters through which they understood every
+thing; and they had great books, which were composed with such ingenuity
+and art that our characters were really of no great assistance to them.
+Our priests have seen those books, and I myself have seen them likewise,
+though many were burned at the instigation of the monks, who were afraid
+they might impede the work of conversion."
+
+Books such as those here described by Las Casas must have contained
+important historical information. The older books, belonging to the ages
+of Copan and Palenque, went to decay doubtless long previous to his
+time, in the wars and revolutions of the Toltec period, or by the wear
+of time. The later books, not otherwise lost, were destroyed by Aztec
+and Spanish vandalism. According to tradition, and the testimony of
+writings still in existence when the Spaniards went there, the Aztec or
+Mexican sovereign Ytzcoatl destroyed many of the old Toltec books. His
+aim was probably to exterminate among the people all memory of the
+previous times. Such things have been done with similar motives, as we
+know, in other countries, by successful usurpers and conquerors. We
+learn from Spanish writers that a still greater destruction of the old
+books was effected by the more ignorant and fanatical of the Spanish
+priests who were established in the country as missionaries after the
+Conquest. This is stated by Las Casas, himself one of the missionaries.
+Besides the many smaller bonfires of this fanaticism, there is record of
+a great conflagration, under the auspices of Bishop Zumarraga, in which
+a vast collection of these old writings was consumed. As the writing was
+all on paper (which had long been used in the country), the burning was
+easily accomplished.
+
+
+THE OLD BOOKS NOT ALL LOST.
+
+The Franciscan and Dominican fanatics, whose learning and religion
+consisted of ignorance and bigotry, hoped to exterminate among the
+people all recollection of their former history, ideas, and religious
+customs. A few of the books, however, escaped; none, indeed, that were
+very old, for it does not appear that any of the manuscripts rescued
+from destruction were written or copied earlier than the age which
+closed the Aztec domination. None of the great books of annals
+described by Las Casas are among them, but they relate to the ancient
+times, and most of them are copies or reproductions of much older books.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Inscriptions carved on Stone.]
+
+Among these destroying Spanish ecclesiastics, there was here and there
+one who quietly secured some of the manuscripts, or copies of them.
+These were kept from the flames. Others were secreted by the people; and
+subsequently, in years after the conquest was completed, some of the
+more intelligent churchmen wrote histories of the country, or portions
+of it, which were preserved in manuscript. Sahagun wrote such a history,
+which shows that he had studied the traditions and some of the old
+books; this work is printed in the great collection of Lord
+Kingsborough. Diego de Landa, first bishop of Yucatan, wrote a history
+of the Mayas and their country, which was preserved in manuscript at
+Madrid in the library of the Royal Academy of History. It is one of the
+most important works on the country written by a Spaniard, because it
+contains a description and explanation of the phonetic alphabet of the
+Mayas. Landa's manuscript seems to have lain neglected in the library,
+for little or nothing was heard of it until it was discovered and
+studied by Brasseur de Bourbourg, who, by means of it, has deciphered
+some of the old American writings. He says "the alphabet and signs
+explained by Landa have been to me a Rosetta stone." Figure 49
+represents a specimen of the inscriptions as carved upon stone. Figure
+50 gives them as they appear in manuscript.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Manuscript Writing.]
+
+An extensive and important manuscript work, written two hundred years
+ago by Francisco Ximenes, an ecclesiastic, is preserved in Guatemala.
+He, being drawn to inquiries concerning the antiquities and ancient
+history of the country, was able to get possession of several of the
+old books, one of them being that known as "Popol-Vuh." His manuscript,
+arranged in four great volumes (one of which, it is said, has
+disappeared), contains valuable information in regard to the ancient
+history and traditions of Guatemala. One of the volumes has a copy of
+the "Popol-Vuh" in the native tongue, and another has a Spanish
+translation of the work. He left also a manuscript Dictionary of the
+principal Guatemalan dialects (which belong to the Maya family),
+entitled "Tesoro de las Lenguas Quiché, Cakchiquel, y Tzutohil."
+Probably other manuscripts of the same character exist at Madrid and in
+Central America which are not yet known to those who can understand
+their importance.
+
+As already stated, none of the great books of annals have been
+discovered, but some of the old American manuscripts now preserved in
+several of the libraries and private collections of Europe are
+important. Three are specified as particularly valuable to students of
+American antiquity: that called the "Codex Chimalpopoca," an old Toltec
+book, written in the Toltec language; one now entitled the "Codex
+Cakchiquel;" and the "Popol-Vuh." The latter, written in the Quiché
+dialect, was translated into Spanish two hundred years ago by Ximenes,
+but his translation remained in Guatemala unprinted and quite unknown
+until it was discovered in our time. Brasseur de Bourbourg, who is
+master of the Quiché language, and to whom we are indebted for most that
+is known of the manuscripts of Ximenes, thought this Spanish translation
+very imperfect; therefore he has translated the work into French.
+
+The "Popol-Vuh" was written in 1558 as an abridged reproduction of a
+very ancient Quiché book which contained an account of the history,
+traditions, religion, and cosmogony of the Quichés. The first part of it
+is devoted to the cosmogony and traditional lore; the rest gives an
+account of the Quichés, who, at the time of the Conquest, were the
+dominant people in the Central American regions south of the great
+forest. If the history were consecutive and clear, it would not take us
+back into the past more than three or four centuries beyond 1558, for
+the Quiché domination was probably not much older than that of the
+Aztecs. But the history is not clear. Putting aside the mythical and
+legendary portion of it which relates to origins and migrations, we can
+see that it extends over some fourteen generations, which may indicate
+that Quiché became an independent and ruling power about 1200 A.D.
+
+For those who study the book it is full of interest. It shows us their
+conceptions of the Supreme Being and his relation to the world; it
+enables us to see what they admired in character as virtue, heroism,
+nobleness, and beauty; it discloses their mythology and their notions of
+religious worship; in a word, it bears witness to the fact that the
+various families of mankind are all of "one blood," so far, at least, as
+to be precisely alike in nature.
+
+The cosmogony and mythical lore of the Quichés seem to have their root
+in the beliefs and facts of a time far more ancient than the national
+beginning of this people. In assuming the form in which we find them,
+they must have passed through several phases of growth, which changed
+their appearance and obscured their meaning. Manifestly the history of
+the country did not begin with the Quichés. The account of the creation,
+with every thing else in this cosmogony and mythology, is original, like
+the civilization to which they belong.
+
+According to the "Popol-Vuh," the world had a beginning. There was a
+time when it did not exist. Only "Heaven" existed, below which all space
+was an empty, silent, unchanging solitude. Nothing existed there,
+neither man, nor animal, nor earth, nor tree. Then appeared a vast
+expanse of water on which divine beings moved in brightness. "They said
+'earth!' and instantly the earth was created. It came into being like a
+vapor; mountains rose above the waters like lobsters and were made. Thus
+was the earth created by the Heart of Heaven." Next came the creation of
+animals; but the gods were disappointed because the animals could
+neither tell their names nor worship the Heart of Heaven.
+
+Therefore it was resolved that man should be created. First, man was
+made of earth, but his flesh had no cohesion; he was inert, could not
+turn his head, and had no mind, although he could speak; therefore he
+was consumed in the water. Next, men were made of wood, and these
+multiplied, but they had neither heart nor intellect, and could not
+worship, and so they withered up and disappeared in the waters. A third
+attempt followed: man was made of a tree called tzité, and woman of the
+pith of a reed; but these failed to think, speak, or worship, and were
+destroyed, all save a remnant which still exists as a race of small
+monkeys found in forests.
+
+A fourth attempt to create the human race was successful, but the
+circumstances attending this creation are veiled in mystery. It took
+place before the beginning of dawn, when neither sun nor moon had risen,
+and was a wonder-work of the Heart of Heaven. Four men were created, and
+they could reason, speak, and see in such a manner as to know all things
+at once. They worshiped the Creator with thanks for existence, but the
+gods, dismayed and scared, breathed clouds on their eyes to limit their
+vision, and cause them to be men and not gods. Afterward, while the four
+men were asleep, the gods made for them beautiful wives, and from these
+came all the tribes and families of the earth.
+
+No account of the rescued fragments of this old literature of Ancient
+America should omit giving due credit to Chevalier Boturini, the
+Milanese, who went from Italy to America in 1735 as an agent of the
+Countess Santibañey, who claimed to be a descendant of Montezuma. He,
+too, was a devotee, and believed that St. Thomas preached the Gospel in
+America; but he had antiquarian tastes, and was sufficiently intelligent
+to understand the importance of the old manuscripts which had furnished
+so much fuel for the bonfires of fanaticism. During the eight years of
+his residence in Mexico and Central America he hunted diligently for
+those still in existence, and made a considerable collection, including
+in it some of the Mexican "picture writings." But when about to leave,
+he was despoiled of his treasure and flung into prison by the Spanish
+viceroy. He finally left the country with a portion of them, but was
+captured by an English cruiser and again despoiled. The manuscripts
+left in Mexico were finally sold at auction while Humboldt was there; he
+secured a portion of them. Another portion was brought to France about
+1830 by M. Aubin, who made important additions to it. M. Aubin himself
+spent years searching for remains of the old writings, and he has now,
+it is supposed, the most valuable collection in Europe.
+
+It is likely that most of the recovered books may be translated by those
+who can bring to the work habits of patient study and a thorough
+knowledge of the native dialects. Dictionaries of these dialects, as
+they were spoken at the time of the Conquest, were prepared by some of
+the Spanish priests, and other facilities are not wanting. It is
+surprising, however, that no one has translated the "Codex Chimalpopoca"
+(which seems the most important) if the language in which it is written
+is in fact sufficiently modern to be managed as easily as that of "Popol
+Vuh." It must be translatable, for its general tenor is known, and
+passages of it are quoted. Brasseur de Bourbourg states that he has
+undertaken a translation. But who will translate the inscriptions at
+Copan and Palenque? Is the language in which they were written an old
+form of speech, from which the dialects of the Maya family, or a portion
+of them, were derived? They have not been translated. No one has found a
+clew to their meaning. The characters are understood, but they appear to
+show an older form of the language, which at present can not be
+deciphered. Brasseur de Bourbourg's "Rosetta Stone," discovered in
+Landa's manuscript, will not serve him here. Another more potent must
+be found before these old inscriptions can be made to give up their
+secrets.[197-*]
+
+
+THE ANCIENT HISTORY SKETCHED.
+
+It is impossible to know what was contained in the books of annals
+written by the official chroniclers of these ancient American countries,
+for these books are lost. They existed at the time of the Conquest; some
+of them were seen and described by Las Casas; but, so far as is known,
+not one of these books of regular annals, such as he described, has
+escaped destruction; therefore it is impossible to know any thing
+certainly of their character as histories.
+
+The books preserved furnish little more than vague outlines of the past,
+with obscure views of distinct periods in the history, created by
+successive dominations of different peoples or different branches of the
+same people. What they enable us to know of the old history resembles
+what is known of the early times of the Greeks, who had no ancient
+histories excepting such as were furnished by their "poets of the
+cycle." In one case we are told of Pelasgians, Leleges, Cadmeans,
+Argives, and Eolians very much as in the other we are told of Colhuas,
+Chichimecs, Quinames, and Nahuas.
+
+But the outline is not wholly dark; it does not exclude the possibility
+of a reasonable attempt at hypothesis. When Cortez entered Mexico, the
+Aztecs, Montezuma's people, had been in power more than two centuries.
+Most of the ancient history, of which something is said in these books,
+relates to ages previous to their time, and chiefly to their
+predecessors, the Toltecs. According to these writings, the country
+where the ruins are found was occupied in successive periods by three
+distinct peoples, the Chichimecs, the Colhuas, and the Toltecs or
+Nahuas. The Toltecs are said to have come into the country about a
+thousand years before the Christian era. Their supremacy appears to have
+ceased, and left the country broken up into small states, two or three
+centuries before the Aztecs appeared. They were preceded by the Colhuas,
+by whom this old civilization was originated and developed. The most
+ancient people, those found in the country by the Colhuas, are called
+Chichimecs. They are described as a barbarous people who lived by
+hunting and fishing, and had neither towns nor agriculture. This term
+Chichimecs appears to have been a generic appellation for all
+uncivilized aborigines. Brasseur de Bourbourg says, "Under the generic
+name Chichimecs, which has much embarrassed some writers, the Mexican
+traditions include the whole aboriginal population of the New World, and
+especially the people by whom it was first occupied at the beginning of
+time."
+
+Some of the traditions state that the Colhuas came from the east in
+ships. Sahagun mentions that a tradition to this effect was current in
+Yucatan. The precise value of these traditional reports is uncertain;
+but, if accepted as vague historical recollections, they could be
+explained by supposing the civilized people called Colhuas came from
+South America through the Caribbean Sea, and landed in Yucatan and
+Tabasco. They are uniformly described as the people who first
+established civilization and built great cities. They taught the
+Chichimecs to cook their food, cultivate the earth, and adopt the ways
+of civilized life; and the Chichimecs civilized by their influence are
+sometimes called Quinames.
+
+The Colhuas are connected with vague references to a long and important
+period in the history previous to the Toltec ages. They seem to have
+been, in some respects, more advanced in civilization than the Toltecs.
+What is said of events in their history relates chiefly to their great
+city called Xibalba, the capital of an important kingdom to which this
+name was given. The Toltecs, in alliance with the uncivilized Chichimecs
+of the mountains, subjugated this city and kingdom, and thus brought to
+a close the period which may be termed Colhuan. This kingdom appears to
+have included Guatemala, Yucatan, Tabasco, Tehuantepec, Chiapa,
+Honduras, and other districts in Central America; and it may have
+included all Southern Mexico, for places north of the Tampico River are
+mentioned as being within its limits when the Toltecs came into the
+country. Some of the principal seats of the Colhuan civilization were in
+the region now covered by the great forest. Some investigators have
+sought to identify the city of Xibalba with the ruined city known to us
+as Palenque. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: "Palenque appears to have been
+the same city to which the books give the name of Xibalba;" but this is
+nothing but conjecture. We may as reasonably suppose Copan, Quirigua, or
+some other old ruin, to have been Xibalba.
+
+Those who attempt to believe this old American civilization was brought
+across the Atlantic by the Phoenicians in very remote times, assume,
+against the plain testimony of the monuments, that the Colhuas came to
+America from some country on the Mediterranean. They may have come from
+some other part of this continent. In my judgment, it is not improbable
+that they came by sea from South America. Brasseur de Bourbourg would
+say they were people of the Atlantic race, who, having escaped
+destruction by the cataclysm, found their way to Yucatan and Tabasco.
+But there is little beside conjecture to support any theory of their
+origin. We have only the fact that, according to the old books and
+traditions of the country, they occupied that region at a remote period,
+and originated the civilization whose monuments are found there.
+Tradition places their first settlements on the Gulf coast in Tabasco,
+between Tehuantepec and Yucatan. It is inferred that the Mayas,
+Tzendals, Quichés, and some other communities of the old race, were
+descendants of the Colhuas, their speech being more highly developed
+than that of any native community not connected with this family, and
+their written characters having a close resemblance to those of the
+oldest inscriptions.
+
+
+THE TOLTECS OUR MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+As the remains of the Mound-Builders show clearly that they had
+commercial intercourse with the Mexican and Central American countries,
+and as it seems probable that they had otherwise a very close relation
+to the people of those countries, it would be surprising to find no
+mention of their country in the old books and traditions of the Central
+Americans and Mexicans. If we could have the lost books, especially
+those of the more ancient time, and learn to read them, it might be
+possible to know something of the origin and history of the
+Mound-Builders. It is believed that distinct reference to their country
+has been found in the books still in existence, and there appears to be
+reason for this belief. Brasseur de Bourbourg, one of the few
+investigators who have explored them, says:
+
+"Previous to the history of the Toltec domination in Mexico, we notice
+in the annals of the country two facts of great importance, but equally
+obscure in their details: first, the tradition concerning the landing of
+a foreign race, conducted by an illustrious personage, who came from an
+eastern country; and, second, the existence of an ancient empire known
+as Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs or Nahuas came to Mexico, in
+consequence of a revolution or invasion, and from which they had a long
+and toilsome migration to the Aztec plateau."
+
+He believes that Huehue-Tlapalan was the country of the Mound-Builders
+in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. According to the native books he
+has examined, it was somewhere at a distance in the northeast; and it is
+constantly said that some of the Toltecs came by land and some by sea.
+Sahagun learned from the old books and traditions, and stated in the
+introduction to the first book of his history, that the Toltecs came
+from that distant northeastern country; and he mentions a company that
+came by sea, settled near the Tampico River, and built a town called
+Panuco. Brasseur de Bourbourg finds that an account of this or another
+company was preserved at Xilanco, an ancient city situated on the point
+of an island between Lake Terminos and the sea, and famous for its
+commerce, wealth, and intelligence. The company described in this
+account came from the northeast in the same way, it is said, to the
+Tampico River, and landed at Panuco. It consisted of twenty chiefs and a
+numerous company of people. Torquemada found a record which describes
+them as people of fine appearance. They went forward into the country
+and were well received. He says they were industrious, orderly, and
+intelligent, and that they worked metals, and were skillful artists and
+lapidaries. All the accounts say the Toltecs came at different times, by
+land and sea, mostly in small companies, and always from the northeast.
+This can be explained only by supposing they came by sea from the mouth
+of the Mississippi River or from the Gulf coast near it, and by land
+through Texas. But the country from which they came was invariably
+Huehue-Tlapalan.
+
+Cabrera says Huehue-Tlapalan was the ancient country of the Toltecs. Its
+simple name was Tlapalan, but they called it Huehue, old, to distinguish
+it from three other Tlapalans which they founded in the districts of
+their new kingdom. Torquemada says the same. We are not authorized to
+reject a fact so distinctly stated and so constantly reported in the old
+books. The most we can do against it with any show of reason is to
+receive it with doubt. Therefore it seems not improbable that the "Old
+Tlapalan" of Central American tradition was the country of our
+Mound-Builders.
+
+Another circumstance mentioned is not without significance. It is said,
+in connection with this account of the Toltec migration, that
+Huehue-Tlapalan was successfully invaded by Chichimecs, meaning
+barbarous aboriginal tribes, who were united under one great leader.
+Here is one statement (a little condensed) touching this point: "There
+was a terrible struggle, but, after about thirteen years, the Toltecs,
+no longer able to resist successfully, were obliged to abandon their
+country to escape complete subjugation. Two chiefs guided the march of
+the emigrating nation. At length they reached a region near the sea
+named 'Tlapalan-Conco,' where they remained several years. But they
+finally undertook another migration and reached Mexico, where they built
+a town called 'Tollanzinco,' and later the city of Tullan, which became
+the seat of their government."
+
+This is substantially what is told of the defeat and migrations of the
+Toltecs. The history of Ixtlilxochitl adds doubtful modifications and
+particulars not found in the "Codex Chimalpopoca." (See Quatre Lettres,
+etc.) This Chichimec invasion of Huehue-Tlapalan is placed at a period
+which, in the chronology of the native books, was long previous to the
+Christian era, and is mentioned to explain the beginning of the Toltec
+movement toward Mexico; but the account of it is obscure.
+
+To find a system of chronology in these old books is not surprising when
+we consider that even the Aztecs of Montezuma's time knew enough of
+astronomy to have a correct measure of the year. The Aztecs adopted the
+methods of astronomy and chronology which were used by their
+predecessors. They divided the year into eighteen months of twenty days
+each; but, as this gave the year only three hundred and sixty days, five
+supplementary days were added to each year, and a sixth day to every
+fourth year. The bissextile is known to have been used by the Mayas,
+Tzendals, and Quichés, and it was probably common.
+
+We can not reasonably refuse to give some attention to their chronology,
+even while doubting its value as a means of fixing dates and measuring
+historical periods. Its method was to count by equal periods of years,
+as we count by centuries, and their chronology presents a series of
+periods which carries back their history to a very remote time in the
+past. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: "In the histories written in the
+Nahuatl language, the oldest certain date is nine hundred and fifty-five
+years before Christ." This, he means, is the oldest date in the history
+of the Nahuas or Toltecs which has been accurately determined. The
+calculation by which it is found is quoted from the later portion of the
+"Codex Chimalpopoca" as follows: "Six times 400 years plus 113 years"
+previous to the year 1558 A.D. This is given as the date of a division
+of the land by the Nahuas. The division was made 2513 years previous to
+1558 A.D., or in 955 B.C. If this date could be accepted as authentic,
+it would follow that the Nahuas or Toltecs left Huehue-Tlapalan more
+than a thousand years previous to the Christian era, for they dwelt a
+long time in the country of Xibalba as peaceable settlers before they
+organized the civil war which raised them to power.
+
+
+SOME CONFIRMATION OF THIS HISTORY.
+
+That the ancient history of the country was something like what is
+reported in the old writings seems not improbable when we consider the
+condition in which the native population was found three hundred and
+fifty years ago. This shows that Mexico and Central America had been
+subjected to disrupting political changes caused by violent transfers of
+supreme influence from one people to another several times in the course
+of a long history. Such a history is indicated by the monuments, and its
+traces were noticeable in peculiarities of the native inhabitants of the
+various districts at the time of the Spanish Conquest. They are still
+manifest to travelers who study the existing representatives of the old
+race and the old dialects sufficiently to find them. There were several
+distinct families or groups of language, and, in many cases, the people
+represented by each family of dialects were in a state of separation or
+disruption. To a considerable extent they existed in fragmentary
+communities, sometimes widely separated.
+
+The most important group of related dialects was that which included the
+speech of the Mayas, Quichés, and Tzendals, which, it is supposed,
+represented the language of the original civilizers, the Colhuas.
+Dialects of this family are found on both sides of the great forest.
+There were other dialects supposed to indicate Toltec communities; and
+there were communities south of Mexico, in Nicaragua, and even farther
+south, which used the Aztec speech. Very likely all these differing
+groups of language came originally from the same source, and really
+represent a single race, but comparative philology has not yet reported
+on them. Mention is made of another people, called Waiknas or Caribs,
+and conjecture sees in them remains of the aboriginal barbarians termed
+Chichimecs. They dwelt chiefly in the "dense, dank forests" found
+growing on the low alluvion of the Atlantic coast. So far as is known,
+their speech had no affinity with that of any other native community.
+People of this race constitute a chief element in the mixed population
+of the "Mosquito Coast," known as Moscos.
+
+In Yucatan the old inhabitants were Mayas, and people using dialects
+related to theirs were numerous in Tabasco, Chiapa, Guatemala, and the
+neighboring districts, while all around the country were scattered
+communities supposed to be of Toltec origin, as their speech could not
+be classed with these dialects nor with that of the Aztecs. The most
+reasonable explanation of this condition of the people is that furnished
+by the old chronicles and traditions. The country must have been
+occupied, during successive periods, by different peoples, who are
+represented by these broken communities and unlike groups of language.
+When all the native writings still in existence shall have been
+translated, and especially when the multitude of inscriptions found in
+the ruins shall have been deciphered, we may be able to see in a clearer
+light the ruins, the people, and their history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[197-*] See Appendix D.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION.
+
+
+If a clever gleaner of the curious and notable things in literature
+should write on the curiosities of historical speculation, he would be
+sure to take some account of "A New History of the Conquest of Mexico"
+published in Philadelphia in 1859. The special aim of this work is to
+deny utterly the civilization of the Aztecs. The author has ability,
+earnestness, and knowledge of what has been written on the subject; he
+writes with vigor, and with a charming extravagance of dogmatic
+assumption, which must be liked for its heartiness, while it fails to
+convince those who study it. This writer fully admits the significance
+of the old ruins, and maintains that a great civilization formerly
+existed in that part of the continent. This he ascribes to the
+Phoenicians, while he gives it an extreme antiquity, and thinks the
+present ruins have existed as ruins "for thousands of years," explaining
+these words to mean that their history "is separated by a cycle of
+thousands of years from the civilization of our day." In his view, the
+people who constructed the old cities were subjugated and destroyed,
+long ages since, "by inroads of northern savages," who were the only
+people in the country when the Spaniards arrived.
+
+The chief business of this "New History" is to set forth these views.
+Under the treatment of its author, Montezuma becomes a rude Indian
+sachem, his kingdom a confederation of barbarous Indian tribes like that
+of the Iroquois, the city of Mexico a cluster of mud huts or wigwams in
+an everglade, its causeways rude Indian footpaths, its temples and
+palaces pure fictions of lying Spanish romance, and all previous
+histories of the Aztecs and their country extravagant inventions with a
+"Moorish coloring." He would have us believe that what he calls "the
+pretended civilization of Montezuma and his Aztecs" was a monstrous
+fable of the Spaniards, a "pure fabrication," encouraged by the civil
+authority in Spain, and supported by the censorship of the Inquisition.
+Therefore he undertakes to destroy "the fabric of lies," unveil those
+"Mexican savages" the Aztecs, and tell a "new" story of their actual
+character and condition.
+
+Of course, views so preposterous do not find much favor. If the Mexicans
+had been nothing more than this, the experience of Cortez among them
+would have been like that of De Soto in his long and disastrous march
+through Florida, the Gulf regions, and the country on the lower
+Mississippi. Cortez and his men had a different fortune, because their
+march was among people who had towns, cities, settled communities, and
+the appliances and accumulations of civilized life. Doubtless some of
+the Spaniards exaggerated and romanced for effect in Spain, but they did
+not invent either the city of Mexico or the kingdom of Montezuma. We can
+see clearly that the Mexicans were a civilized people, that Montezuma's
+city of Mexico was larger than the present city, and that an important
+empire was substantially conquered when that city was finally subjugated
+and destroyed.
+
+That the ancient city of Mexico was a great city, well built partly of
+timber and partly of cut stone laid in a mortar of lime, appears in all
+that is said of the siege, and of the dealings of Cortez with its people
+and their rulers. Montezuma, wishing to remove false notions of the
+Spaniards concerning his wealth, said to Cortez during their first
+interview, "The Tlascalans, I know, have told you that I am like a god,
+and that all about me is gold, silver, and precious stones; but you now
+see that I am mere flesh and blood, and that _my houses are built of
+lime, stone, and timber_." Lime, stone, and timber! This was the poorest
+view of the old city of Mexico that could be given to those who saw it.
+It is not easy to understand how a denial of the Aztec civilization was
+possible.
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY AND INVASION.
+
+The first inhabitants of that part of the continent seen by Spaniards
+were Mayas from Yucatan. Columbus met them in 1502 at an island near
+Ruatan, off the coast of Honduras. While he was stopping at this island,
+these Mayas came there "in a vessel of considerable size" from a port in
+Yucatan, thirty leagues distant. It was a trading vessel, freighted with
+a variety of merchandise, and it used sails. Its cargo consisted of a
+variety of textile fabrics of divers colors, wearing apparel, arms,
+household furniture, and cacao, and the crew numbered twenty men.
+Columbus, who treated them very kindly, described these strangers as
+well clothed, intelligent, and altogether superior to any other people
+he had discovered in America. Adventurers hunting for prey soon began to
+make voyages in that direction and report what they saw. Sailing along
+the coast of Yucatan, they discovered cities, and "the grandeur of the
+buildings filled them with astonishment." On the main land and on one or
+two islands they saw great edifices built of stone. The seeming riches
+and other attractions of the country led the Spaniards to invade
+Yucatan, but they were defeated and driven off. At this time they gained
+considerable knowledge of Mexico, and persuaded themselves that immense
+wealth could be found there.
+
+Finally, in March, 1519, Cortez landed near the place where Vera Cruz
+was afterward built, and moved on through the country toward the city of
+Mexico. Studying, in all the histories of the Conquest, only their
+incidental references to the civilized condition of the people, we can
+see plainly what it was. As the invaders approached Tlascala, they found
+"beautiful whitewashed houses" scattered over the country. The
+Tlascalans had towns, cities, agriculture, and markets. Cortez found
+among them all that was needed by his troops. His supremacy in Tlascala
+was easily established; and it was not difficult to induce the people to
+aid him cordially in his operations against Mexico, for they hated the
+Aztecs, by whom they had recently been subjugated. In a description of
+their capital, he stated that it was as large as the city of Granada, in
+Spain.
+
+He went next to Cholulu, where, near the great mound, was an important
+city, in which they saw a "great plaza." Bernal Diaz said of this city,
+"I well remember, when we first entered this town and looked up to the
+elevated white temples, how the whole place put us completely in mind of
+Valladolid." The "white temples" were "elevated" because they stood on
+high pyramidal foundations, just as they are seen in the old ruins. It
+is probable, however, that these were built of adobe bricks or of
+timber. The city very likely was much older than the Aztec empire. A
+Spanish officer named Ordaz ascended Mount Popocatapetl, and one thing
+he saw was "the Valley of Mexico, with its city, its lagunas and
+islands, and its scattered hamlets, a busy throng of life being every
+where visible."
+
+
+THE CITY OF MEXICO.
+
+At the city of Mexico Cortez had a great reception, negotiation having
+established the form of friendly relations between him and Montezuma.
+Quarters were provided in the city for the Spanish portion of his army,
+a vast edifice being set apart for their use which furnished ample
+accommodations for the whole force. The place could be entered only by
+causeways. They marched on a wide avenue which led through the heart of
+the city, beholding the size, architecture, and beauty of the Aztec
+capital with astonishment. This avenue was lined with some of the finest
+houses, built of a porous red stone dug from quarries in the
+neighborhood. The people gathered in crowds on the streets, on the flat
+roofs, in the doorways, and at the windows to witness the arrival of the
+Spaniards. Most of the streets were narrow, and had houses of a much
+less imposing character. The great streets went over numerous canals, on
+well-built bridges. Montezuma's palace was a low, irregular pile of
+stone structures extending over a large space of ground.
+
+Among the _teocallis_ of the Aztec capital the "great temple" stood
+foremost. It was situated in the centre of a vast inclosure, which was
+surrounded by a heavy wall eight feet high, built of prepared stone.
+This inclosure was entered by four gateways opening on the four
+principal streets of the city. The "temple" was a solid structure built
+of earth and pebbles, and faced from top to bottom with hewn stone laid
+in mortar. It had five stages, each receding so as to be smaller than
+that below it. In general outline it was a rectangular pyramid three
+hundred feet square at the base, with a level summit of considerable
+extent, on which were two towers, and two altars where "perpetual fires"
+were maintained. Here the religious ceremonies were conducted. The
+ascent was by a circular flight of steps on the outside which went four
+times around the structure. The water in the lagoons being salt, the
+city was supplied with water by means of an aqueduct which extended to
+Chapultepec.
+
+Such substantially is the account given of the old city of Mexico and
+its great temple by every writer who saw them before the Conquest, and
+all the struggles which took place for possession of this capital had a
+character that would have been impossible any where save in a large
+city. In every account of the attacks on the great temple, we can see
+that it was a great temple; and we may perceive what the old city was by
+reading any account of the desperate and bloody battles in which the
+Spaniards were driven from it, after standing a ten days' siege in the
+great stone building they occupied.
+
+
+THE CONQUEST.
+
+This battle took place in the latter part of June, 1520, several months
+after the friendly reception, and was occasioned by the treacherous and
+most atrocious proceedings of the Spaniards, which drove the Mexicans to
+madness. Nearly a year passed before Cortez made another attack on the
+Mexican capital. During this time he found means among the Tlascalans to
+build a flotilla of thirteen vessels, which were transported in pieces
+to Lake Tezcuco and there put together. This would have been impossible
+if he had not found in the country suitable tools and mechanics. By
+means of these vessels armed with cannon, and assisted by a great army
+of native allies consisting of Tlascalans, Cholulans, and many others,
+he took control of the lagunas, secured possession of the causeways, and
+attacked the city in vain for forty-five days, although his men several
+times penetrated to the great square. He now resolved to enter by
+gradual advances, and destroy every thing as he went. This he did,
+burning what was combustible, and tearing down most of the edifices
+built of stone; nevertheless, thirty or forty days more passed before
+this work of destruction was complete. The inhabitants of the city were
+given over to extermination.
+
+The conquerors proceeded immediately to rebuild the city, native
+architects chiefly being employed to do the work. Materials for the
+rebuilding were taken from the ruins; probably many of the old Aztec
+foundations were retained, and there may now be edifices in the city of
+Mexico which stand on some of these foundations. Twelve acres of the
+great inclosure of the Aztec temple were taken for a Spanish plaza, and
+are still used for this purpose, while the site of the temple is
+occupied by a cathedral. The plaza is paved with marble. Like the rest
+of the great inclosure, it was paved when the Spaniards first saw it,
+and the paving was so perfect and so smooth that their horses were
+liable to slip and fall when they attempted to ride over it.
+
+Some relics recovered from ruins of the old temple have been preserved.
+Among them is the great Aztec calendar which belonged to it, on which
+are carved hieroglyphics representing the months of the year. This
+calendar was found in 1790 buried in the great square. It was carved
+from a mass of porous basalt, and made eleven feet eight inches in
+diameter. It was a fixture of the Aztec temple; it is now walled into
+one side of the cathedral. The "stone of sacrifice," another relic of
+the temple, nine feet in diameter, and covered with sculptured
+hieroglyphics, can still be seen in the city, and in the suburbs, it is
+said, vestiges of the ruins of long lines of edifices can be traced.
+Calendars made of gold and silver were common in Mexico. Before Cortez
+reached the capital, Montezuma sent him two "as large as cartwheels,"
+one representing the sun, the other the moon, both "richly carved."
+During the sack of the city a calendar of gold was found by a soldier in
+a pond of Guatemozin's garden. But these Spaniards did not go to Mexico
+to study Aztec astronomy, nor to collect curiosities. In their hands
+every article of gold was speedily transformed into coin.
+
+In every Spanish description of the city we can see its resemblance to
+cities whose ruins are found farther south. If the Spaniards had
+invented the temple, they would not have made it unlike any thing they
+had ever before seen or heard of, by placing its altar on the summit of
+a high pyramid. This method of constructing temples is seen in the old
+ruins, but it was unknown to Cortez and his men until they found it in
+Mexico. The only reasonable or possible explanation of what they said of
+it is, that the temple actually existed at the Aztec capital, and that
+the Spaniards, being there, described what they saw. The uniform
+testimony of all who saw the country at that time shows that the
+edifices of towns and cities, wherever they went, were most commonly
+built of cut stone laid in mortar, or of timber, and that in the more
+rural districts thatch was frequently used for the roofs of dwellings.
+Moreover, we are told repeatedly that the Spaniards employed "Mexican
+masons," and found them "very expert" in the arts of building and
+plastering. There is no good reason to doubt that the civilized
+condition of the country, when the Spaniards found it, was superior to
+what it has been at any time since the Conquest.
+
+
+WHO WERE THE AZTECS?
+
+The Mexicans, or Aztecs, subjugated by Cortez, were themselves invaders,
+whose extended dominion was probably less than two hundred and fifty
+years old, although they had been much longer in the Valley of Mexico.
+There were important portions of the country, especially at the south,
+to which their rule had not been extended. In several districts besides
+those of the Mayas and the Quichés the natives still maintained
+independent governments. The Aztec conquest of the central region,
+between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, was completed only a few
+years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards, and the conquest of this
+region had not been fully secured at some points, as appeared in the
+readiness of the Tlascalans and others to act in alliance with Cortez.
+But the Aztecs did not come from abroad. They belonged in the country,
+and seem to have been originally an obscure and somewhat rude branch of
+the native race.
+
+It is very probable that the Colhuas and Nahuas or Toltecs of the old
+books and traditions, together with the Aztecs, were all substantially
+the same people. They established in the country three distinct family
+groups of language, it is said, but the actual significance of this
+difference in speech has not been clearly determined. These unlike
+groups of language have not been sufficiently analyzed and studied to
+justify us in assuming that they did not all come from the same original
+source, or that there is a more radical difference between them than
+between the Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Scandinavian groups in Europe.
+These ancient Americans were distinct from each other at the time of the
+Conquest, but not so distinct as to show much difference in their
+religious ideas, their mythology, their ceremonies of worship, their
+methods of building, or in the general character of their civilization.
+
+If the Toltecs and our Mound-Builders were the same people, they
+probably went from Mexico and Central America to the Valley of the
+Mississippi at a very remote period, as Colhuan colonies, and after a
+long residence there returned so much changed in speech and in other
+respects as to seem a distinct people. The Aztecs appear to have dwelt
+obscurely in the south before they rose to power. They must have been at
+first much less advanced in civilization than their predecessors, but
+ready to adopt the superior knowledge and methods of the country they
+invaded.
+
+
+THEY CAME FROM THE SOUTH.
+
+It has sometimes been assumed that the Aztecs came to Mexico from the
+north, but there is nothing to warrant this assumption, nothing to make
+it probable, nothing even to explain the fact that some persons have
+entertained it. People of the ancient Mexican and Central American race
+are not found farther north than New Mexico and Arizona, where they are
+known as Pueblos, or Village Indians. In the old times that was a
+frontier region, and the Pueblos seem to represent ancient settlers who
+went there from the south. There was the border line between the Mexican
+race and the wild Indians, and the distinction between the Pueblos and
+the savage tribes is every way so uniform and so great that it is
+well-nigh impossible to believe they all belong to the same race. In
+fact, no people really like our wild Indians of North America have ever
+been found in Mexico, Central America, or South America.
+
+Investigation has made it probable that the Mexicans or Aztecs went to
+the Valley of Mexico from the south. Mr. Squier says: "The hypothesis of
+a migration from Nicaragua and Cuscutlan to Anahuac is altogether more
+consonant with probabilities and with tradition than that which derives
+the Mexicans from the north; and it is a significant fact, that in the
+map of their migrations presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of
+the Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (_atl_ standing for
+Aztlan), a pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a palm-tree."
+Humboldt thought this indicated a southern origin.
+
+Communities of Aztecs still exist as far south as Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica, with some variations in their speech, but not so great, probably,
+as to make them unintelligible to each other. The Spanish historian,
+Oviedo, called attention to the fact that an isolated community of
+Aztecs was found occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the
+Pacific. They were called Niquirans, and Mr. Squier seems to have
+verified this fact. The result of his investigation is that the people
+of the district specified are Aztecs, and that, "from the comparative
+lateness of the separation or some other cause," their distinguishing
+features were easily recognized, their speech being nearly identical
+with the native speech heard in the Valley of Mexico. Oviedo said of
+them: "The Niquirans who speak the Mexican language have the same
+manners and appearance as the people of New Spain (Mexico)." In the
+neighboring districts, communities closely related to the Mayas are
+found, and others that appear to belong to the Toltec family. Aztecs are
+found still farther south, and there appear to be conclusive reasons for
+believing that Montezuma's people went from the south to Anahuac or
+Mexico.
+
+According to the native histories as reported by Clavigero, the Aztecs
+began their migration northward from Aztlan about the year 1160 A.D.,
+and founded the more important of their first settlements in the Valley
+of Mexico about the year 1216 A.D., a little over three hundred years
+previous to the Spanish invasion. Another result of investigation adds a
+century to this estimate. This result is reached as follows: the
+Mexicans stated constantly that their calendar was reformed some time
+after they left Aztlan, and that in the year 1519 eight cycles of
+fifty-two years each and thirteen years of a ninth cycle had passed
+since that reform was made. This carries back the beginning of their
+migration considerably beyond the year 1090 A.D.
+
+Their sway seems to have been confined for a long time to Anahuac. They
+grew to supremacy in part probably by the arrival of new immigrants,
+but chiefly by conquest of the small states into which the country was
+divided. They could learn from their more cultivated neighbors to reform
+their calendar, compute time with greater accuracy, and make important
+improvements in other respects. They must also have modified their
+religious system to some extent, for it does not appear that they had
+adopted the worship of Kukulcan (whose name they transformed into
+Quetzalcohuatl) before they came to Mexico. But they brought with them
+an effective political organization, and very likely they were better
+fitted than most of their new neighbors for the rude work of war.
+
+Before the city of Mexico was built, the seat of their government was at
+Tezcuco. The character of their civilization after they rose to
+pre-eminence was shown in their organization, in their skill as
+builders, in the varied forms of their industry, and in the development
+of their religious ceremonies. It is manifest that they adopted all the
+astronomical knowledge and appliances found in the neighboring states
+which they subjugated. Their measure of the solar year and their
+numbering of the months were precisely like what had long existed in
+this part of the country; and they had the same astronomical implements
+or contrivances. One of these contrivances, found at Chapultepec, is
+described as follows:
+
+"On the horizontal plane of a large, carefully-worked stone, three
+arrows were cut in relief, so that the shaft ends came together and made
+equal angles in the centre. The points were directed eastward, the two
+outside showing the two solstitial points, and that in the centre the
+equinoctial. A line on the carved band holding them together was in
+range with holes in two stones which stood exactly north and south. A
+cord drawn tightly through the holes in these two stones would, at the
+moment of noon, cast its shadow on the line drawn across the band. It
+was a perfect instrument for ascertaining east and west with precision,
+and for determining the exact time by the rising and setting of the sun
+at the equinoxes and solstices. This stone has now been broken up and
+used to construct a furnace."
+
+These Aztecs were manifestly something very different from "Mexican
+savages." At the same time, they were less advanced in many things than
+their predecessors. Their skill in architecture and architectural
+ornamentation did not enable them to build such cities as Mitla and
+Palenque, and their "picture writing" was a much ruder form of the
+graphic art than the phonetic system of the Mayas and Quichés. It does
+not appear that they ever went so far in literary improvement as to
+adopt this simpler and more complete system for any purpose whatever. If
+the country had never, in the previous ages, felt the influence of a
+higher culture than that of the Aztecs, it would not have now, and never
+could have had, ruined cities like Mitla, Copan, and Palenque. Not only
+was the system of writing shown by the countless inscriptions quite
+beyond the attainments of Aztec art, but also the abundant sculptures
+and the whole system of decoration found in the old ruins.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+ANCIENT PERU.
+
+
+The ruins of Ancient Peru are found chiefly on the elevated table-lands
+of the Andes, between Quito and Lake Titicaca; but they can be traced
+five hundred miles farther south, to Chili, and throughout the region
+connecting these high plateaus with the Pacific coast. The great
+district to which they belong extends north and south about two thousand
+miles. When the marauding Spaniards arrived in the country, this whole
+region was the seat of a populous and prosperous empire, complete in its
+civil organization, supported by an efficient system of industry, and
+presenting a very notable development of some of the more important arts
+of civilized life. These ruins differ from those in Mexico and Central
+America. No inscriptions are found in Peru; there is no longer a
+"marvelous abundance of decorations;" nothing is seen like the monoliths
+of Copan or the bas-reliefs of Palenque. The method of building is
+different; the Peruvian temples were not high truncated pyramids, and
+the great edifices were not erected on pyramidal foundations. The
+Peruvian ruins show us remains of cities, temples, palaces, other
+edifices of various kinds, fortresses, aqueducts (one of them four
+hundred and fifty miles long), great roads (extending through the whole
+length of the empire), and terraces on the sides of mountains. For all
+these constructions the builders used cut stone laid in mortar or
+cement, and their work was done admirably, but it is every where seen
+that the masonry, although sometimes ornamented, was generally plain in
+style and always massive. The antiquities in this region have not been
+as much explored and described as those north of the isthmus, but their
+general character is known, and particular descriptions of some of them
+have been published.
+
+
+THE SPANISH HUNT FOR PERU.
+
+The Spanish conquest of Peru furnishes one of the most remarkable
+chapters in the history of audacious villainy. It was the work of
+successful buccaneers as unscrupulous as any crew of pirates that ever
+robbed and murdered on the ocean. After their settlements began on the
+islands and the Atlantic coast, rumors came to them of a wonderful
+country somewhere at a distance in the west. They knew nothing of
+another ocean between them and the Indies; the western side of the
+continent was a veiled land of mystery, but the rumors, constantly
+repeated, assured them that there was a country in that unknown region
+where gold was more abundant than iron among themselves. Their strongest
+passions were moved; greed for the precious metals and thirst for
+adventures.
+
+Balboa was hunting for Peru when he discovered the Pacific, about 1511
+A.D. He was guided across the isthmus by a young native chief, who told
+him of that ocean, saying it was the best way to the country where all
+the common household utensils were made of gold. At the Bay of Panama
+Balboa heard more of Peru, and went down the coast to find it, but did
+not go south much beyond the eighth degree of north latitude. In his
+company of adventurers at this time was Francisco Pizarro, by whom Peru
+was found, subjugated, robbed, and ruined, some fifteen or twenty years
+later. Balboa was superseded by Pedrarias, another greedy adventurer,
+whose jealousy arrested his operations and finally put him to death. The
+town of Panama was founded in 1519 by this Pedrarias, chiefly as a point
+on the Pacific from which he could seek and attack Peru. Under his
+direction, in 1522, the search was attempted by Pascual de Andagoya, but
+he failed to get down the coast beyond the limit of Balboa's
+exploration. Meanwhile clearer and more abundant reports of the rich and
+marvelous nation to be found somewhere below that point were circulated
+among the Spaniards, and their eagerness to reach it became intense.
+
+In 1524, three men could have been seen in Panama busily engaged
+preparing another expedition to go in search of the golden country.
+These were Francisco Pizarro, a bold and capable adventurer, who could
+neither read nor write; Diego de Almagro, an impulsive, passionate,
+reckless soldier of fortune, and Hernando de Luque, a Spanish
+ecclesiastic, Vicar of Panama, and a man well acquainted with the world
+and skilled in reading character, acting at this time, it is said, for
+another person who kept out of view. They had formed an alliance to
+discover and rob Peru. Luque would furnish most of the funds, and wait
+in Panama for the others to do the work. Pizarro would be
+commander-in-chief. The vessels used would necessarily be such as could
+be built at Panama, and, therefore, not very efficient.
+
+Pizarro went down the coast, landing from time to time to explore and
+rob villages, until he reached about the fourth degree of north
+latitude, when he was obliged to return for supplies and repairs. It
+became necessary to reconstruct the contract and allow Pedrarias an
+interest in it. On the next voyage, one of the vessels went half a
+degree south of the equator, and encountered a vessel "like a European
+caravel," which was, in fact, a Peruvian _balsa_, loaded with
+merchandise, vases, mirrors of burnished silver, and curious fabrics of
+cotton and woolen.
+
+It became again indispensable to send back to Panama for supplies and
+repairs, and Pizarro was doomed to wait for them seven months on an
+island. He next visited Tumbez, in Peru, and went to the ninth degree of
+south latitude; but he was obliged to visit Spain to get necessary aid
+before he could attempt any thing more, and it was not until the year
+1531 that the conquest of Peru was actually undertaken.
+
+In 1531 Pizarro finally entered Tumbez with his buccaneers, and marched
+into the country, sending word to the Inca that he came to aid him
+against his enemies. There had been a civil war in the country, which
+had been divided by the great Inca, Huayna Capac, the conqueror of
+Quito, between his two sons, Huascar and Atahuallpa, and Huascar had
+been defeated and thrown into prison, and finally put to death. At a
+city called Caxamalca, Pizarro contrived, by means of the most atrocious
+treachery, to seize the Inca and massacre some ten thousand of the
+principal Peruvians, who came to his camp unarmed on a friendly visit.
+This threw the whole empire into confusion, and made the conquest easy.
+The Inca filled a room with gold as the price of his ransom; the
+Spaniards took the gold, broke their promise, and put him to death.
+
+
+THE RUINS NEAR LAKE TITICACA.
+
+It is now agreed that the Peruvian antiquities represent two distinct
+periods in the ancient history of the country, one being much older than
+the other. Mr. Prescott accepts and repeats the opinion that "there
+existed in the country a race advanced in civilization before the time
+of the Incas," and that the ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+older than the reign of the first Inca. In the work of Rivero and Von
+Tschudi, it is stated that a critical examination of the monuments
+"indicates two very different epochs in Peruvian art, at least so far as
+concerns architecture; one before and the other after the arrival of the
+first Inca." Among the ruins which belong to the older civilization are
+those at Lake Titicaca, old Huanuco, Tiahuanaco, and Gran-Chimu, and it
+probably originated the roads and aqueducts. At Cuzco and other places
+are remains of buildings which represent the later time; but Cuzco of
+the Incas appears to have occupied the site of a ruined city of the
+older period. Figure 51 gives a view of the ancient Peruvian masonry.
+Montesinos supposes the name of Cuzco was derived from _cosca_, a
+Peruvian word signifying to level, or from heaps of earth called
+_coscos_, which abounded there. In his account of the previous times
+there is mention that an old city built there was in ruins. Perhaps the
+first Inca found on its site nothing but _coscos_, or heaps of ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Ancient Peruvian Masonry.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Ruins of "Temple" on the Island of Titicaca.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Ruins on Titicaca Island.]
+
+At Lake Titicaca some of the more important remains are on the islands.
+On Titicaca Island are the ruins of a great edifice described as "a
+palace or temple." Remains of other structures exist, but their ruins
+are old, much older than the time of the Incas. Figures 52 and 53
+represent different ruins on the island of Titicaca. They were all built
+of hewn stone, and had doors and windows, with posts, sills, and
+thresholds of stone, the doorways being narrower above than below. On
+the island of Coati there are remarkable ruins. The largest building
+here is also described as "a palace or temple," although it may have
+been something else. It was not high, but very large in extent. It stood
+around three sides of a parallelogram, with some peculiarities of
+construction connected with the ends or wings. Making allowance for the
+absence of the pyramidal foundations, it has more resemblance to some of
+the great constructions in Central America than to any thing peculiar to
+the later period of Peruvian architecture. Another ruin on this island
+is shown in Figure 54. The antiquities on the islands and shores of this
+lake need to be more completely explored and described, and probably
+interesting discoveries could be made at some points by means of
+well-directed excavations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Ruins on the Island of Coati.]
+
+A few miles from Lake Titicaca, at Tiahuanaco, are ruins which were very
+imposing when first seen by the Spaniards in the time of Pizarro. It is
+usual to speak of them as the oldest ruins in Peru, which may or may
+not be correct. They must, however, be classed with those at the lake.
+Not much now remains of the edifices, which were in a very ruinous
+condition three hundred and forty years ago. They were described by
+Cieça de Leon, who accompanied Pizarro, and also by Diego d'Alcobaça.
+Cieça de Leon mentions "great edifices" that were in ruins, "an
+artificial hill raised on a groundwork of stone," and "two stone idols
+resembling the human figure, and apparently made by skillful
+artificers." These "idols" were great statues, ten or twelve feet high.
+One of them, which was carried to La Paz in 1842, measured "three and a
+half yards" in length. Sculptured decorations appear on them, and,
+according to Cieça de Leon, the figures seemed to be "clothed in long
+vestments" different from those worn in the time of the Incas. Of a very
+remarkable edifice, whose foundations could be traced near these
+statues, nothing remained then "but a well-built wall, which must have
+been there for ages, the stones being very much worn and crumbled."
+Cieça de Leon's description goes on as follows:
+
+"In this place, also, there are stones so large and so overgrown that
+our wonder is incited, it being incomprehensible how the power of man
+could have placed them where we see them. They are variously wrought,
+and some of them, having the form of men, must have been idols. Near the
+walls are many caves and excavations under the earth, but in another
+place, farther west, are other and greater monuments, such as large
+gateways with hinges, platforms, and porches, each made of a single
+stone. It surprised me to see these enormous gateways made of great
+masses of stone, some of which were thirty feet long, fifteen high, and
+six thick."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco.]
+
+Many of the stone monuments at Tiahuanaco have been removed, some for
+building, some for other purposes. In one case, "large masses of
+sculptured stone ten yards in length and six in width" were used to make
+grinding stones for a chocolate mill. The principal monuments now seen
+on this field of ruins are a vast mound covering several acres, where
+there seems to have been a great edifice, fragments of columns, erect
+slabs of stone which formed parts of buildings, and several of the
+monolithic gateways, the largest of which was made of a single stone ten
+feet high and thirteen broad. Figure 55 gives a view of one. The doorway
+is six feet four inches high, and three feet two inches wide. Above it,
+along the whole length of the stone, which is now broken, is a cornice
+covered with sculptured figures. "The whole neighborhood," says Mr.
+Squier, "is strewn with immense blocks of stone elaborately wrought,
+equaling, if not surpassing in size, any known to exist in Egypt or
+India."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.]
+
+At Cuzco, two or more degrees north of Lake Titicaca, there are ruins of
+buildings that were occupied until the rule of the Incas was overthrown.
+Remains of the old structures are seen in various parts of the present
+town, some of them incorporated into new edifices built by the
+Spaniards. Cyclopean remains of walls of the Temple of the Sun now
+constitute a portion of the Convent of St. Domingo. In the days of the
+Incas, this temple stood "a circuit of more than four hundred paces,"
+and was surrounded by a great wall built of cut stone. Remains of the
+old fortifications are seen; and there is an extensive ruin here which
+shows what is supposed to be all that remains of the palace of the
+Incas. Figures 56 and 57 give views of remains of the ancient fortress
+walls at Cuzco. Occasionally there is search at Cuzco, by means of
+excavation, for antiquities. Within a few years an important discovery
+has been made; a lunar calendar of the Incas, made of gold, has been
+exhumed. At first it was described as "a gold breastplate or sun;" but
+William Bollaert, who gives an account of it, finds that it is a
+calendar, the first discovered in Peru. Many others, probably, went to
+the melting-pot at the time of the Conquest. This is not quite circular.
+The outer ring is five inches and three tenths in diameter, and the
+inner four inches. It was made to be fastened to the breast of an Inca
+or priest. The figures were stamped on it, and there "seem to be
+twenty-four compartments, large and small, including three at the top.
+At the bottom are two spaces; figures may or may not have been there,
+but it looks as if they had been worn away." It was found about the year
+1859.
+
+The uniform and constant report of Peruvian tradition places the
+beginning of this old civilization in the Valley of Cuzco, near Lake
+Titicaca. There appeared the first civilizers and the first civilized
+communities. This beautiful valley is the most elevated table-land on
+the continent, Lake Titicaca being 12,846 feet above the sea level. Were
+it not within the tropics, it would be a region of eternal snow, for it
+is more than 4000 feet higher than the beginning of perpetual snow on
+Mont Blanc. Near it are some of the higher peaks of the Andes, among
+them Sorato, Illimani, and Sahama.
+
+
+OTHER RUINS IN PERU.
+
+The ancient Peru conquered and robbed by Pizarro is now divided into
+Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili as far down as the thirty-seventh
+degree of south latitude. Its remains are found to some extent in all
+these countries, although most abundantly in Peru.
+
+The ruins known as "the Palaces of Gran-Chimu" are situated in the
+northwestern part of Peru, near Truxillo. Here, in the time of the first
+Incas, was an independent state, which was subjugated by the Inca set
+down in the list of Montesinos as the grandfather of Huayna Capac, about
+a century before the Spaniards arrived. For what is known of these ruins
+we are chiefly indebted to Mariano Rivero, director of the National
+Museum at Lima. They cover a space of three quarters of a league,
+without including the walled squares found on every side. The chief
+objects of interest are the remains of two great edifices called
+palaces. "These palaces are immense areas surrounded by high walls of
+brick, the walls being now ten or twelve yards high and six feet thick
+at the base." There was in each case another wall exterior to this.
+Within the palace walls were squares and dwellings, with narrow passages
+between them, and the walls are decorated. In the largest palace are the
+remains of a great reservoir for water, which was brought to it by
+subterranean aqueducts from the River Moche, two miles distant. Outside
+the inclosures of these palaces are remains of a vast number of
+buildings, which indicate that the city contained a great population.
+The Spaniards took vast quantities of gold from the _huacas_ or tombs
+at this place. The amount taken from a single tomb in the years 1566 and
+1592 was officially estimated at nearly a million dollars. Figure 58
+presents an end view of the walls at Gran-Chimu. Figures 59 and 60
+represent some of the decorations at Chimu-Canchu.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 59 and 60.--Decorations at Chimu-Canchu.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Edifice, with Gateway, at Old Huanuco.]
+
+Remarkable ruins exist at Cuelap, in Northern Peru. "They consist of a
+wall of wrought stones 3600 feet long, 560 broad, and 150 high,
+constituting a solid mass with a level summit." Probably the interior
+was made of earth. On this mass was another, "600 feet long, 500 broad,
+and 150 high." In this, and also in the lower structure, there are many
+rooms made of wrought stone, in which are a great number of niches or
+cells one or two yards deep, which were used as tombs. Other old
+structures exist in that neighborhood. Farther south, at Huanuco el
+Viego, or Old Huanuco, are two peculiar edifices and a terrace, and near
+them the faded traces of a large town. The two edifices were built of a
+composition of pebbles and clay, faced with hewn stone. One of them is
+called the "Look-out," but it is impossible to discover the purpose for
+which it was built. The interior of the other is crossed by six walls,
+in each of which is a gateway, the outer one being finely finished, and
+showing a sculptured animal on each of the upper corners. It has a large
+court, and rooms made of cut stones. Connected with this structure was a
+well-built aqueduct. Figures 61 and 62 give views of the so-called
+palace and its ground plan. Figure 63 represents the Look-out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Ground Plan of Edifice at Old Huanuco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--"Look-out" at Old Huanuco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Ruins at Pachacamac.]
+
+Seven leagues from Lima, near the sea, are the much-dilapidated ruins,
+shown in Figure 64, of a large city of the Incas, which was built
+chiefly of adobes or sun-dried bricks. It is called Pachacamac. Ruins of
+towns, castles, fortresses, and other structures are found all about the
+country. At one place, near Chavin de Huanta, there are remarkable ruins
+which are very old. The material used here was like that seen at Old
+Huanuco. From the interior of one of the great buildings there is a
+subterranean passage which, it is said, goes under the river to the
+opposite bank. Very ancient ruins, showing remains of large and
+remarkable edifices, were seen near Huamanga, and described by Cieça de
+Leon. The native traditions said this city was built by "bearded white
+men, who came there long before the time of the Incas, and established a
+settlement." It is noticed every where that the ancient Peruvians made
+large use of aqueducts, which they built with notable skill, using hewn
+stones and cement, and making them very substantial. Some of them are
+still in use. They were used to carry water to the cities and to
+irrigate the cultivated lands. A few of them were very long. There is
+mention of one which was a hundred and fifty miles long, and of another
+which was extended four hundred and fifty miles across sierras and over
+rivers, from south to north.
+
+
+THE GREAT PERUVIAN ROADS.
+
+Nothing in Ancient Peru was more remarkable than the public roads. No
+ancient people has left traces of works more astonishing than these, so
+vast was their extent, and so great the skill and labor required to
+construct them. One of these roads ran along the mountains through the
+whole length of the empire, from Quito to Chili. Another, starting from
+this at Cuzco, went down to the coast and extended northward to the
+equator. These roads were built on beds or "deep under-structures" of
+masonry. The width of the roadways varied from twenty to twenty-five
+feet, and they were made level and smooth by paving, and in some places
+by a sort of macadamizing with pulverized stone mixed with lime and
+bituminous cement. This cement was used in all the masonry. On each side
+of the roadway was "a very strong wall more than a fathom in thickness."
+These roads went over marshes, rivers, and great chasms of the sierras,
+and through rocky precipices and mountain sides. The great road passing
+along the mountains was a marvelous work. In many places its way was cut
+through rock for leagues. Great ravines were filled up with solid
+masonry. Rivers were crossed by means of a curious kind of suspension
+bridges, and no obstruction was encountered which the builders did not
+overcome. The builders of our Pacific Railroad, with their superior
+engineering skill and mechanical appliances, might reasonably shrink
+from the cost and the difficulties of such a work as this. Extending
+from one degree north of Quito to Cuzco, and from Cuzco to Chili, it was
+quite as long as the two Pacific railroads, and its wild route among the
+mountains was far more difficult.
+
+Sarmiento, describing it, said, "It seems to me that if the emperor
+(Charles V.) should see fit to order the construction of another road
+like that which leads from Quito to Cuzco, or that which from Cuzco goes
+toward Chili, I certainly think he would not be able to make it, with
+all his power." Humboldt examined some of the remains of this road, and
+described as follows a portion of it seen in a pass of the Andes,
+between Mansi and Loxa: "Our eyes rested continually on superb remains
+of a paved road of the Incas. The roadway, paved with well-cut, dark
+porphyritic stone, was twenty feet wide, and rested on deep foundations.
+This road was marvelous. None of the Roman roads I have seen in Italy,
+in the South of France, or in Spain, appeared to me more imposing than
+this work of the ancient Peruvians." He saw remains of several other
+shorter roads which were built in the same way, some of them between
+Loxa and the River Amazon. Along these roads at equal distances were
+edifices, a kind of caravanseras, built of hewn stone, for the
+accommodation of travelers.
+
+These great works were described by every Spanish writer on Peru, and in
+some accounts of them we find suggestions in regard to their history.
+They are called "roads of the Incas," but they were probably much older
+than the time of these rulers. The mountain road running toward Quito
+was much older than the Inca Huayna Capac, to whom it has sometimes been
+attributed. It is stated that when he started by this route to invade
+the Quitús, the road was so bad that "he found great difficulties in the
+passage." It was then an old road, much out of repair, and he
+immediately ordered the necessary reconstructions. Gomara says, "Huayna
+Capac restored, enlarged, and completed these roads, but he did not
+build them, as some pretend." These great artificial highways were
+broken up and made useless at the time of the Conquest, and the
+subsequent barbarous rule of the Spaniards allowed them to go to decay.
+Now only broken remains of them exist to show their former character.
+
+
+THE PERUVIAN CIVILIZATION.
+
+The development of civilization in Peru was very different from that in
+Mexico and Central America. In both regions the people were
+sun-worshipers, but their religious organizations, as well as their
+methods of building temples, were unlike. Neither of these peoples seems
+to have borrowed from the other. It may be that all the old American
+civilizations had a common origin in South America, and that all the
+ancient Americans whose civilization can be traced in remains found
+north of the Isthmus came originally from that part of the continent.
+This hypothesis appears to me more probable than any other I have heard
+suggested. But, assuming this to be true, the first migration of
+civilized people from South America must have taken place at a very
+distant period in the past, for it preceded not only the history
+indicated by the existing antiquities, but also an earlier history,
+during which the Peruvians and Central Americans grew to be as different
+from their ancestors as from each other. In each case, the development
+of civilization represented by existing monuments, so far as we can
+study it, appears to have been original.
+
+In some respects the Peruvian civilization was developed to such a
+degree as challenged admiration. The Peruvians were highly skilled in
+agriculture and in some kinds of manufactures. No people ever had a more
+efficient system of industry. This created their wealth and made
+possible their great public works. All accounts of the country at the
+time of the Conquest agree in the statement that they cultivated the
+soil in a very admirable way and with remarkable success, using
+aqueducts for irrigation, and employing guano as one of their most
+important fertilizers. Europeans learned from them the value of this
+fertilizer, and its name, _guano_, is Peruvian. The remains of their
+works show what they were as builders. Their skill in cutting stone and
+their wonderful masonry can be seen and admired by modern builders in
+what is left of their aqueducts, their roads, their temples, and their
+other great edifices.
+
+They had great proficiency in the arts of spinning, weaving, and dyeing.
+For their cloth they used cotton and the wool of four varieties of the
+llama, that of the vicuña being the finest. Some of their cloth had
+interwoven designs and ornaments very skillfully executed. Many of their
+fabrics had rare excellence in the eyes of the Spaniards. Garcilasso
+says, "The coverings of the beds were blankets and friezes of the wool
+of the vicuña, which is so fine and so much prized that, among other
+precious things from that land, they have been brought for the bed of
+Don Philip II." Of their dyes, this account is given in the work of
+Rivero and Von Tschudi:
+
+"They possessed the secret of fixing the dye of all colors,
+flesh-color, yellow, gray, blue, green, black, etc., so firmly in the
+thread, or in the cloth already woven, that they never faded during the
+lapse of ages, even when exposed to the air or buried (in tombs) under
+ground. Only the cotton became slightly discolored, while the woolen
+fabrics preserved their primitive lustre. It is a circumstance worth
+remarking that chemical analyses made of pieces of cloth of all the
+different dyes prove that the Peruvians extracted all their colors from
+the vegetable and none from the mineral kingdom. In fact, the natives of
+the Peruvian mountains now use plants unknown to Europeans, producing
+from them bright and lasting colors."
+
+They had great skill in the art of working metals, especially gold and
+silver. Besides these precious metals, they had copper, tin, lead, and
+quicksilver. Figures 65 and 66 show some of the implements used by the
+Peruvians. Iron was unknown to them in the time of the Incas, although
+some maintain that they had it in the previous ages, to which belong the
+ruins at Lake Titicaca. Iron ore was and still is very abundant in Peru.
+It is impossible to conceive how the Peruvians were able to cut and work
+stone in such a masterly way, or to construct their great roads and
+aqueducts without the use of iron tools. Some of the languages of the
+country, and perhaps all, had names for iron; in official Peruvian it
+was called _quillay_, and in the old Chilian tongue _panilic_. "It is
+remarkable," observes Molina, "that iron, which has been thought unknown
+to the ancient Americans, has particular names in some of their
+tongues." It is not easy to understand why they had names for this
+metal, if they never at any time had knowledge of the metal itself. In
+the Mercurio Peruano, tome i., p. 201, 1791, it is stated that,
+anciently, the Peruvian sovereigns "worked magnificent iron mines at
+Ancoriames, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca;" but I can not give the
+evidence used in support of this statement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Copper Knives.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Copper Tweezers.]
+
+Their goldsmiths and silversmiths had attained very great proficiency.
+They could melt the metals in furnaces, cast them in moulds made of clay
+and gypsum, hammer their work with remarkable dexterity, inlay it, and
+solder it with great perfection. The gold and silver work of these
+artists was extremely abundant in the country at the time of the
+Conquest, but Spanish greed had it all melted for coinage. It was with
+articles of this gold-work that the Inca Atahuallpa filled a room in
+his vain endeavor to purchase release from captivity. One of the old
+chroniclers mentions "statuary, jars, vases, and every species of
+vessels, all of fine gold." Describing one of the palaces, he said:
+"They had an artificial garden, the soil of which was made of small
+pieces of fine gold, and this was artificially sowed with different
+kinds of maize which were of gold, their stems, leaves, and ears.
+Besides this, they had more than twenty sheep (llamas), with their
+lambs, attended by shepherds, all made of gold." This may be the same
+artificial garden which was mentioned by Francisco Lopez de Gomara, who
+places it on "an island near Puna." Similar gardens of gold are
+mentioned by others. It is believed that a large quantity of Peruvian
+gold-work was thrown into Lake Titicaca to keep it from the Spanish
+robbers. In a description of one lot of golden articles sent to Spain in
+1534 by Pizarro, there is mention of "four llamas, ten statues of women
+of full size, and a cistern of gold so curious that it incited the
+wonder of all."
+
+Nothing is more constantly mentioned by the old Spanish chroniclers than
+the vast abundance of gold in Peru. It was more common than any other
+metal. Temples and palaces were covered with it, and it was very
+beautifully wrought into ornaments, temple furniture, articles for
+household use, and imitations of almost every object in nature. In the
+course of twenty-five years after the Conquest, the Spaniards sent from
+Peru to Spain more than four hundred million ducats (800,000,000
+dollars) worth of gold, all or nearly all of it having been taken from
+the subjugated Peruvians as "booty."
+
+Figures 67 and 68 show a golden and a silver vase, reduced from the
+actual size. Figures 69 and 70 represent various articles of pottery;
+all these illustrations are copies from articles taken from old Peruvian
+tombs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Golden Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Silver Vase.]
+
+The most perfectly manufactured articles of Peruvian pottery were used
+in the tombs. Some of those made for other uses were very curious. A
+considerable number of articles made for common use have been preserved.
+Mariano Rivero, a Peruvian, says: "At this day there exist in many
+houses pitchers, large jars, and earthen pots of this manufacture, which
+are preferred for their solidity to those manufactured by our own
+potters." The ancient Peruvians were inferior to the Central Americans
+in the arts of ornamentation and sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Articles of Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Articles of Pottery.]
+
+Science among the Peruvians was not very highly developed, but
+engineering skill of some kind is indicated by the great roads and
+aqueducts. Their knowledge of the art of preparing colors and certain
+useful medicines implied a study of plants. Their progress in astronomy
+was not equal to that found in Central America; nevertheless, they had
+an accurate measure of the solar year, but, unlike the Central
+Americans, they divided the year into twelve months, and they used
+mechanical contrivances successfully to fix the times of the solstices
+and equinoxes. A class of men called _amautas_ was trained to preserve
+and teach whatever knowledge existed in the country. It was their
+business to understand the _quippus_, keep in memory the historical
+poems, give attention to the science and practice of medicine, and train
+their pupils in knowledge. These were not priests; they were the
+"learned men" of Peru, and the government allowed them every facility
+for study and for communicating instruction. How much they knew of
+astronomy it is not easy to say. They had knowledge of some of the
+planets, and it is claimed that there is some reason to believe they
+used aids to eyesight in studying the heavens, such as some suppose
+were used by our Mound-Builders. A discovery made in Bolivia a few years
+since is cited in support of this belief. It is the figure of a man in
+the act of using a tube to aid vision, which was taken from an ancient
+tomb. Mr. David Forbes, an English chemist and geologist, obtained it in
+Bolivia, and carried it to England in 1864. William Bollaert describes
+it as follows in a paper read to the London Anthropological Society:
+
+"It is a nude figure, of silver, two inches and a half in height, on a
+flat, pointed pedestal. In the right hand it has the mask of a human
+face, but in the left a tube over half an inch in length, the narrow
+part placed to the left eye in a diagonal position, as if observing some
+celestial object. This is the first specimen of a figure in the act of
+looking through a hollow tube directed to the heavens that has been
+found in the New World. We can not suppose the Peruvians had any thing
+that more nearly resembled a telescope. It was found in a chulpa, or
+ancient Indian tomb, at Caquingora, near Corocoro (lat. 17° 15' S., and
+long. 68° 35' W.), in Bolivia." He forgets the astronomical monument
+described by Captain Dupaix.
+
+The art of writing in alphabetical characters, so far as appears, was
+unknown to the Peruvians in the time of the Incas. No Peruvian books
+existed at that time, and no inscriptions have been found in any of the
+ruins. They had a method of recording events, keeping accounts, and
+making reports to the government by means of the _quippu_. This was made
+of cords of twisted wool fastened to a base prepared for the purpose.
+These cords were of various sizes and colors, and every size and color
+had its meaning. The record was made by means of an elaborate system of
+knots and artificial intertwinings. The _amautas_ were carefully
+educated to the business of understanding and using the _quippus_, and
+"this science was so much perfected that those skilled in it attained
+the art of recording historical events, laws, and decrees, so as to
+transmit to their descendants the most striking events of the empire;
+thus the _quippus_ could supply the place of documents." Each _quippu_
+was a book full of information for those who could read it.
+
+Among the _amautas_ memory was educated to retain and transmit to
+posterity songs, historical narratives, and long historical poems. It is
+said, also, that tragedies and comedies were composed and preserved in
+this way, and that dramatic performances were among the regular
+entertainments encouraged and supported by the Incas. Whether the art of
+writing ever existed in the country can not now be determined. Some of
+the Peruvian tongues had names for paper; the people knew that a kind of
+paper or parchment could be made of plantain leaves, and, according to
+Montesinos, writing and books were common in the older times, that is to
+say, in ages long previous to the Incas. He explains how the art was
+lost, as I shall presently show.
+
+It is not improbable that a kind of hieroglyphical writing existed in
+some of the Peruvian communities, especially among the Aymaraes.
+Humboldt mentions books of hieroglyphical writing found among the
+Panoes, on the River Ucayali, which were "bundles of their paper
+resembling our volumes in quarto." A Franciscan missionary found an old
+man sitting at the foot of a palm-tree and reading one of these books to
+several young persons. The Franciscan was told that the writing
+"contained hidden things which no stranger ought to know." It was seen
+that the pages of the book were "covered with figures of men, animals,
+and isolated characters, deemed hieroglyphical, and arranged in lines
+with order and symmetry." The Panoes said these books "were transmitted
+to them by their ancestors, and had relation to wanderings and ancient
+wars." There is similar writing on a prepared llama skin found among
+other antiquities on a peninsula in Lake Titicaca, which is now in the
+museum at La Paz, Bolivia. It appears to be a record of atrocities
+perpetrated by the Spaniards at the time of the Conquest, and shows that
+some of the Aymaraes could at that time write hieroglyphics.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+The Peruvians, like most other important peoples in all ages, had
+mythical wonder-stories instead of authentic ancient history to explain
+the origin of their nation. These were told in traditions and legends
+preserved and transmitted from generation to generation by the
+_amautas_. If they were also recorded in secret books of hieroglyphical
+writing, such as those found among the Panoes on the Ucayali, which
+"contained hidden things that no stranger ought to know," satisfactory
+evidence of the fact has never been brought to light. In addition to
+these, they had many historical traditions of much more importance,
+related in long poems and preserved in the same way; and there were
+annals and national documents recorded in the _quippus_.
+
+Some of the Spanish writers on Peru, who described what they saw in the
+country at the time of the Conquest, discussed its history. If they had
+used the proper sources of information with a more penetrating and
+complete investigation, and studied the subject as it might have been
+studied at that time, their historical sketches would now have great
+value. The two most important works written at this time, the "Relacion"
+of Sarmiento and the "Relaciones" of Polo de Ondegardo, were never
+printed. But none of these writers sought to study Peruvian antiquity
+beyond the period of the Incas, although some of them (Acosta for
+instance) inquired sufficiently to see that Manco Capac was a mythical
+personage prefixed to the dynastic line of the Incas without actually
+belonging to it. This limited view of the ancient history, which was
+inconsistent with what could be seen in the antiquities and traditions
+of the country, was generally accepted, because nothing more could be
+known in Europe, and its influence was established by the undue
+importance accorded to the "Commentarios Reales" of Garcilasso de la
+Vega, published in 1609.
+
+
+GARCILASSO'S HISTORY.
+
+Garcilasso de la Vega, the son of a distinguished Spaniard of the same
+name, was born at Cuzco in 1540. His mother, named Ñusta, was a niece of
+the great Inca Huayna Capac, and granddaughter of his no less eminent
+predecessor, Tupac Yupanqui. The intimate blood relationship which
+connected him with the Incas naturally drew attention to his work, and,
+with more haste than reason, was treated as the best possible
+qualification for writing Peruvian history; therefore his "Commentarios"
+acquired a very great celebrity, and came to be regarded as the highest
+authority on all questions relating to Peru previous to the Conquest.
+The work never deserved this reputation, although it was not without
+value as an addition to what had been written on the subject by
+Spaniards. Garcilasso was not well qualified to write a faithful history
+of Peru either by his knowledge or by the temper of his mind. His aim
+was to glorify the Incas and their times, and much of his work was in
+the strain of tales heard in childhood from his mother.
+
+The "Commentarios Reales" were written just as their author's training
+had prepared him to write them. He lived in Cuzco without education
+until he was nearly twenty years old, his intellectual development being
+confined to the instruction necessary to make him a good Catholic. He
+then went to Spain and never returned to Peru. The next period of his
+life was devoted to seeking distinction in the Spanish military service;
+but political influence was against him, and he could not attain the
+object of his ambition. He finally retired to Cordova, acquired some
+literary culture, and resolved to win distinction by writing a history
+of his native country. His materials for such a history, in addition to
+what could be learned from the earlier Spanish writers, consisted
+entirely of what he had learned of his mother and his early Peruvian
+associates at Cuzco, and of such acquisitions as could be gained by
+means of correspondence with his acquaintances in Peru, after the
+purpose to write a history was formed. It can be seen readily that
+Garcilasso's history written in this way might have a certain value,
+while it could not be safely accepted as an authority. The first part of
+his work was published in 1609, when he was nearly seventy years old.
+
+According to his version of the Peruvian annals, the rule of the Incas
+began with the mythical Manco Capac, and lasted over five hundred years;
+and this version, with some variations in estimates of the time, has
+been repeated ever since. The dynastic line of the Incas thus determined
+is given in the work of Rivero and Von Tschudi as follows:
+
+1. Manco-Capac, mysterious "son of the sun," who began to reign in 1021
+A.D., and died in 1062, having reigned forty years. 2. Sinchi-Rocca,
+who reigned thirty years, from 1062 to 1091. 3. Lloque-Yupanqui,
+reigned thirty-five years, from 1091 to 1126. 4. Mayta-Capac, thirty
+years, from 1126 to 1156. 5. Capac-Yupanqui, forty-one years, from 1156
+to 1197. 6. Inca Rocca, fifty-one years, from 1197 to 1249. 7.
+Yahuar-Capac, forty years, from 1249 to 1289. 8. Viracocha, fifty-one
+years, from 1289 to 1340; his son Inca Urco reigned after him eleven
+days, and was then deposed "as a fool incapable of governing." 9.
+Titu-Manco-Capac-Pachacutec, sixty years, from 1340 to 1400, living,
+says tradition, to be one hundred and three years old. 10. Yupanqui,
+thirty-nine years, from 1400 to 1439. 11. Tupac-Yupanqui (Garcilasso's
+great-grandfather) thirty-six years, from 1439 to 1475. 12.
+Huayna-Capac, "the most glorious of the Incas," fifty years, from 1475
+to 1525. After his death the empire was divided between his two sons
+Huascar and Atahuallpa. This caused a civil war, which ended with the
+death of Huascar in 1532. One year later Atahuallpa was himself
+destroyed by Cortez.
+
+Manco-Capac, here set down as the first Inca, with a marvelous story of
+his mysterious origin and his miraculous powers as a civilizer, was
+undoubtedly borrowed from traditions of the origin of civilization in
+the more ancient times, which had been used by the Incas in support of
+their claim to direct descent from the sun. In reality, the first Inca
+was Rocca, or Sinchi-Rocca, and several of the early Spanish writers
+were sufficiently well informed to see this. The period of the Incas
+must have been less than five hundred years if their dynasty consisted
+of no more than twelve or thirteen sovereigns. In other respects, this
+table of the sovereigns may be substantially correct, for there is a
+general agreement in regard to the names and the order of succession,
+although Montesinos maintains that the fifth Inca on the list was
+borrowed by Garcilasso from traditions of a much more ancient sovereign
+who was greatly celebrated in the historical poems, or confounded with
+him. The period of the Incas was very distinct in Peruvian history, but
+it is now understood that they represent only the last period in the
+history of a civilization which began much farther back in the past.
+
+
+FERNANDO MONTESINOS.
+
+The only Spanish writer who really studied the ancient history of Peru
+in the traditional and other records of the country was Fernando
+Montesinos, who went there about a century after the Conquest. He was
+sent from Spain on service which took him to every part of Peru, and
+gave him the best possible opportunities for investigation. He was a
+scholar and a worker, with a strong inclination to such studies, and,
+during two periods of residence in the country, he devoted fifteen years
+to these inquiries with unremitting industry and great success. He soon
+learned to communicate freely with the Peruvians in their own language;
+then he applied himself to collect the historical poems, narratives, and
+traditions. He succeeded in getting assistance from many of the older
+men who had learned of the _amautas_, and especially of those who were
+trained to read the _quippus_. Nothing was omitted which could aid his
+purpose. In this way Montesinos made a great collection of what may be
+called the _old Peruvian documents_, and gained a vast amount of
+information which no other writer had used or even sought to acquire.
+
+The materials collected were more important than is at once understood
+by those accustomed to depend wholly on writing and printing for the
+preservation of literature, because they can not easily realize to what
+extent the faculty of memory may be sharpened and developed by a class
+of men devoted to this culture in communities where such mechanical aids
+do not exist. It is known that long poems, stories, and historical
+narratives have been preserved by unlettered peoples much below the
+civilized condition of the Peruvians. Long poems, extending to three and
+four hundred lines, were retained by memory, and transmitted from
+generation to generation among the Sandwich Islanders. Many scholars
+have believed that all the early literature of Greece, including the
+Iliad, the Odyssey, and all other "poems of the Cycle," was preserved in
+this way by the Rhapsodists for centuries, down to the time of
+Peisistratus, and then for the first time reduced to writing. This shows
+at least what they have believed was possible. In Max Müller's "History
+of Ancient Sanskrit Literature" it is argued strongly that the Vedas
+were not written at first, but were transmitted orally, being learned by
+heart in the great religious schools of the Indo-Aryans as an
+indispensable part of education. This is likely to be true, whether we
+assume that the Indo-Aryans had or had not the art of writing; for, in
+the Vaidic age, the divine songs of the Veda were so intimately
+associated with the mysteries of their religion that they may have been
+held too sacred to be made common by written characters.
+
+Therefore it is no wise incredible, nor even surprising, that a
+considerable amount of literature existed in Peru without the aid of
+writing. On the contrary, it would be surprising if they had failed to
+do what has been done by every other people in like circumstances. The
+schools of the _amautas_ were national institutions specially set apart
+for the business of preserving and increasing knowledge, teaching, and
+literary work of every kind. In a country where civilization was so much
+advanced in many respects, they could not have been entirely barren.
+Those who criticise Montesinos admit that "his advantages were great,"
+that "no one equaled him in archæological knowledge of Peru," and that
+"he became acquainted with original instruments which he occasionally
+transferred to his own pages, and which it would now be difficult to
+meet elsewhere." The results of his investigation are embodied in a work
+entitled "Memorias Antiguas Historiales del Peru." This, with another
+work on the Conquest entitled "Annales," remained in manuscript at
+Madrid until the "Memorias" was translated into French by M.
+Ternaux-Compans, and printed in his collection of original documents
+relating to the discovery and exploration of America.
+
+
+HIS SCHEME OF PERUVIAN HISTORY.
+
+According to Montesinos, there were three distinct periods in the
+history of Peru. First, there was a period which began with the origin
+of civilization, and lasted until the first or second century of the
+Christian era. Second, there was a period of disintegration, decline,
+and disorder, introduced by successful invasions from the east and
+southeast, during which the country was broken up into small states, and
+many of the arts of civilization were lost; this period lasted more than
+a thousand years. Third and last came the period of the Incas, who
+revived civilization and restored the empire. He discards the
+wonder-stories told of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and gives the
+Peruvian nation a beginning which is, at least, not incredible. It was
+originated, he says, by a people led by four brothers, who settled in
+the Valley of Cuzco, and developed civilization there in a very human
+way. The youngest of these brothers assumed supreme authority, and
+became the first of a long line of sovereigns.
+
+Montesinos gives a list of sixty-four sovereigns who reigned in the
+first period. The first was Pûhua Manco, or Ayar-Uchu-Topa, the youngest
+of the four brothers, whose power was increased by the willing
+submission of "neighboring nations." His successor, called Manco-Capac,
+is described as a remarkable character; "adjacent nations dreaded his
+power," and in his time the kingdom was much increased. Next came
+Huainaevi-Pishua, and "during his reign was known the use of letters,
+and the _amautas_ taught astrology and the art of writing on leaves of
+the plantain tree." Sinchi-Cozque won victories, and "adorned and
+fortified the city of Cuzco." Inti-Capac-Yupanqui, another remarkable
+character, divided the kingdom into districts and subdistricts,
+introduced a complete civil organization, instituted the solar year of
+three hundred and sixty-five days, and established the system of
+couriers. Manco-Capac II. "made great roads from Cuzco to the
+provinces." These are the first six rulers named on the list.
+
+In the next thirteen reigns nothing special is noted save attention to
+civil affairs, occasional conquests, and "a great plague." The twentieth
+sovereign, called Huascar-Titupac, "gave all the provinces new governors
+of royal blood, and introduced in the army a cuirass made of cotton and
+copper." The twenty-first, Manco-Capac-Amauta, "being addicted to
+astronomy, convened a scientific council, which agreed that the sun was
+at a greater distance from the earth than the moon, and that they
+followed different courses." In the next twelve reigns, wars, conquests,
+and some indications of religious controversy are noted. The
+thirty-fourth ruler, called Ayay-Manco, "assembled the _amautas_ in
+Cuzco to reform the calendar, and it was decided that the year should be
+divided into months of thirty days, and weeks of ten days, calling the
+five days at the end of the year a small week; they also collected the
+years into decades or groups of tens, and determined that each group of
+ten decades should form a sun."
+
+Among the next twenty-nine sovereigns, Capac-Raymi-Amauta, the
+thirty-eighth of the line, and Yahuar-Huquiz, the fifty-first, were
+"celebrated for astronomical knowledge," and the latter "intercalated a
+year at the end of four centuries." Manco-Capac III., the sixtieth
+sovereign of this line, is supposed to have reigned at the beginning of
+the Christian era, and in his time "Peru had reached her greatest
+elevation and extension." The next three reigns covered thirty-two
+years, it is said. Then came Titu-Yupanqui-Pachacuti, the sixty-fourth
+and last sovereign of the old kingdom, who was killed in battle with a
+horde of invaders who came from the east and southeast across the Andes.
+His death threw the kingdom into confusion. There was rebellion as well
+as invasion, by which it was broken up into small states. The account of
+what happened says: "Many ambitious ones, taking advantage of the new
+king's youth, denied him obedience, drew away from him the people, and
+usurped several provinces. Those who remained faithful to the heir of
+Titu-Yupanqui conducted him to Tambotoco, whose inhabitants offered him
+obedience. From this it happened that this monarch took the title of
+King of Tambotoco."
+
+During the next twenty-six reigns the sway of the old royal house was
+confined to this little state. These twenty-six successors of the old
+sovereigns were merely kings of Tambotoco. The country, overrun by rude
+invaders, torn by civil war, and harried by "many simultaneous
+tyrants," became semi-barbarous; "all was found in great confusion; life
+and personal safety were endangered, and civil disturbances caused an
+entire loss of the use of letters." The art of writing seems to have
+been mixed up with the issues of a religious controversy in the time of
+the old kingdom. It was proscribed now, even in the little state of
+Tambotoco, for we read that the fourteenth of its twenty-six rulers
+"prohibited, under the severest penalties, the use of _quellca_ for
+writing, and forbade, also, the invention of letters. _Quellca_ was a
+kind of parchment made of plantain leaves." It is added that an
+_amauta_, who sought to restore the art of writing was put to death.
+This period of decline, disorder, and disintegration, which covered the
+"dark ages" of Peru, lasted until the rise of the Incas brought better
+times and reunited the country.
+
+Rocca, called Inca-Rocca, was the first of the Incas. He was connected
+with the old royal family, but did not stand in the direct line of
+succession. The story of his rise to power is told as follows: "A
+princess of royal blood, named Mama-Ciboca, contrived, by artifice and
+intrigue, to raise to the throne her son called Rocca, a youth of twenty
+years, and so handsome and valiant that his admirers called him _Inca_,
+which means lord. This title of _Inca_ began with him, and was adopted
+by all his successors." He appears to have had great qualities as a
+ruler. Not much time passed before he secured possession of Cuzco, made
+war successfully against the neighboring princes, and greatly extended
+his dominions. Under his successors, the empire thus begun continued to
+grow, until it was extended from Quito to Chili, and became the Peruvian
+empire which the Spaniards robbed and destroyed.
+
+
+PROBABILITIES.
+
+It has been the fashion to depreciate Montesinos, but I find it
+impossible to discover the reasons by which this depreciation can be
+justified. It is alleged that he uses fanciful hypotheses to explain
+Peru. The reply to this seems to me conclusive. In the first place, he
+is, in this respect, like all other writers of his time. That was an age
+of fanciful theories. Montesinos is certainly no worse than others in
+this respect, while he has the merit of being somewhat more original. He
+brought the Peruvian civilization from Armenia, and argued that Peru was
+Solomon's Ophir. Undue importance has been accorded to several of the
+old Spanish chroniclers, whose works contain suggestions and fancies
+much more irrational. In the second place, his theories have nothing
+whatever to do with his facts, by which they are sometimes contradicted.
+He found in Peru materials for the scheme of its ancient history, which
+he sets forth. Readers will form their own estimates of its value, but
+no reasonable critic will confound this part of his work with his
+fanciful explanations, which are sometimes inconsistent with it. For
+instance, his theory assumes that the first monarch of the old kingdom
+began his reign as far back in the past as the year 2500 B.C. But he
+reports only sixty-four rulers of that old kingdom. Now, if there were
+so many as sixty-four, and if we allow an average of twenty years to
+each reign (which is sufficient), we can not carry back the beginning of
+that first reign to the year 1200 B.C.
+
+There is another objection, which must be stated in the words of one of
+the critics who have urged it: "Montesinos treats the ancient history of
+Peru in a mode so original and distinct from all others that we can
+perceive it to be a production alike novel and unknown." If this means
+any thing, it means that it was highly improper for Montesinos to find
+in Peru what was "unknown" to poorly-informed and superficial Spanish
+writers, who had already been accepted as "authorities." It would have
+been singular if his careful investigation, continued through fifteen
+years, had not given him a great amount of information which others had
+never taken pains to acquire. His treatment of the subject was "original
+and distinct from all others," because he knew what other writers did
+not know. His information did not allow him to repeat the marvelous
+story of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, nor to confine Peruvian history to
+the time of the Incas. But when the result of his inquiries was
+announced in Europe, Garcilasso and others regulated the fashion of
+Peruvian studies, and the influence of their limited and superficial
+knowledge of the subject has been felt ever since.
+
+The curious theories of Montesinos may be brushed aside as rubbish, or
+be studied with other vagaries of that age in order to understand its
+difference from ours; but whoever undertakes to criticise his facts
+needs to be his equal in knowledge of Peru. His works, however, tell us
+all that can ever be known of Peruvian ancient history, for the
+facilities for investigation which existed in his time are no longer
+possible. It may, however, be useful to consider that the main fact in
+his report on the subject is no more "original and distinct" than the
+testimony of the monuments around Lake Titicaca. The significance of
+this testimony is now generally admitted. There _was_ a period in the
+history of Peruvian civilization much earlier than that of the Incas, a
+period still represented by these old monuments which, so far as relates
+to this point, are as "novel" and "original" as Montesinos himself.
+
+That the civilization found in the country was much older than the Incas
+can be seen in what we know of their history. Their empire had grown to
+be what Pizarro found it by subjugating and absorbing a considerable
+number of small states, which had existed as civilized states before
+their time. The conquest of Quito, which was not inferior to the Valley
+of Cuzco in civilization, had just been completed when the Spaniards
+arrived. The Chimus, subjugated a few years earlier, are described as
+even more advanced in civilization than any other Peruvian community.
+The small states thus absorbed by Peru were much alike in manners,
+customs, manufactures, methods of building, and general culture. It is
+manifest that their civilization had a common origin, and that to find
+its origin we must go back into the past far beyond Inca-Rocco, the
+first of his line, who began the work of uniting them under one
+government.
+
+Moreover, there were civilized communities in that part of the
+continent which the Incas had not subjugated, such as the Muyscas on the
+table-land of Bogota, north of Quito, who had a remarkable civil and
+religious organization, a temple of the sun built with stone columns, a
+regular system of computing time, a peculiar calendar, and who used
+small circular gold plates as coin. They were described by Humboldt.
+
+The condition of the people composing the Peruvian empire at the time of
+the Conquest bore witness to an ancient history something like that
+reported by Montesinos. There were indications that the country had
+undergone important revolutionary changes before this empire was
+established. The Peruvians at that time were not all one people. The
+political union was complete, but there were differences of speech, and,
+to some extent, of physical characteristics. Three numerous and
+important branches of the population were known as Aymaraes, Chinchas,
+and Huancas. They used different tongues, although the Quichua dialect,
+spoken by the Incas, and doubtless a dialect of the Aymaraes, to whom
+the Incas belonged, was the official language in every part of the
+empire. There was a separated and fragmentary condition of the
+communities with respect to their unlike characteristics, which implied
+something different from a quiet and uniform political history. These
+differences and peculiarities suggest that there was a period when Peru,
+after an important career of civilization and empire, was subjected to
+great political changes brought about by invasion and revolution, by
+which the nation was for a long time broken up into separate states.
+
+Here, as in Mexico and Central America, there was in the traditions
+frequent mention of strangers or foreigners who came by sea to the
+Pacific coast and held intercourse with the people; but this was in the
+time of the old kingdom. As the Malays and other island people under
+their influence formerly traversed the Pacific, this is not improbable.
+Some have assumed that the Peruvians had no communication with the
+Mexicans and Central Americans, and that the two peoples were unknown to
+each other. This, however, seems to be contradicted by the fact that an
+accurate knowledge of Peru was found among the people inhabiting the
+Isthmus and the region north of it. The Spaniards heard of Peru on the
+Atlantic coast of South America, but on the Isthmus Balboa gained clear
+information in regard to that country from natives who had evidently
+seen it. To what extent there was intercourse between the two civilized
+portions of the continent is unknown. They had vessels quite as good as
+most of those constructed at Panama by the Spanish hunters for Peru,
+such as the _balsas_ of the Peruvians and the "shallop" of the Mayas
+seen by Columbus, which made communication possible up and down the
+coast; but whether regular intercourse between them was ever
+established, and every thing else relating to this matter, must
+necessarily be left to a calculation of probabilities.
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+If, as seems most likely, there was in South America an ancient
+development of civilized human life, out of which arose the
+civilizations found in Peru and Central America, its antiquity was much
+greater than can be comprehended by the current chronologies. This,
+however, can not make it improbable, for these chronologies are really
+no more reasonable than the monkish fancies used in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries to explain these civilizations. We find the
+hagiologists very absurd, but the condition of mind which made them
+possible is closely akin to that which moves some men in our time to
+deny or limit the past, and reject the results of any investigation
+which tend to enlarge it. Rational inquiry constantly forces upon us the
+suggestion that there was more in the unwritten history of the human
+race than our inherited modes of thinking have allowed us to suppose,
+and that the beginning of civilization is far more ancient than our long
+accepted theories of antiquity are able to admit.
+
+What may be discovered in South America by a more complete geological
+and palæontological investigation it is not now possible to say.
+Professor Orton, in his recent book, "The Andes and the Amazon," far
+exceeds Montesinos in his estimate of the antiquity of Peruvian
+civilization. He says on this point:
+
+"Geology and archæology are combining to prove that Sorato and
+Chimborazo have looked down upon a civilization far more ancient than
+that of the Incas, and perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall
+and the shell-mounds of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+extensive ruins which antedate the advent of Manco-Capac, and may be as
+venerable as the lake-dwellings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six
+terraces in going up from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas
+toward Quito, and underneath the living forest, which is older than the
+Spanish invasion, many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost
+population were found. In all cases these relics are situated below the
+high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which he infers that
+this part of the country formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be
+true, vast must be the antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and
+subsidence of the coast is exceedingly slow."--P. 109.
+
+This refers to discoveries made on the coast of Ecuador in 1860, by
+James S. Wilson, Esq. At various points along this coast he found
+"ancient or fossil pottery, vessels, images," and other manufactured
+articles, all finely wrought. Some of these articles were made of gold.
+The most remarkable fact connected with them is that they were taken
+from "a stratum of ancient surface earth" which was covered with a
+marine deposit six feet thick. The geological formation where these
+remains were found is reported to be "as old as the drift strata of
+Europe," and "identical with that of Guayaquil in which bones of the
+mastodon are met with." The ancient surface earth or vegetable mould,
+with its pottery, gold-work, and other relics of civilized human life,
+was, therefore, below the sea when that marine deposit was spread over
+it. This land, after being occupied by men, had subsided and settled
+below the ocean, remained there long enough to accumulate the marine
+deposit, and again been elevated to its former position above the sea
+level. Since this elevation, forests have been established over it
+which are older than the Spanish Conquest, and now it is once more
+subsiding. In 1862, at a meeting of the Royal Geological Society, Sir
+Roderick Murchison spoke of these discoveries as follows:
+
+"The discoveries Mr. Wilson has made of the existence of the works of
+man in a stratum of mould beneath the sea level, and covered by several
+feet of clay, the phenomenon being persistent for sixty miles, are of
+the highest interest to physical geographers and geologists. The facts
+seem to demonstrate that, within the human period, the lands on the west
+coast of Equatorial America were depressed and submerged, and that after
+the accumulation of marine clays above the terrestrial relics the whole
+coast was elevated to its present position."
+
+Assuming the facts to be as Mr. Wilson reports (and they have not been
+called in question), it follows that there was human civilization to a
+certain extent in South America at the time of the older stone age of
+Western Europe. The oldest Peruvian date of Montesinos is quite modern
+compared with this. The fact may be considered in connection with
+another mentioned in the section on American Ethnology, namely, that the
+most ancient fauna on this continent, man probably included, is that of
+South America. But, without regard to what may be signified by these
+discoveries of Mr. Wilson, there is good reason for believing that the
+Peruvian civilization was much more ancient than it has been the fashion
+to admit.
+
+Peru would now be a very different country if the Spaniards had been
+sufficiently controlled by Christianity and civilization to treat the
+Peruvians justly, and seek nothing more than friendly intercourse with
+them. But they went there as greedy buccaneers, unscrupulous robbers,
+and brought every thing to ruin. At no time since the Spanish Conquest
+has the country been as orderly, as prosperous, or as populous as they
+found it. It has fallen to a much lower condition. Industry and thrift
+have been supplanted by laziness and beggarly poverty. Ignorance and
+incapacity have taken the place of that intelligence and enterprise
+which enabled the old Peruvians to maintain their remarkable system of
+agriculture, complete their great works, and made them so industrious
+and skillful in their manufactures. The region covered by the Peruvian
+empire has not half as many people now as it had in the time of the
+Incas. Is it possible to imagine the present inhabitants of Ecuador,
+Peru, and Bolivia cultivating their soil with intelligent industry,
+building aqueducts five hundred miles long, and constructing
+magnificently paved roads through the rocks and across the ravines of
+the Andes, from Quito to Chili? One of the scholars connected with the
+scientific expedition which visited South America in 1867, describing
+the ancient greatness and present inferior condition of Quito, exclaims,
+"May the future bring it days equal to those when it was called the
+'City of the Incas!'" He might appropriately utter a similar wish for
+the whole country.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+
+A.
+
+THE NORTHMEN IN AMERICA.
+
+It is generally known, I suppose, that original manuscript records of
+Norse voyages to this continent have been carefully preserved in
+Iceland, and that they were first published at Copenhagen in 1837, with
+a Danish and a Latin translation. These narratives are plain,
+straightforward, business-like accounts of actual voyages made by the
+Northmen, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, to Greenland,
+Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the coast of Massachusetts and Rhode
+Island. Within the whole range of the literature of discovery and
+adventure no volumes can be found which have more abundant internal
+evidence of authenticity. It always happens, when something important is
+unexpectedly added to our knowledge of the past, that somebody will
+blindly disbelieve. Dugald Stewart could see nothing but "frauds of
+arch-forgers" in what was added to our knowledge of ancient India when
+the Sanskrit language and literature were discovered. In the same way,
+here and there a doubter has hesitated to accept the fact communicated
+by these Norse records; but, with the evidence before us, we may as
+reasonably doubt any unquestioned fact of history which depends on
+similar testimony.
+
+Any account of these voyages should be prefaced by some notice of
+Iceland. Look on a map at the position of Iceland, and you will see at
+once that it should not be classed as a European island. It belongs to
+North America. It was, in fact, unknown to modern Europe until the year
+861 A.D., when it was discovered by Nadodd, a Norse rover. There is some
+reason to believe the Irish had previously sailed to this island, but no
+settlement was established in it previous to the year 875, when it was
+occupied by a colony of Norwegians under a chief named Ingolf. Owing to
+civil troubles in Norway, he was soon followed by many of the most
+intelligent, wealthy, and honorable of his countrymen.
+
+Thus Iceland, away in the Northern Ocean, became a place of great
+interest. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the Icelanders had
+become eminent among the Norse communities for intellectual culture
+and accomplishment. They were far superior to their countrymen in
+Norway. To them we are indebted for the existing records of Scandinavian
+mythology. They were daring and adventurous navigators, and, when we
+consider how near Iceland is to America, it should not surprise us to
+hear that they found the American continent; on the contrary, it would
+have been surprising if they had failed to find it. They first
+discovered Greenland, and in 982 established a colony there. Afterward,
+in the course of many voyages, they explored the coast of America much
+farther south.
+
+Narratives of some of these voyages were carefully written and
+preserved. There are two principal records. One is entitled "An Account
+of Eirek the Red and Greenland." This appears to have been written in
+Greenland, where Eirek settled, and where the Northmen had a colony
+consisting of two hundred and eighty settlements. The other record is an
+"Account of Thorfinn Karlsefne." This was written in Iceland by a
+bishop, one of Thorfinn's immediate descendants. The Norse narrative
+introduces Eirek's voyage of discovery as follows:
+
+"There was a man of noble family, whose name was Thorvald. He and his
+son Eirek, surnamed the Red, were obliged to flee from Jadir (in the
+southwest part of Norway) because, in some feud that arose, they
+committed a homicide. They went to Iceland, which, at that time, was
+thoroughly colonized."
+
+Thorvald died soon after reaching Iceland, but Eirek inherited his
+restless spirit. The record says he was at length involved in another
+feud in Iceland. Eirek, being unjustly treated by some of his neighbors,
+committed another homicide, and the narrative relates what followed:
+"Having been condemned by the court, he resolved to leave Iceland. His
+vessel being prepared, and every thing ready, Eirek's partisans in the
+quarrel accompanied him some distance. He told them he had determined to
+quit Iceland and settle somewhere else, adding that he was going in
+search of the land Gunniborn had seen when driven by a storm into the
+Western Ocean, and promising to revisit them if his search should be
+successful. Sailing from the western side of Iceland, Eirek steered
+boldly to the west. At length he found land, and called the place
+Midjokul. Then, coasting along the shore in a southerly direction, he
+sought to find a place more suitable for settlement. He spent the winter
+on a part of the coast which he named "Eirek's Island." A satisfactory
+situation for his colony was found, and he remained there two
+years.[TN-5]
+
+On returning to Iceland he called the discovered country "Greenland,"
+saying to his confidential friends, "A name so inviting will induce men
+to emigrate thither." Finally, he went again to Greenland, accompanied
+by "twenty-five ships" filled with emigrants and stores, and his colony
+was established. "This happened," says the chronicle, "fifteen winters
+before the Christian religion was introduced into Iceland;" that is to
+say, Eirek made this second voyage to Greenland fifteen years previous
+to 1000 A.D. Biarni, son of Heriulf, a chief man among these colonists,
+was absent in Norway when his father left Iceland. On returning, he
+decided to follow and join the colony, although neither he nor any of
+his companions had ever seen Greenland, or sailed on the "Greenland
+Ocean." Having arranged his business, he set sail, and made one of the
+most remarkable and fearful voyages on record.
+
+On leaving Iceland they sailed three days with a fair wind; then arose a
+storm of northeasterly winds, accompanied by very cloudy, thick weather.
+They were driven before this storm for many days, they knew not whither.
+At length the weather cleared, and they could see the sky. Then they
+sailed west another day, and saw land different from any they had
+previously known, for it "was not mountainous." In reply to the anxious
+sailors, Biarni said this could not be Greenland. They put the ship
+about and steered in a northeasterly direction two days more. Again they
+saw land which was low and level. Biarni thought this could not be
+Greenland. For three more days they sailed in the same direction, and
+came to a land that was "mountainous, and covered with ice." This proved
+to be an island, around which they sailed. Steering toward the north,
+they sailed four days and again discovered land, which Biarni thought
+was Greenland, and so it proved. They were on the southern coast, near
+the new settlement.
+
+It is manifest that the first land Biarni saw was either Nantucket or
+Cape Cod; the next was Nova Scotia, around Cape Sable; and the island
+around which they coasted was Newfoundland. This voyage was made five
+hundred and seven years earlier than the first voyage of Columbus.
+
+Biarni's report of his discoveries was heard with great interest, and
+caused much speculation; but the settlers in Greenland were too busy
+making their new homes to undertake voyages in that direction
+immediately. Fourteen years later, Leif, a son of Eirek the Red, being
+in Norway, was incited to fit out an expedition to go in search of the
+strange lands Biarni had seen. On returning to Greenland "he had an
+interview with Biarni, and bought his ship, which he fitted out and
+manned with thirty-five men." The first land seen by Leif, after he
+sailed from Greenland, was the island around which Biarni sailed. This
+he named Helluland (the land of broad stones). Sailing on toward the
+south, they came next to a land that was low and level, and covered with
+wood. This they called Markland (the land of woods). The narrative goes
+on: "They now put to sea with a northeast wind, and, sailing still
+toward the south, after two days touched at an island [Nantucket?] which
+lay opposite the northeast part of the main land." Then they "sailed
+through a bay between this island and a cape running northeast, and,
+going westward, sailed past the Cape;" and at length they "passed up a
+river into a bay," where they landed. They had probably reached Mount
+Hope Bay.
+
+They constructed rude dwellings, and prepared to spend the winter at
+this place. It was about mid-autumn, and, finding wild grapes, they
+called the country Vinland. Leif and his people were much pleased with
+"the mildness of the climate and goodness of the soil." The next spring
+they loaded their vessels with timber and returned to Greenland, where,
+Eirek the Red having died, Leif inherited his estate and authority, and
+left exploring expeditions to others.
+
+The next year Leif's brother Thorvald went to Vinland with one ship and
+thirty men, and there passed the winter. The following summer he
+explored the coast westward and southward, and seems to have gone as far
+south as the Carolinas. In the autumn they returned to Vinland, where
+they passed another winter. The next summer they coasted around Cape Cod
+toward Boston Harbor, and, getting aground on Cape Cod, they called it
+_Kialarness_, Keel Cape. Here the chronicle first speaks of the natives,
+whom it calls "Skrællings." It says: "They perceived on the sandy shore
+of the bay three small elevations. On going to them they found three
+boats made of skins, and under each boat three men. They seized all the
+men but one, who was so nimble as to escape with his boat;" and "_they
+killed all those whom they had taken_." The doctrine of "natural
+enemies" was more current among the old Northmen than that of human
+brotherhood.
+
+A retribution followed swiftly. They were presently attacked by a swarm
+of natives in boats. The "Skrællings" were beaten off; but Thorvald,
+being fatally wounded in the skirmish, died, and was buried on a
+neighboring promontory. His companions, after passing a third winter in
+Vinland, returned to Greenland, having been absent three years. This,
+considering the circumstances, was an adventurous voyage, a brave
+exploring expedition sent from the arctic regions to make discoveries in
+the mysterious world at the south. On reading the narrative, one longs
+for that more ample account of the voyage which would have been given if
+Thorvald himself had lived to return.
+
+The "Account of Eirek the Red and Greenland" tells of an expedition
+planned by Eirek's youngest son, Thorstein, which was prevented by
+Thorstein's death. It relates the particulars of a voyage to Vinland
+made by Eirek's daughter, Freydis, with her husband and his two
+brothers. Freydis is described as a cruel, hard-hearted, enterprising
+woman, "mindful only of gain." The chronicle says her husband, named
+Thorvald, was "weak-minded," and that she married him because he was
+rich. During the voyage she contrived to destroy her husband's brothers
+and seize their ship, for which evil deed she was made to feel her
+brother Leif's anger on her return. The same chronicle gives an account
+of a voyage northward, up Baffin's Bay, and through what is now called
+Wellington Channel. There is also a romantic story of Thorstein's widow,
+Gudrid, an exceedingly beautiful and noble-minded woman, which tells how
+she was courted and married by Thorfinn Karlsefne, a man of
+distinguished character and rank, who came from Iceland with ships, and
+was entertained by Leif.
+
+Thorfinn came to Greenland in the year 1006, and, having married Gudrid,
+Thorstein's widow, was induced by her to undertake a voyage to Vinland.
+They left Greenland with three ships and a hundred and sixty men, taking
+with them livestock and all things necessary to the establishment of a
+colony. The vessels touched at Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and, having
+reached Vinland, they passed up Buzzard's Bay, disembarked their
+livestock, and preparations were made for winter residence. Here they
+passed the winter; and here Gudrid gave birth to a son, who lived and
+grew to manhood, and among whose lineal descendants was Thorvaldsen, the
+Danish sculptor.
+
+The winter was severe; their provisions began to fail, and they were
+threatened with famine. This occasioned many anxieties and some
+adventures. One of the company, a fierce, resolute man, bewailed their
+apostasy from the old religion, and declared that to find relief they
+must return to the worship of Thor. But they found a supply of
+provisions without trying this experiment. Thor's worshiper afterward
+left the company with a few companions to pursue an expedition of his
+own, and was killed by the natives.
+
+The next spring Thorfinn explored the coast farther west and south. Then
+he went to the bay where Leif spent the winter, and there passed his
+second winter in Vinland. He called the bay Hóp. The Indians called it
+Haup; we call it Hope. During the next season they saw many natives and
+had much intercourse with them, which finally led to hostilities. The
+natives, in great numbers, attacked them fiercely, but were signally
+defeated. Freydis, being with the company, fought desperately in this
+battle, and greatly distinguished herself as a terrible combatant,
+although in that peculiar condition which does not specially qualify a
+woman for such exploits. Thorfinn afterward explored Massachusetts Bay,
+spent a third winter in Vinland, and then, with part of the company,
+returned to Greenland. He finally went back to his home in Iceland, and
+there remained during the rest of his life.
+
+The Indians had traditions which appear to have preserved recollections
+of these visits of the Northmen. In 1787, Michael Lort, Vice-president
+of the London Antiquarian Society, published a work, in which he quoted
+the following extract of a letter from New England, dated more than half
+a century earlier: "There was a tradition current with the oldest
+Indians in these parts that there came a wooden house, and men of
+another country in it, swimming up the Assoonet, as this (Taunton) river
+was then called, who fought the Indians with mighty success."
+
+There was now a settlement in Vinland, at Hóp Bay, and voyages to that
+region became frequent. The old Norse narrative says: "Expeditions to
+Vinland now became very frequent matters of consideration, for these
+expeditions were considered both lucrative and honorable." The following
+appears in Wheaton's History of the Northmen: "A part of Thorfinn's
+company remained in Vinland, and were afterward joined by two Icelandic
+chieftains. * * In the year 1059, it is said, an Irish or Saxon priest
+named Jon or John, who had spent some time in Iceland, went to preach to
+the colonists in Vinland, where he was murdered by the heathen." The
+following is from the Introduction to Henderson's Iceland: "In the year
+1121, Eirek, bishop of Greenland, made a voyage to Vinland."
+
+Thus it appears to be an authenticated fact that the Northmen had a
+settlement or settlements in New England six hundred years previous to
+the arrival of English settlers. It is probable that their Vinland
+settlements consisted chiefly of trading and lumbering establishments.
+The first explorers "loaded their vessels with timber" when ready to
+return to Greenland, where the lack of timber was so great that the
+settlers found it necessary to use stone for building material. The
+Vinland timber-trade became naturally an important business, but neither
+Greenland nor Iceland could furnish emigrants to occupy the country.
+Traces of the old Norse settlements in Greenland are still visible in
+the ruins of stone buildings. Near the Bay of Igalito, in Greenland, are
+remains of a stone church. Vinland was covered with great forests, and
+there it was much easier and cheaper to build houses of wood.
+
+The Norse records speak also of a region south of Vinland to which
+voyages were made. It is called Huitramannaland. Indeed, two great
+regions farther south are mentioned. There is a romantic story of one
+Biorn Asbrandson, a noble Icelander, who, being crossed in his
+matrimonial desires, went away toward Vinland; but his vessel was driven
+much farther south by a storm. Nothing was heard of him until part of
+the crew of a Norse vessel, on a voyage to Huitramannaland, were
+captured by the natives, among whom Biorn was living as a chief. He
+discovered an old acquaintance among the prisoners whom he found means
+to release. He talked freely with his old friend of the past, and of
+Iceland, but would not leave his savage friends.
+
+How little we know of what has been in the past ages, notwithstanding
+our many volumes of history! We listen attentively to what gets a wide
+and brilliant publication, and either fail to hear or doubt every thing
+else. If these Norse adventurers had sailed from England or Spain, those
+countries being what they were in the time of Columbus, their colonies
+would not have failed, through lack of men and means to support and
+extend them, and the story of their discoveries would have been told in
+every language and community of the civilized world. But the little
+communities in Iceland and Greenland were very different from rich and
+powerful nations. Instead of being in direct communication with the
+great movements of human life in Europe, recorded in what we read as
+history, they were far off in the Northern Ocean, and, out of Norway,
+almost unknown to Europe. Afterward, when the name and discoveries of
+Columbus had taken control of thought and imagination, it became
+difficult for even intelligent men, with the old Norse records before
+them, to see the claims of the Northmen.
+
+
+B.
+
+THE WELSH IN AMERICA.
+
+The story of the emigration to America of Prince Madoc, or Madog, is
+told in the old Welsh books as follows:
+
+About the year 1168 or 1169 A.D., Owen Gwynedd, ruling prince of North
+Wales, died, and among his sons there was a contest for the succession,
+which, becoming angry and fierce, produced a civil war. His son Madoc,
+who had "command of the fleet," took no part in this strife. Greatly
+disturbed by the public trouble, and not being able to make the
+combatants hear reason, he resolved to leave Wales and go across the
+ocean to the land at the west. Accordingly, in the year 1170 A.D., he
+left with a few ships, going south of Ireland, and steering westward.
+The purpose of this voyage was to explore the western land and select a
+place for settlement. He found a pleasant and fertile region, where his
+settlement was established. Leaving one hundred and twenty persons, he
+returned to Wales, prepared ten ships, prevailed on a large company,
+some of whom were Irish, to join him, and sailed again to America.
+Nothing more was ever heard in Wales of Prince Madog or his settlement.
+
+All this is related in old Welsh annals preserved in the abbeys of
+Conway and Strat Flur. These annals were used by Humphrey Llwyd in his
+translation and continuation of Caradoc's History of Wales, the
+continuation extending from 1157 to 1270 A.D. This emigration of Prince
+Madog is mentioned in the preserved works of several Welsh bards who
+lived before the time of Columbus. It is mentioned by Hakluyt, who had
+his account of it from writings of the bard Guttun Owen. As the Northmen
+had been in New England over one hundred and fifty years when Prince
+Madog went forth to select a place for his settlement, he knew very well
+there was a continent on the other side of the Atlantic, for he had
+knowledge of their voyages to America; and knowledge of them was also
+prevalent in Ireland. His emigration took place when Henry II. was king
+of England, but in that age the English knew little or nothing of Welsh
+affairs in such a way as to connect them with English history very
+closely.
+
+It is supposed that Madog settled somewhere in the Carolinas, and that
+his colony, unsupported by new arrivals from Europe, and cut off from
+communicated[TN-6] with that side of the ocean, became weak, and, after
+being much reduced, was destroyed or absorbed by some powerful tribe of
+Indians. In our colony times, and later, there was no lack of reports
+that relics of Madog's Welshmen, and even their language, had been
+discovered among the Indians; but generally they were entitled to no
+credit. The only report of this kind having any show of claim to
+respectful consideration is that of Rev. Morgan Jones, made in 1686, in
+a letter giving an account of his adventures among the Tuscaroras. These
+Tuscarora Indians were lighter in color than the other tribes, and this
+peculiarity was so noticeable that they were frequently mentioned as
+"White Indians." Mr. Jones's account of his experiences among them was
+written in March, 1686, and published in the Gentleman's Magazine for
+the year 1740, as follows:
+
+     "REV. MORGAN JONES'S STATEMENT.
+
+     "These presents certify all persons whatever, that in the year
+     1660, being an inhabitant of Virginia, and chaplain to Major
+     General Bennet, of Mansoman County, the said Major General Bennet
+     and Sir William Berkeley sent two ships to Port Royal, now called
+     South Carolina, which is sixty leagues southward of Cape Fair, and
+     I was sent therewith to be their minister. Upon the 8th of April we
+     set out from Virginia, and arrived at the harbor's mouth of Port
+     Royal the 19th of the same month, where we waited for the rest of
+     the fleet that was to sail from Barbadoes and Bermuda with one Mr.
+     West, who was to be deputy governor of said place. As soon as the
+     fleet came in, the smallest vessels that were with us sailed up the
+     river to a place called the Oyster Point; there I continued about
+     eight months, all which time being almost starved for want of
+     provisions: I and five more traveled through the wilderness till we
+     came to the Tuscarora country.
+
+     "There the Tuscarora Indians took us prisoners because we told them
+     that we were bound to Roanock. That night they carried us to their
+     town and shut us up close, to our no small dread. The next day they
+     entered into a consultation about us, and, after it was over, their
+     interpreter told us that we must prepare ourselves to die next
+     morning, whereupon, being very much dejected, I spoke to this
+     effect in the British [Welsh] tongue: 'Have I escaped so many
+     dangers, and must I now be knocked on the head like a dog!' Then
+     presently came an Indian to me, which afterward appeared to be a
+     war captain belonging to the sachem of the Doegs (whose original, I
+     find, must needs be from the Old Britons), and took me up by the
+     middle, and told me in the British [Welsh] tongue I should not die,
+     and thereupon went to the emperor of Tuscarora, and agreed for my
+     ransom and the men that were with me.
+
+     "They (the Doegs) then welcomed us to their town, and entertained
+     us very civilly and cordially four months, during which time I had
+     the opportunity of conversing with them familiarly in the British
+     [Welsh] language, and did preach to them in the same language three
+     times a week, and they would confer with me about any thing that
+     was difficult therein, and at our departure they abundantly
+     supplied us with whatever was necessary to our support and well
+     doing. They are settled upon Pontigo River, not far from Cape
+     Atros. This is a brief recital of my travels among the Doeg
+     Indians.
+
+     MORGAN JONES,
+
+     "the son of John Jones, of Basateg, near Newport, in the County of
+     Monmouth. I am ready to conduct any Welshman or others to the
+     country.
+
+     "New York, March 10th, 1685-6."
+
+Other accounts of his "travels" among the "Doegs" of the Tuscarora
+nation were published much earlier, but no other has been preserved. His
+veracity was never questioned. What shall be said of his statement? Were
+the remains of Prince Madog's company represented in these "Doeg"
+Tuscaroras? He is very explicit in regard to the matter of language, and
+it is not easy to see how he could be mistaken. They understood his
+Welsh, not without needing explanation of some things "difficult
+therein." He was able to converse with them and preach to them in Welsh;
+and yet, if he got an explanation of the existence of the Welsh language
+among these "Doegs," or sought to know any thing in regard to their
+traditional history, he omits entirely to say so. Without meaning to
+doubt his veracity, one feels skeptical, and desires a more intelligent
+and complete account of these "travels."
+
+
+C.
+
+ANTIQUITIES OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS.
+
+There are indications that the Pacific world had an important ancient
+history, and these multiply as our knowledge of that world increases.
+The wide diffusion of Malay dialects in the Pacific islands suggests the
+controlling influence by which that ancient history was directed. The
+ancient remains at Easter Island are known; two of the "great images"
+found there are now in the British Museum. All who have examined this
+island believe these remains "were the work of a former race," and that
+it had formerly "an abundant population." It is not generally known that
+antiquities more important than these exist on many of the other islands
+of the Pacific Ocean.
+
+An educated and very intelligent gentleman, who has lived many years on
+one of these islands, and visited a considerable portion of Polynesia,
+finds that the Pacific has antiquities which deserve attention. He has
+sent me papers containing descriptions of some of them, taken from the
+diary of an intelligent and observant shipmaster, much of whose life as
+a mariner has been passed on the Pacific. These papers were prepared for
+publication in a newspaper at Sydney. The gentleman sending them says in
+his letter: "These researches are not very minute or accurate, but they
+indicate that there is a vast field ready for exploration in the
+Pacific, as well as in Central America and Egypt."
+
+The papers to which I refer begin with ruins observed in the island of
+Ascension or Fanipe, and describe "the great temple" at Metallanine.
+This was a large edifice, well built of stone, and connected with canals
+and earth-works. "Vaults, passages, and platforms, all of basaltic
+stones," are mentioned; also, "below the pavement of the main
+quadrangle, on opposite sides, are two passages or gateways, each about
+ten feet square, pierced through the outer wall down to the waters of
+the canal." Within the walls is a "central pyramidal chamber or temple,"
+with a tree growing on it. The whole ruin is now covered with trees and
+other vegetation.
+
+Other ruins exist in the island, one or two of which are described.
+"Some are close upon the sea-shore, others are on the tops of solitary
+hills, and some are found on plateaus or cleared spaces far inland, but
+commanding views of the sea. One of the latter kind is a congeries of
+ruinous heaps of square stones, covering at least five or six acres. It
+is situated on a piece of table-land, surrounded by dense forest
+growths, and itself covered with low jungle. There is the appearance of
+a ditch, in the form of a cross, at the intersecting angles of which are
+tall mounds of ruin, of which the original form is now undistinguishable
+beyond the fact that the basements, constructed of large stones,
+indicate that the structures were square. The natives can not be induced
+to go near this place, although it abounds in wild pigeons, which they
+are extremely fond of hunting."
+
+These ruined structures were not built by barbarous people such as now
+inhabit the island of Ascension. There is no tradition relating to their
+origin or history among the present inhabitants, who, it is said,
+attribute them to "mauli," evil spirits. The "great temple" was occupied
+for a time, "several generations ago," according to the natives, by the
+shipwrecked crew of a Spanish buccaneer; and relics of these outlaws are
+still found in its vaults, which they used as storehouses.
+
+On many low islands of the Marshall and Gilbert groups are curious
+pyramids, tall and slender, built of stones. The natives regard them
+with superstitious fear. The author of these papers, being a mariner,
+suggests that they are "landmarks or relics of ancient copper-colored
+voyagers of the Polynesian race during their great migrations."
+Remarkable structures of this kind are found on Tapituea, one of the
+Kingsmill islands, and on Tinian, one of the Ladrones, where, also,
+remarkable Cyclopean structures are found. They are solid, truncated
+pyramidal columns, generally about twenty feet high and ten feet square
+at the base. The monuments on Tinian were seen by M. Arago, who
+accompanied Bougainville. According to his description they form two
+long colonnades, the two rows being thirty feet apart, and seeming to
+have once been connected by something like roofing. On Swallow's Island,
+some twelve degrees eastward of Tapituea, is a pyramid similar in
+construction; and on the west side of this island is "a vast
+quadrangular inclosure of stone, containing several mounds, or probably
+edifices of some kind, of which the form and contents are not known by
+reason of their being buried under drift-sand and guano."
+
+On Strong's Island, and others connected with it, are ruins similar to
+those at Metallanine. On Lele, which is separated from Strong's Island
+at the harbor by a very narrow channel, there is a "conical mountain
+surrounded by a wall some twenty feet high, and of enormous thickness."
+The whole island appears to present "a series of Cyclopean inclosures
+and lines of great walls every where overgrown with forest." Some of the
+inclosures are parallelograms 200 by 100 feet in extent; one is much
+larger. The walls are generally twelve feet thick, and within are
+vaults, artificial caverns, and secret passages. No white man is allowed
+to live on Lele, and strangers are forbidden to examine the ruins, in
+which, it is supposed, is concealed the plunder taken by the natives
+from captured or stranded ships. On the southwest side of the harbor, at
+Strong's Island, "are many canals lined with stone. They cross each
+other at right angles, and the islands between their intersections were
+artificially raised, and had tall buildings erected on them, some of
+which are still entire. One quadrangular tower, about forty feet high,
+is very remarkable. The forest around them is dense and gloomy; the
+canals are broken and choked with mangroves." Not more than 500 people
+now inhabit these islands; their tradition is, that an ancient city
+formerly stood around this harbor, mostly on Lele, occupied by a
+powerful people whom they call "Anut," and who had large vessels, in
+which they made long voyages east and west, "many moons" being required
+for one of these voyages.
+
+Great stone structures on some of Navigator's Islands, of which the
+natives can give no account, are mentioned without being particularly
+described. Some account is given of one remarkable structure. On a
+mountain ridge 1500 feet above the sea, and near the edge of a precipice
+500 feet high, is a circular platform built of huge blocks of volcanic
+stone. It is 150 feet in diameter, and about 20 feet high. On one side
+was the precipice, and on the other a ditch that may have been
+originally 20 feet deep. Trees six feet in diameter are now growing in
+the ruins of this platform. Remarkable ruins exist on some of the
+Marquesas Islands, but they have not been clearly described.
+
+At first, when these antiquities were noticed by seamen, it was
+suggested that they were the remains of works constructed by the old
+buccaneers; but closer examination soon put aside this theory. Neither
+the buccaneers, nor any other people from Europe, would have constructed
+such works; and, besides, it is manifest that they were ruins before any
+crew of buccaneers sailed on the Pacific. The remains on Easter Island
+were described by Captain Cook. It has now been discovered that such
+remains exist at various points throughout Polynesia, and greater
+familiarity with the islands will very likely bring to light many that
+have not yet been seen by Europeans. The author of these papers,
+referring to the old discarded suggestion relative to the buccaneers,
+says: "Centuries of European occupation would have been required for the
+existence of such extensive remains, which are, moreover, not in any
+style of architecture practiced by people of the Old World."
+
+It is stated that similar stone-work, consisting of "walls, strongholds,
+and great inclosures," exists on the eastern side of Formosa, which is
+occupied by a people wholly distinct in race from the Mongols who
+invaded and occupied the other side. The influence to which these
+ancient works are due seems to have pervaded Polynesia from the
+Marquesas Islands at the east, to the Ladrone and Carolina Islands at
+the west, and what is said of the present inhabitants of Ascension
+Island might have a wider application, namely, "They create on the mind
+of a stranger the impression of a people who have degenerated from
+something higher and better." At a few points in Polynesia a small
+portion of the people show Mongol traits. Dark-colored people, evidently
+of the Papuan variety, somewhat mixed with the brown race it may be, are
+found at various points in larger numbers; but the great body of the
+Polynesians are a brown race, established (at a very remote period,
+perhaps) by a mixture of the Papuans with the Malays. Now take into
+consideration the former existence of a great Malayan empire, the wide
+distribution of Malay dialects on the Pacific, and the various
+indications that there was formerly in Polynesia something higher and
+better in the condition of the people, and the ancient history indicated
+by these ruins will not seem mysterious, nor shall we feel constrained
+to treat as incredible the Central American and Peruvian traditions that
+anciently strangers came from the Pacific world in ships to the west
+coast of America for commercial intercourse with the civilized countries
+existing here.
+
+Ruins similar in character are found in the Sandwich Islands, but here
+the masonry is occasionally superior to that found elsewhere. A
+gentleman interested in archæological inquiries gives the following
+account of a Hawaiian ruin which he visited in the interior, about
+thirty miles from Hilo. He says he went with several companions to the
+hill of Kukii, which he describes as follows:
+
+"The hill is so regular in its outline that it appears like a work of
+art, a giant effort of the Mound-Builders. Its general form resembles
+very much the pyramid of Cholulu in Mexico, and from this fact I felt a
+great interest in climbing it. We proceeded, Conway, Eldhardt, Kaiser,
+and I, on foot up the grassy slope of the hill. There was an absence of
+all volcanic matter; no stone on the hill except what had been brought
+there by the hand of man. As we arrived near the summit we came upon
+great square blocks of hewn stone overgrown by shrubbery, and on
+reaching the summit we found that it had been leveled and squared
+according to the cardinal points, and paved. We found two square blocks
+of hewn stone imbedded in the earth in an upright position, some fifteen
+feet apart, and ranging exactly east and west. Over the platform was
+rank grass, and a grove of cocoanuts some hundred years old. Examining
+farther, I found that the upper portion of the hill had been terraced;
+the terraces near the summit could be distinctly traced, and they had
+evidently been faced with hewn stone. The stones were in perfect squares
+of not less than three feet in diameter, many of them of much greater
+size. They were composed of a dark vitreous basalt, the most durable of
+all stone. It is remarkable that every slab was faced and polished upon
+every side, so that they could fit together like sheets of paper. They
+reminded me much of the polished stones in some of the walls of
+Tiahuanuco, and other ruins in Peru. Many of the blocks were lying
+detached; probably some had been removed; but there were still some
+thirty feet of the facing on the lower terrace partly in position. But
+all showed the ravages of time and earthquakes, and were covered with
+accumulated soil, grass, and shrubbery. Conway and myself, in descending
+the hill, had our attention attracted by a direct line of shrubbery
+running from the summit to the base of the hill, on the western side, to
+the cocoanut grove below. Upon examination, we found it to be the
+remains of a stairway, evidently of hewn stone, that had led from the
+foot of the hill to the first terrace, a height of nearly 300 feet.
+Within this stairway, near the base, we found a cocoanut-tree growing,
+more than 200 years old, the roots pressing out the rocks. The site for
+a temple is grand and imposing, and the view extensive, sweeping the
+ocean, the mountains, and the great lava plain of Puna. It was also
+excellent in a military point of view as a lookout. From the summit it
+appeared as an ancient green island, around which had surged and rolled
+a sea of lava; and so it evidently has been.
+
+"By whom and when was this hill terraced and these stones hewn? There is
+a mystery hanging around this hill which exists nowhere else in the
+Sandwich Islands. The other structures so numerously scattered over the
+group are made of rough stone; there is no attempt at a terrace; there
+is no flight of steps leading to them; there is no hewn or polished
+stone, nor is there any evidence of the same architectural skill
+evinced. They are the oldest ruins yet discovered, and were evidently
+erected by a people considerably advanced in arts, acquainted with the
+use of metallic instruments, the cardinal points, and some mathematical
+knowledge. Were they the ancestors of the present Hawaiians, or of a
+different race that has passed away?"
+
+He inquired of the oldest natives concerning the history of this ruin,
+but "they could give only vague and confused traditions in regard to it,
+and these were contradictory. The only point on which they agreed was
+that it had never been used within the memory of man." They also said
+there was another old structure of the same kind in Kona, whose history
+is lost. The language of the Sandwich Islands is so manifestly a dialect
+of the Malayan tongue, that the influence of the Malays must have been
+paramount in these islands in ancient times.
+
+
+D.
+
+DECIPHERING THE INSCRIPTIONS.
+
+In the "Actes de la Société Philologique," Paris, for March, 1870, Mons.
+H. de Charencey gives some particulars of his attempt to decipher
+"fragments" of one or two very brief inscriptions on the bas-relief of
+the cross at Palenque. I know nothing of his qualifications for this
+work, but he appears to have studied the characters of the Maya
+alphabet preserved and explained by Landa. It is seen, however, that his
+attempt to decipher the inscriptions is a complete failure. In fact, he
+professes to have done no more than reproduce two or three words in
+Roman characters. He gives us _Hunab-ku_, _Eznab_, and _Kukulcan_ as
+words found on the cross. _Eznab_ is supposed to be the name of a month,
+or of a day of the week, and the others names of divinities. He finds
+that the characters of the inscriptions are not in all respects
+identical with those found in Landa, and that Landa's list, especially
+when tested by the inscriptions, is incomplete. There is not absolute
+certainty in regard to the name Kukulcan; nevertheless, M. de Charencey
+makes this speculative use of it:
+
+"The presence of the name 'Kukulcan' on the bas-relief of the cross is
+important in a historical point of view. The name of this demigod, which
+signifies 'the serpent with the quetzal plumes,' is the Maya form of the
+Mexican name 'Quetzalcohuatl,' which has precisely the same meaning. But
+we know that the name and worship of this god were brought to the high
+plateaus of Central America toward the ninth century of our era,
+consequently the bas-relief in question can not be more ancient."
+
+This assumes that the worship of Kukulcan was never heard of by the
+Mayas until the Aztecs arrived in Mexico, an assumption for which there
+is no warrant, and which proceeds in utter disregard of facts. It was
+the Aztecs who had never heard of Kukulcan, or, at least, had not
+adopted his worship, previous to this time. The Aztecs, when they
+settled in Anahuac, did not impart new ideas, religion, or culture to
+any body; on the contrary, they received much from the civilization of
+their new neighbors, which was more advanced than their own. It is very
+certain that neither the Mayas nor the Quichés borrowed any thing from
+them.
+
+We need not go back so far as the ninth century to find the time when
+the Aztecs adopted, or at least organized in Mexico, the worship of
+Kukulcan, whose name they transformed into Quetzalcohuatl. His worship
+did not begin with them; they did not introduce it; they found it in the
+country as a very ancient worship, and adopted their form of it from the
+people who yielded to their sway.
+
+If M. de Charencey will inquire with a little more care, he will
+discover that Kukulcan was one of the very oldest personages in Central
+American mythology, as _Con_ was one of the oldest in that of Peru.
+Kukulcan, sometimes as Zamnà, was associated with almost every thing in
+civilization. He introduced the beginnings of civilized life, invented
+the art of writing, and was to the Central Americans not wholly unlike
+what Thoth was to the Egyptians, and Tautus, or Taut, to the
+Phoenicians. If the bas-relief of the cross at Palenque were half as old
+as his worship in Central America, it would be far more ancient than any
+one has supposed.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX.
+
+
+[The figures in this Index refer to pages.]
+
+  Adobe used in Northern Mexico, 82;
+    in Peru for later constructions, 243;
+    used by Mound-Builders, 27.
+
+  Ancient history of Mexico and Central America in the old books and
+      traditions, 197-200;
+    Aztecs preceded by Toltecs, and Toltecs by Colhuas, 198;
+    Colhuas the original civilizers, 198-9;
+    they may have come from South America, 198, 200;
+    Chichimecs the original barbarians, 198;
+    the Colhuas first settled in Tabasco, 199;
+    Mayas, Quichés, Tzendals, etc., originally Colhuas, 200, 205;
+    Colhuan kingdom of Xibalba, 199;
+    Colhuas, Toltecs, and Aztecs branches of the same people, 206;
+    such a history implied by the political condition in which the
+      country was found, 206;
+    theories of this old civilization considered, 165-183;
+    it was original in America, 184-6.
+
+  Antiquity of man and civilization, 181-2, 273-5.
+
+  Antiquity of the Mexican and Central American ruins, 151-59, 184;
+    the great forest was 450 years ago what it is now, 151;
+    it covers an ancient seat of civilization, 95, 151, 152;
+    Copan forgotten and mysterious before the Conquest, 152;
+    there was a long period of history preceded by development of the
+      civilization, 152, 153;
+    distinct epochs traced, 155, 156;
+    no perishable materials left in the ruins, 156-159;
+    an extreme notion of their antiquity, 157, 158, 207;
+    another notion makes this the "oldest civilization in the world,"
+      159-61;
+    Tyrians saw the old cities 3000 years ago, 162-64.
+
+  Antiquity of the Mound-Builders, 45-51;
+    a new river terrace formed since they left, 47;
+    decayed condition of their skeletons shows antiquity, 48-9;
+    "primeval" forests found growing over their works, 50-1.
+
+  Astronomical monument in Southern Mexico, 122-3;
+    at Chapultepec, 220-1;
+    in Peru, 254;
+    Mexican calendars, 214-15;
+    Peruvian calendars, 236. See Telescopic Tubes.
+
+  Atlantis supposed to be an ingulfed part of America, 175-7;
+    its destruction recorded in Egypt and related to Solon, 177-8;
+    said to be recorded in old Central American books, 176;
+    Proclus on remembrance of Atlantis, 178;
+    derivation of the words Atlas, Atlantes, and Atlantic, 179;
+    opinions relative to former existence of such land, 180-1;
+    geological probabilities, 181;
+    memory of war with the Atlantes preserved at Athens, 178.
+
+  Aztec civilization denied in a "New History," 207-8;
+    facts discredit this denial, 208-9;
+    Cortez found abundant supplies, 208, 210;
+    found Mexican mechanics, masons, and the like, 213, 214, 215;
+    the city of Mexico and its great temple, realities, 208, 212, 215;
+    both described, 211-12;
+    present remains of them, 214-15.
+
+  Aztecs, the, were less civilized than their predecessors, 221;
+    they came from the south, 217-18;
+    when they left Aztlan, 219;
+    how long they had been in Mexico, 219;
+    what they learned and borrowed of their neighbors, 220-1;
+    did not adopt the phonetic system of writing, 221;
+    could not have left such ruined cities as Palenque and Mitla, 221;
+    Aztecs still found at the south, 218-19.
+
+
+  Balboa's hunt for Peru, 223-4.
+
+  Basques, their fishing voyages to America, 62.
+
+  Books of ancient America destroyed in Mexico and Central America by
+      the Aztec Ytzcoatl, 189;
+    by Spanish fanaticism, 188-9;
+    a few of the later books saved, 180-196;
+    some of the more important, 195-6;
+    books of hieroglyphics in Peru, 256.
+
+  Boturini collected Mexican and Central American books, 195;
+    misfortunes of his collection, 195-6.
+
+  Brasseur de Bourbourg on the antiquity of the Mound-Builders, 53;
+    on their Mexican origin, 57;
+    on their religion, 53;
+    on the Chichimecs, 198;
+    on Huehue Tlapalan, 201;
+    on Nahuatl chronology, 204;
+    his "Atlantic theory," 159, 160, 174-83;
+    he has great knowledge of American traditions and antiquities, 174;
+    discovered the works of Ximenes and Landa's Maya alphabet, 191, 192;
+    translated "Popol-Vuh," 192;
+    he is unsystematic, confused, and fanciful, 102, 160.
+
+  Brereton on the wild Indians of New England, 62-5;
+    his invented stories of their copper and flax, 62, 63.
+
+
+  Calendars in Mexico, 214-15;
+    in Peru, 236.
+
+  Central American and Southern Mexican ruins most important, 93;
+    their masonry and ornamentation, 99-101;
+    a great forest covers most of them, 94, 103, 104;
+    a road built into the forest in 1695, 95, 151-2;
+    this forest covers a chief seat of the ancient civilization, 95;
+    Cinaca-Mecallo, 124.
+
+  Cevola, "Seven Cities" of, 85-9.
+
+  Charencey, M. de, attempts to decipher an inscription, 292-3;
+    his singular speculation concerning the worship of Kukulcan, 293.
+
+  Charnay, Desiré, his account of Mitla, 121, 122.
+
+  Chronology of the Mexican race, 203-4;
+    of the Peruvians, 265-6.
+
+  Civilization, antiquity of, underrated, 181-2, 273.
+
+  Cloth of Mound-Builders, fragments of, 41.
+
+  Coin among the Muyscas, 271.
+
+  "Coliseum" at Copan, 114.
+
+  Columbus and the Mayas, 209-10.
+
+  Copan, its ruins situated in wild region, 111;
+    first discovered in 1576, and were then mysterious to the natives,
+      93, 111;
+    what Mr. Stephens saw there, 111, 112;
+    what Palacios found there 300 years ago, 113, 114;
+    the inscriptions, monoliths, and decorations, 112;
+    seems older than Palenque, 112, 113, 155.
+
+  Copper of Lake Superior described, 43.
+
+  Coronado's conquest of "Cevola," 85, 86.
+
+  Cortez invades Mexico, 210;
+    his progress, 210-11;
+    well received at the city of Mexico, 211;
+    driven from the city, 213;
+    how the city was taken, 213-14;
+    it was immediately rebuilt, 214;
+    the plaza made of part of the inclosure of the great temple, 214;
+    Cortez could not have invented the temple, 215.
+
+  Cross, the, not originally a Christian emblem, 109;
+    vastly older than Christianity as a symbolic device, 109, 110;
+    common in Central American ruins, 109;
+    the assumption that it was first used as a Christian emblem has
+      misled inquiry as to the age and origin of antiquities, 110.
+
+  Cuzco, Montesinos on its name, 227;
+    was probably built by the Incas on the site of a ruined city of the
+      older times, 226-7;
+    the ruins at Cuzco, 226, 234-5.
+
+
+  Egyptian pyramids totally unlike those in America, 183;
+    no resemblance between Egyptians and the Mexican race, 183.
+
+  Ethnology, American, discussed, 65-9;
+    South Americans the oldest aborigines, 68, 69, 185;
+    Huxley's suggestion, 69.
+
+
+  Gallatin, Albert, on Mound-Builders, 34.
+
+  Garcilasso partly of Inca blood, 258;
+    not well qualified to write a history of Peru, 258-9;
+    he began with the fable of Manco-Capac, and confined all history
+      to the Incas, 259-61;
+    was received as an "authority," 269;
+    his influence has misdirected Peruvian studies, 269.
+
+  Gila, valley of, its ruins, 82.
+
+  Gold the most common metal in Peru, 250;
+    astonishing abundance of Peruvian gold-work, 249-50;
+    their gardens made of gold, 250;
+    amount of gold sent from Peru to Spain, 238, 250;
+    gold calendar found recently at Cuzco, 236.
+
+
+  Herrara[TN-7] on the buildings in Yucatan, 149.
+
+  Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs went to Mexico, 57, 75, 201-3;
+    supposed to be the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, 202, 203;
+    described in old Central American books, 202;
+    the Toltecs driven from Huehue-Tlapalan by the Chichimecs, or wild
+      Indians, 203;
+    it was at a distance northeast of Mexico, 201, 202;
+    Cabrera and others on Huehue-Tlapalan, 202.
+
+  Humboldt on Phoenician symbols in America, 186;
+    on the origin of the Aztecs, 218;
+    on Peruvian great roads, 245;
+    on books of hieroglyphics found in Peru, 246, 255;
+    describes the pyramid of Papantla, 91, 92.
+
+  Huxley on American ethnology, 69.
+
+
+  Incas of Peru, origin of the title, 267;
+    they represent only the last period of Peruvian history, 261;
+    their dynasty began 500 years or less before the Conquest, 260-1;
+    list of the Incas, 261;
+    Manco-Capac a fable, 260-1.
+
+  Indians of North America, vain endeavors to connect them with the
+      Mound-Builders, 62;
+    came toward the Atlantic from the northwest, 59;
+    the Iroquois group may have come first, 58;
+    their distribution relative to the Algonquins, 59, 60;
+    date of Algonquin migration estimated, 60;
+    these Indians resemble the Koraks and Chookchees, 65, 185;
+    they are entirely distinct from Mound-Builders and Pueblos, 60, 65;
+    their barbarism original, 61.
+
+  "Inscription Rock," 78.
+
+  Inscriptions in Central America written in Maya characters, 196;
+    written perhaps in an old form of speech from which the Maya family
+      of dialects was derived, 196;
+    attempts to decipher them, 292.
+
+  Iron, names for, in ancient Peru, 248.
+
+  Israelitish theory of ancient America, 166-7.
+
+
+  Keweenaw Point, a copper district, 44.
+
+  Kukulcan, his worship, 220, 293.
+
+
+  Lake Peten in the forest, Maya settlement there, 95;
+    Ursua's road from Yucatan to the lake, 95.
+
+  Landa wrote on the Mayas of Yucatan, 191;
+    preserved the Maya alphabet, with explanations, 191.
+
+  Languages in Mexico and Central America, 200, 205;
+    three groups, 216;
+    probably not radically distinct, 206, 216;
+    the most important group supposed to be Colhuan, 205.
+
+  Las Casas on Central American annalists, 187-8;
+    what he says of the old books and their destruction, 188.
+
+
+  Maize, did Indians get it from Mound-Builders? 35.
+
+  Malays, their ancient empire, 167-8;
+    their navigation of the Pacific, 168;
+    spread of their dialects, 168;
+    came to America, 169, 170, 272;
+    El Masúdí[TN-8] on the Malays, 168;
+    were not civilizers in America, 170-1;
+    ruins of Malayan cities in Java, 163-9.
+
+  Manco-Capac a fiction of the Incas, 260-1;
+    discarded by Montesinos and other early Spanish writers, 261, 269.
+
+  Mandan Indians supposed Mound-Builders, 74.
+
+  Mayas first seen by Columbus, 209;
+    their phonetic alphabet preserved, 191;
+    descendants of the first civilizers, 170.
+
+  Mexican cities noticed by Spaniards, 211, 215;
+    what Montezuma said of his building materials, 209.
+
+  Mexican "picture-writing" a peculiarity of the Aztecs, 221;
+    much inferior to the Maya writing, 221;
+    something like it at Chichen-Itza, 143;
+    Aztecs could not have left such inscriptions as those seen in the
+      ruined cities, 221.
+
+  Mexican ruins in the central region, 89-92;
+    Tulha, 89;
+    Xochicalco, 89, 90;
+    Papantla, 91, 92;
+    Cholula, 90;
+    Teotihuacan, 90;
+    pyramids with galleries, 91;
+    unexplored antiquities in this region, 91.
+
+  Mining works of Mound-Builders, 43-6;
+    mining method of the Mound-Builders, 43;
+    their mining tools found, 44, 46;
+    they left a detached mass of copper in a mine, 43-4;
+    antiquity of their mining works, 46, 53, 64.
+
+  Mitla, its ruins show refined skill in the builders, 118, 121;
+    the decorations, 121;
+    present state of the ruins, 117-122.
+
+  Montesinos, Fernando, explored and studied Peru fifteen years, 261;
+    unequaled in knowledge of its antiquities and traditional history, 263;
+    his means of information, 262;
+    how historical narratives and poems were preserved by the _amautas_,
+      263;
+    how literature can be preserved by trained memory, 262-3;
+    Homer and the Vedas, 262-3.
+
+  Montesinos on Peruvian history, 264-7;
+    there were three distinct periods, 264;
+    he rejects the Manco-Capac fable, 264;
+    does not begin the history with such stories, 264;
+    reports 64 kings in the first period, 264;
+    his account of the Peruvian sovereigns, 264-7;
+    the art of writing existed in the older time, 265;
+    how the first period closed, 266;
+    the second period, for 1000 years, a period of invasions, divisions,
+      small states, and general decline of civilization, 264, 267;
+    in this period the art of writing was lost, 267;
+    in it the 26 successors of the 64 kings were merely kings of
+      Tambotoco, 266;
+    how this period ended, 267-8;
+    the third period began with Rocca, the first Inca, 267;
+    why Montesinos has not been duly appreciated, 268-9;
+    his facts stand apart from his theories, 268;
+    probabilities favor his report of three periods, 270-1.
+
+  Montezuma on his building-material, 209.
+
+  Morgan, Lewis H., on the Indians, 59, 60, 66.
+
+  Mound-Builders, their national name unknown, 14, 57;
+    their mound-work and its uses, 17-19;
+    like mound-work in Mexico and Central America, 70, 71, 72;
+    their civilization, 33-39;
+    used wood for building material, 70, 71;
+    their inclosures, 19-24;
+    their works at the south, 24, 27;
+    their principal settlements, 30, 31, 34;
+    their border settlements, 52;
+    had commerce with Mexico, 73;
+    relics of their manufactures, 40, 41, 61;
+    their long stay in the country, 51-55;
+    were not ancestors of wild Indians, 58-61;
+    came from Mexico, 70;
+    were connected with Mexico through Texas, 73;
+    probably were Toltecs, 74, 200-3.
+
+  Muyscas, their civilization, 271.
+
+
+  Nahuatl or Toltec chronology, 203-4.
+
+  Natchez Indians, were they degenerate Mound-Builders, 58, 56.
+
+  Northmen in America, 279-85;
+    they discovered Greenland, 280;
+    their settlements in Greenland, 280-1, 284;
+    Biarni's constrained voyage to Massachusetts in 985 A.D., 163, 281;
+    subsequent voyages to New England, 281-4;
+    encounters with the Indians, 282, 283;
+    the Norse settlements in Vinland were probably lumbering and trading
+      establishments, 284;
+    not people enough in Greenland and Iceland to make extensive
+      settlements, 284;
+    written narratives of these discoveries, 279-80.
+
+
+  Origin of Mexican and Central American civilization, theories of,
+      165-183;
+    the "lost tribes" theory absurd, 166-7;
+    the Malay theory untenable, 170-1;
+    the Phoenician theory fails to explain it, 173-4;
+    the Atlantic theory explained by Brasseur de Bourbourg not likely
+      to be received, 182;
+    it was an original American civilization, 184;
+    may have begun in South America, 185, 246, 272-3.
+
+  Orton, Prof., on Peruvian antiquity, 273, 274.
+
+
+  Pacific islands, their antiquities, 288-92.
+
+  Palenque, Stephens's first view of, 100;
+    this city's name unknown, 104;
+    supposed to have been the ancient Xibalba, 199;
+    some of its ruins described, 105-9;
+    extent of the old city can not be determined, 96, 105;
+    difficulties of exploration, 105, 110;
+    the cross at Palenque, 109;
+    aqueduct, 105.
+
+  Papantla, its remarkable stone pyramid, 91, 92;
+    important ruins in the forests of Papantla and Misantla, 91.
+
+  Paper, Peruvian name of, 267;
+    manufacture of, for writing, proscribed in the second period of
+      Peruvian history, 267.
+
+  Peruvian ancient history, 257-67.
+
+  Peruvian civilization, 246;
+    differed from Central American, 222-3, 246;
+    is seen in the civil and industrial organization, 247;
+    in their agriculture, 247;
+    in their manufactures, 247-51;
+    their dyes, 247-8;
+    their skill in gold-work, 249;
+    the abundance of gold-work, 249-50;
+    their schools of the _amautas_, 253, 263;
+    their literature, 255;
+    anciently had the art of writing, 255, 267;
+    had names for iron, and said to have worked iron mines, 248-9.
+
+  Peruvian ruins, where found, 222, 237;
+    they represent two periods of civilization, 226;
+    remains on islands in Lake Titicaca, 227-8;
+    at Tiahuanaco, 233-4;
+    remarkable monolithic gateways, 233-4;
+    at old Huanuco, 239-40;
+    at Gran-Chimu, 237-8;
+    ruins of a large and populous city, 237;
+    Cuelap, 239;
+    Pachacamac, 243;
+    subterranean passage under a river, 243;
+    the aqueducts, 222, 237, 243;
+    the great roads, 243-6;
+    ruins at Cuzco, 234.
+
+  Phoenicians, or people of that race, came probably to America in very
+      ancient times, 172, 173;
+    decline of geographical knowledge around the Ægean after Phoenicia
+      was subjugated, about B.C. 813, 272-3;
+    supposed Phoenician symbols in Central America, 186;
+    Phoenician race may have influenced Central American civilization,
+      but did not originate it, 173, 185;
+    Tyrians storm-driven to America, 162, 163.
+
+  Pizarro seeks Peru, 224-5;
+    discovers the country, 225;
+    goes to Spain for aid, 225;
+    finally lands at Tumbez, 225;
+    marches to Caxamalca, 220;
+    perpetrates wholesale murder and seizes the Inca, 220;
+    the Inca fills a room with gold for ransom, and is murdered, 220, 249.
+
+  "Popol-Vuh," an old Quiché book translated, 192;
+    what it contains, 193;
+    Quiché account of the creation, 194;
+    four attempts to create man, 194-5;
+    its mythology grew out of an older system, 193-4;
+    kingdom of Quiché not older than 1200 A.D., 193.
+
+  Pueblos, 76, 77;
+    Pueblo ruins, 77-89;
+    occupied northern frontier of the Mexican race, 68, 217-18;
+    unlike the wild Indians, 67-8.
+
+
+  Quichés, notices of, 193.
+
+  Quippus, Peruvian, 254-5.
+
+  Quirigua, its ruins like those of Copan, but older, 114;
+    it is greatly decayed, 117;
+    has inscriptions, 117.
+
+  Quito subjugated by Huayna-Capac, 225;
+    was civilized like Peru, 270;
+    modern traveler's remark on, 276.
+
+
+  Savage theory of human history, 182.
+
+  "Semi-Village Indians," 67, 68.
+
+  Serpent, figures of, 28;
+    great serpent inclosure, 28.
+
+  Simpson, Lieut., describes a Pueblo ruin, 88, 89.
+
+  Spinning and weaving in Peru, 247;
+    vestiges of these arts among the Mound-Builders, 41;
+    the Mayas had textile fabrics, 209.
+
+  Squier on the Aztecs, 92;
+    on the more southern ruins in Central America, 123, 124;
+    on the monoliths of Copan, 112;
+    on Central American forests, 94;
+    on the ruins of Tiahuanaco, 234.
+
+
+  Telescopic tubes of the Mound-Builders, 42;
+    silver figure of a Peruvian using such a tube, 254;
+    such a tube on a Mexican monument, 123.
+
+  "Tennis Court" at Chichen-Itza, 142.
+
+  Titicaca Lake, its elevation above sea-level, 236.
+
+  Tlascalans, what Cortez found among them, 210;
+    their capital, 211;
+    aided the Spaniards, 211.
+
+  Toltecs identified with the Mound-Builders, 201-205;
+    how they came to Mexico, 201, 202;
+    date of their migration, 204. See Huehue Tlapalan.
+
+  Tuloom, in Yucatan, 150.
+
+
+  Uxmal described, 131-137;
+    more modern than Palenque, 155;
+    partly inhabited, perhaps, when Cortez invaded Mexico, 131, 155.
+
+
+  Valley of Rio Verde, its ruins, 82, 85.
+
+
+  Wallace, A. R., on ruins in Java, 168-9.
+
+  Welsh, the, in America, 285-7;
+    Prince Madog's emigration, 285;
+    his colony supposed to have been destroyed or absorbed by the
+      Indians, 286;
+    letter of Rev. Morgan Jones on his "travels" among the Doeg Indians
+      who spoke Welsh, 286-7.
+
+  Whipple, Lieut., on Pueblo ruins, 78-85.
+
+  Whittlesey on the ancient mining, 46, 54.
+
+  Wilson's discoveries in Ecuador, 274-5.
+
+  Writing, phonetic, among the Mayas, 187-91;
+    Aztec writing much ruder, 221;
+    writing in Peru, 254-6, 267;
+    Peruvian books of hieroglyphics, 256;
+    such writing on a llama skin found at Lake Titicaca, 256.
+
+
+  Xibalba, an ancient Colhuan kingdom, where it was situated, 199;
+    subjugated by the Toltecs, 199.
+
+  Ximenes, Father Francisco, his manuscript work on Guatemala, 191-2;
+    his dictionary of the native tongues, 192;
+    discovered and translated "Popol Vuh," 192.
+
+  Xochicalco, its pyramidal temple situated on an excavated and chambered
+      hill, 89, 90.
+
+
+  Yucatan, its native name is Maya, 125;
+    what is seen at Mayapan, 127, 128;
+    the old edifices at Uxmal, 131-137;
+    very ancient ruins at Kabah, 137-139;
+    curious construction at Chichen-Itza, 142;
+    remarkable remains at Ake, 144;
+    aguadas in Yucatan, 145, 146;
+    subterranean reservoirs, 146;
+    Merida built on the site of a ruined city, 126;
+    what the Spaniards saw when they first sailed along its coast,
+      163, 210.
+
+
+  Zuni, an inhabited Pueblo described by Lieut. Whipple, 79, 80;
+    ruins of an "old Zuni" near it, 80, 81.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The following errors were found:
+
+         Page  Error
+  TN-1   ix    Quiragua should read Quirigua
+  TN-2   xi    Los Monjas should read Las Monjas
+  TN-3   124   of "great size." should read of 'great size.'"
+  TN-4   158   sufficently should read sufficiently
+  TN-5   280   there two years. should read there two years."
+  TN-6   286   communicated should read communication
+  TN-7   296   Herrara should read Herrera
+  TN-8   297   El Masúdí should read El Mas'údí
+
+The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  Cholula / Cholulu
+  Chiapa / Chiapas
+  Inca-Rocca / Inca-Rocco
+  Mesantla / Misantla
+  Popol-Vuh / Popol Vuh
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ancient America, by John D. Baldwin.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient America, in Notes on American Archaeology
+
+Author: John D. Baldwin
+
+Release Date: August 21, 2008 [EBook #26382]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from scans of public domain material produced by
+Microsoft for their Live Search Books site.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber&#8217;s Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained
+in the current version of this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins>
+and the corrected text is shown in the popup. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a> of these
+errors is found at the end of this book.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 252px;">
+<a name="fig-01" id="fig-01"></a><a href="images/fig-01-full.png"><img src="images/fig-01.png" width="252" height="396" alt="Engraving of corner of building with architectural sculpture" title="Fig. 1.&mdash;Gateway at Labna. [See p. 144." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Gateway at Labna. [See <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h1 class="sectionhead">ANCIENT AMERICA,<br />
+<span style="font-size: 50%;">IN</span><br />
+<span style="font-size: 80%;">NOTES ON AMERICAN ARCH&AElig;OLOGY.</span></h1>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><span class="smcap">By</span> JOHN D. BALDWIN, A.M.,<br />
+<span style="font-size: 80%">AUTHOR OF &#8220;PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS.&#8221;</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: smaller;"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;">
+<img src="images/title-page.png" width="100" height="68" alt="Colophon" title="Colophon" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;">NEW YORK:<br />
+<span style="font-size: smaller;">HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,<br />
+FRANKLIN SQUARE.</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by<br />
+<span class="smcap">John D. Baldwin</span>,<br />
+In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> purpose of this volume is to give a summary of what is known of
+American Antiquities, with some thoughts and suggestions relative to
+their significance. It aims at nothing more. No similar work, I believe,
+has been published in English or in any other language. What is known of
+American Arch&aelig;ology is recorded in a great many volumes, English,
+French, Spanish, and German, each work being confined to some particular
+department of the subject, or containing only an intelligent traveler&#8217;s
+brief sketches of what he saw as he went through some of the districts
+where the old ruins are found. Many of the more important of these works
+are either in French or Spanish, or in great English quartos and folios
+which are not accessible to general readers, and not one of them
+attempts to give a comprehensive view of the whole subject.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore I have prepared this work for publication, believing it will
+be acceptable to many who are not now much acquainted with the remains
+of Ancient America, and that some who read it may be induced to study
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>the but as Ancient America covers all time previous to the discovery by
+Columbus, they may not be deemed out of place. Materials for the paper
+on &#8220;Antiquities of the Pacific Islands&#8221; came to me from the Pacific
+World while I was preparing the others. The discovery of the Pacific is
+so intimately connected with the discovery of America, that this paper
+would not be out of place even if the Mexican and Peruvian traditions
+did not mention that a foreign people communicated with the western
+coast of America in very ancient times.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Worcester, Mass.</span>, <i>November</i>, 1871.</p>
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 80%;" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="font-size: smaller;">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+  <td><a href="#I">ANCIENT AMERICA.&mdash;THE MOUND-BUILDERS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#I">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_MOUND-BUILDERS">Works of the Mound-Builders</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_MOUND-BUILDERS">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#EXTENT_OF_THEIR_SETTLEMENTS">Extent of their Settlements</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#EXTENT_OF_THEIR_SETTLEMENTS">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THEIR_CIVILIZATION">Their Civilization</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THEIR_CIVILIZATION">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THEIR_ANCIENT_MINING_WORKS">Their Ancient Mining Works</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THEIR_ANCIENT_MINING_WORKS">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">II.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#II">ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#II">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#HOW_LONG_WERE_THEY_HERE">How long were they here?</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_LONG_WERE_THEY_HERE">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">III.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#III">WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#III">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#NOT_ANCESTORS_OF_THE_WILD_INDIANS">Not Ancestors of the Wild Indians</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#NOT_ANCESTORS_OF_THE_WILD_INDIANS">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#BRERETONS_STORY">Brereton&#8217;s Story</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#BRERETONS_STORY">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#AMERICAN_ETHNOLOGY">American Ethnology</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#AMERICAN_ETHNOLOGY">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#WHO_WERE_THE_MOUND-BUILDERS">Who the Mound-Builders were</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#WHO_WERE_THE_MOUND-BUILDERS">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">IV.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#IV">MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#IV">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_NORTHERN_REMAINS">Their Northern Remains</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_NORTHERN_REMAINS">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_SEVEN_CITIES_OF_CEVOLA">The &#8220;Seven Cities of Cevola&#8221;</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_SEVEN_CITIES_OF_CEVOLA">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#CENTRAL_MEXICO">Central Mexico</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CENTRAL_MEXICO">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_GREAT_RUINS_AT_THE_SOUTH">The great Ruins at the South</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_GREAT_RUINS_AT_THE_SOUTH">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">V.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#V">MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#V">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#PALENQUE">Palenque</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#PALENQUE">104</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a name="corr1" title="corr1"></a><a href="#COPAN_AND_QUIRIGUA">Copan and <ins class="correction" title="Quirigua">Quiragua</ins></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#COPAN_AND_QUIRIGUA">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#MITLA">Mitla</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#MITLA">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#AN_ASTRONOMICAL_MONUMENT">An Astronomical Monument</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#AN_ASTRONOMICAL_MONUMENT">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#RUINS_FARTHER_SOUTH">Ruins farther South</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUINS_FARTHER_SOUTH">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN">The Ruins in Yucatan</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN">125</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#MAYAPAN">Mayapan</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#MAYAPAN">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#UXMAL">Uxmal</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#UXMAL">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#KABAH">Kabah</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#KABAH">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#CHICHEN-ITZA">Chichen-Itza</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHICHEN-ITZA">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#OTHER_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN">Other Ruins</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#OTHER_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">VI.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#VI">ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#VI">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#DISTINCT_ERAS_TRACED">Distinct Eras traced</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#DISTINCT_ERAS_TRACED">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#NOTHING_PERISHABLE_LEFT">Nothing perishable left</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#NOTHING_PERISHABLE_LEFT">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_OLDEST_OF_CIVILIZATIONS">&#8220;The Oldest of Civilizations&#8221;</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_OLDEST_OF_CIVILIZATIONS">159</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td>
+  <td><a href="#AMERICAN_CITIES_SEEN_BY_TYRIANS">American Cities seen by Tyrians</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#AMERICAN_CITIES_SEEN_BY_TYRIANS">161</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">VII.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#VII">WHENCE CAME THIS CIVILIZATION?</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#VII">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_LOST_TRIBES_OF_ISRAEL">The &#8220;Lost Tribes of Israel&#8221;</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_LOST_TRIBES_OF_ISRAEL">166</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_MALAY_THEORY">The &#8220;Malay&#8221; Theory</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_MALAY_THEORY">167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_PHOENICIAN_THEORY">The Ph&#339;nician Theory</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_PHOENICIAN_THEORY">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_ATLANTIC_THEORY">The &#8220;Atlantic&#8221; Theory</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_ATLANTIC_THEORY">174</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#IT_WAS_AN_ORIGINAL_CIVILIZATION">It was an original Civilization</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#IT_WAS_AN_ORIGINAL_CIVILIZATION">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#VIII">AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#VIII">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_OLD_BOOKS_NOT_ALL_LOST">The Old Books not all lost</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_OLD_BOOKS_NOT_ALL_LOST">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_ANCIENT_HISTORY_SKETCHED">The Ancient History sketched</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_ANCIENT_HISTORY_SKETCHED">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_TOLTECS_OUR_MOUND-BUILDERS">The Toltecs our Mound-Builders</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_TOLTECS_OUR_MOUND-BUILDERS">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#SOME_CONFIRMATION_OF_THIS_HISTORY">Some confirmation of the History</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOME_CONFIRMATION_OF_THIS_HISTORY">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">IX.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#IX">THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#IX">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_DISCOVERY_AND_INVASION">The Discovery and Invasion</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_DISCOVERY_AND_INVASION">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_CITY_OF_MEXICO">The City of Mexico</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CITY_OF_MEXICO">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_CONQUEST">The Conquest</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CONQUEST">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#WHO_WERE_THE_AZTECS">Who were the Aztecs?</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#WHO_WERE_THE_AZTECS">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THEY_CAME_FROM_THE_SOUTH">They came from the South</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THEY_CAME_FROM_THE_SOUTH">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">X.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#X">ANCIENT PERU</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#X">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_SPANISH_HUNT_FOR_PERU">The Spanish Hunt for Peru</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_SPANISH_HUNT_FOR_PERU">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_RUINS_NEAR_LAKE_TITICACA">The Ruins near Lake Titicaca</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_RUINS_NEAR_LAKE_TITICACA">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#OTHER_RUINS_IN_PERU">Other Ruins in Peru</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#OTHER_RUINS_IN_PERU">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_GREAT_PERUVIAN_ROADS">The great Peruvian Roads</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_GREAT_PERUVIAN_ROADS">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_PERUVIAN_CIVILIZATION">The Peruvian Civilization</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_PERUVIAN_CIVILIZATION">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv">XI.</td>
+  <td class="chapdiv"><a href="#XI">PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#XI">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#GARCILASSOS_HISTORY">Garcilasso&#8217;s History</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#GARCILASSOS_HISTORY">258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#FERNANDO_MONTESINOS">Fernando Montesinos</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#FERNANDO_MONTESINOS">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#HIS_SCHEME_OF_PERUVIAN_HISTORY">His Scheme of Peruvian History</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#HIS_SCHEME_OF_PERUVIAN_HISTORY">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#PROBABILITIES">Probabilities</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#PROBABILITIES">268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#CONCLUSION">Conclusion</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CONCLUSION">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapdiv" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_277">APPENDIX</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr chapdiv"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#APPENDIX_A">A. The Northmen in America</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_A">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#APPENDIX_B">B. The Welsh in America</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_B">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#APPENDIX_C">C. Antiquities of the Pacific Islands</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_C">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td><a href="#APPENDIX_D">D. Deciphering the Inscriptions</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_D">292</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 80%;" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="font-size: smaller;">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-01">1.</a></td>
+  <td>Gateway at Labna</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-01"><i>Frontispiece.</i></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-02">2.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Mound near Miamisburg</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-02">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-03">3.</a></td>
+  <td>Square Mound near Marietta</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-03">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-04">4.</a></td>
+  <td>Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-04">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-05">5.</a></td>
+  <td>Works in Washington County, Mississippi</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-05">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-06">6.</a></td>
+  <td>Works at Hopeton, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-06">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-07">7.</a></td>
+  <td>Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-07">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-08">8.</a></td>
+  <td>Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-08">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-09">9.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Serpent Inclosure</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-09">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-10">10.</a></td>
+  <td>Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-10">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-11">11.</a></td>
+  <td>Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-11">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-12">12.</a></td>
+  <td>Work on North Fork of Paint Creek</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-12">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-13">13.</a></td>
+  <td>Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-13">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-14">14.</a></td>
+  <td>Work near Brownsville, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-14">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-15">15.</a></td>
+  <td>Works near Liberty, Ohio</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-15">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-16">16.</a></td>
+  <td>Work in Randolph County, Indiana</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-16">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-17">17.<br />18.</a></td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: middle;"><span class="double" style="vertical-align: middle;">}</span>Vases from the Mounds</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: middle;"><a href="#fig-17">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-19">19.</a></td>
+  <td>Ancient Mining Shaft</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-19">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-20">20.</a></td>
+  <td>Pueblo Ruin at Pecos</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-20">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-21">21.</a></td>
+  <td>Modern Zuni</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-21">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-22">22.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruins in the Valley of the Gila</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-22">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-23">23.</a></td>
+  <td>Pueblo Building restored</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-23">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-24">24.</a></td>
+  <td>Ground Plan of the Building</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-24">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-25">25.</a></td>
+  <td>Arch of <a name="corr2" title="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="las">Los</ins> Monjas, Uxmal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-25">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-26">26.</a></td>
+  <td>Arch most common in the Ruins</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-26">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-27">27.</a></td>
+  <td>Casa No. 1, Palenque</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-27">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-28">28.</a></td>
+  <td>Casa No. 2 (La Cruz), Palenque</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-28">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-29">29.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Wall at Copan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-29">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-30">30.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruins at Mitla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-30">116</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-31">31.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Hall at Mitla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-31">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-32">32.</a></td>
+  <td>A ruined &#8220;Palace&#8221; at Mitla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-32">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-33">33.</a></td>
+  <td>Mosaic Decoration at Mitla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-33">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-34">34.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Mound at Mayapan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-34">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-35">35.</a></td>
+  <td>Circular Edifice at Mayapan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-35">129</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-36">36.</a></td>
+  <td>Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-36">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-37">37.</a></td>
+  <td>Ground Plan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-37">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span><a href="#fig-38">38.</a></td>
+  <td>Two-headed Figure at Uxmal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-38">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-39">39.</a></td>
+  <td>Decorations over Doorway, Uxmal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-39">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-40">40.</a></td>
+  <td>Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-40">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-41">41.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruined Arch at Kabah</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-41">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-42">42.</a></td>
+  <td>Casa Colorada, Chichen-Itza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-42">141</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-43">43.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Stone Ring</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-43">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-44">44.</a></td>
+  <td>Great Mound at Xcoch</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-44">145</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-45">45.</a></td>
+  <td>Bottom of an Aguada</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-45">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-46">46.</a></td>
+  <td>Subterranean Reservoir</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-46">147</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-47">47.</a></td>
+  <td>Plan of the Walls of Tuloom</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-47">148</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-48">48.</a></td>
+  <td>Watch-tower at Tuloom</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-48">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-49">49.</a></td>
+  <td>Specimen of Inscriptions on Stone</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-49">190</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-50">50.</a></td>
+  <td>Specimen of the Manuscript Writing</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-50">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-51">51.</a></td>
+  <td>Ancient Masonry at Cuzco</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-51">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-52">52.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruins of a &#8220;Temple&#8221; on the Island of Titicaca</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-52">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-53">53.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruin on the Island of Titicaca</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-53">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-54">54.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruin on the Island of Coati</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-54">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-55">55.</a></td>
+  <td>Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-55">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-56">56.</a></td>
+  <td>Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-56">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-57">57.</a></td>
+  <td>End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-57">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-58">58.</a></td>
+  <td>End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-58">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-59">59.<br />60.</a></td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: middle;"><span class="double" style="vertical-align: middle;">}</span>Decorations at Chimu-Canchu</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: middle;"><a href="#fig-59">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-61">61.</a></td>
+  <td>Edifice at Old Huanuco</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-61">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-62">62.</a></td>
+  <td>Ground Plan of the Edifice</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-62">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-63">63.</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Look-out&#8221; at Old Huanuco</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-63">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-64">64.</a></td>
+  <td>Ruins at Pachacamac</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-64">242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-65">65.</a></td>
+  <td>Peruvian Copper Knives</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-65">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-66">66.</a></td>
+  <td>Copper Tweezers</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-66">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-67">67.</a></td>
+  <td>Golden Vase of Ancient Peru</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-67">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-68">68.</a></td>
+  <td>Ancient Peruvian Silver Vase</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-68">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-69">69.</a></td>
+  <td>Ancient Peruvian Pottery</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-69">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-70">70.</a></td>
+  <td>Ancient Peruvian Pottery</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig-70">253</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">ANCIENT AMERICA.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<h2 class="sectionhead"><a name="I" id="I"></a>I.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">THE MOUND-BUILDERS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the most learned writers on American antiquities, a Frenchman,
+speaking of discoveries in Peru, exclaims, &#8220;America is to be again
+discovered! We must remove the veil in which Spanish politics has sought
+to bury its ancient civilization!&#8221; In this case, quite as much is due to
+the ignorance, indifference, unscrupulous greed, and religious
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, as to Spanish politics. The gold-hunting
+marauders who subjugated Mexico and Peru could be robbers and
+destroyers, but they were not qualified in any respect to become
+intelligent students of American antiquity. What a select company of
+investigators, such as could be organized in our time, might have done
+in Mexico and Central America, for instance, three hundred and fifty
+years ago, is easily understood. In what they did, and in what they
+failed to do, the Spaniards who went there acted in strict accordance
+with such character as they had; and yet we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> are not wholly without
+obligation to some of the more intelligent Spaniards connected with the
+Conquest.</p>
+
+<p>There are existing monuments of an American ancient history which invite
+study, and most of which might, doubtless, have been studied more
+successfully in the first part of the sixteenth century, before nearly
+all the old books of Central America had been destroyed by Spanish
+fanaticism, than at present. Remains of ancient civilizations, differing
+to some extent in degree and character, are found in three great
+sections of the American continent: the west side of South America,
+between Chili and the first or second degree of north latitude; Central
+America and Mexico; and the valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio.
+These regions have all been explored to some extent&mdash;not completely, but
+sufficiently to show the significance and importance of their
+arch&aelig;ological remains, most of which were already mysterious antiquities
+when the continent was discovered by Columbus. I propose to give some
+account of these antiquities, not for the edification of those already
+learned in American arch&aelig;ology, but for general readers who have not
+made the subject a study. My sketches will begin with the Mississippi
+Valley and the regions connected with it.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_MOUND-BUILDERS" id="THE_MOUND-BUILDERS"></a>THE MOUND-BUILDERS&mdash;THEIR WORKS.</h3>
+
+<p>An ancient and unknown people left remains of settled life, and of a
+certain degree of civilization, in the valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries. We have no authentic name for them either as a nation
+or a race;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"><br />[16]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"><br /><br />[17]</a></span> therefore they are called &#8220;Mound-Builders,&#8221; this name
+having been suggested by an important class of their works.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a name="fig-02" id="fig-02"></a><a href="images/fig-02-full.png"><img src="images/fig-02.png" width="310" height="200" alt="Drawing of unexcavated mound" title="Fig. 2.&mdash;The Great Mound, near Miamisburg." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;The Great Mound, near Miamisburg.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Prominent among the remains by which we know that such a people once
+inhabited that region are artificial mounds constructed with
+intelligence and great labor. Most of them are terraced and truncated
+pyramids. In shape they are usually square or rectangular, but sometimes
+hexagonal or octagonal, and the higher mounds appear to have been
+constructed with winding stairways on the outside leading to their
+summits. Many of these structures have a close resemblance to the
+<i>teocallis</i> of Mexico. They differ considerably in size. The great mound
+at Grave Creek, West Virginia, is 70 feet high and 1000 feet in
+circumference at the base. A mound in Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high
+and 852 feet in circumference. The great truncated pyramid at Cahokia,
+Illinois, is 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 in height. Generally,
+however, these mounds range from 6 to 30 feet high. In the lower valley
+of the Mississippi they are usually larger in horizontal extent, with
+less elevation.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig-02">Figure 2</a> represents the great mound near Miamisburg, Ohio, which may be
+compared with a similar structure at Mayapan, Yucatan (<a href="#fig-34">Fig. 34</a>). <a href="#fig-03">Figure
+3</a> shows a square mound near Marietta, Ohio.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 162px;">
+<a name="fig-03" id="fig-03"></a><a href="images/fig-03-full.png"><img src="images/fig-03.png" width="162" height="137" alt="Plan view of unexcavated square mound with four staircases" title="Fig. 3.&mdash;Square Mound, near Marietta." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Square Mound, near Marietta.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There have been a great many conjectures in regard to the purposes for
+which these mounds were built, some of them rather fanciful. I find it
+most reasonable to believe that the mounds in this part of the continent
+were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> used precisely as similar structures were used in Mexico and
+Central America. The lower mounds, or most of them, must have been
+constructed as foundations of the more important edifices of the
+mound-building people. Many of the great buildings erected on such
+pyramidal foundations, at Palenque, Uxmal, and elsewhere in that region,
+have not disappeared, because they were built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar. For reasons not difficult to understand, the Mound-Builders,
+beginning their works on the lower Mississippi, constructed such
+edifices of wood or some other perishable material; therefore not a
+trace of them remains. The higher mounds, with broad, flat summits,
+reached by flights of steps on the outside, are like the Mexican
+<i>teocallis</i>, or temples. In Mexico and Central America these structures
+were very numerous. They are described as solid pyramidal masses of
+earth, cased with brick or stone, level at the top, and fur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>nished with
+ascending ranges of steps on the outside. The resemblance is striking,
+and the most reasonable explanation seems to be that in both regions
+mounds of this class were intended for the same uses. <a href="#fig-04">Figure 4</a> shows the
+works at Cedar Bank, Ohio, inclosing a mound. The mound within the
+inclosure is 245 feet long by 150 broad. <a href="#fig-05">Figure 5</a> shows a group of
+mounds in Washington County, Mississippi, some of which are connected by
+means of causeways.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a name="fig-04" id="fig-04"></a><a href="images/fig-04-full.png"><img src="images/fig-04.png" width="239" height="212" alt="Plan of earthworks" title="Fig. 4&mdash;Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4&mdash;Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig-05" id="fig-05"></a><a href="images/fig-05-full.png"><img src="images/fig-05.png" width="225" height="256" alt="Plan of unexcavated mounds" title="Fig. 5.&mdash;Works in Washington County, Mississippi." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Works in Washington County, Mississippi.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another class of these antiquities consists of inclosures formed by
+heavy embankments of earth and stone.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> There is nothing to explain these
+constructions so clearly as to leave no room for conjecture and
+speculation. It has been suggested that some of them may have been
+intended for defense, others for religious purposes. A portion of them,
+it may be, encircled villages or towns. In some cases the ditches or
+fosses were on the inside, in others on the outside. But no one can
+fully explain why they were made. We know only that they were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"><br />[22]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"><br /><br />[23]</a></span>
+prepared intelligently, with great labor, for human uses. &#8220;Lines of
+embankment varying from 5 to 30 feet in height, and inclosing from 1 to
+50 acres, are very common, while inclosures containing from 100 to 200
+acres are not infrequent, and occasional works are found inclosing as
+many as 400 acres.&#8221; Figures<a href="#fig-06"> 6</a> and <a href="#fig-07">7</a> give views of the Hopeton works,
+four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio. Combinations of the square and
+circle are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> common in these ancient works, and the figures are always
+perfect. This perfection of the figures proves, as Squier and Davis
+remark, that &#8220;the builders possessed a standard of measurement, and had
+a means of determining angles.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a name="fig-06" id="fig-06"></a><a href="images/fig-06-full.png"><img src="images/fig-06.png" width="322" height="187" alt="Drawing showing circular earthworks" title="Fig. 6.&mdash;Works at Hopeton, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Works at Hopeton, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;">
+<a name="fig-07" id="fig-07"></a><a href="images/fig-07-full.png"><img src="images/fig-07.png" width="220" height="259" alt="Plan of earthworks with a circular enclosure adjacent to a rectangular enclosure" title="Fig. 7.&mdash;Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>About 100 inclosures and 500 mounds have been examined in Ross County,
+Ohio. The number of mounds in the whole state is estimated at over
+10,000, and the number of inclosures at more than 1500. The great number
+of these ancient remains in the regions occupied by the Mound-Builders
+is really surprising. They are more numerous in the regions on the lower
+Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico than any where else; and here, in
+some cases, sun-dried brick was used in the embankments.</p>
+
+<p>One peculiarity at the South is, that while the inclosures are generally
+smaller and comparatively less numerous, there is a greater proportion
+of low mounds, and these are often larger in extent. Harrison Mound, in
+South Carolina, is 480 feet in circumference and 15 feet high. Another
+is described as 500 feet in circumference at the base, 225 at the
+summit, and 34 feet high. In a small mound near this, which was opened,
+there was found &#8220;an urn holding 46 quarts,&#8221; and also a considerable
+deposit of beads and shell ornaments very much decomposed. Broad
+terraces of various heights, mounds with several stages, elevated
+passages, and long avenues, and aguadas or artificial ponds, are common
+at the South. <a href="#fig-08">Figure 8</a> shows the remains of a graded way of this ancient
+people near Piketon, Ohio.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a name="fig-08" id="fig-08"></a><a href="images/fig-08-full.png"><img src="images/fig-08.png" width="316" height="182" alt="Drawing of a road passing between two parallel mounds" title="Fig. 8.&mdash;Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"><br />[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At Seltzertown, Mississippi, there is a mound 600 feet long, 400 wide,
+and 40 feet high. The area of its level summit measures 4 acres. There
+was a ditch around it, and near it are smaller mounds. Mr. J. R.
+Bartlett says, on the authority of Dr. M. W. Dickeson, &#8220;The north side
+of this mound is supported by a wall of sun-dried brick two feet thick,
+filled with grass, rushes, and leaves.&#8221; Dr. Dickeson mentions angular
+tumuli, with corners &#8220;still quite perfect,&#8221; and &#8220;formed of large bricks
+bearing the impression of human hands.&#8221; In Louisiana, near the Trinity,
+there is a great inclosure partially faced with sun-dried bricks of
+large size; and in this neighborhood ditches and artificial ponds have
+been examined. In the Southern States these works appear to assume a
+closer resemblance to the mound work of Central America.</p>
+
+<p>The result of intelligent exploration and study of these antiquities is
+stated as follows: &#8220;Although possessing throughout certain general
+points of resemblance going to establish a kindred origin, these works
+nevertheless resolve themselves into three grand geographical divisions,
+which present in many respects striking contrasts, yet so gradually
+merge into each other that it is impossible to determine where one
+series terminates and another begins.&#8221; On the upper lakes, and to a
+certain extent in Michigan, Iowa, and Missouri, but particularly in
+Wisconsin, the outlines of the inclosures (elsewhere more regular in
+form) were designed in the forms of animals, birds, serpents, and even
+men, appearing on the surface of the country like huge <i>relievos</i>. The
+embankment of an irregular inclosure in Adams County, Ohio, is
+de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>scribed as follows by Squier and Davis, Mr. Squier having made the
+drawing of it for the work published by the Smithsonian Institution:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is in the form of a serpent, upward of 1000 feet in length, extended
+in graceful curves, and terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The
+embankment constituting this figure is more than 5 feet high, with a
+base 30 feet wide at the centre of the body, diminishing somewhat toward
+the head and tail. The neck of the figure is stretched out and slightly
+curved. The mouth is wide open, and seems in the act of swallowing or
+ejecting an oval figure which rests partly within the distended jaws.
+This oval is formed by an embankment 4 feet high, and is perfectly
+regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being
+respectively 160 and 80 feet. The combined figure has been regarded as a
+symbolical illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the serpent
+and the egg; but, however this may be, little doubt can exist of the
+symbolical character of the monument.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig-09">Figure 9</a> gives a view of this work.</p>
+
+<p>No symbolic device is more common among the antiquities of Mexico and
+Central America than the form of the serpent, and it was sometimes
+reproduced in part in architectural constructions. One of the old books,
+giving account of a temple dedicated to Quetzalcohuatl, says, &#8220;It was
+circular in form, and the entrance represented the mouth of a serpent,
+opened in a frightful manner, and extremely terrifying to those who
+approached it for the first time.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 164px;">
+<a name="fig-09" id="fig-09"></a><a href="images/fig-09-full.png"><img src="images/fig-09.png" width="164" height="265" alt="Plan of serpent-shaped earthworks" title="Fig. 9.&mdash;Great Serpent, Adams County, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Great Serpent, Adams County, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the Ohio and its tributaries, and farther south,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> where the mounds are
+numerous, the inclosures have more regular forms; and in the Ohio Valley
+very often their great extent has incited speculation. At Newark, Ohio,
+when first discovered, they were spread over an area more than two miles
+square, and still showed more than twelve miles of embankment from two to
+twenty feet high. Farther south, as already stated, the inclos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>ures are
+fewer and smaller, or, to speak more exactly, the great inclosures and
+high mounds are much less common than low truncated pyramids, and
+pyramidal platforms or foundations with dependent works. Passing up the
+valley, it is found that Marietta, Newark, Ports<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>mouth, Chillicothe,
+Circleville, Ohio; St. Louis, Missouri, and Frankfort, Kentucky, were
+favorite seats of the Mound-Builders. This leads one of the most
+intelligent investigators to remark that &#8220;the centres of population are
+now where they were when the mysterious race of Mound-Builders existed.&#8221;
+There is, however, this difference: the remains indicate that their most
+populous and advanced communities were at the South. <a href="#fig-10">Figure 10</a> shows a
+fortified hill in Butler County, Ohio.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="fig-10" id="fig-10"></a><a href="images/fig-10-full.png"><img src="images/fig-10.png" width="230" height="299" alt="Plan of hill and fortifications" title="Fig. 10.&mdash;Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among those who have examined and described remains of the
+Mound-Builders, Messrs. Squier and Davis rank first in importance,
+because they have done most to give a particular and comprehensive
+account of them. Their great work, published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, must be regarded as the highest authority, and those who
+desire to study the whole subject more in detail will find that work
+indispensable.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="EXTENT_OF_THEIR_SETTLEMENTS" id="EXTENT_OF_THEIR_SETTLEMENTS"></a>EXTENT OF THEIR SETTLEMENTS.</h3>
+
+<p>Careful study of what is shown in the many reports on these ancient
+remains seems plainly to authorize the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders entered the country at the South, and began their
+settlements near the Gulf. Here they must have been very numerous, while
+their works at every point on the limit of their distribution, north,
+east, and west, indicate a much less numerous border population. Remains
+of their works have been traced through a great extent of country. They
+are found in West Virginia, and are spread through Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and Iowa to Nebraska. Lewis and Clarke<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> reported seeing them on the
+Missouri River, a thousand miles above its junction with the
+Mississippi; but this report has not been satisfactorily verified. They
+have been observed on the Kansas, Platte, and other remote Western
+rivers, it is said. They are found all over the intermediate and the
+more southern country, being most numerous in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
+Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas.</p>
+
+<p>This ancient race seems to have occupied nearly the whole basin of the
+Mississippi and its tributaries, with the fertile plains along the Gulf,
+and their settlements were continued across the Rio Grande into Mexico;
+but toward their eastern, northern, and western limit the population was
+evidently smaller, and their occupation of the territory less complete
+than in the Valley of the Ohio, and from that point down to the Gulf. No
+other united people previous to our time can be supposed to have
+occupied so large an extent of territory in this part of North America.</p>
+
+<p>It has heretofore been stated that remains of this people exist in
+Western New York, but a more intelligent and careful examination shows
+that the works in Western New York are not remains of the
+Mound-Builders. This is now the opinion of Mr. Squier, formed on
+personal investigation since the great work of Squier and Davis was
+published.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THEIR_CIVILIZATION" id="THEIR_CIVILIZATION"></a>THEIR CIVILIZATION.</h3>
+
+<p>It is usual to rank the civilized life of the Mound-Builders much below
+that of the ancient people of Mexico and Central America. This may be
+correct, for the remains as they now exist appear to justify it. But if
+all the ancient stone-work in Central America, with its finely-carved
+inscriptions and wonderful decorations, had disappeared in the ages
+before Europeans visited this continent, the difference might not appear
+to be so great; for then the Central American remains, consisting only
+of earth-works, truncated pyramids, pyramidal foundations, and their
+connected works made of earth, would have a closer resemblance to works
+of the Mound-Builders, to those especially found on the lower
+Mississippi. On the other hand, if we now had in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys remains of the more important edifices anciently
+constructed there, the Mound-Builders might be placed considerably
+higher in the scale of civilization than it has been customary to allow.</p>
+
+<p>It can be seen, without long study of their works as we know them, that
+the Mound-Builders had a certain degree of civilization which raised
+them far above the condition of savages. To make such works possible
+under any circumstances, there must be settled life, with its
+accumulations and intelligently organized industry. Fixed habits of
+useful work, directed by intelligence, are what barbarous tribes lack
+most of all. A profound change in this respect is indispensable to the
+beginning of civilization in such tribes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>No savage tribe found here by Europeans could have undertaken such
+constructions as those of the Mound-Builders. The wild Indians found in
+North America lived rudely in tribes. They had only such organization as
+was required by their nomadic habits, and their methods of hunting and
+fighting. These barbarous Indians gave no sign of being capable of the
+systematic application to useful industry which promotes intelligence,
+elevates the condition of life, accumulates wealth, and undertakes great
+works. This condition of industry, of which the worn and decayed works
+of the Mound-Builders are unmistakable monuments, means civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Albert Gallatin, who gave considerable attention to their remains,
+thought their works indicated not only &#8220;a dense agricultural
+population,&#8221; but also a state of society essentially different from that
+of the Iroquois and Algonquin Indians. He was sure that the people who
+established such settlements and built such works must have been
+&#8220;eminently agricultural.&#8221; No trace of their ordinary dwellings is left.
+These must have been constructed of perishable materials, which went to
+dust long before great forests had again covered most of the regions
+through which they were scattered. Doubtless their dwellings and other
+edifices were made of wood, and they must have been numerous. It is
+abundantly evident that there were large towns at such places as Newark,
+Circleville, and Marietta, in Ohio. Figures <a href="#fig-11">11</a> and <a href="#fig-12">12</a> give views of
+works on Paint Creek, Ohio.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;">
+<a name="fig-11" id="fig-11"></a><a href="images/fig-11-full.png"><img src="images/fig-11.png" width="231" height="301" alt="Plan showing layout of stone walls" title="Fig. 11.&mdash;Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their agricultural products may have been similar to many of those found
+in Mexico; and it is not improb<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>able that the barbarous Indians, who
+afterward occupied the country, learned from them the cultivation of
+maize. Their unity as a people, which is every where so manifest, must
+have been expressed in political organization, else it could not have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;">
+<a name="fig-12" id="fig-12"></a><a href="images/fig-12-full.png"><img src="images/fig-12.png" width="329" height="245" alt="Plan showing arrangement of mounds" title="Fig. 12.&mdash;Work on North Fork of Paint Creek." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Work on North Fork of Paint Creek.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 174px;">
+<a name="fig-13" id="fig-13"></a><a href="images/fig-13-full.png"><img src="images/fig-13.png" width="174" height="160" alt="Plan view of square earthworks inside a circular earthworks" title="Fig. 13.&mdash;Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 217px;">
+<a name="fig-14" id="fig-14"></a><a href="images/fig-14-full.png"><img src="images/fig-14.png" width="217" height="203" alt="Plan of earthworks" title="Fig. 14.&mdash;Elliptical Work near Brownsville, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Elliptical Work near Brownsville, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 301px;">
+<a name="fig-15" id="fig-15"></a><a href="images/fig-15-full.png"><img src="images/fig-15.png" width="301" height="290" alt="Plan of complex of earthworks" title="Fig. 15.&mdash;Works near Liberty, Ohio." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Works near Liberty, Ohio.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the details of their works, and in manufactured articles taken from
+the mounds, there is evidence of considerable civilization. For
+instance, it has been ascer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"><br />[38]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"><br /><br />[39]</a></span>tained that the circular inclosures are
+perfect circles, and the square inclosures perfect squares. They were
+constructed with a geometrical precision which implies a kind of
+knowledge in the builders that may be called scientific. Figures <a href="#fig-13">13</a>, <a href="#fig-14">14</a>,
+<a href="#fig-15">15</a>, <a href="#fig-16">16</a> show some of the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> important works of the Mound-Builders,
+chiefly in Ohio. Relics of art have been dug from some of the mounds,
+consisting of a considerable variety of ornaments and implements, made
+of copper, silver, obsidian, porphyry, and greenstone, finely wrought.
+There are axes, single and double; adzes, chisels, drills or gravers,
+lance-heads, knives, bracelets, pendants, beads, and the like, made of
+copper. There are articles of pottery, elegantly designed and finished;
+ornaments made of silver, bone, mica from the Alleghanies, and shells
+from the Gulf of Mexico.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 223px;">
+<a name="fig-16" id="fig-16"></a><a href="images/fig-16-full.png"><img src="images/fig-16.png" width="223" height="203" alt="Plan of rectangular earthworks" title="Fig. 16.&mdash;Rectangular Work, Randolph County, Indiana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Rectangular Work, Randolph County, Indiana.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The articles made of stone show fine workmanship; some of them are
+elaborately carved. Tools of some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> very hard material must have been
+required to work the porphyry in this manner. Obsidian is a volcanic
+product largely used by the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians for arms and
+cutting instruments. It is found in its natural state nowhere nearer the
+Mississippi Valley than the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo.</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be evidence that the Mound-Builders had the art of
+spinning and weaving, for cloth has been found among their remains. At
+the meeting of the International Congress of Pre-Historic Arch&aelig;ology
+held at Norwich, England, in 1868, one of the speakers stated this fact
+as follows: &#8220;Fragments of charred cloth made of spun fibres have been
+found in the mounds. A specimen of such cloth, taken from a mound in
+Butler County, Ohio, is in Blackmore Museum, Salisbury. In the same
+collection are several lumps of burnt clay which formed part of the
+&#8216;altar,&#8217; so called, in a mound in Ross County, Ohio: to this clay a few
+charred threads are still attached.&#8221; Figures <a href="#fig-17">17</a> and <a href="#fig-18">18</a> represent
+specimens of vases taken from the mounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;">
+<a name="fig-17" id="fig-17"></a><a name="fig-18" id="fig-18"></a><a href="images/fig-17-18-full.png"><img src="images/fig-17-18.png" width="247" height="138" alt="Drawing of two ceramic vessels" title="Figs. 17, 18.&mdash;Vases from the Mounds." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Figs. 17, 18.&mdash;Vases from the Mounds.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Schoolcraft gives this account of a discovery made in West Virginia:
+&#8220;<i>Antique tube: telescopic device.</i> In the course of excavations made in
+1842 in the easternmost of the three mounds of the Elizabethtown group,
+several tubes of stone were disclosed, the precise object of which has
+been the subject of various opinions. The longest measured twelve
+inches, the shortest eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite,
+being skillfully cut and polished. The diameter of the tube externally
+was one inch and four tenths; the bore, eight tenths of an inch. This
+calibre was continued till within three eighths of an inch of the sight
+end, when it diminishes to two tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at
+the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and
+distant objects are more clearly discerned.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He points out that the carving and workmanship generally are very
+superior to Indian pipe carvings, and adds, if this article was a work
+of the Mound-Builders &#8220;intended for a telescopic tube, it is a most
+interesting relic.&#8221; An ancient Peruvian relic, found a few years since,
+shows the figure of a man wrought in silver, in the act of studying the
+heavens through such a tube. Similar tubes have been found among relics
+of the Mound-Builders in Ohio and elsewhere. In Mexico, Captain Dupaix
+saw sculptured on a peculiar stone structure the figure of a man making
+use of one. Astronomical devices were sculptured below the figure. This
+structure he supposed to have been used for observation of the stars.
+His account of it will be given in the chapter on Mexican and Central
+American ruins.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>The Mound-Builders used large quantities of copper such as that taken
+from the copper beds on Lake Superior, where the extensive mines yield
+copper, not in the ore, but as pure metal. It exists in those beds in
+immense masses, in small veins, and in separated lumps of various sizes.
+The Mound-Builders worked this copper without smelting it. Spots of pure
+silver are frequently found studding the surface of Lake Superior
+copper, and appearing as if welded to it, but not alloyed with it. No
+other copper has this peculiarity; but copper with similar blotches of
+silver has been dug from the mounds. It was naturally inferred from this
+fact that the ancient people represented by these antiquities had some
+knowledge of the art of mining copper which had been used in the copper
+region of Lake Superior. This inference finally became an ascertained
+fact.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THEIR_ANCIENT_MINING_WORKS" id="THEIR_ANCIENT_MINING_WORKS"></a>THEIR ANCIENT MINING WORKS.</h3>
+
+<p>Remains of their mining works were first discovered in 1848 by Mr. S. O.
+Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, and in 1849 they were
+described by Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in his geological report to the
+national government. Those described were found at the Minnesota mine,
+in upper Michigan, near Lake Superior. Their mining was chiefly surface
+work; that is to say, they worked the surface of the veins in open pits
+and trenches. At the Minnesota mine, the greatest depth of their
+excavations was thirty feet; and here, &#8220;not far below the bottom of a
+trough-like cavity, among a mass of leaves, sticks, and water, Mr. Knapp
+discovered a de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>tached mass of copper weighing nearly six tons. It lay
+upon a cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter,
+the ends of which showed plainly the marks of a small axe or cutting
+tool about two and a half inches wide. They soon shriveled and decayed
+when exposed to the air. The mass of copper had been raised several
+feet, along the foot of the lode, on timbers, by means of wedges.&#8221; At
+this place was found a stone maul weighing thirty-six pounds, and also a
+copper maul or sledge weighing twenty-five pounds. Old trees showing 395
+rings of annual growth stood in the d&eacute;bris, and &#8220;the fallen and decayed
+trunks of trees of a former generation were seen lying across the pits.&#8221;
+<a href="#fig-19">Figure 19</a> (opposite) presents a section of this mining shaft of the
+Mound-Builders: <i>a</i> shows the mass of copper; <i>b</i> the bottom of the
+shaft; <i>c</i> the earth and d&eacute;bris which had been thrown out. The dark
+spots are masses of copper.</p>
+
+<p>The modern mining works are mostly confined to that part of the copper
+region known as Keweenaw Point. This is a projection of land extending
+into Lake Superior, and described as having the shape of an immense
+horn. It is about eighty miles in length, and, at the place where it
+joins the main land, about forty-five miles in width. All through this
+district, wherever modern miners have worked, remains of ancient mining
+works are abundant; and they are extensive on the adjacent island, known
+as Isle Royale. The area covered by the ancient works is larger than
+that which includes the modern mines, for they are known to exist in the
+dense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> forests of other districts, to which the modern mining has not
+yet been extended.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;">
+<a name="fig-19" id="fig-19"></a><a href="images/fig-19-full.png"><img src="images/fig-19.png" width="232" height="202" alt="Section of mining shaft" title="Fig. 19.&mdash;Ancient Mining Shaft." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Ancient Mining Shaft.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One remarkable mining excavation of the Mound-Builders was found near
+the Waterbury mine. Here, in the face of a vertical bluff, was
+discovered &#8220;an ancient, artificial, cavern-like recess, twenty-five feet
+in horizontal length, fifteen feet high, and twelve feet deep. In front
+of it is a pile of excavated rock on which are standing, in full size,
+the forest trees common to this region.&#8221; Some of the blocks of stone
+removed from this recess would weigh two or three tons, and must have
+required levers to get them out. Beneath the surface rub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>bish were the
+remains of a gutter or trough made of cedar, placed there to carry off
+water from the mine. At the bottom of the excavation a piece of white
+cedar timber was found on which were the marks of an axe. Cedar shovels,
+mauls, copper gads or wedges, charcoal, and ashes were discovered, over
+which &#8220;primeval&#8221; forest trees had grown to full size.</p>
+
+<p>Modern mining on Lake Superior began effectively in 1845. The whole
+copper region has not been fully explored. Works of the ancient miners
+are found at all the mines of any importance; and they show remarkable
+skill in discovering and tracing actual veins of the metal. Colonel
+Charles Whittlesey, one of the best authorities on this point, believes
+the Mound-Builders worked the copper-beds of that region during &#8220;a great
+length of time,&#8221; and more of their works will undoubtedly be explored
+when the forests shall be cleared away from those portions of the copper
+region not yet worked by modern miners. So far as they have been traced,
+they every where show the same methods, the same implements, and the
+same peculiarities of both knowledge and lack of knowledge in the old
+miners.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="II" id="II"></a>II.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">That</span> the Mound-Builders and their works belong to a distant period in
+the past is evident; but, of course, we have no means of determining
+their antiquity with any approach to accuracy, no scheme of chronology
+by which their distance from us in time can be measured. Nevertheless,
+some things observed in their remains make it certain that the works are
+very ancient.</p>
+
+<p>1. One fact showing this is pointed out by those who have examined them
+carefully as follows: None of these works (mounds and inclosures) occur
+on the lowest-formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence of
+the western streams; and as there is no good reason why their builders
+should have avoided erecting them on that terrace, while they raised
+them promiscuously on all the others, it follows, not unreasonably, that
+this terrace has been formed since the works were erected. It is
+apparent, also, that in some cases the works were long ago partly
+destroyed by streams which have since receded more than half a mile, and
+at present could not reach them under any circumstances. Those streams
+generally show four successive terraces, which mark four distinct eras
+of their subsidence since they began to flow in their present courses.
+The fourth terrace, on which none of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> the works are found, marks the
+last and longest of these periods; and it marks also the time since the
+Mound-Builders ceased to occupy the river-valleys where it was formed.
+The period marked by this fourth terrace must be the longest, because
+the excavating power of such streams necessarily diminishes as their
+channels grow deeper. This geological change, which has taken place
+since the latest of the mounds and inclosures were constructed, shows
+that the works are very old; no one can tell how old. To count the years
+is impossible; but we can see that the date, if found, would take us
+back to a remote period in the past.</p>
+
+<p>2. Great antiquity is indicated by the skeletons taken from the mounds.
+Every skeleton of a Mound-Builder is found in a condition of extreme
+decay. It sometimes appears that the surface of a mound has been used by
+the wild Indians for interments; but their skeletons, which are always
+found well preserved, can be readily distinguished by their position in
+the mounds, as well as by other peculiarities. The decayed bones of
+Mound-Builders are invariably found within the mounds, never on the
+surface, usually at the bottom of the structure, and nearly always &#8220;in
+such a state of decay as to render all attempts to restore the skull,
+or, indeed, any part of the skeleton, entirely hopeless.&#8221; Not more than
+one or two skeletons of that people have been recovered in a condition
+suitable for intelligent examination. It is stated in the work of Squier
+and Davis that the only skull belonging incontestably to an individual
+of the Mound-Building race, which has been preserved entire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> was taken
+from a mound situated on a knoll (itself artificial apparently) on the
+summit of a hill, in the Scioto Valley, four miles below Chillicothe.</p>
+
+<p>What, save time itself, can have brought these skeletons to a condition
+in which they fall to pieces when touched, and are ready to dissolve and
+become dust? All the circumstances attending their burial were unusually
+favorable for their preservation. The earth around them has invariably
+been found &#8220;wonderfully compact and dry.&#8221; And yet, when exhumed, they
+are in such a decomposed and crumbling condition that to restore them is
+impossible. Sound and well-preserved skeletons, known to be nearly two
+thousand years old, have been taken from burial-places in England, and
+other European countries less favorable for preserving them. The
+condition of an ancient skeleton can not be used as an accurate measure
+of time, but it is sufficiently accurate to show the difference between
+the ancient and the modern, and in this case it allows us to assume that
+these extremely decayed skeletons of the Mound-Builders are much more
+than two thousand years old.</p>
+
+<p>Those familiar with the facts established by geologists and
+pal&aelig;ontologists are aware that remains of human skeletons have been
+discovered in deposits of the &#8220;Age of Stone&#8221; in Western Europe; not to
+any great extent, it is true, although the discoveries are sufficient to
+show that fragments of skeletons belonging to that age still exist. It
+is not without reason, therefore, that the condition of decay in which
+all skeletons of the Mound-Builders are exhumed from their burial-places
+is consid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>ered a proof of their great antiquity. There is no other
+explanation which, so far as appears, can be reasonably accepted.</p>
+
+<p>3. The great age of these mounds and inclosures is shown by their
+relation to the primeval forests in which most of them were discovered.
+I say <i>primeval</i> forests, because they seemed primeval to the first
+white men who explored them. Of course there were no unbroken forests at
+such points as the Ohio Valley, for instance, while they were occupied
+by the Mound-Builders, who were a settled agricultural people, whose
+civilized industry is attested by their remains. If they found forests
+in the valleys they occupied, these were cleared away to make room for
+their towns, inclosures, mounds, and cultivated fields; and when, after
+many ages of such occupation, they finally left, or were driven away, a
+long period must have elapsed before the trees began to grow freely in
+and around their abandoned works. Moreover, observation shows that the
+trees which first make their appearance in such deserted places are not
+regular forest trees. The beginning of such growths as will cover them
+with great forests comes later, when other preliminary growths have
+appeared and gone to decay.</p>
+
+<p>When the Ohio Valley was first visited by Europeans it was covered by an
+unbroken forest, most of the trees being of great age and size; and it
+was manifest that several generations of great forest trees had preceded
+those found standing in the soil. The mounds and inclosures were
+discovered in this forest, with great trees growing in them. Eight
+hundred rings of annual growth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> were counted in the trunk of a tree
+mentioned by Sir Charles Lyell and others, which was found growing on a
+mound at Marietta. In the same way, successive generations of forest
+trees had grown over their extensive mining works near Lake Superior,
+and many of those works are still hidden in what seem to be primeval
+forests.</p>
+
+<p>General Harrison made the following suggestion in regard to the
+establishment of these forests in Ohio. When the individual trees that
+first got possession of the soil had died out one after another, they
+would, in many cases, be succeeded by other kinds, till at last, after a
+great number of centuries, that remarkable diversity of species
+characteristic of North America would be established. His suggestion,
+the result of practical observation and study, is not without reason. It
+is certain, in any case, that the period when these old constructions
+were deserted is so far back in the past, that sufficient time has since
+passed for the abandoned towns and fields to remain for years, and
+perhaps centuries, as waste places, pass through the transition from
+waste lands to the beginning of forest growths, and then be covered by
+several generations of such great forest trees as were cleared away to
+prepare the soil for the settlements, towns, and farms of our people.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="HOW_LONG_WERE_THEY_HERE" id="HOW_LONG_WERE_THEY_HERE"></a>HOW LONG WERE THEY HERE?</h3>
+
+<p>There are many indications to warrant the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders occupied their principal seats in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys during a very long pe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>riod. If they came from the
+south, as appears evident, their settlements must have been extended up
+the valley gradually. After their first communities were established in
+the Gulf regions, considerable time must have elapsed before their
+advancing settlements were extended northward, through the intervening
+region, into the Valley of the Ohio. On the Ohio and in the valleys of
+its tributaries their settlements were very numerous, and evidently
+populous. The surprising abundance of their works in this region, which
+have been traced in our time, shows that they dwelt here in great
+numbers, and had no lack of industry.</p>
+
+<p>This region seems to have been one of the principal centres from which
+their settlements were advanced into the western part of Virginia; into
+Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. The spread
+of their settlements was necessarily gradual, and a long period must
+have been required to extend them over all the country where remains of
+their works are known to exist. If their civilization was chiefly
+developed after their arrival in the country, which is unlikely, many
+years must have elapsed before colonies went forth, to any great extent,
+from the original seat of its development. In any case, time was
+required to make their chief settlements sufficiently old and populous
+to send forth colonies. It is manifest in their remains that the
+communities of this ancient people most remote from the populous centres
+on the Ohio, east, north, and west, were, like all border settlements,
+the rudest and least populous. The remains at these points do not
+indicate either as much wealth or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> as many workers, and the places where
+these borderers settled must have been the latest occupied and the
+earliest abandoned. One diligent investigator, who believes they came
+originally from Mexico, speaks of the time of their stay in the country
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When we consider the time required to people the whole extent of the
+territory where their remains are found, and bring that people into a
+condition to construct such monuments, and when we reflect on the
+interval that must have passed after their construction until the epoch
+of their abandonment, we are constrained to accord them a very high
+antiquity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He points out that they were sun worshipers, like the Mexicans and
+Peruvians, and calls attention to the disks dug from their mounds, which
+appear to have been designed as representations of the sun and moon.</p>
+
+<p>Their long occupation of the country is suggested by the great extent of
+their mining works. All who have examined these works agree with Colonel
+Whittlesey that they worked the Lake Superior copper mines &#8220;for a great
+length of time.&#8221; How long they had dwelt in the Ohio Valley when this
+mining began can not be told, but a very considerable period must have
+elapsed after their arrival at that point before the mines were
+discovered. We can not suppose the first settlers who came up from the
+Gulf region to the Ohio Valley went on immediately, through the
+wilderness a thousand miles, to hunt for copper mines on Lake Superior;
+and, even after they began to explore that region, some time must have
+passed before the copper was found.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>After they discovered the mines and began to work them, their progress
+could not have been rapid. As their open trenches and pits could be
+worked only in the summers, and by methods that made their operations
+much slower than those of modern miners, no great advance of their work
+was possible during the working time of each season; and yet remains of
+their mining works have been discovered wherever mines have been opened
+in our day; and, as previously stated, they are known to exist in heavy
+forests, where the modern mining works have not yet been established.
+There is nothing to indicate that they had settlements any where in the
+mining region. Colonel Whittlesey, and others whose study of the subject
+gives their opinion much weight, believe the Mound-Builders went up from
+the settlements farther south in the summers, remained in the copper
+region through the season, and worked the mines in organized companies
+until the advance of winter terminated their operations.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Whittlesey says: &#8220;As yet, no remains of cities, graves,
+domiciles, or highways have been found in the copper region;&#8221; and adds,
+&#8220;as the race appears to have been farther advanced in civilization than
+their successors, whom we call aborigines, they probably had better
+means of transportation than bark canoes.&#8221; It may be said, also, that
+the accumulations called wealth were necessary to make this regular and
+systematic mining possible. Without these they could not have provided
+the supplies of every kind required to sustain organized companies of
+miners through a single season. A great many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> summers must have passed
+away before such companies of miners, with all needed tools and
+supplies, could have made their works so extensive by means of such
+methods as they were able to use.</p>
+
+<p>They probably occupied the country on the Gulf and Lower Mississippi
+much longer than any other portion of the great valley. Their oldest and
+latest abandoned settlements appear to have been in this region, where,
+we may reasonably suppose, they continued to dwell long after they were
+driven from the Ohio Valley and other places at the north.</p>
+
+<p>The Natchez Indians found settled on the Lower Mississippi may have been
+a degenerate remnant of the Mound-Builders. They differed in language,
+customs, and condition from all other Indians in the country; and their
+own traditions connected them with Mexico. Like the Mexicans, they had
+temples or sacred buildings in which the &#8220;perpetual fire&#8221; was
+maintained. Each of their villages was furnished with a sacred building
+of this kind. They had also peculiarities of social and political
+organization different from those of other tribes. They were
+sun-worshipers, and claimed that their chief derived his descent from
+the sun. The Natchez were more settled and civilized than the other
+Indians, and, in most respects, seemed like another race. One learned
+investigator classes them with the Nahuatl or Toltec race, thinks they
+came from Mexico, and finds that, like the ancient people of Panuco and
+Colhuacan, they had the phallic ceremonies among their religious
+observances. Their history can not be given, and there is little or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+nothing but conjecture to connect them with the Mound-Builders. The
+Natchez were exterminated in 1730 by the French, whom they had treated
+with great kindness. Of the few who escaped death, some were received
+among the Chickasaws and Muskogees, but more were sent to Santo Domingo
+and sold as slaves.</p>
+
+<p>No view that can be taken of the relics left by the Mound-Builders will
+permit us to believe their stay in the country was short. Any hypothesis
+based on the shortest possible estimate of the time must count the years
+by centuries.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="III" id="III"></a>III.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> ancient people, whose remains indicate unity and civilization, must
+have been organized as a nation, with a central administration which all
+recognized. They must have had a national name, but nobody can tell
+certainly what it was. No record or tradition has preserved it, unless
+discovery of it can be made in a national designation found, without
+clear explanation, in the old books and traditions of Central America,
+and applied to some country situated at a distance from that part of the
+continent in the northeast. These old books and traditions mention
+&#8220;Huehue-Tlapalan&#8221; as a distant northeastern country, from which the
+Nahuas or Toltecs came to Mexico; and Brasseur de Bourbourg, who has
+translated one of the old books and given much attention to others,
+supposes the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders to be the same people, or
+did suppose this previous to the appearance of his &#8220;Atlantic theory.&#8221;
+But this point will be more fully considered when we come to the Central
+American antiquities.</p>
+
+<p>Some antiquaries suggest that the Mound-Builders were the people called
+&#8220;Allighewi&#8221; in old traditions of the Iroquois, but we have nothing to
+make this very probable. The Iroquois were somewhat superior to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+other great family of barbarous Indians in organization for the business
+of fighting. There are some reasons for believing they came to the lake
+regions and the Ohio Valley much earlier than the Algonquin branch of
+the wild Indian race. It is permissible, at least, to conjecture, if one
+feels inclined to do so, that it was the Iroquois migration from the
+northwest, or that of the great family to which the Iroquois family
+belonged, which expelled the Mound-Builders from their border
+settlements, cut them off from the copper mines, and finally pushed them
+down the Mississippi; but nothing more than conjecture is possible in
+this case, and the supposition gives the Iroquois migration a greater
+antiquity than may be allowable. Moreover, the traditionary lore of the
+wild Indians had nothing to say of the Mound-Builders, who appear to
+have been as unknown and mysterious to these Indians as they are to us.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="NOT_ANCESTORS_OF_THE_WILD_INDIANS" id="NOT_ANCESTORS_OF_THE_WILD_INDIANS"></a>NOT ANCESTORS OF THE WILD INDIANS.</h3>
+
+<p>Some inquirers, not always without hesitation, suggest that the Indians
+inhabiting the United States two hundred years ago were degenerate
+descendants of the Mound-Builders. The history of the world shows that
+civilized communities may lose their enlightenment, and sink to a
+condition of barbarism; but the degraded descendants of a civilized
+people usually retain traditional recollections of their ancestors, or
+some traces of the lost civilization, perceptible in their customs and
+their legendary lore. The barbarism of the wild Indians of North America
+had nothing of this kind. It was orig<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>inal barbarism. There was nothing
+to indicate that either the Indians inhabiting our part of the
+continent, or their ancestors near or remote, had ever been civilized,
+even to the extent of becoming capable of settled life and organized
+industry. And, besides, the constant tradition of these Indians,
+supported by concurring circumstantial evidence, appears to warrant the
+belief that they came to this part of the continent originally from the
+west or northwest, at a period too late to connect them in this way with
+the Mound-Builders.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years ago the Valley of the Mississippi, and the regions
+east of it, were occupied by two great families of Indians, the Iroquois
+and the Algonquins, each divided into separate tribes. Between these two
+families there was a radical difference of language. The Indians of New
+England were Algonquins. The Iroquois dwelt chiefly in New York, and
+around Lake Erie, from Niagara to Detroit, although separate communities
+of the group to which they immediately belonged were found in other
+places, such as the Dacotahs and Winnebagoes at the West, and the
+isolated Tuscaroras of the Carolinas. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who has
+discussed &#8220;Indian Migrations&#8221; in several interesting papers printed in
+the North American Review, thinks the Iroquois were separated very early
+from the same original stem which produced the great Dacotah family. The
+Algonquins were spread most widely over the country when it was first
+visited by Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>Among all these Indians there was a tradition that their ancestors came
+from a distant region in the North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>west, and this tradition is accepted
+as true by those who have studied them most carefully. Mr. Morgan
+supposes they came across the continent, and estimates that not less
+than a thousand years must have passed between the departure of the
+various groups of the Algonquin family from a common centre in the
+northwest and the condition in which they were found two hundred years
+ago. When Europeans began to explore North America, this family had
+become divided into several branches, and each of these branches had a
+modified form of the common language, which, in turn, had developed
+several dialects. A long period was required to effect so great a
+change; but, whatever estimate of the time may be accepted, it seems to
+be a fact that the Algonquins came to the Mississippi Valley long after
+the Mound-Builders left it, and also later than the Iroquois or Dacotah
+family. That the Iroquois preceded the Algonquins at the East appears to
+be indicated by the relative position of the two families in this part
+of the country. Mr. Parkman, in his work on &#8220;The Jesuits in North
+America,&#8221; describes it as follows: &#8220;Like a great island in the midst of
+the Algonquins lay the country of tribes speaking the generic tongue of
+the Iroquois.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There is no trace or probability of any direct relationship whatever
+between the Mound-Builders and the barbarous Indians found in the
+country. The wild Indians of this continent had never known such a
+condition as that of the Mound-Builders. They had nothing in common with
+it. In Africa, Asia, and elsewhere among the more uncultivated families
+of the human race, there is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> not as much really <i>original</i> barbarism as
+some anthropologists are inclined to assume; but there can be no serious
+doubt that the wild Indians of North America were original barbarians,
+born of a stock which had never, at any time, been either civilized or
+closely associated with the influences of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the pottery and wrought ornaments of the Mound-Builders is equal
+in finish and beauty to the finest manufactured by the ancient
+Peruvians. They constructed artificial ponds like the aguadas in Central
+America. They used sun-dried brick, especially at the South, where walls
+of this material have been discovered supporting some of the mounds and
+embankments. They manufactured cloth. But their intelligence, skill, and
+civilized ways are shown not only by their constructions and
+manufactures, but also by their mining works. Who can imagine the
+Iroquois or the Algonquins working the copper mines with such
+intelligence and skill, and such a combination of systematic and
+persistent industry! They had no tradition of such a condition of life,
+no trace of it. It is absurd to suppose a relationship, or a connection
+of any kind, between the original barbarism of these Indians and the
+civilization of the Mound-Builders. The two peoples were entirely
+distinct and separate from each other. If they really belonged to the
+same race, which is extremely doubtful, we must go back through
+unnumbered ages to find their common origin and the date of their
+separation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="BRERETONS_STORY" id="BRERETONS_STORY"></a>BRERETON&#8217;S STORY.</h3>
+
+<p>Those who seek to identify the Mound-Builders with the barbarous Indians
+find nothing that will support their hypothesis. Nevertheless, some of
+them have tried very strangely to give it aid by one or two quotations
+from early voyagers to America. The most important are taken from
+Brereton&#8217;s account of Gosnold&#8217;s voyage in 1602. The following occurred
+on the coast of Maine:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Eight Indians, in a Basque shallop, with mast and sail, an iron
+grapple, and a kettle, came boldly aboard us, one of them appareled with
+a waistcoat and breeches of black serge, made after our sea fashion,
+hose and shoes on his feet: all the rest (saving one that had a pair of
+breeches of blue cloth) were naked.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is known that the Basques were accustomed to send fishing vessels to
+the northeastern coast of America long before this continent was
+discovered by Columbus. They continued to do this after the discovery.
+These Indians had evidently become well acquainted with the Basques,
+and, therefore, did not fear to approach Gosnold&#8217;s ship. Probably some
+of them had been employed on board Basque fishing vessels. Certainly
+their boat and apparel came from the Basque fishermen, and did not show
+them to be Mound-Builders. Of the Indians on the coast of Massachusetts,
+Brereton says:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;They had great store of copper, some very red, some of a paler color;
+none of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal. They
+had some of their arrows herewith, much like our broad arrow-heads,
+very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> workmanly made. Their chains are many hollow pieces cemented
+together, each piece of the bigness of one of our reeds, a finger in
+length, ten or twelve of them together on a string, which they wear
+about their necks: their collars they wear about their bodies like
+bandeliers a handful broad, all hollow pieces like the other, but
+somewhat shorter, four hundred pieces in a collar, very fine and evenly
+set together.&#8221; He adds: &#8220;I am persuaded they have great store (of flax)
+growing upon the main, as also mines and many other rich commodities,
+which we, wanting time, could not possibly discover.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>If all this had been true, it would not serve the purpose for which it
+is quoted; for remains of the Mound-Builders have never existed in
+Massachusetts, and we should necessarily suppose these Indians had
+procured copper and copper ornaments by trading with the Basques or with
+other French voyagers. If only one or two Indians had been represented
+as wearing ornaments made of copper, this explanation could be readily
+accepted. But he avers that they had &#8220;great store of copper,&#8221; and adds,
+&#8220;None of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal.&#8221;
+Therefore his statement is incredible. The following considerations will
+show why it must not be regarded as honest, unadorned truth.</p>
+
+<p>1. Those interested in Gosnold&#8217;s voyage aimed to establish a colony on
+that coast; and all who served them, or were controlled by them, were
+easily moved to tell seductive stories of the country &#8220;upon the main.&#8221;
+The chief aim of Brereton&#8217;s account of this voyage was to incite
+emigration. Therefore he gave this wonderfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> colored account of
+mines, flax-growing, copper chains and collars, and &#8220;other rich
+commodities&#8221; among the wild Indians of Massachusetts. Settlements on
+that coast, it was believed, would bring profit to those in whose
+interest he wrote. Gosnold actually proposed at that time to establish a
+colony on one of the islands in Buzzard&#8217;s Bay, and had with him twenty
+men who were expected to stay as colonists, but finally refused to do
+so. He saw a great deal of the Indians, and knew much more of their
+actual condition than the story admits.</p>
+
+<p>2. Eighteen years later the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth from the
+Mayflower. Neither copper mines nor flax fields were then known in
+Massachusetts. No Indians with &#8220;great store&#8221; of copper and flax, and
+covered with copper ornaments, were seen or heard of by the Pilgrims,
+either at that time or afterward. In 1602, Brereton, or any other writer
+employed to write in such a way as would promote emigration, could tell
+such stories, and romance freely concerning the Indians, without fear of
+contradiction. Afterward, when the actual barbarism of the Indian tribes
+in New England and other parts of the country had become generally
+known, no one could describe any of these Indians as successful miners
+and flax-growers, and assert gravely that they had such stores of copper
+that &#8220;none of them&#8221; lacked great abundance of copper &#8220;chains, earrings,
+collars,&#8221; and the like, without being laughed at. Brereton&#8217;s story must
+be regarded as an invention designed to serve a special purpose, but not
+warranted by any thing seen during the voyage he describes. Neither in
+New En<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>gland nor any where else in our part of the continent did the
+early colonists find Indians who worked copper mines and had &#8220;great
+store of copper.&#8221; What Brereton says was not true of any Indians known
+to our first colonists or to their successors. It corresponds to no
+reality found in any part of our territory during the last two hundred
+and fifty years. Therefore, to use his story in support of an absurd
+hypothesis is not a satisfactory proceeding.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="AMERICAN_ETHNOLOGY" id="AMERICAN_ETHNOLOGY"></a>AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>It may be true that all the aboriginal peoples found inhabiting North
+and South America, save the Esquimaux, belonged originally to the same
+race. Some writers assume it to be true, although it seems strongly
+improbable, not to say impossible. If they were all of the same race,
+time and development, under different conditions of life, had divided
+this race into at least two extremely unlike branches. The wild Indians
+of North America were profoundly different from the ancient people of
+Central America and Peru. The Pueblo or Village Indians of New Mexico
+have scarcely any thing in common with the Apaches, Comanches, and
+Sioux. Even the uncivilized Indians of South America are different from
+those in the United States. Our wild Indians have more resemblance to
+the nomadic Koraks and Chookchees found in Eastern Siberia, throughout
+the region that extends to Behring&#8217;s Strait, than to any people on this
+continent. Those who have seen these Siberians, traveled with them, and
+lived in their tents, have found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> the resemblance very striking; but I
+infer from what they say that the Korak or Chookchee is superior to the
+Indian. See Kennan&#8217;s &#8220;Tent Life in Siberia.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lewis H. Morgan finds evidence that the American aborigines had a
+common origin in what he calls &#8220;their systems of consanguinity and
+affinity.&#8221; If it can be made to appear beyond question that these
+systems prevail and are identical every where from Patagonia to the
+Arctic Zone, his argument will have great force. But this has not yet
+been shown. He says: &#8220;The Indian nations, from the Atlantic to the Rocky
+Mountains, and from the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico, with the
+exception of the Esquimaux, have the same system. It is elaborate and
+complicated in its general form and details; and, while deviations from
+uniformity occur in the systems of different stocks, the radical
+features are, in the main, constant. This identity in the essential
+characteristics of a system so remarkable tends to show that it must
+have been transmitted with the blood to each stock from a common
+original source. It affords the strongest evidence yet obtained of unity
+in origin of the Indian nations within the region defined.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But unity in race among wild Indians found within the region specified
+would be sufficiently manifest without this evidence. That the same
+system of consanguinity and affinity, with precisely the same features
+of identity, ever was extended over the whole continent, remains
+unproved. The supposed traces of it among the Pueblos are by no means
+clear. A more complete and accurate research is required to show that
+identically the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> same system ever has existed any where between the
+United States and Patagonia. A system not wholly unlike it, though not
+the same, might grow up any where in widely separated tribal communities
+of barbarous peoples, without doing any thing more than the tribal
+system itself to show a common origin in race.</p>
+
+<p>The aborigines of America may have been originally all of the same race.
+There are some considerations in favor of this hypothesis which have
+been used by writers entitled to great respect; but it can not yet be
+claimed with reason that they have been able to settle this question
+beyond the reach of doubt, even in their own minds. Therefore, to speak
+moderately, it would be premature to assume that the Mound-Builders were
+even remotely of the same race with the wild Indians, from whom they
+were so different in all we know of them.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to establish this hypothesis of identity in race has given
+rise to a tendency to underrate the development of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and to lower the estimate of their
+attainments sufficiently to bring them within reach of close
+relationship to the wild Indians. The difficulty being reduced in this
+way, there follows an attempt to get rid of it entirely, and establish
+connection between these unlike peoples, by talking of &#8220;Semi-Village
+Indians.&#8221; But the hypothesis used in this case is not well warranted by
+facts. Such &#8220;Semi-Village Indians&#8221; as are supposed, really standing half
+way between the savages and the Pueblos, and being actually savages half
+developed into Pueblos, have never had a clearly defined and
+unques<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>tionable existence here since the continent became known to
+Europeans. In the border region between the northern wild Indians and
+the old Mexican race there are exceptional communities formed by
+association or mixture, but we can not reasonably give them the
+significance claimed for the supposed &#8220;Semi-Village Indians.&#8221; Moreover,
+these exceptional communities are usually Pueblos whose habits have been
+changed and their civilization lessened by association with wild
+Indians, or in some other way. The Navajos began their present condition
+by fleeing to the mountains from the Spaniards. The Mound-Builders, who
+must have been, still more than the Pueblos, unlike the barbarous
+Indians, can not be explained by any reference whatever to such
+communities. If they were of the same race, they were far from being the
+same people.</p>
+
+<p>Some ethnologists, whose suggestions are entitled to respectful
+attention whether accepted or rejected, specify considerations which
+they believe forbid us to regard the ancient Mexicans and the northern
+wild Indians as identical in race. They point to the well known fact
+that the fauna of the American continent below the northern frontier of
+Mexico is remarkably different from that between this line and the
+Arctic Sea. At the north, America abounds in species similar to those of
+Europe and Asia, with some admixture of forms wholly American, while at
+the south the old-world forms disappear, and the fauna of the whole
+region between Mexico and Cape Horn becomes &#8220;as peculiar as that of
+Australia.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The explanation given is, that during the glacial period<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> the larger
+part of North America, like Northern Asia and Europe, was covered with
+ice and partly submerged, and that the fauna found in this part of North
+America was introduced after the glacial period by immigration from Asia
+and Europe over connecting lands or islands at the northwest and the
+northeast, and perhaps by some migration from the south; the fauna at
+the south meanwhile remaining very much as it was before, with very
+little change through later migrations from the north.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Huxley called attention to this subject in a brief address to
+the London Ethnological Society in 1869. After stating the case, he
+presented the following queries and suggestions: &#8220;The Austro-Columbian
+fauna, as a whole, therefore, existed antecedently to the glacial epoch.
+Did man form part of that fauna? To this profoundly interesting question
+no positive answer can be given; but the discovery of human remains
+associated with extinct animals in the caves of Brazil, by Lund, lends
+some color to the supposition. Assuming this supposition to be correct,
+we should have to look in the human population of America, as in the
+fauna generally, for an indigenous or Austro-Columbian element, and an
+immigrant or &#8216;Arctogeal&#8217; element.&#8221; He then suggests that the Esquimaux
+may now represent the immigrant element, and the old Mexican and South
+American race that which was indigenous, and that the &#8220;Red Indians of
+North America&#8221; may have appeared originally as a mixture of these two
+races. He adds, very reasonably, &#8220;It is easy to suggest such problems as
+these, but quite impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
+solve them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="WHO_WERE_THE_MOUND-BUILDERS" id="WHO_WERE_THE_MOUND-BUILDERS"></a>WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?</h3>
+
+<p>They were unquestionably American aborigines, and not immigrants from
+another continent. That appears to me the most reasonable suggestion
+which assumes that the Mound-Builders came originally from Mexico and
+Central America. It explains many facts connected with their remains. In
+the Great Valley their most populous settlements were at the south.
+Coming from Mexico and Central America, they would begin their
+settlements on the Gulf coast, and afterward advance gradually up the
+river to the Ohio Valley. It seems evident that they came by this route;
+and their remains show that their only connection with the coast was at
+the south. Their settlements did not reach the coast at any other point.</p>
+
+<p>Their constructions were similar in design and arrangement to those
+found in Mexico and Central America. Like the Mexicans and Central
+Americans, they had many of the smaller structures known as <i>teocallis</i>,
+and also large high mounds, with level summits, reached by great flights
+of steps. Pyramidal platforms or foundations for important edifices
+appear in both regions, and are very much alike. In Central America
+important edifices were built of hewn stone, and can still be examined
+in their ruins. The Mound-Builders, like some of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Yucatan, used wood, sun-dried brick, or some other material
+that could not resist decay. There is evidence that they used timber for
+building purposes. In one of the mounds opened in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> the Ohio Valley two
+chambers were found with remains of the timber of which the walls were
+made, and with arched ceilings precisely like those in Central America,
+even to the overlapping stones. Chambers have been found in some of the
+Central American and Mexican mounds, but there hewn stones were used for
+the walls. In both regions the elevated and terraced foundations remain,
+and can be compared. I have already called attention to the close
+resemblance between them, but the fact is so important in any endeavor
+to explain the Mound-Builders that I must bring it to view here.</p>
+
+<p>Consider, then, that elevated and terraced foundations for important
+buildings are peculiar to the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans;
+that this method of construction, which, with them, was the rule, is
+found nowhere else, save that terraced elevations, carefully
+constructed, and precisely like theirs in form and appearance, occupy a
+chief place among the remaining works of the Mound-Builders. The use
+made of these foundations at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen-Itza, shows
+the purpose for which they were constructed in the Mississippi Valley.
+The resemblance is not due to chance. The explanation appears to me very
+manifest. This method of construction was brought to the Mississippi
+Valley from Mexico and Central America, the ancient inhabitants of that
+region and the Mound-Builders being the same people in race, and also in
+civilization, when it was brought here.</p>
+
+<p>A very large proportion of the old structures in Ohio and farther south
+called &#8220;mounds,&#8221; namely, those which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> are low in proportion to their
+horizontal extent, are terraced foundations for buildings, and if they
+were situated in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Southern Mexico, they would
+never be mistaken for any thing else. The high mounds also in the two
+regions are remarkably alike. In both cases they are pyramidal in shape,
+and have level summits of considerable extent, which were reached by
+means of stairways on the outside. The great mound at Chichen-Itza is 75
+feet high, and has on its summit a ruined stone edifice; that at Uxmal
+is 60 feet high, and has a similar ruin on its summit; that at Mayapan
+is 60 feet high; the edifice placed on its summit has disappeared. The
+great mound at Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high; and that at Grave
+Creek, West Virginia, is 75 feet high. Both had level summits, and
+stairways on the outside, but no trace of any structure remains on them.
+All these mounds were constructed for religious uses, and they are, in
+their way, as much alike as any five Gothic churches.</p>
+
+<p>Could these works of the Mound-Builders be restored to the condition in
+which they were when the country was filled with their busy communities,
+we should doubtless see great edifices, similar in style to those in
+Yucatan, standing on the upper terraces of all the low and extended
+&#8220;mounds,&#8221; and smaller structures on the high mounds, such as those above
+named. There would seem to be an extension of ancient Mexico and Central
+America through Texas into the Mississippi and Ohio valleys; and so, if
+there were no massive stone-work in the old ruins of those countries, it
+might seem that the Mound-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>Builders&#8217; works were anciently extended into
+them by way of Texas.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the settlements and works of the Mound-Builders extended
+through Texas and across the Rio Grande indicates very plainly their
+connection with the people of Mexico, and goes far to explain their
+origin. We have other evidence of intercourse between the two peoples;
+for the obsidian dug from the mounds, and perhaps the porphyry also, can
+be explained only by supposing commercial relations between them.</p>
+
+<p>We can not suppose the Mound-Builders to have come from any other part
+of North America, for nowhere else north of the Isthmus was there any
+other people capable of producing such works as they left in the places
+where they dwelt. Beyond the relics of the Mound-Builders themselves, no
+traces of the former existence of such a people have been discovered in
+any part of North America save Mexico, and Central America, and
+districts immediately connected with them. At the same time, it is not
+unreasonable to suppose the civilized people of these regions extended
+their settlements through Texas, and also migrated across the Gulf into
+the Mississippi Valley. In fact, the connection of settlements by way of
+Texas appears to have been unbroken from Ohio to Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>This colonizing extension of the old Mexican race must have taken place
+at a remote period in the past; for what has been said of the antiquity
+of the Mound-Builders shows that a very long period, far more than two
+thousand years, it may be, must have elapsed since they left the Valley
+of the Ohio. Perhaps they found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> the country mostly unoccupied, and saw
+there but little of any other people until an irruption of warlike
+barbarians came upon them from the Northwest.</p>
+
+<p>In speculating on the causes of their withdrawal after centuries of
+occupation, absolute certainty is impossible, and we have no means of
+going much beyond mere conjecture. We may suppose as most probable that
+an influx of barbarians destroyed their border settlements, interrupted
+their mining operations, and caused them to retire gradually toward the
+Gulf. Fragments of their communities may have become incorporated with
+the barbarous tribes. This conjecture has been used to explain certain
+exceptional peculiarities noticed in some of the wild Indian tribes. For
+instance, it has been suggested that the Mandan Indians were a separated
+and lost fragment of the mound-building people, they being noticeably
+unlike other Indians in many respects, lighter in color, and peculiar in
+manners and customs. What is conjectured may be true, but we have no
+means of proving its truth. That the Mandans were like what a lost
+community of Mound-Builders might have become by degeneration through
+mixture and association with barbarians may be supposed, but the actual
+history of that remarkable tribe might give its peculiarities a very
+different explanation. The Mandans were supposed to be a branch of the
+Dacotahs. They may have been, like the Navajos, a changed community of
+Pueblos, but any attempt to explain them by means of conjecture is
+useless.</p>
+
+<p>The supposition that the Toltecs and the Mound-Build<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>ers were the same
+people seems to me not improbable. The reasons for it will be stated
+when we come to a discussion of the antiquities, books, and traditions
+of Central America. I will only say here that, according to dates given
+in the Central American books, the Toltecs came from &#8220;Huehue-Tlapalan,&#8221;
+a distant country in the northeast, long previous to the Christian era.
+They played a great part and had a long career in Mexico previous to the
+rise of their successors in power, the Aztecs, who were overthrown by
+the Spaniards.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ruins</span> and other vestiges revealing an ancient civilization are found
+throughout the whole southern section of North America, extending as far
+north as New Mexico and Arizona. But here the antiquities do not all
+belong to the same period in the past, nor exhibit unvarying likeness
+and unity of civilized life. They are somewhat less homogeneous, and do
+not constantly represent the same degree of civilization. In this
+region, the monuments suggest successive and varying periods in the
+civilized condition of the old inhabitants, some of the oldest and most
+mysterious monuments seeming to indicate the highest development.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern part of this region we find ruins of great buildings
+similar in plan and arrangement to those still used by the Pueblos, but
+far superior as monuments of architecture, science, and skill, and much
+more unlike those farther south than is apparent in the principal
+structures of the Mound-Builders. They show that the old settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley did not belong to the Pueblo branch of the Mexican
+race. Farther south, in the central part of the region specified,
+development was more advanced. Here, in the last ages of American
+ancient history, was the seat of the Mexican or Aztec civ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>ilization,
+but the monuments in this part of the country are mostly older than the
+Aztec period. The most astonishing remains are found still farther
+south, in Chiapa, Tabasco, Oxaca, Yucatan, Honduras, Tehuantepec,
+Guatemala, and other parts of Central America. In this southern region,
+mostly buried in heavy forests, are wonderful ruins of great cities and
+temples. Only a small part of modern Mexico is included in the region
+where these ruins are situated, and most of them, probably, were not
+much better understood by the ancient Mexicans than they are by us. Many
+of those explored in later times were unknown to that people, just as
+others, more in number, doubtless, than those already described, still
+remain unvisited and unknown in the great and almost impenetrable
+forests of the country.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_NORTHERN_REMAINS" id="THE_NORTHERN_REMAINS"></a>THE NORTHERN REMAINS.</h3>
+
+<p>The ruins in Northern Mexico, including New Mexico and Arizona, consist
+chiefly, as already stated, of the remains of structures similar in
+general design and purpose to those of the Village Indians, the Pueblos.
+In the more ancient times, doubtless, as at present, a large proportion
+of the dwellings and other edifices, like those in the Mississippi
+Valley, were built of perishable materials which have left no trace.
+Many of them, however, were built of stone, and have left ruins which
+show their character. Stone ruins are common in this northern region,
+although wood and adobe seems to have been more commonly used as
+building material. Some of the ruined stone edifices were inhabited when
+the country was con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>quered by the Spaniards. The remains present every
+where the same characteristics. They represent a people who built always
+in the same way, with some variations in the forms of their structures,
+and had substantially the same condition of life; but the ruins are not
+all of the same age. Their character can be sufficiently shown by
+describing a few of them.</p>
+
+<p>In New Mexico, west of the Rio Grande, between the head waters of the
+San Jose and Zuni rivers, a bluff or ridge rises in a valley two hundred
+feet high. The Spaniards named it &#8220;El Moro.&#8221; One side of this bluff is
+vertical, and shows yellowish-white sandstone rock, on the face of which
+are inscriptions; &#8220;Spanish inscriptions and Indian hieroglyphics.&#8221; It
+was carefully described in 1849 by Lieutenant Simpson, and was explored
+again four or five years later by Lieutenant A. W. Whipple, who
+described it in his report to the government, published in the third
+volume of &#8220;Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route to the
+Pacific.&#8221; On the summit of this height, which Lieutenant Simpson named
+&#8220;Inscription Rock,&#8221; are the ruins of an extensive Pueblo edifice built
+of stone. The walls were built &#8220;with considerable skill.&#8221; In some places
+they are still &#8220;perfect to the height of six or eight feet, vertical,
+straight, and smooth; and the masonry is well executed, the stones being
+of uniform size&mdash;about fourteen inches long and six wide.&#8221; The layers
+are horizontal, each successive layer breaking joints with that below
+it. Remains of cedar beams were discovered, and also obsidian
+arrow-heads, painted pottery, and other relics. Another ruin was seen on
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> height across the gorge. It was found to be similar to this, both in
+character and condition of decay.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Whipple went westward along the thirty-fifth parallel. We can
+not do better than follow the report of what he saw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a name="fig-20" id="fig-20"></a><a href="images/fig-20-full.png"><img src="images/fig-20.png" width="219" height="163" alt="View of buildings and setting in landscape" title="Fig. 20.&mdash;Pueblo Ruin at Pecos." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Pueblo Ruin at Pecos.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His next stopping-place, after leaving &#8220;El Moro,&#8221; was in the beautiful
+valley of Ojo Pescado. Here, close by a spring that showed artificial
+stone-work of ancient date, were two old Pueblo buildings in ruins, &#8220;so
+ancient that the traditions of present races do not reach them.&#8221; Not far
+away is a deserted town of later date. The two ancient structures were
+circular in form and equal in size, each being about eight hundred feet
+in circumference. They were built of stone, but the walls have crumbled
+and become chiefly heaps of rubbish. The pottery found here, like that
+at &#8220;El Moro,&#8221; is &#8220;painted with bright<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> colors, in checks, bands, and
+wavy stripes; many fragments show a beautiful polish. A few pieces were
+discovered larger in size, inferior in color and quality, but indicating
+a more fanciful taste. United, they formed an urn with a curious handle;
+a frog painted on the outside and a butterfly within.&#8221; In the same
+neighborhood, on the summit of a cliff twenty feet high, was another old
+ruin &#8220;strongly walled around.&#8221; In the centre was a mound on which were
+traces of a circular edifice.</p>
+
+<p>The next place of encampment was at Zuni, where, as shown in <a href="#fig-21">Figure 21</a>,
+can be seen one of these great Pueblo buildings inhabited by two
+thousand people (Lieutenant Whipple&#8217;s estimate). It has five stories,
+the walls of each receding from those below it. Looking from the top, he
+says it reminded him of a busy ant-hill, turkeys and tamed eagles
+constituting a portion of its inhabitants. Not more than a league away
+is an &#8220;old Zuni&#8221; which shows nothing but ruins. Its crumbling walls,
+worn away until they are only from two to twelve feet high, are &#8220;crowded
+together in confused heaps over several acres of ground.&#8221; This old town
+became a ruin in ancient times. After remaining long in a ruined
+condition it was again rebuilt, and again deserted after a considerable
+period of occupation. It is still easy to distinguish the differences in
+construction between the two periods. &#8220;The standing walls rest upon
+ruins of greater antiquity;&#8221; and while the primitive masonry is about
+six feet thick, that of the later period is only from a foot to a foot
+and a half thick. Small blocks of sandstone were used for the latter.
+Heaps of d&eacute;bris cover a considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> space, in which, among other
+things, are relics of pottery and of ornaments made of sea-shells.
+Pieces of quaintly-carved cedar posts were found here, and their
+condition of decay, compared with that of the cedar beams at &#8220;El Moro,&#8221;
+&#8220;indicated great antiquity.&#8221; The place of this ruin is now one of the
+consecrated places of the Village Indians; it has &#8220;a Zuni altar&#8221; which
+is constantly used and greatly venerated. On leaving the place, their
+guide blew a white powder toward the altar three times, and muttered a
+prayer. This, he explained, was &#8220;asking a blessing of Montezuma and the
+sun.&#8221; This altar seems to represent recollections of the ancient
+sun-worship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 224px;">
+<a name="fig-21" id="fig-21"></a><a href="images/fig-21-full.png"><img src="images/fig-21.png" width="224" height="202" alt="Drawing of a person descending a ladder from the roof of a building" title="Fig. 21&mdash;Modern Zuni." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21&mdash;Modern Zuni.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At a place west of Zuni ancient relics were found, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>dicating that an
+extensive Pueblo town had formerly stood there, but &#8220;the structures were
+probably of adobes,&#8221; as there was no d&eacute;bris of stone walls, and only
+very faint traces of foundations. Near the Colorado Chiquito is an
+extensive ruin, on the summit of an isolated hill of sandstone, the
+faces of its walls being here and there visible above heaps of d&eacute;bris.
+It appears to be very old. As near as could be ascertained, the great
+rectangular Pueblo building was three hundred and sixty feet in extent
+on one side, and one hundred and twenty on the other. In some places the
+walls are ten feet thick, &#8220;with small rooms inserted in them.&#8221; Stone
+axes, painted pottery, and other articles are found in the d&eacute;bris: &#8220;The
+indented pottery, said to be so very ancient, is found here in many
+patterns.&#8221; On a ridge overlooking the valley of Pueblo Creek are traces
+of an old settlement of large extent, supposed to have been that heard
+of in 1539 by the friar Marco de Ni&ccedil;a as &#8220;the kingdom of Totonteac.&#8221;
+Adobe seems to have been used here for building. Traces of other ruins
+were seen in various places, and springs along the route showing ancient
+stone-work are mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;">
+<a name="fig-22" id="fig-22"></a><a href="images/fig-22-full.png"><img src="images/fig-22.png" width="427" height="235" alt="Drawing of ruins" title="Fig. 22.&mdash;Pueblo Ruins in the Valley of the Gila." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Pueblo Ruins in the Valley of the Gila.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ruins are abundant in the Rio Verde Valley down to the confluence of
+that river with the Rio Salinas. It is manifest that this whole region
+was anciently far more populous than it is now. Lieutenant Whipple says,
+&#8220;Large fields in the valley of the Rio Gila, and many spots among the
+Pinal Lena Mountains, are marked with the foundations of adobe houses.&#8221;
+<a href="#fig-22">Figure 22</a> represents a Pueblo ruin in the Valley of the Gila. &#8220;In
+Ca&ntilde;on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"><br />[84]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"><br /><br />[85]</a></span> Chelly, near San Francisco Mountain, and upon Rio Verde, there
+are ruins of more permanent structures of stone, which in their day must
+have excelled the famed Pueblos of New Mexico.&#8221; There was a higher
+degree of civilization in the ancient times, so far as relates to
+architecture and skill in the arts and appliances of life, than has been
+shown by people of the same race dwelling there in our time; but the
+ancient condition of life seems to have been maintained from age to age
+without material change.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_SEVEN_CITIES_OF_CEVOLA" id="THE_SEVEN_CITIES_OF_CEVOLA"></a>THE &#8220;SEVEN CITIES OF CEVOLA.&#8221;</h3>
+
+<p>In the New Mexican valley of the Chaco, one degree or more north of
+Zuni, are ruins of what some suppose to have been the famous &#8220;Seven
+Cities of Cevola.&#8221; In 1540, Spanish cupidity having been strongly
+incited by tales of the greatness and vast wealth of Cevola, Coronado,
+then governor of New Galicia, set out with an army to conquer and rob
+its cities. The report in which he tells the story of this conquest and
+of his disappointment is still in existence. The Cevolans defended
+themselves with arrows and spears, and hurled stones upon his army from
+the tops of their buildings. But resistance was of no avail; Cevola was
+conquered by Coronado, and immediately deserted by all its inhabitants
+who escaped death. The conquering buccaneer, however, did not find the
+treasures of gold and silver he expected. Three hundred and thirty years
+or more have passed away since this expedition of the Spanish marauders
+was undertaken, but the &#8220;Seven Cities of Cevola&#8221; (if they really were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+the &#8220;cities&#8221; whose remains are found in the Chaco Valley), although much
+dilapidated, are still sufficiently well preserved to show us what they
+were.</p>
+
+<p>There are seven ruins in the Chaco Valley, all of the same age, from one
+to three miles apart, the whole line along which they are situated being
+not more than ten miles in extent. Coronado said of Cevola, &#8220;The seven
+cities are seven small towns, standing all within four leagues
+together;&#8221; and &#8220;all together they are called Cevola.&#8221; The Chaco ruins
+show that each of these &#8220;cities&#8221; was, Pueblo fashion, a single edifice
+of vast size, capable of accommodating from five hundred to three
+thousand people. They were all built of stone, around three sides of a
+square, the side opposite the main building being left open. <a href="#fig-23">Figure 23</a>
+represents one of these buildings restored, according to Lieutenant
+Simpson. <a href="#fig-24">Figure 24</a> is a ground plan of this structure. The outer faces
+of the walls were constructed with thin and regular blocks of sandstone;
+the inner surfaces were made of cobblestone laid in mortar, and the
+outer walls were three feet thick. They were four or five stories high,
+and the only entrances to them were &#8220;window openings&#8221; in the second
+story. Above the ca&ntilde;on inclosing the valley containing these ruins, at a
+distance of thirteen miles, are the remains of another &#8220;city&#8221; of
+precisely the same kind. Its walls are at present between twenty and
+thirty feet high, their foundations being deeply sunk into the earth.
+Lieutenant Simpson, who explored that region in 1849, says it was built
+of tabular pieces of hard, fine-grained, compact gray sandstone, none of
+the layers being more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"><br />[88]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"><br /><br />[89]</a></span> than three inches thick. He adds, &#8220;It discovers
+in the masonry a combination of science and art which can only be
+referred to a higher stage of civilization and refinement than is
+discoverable in the work of Mexicans or Pueblos of the present day.
+Indeed, so beautifully diminutive and true are the details of the
+structure as to cause it at a little distance to have all the appearance
+of a magnificent piece of mosaic.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;">
+<a name="fig-23" id="fig-23"></a><a href="images/fig-23-full.png"><img src="images/fig-23.png" width="405" height="259" alt="Drawing of multi-story rectangular building complex" title="Fig. 23.&mdash;Pueblo Building, restored." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Pueblo Building, restored.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;">
+<a name="fig-24" id="fig-24"></a><a href="images/fig-24-full.png"><img src="images/fig-24.png" width="405" height="259" alt="Plan of building complex" title="Fig. 24.&mdash;Ground Plan of Pueblo Building." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Ground Plan of Pueblo Building.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other ruins have been examined in this northern part of the old Mexican
+territory, and more will be brought to light, for the whole region has
+not been carefully examined, and new discoveries are constantly
+reported.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="CENTRAL_MEXICO" id="CENTRAL_MEXICO"></a>CENTRAL MEXICO.</h3>
+
+<p>As we go down into Central Mexico, the remains assume another character,
+and become more important; but the antiquities in this part of the
+country have not been very completely explored and described, the
+attention of explorers having been drawn more to the south. Some of them
+are well known, and it can be seen that to a large extent they are much
+older than the time of the Aztecs whom Cortez found in power.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern part of the Mexican Valley was the city of Tulha, the
+ancient capital of the Toltecs. At the time of the conquest its site was
+an extensive field of ruins. At Xochicalco, in the State of Mexico, is a
+remarkable pyramid, with a still more remarkable base. It was
+constructed with five stages or stories, and stands on a hill consisting
+chiefly of rock, which was excavated and hollowed for the construction
+of galleries and cham<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>bers. The opening serves as an entrance to several
+galleries, which are six feet high and paved with cement, their sides
+and ceilings seeming to have been covered with some very durable
+preparation which made them smooth and glistening. Captain Dupaix found
+the main gallery sixty yards, or one hundred and eighty feet long,
+terminating at two chambers which are separated only by two massive
+square pillars carefully fashioned of portions of the rock left for the
+purpose by the excavators. Over a part of the inner chamber, toward one
+corner, is a dome or cupola six feet in diameter at the base, and rather
+more in height. It has a regular slope, and was faced with square stones
+well prepared and admirably laid in cement. From the top went up a tube
+or circular aperture nine inches in diameter, which probably reached the
+open air or some point in the pyramid.</p>
+
+<p>In this part of Mexico can be seen, among other things, the great
+pyramid or mound of Cholulu, the very ancient and remarkable pyramidal
+structures at Teotihuacan, and an uncounted number of <i>teocallis</i> or
+pyramids of smaller size. The pyramid of Cholulu covers an area of
+forty-five acres. It was terraced and built with four stages. When
+measured by Humboldt it was 1400 feet square at the base, and 160 feet
+high. At present it is a ruin, and, to superficial observers, seems
+little more than a huge artificial mound of earth. Its condition of
+decay indicates that it is much older than even the Toltec period. The
+largest structure at Teotihuacan covers eleven acres. These structures,
+and the Mexican <i>teocallis</i> generally, were made of earth, and faced
+with brick or stone.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>Captain Dupaix saw, not far from Antequera, two truncated pyramids which
+were penetrated by two carefully constructed galleries. A gallery lined
+with hewn stone, bearing sculptured decorations, went through one of
+them. A similar gallery went partly through the other, and two branches
+were extended at right angles still farther, but terminating within. He
+mentions also the ruins of elaborately decorated edifices which had
+stood on elevated terraces. At one place he excavated a terraced mound,
+and discovered burnt brick; and he describes two ancient bridges of the
+Tlascalans, both built of hewn stone laid in cement, one of them being
+200 feet long and 36 wide. Obelisks or pillars 42 feet high stood at the
+corners of these bridges. Important remains of the ancient people exist
+in many other places; and &#8220;thousands of other monuments unrecorded by
+the antiquaries invest every sierra and valley of Mexico with profound
+interest.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>At Papantla, in the State of Vera Cruz, there is a very ancient
+pyramidal structure somewhat peculiar in style and character. It is
+known that important ruins exist in the forests of Papantla and Mesantla
+which have never been described. The remarkable pyramid at Papantla was
+examined and described by Humboldt. The only material employed in
+constructing it was hewn stone. The stone was prepared in immense
+blocks, which were laid in mortar. The pyramid was an exact square at
+the base, each side being 82 feet in length, and the height about 60
+feet. The stones were admirably cut and polished, and the structure was
+remarkably sym<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>metrical. Six stages could be discerned by Humboldt, and
+his account of it says, &#8220;A seventh appears to be concealed by the
+vegetation which covers the sides of the pyramid.&#8221; A great flight of
+steps leads to the level summit, by the sides of which are smaller
+nights. &#8220;The facing of the stones is decorated with hieroglyphics, in
+which serpents and crocodiles carved in relievo are visible. Each story
+contains a great number of square niches symmetrically distributed. In
+the first story there are 24 on each side, in the second 20, and in the
+third 16. There are 366 of these niches on the whole pyramid, and 12 in
+the stairs toward the east.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The civilization of the Aztecs who built the old city of Mexico will be
+made a separate topic; but it may be said here that when they came into
+the Valley of Mexico they were much less advanced in civilization than
+their predecessors. There is no reason whatever to doubt that they had
+always resided in the country as an obscure branch of the aboriginal
+people. Some have assumed, without much warrant, that they came to
+Mexico from the North. Mr. Squier shows, with much probability, that
+they came from the southern part of the country, where communities are
+still found speaking the Aztec language. When they rose to supremacy
+they adopted, so far as their condition allowed, the superior knowledge
+of their predecessors, and continued, in a certain way, and with a lower
+standard, the civilization of the Toltecs. It has been said, not without
+reason, that the civilization found in Mexico by the Spanish conquerors
+consisted, to a large extent, of &#8220;fragments from the wreck that befell
+the American civilization of antiquity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_GREAT_RUINS_AT_THE_SOUTH" id="THE_GREAT_RUINS_AT_THE_SOUTH"></a>THE GREAT RUINS AT THE SOUTH.</h3>
+
+<p>To find the chief seats and most abundant remains of the most remarkable
+civilization of this old American race, we must go still farther south
+into Central America and some of the more southern states of Mexico.
+Here ruins of many ancient cities have been discovered, cities which
+must have been deserted and left to decay in ages previous to the
+beginning of the Aztec supremacy. Most of these ruins were found buried
+in dense forests, where, at the time of the Spanish Conquest, they had
+been long hidden from observation.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins known as Palenque, for instance, seem to have been entirely
+unknown to both natives and Spaniards until about the year 1750. Cortez
+and some of his companions went through the open region near the forest
+in which these ruins are situated without hearing of them or suspecting
+their existence. The great ruins known as Copan were in like manner
+unknown in the time of Cortez. The Spaniards assaulted and captured a
+native town not far from the forest that covered them, but heard nothing
+of the ruins. The captured town, called Copan, afterward gave its name
+to the remains of this nameless ancient city, which were first
+discovered in 1576, and described by the Spanish licentiate Palacios.
+This was little more than forty years after the native town was
+captured; but, although Palacios tried, &#8220;in all possible ways,&#8221; to get
+from the older and more intelligent natives some account of the origin
+and history of the ruined city, they could tell him nothing about it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+To them the ruins were entirely mythical and mysterious. With the facts
+so accessible, and the antiquity of the ruins so manifest, it is very
+singular that Mr. Stephens fell into the mistake of confounding this
+ruined city, situated in an old forest that was almost impenetrable,
+with the town captured by the Spaniards. The ruins here were discovered
+accidentally; and to approach them it was necessary, as at Palenque, to
+cut paths through the dense tropical undergrowth of the forest.</p>
+
+<p>To understand the situation of most of the old ruins in Central America,
+one must know something of the wild condition of the country. Mr. Squier
+says:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;By far the greater proportion of the country is in its primeval state,
+and covered with dense, tangled, and almost impenetrable tropical
+forests, rendering fruitless all attempts at systematic investigation.
+There are vast tracts untrodden by human feet, or traversed only by
+Indians who have a superstitious reverence for the moss-covered and
+crumbling monuments hidden in the depths of the wilderness. * * * For
+these and other reasons, it will be long before the treasures of the
+past, in Central America, can become fully known.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A great forest of this character covers the southern-half of Yucatan,
+and extends far into Guatemala, which is half covered by it. It extends
+also into Chiapa and Tabasco, and reaches into Honduras. The ruins known
+as Copan and Palenque are in this forest, not far from its southern
+edge. Its vast depths have never been much explored. There are ruins in
+it which none but wandering natives have ever seen, and some, perhaps,
+which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> no human foot has approached for ages. It is believed that ruins
+exist in nearly every part of this vast wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>According to the old Central American books and traditions, some of the
+principal seats of the earliest civilization, that of the &#8220;Colhuas,&#8221; was
+in this forest-covered region. In their time the whole was cultivated
+and filled with inhabitants. Here was a populous and important part of
+the Colhuan kingdom of &#8220;Xibalba,&#8221; which, after a long existence, was
+broken up by the Toltecs, and which had a relation, in time, to the
+Aztec dominion of Montezuma, much like that of the old monarchy of Egypt
+to the kingdom of the Ptolemies.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of the Spaniards there was in the forest at Lake Peten a
+solitary native town, founded nearly a century previous to their time by
+a Maya prince of Itza, who, with a portion of his people, fled from
+Yucatan to that lonely region to escape from the disorder and bloodshed
+of a civil war. This was the civil war which destroyed Mayapan, and
+broke up the Maya kingdom of Yucatan. In 1695, Don Martin Ursua, a
+Spanish official, built a road from Yucatan to Lake Peten, captured the
+town, and destroyed it. He reported that the builders of this road found
+evidence that &#8220;wrecks of ancient cities lie buried in this wilderness.&#8221;
+All along the route they discovered vestiges of ruins, and special
+mention is made of &#8220;remains of edifices on raised terraces, deserted and
+overgrown, and apparently very ancient.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="CHARACTER_OF_THE_SOUTHERN_RUINS" id="CHARACTER_OF_THE_SOUTHERN_RUINS"></a>CHARACTER OF THE SOUTHERN RUINS.</h3>
+
+<p>Should you visit the ruins of one of these mysterious old cities, you
+would see scattered over a large area great edifices in different stages
+of decay, which were erected on the level summits of low pyramidal
+mounds or platforms. The summits of these mounds are usually of
+sufficient extent to furnish space for extensive terraces or &#8220;grounds,&#8221;
+as well as room for the buildings. The edifices were built of hewn stone
+laid in a mortar of lime and sand, the masonry being admirable, and the
+ornamentation, in most cases, very abundant. The pyramid-foundations of
+earth were faced with hewn stone, and provided with great stone
+stairways. These, we may suppose, were the most important buildings in
+the old city. The ordinary dwellings, and all the other less important
+structures, must have been made chiefly of wood or some other material,
+which had perished entirely long ago and left no trace, for at present
+their remains are no more visible than those of the forest leaves which
+grew five hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>One explorer of Palenque says: &#8220;For five days did I wander up and down
+among these crumbling monuments of a city which, I hazard little in
+saying, must have been one of the largest ever seen.&#8221; There is, however,
+nothing to show us certainly the actual size of any of these ancient
+cities. It is manifest that some of them were very large; but, as only
+the great structures made of stone remain to be examined, the actual
+extent of the areas covered by the other buildings can not be
+determined.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"><br />[98]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a name="fig-25" id="fig-25"></a><a href="images/fig-25-full.png"><img src="images/fig-25.png" width="276" height="338" alt="Corbelled arch" title="Fig. 25.&mdash;Arch of Las Monjas." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Arch of Las Monjas.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>The chief peculiarity of these ruins, that which especially invites
+attention, is the evidence they furnish that their builders had
+remarkable skill in architecture and architectural ornamentation. All
+who have visited them bear witness that the workmanship was of a high
+order. The rooms and corridors in these edifices were finely and often
+elaborately finished, plaster, stucco, and sculpture being used. In one
+room of a great building at Uxmal Mr. Stephens says &#8220;the walls were
+coated with a very fine plaster of Paris, equal to the best seen on
+walls in this country.&#8221; Speaking of the construction of this edifice, he
+says, &#8220;throughout, the laying and polishing of the stones are as perfect
+as under the rules of the best modern masonry.&#8221; All the ruins explored
+have masonry of the same character. The floors, especially of the courts
+and corridors, were made sometimes of flat stones admirably wrought and
+finely polished, and sometimes of cement, which is now &#8220;as hard as
+stone.&#8221; Mr. Stephens, describing corridors of the &#8220;Palace&#8221; at Palenque,
+says &#8220;the floors are of cement, as hard as the best seen in the remains
+of Roman baths and cisterns.&#8221; We give two illustrations of their method
+of constructing the arch. <a href="#fig-25">Figure 25</a> shows an arch of Las Monjas, at
+Uxmal. <a href="#fig-26">Figure 26</a> shows the most common form of the arch in the older
+ruins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 244px;">
+<a name="fig-26" id="fig-26"></a><a href="images/fig-26-full.png"><img src="images/fig-26.png" width="244" height="184" alt="Section of corbelled arch showing construction" title="Fig. 26&mdash;Common Form of Arch." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26&mdash;Common Form of Arch.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ornamentation is no less remarkable than the masonry and
+architectural finish. It is found on the walls within and without, and
+appears in elaborate designs on the heavy cornices. The exterior
+ornamentation is generally carved or sculptured on the smooth sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>face
+of the stone, and must have required a vast amount of time and labor, as
+well as skillful artists. In some of the ruins inscriptions are
+abundant, being found on walls, tablets, and pillars. The general effect
+of the exterior decoration is thus described by Mr. Stephens in the
+account of his first view of the ruins at Palenque: &#8220;We saw before us a
+large building richly ornamented with stuccoed figures on pilasters,
+curious and elegant; trees growing close to it, and their branches
+entering the doors; the style and effect of structure and ornament
+unique, extraordinary, and mournfully beautiful.&#8221; In a description of
+the walls around an interior court of a building at Uxmal, we have this
+tribute to the artistic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> skill of the decorators: &#8220;It would be
+difficult, in arranging four sides facing a court-yard, to have more
+variety, and, at the same time, more harmony of ornament.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In some of the ruins, and especially at Copan, there are clusters of
+four-sided stone pillars or obelisks varying from twelve to over twenty
+feet high. These are elaborately sculptured, and show human figures,
+ornamental designs, and many inscriptions. One or two statues have been
+discovered, and a statuette twelve inches high is described; &#8220;it is made
+of baked clay, very hard, and the surface is smooth as if coated with
+enamel.&#8221; At Palenque are remains of a well-built aqueduct; and near the
+ruins, especially in Yucatan, are frequently found the remains of many
+finely constructed aguadas or artificial lakes. The bottoms of these
+lakes were made of flat stones laid in cement, several layers deep. In
+Yucatan traces of a very ancient paved road have been found. This road
+ran north and south, and probably led to cities in the region now
+covered by the great wilderness. It was raised above the graded level of
+the ground, and made very smooth.</p>
+
+<p>These antiquities show that this section of the continent was anciently
+occupied by a people admirably skilled in the arts of masonry, building,
+and architectural decoration. Some of their works can not be excelled by
+the best of our constructors and decorators. They were highly skilled,
+also, in the appliances of civilized life, and they had the art of
+writing, a fact placed beyond dispute by their many inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>A more particular account of some of these ruins will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> be given in the
+next chapter. Among the more important works relating to them are those
+of Stephens and Catherwood, some of the volumes of Mr. Squier, Frederick
+Waldeck&#8217;s work, and a recent French volume by Desir&eacute; Charnay, which is
+accompanied by a folio volume of photographs. Palacios, who described
+Copan in 1576, may properly be called the first explorer. A brief
+account of Palenque was prepared by Captain Del Rio in 1787, and
+published in 1822. Captain Dupaix&#8217;s folios, in French, with the drawings
+of Caste&ntilde;ada, contain the first really important memoir on these ruins.
+It was prepared in 1807, detained in Mexico during the Mexican
+Revolution, and finally published at Paris in 1834-5. The volumes of
+Brasseur de Bourbourg are valuable. They relate chiefly to matters not
+always understood, and seldom discussed with care, by those who merely
+visit and describe the monuments, such as the writing, books, and
+traditions of the ancient Mexican and Central American people. His style
+is diffuse, sometimes confused, and rather tedious; and some of his
+theories are very fanciful. But he has discovered the key to the Maya
+alphabet and translated one of the old Central American books. No
+careful student of American arch&aelig;ology can afford to neglect what he has
+written on this subject.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="V" id="V"></a>V.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To</span> understand the situation and historical significance of the more
+important antiquities in Southern Mexico and Central America, we must
+keep in view their situation relative to the great unexplored forest to
+which attention has been called. Examine carefully any good map of
+Mexico and Central America, and consider well that the ruins already
+explored or visited are wholly in the northern half of Yucatan, or far
+away from this region, at the south, beyond the great wilderness, or in
+the southern edge of it. Uxmal, Mayapan, Chichen-Itza, and many others,
+are in Yucatan. Palenque, Copan, and others are in the southern part of
+the wilderness, in Chiapa, Honduras, and Guatemala. Mr. Squier visited
+ruins much farther south, in San Salvador, and in the western parts of
+Nicaragua and Costa Rica.</p>
+
+<p>The vast forest which is spread over the northern half of Guatemala and
+the southern half of Yucatan, and extended into other states, covers an
+area considerably larger in extent than Ohio or Pennsylvania. Does its
+position relative to the known ruins afford no suggestion concerning the
+ancient history of this forest-covered region? It is manifest that, in
+the remote ages when the older of the cities now in ruins were built,
+this region<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> was a populous and important part of the country. And this
+is shown also by the antiquities found wherever it has been penetrated
+by explorers who knew how to make discoveries, as well as by the old
+books and traditions. Therefore it is not unreasonable to assume that
+Copan and Palenque are specimens of great ruins that lie buried in it.
+The ruins of which something is known have merely been visited and
+described in part by explorers, some of whom brought away drawings of
+the principal objects. In giving a brief account of the more important
+ruins, I will begin with the old city of which most has been heard.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="PALENQUE" id="PALENQUE"></a>PALENQUE.</h3>
+
+<p>No one can tell the true name of the ancient city now called Palenque.
+It is known to us by this name because the ruins are situated a few
+miles distant from the town of Palenque, now a village, but formerly a
+place of some importance. The ruins are in the northern part of the
+Mexican State of Chiapa, hidden out of sight in the forest, where they
+seem to have been forgotten long before the time of Cortez. More than
+two hundred years passed after the arrival of the Spaniards before their
+existence became known to Europeans. They were discovered about the year
+1750. Since that year decay has made some progress in them. Captain Del
+Rio, who visited and described them in 1787, examined &#8220;fourteen
+edifices&#8221; admirably built of hewn stone, and estimated the extent of the
+ruins to be &#8220;seven or eight leagues one way [along the River Chacamas],
+and half a league the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> other.&#8221; He mentions &#8220;a subterranean aqueduct of
+great solidity and durability, which passes under the largest building.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Other explorers have since visited Palenque, and reported on the ruins
+by pen and pencil; but it is not certain that all the ruined edifices
+belonging to them have been seen, nor that the explorations have made it
+possible to determine the ancient extent of the city with any approach
+to accuracy. The very great difficulties which obstruct all attempts at
+complete exploration have not allowed any explorer to say he has
+examined or discovered all the mouldering monuments hidden in the dense
+and tangled forest, even within the space allowed by Del Rio&#8217;s &#8220;half
+league&#8221; from the river, not to speak of what may lie buried and unknown
+in the dense mass of trees and undergrowth beyond this limit.</p>
+
+<p>The largest known building at Palenque is called the &#8220;Palace.&#8221; It stands
+near the river, on a terraced pyramidal foundation 40 feet high and 310
+feet long, by 260 broad at the base. The edifice itself is 228 feet
+long, 180 wide, and 25 feet high. It faces the east, and has 14 doorways
+on each side, with 11 at the ends. It was built entirely of hewn stone,
+laid with admirable precision in mortar which seems to have been of the
+best quality. A corridor 9 feet wide, and roofed by a pointed arch, went
+round the building on the outside; and this was separated from another
+within of equal width. The &#8220;Palace&#8221; has four interior courts, the
+largest being 70 by 80 feet in extent. These are surrounded by
+corridors, and the architectural work facing them is richly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> decorated.
+Within the building were many rooms. From the north side of one of the
+smaller courts rises a high tower, or pagoda-like structure, thirty feet
+square at the base, which goes up far above the highest elevation of the
+building, and seems to have been still higher when the whole structure
+was in perfect condition. The great rectangular mound used for the
+foundation was cased with hewn stone, the workmanship here, and every
+where else throughout the structure, being very superior. The piers
+around the courts are &#8220;covered with figures in stucco, or plaster,
+which, where broken, reveals six or more coats or layers, each revealing
+traces of painting.&#8221; This indicates that the building had been used so
+long before it was deserted that the plastering needed to be many times
+renewed. There is some evidence that painting was used as a means of
+decoration; but that which most engages attention is the artistic
+management of the stone-work, and, above all, the beautifully executed
+sculptures for ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>Two other buildings at Palenque, marked by Mr. Stephens, in his plan of
+the ruins, as &#8220;Casa No. 1&#8221; and &#8220;Casa No. 2,&#8221; views of which are shown in
+Figures <a href="#fig-27">27</a> and <a href="#fig-28">28</a>, are smaller, but in some respects still more
+remarkable. The first of these, 75 feet long by 25 wide, stands on the
+summit of a high truncated pyramid, and has solid walls on all sides
+save the north, where there are five doorways. Within are a corridor and
+three rooms. Between the doorways leading from the corridor to these
+rooms are great tablets, each 13 feet long and 8 feet high, and all
+covered with elegantly-carved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> inscriptions. A similar but smaller
+tablet, covered with an inscription, appears on the wall of the central
+room.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;">
+<a name="fig-27" id="fig-27"></a><a href="images/fig-27-full.png"><img src="images/fig-27.png" width="260" height="216" alt="Elevation and plan of the Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque" title="Fig. 27.&mdash;Casa No. 1, Palenque&mdash;Front View and Ground
+Plan." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;Casa No. 1, Palenque&mdash;Front View and Ground
+Plan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#8220;Casa No. 2&#8221; consists of a steep and lofty truncated pyramid, which
+stands on a terraced foundation, and has its level summit crowned with a
+building 50 feet long by 31 wide, which has three doorways at the south,
+and within a corridor and three rooms. This edifice, sometimes called
+&#8220;La Cruz,&#8221; has, above the height required for the rooms, what is
+described as &#8220;two stories of interlaced stucco-work, resembling a high,
+fanciful lattice.&#8221; Here, too, inscribed tablets appear on the walls; but
+the inscriptions, which are abundant at Palenque, are by no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> means
+confined to tablets. As to the ornamentation, the walls, piers, and
+cornices are covered with it. Every where the masterly workmanship and
+artistic skill of the old constructors compel admiration; Mr. Stephens
+go<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>ing so far as to say of sculptured human figures found in fragments,
+&#8220;In justness of proportion and symmetry they must have approached the
+Greek models.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="fig-28" id="fig-28"></a><a href="images/fig-28-full.png"><img src="images/fig-28.png" width="248" height="311" alt="Elevation and plan of the Temple of the Sun, Palenque" title="Fig. 28.&mdash;Casa No. 2, Palenque (La Cruz)&mdash;Front View and
+Ground Plan." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Casa No. 2, Palenque (La Cruz)&mdash;Front View and
+Ground Plan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#8220;Casa No. 2&#8221; of Mr. Stephens is usually called &#8220;La Cruz&#8221; because the
+most prominent object within the building is a great bas-relief on which
+are sculptured a cross and several human figures. This building stands
+on the high pyramid, and is approached by a flight of steps. Dupaix
+says, &#8220;It is impossible to describe adequately the interior decorations
+of this sumptuous temple.&#8221; The cross is supposed to have been the
+central object of interest. It was wonderfully sculptured and decorated;
+human figures stand near it, and some grave ceremony seems to be
+represented. The infant held toward the cross by one of the figures
+suggests a christening ceremony. The cross is one of the most common
+emblems present in all the ruins. This led the Catholic missionaries to
+assume that knowledge of Christianity had been brought to that part of
+America long before their arrival; and they adopted the belief that the
+Gospel was preached there by St. Thomas. This furnished excellent
+material for the hagiologists of that age; but, like every thing else
+peculiar to these monkish romancers, it betrayed great lack of
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The cross, even the so-called Latin cross, is not exclusively a
+Christian emblem. It was used in the Oriental world many centuries
+(perhaps millenniums) before the Christian era. It was a religious
+emblem of the Ph&#339;nicians, associated with Astarte, who is usually
+figured bearing what is called a Latin cross. She is seen so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> figured on
+Ph&#339;nician coin. The cross is found in the ruins of Nineveh. Mr. Layard,
+describing one of the finest specimens of Assyrian sculpture (the figure
+of &#8220;an early Nimrod king&#8221; he calls it), says: &#8220;Round his neck are hung
+the four sacred signs; the crescent, the star or sun, the trident, and
+<i>the cross</i>.&#8221; These &#8220;signs,&#8221; the cross included, appear suspended from
+the necks or collars of Oriental prisoners figured on Egyptian monuments
+known to be fifteen hundred years older than the Christian era. The
+cross was a common emblem in ancient Egypt, and the Latin form of it was
+used in the religious mysteries of that country, in connection with a
+monogram of the moon. It was to degrade this religious emblem of the
+Ph&#339;nicians that Alexander ordered the execution of two thousand
+principal citizens of Tyre by crucifixion.</p>
+
+<p>The cross, as an emblem, is very common among the antiquities of Western
+Europe, where arch&aelig;ological investigation has sometimes been embarrassed
+and confused by the assumption that any old monument bearing the figure
+of a cross can not be as old as Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>What more will be found at Palenque, when the whole field of its ruins
+has been explored, can not now be reported. The chief difficulty by
+which explorers are embarrassed is manifest in this statement of Mr.
+Stephens: &#8220;Without a guide, we might have gone within a hundred feet of
+the buildings without discovering one of them.&#8221; More has been discovered
+there than I have mentioned, my purpose being to give an accurate view
+of the style, finish, decoration, and general character of the
+architecture and artistic work found in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> ruins rather than a
+complete account of every thing connected with them. The ruins of
+Palenque are deemed important by arch&aelig;ologists partly on account of the
+great abundance of inscriptions found there, which, it is believed, will
+at length be deciphered, the written characters being similar to those
+of the Mayas, which are now understood.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="COPAN_AND_QUIRIGUA" id="COPAN_AND_QUIRIGUA"></a>COPAN AND QUIRIGUA.</h3>
+
+<p>The ruins known as Copan are situated in the extreme western part of
+Honduras, where they are densely covered by the forest. As already
+stated, they were first discovered by Europeans about forty years after
+the war of the conquest swept through that part of the country, and were
+at that time wholly mysterious to the natives. The monuments seem older
+than those at Palenque, but we have only scant descriptions of them.
+They are situated in a wild and solitary part of the country, where the
+natives &#8220;see as little of strangers as the Arabs about Mount Sinai, and
+are more suspicious.&#8221; For this reason they have not been very carefully
+explored. It is known that these ruins extend two or three miles along
+the left bank of the River Copan. Not much has been done to discover how
+far they extend from the river into the forest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;">
+<a name="fig-29" id="fig-29"></a><a href="images/fig-29-full.png"><img src="images/fig-29.png" width="247" height="151" alt="View of the river erosion cut at Copan" title="Fig. 29.&mdash;Great Wall at Copan." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Great Wall at Copan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Stephens describes as follows his first view of them: &#8220;We came to
+the right bank of the river, and saw directly opposite a stone wall from
+60 to 90 feet high, with furze growing out of the top, running north and
+south along the river 624 feet, in some places fallen,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> in others
+entire.&#8221; This great wall supported the rear side of the elevated
+foundation of a great edifice. It was made of cut stone well laid in
+mortar or cement, the blocks of stone being 6 feet long. <a href="#fig-29">Figure 29</a> shows
+the wall somewhat imperfectly. He saw next a square stone column
+standing by itself, 14 feet high and 3 feet on each side. From top to
+bottom it was richly ornamented with sculptured designs on two opposite
+sides, the other sides being covered with inscriptions finely carved on
+the stone. On the front face, surrounded by the sculptured ornaments,
+was the figure of a man. Fourteen other obelisks of the same kind were
+seen, some of them being higher than this. Some of them had fallen.
+These sculptured and inscribed pillars constitute the chief peculiarity
+of Copan. Mr. Squier says of them: &#8220;The ruins of Copan, and the
+corresponding monuments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> which I examined in the valley of the
+Chamelican, are distinguished by singular and elaborately carved
+<i>monoliths</i>, which seem to have been replaced at Palenque by equally
+elaborate <i>basso relievos</i>, belonging, it would seem, to a later and
+more advanced period of art.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The great building first noticed stands, or stood, on a pyramidal
+foundation, which is supported along the river by that high back wall.
+The structure extends 624 feet on the river line. Mr. Stephens described
+it as an &#8220;oblong inclosure,&#8221; and states that it has a wide terrace
+nearly 100 feet above the river, on which great trees are growing, some
+of them more than 20 feet in circumference. Here, as at Palenque, the
+ornamentation was &#8220;rich and abundant.&#8221; The ruins, greatly worn by decay,
+still show that &#8220;architecture, sculpture, painting, and all the arts
+that embellish life had flourished in this overgrown forest.&#8221; Some
+beautifully executed sculptures were found buried in the earth, and
+there can be no doubt that extensive excavation, if it were possible in
+that almost invincible forest, would lead to important and valuable
+discoveries. Besides the great building and the monoliths, several
+pyramidal structures are mentioned by Mr. Stephens, who points out that
+extensive exploration is impossible unless one shall first clear away
+the forest and burn up the trees.</p>
+
+<p>Palacios, who described this ruined city nearly three hundred years ago,
+saw much more than Mr. Stephens. He described &#8220;the ruins of superb
+edifices, built of hewn stone, which manifestly belonged to a large
+city.&#8221; He mentions, in connection with the great wall, an enormous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+eagle carved in stone, which bore a square shield on its breast covered
+with undecipherable characters. He mentions, also, a &#8220;stone giant,&#8221; and
+a &#8220;stone cross&#8221; with one arm broken. He saw a &#8220;plaza,&#8221; circular in form,
+surrounded by ranges of steps or seats, which reminded him of the
+Coliseum at Rome, &#8220;as many as eighty ranges still remaining in some
+places.&#8221; This &#8220;plaza&#8221; was &#8220;paved with beautiful stones, all square and
+well worked.&#8221; Six of the great obelisks, which he described as
+&#8220;statues,&#8221; stood in this inclosure, and in its centre was a great stone
+basin.</p>
+
+<p>A history of Guatemala, by a writer named Huarros, states that the
+&#8220;Circus of Copan,&#8221; as he calls the &#8220;plaza&#8221; described by Palacios, was
+still entire in the year 1700. He mentions gateways which led into the
+inclosure, and says it was surrounded on the outside by stone pyramids
+six yards high, near which were standing sculptured figures or obelisks.
+No doubt, remains of this remarkable &#8220;circus&#8221; would be found now, if the
+forest should be removed. What else could be found there by means of
+careful and thorough exploration may never be known, for the region is
+uninviting, the forest very difficult, and such an exploration would
+require much more than the means and efforts of one or two individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Not very far away, in the neighboring State of Guatemala, on the right
+bank of the River Motagua, to which the Copan is a tributary, are the
+ruins called Quirigua. It is manifest that a great city once stood here.
+These ruins have a close resemblance to those at Copan, but they appear
+to be much older, for they have, to a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"><br />[116]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"><br /><br />[117]</a></span> extent, become little
+more than heaps of rubbish. Over a large space of ground traces of what
+has gone to decay are visible. Doubtless important relics of the old
+city are now more abundant below the surface than above it. Mr.
+Stephens, describing what he saw there, confines his attention chiefly
+to a pyramidal structure with flights of steps, and monoliths larger and
+higher than those at Copan, but otherwise similar. He states, however,
+that while they have the same general style, the sculptures are in lower
+relief and hardly so rich in design. One of the obelisks here is twenty
+feet high, five feet six inches wide, and two feet eight inches thick.
+The chief figures carved on it are that of a man on the front, and that
+of a woman on the back. The sides are covered with inscriptions similar
+in appearance to those at Copan. Some of the other standing obelisks are
+higher than this. It seems reasonable to infer that the structures at
+Quirigua were more ancient than those at Copan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<a name="fig-30" id="fig-30"></a><a href="images/fig-30-full.png"><img src="images/fig-30.png" width="307" height="225" alt="View of the ruins" title="Fig. 30.&mdash;Ruins at Mitla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Ruins at Mitla.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="MITLA" id="MITLA"></a>MITLA.</h3>
+
+<p>The ruins called Mitla are in the Mexican State of Oxaca, about twelve
+leagues east from the city of Oxaca. They are situated in the upper part
+of a great valley, and surrounded by a waste, uncultivated region. At
+the time of the Spanish Conquest they were old and much worn by time and
+the elements, but a very large area was then covered by remains of
+ancient buildings. At present only six decaying edifices and three
+ruined pyramids, which were very finely terraced, remain for
+examination, the other structures being now reduced to the last stage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+of decay. Figures <a href="#fig-30">30</a> and <a href="#fig-31">31</a> present views of some of these structures,
+as given by Von Temski. <a href="#fig-32">Figure 32</a>, from Charnay&#8217;s photograph, shows a
+ruin at Mitla.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a name="fig-31" id="fig-31"></a><a href="images/fig-31-full.png"><img src="images/fig-31.png" width="243" height="183" alt="Detail of building" title="Fig. 31.&mdash;Great Hall at Mitla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Great Hall at Mitla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These important ruins were not described by Stephens and Catherwood.
+Captain Dupaix&#8217;s work gives some account of them, and Desir&eacute; Charnay,
+who saw them since 1860, brought away photographs of some of the
+monuments. Four of the standing edifices are described by Dupaix as
+&#8220;palaces,&#8221; and these, he says, &#8220;were erected with lavish magnificence; *
+* * they combine the solidity of the works of Egypt with the elegance of
+those of Greece.&#8221; And he adds, &#8220;But what is most remarkable,
+interesting, and striking in these monuments, and which alone would be
+sufficient to give them the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"><br />[120]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"><br /><br />[121]</a></span> rank among all known orders of
+architecture, is the execution of their mosaic relievos, very different
+from plain mosaic, and consequently requiring more ingenious combination
+and greater art and labor. They are inlaid on the surface of the wall,
+and their duration is owing to the method of fixing the prepared stones
+into the stone surface, which made their union with it perfect.&#8221; <a href="#fig-33">Figure
+33</a>, taken from Charnay&#8217;s photograph, shows part of the mosaic decoration
+on a wall of one of the great edifices at Mitla.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;">
+<a name="fig-32" id="fig-32"></a><a href="images/fig-32-full.png"><img src="images/fig-32.png" width="398" height="250" alt="View of ruins" title="Fig. 32.&mdash;Ruined Palace at Mitla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;Ruined Palace at Mitla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;">
+<a name="fig-33" id="fig-33"></a><a href="images/fig-33-full.png"><img src="images/fig-33.png" width="403" height="253" alt="Detail of architectural stone mosaic sculpture" title="Fig. 33.&mdash;Mosaics at Mitla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;Mosaics at Mitla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general character of the architecture and masonry is much like that
+seen in the structures at Palenque, but the finish of the workmanship
+appears to have been more artistic and admirable. These ruins are
+remarkable among those of the country where they are found. All who have
+seen them speak much as Dupaix speaks of the perfection of the masonry,
+the admirable design and finish of the work, and the beauty of the
+decorations. Their beauty, says M. Charnay, can be matched only by the
+monuments of Greece and Rome in their best days. One fact presented by
+some of the edifices at Mitla has a certain degree of historical
+significance. There appears to be evidence that they were occupied at
+some period by people less advanced in civilization than their builders.
+M. Charnay, describing one of them, points out this fact. He says of the
+structure:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is a bewildering maze of courts and buildings, with facings
+ornamented with mosaics in relief of the purest design; but under the
+projections are found traces of paintings wholly primitive in style, in
+which the right<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> line is not even respected. These are rude figures of
+idols, and meandering lines that have no significance. Similar paintings
+appear, with the same imperfection, on every great edifice, in places
+which have allowed them shelter against the ravages of time. These rude
+designs, associated with palaces so correct in architecture, and so
+ornamented with panels of mosaic of such marvelous workmanship, put
+strange thoughts in the mind. To find the explanation of this
+phenomenon, must we not suppose these palaces were occupied by a race
+less advanced in civilization than their first builders?&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Two miles or more away from the great edifices here mentioned, toward
+the west, is the &#8220;Castle of Mitla.&#8221; It was built on the summit of an
+isolated and precipitous hill of rock, which is accessible only on the
+east side. The whole leveled summit of this hill is inclosed by a solid
+wall of hewn stone twenty-one feet thick and eighteen feet high. This
+wall has salient and retiring angles, with curtains interposed. On the
+east side it is flanked by double walls. Within the inclosure are the
+remains of several small buildings. The field of these ruins was very
+large three hundred years ago. At that time it may have included this
+castle.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="AN_ASTRONOMICAL_MONUMENT" id="AN_ASTRONOMICAL_MONUMENT"></a>AN ASTRONOMICAL MONUMENT.</h3>
+
+<p>In this part of Mexico Captain Dupaix examined a peculiar ruin, of which
+he gave the following account: &#8220;Near the road from the village of
+Tlalmanalco to that called Mecamecan, about three miles east of the
+latter, there is an isolated granite rock, which was artificially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+formed into a kind of pyramid with six hewn steps facing the east. The
+summit of this structure is a platform, or horizontal plane, well
+adapted to observation of the stars on every side of the hemisphere. It
+is almost demonstrable that this very ancient monument was exclusively
+devoted to astronomical observations, for on the south side of the rock
+are sculptured several hieroglyphical figures having relation to
+astronomy. The most striking figure in the group is that of a man in
+profile, standing erect, and directing his view to the rising stars in
+the sky. He holds to his eye a tube or optical instrument. Below his
+feet is a frieze divided into six compartments, with as many celestial
+signs carved on its surface.&#8221; It has been already stated that
+finely-wrought &#8220;telescopic tubes&#8221; have been found among remains of the
+Mound-Builders. They were used, it seems, by the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and they were known also in ancient Peru,
+where a silver figure of a man in the act of using such a tube has been
+discovered in one of the old tombs.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="RUINS_FARTHER_SOUTH" id="RUINS_FARTHER_SOUTH"></a>RUINS FARTHER SOUTH.</h3>
+
+<p>Old ruins, of which but little is known, exist in Guatemala, Honduras,
+San Salvador, and the more southern portion of Central America. Mr.
+Squier, who tells us more of them than any other explorer, says, &#8220;I
+heard of remains and monuments in Honduras and San Salvador equal to
+those of Copan in extent and interest.&#8221; He mentions the ruins of Opico,
+near San Vincente, in San Salvador, which &#8220;cover nearly two square
+miles, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> consist of vast terraces, ruins of edifices, circular and
+square towers, and subterranean galleries, all built of cut stones: a
+single carving has been found here on a block of stone.&#8221; Remains of
+&#8220;immense works&#8221; exist in the district of Chontales, near the northern
+shore of Lake Nicaragua; and pottery found in Nicaragua &#8220;equals the best
+specimens of Mexico and Peru.&#8221; Don Jose Antonio Urritia, cur&eacute; of
+Jutiapa, gave the following account of a great ruin on a mountain in San
+Salvador, near the town of Comapa: it is called Cinaca-Mecallo:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The walls, or remains of the city wall, describe an oval figure, within
+which roads or streets may be traced, and there are various subterranean
+passages and many ruined edifices. The materials of construction are
+chiefly thin stones, or a species of slate, united by a kind of cement
+which in appearance resembles melted lead.&#8221; It does not appear that he
+made a complete examination of the monuments, but he mentions three that
+gained his attention, and left upon his mind a very strong impression.
+&#8220;The first is a temple consecrated to the sun, chiefly excavated in the
+solid rock, and having its entrance toward the east. On the archway of
+the entrance are carved representations of the sun and moon.
+Hieroglyphics are found in the interior. Besides the sculptured <i>bassi
+relievi</i>, these stones bear hieroglyphics painted with a kind of red
+varnish which remains unimpaired. The second is a great stone slab
+covered with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. The third is the figure of a
+wild animal sculptured on a rock or stone, of <a name="corr3" title="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="&#8216;great size.&#8217;&#8221;">&#8220;great size.&#8221;</ins></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN" id="THE_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN"></a>THE RUINS IN YUCATAN.</h3>
+
+<p>The remains of ancient cities are abundant in the settled portion of
+Yucatan, which lies north of the great forest. Charnay found &#8220;the
+country covered with them from north to south.&#8221; Stephens states, in the
+Preface to his work on Yucatan, that he visited &#8220;forty-four ruined
+cities or places&#8221; in which such remains are still found, most of which
+were unknown to white men, even to those inhabiting the country; and he
+adds that &#8220;time and the elements are hastening them to utter
+destruction.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the Spanish Conquest, the region known to us as Yucatan was
+called Maya. It is still called Maya by the natives among themselves,
+and this is the true name of the country. Why the Spaniards called it
+Yucatan is unknown, but the name is wholly arbitrary and without reason.
+It is said to have arisen from an odd mistake like that which occasioned
+the name given to one of the capes by Hernandez de Cordova. Being on the
+coast in 1517, he met some of the natives. Their cacique said to him,
+&#8220;Con&egrave;x cotoch,&#8221; meaning &#8220;Come to our town.&#8221; The Spaniard, supposing he
+had mentioned the name of the place, immediately named the projecting
+point of land &#8220;Cape Cotoche,&#8221; and it is called so still.</p>
+
+<p>At that time the country was occupied by the people still known as
+Mayas. They all spoke the same language, which was one of a closely
+related family of tongues spoken in Guatemala, Chiapas, Western
+Hondu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>ras, and in some other districts of Central America and Mexico.
+Yucatan was then much more populous than at present. The people had more
+civilization, more regular industry, and more wealth. They were much
+more highly skilled in the arts of civilized life. They had cities and
+large towns; and dwelling-houses, built of timber and covered with
+thatch, like those common in England, were scattered over all the rural
+districts. Some of the cities now found in ruins were then inhabited.
+This peninsula had been the seat of an important feudal monarchy, which
+arose probably after the Toltecs overthrew the very ancient kingdom of
+Xibalba. It was broken up by a rebellion of the feudal lords about a
+hundred years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. According to the
+Maya chronicles, its downfall occurred in the year 1420. Mayapan, the
+capital of this kingdom, was destroyed at that time, and never afterward
+inhabited.</p>
+
+<p>Merida, the present capital of Yucatan, was built on the site of an
+ancient Maya city called Tihoo. It is stated in the old Spanish accounts
+of Merida that it was built on that site because there was in the ruins
+an abundance of building material. There is mention of two &#8220;mounds&#8221;
+which furnished a vast amount of hewn stone. Mr. Stephens noticed in
+some of the edifices stones with &#8220;sculptured figures, from the ruins of
+ancient buildings;&#8221; and he mentions that a portion of an ancient
+building, including an arch in the Maya style, was retained in the
+construction of the Franciscan convent.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="MAYAPAN" id="MAYAPAN"></a>MAYAPAN.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;">
+<a name="fig-34" id="fig-34"></a><a href="images/fig-34-full.png"><img src="images/fig-34.png" width="231" height="258" alt="View of unexcavated structure" title="Fig. 34.&mdash;Great Mound at Mayapan." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;Great Mound at Mayapan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We shall notice only some of the principal ruins in Yucatan, beginning
+with Mayapan, the ancient capital. The remains of this city are situated
+about ten leagues, in a southern direction, from Merida. They are spread
+over an extensive plain, and overgrown by trees and other vegetation.
+The most prominent object seen by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> the approaching explorer is a great
+mound, 60 feet high and 100 feet square at the base. It is an imposing
+structure, seen through the trees, and is itself overgrown like a wooded
+hill. <a href="#fig-34">Figure 34</a> shows one view of this. Four stairways, in a ruinous
+condition, 25 feet wide, lead up to an esplanade within 6 feet of the
+top, which is reached by a smaller stairway. The summit is a plain stone
+platform 15 feet square. This, of course, was a temple. Sculptured
+stones are scattered around the base, and within the mound subterranean
+chambers have been discovered.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the principal edifices at Mayapan were not all built
+wholly of stone, for they have mostly disappeared. Only one remains, a
+circular stone building 25 feet in diameter, which stands on a pyramidal
+foundation 35 feet high. This is represented in <a href="#fig-35">Figure 35</a>. On the
+southwest side of it, on a terrace projecting from the mound, was a
+double row of columns without capitals, 8 feet apart. There are
+indications that this city was old, and that the buildings had been more
+than once renewed. Brasseur de Bourbourg classes some of the foundations
+at Mayapan with the oldest seen at Palenque and Copan. This point,
+however, can not be determined with sufficient accuracy to remove all
+doubt. Mayapan may have stood upon the foundations of a very ancient
+city which was several times rebuilt, but the city destroyed in 1420
+could not have been as old as either Palenque or Copan.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="fig-35" id="fig-35"></a><a href="images/fig-35-full.png"><img src="images/fig-35.png" width="248" height="358" alt="View of the observatory at Mayapan" title="Fig. 35.&mdash;Circular Edifice at Mayapan." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Circular Edifice at Mayapan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"><br />[131]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="UXMAL" id="UXMAL"></a>UXMAL.</h3>
+
+<p>The ruins of Uxmal have been regarded as the most important in Yucatan,
+partly on account of the edifices that remain standing, but chiefly
+because they have been more visited and explored than the others. It is
+supposed, and circumstantial evidence appears to warrant the
+supposition, that this city had not been wholly deserted at the time of
+the Spanish Conquest, although it had previously begun to be a ruin. It
+was wholly a ruin in 1673. The area covered by its remains is extensive.
+Charnay makes it a league or more in diameter; but most of the
+structures have fallen, and exist now only in fragments scattered over
+the ground. It may be that many of them were not built wholly of hewn
+stone, and had not &#8220;Egyptian solidity&#8221; with their other characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of those remaining was named &#8220;Casa del Gobernador&#8221; by
+the Spaniards. It is 320 feet long, and was built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar or cement. The faces of the walls are smooth up to the cornice.
+Then follows, on all the four sides, &#8220;one solid mass of rich,
+complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments, forming a sort of
+arabesque.&#8221; <a href="#fig-36">Figure 36</a> gives a view of the south end of this edifice, but
+no engraving can show all the details of the ornamentation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a name="fig-36" id="fig-36"></a><a href="images/fig-36-full.png"><img src="images/fig-36.png" width="284" height="270" alt="View of south side of the Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal" title="Fig. 36.&mdash;Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This building has eleven doorways in front, and one at each end, all
+having wooden lintels, which have fallen. The two principal rooms are 60
+feet long, and from 11 to 13 feet wide. This structure is long and
+narrow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> The arrangement and number of the rooms are shown in the
+following ground plan of the building (<a href="#fig-37">Figure 37</a>):</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 229px;">
+<a name="fig-37" id="fig-37"></a><a href="images/fig-37-full.png"><img src="images/fig-37.png" width="229" height="52" alt="Plan of Casa del Gobernador" title="Fig. 37.&mdash;Ground Plan of Casa del Gobernador" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;Ground Plan of Casa del Gobernador</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;">
+<a name="fig-38" id="fig-38"></a><a href="images/fig-38-full.png"><img src="images/fig-38.png" width="264" height="336" alt="Double-headed jaguar in front of the Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal" title="Fig. 38.&mdash;Double-headed Figure, Casa del Gobernado" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Double-headed Figure, Casa del Gobernador.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 242px;">
+<a name="fig-39" id="fig-39"></a><a href="images/fig-39-full.png"><img src="images/fig-39.png" width="242" height="340" alt="Detail of stone mosaic architectural sculpture, Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal" title="Fig. 39.&mdash;Decorations over Doorway, Casa del
+Gobernador." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Decorations over Doorway, Casa del
+Gobernador.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>It stands on the summit of one of the grandest of the terraced
+foundations. This foundation, like all the others, is pyramidal. It has
+three terraces. The lowest is 3 feet high, 15 wide, and 575 long; the
+second is 20 feet high, 275 wide, and 545 long; the third, 19 feet high,
+30 wide, and 360 long. Structures formerly existed on the second
+terrace, remains of which are visible. At the northwest corner one of
+them still shows its dilapidated walls, portions of them being
+sufficiently complete to show what they were. This edifice was 94 feet
+long and 34 wide. It seems to have been finely finished in a style more
+simple than that of the great &#8220;casa&#8221; on the upper terrace. The figures
+of turtles sculptured along the upper edge of the cornice have given it
+the current designation, &#8220;House of the Turtles.&#8221; Sculptured monuments
+have been found buried in the soil of the second terrace. The opening of
+a small, low mound situated on it brought to view the double-headed
+figure shown in <a href="#fig-38">No. 38</a>. <a href="#fig-39">Figure 39</a> shows part of the sculptured
+decoration over the centre doorway of Casa del Gobernador.</p>
+
+<p>Another important edifice at Uxmal has been named &#8220;Casa de las Monjas,&#8221;
+House of the Nuns. It stands on a terraced foundation, and is arranged
+around a quadrangular court-yard 258 feet one way and 214 the other. The
+front structure is 279 feet long, and has a gateway in the centre 10
+feet 8 inches wide leading into the court, and four doors on each side
+of it. The outer face of the wall, above the cornice, is ornamented with
+sculptures. The terrace without and within the inclosure was found
+covered with a very dense growth of vegeta<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>tion, which it was necessary
+to clear away before the walls could be carefully examined. All the
+doorways, save those in front, open on the court. Mr. Stephens found the
+four great fa&ccedil;ades fronting the court-yard &#8220;ornamented from one end to
+the other with the richest and most intricate carving known to the
+builders of Uxmal, presenting a scene of strange magnificence which
+surpasses any other now seen among its ruins.&#8221; The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> long outer
+structure, on the side facing the entrance, had high turret-like
+elevations over each of its thirteen doorways, all covered with
+sculptured ornaments. This building appears to have inclosed another of
+older date. <a href="#fig-40">Figure 40</a> shows the ground plan of &#8220;Las Monjas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 255px;">
+<a name="fig-40" id="fig-40"></a><a href="images/fig-40-full.png"><img src="images/fig-40.png" width="255" height="268" alt="Plan of the Nunnery Group, Uxmal." title="Fig. 40.&mdash;Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other less important edifices in the ruins of Uxmal have been described
+by explorers, some of which stand on high pyramidal mounds; and
+inscriptions are found here, but they are not so abundant as at Palenque
+and Copan.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="KABAH" id="KABAH"></a>KABAH.</h3>
+
+<p>The ruins known as Kabah are on the site of what must have been one of
+the most imposing and important of the more ancient cities. Here the
+most conspicuous object is a stone-faced mound 180 feet square at the
+base, with a range of ruined apartments at the bottom. Three or four
+hundred yards from this mound is a terraced foundation 20 feet high and
+200 by 142 in extent, on which stand the remains of a great edifice. At
+the right of the esplanade before it is a &#8220;high range of ruined
+structures overgrown with trees, with an immense back wall on the outer
+line of the esplanade perpendicular to the bottom of the terrace.&#8221; On
+the left is another range of ruined buildings, and in the centre a stone
+inclosure 27 feet square and 7 feet high, with sculptures and
+inscriptions around the base. Some of the ornamentation of this building
+has been described in the strongest terms of admiration. Mr. Stephens
+said of it, &#8220;The cornice running over the doorways, tried by the
+severest rules of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> art recognized among us, would embellish the
+architecture of any known era.&#8221; At Uxmal the walls were smooth below the
+cornice; here they are covered with decorations from top to bottom.</p>
+
+<p>This field of ruins is extensive, and only a portion of it has been
+examined. It is so overgrown that exploration is very difficult. The
+buildings and mounds are much decayed, and they seem to be very old. It
+is believed that ruined edifices of which nothing is known are hidden
+among the trees in places which no explorer has approached. Mr. Stephens
+gave the first account of Kabah, and described three other important
+edifices besides that already named. One of these he thought was, when
+entire, the most imposing structure at Kabah. It was 147 feet long by
+106 wide, and had three distinct stories, each successive story being
+smaller than that below it. Another, standing on the upper terrace of an
+elevated foundation 170 feet long by 110 broad, was 164 feet in length,
+and comparatively narrow. It is mentioned as a peculiarity of this
+edifice that it had pillars in its doorways, used as supports. The
+other, found standing on a terrace, is also long and narrow, and has a
+comparatively plain front.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of other buildings are visible, but in all cases they are so
+completely in ruins as to be little more than heaps of d&eacute;bris. Some of
+the ruins in the woods beyond that part of the field which is most
+accessible, are visible from the great mound described. A resolute
+attempt to penetrate the forest brought the explorers in view of great
+edifices standing on an elevated terrace estimated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> to be 800 feet long
+by 100 feet wide. The decorations seemed to have been abundant and very
+rich, but the structures were in a sad state of dilapidation. One
+remarkable monument found at Kabah resembles a triumphal arch. It stands
+by itself on a ruined mound apart from the other structures. It is
+described as a &#8220;lonely arch, having a span of 14 feet,&#8221; rising on the
+field of ruins &#8220;in solitary grandeur.&#8221; <a href="#fig-41">Figure 41</a> gives a view of it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;">
+<a name="fig-41" id="fig-41"></a><a href="images/fig-41-full.png"><img src="images/fig-41.png" width="256" height="261" alt="View of the Arch at Kabah." title="Fig. 41.&mdash;Ruined Arch at Kabah." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41.&mdash;Ruined Arch at Kabah.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>Kabah was an ancient city. The ruins are old, and the city may have
+belonged to the first age of the Maya period.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="CHICHEN-ITZA" id="CHICHEN-ITZA"></a>CHICHEN-ITZA.</h3>
+
+<p>The ruins of Chichen-Itza are situated east of Mayapan, about half way
+between the eastern and western coasts of the peninsula of Yucatan. A
+public road runs through the space of ground over which they are spread.
+The area covered by them is something less than a mile in diameter. The
+general character of the ruined structures found here is in every
+respect like that shown by ruins already described.</p>
+
+<p>One of the great buildings at this place has a rude, unornamental
+exterior, and does not stand on an artificial terrace, although the
+ground before it was excavated so as to give the appearance of an
+elevated foundation. It is one hundred and forty-nine feet long by
+forty-eight deep. Its special peculiarity consists of a stone lintel, in
+a very dark inner room, which has an inscription and a sculptured figure
+on the under side. The writing closely resembles that seen at Palenque
+and Copan. Was this sculptured stone made originally for the place it
+now occupies, or was it taken from the ruins of some older city which
+flourished and went to decay before Chichen-Itza was built?</p>
+
+<p>Another structure seen here closely resembles Las Monjas at Uxmal, and
+bears the same name, but it differs somewhat from the Uxmal Monjas in
+arrangement. In the descriptions, special mention is made of &#8220;the
+richness and beauty&#8221; of its ornaments.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>A noticeable edifice connected with the Monjas, called the &#8220;Church,&#8221; is
+26 feet long, 14 deep, 31 high, and has three cornices, the spaces
+between them being covered with carved ornaments. There is but one room
+in it. One of the most picturesque ruins at Chichen-Itza is circular in
+form, and stands on the upper level of a double-terraced platform. It is
+22 feet in diameter, and has four doors, which face the cardinal points.
+Above the cornice it slopes gradually almost to a point, and the top is
+about 60 feet above the ground. The grand staircase of 20 steps, leading
+up to this building, is 45 feet wide, and has a sort of balustrade
+formed of the entwined bodies of huge serpents. At some distance from
+this is the ruined structure known as the &#8220;Casa Colorada,&#8221; or Red House.
+This is shown in <a href="#fig-42">Figure 42</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;">
+<a name="fig-42" id="fig-42"></a><a href="images/fig-42-full.png"><img src="images/fig-42.png" width="271" height="177" alt="View of the Casa Colorada." title="Fig. 42.&mdash;Casa Colorada." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Casa Colorada.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>It is 43 feet long by 23 deep, and stands on a platform 62 feet long by
+55 wide. It was ornamented above the cornice, but the decorations are
+much defaced by decay. A stone tablet extending the whole length of the
+back wall, inside, is covered by an inscription.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable structure is found at this place, which Mr. Stephens called
+the &#8220;Gymnasium, or Tennis Court.&#8221; It consists of two immense parallel
+walls 274 feet long, 30 thick, and 120 apart. On elevations facing the
+two ends of the open space between them, 100 feet from the ends of the
+walls, stand two edifices much ruined, but showing, in their remains,
+that they were richly ornamented. Midway in the length of the walls,
+facing each other, and 20 feet above the ground, are two massive stone
+rings or circles 4 feet in diameter, each having in the centre a hole 1
+foot and 7 inches in diameter. On the borders around these holes two
+entwined serpents are sculptured, as seen in <a href="#fig-43">Figure 43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>There was a similar structure in the old city of Mexico, and remains of
+one like it are found at Mayapan. They were, probably, used for games of
+some kind. Among the other ruins at Chichen-Itza are the remains of a
+lofty edifice which has two high ranges or stories. On the outside the
+ornamentation is simple and tasteful, but the walls of its chambers are
+very elaborately decorated, mostly with sculptured designs, which seem
+to have been painted. In one of the upper rooms Mr. Stephens found a
+beam of sapote wood used as a lintel, which was covered with very
+elegantly carved decorations. The walls of this room were covered, from
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> bottom to the top of the arched ceiling, with painted designs
+similar to those seen in the Mexican &#8220;picture writing.&#8221; Decay had
+mutilated these &#8220;pictures,&#8221; but the colors were still bright. There are
+indications that painting was generally used by the aboriginal builders,
+even on their sculptures. The colors seen in this room were green, red,
+yellow, blue, and reddish-brown. Another edifice, standing on a high
+mound, is reached by means of the usual great stairway, which begins at
+the bottom, with a sort of balustrade on each side, the ends of which
+are stone figures of heads of immense serpents.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a name="fig-43" id="fig-43"></a><a href="images/fig-43-full.png"><img src="images/fig-43.png" width="219" height="218" alt="Ball-court ring, Chichen Itza" title="Fig. 43.&mdash;Great Stone Ring." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Great Stone Ring.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>Not far from this is a singular ruin, consisting of groups of small
+columns standing in rows five abreast, the tallest being not more than
+six feet high. Many of them have fallen. It is impossible to determine
+how they were used, or what they mean.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="OTHER_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN" id="OTHER_RUINS_IN_YUCATAN"></a>OTHER RUINS IN YUCATAN.</h3>
+
+<p>Izamal, Labna, Zayi, and some of the other ruins are sufficiently
+important for special notice; but they present every where the same
+characteristics, differing a little in the style or method of
+ornamentation. At Labna there is among the ruins an ancient gateway,
+beautiful in design and construction, a view of which is given in the
+Frontispiece. The best account of some of the other ruins on this
+peninsula can be found in the volumes of Mr. Stephens, entitled
+&#8220;Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.&#8221; At Zayi there is a singular building,
+which, as seen at a distance by Mr. Stephens, &#8220;had the appearance of a
+New England factory.&#8221; But what seemed to be a &#8220;factory&#8221; is, in fact,
+nothing more than a massive wall with oblong openings, which runs along
+the middle of the roof, and rises thirty feet above it. The building was
+below this wall, but the front part of it had fallen. Among the remains
+at Xcoch is the great mound represented in <a href="#fig-44">Figure 44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>There is a remarkable ruin at Ake, at the south, which deserves mention.
+Here, on the summit of a great mound, very level, and 225 feet by 50 in
+extent, stand 36 shafts or columns, in three parallel rows. The columns
+are about 15 feet high and 4 feet square. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> ruins of Ake, which cover
+a great space, are ruder and more massive than most of the others. The
+island of Cozumel and the adjacent coast of Yucatan were populous when
+the Spaniards first went there, but the great towns then inhabited are
+now in ruins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="fig-44" id="fig-44"></a><a href="images/fig-44-full.png"><img src="images/fig-44.png" width="226" height="231" alt="View of unexcavated structure" title="Fig. 44.&mdash;Great Mound at Xcoch." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Great Mound at Xcoch.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Water is scarce on this peninsula, and a sufficient supply is not
+obtained without considerable difficulty. The ancient inhabitants
+provided for this lack of water by constructing aguadas or artificial
+ponds. These, or many of them, doubtless, are as old as the oldest of
+the ruined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> cities. Intelligence, much skill in masonry, and much labor
+were required to construct them. They were paved with several courses of
+stone laid in cement, and in their bottoms wells or cavities were
+constructed. More than forty such wells were found in the bottom of one
+of these aguadas at Galal, which has been repaired and restored to use.
+A section of the bottom of this aguada is shown in <a href="#fig-45">Figure 45</a>. In some
+places long subterranean passages lead down to pools of water, which are
+used in the dry season. One of these subterranean reservoirs, and the
+cavernous passage leading to it, are shown in <a href="#fig-46">Figure 46</a>. The reservoir
+is 450 feet below the surface of the ground, and the passage leading to
+it is about 1400 feet long. Branching passages, not shown, lead to two
+or three other basins of water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a name="fig-45" id="fig-45"></a><a href="images/fig-45-full.png"><img src="images/fig-45.png" width="243" height="148" alt="Section showing wells and chultuns below an aguada" title="Fig. 45.&mdash;Bottom of an Aguada." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;Bottom of an Aguada.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;">
+<a name="fig-46" id="fig-46"></a><a href="images/fig-46-full.png"><img src="images/fig-46.png" width="246" height="278" alt="Section of X'tacumbil Xunaam cave" title="Fig. 46.&mdash;Subterranean Reservoir." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Subterranean Reservoir.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wooden lintels, which are common in Yucatan,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> do not appear in the
+other ruins, and there is a difference in the style of ornamentation
+between those at Palenque or Copan, for instance, and those at Uxmal,
+but every where the architecture is regulated by the same idea, the
+differences indicating nothing more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> different periods and
+different phases of development in the history of the same people.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<a name="fig-47" id="fig-47"></a><a href="images/fig-47-full.png"><img src="images/fig-47.png" width="251" height="156" alt="Plan of Tulum, showing wall surrounding structures in the center of the site" title="Fig. 47.&mdash;Plan of the Walls at Tuloom." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.&mdash;Plan of the Walls at Tuloom.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some of the great edifices in these old ruins, such as the &#8220;Palace&#8221; at
+Palenque, and the &#8220;Casa del Gobernador&#8221; at Uxmal, remind us of the
+&#8220;communal buildings&#8221; of the Pueblos, and yet there is a wide difference
+between them. They are not alike either in character or purpose,
+although such great buildings as the &#8220;Palace&#8221; may have been designed for
+the occupation of several families. There is no indication that
+&#8220;communal&#8221; residences were ever common in this part of the country. At
+the time of the Conquest the houses of the people were ordinary family
+dwellings, made of wood, and we may reasonably suppose this fashion of
+building was handed down from the earlier ages. Herrera, who supposed,
+mistakenly, that all the great stone edifices were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> temples, said, in
+his account of Yucatan, &#8220;There were so many and such stately stone
+buildings that it was amazing; and the greatest wonder was that, having
+no use of any metal, they were able to raise such structures, which seem
+to have been temples; for their houses were all of timber, and
+thatched.&#8221; But they had the use of metals, and they had the art of
+making some of them admirable for use in cutting stone and carving wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<a name="fig-48" id="fig-48"></a><a href="images/fig-48-full.png"><img src="images/fig-48.png" width="235" height="251" alt="View of structure at Tulum" title="Fig. 48.&mdash;Watch-tower at Tuloom." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.&mdash;Watch-tower at Tuloom.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>Among the buildings of later date are some of those on the western
+coast, which were still inhabited three hundred and fifty years ago. The
+city of Tuloom was inhabited then. <a href="#fig-47">Figure 47</a> shows a ground plan of the
+walls of this city, with the position of some of the ruined monuments.</p>
+
+<p>Within the walls are remains of finely constructed buildings on elevated
+foundations, none of them, however, very large. One of them had a wooden
+roof, and timber seems to have been considerably used here. The walls
+still standing were made of hewn stone. Remains of stone edifices exist
+all along this coast, but the whole region is now covered by a dense
+growth of trees and other vegetation. Tuloom was seen in 1518 by
+Grijalva, who sailed along the coast. At that time the island of
+Cozumel, where noteworthy ruins are found, was inhabited by many people.
+<a href="#fig-48">Figure 48</a> shows one of the watch-towers on the walls of Tuloom.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Mexican and Central American ruins make it certain that in ancient
+times an important civilization existed in that part of the continent,
+which must have begun at a remote period in the past. If they have any
+significance, this must be accepted as an ascertained fact. A large
+proportion of them had been forgotten in the forests, or become mythical
+and mysterious, long before the arrival of the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>In 1520, three hundred and fifty years ago, the forest which so largely
+covers Yucatan, Guatemala, and Chiapa was growing as it grows now; yes,
+four hundred and fifty years ago, for it was there a century previous to
+this date, when, the Maya kingdom being broken up, one of its princes
+fled into this forest with a portion of his people, the Itzas, and
+settled at Lake Peten. It was the same then as now. How many additional
+centuries it had existed no one can tell. If its age could be told, it
+would still be necessary to consider that the ruins hidden in it are
+much older than the forest, and that the period of civilization they
+represent closed long before it was established.</p>
+
+<p>In the ages previous to the beginning of this immense forest, the region
+it covers was the seat of a civilization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> which grew up to a high degree
+of development, flourished a long time, and finally declined, until its
+cities were deserted, and its cultivated fields left to the wild
+influences of nature. It may be safely assumed that both the
+forest-covered ruins and the forest itself are far older than the Aztec
+period; but who can tell how much older? Copan, first discovered and
+described three hundred years ago, was then as strange to the natives
+dwelling near it as the old Chaldean ruins are to the Arabs who wander
+over the wasted plains of Lower Mesopotamia. Native tradition had
+forgotten its history and become silent in regard to it. How long had
+ruined Copan been in this condition? No one can tell. Manifestly it was
+forgotten, left buried in the forest without recollection of its
+history, long before Montezuma&#8217;s people, the Aztecs, rose to power; and
+it is easily understood that this old city had an important history
+previous to that unknown time in the past when war, revolution, or some
+other agency of destruction put an end to its career and left it to
+become what it is now.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, these old ruins, in all cases, show us only the cities last
+occupied in the periods to which they belong. Doubtless others still
+older preceded them; and, besides, it can be seen that some of the
+ruined cities which can now be traced were several times renewed by
+reconstructions. We must consider, also, that building magnificent
+cities is not the first work of an original civilization. The
+development was necessarily gradual. Its first period was more or less
+rude. The art of building and ornamenting such edifices arose slowly.
+Many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> ages must have been required to develop such admirable skill in
+masonry and ornamentation. Therefore the period between the beginning of
+this mysterious development of civilized life and the first builders who
+used cut stone laid in mortar and cement, and covered their work with
+beautifully sculptured ornaments and inscriptions, must have been very
+long.</p>
+
+<p>We have no measure of the time, no clew to the old dates, nothing
+whatever, beyond such considerations as I have stated, to warrant even a
+vague hypothesis. It can be seen clearly that the beginning of this old
+civilization was much older than the earliest great cities, and, also,
+that these were much more ancient than the time when any of the later
+built or reconstructed cities whose relics still exist, were left to
+decay. If we suppose Palenque to have been deserted some six hundred
+years previous to the Spanish Conquest, this date will carry us back
+only to the last days of its history as an inhabited city. Beyond it, in
+the distant past, is a vast period, in which the civilization
+represented by Palenque was developed, made capable of building such
+cities, and then carried on through the many ages during which cities
+became numerous, flourished, grew old, and gave place to others, until
+the long history of Palenque itself began.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have sought to discredit what is told of the Aztec
+civilization and the empire of Montezuma have never failed to admit
+fully the significance of Copan, Palenque, and Mitla. One or two
+writers, pursuing the assumption that the barbarous tribes at the north
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> the old Mexicans were of the same race, and substantially the same
+people, have undertaken to give us the history of Montezuma&#8217;s empire
+&#8220;entirely rewritten,&#8221; and show that his people were &#8220;Mexican savages.&#8221;
+In their hands Montezuma is transformed into a barbarous Indian chief,
+and the city of Mexico becomes a rude Indian village, situated among the
+islands and lagoons of an everglade which afforded unusual facilities
+&#8220;for fishing and snaring birds.&#8221; One goes so far as to maintain this
+with considerable vehemence and amusing unconsciousness of absurdity. He
+is sure that Montezuma was nothing more than the principal chief of a
+parcel of wild Indian tribes, and that the Pueblos are wild Indians
+changed to their present condition by Spanish influence. There is
+something in this akin to lunacy.</p>
+
+<p>But this topic will receive more attention in another place. I bring it
+to view here because those who maintain so strangely that the Aztecs
+were Indian savages, admit all that is claimed for the wonderful ruins
+at the south, and give them a very great antiquity. They maintain,
+however, that the civilization represented by these ruins was brought to
+this continent in remote pre-historic times by the people known as
+Ph&#339;nicians, and their method of finding the Ph&#339;nicians at Palenque,
+Copan, and every where else, is similar in character and value to that
+by which they transform the Aztec empire into a rude confederacy of wild
+Indians.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="DISTINCT_ERAS_TRACED" id="DISTINCT_ERAS_TRACED"></a>DISTINCT ERAS TRACED.</h3>
+
+<p>It is a point of no little interest that these old constructions belong
+to different periods in the past, and represent somewhat different
+phases of civilization. Uxmal, which is supposed to have been partly
+inhabited when the Spaniards arrived in the country, is plainly much
+more modern than Copan or Palenque. This is easily traced in the ruins.
+Its edifices were finished in a different style, and show fewer
+inscriptions. Round pillars, somewhat in the Doric style, are found at
+Uxmal, but none like the square, richly-carved pillars, bearing
+inscriptions, discovered in some of the other ruins. Copan and Palenque,
+and even Kabah, in Yucatan, may have been very old cities, if not
+already old ruins, when Uxmal was built. Accepting the reports of
+explorers as correct, there is evidence in the ruins that Quirigua is
+older than Copan, and that Copan is older than Palenque. The old
+monuments in Yucatan represent several distinct epochs in the ancient
+history of that peninsula. Some of them are kindred to those hidden in
+the great forest, and remind us more of Palenque than of Uxmal. Among
+those described, the most modern, or most of these, are in Yucatan; they
+belong to the time when the kingdom of the Mayas flourished. Many of the
+others belong to ages previous to the rise of this kingdom; and in ages
+still earlier, ages older than the great forest, there were other
+cities, doubtless, whose remains have perished utterly, or were long ago
+removed for use in the later constructions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>The evidence of repeated reconstructions in some of the cities before
+they were deserted has been pointed out by explorers. I have quoted what
+Charnay says of it in his description of Mitla. At Palenque, as at
+Mitla, the oldest work is the most artistic and admirable. Over this
+feature of the monuments, and the manifest signs of their difference in
+age, the attention of investigators has lingered in speculation. They
+find in them a significance which is stated as follows by Brasseur de
+Bourbourg: &#8220;Among the edifices forgotten by time in the forests of
+Mexico and Central America, we find architectural characteristics so
+different from each other, that it is as impossible to attribute them
+all to the same people as to believe they were all built at the same
+epoch.&#8221; In his view, &#8220;the substructions at Mayapan, some of those at
+Tulha, and a great part of those at Palenque,&#8221; are among the older
+remains. These are not the oldest cities whose remains are still
+visible, but they may have been built, in part, upon the foundations of
+cities much more ancient.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="NOTHING_PERISHABLE_LEFT" id="NOTHING_PERISHABLE_LEFT"></a>NOTHING PERISHABLE LEFT.</h3>
+
+<p>No well considered theory of these ruins can avoid the conclusion that
+most of them are very ancient, and that, to find the origin of the
+civilization they represent, we must go far back into the &#8220;deeps of
+antiquity.&#8221; On all the fields of desolation where they exist, every
+thing perishable has disappeared. Wooden lintels are mentioned, but
+these can hardly be regarded as constituting an exception when the
+character of the wood, and the cir<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>cumstances that contributed to their
+preservation, are considered. Moreover, wooden lintels seem to have been
+peculiar to Yucatan, where many of the great edifices were constructed
+in the later times, and some of them of perishable materials. Every
+where in the older ruins, nothing remains but the artificial mounds and
+foundations of earth, the stone, the cement, the stucco hard as marble,
+and other imperishable materials used by the builders.</p>
+
+<p>If the edifices had all been made of wood, there would now be nothing to
+show us that the older cities had ever existed. Every trace of them
+would have been obliterated long before our time, and most of them would
+have disappeared entirely long before the country was seen by the
+Spaniards. The places where they stood, with no relics save the mounds
+and pyramidal platforms, would resemble the works of our Mound-Builders,
+and not a few &#8220;sound historical critics&#8221; would consider it in the
+highest degree absurd to suggest that cities with such structures have
+ever existed there. Under the circumstances supposed, how wisely
+skepticism could talk against a suggestion of this kind at Copan, Mitla,
+or Palenque! and how difficult it would be to find a satisfactory answer
+to its reasonings! Nevertheless, those mysterious structures have not
+wholly disappeared, and we can easily understand that there was a time
+when large areas connected with them were covered with buildings of a
+less durable character.</p>
+
+<p>I have referred to a writer who maintains, with more vehemence than
+candor, that the Aztecs, and all the oth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>er people found in the
+country, were &#8220;savages&#8221; not greatly different from the wild Indians
+farther north, while he admits the significance and great antiquity of
+these ruins. His conception of their antiquity is somewhat extreme, for
+he says they must have existed &#8220;for thousands of years&#8221; when the
+Spaniards arrived. If he had maintained that civilized communities were
+there &#8220;thousands of years&#8221; previous to that time, developing the skill
+in architecture, decoration, and writing, to which the monuments bear
+witness, it might be possible to agree with him. Some of us, however,
+would probably stipulate that he should not count too many &#8220;thousands,&#8221;
+nor claim a similar antiquity for the ruins now visible. It is not easy
+to suppose that any of these old monuments, with their well-preserved
+sculptures and inscriptions, represent the first period of the ancient
+history they suggest, nor that they have existed as ruins many
+&#8220;thousands of years,&#8221; for the climate of Mexico and Central America does
+not preserve such remains like that of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, some of them must be very old. The forest established
+since the ruin began, the entire disappearance of every thing more
+perishable than stone, the utter oblivion which veiled their history in
+the time of Montezuma, and probably long previous to his time, all these
+facts bear witness to their great antiquity. In many of them, as at
+Quirigua and Kabah, the stone structures have become masses of d&eacute;bris;
+and even at Copan, Palenque, and Mitla, only a few of them are
+<a name="corr4" title="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="sufficiently">sufficently</ins> well preserved to show us what they were in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+great days of their history. Meanwhile, keep in mind that the ruined
+cities did not begin their present condition until the civilization that
+created them had declined; and, also, that if we could determine exactly
+the date when they were deserted and left to decay, we should only reach
+that point in the past where their history as inhabited cities was
+brought to a close.</p>
+
+<p>Take Copan, for instance. This city may have become a ruin during the
+time of the Toltecs, which began long before the Christian era, and
+ended some five or six centuries probably before the country was invaded
+by Cortez. It was built before their time, for the style of writing, and
+many features of the architecture and ornamentation, show the
+workmanship of their predecessors, judging by the historical intimations
+found in the old books and traditions. We may suppose it to have been an
+old city at the time of the Toltec invasion, although not one of the
+first cities built by that more ancient and more cultivated people by
+whom this old American civilization was originated. The present
+condition of the monuments at Quirigua is still more suggestive of great
+age.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_OLDEST_OF_CIVILIZATIONS" id="THE_OLDEST_OF_CIVILIZATIONS"></a>&#8220;THE OLDEST OF CIVILIZATIONS.&#8221;</h3>
+
+<p>Some investigators, who have given much study to the antiquities,
+traditions, old books, and probable geological history of Mexico and
+Central America, believe that the first civilization the world ever saw
+appeared in this part of Ancient America, or was immediately connected
+with it. They hold that the human race first rose to civilized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> life in
+America, which is, geologically, the oldest of the continents; and that,
+ages ago, the portion of this continent on which the first civilizers
+appeared was sunk beneath the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Usually the
+ingulfing of this portion of the land is supposed to have been effected
+by some tremendous convulsion of nature; and there is appeal to
+recollections of such a catastrophe, said to have been preserved in the
+old books of Central America, and also in those of Egypt, from which
+Solon received an account of the lost Atlantis.</p>
+
+<p>According to this hypothesis, the American continent formerly extended
+from Mexico, Central America, and New Granada far into the Atlantic
+Ocean toward Europe and Africa, covering all the space now occupied by
+the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the West India islands, and
+going far beyond them toward the east and northeast. This lost portion
+of the continent was the Atlantis of which the old annals of Egypt told
+so much in the time of Solon, as we learn from Plato; and it was the
+original seat of the first human civilization, which, after the great
+cataclysm, was renewed and perpetuated in the region where we now trace
+the mysterious remains of ancient cities. Those desiring to know what
+can be said in support of this view of Ancient America must read the
+later volumes of Brasseur de Bourbourg, especially his &#8220;Quatre Lettres
+sur le Mexique,&#8221; and his &#8220;Sources de l&#8217;Histoire Primitive du Mexique,&#8221;
+etc. He is not a perspicuous writer; he uses but little system in
+treating the subject, and he introduces many fanciful speculations which
+do more to embarrass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> than to help the discussion; but those who read
+the books patiently can find and bring together all that relates to the
+point in question, and consider it in their own way. They can also find
+it set forth and defended in a small volume by George Catlin, entitled
+&#8220;The Lifted and Subsided Rocks of America,&#8221; published in London, not
+long since, by Tr&uuml;bner and Company.</p>
+
+<p>I shall give more attention to this theory in the next chapter. I refer
+to it here on account of the very great antiquity it claims for the
+ancient American civilization. It represents that the advanced human
+development whose crumbling monuments are studied at Copan, Mitla, and
+Palenque antedates every thing else in the human period of our globe,
+excepting, perhaps, an earlier time of barbarism and pastoral
+simplicity; that its history goes back through all the misty ages of
+pre-historic time to an unknown date previous to the beginning of such
+civilization in any part of the Old World. It is hardly possible to make
+it more ancient.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="AMERICAN_CITIES_SEEN_BY_TYRIANS" id="AMERICAN_CITIES_SEEN_BY_TYRIANS"></a>AMERICAN CITIES SEEN BY TYRIANS.</h3>
+
+<p>The view just stated touches the imagination and stirs the feelings like
+a genuine &#8220;wonder story;&#8221; but this should not be allowed to deny it a
+fair hearing. Those who reject it should disprove it before they hasten
+to pronounce it &#8220;absurd&#8221; and &#8220;impossible,&#8221; else it may be suspected that
+their accustomed views of antiquity are due more to education, and to
+the habit of following a given fashion of thinking, than to actual
+reflection. It needs demonstration; and we may reasonably suggest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> that,
+in the present state of our knowledge of the past, demonstration is
+impossible. Meanwhile, a clear historical record appears to make it
+certain that flourishing towns and cities were seen and visited in
+America three thousand years ago, by persons who went to them across the
+Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>It is said, more or less clearly, by more than one Greek writer, that
+the Ph&#339;nicians and Carthaginians knew the way to a continent beyond
+the Atlantic. One fact preserved in the annals of Tyrian commerce, and
+mentioned by several ancient writers, is related by Diodorus Siculus
+very particularly as a matter of authentic history. His narration begins
+with the following statement:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Over against Africa lies a very great island, in the vast ocean, many
+days&#8217; sail from Libya westward. The soil there is very fruitful, a great
+part whereof is mountainous, but much likewise champaign, which is the
+most sweet and pleasant part, for it is watered by several navigable
+streams, and beautified with many gardens of pleasure planted with
+divers sorts of trees and an abundance of orchards. The towns are
+adorned with stately buildings and banqueting houses pleasantly situated
+in their gardens and orchards.&#8221; The great ruins in Yucatan, and
+elsewhere in Mexico and Central America, bear witness that there was,
+anciently, such a country as this, across the ocean, &#8220;many days&#8217; sail
+from Libya westward;&#8221; but Diodorus Siculus lived before the Christian
+era, and how was this known to him and others more than fifteen hundred
+years before America was discovered by Columbus? He tells us as follows:
+&#8220;The Ph&#339;nicians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> (Tyrians) having found out the coasts beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, sailed along by the coast of Africa. One of their
+ships, on a sudden, was driven by a furious storm far off into the main
+ocean. After they had lain under this violent tempest many days, they at
+length arrived at this island.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This reminds us of the constrained voyage of Biarni, the Northman, from
+Iceland to the coast of Massachusetts, in the year 985 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_163-1_1" id="FNanchor_163-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_163-1_1" class="fnanchor">163-*</a> He,
+too, was storm-driven &#8220;many days,&#8221; and in this way forced to the
+discovery of New England. He started for Greenland, and finally reached
+it by way of Martha&#8217;s Vineyard and Cape Cod. The tempest-driven ship of
+the Tyrians must have been carried to the West Indies, and to the coast
+of Honduras or Yucatan, where the Tyrians saw the gardens, cities, and
+stately edifices. The description of what they saw brings to mind
+similar accounts of what was seen in Yucatan by the Spaniards, when they
+began to sail along the coast of that peninsula in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century; Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincente Ya&ntilde;ez Pin&ccedil;on in 1506,
+and Hernandez de Cordova in 1517. They, too, saw handsome towns and
+stately buildings.</p>
+
+<p>This undesigned voyage of the Tyrian ship seems to have been made
+previous to the building of Gadir, or Gades. Perhaps they made other
+voyages to that region, but it was a custom of the Ph&#339;nicians to be
+very secret in regard to the methods and paths of their commerce. A
+complete history of their commerce and navigation from the earliest
+times would unquestionably give<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> us views of the past quite as startling
+to the prevalent assuming, unreasoning habits of belief, or rather
+disbelief, concerning antiquity, as that hypothesis of Atlantis and the
+earliest civilization. What is told by Diodorus authorizes us to suppose
+that the Tyrians who went across the Atlantic as described beheld some
+of the ancient American cities which are now found in ruins, for it is
+certain that nothing of the kind existed any where else &#8220;many days&#8217; sail
+from Libya [Northern Africa] westward.&#8221; Their voyage was made more than
+eleven hundred years previous to the Christian era. If the old Central
+American books may be trusted, this was not very long previous to the
+beginning of the Toltec domination.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond this date, the history of the &#8220;Colhuas,&#8221; who are described as the
+original civilizers, must have covered a very long period; how long we
+may imagine, but can not know. Gadir, now Cadiz, founded eleven hundred
+years previous to the Christian era, is still an inhabited city; it has
+been several times reconstructed, but never deserted. When it was built,
+Tartessus, then a very old city, still existed, although it was in ruins
+long before Christ appeared. How long had Palenque been in existence
+when that Tyrian ship was driven across the Atlantic? And how long had
+that region been a region of cities and civilization? There is no
+history which can answer these questions.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_163-1_1" id="Footnote_163-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163-1_1"><span class="label">163-*</span></a> See <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">WHENCE CAME THAT OLD CIVILIZATION?</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Various</span> theories, some of them very wild and irrational, have been
+advanced to explain the origin of what is seen in these relics of
+Ancient America. If it had been the fashion to explore and study them as
+their importance deserves, as Egypt and Nineveh have been explored and
+studied, our knowledge of them would now be much more extensive and
+valuable, and it might be possible to go farther toward a solution of
+the problem they present. But not many persons have sought to explore
+and understand these remains, and not more than two or three have really
+sought in earnest to examine the old traditions and books of the
+country. The abundant inscriptions at Palenque fade in their forest
+solitude while waiting for the Champollion who shall interpret their
+mysteries. Something is known, but we have no history of these old
+cities, no authentic historical record of the people who built them.
+Therefore theorizing has very naturally been stimulated to great
+activity, and most of this theorizing has been regulated by the old,
+unreasoning assumption that civilization found in any place, especially
+in the olden times, must have been brought and established there as a
+foreign production. Generally the hypotheses used in this case have
+presumed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> as a matter of course that the original civilizers came to
+this continent from Europe or Asia.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_LOST_TRIBES_OF_ISRAEL" id="THE_LOST_TRIBES_OF_ISRAEL"></a>THE &#8220;LOST TRIBES OF ISRAEL.&#8221;</h3>
+
+<p>One of these theories is (or was), that the original civilizers of
+Mexico and Central America were the &#8220;lost ten tribes of Israel.&#8221; This
+extremely remarkable explanation of the mystery was devised very early,
+and it has been persistently defended by some persons, although nothing
+can be more unwarranted or more absurd. It was put forward by the
+Spanish monks who first established missions in the country, a class of
+men to whom the world is indebted for a great variety of amazing
+contributions to the literature of hagiology; and the same men, in a way
+equally conclusive, explained the sculptured crosses found in the old
+ruins by assuming that the Gospel was preached in America by St. Thomas.
+Lord Kingsborough adopted their views, and gave up nearly the whole of
+one of his immense volumes on Mexican Antiquities to an elaborate digest
+of all that had been written to explain and support these absurdities.
+Others have maintained this Israelitish hypothesis without deeming it
+necessary to estimate in a reasonable way what was possible to those
+Israelites.</p>
+
+<p>According to this truly monkish theory, the &#8220;lost ten tribes of Israel&#8221;
+left Palestine, Syria, Assyria, or whatever country they dwelt in at the
+time, traversed the whole extent of Asia, crossed over into America at
+Behring&#8217;s Strait, went down the Pacific coast, and established a
+wonderful civilization in that part of the continent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> where the great
+ruins are found. The kingdom of the ten tribes was destroyed not long
+previous to the year 700 B.C. How many years are allowed, after their
+escape from captivity, for this unparalleled journey, has not yet been
+ascertained. But, if such a journey had been possible, it would have
+resulted in utter barbarism rather than any notable phase of civilized
+life. Even the Jews who remained faithful to Moses, although important
+on account of their scriptures and their religion, were not remarkable
+for civilization. They were incapable of building their own Temple
+without aid from the Tyrians. Moreover, there is not any where either a
+fact, a suggestion, or a circumstance of any kind to show that the &#8220;lost
+ten tribes&#8221; ever left the countries of Southwestern Asia, where they
+dwelt after the destruction of their kingdom. They were &#8220;lost&#8221; to the
+Jewish nation because they rebelled, apostatized, and, after their
+subjugation by the Assyrians in 721 B.C., were to a great extent
+absorbed by other peoples in that part of Asia. Some of them probably
+were still in Palestine when Christ appeared. This wild notion, called a
+theory, scarcely deserves so much attention. It is a lunatic fancy,
+possible only to men of a certain class, which in our time does not
+multiply.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_MALAY_THEORY" id="THE_MALAY_THEORY"></a>THE &#8220;MALAY&#8221; THEORY.</h3>
+
+<p>Another hypothesis, much less improbable, though not satisfactory, is
+that civilization was brought to America in ancient times by the Malays.
+There was a great island empire of the Malays, whose history extended
+far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> back into pre-historic times, how far back can not now be known. It
+was still in existence when the Portuguese first went to India around
+the Cape of Good Hope; and we have several accounts of this empire
+written by travelers who saw and described it six hundred years before
+this first Indian voyage of the Portuguese was undertaken. El Mas&#8217;&uacute;d&iacute;,
+who was one of these travelers, used very strong terms to describe its
+extent, intelligence, and power. Speaking of its sovereign, he said,
+&#8220;The islands under his sceptre are so numerous that the fastest sailing
+vessel is not able to go round them in two years,&#8221; implying that his
+sway was acknowledged by the island world over a large portion of the
+Pacific. This Malayan empire was maritime and commercial; it had fleets
+of great ships; and there is evidence that its influence reached most of
+the Pacific islands. This is shown by the fact that dialects of the
+Malay language have been found in most of these islands as far in this
+direction as Easter Island. The language of the Sandwich Islanders, for
+instance, is Malayan, and has a close relationship to that now spoken in
+the Malay islands.</p>
+
+<p>The metropolis of this great empire was in the island of Java, where old
+ruins still bear witness to the former &#8220;civilization, wealth, and
+splendor&#8221; celebrated by El Mas&#8217;&uacute;d&iacute;. Mr. A. R. Wallace, in his work on
+the Malay Archipelago, says, &#8220;Few Englishmen are aware of the number and
+beauty of the architectural remains in Java. They have never been
+popularly illustrated or described, and it will therefore take most
+persons by surprise to learn that they far surpass those of Central
+America,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> perhaps even those of India.&#8221; The purpose of his visit to the
+island did not allow him to explore ruins, but he describes some of
+them. He saw what still remains of an ancient city called &#8220;Modjo-pahit,&#8221;
+and says, &#8220;There were two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a
+gateway. The extreme perfection and beauty of the brick-work astonished
+me. The bricks are exceedingly fine and hard, with sharp angles and true
+surfaces. They were laid with great exactness, without visible mortar or
+cement, yet somehow fastened together so that the joints are hardly
+perceptible, and sometimes the two surfaces coalesce in a most
+incomprehensible manner. Such admirable brick-work I have never seen
+before or since. There was no sculpture here, but abundance of bold
+projections and finely-worked mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for
+many miles in every direction, and almost every road and pathway shows a
+foundation of brick-work beneath it, the paved roads of the old city.&#8221;
+In other places he saw sculptures and beautifully carved figures in high
+relief.</p>
+
+<p>The Malays still read and write, have some literature, and retain many
+of the arts and usages of civilization, but they are now very far below
+the condition indicated by these ruins, and described by El Mas&#8217;&uacute;d&iacute;, who
+traveled among them a thousand years ago. It is by no means improbable
+that their ships visited the western coast of America, and traded with
+the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the days of their greatest power
+and activity. It is not easy to believe they could fail to do so after
+taking such control of Easter Island as to leave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> their language there;
+and, according to the old traditions of both Mexico and Peru, the
+Pacific coast in both countries was anciently visited by a foreign
+people who came in ships. But they did not come to America as
+civilizers; there is nothing Malayan in either the antiquities or the
+ancient speech of these countries.</p>
+
+<p>What is known of the former great condition and power of the Malays
+furnishes important suggestions relative to the ancient history of the
+islands of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean,<a name="FNanchor_170-1_2" id="FNanchor_170-1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_170-1_2" class="fnanchor">170-*</a> as well as those
+of the Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The people who inhabit the eastern side of Formosa, it is said, use a
+Malay dialect, and have no resemblance whatever to the Mongols. Who can
+fully explain the little known Ainos, who formerly occupied the whole,
+or nearly the whole of Japan? The unmistakable traces of Malay influence
+every where in the islands of the Pacific can have but one meaning. The
+Malays formerly sailed on that ocean, occupied its islands, and
+doubtless visited America.</p>
+
+<p>That there was communication between Eastern Asia and America in very
+ancient times, through the Malays or otherwise, is in a high degree
+probable. This continent was known to the Japanese and Chinese long
+before the time of Columbus. Accounts of it were recorded in their books
+previous to his time. They called it &#8220;Fusang,&#8221; and evidently, at some
+period, had been accustomed to make voyages to some part of the American
+coast. But neither the Malays, the Chinese, nor the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> Japanese came here
+as civilizers, for there is no trace of either of these peoples in the
+old ruins, in the ancient language of the country, or in any thing we
+know of the people whom these American ruins represent.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_PHOENICIAN_THEORY" id="THE_PHOENICIAN_THEORY"></a>THE PH&#338;NICIAN THEORY.</h3>
+
+<p>Some of the more intelligent investigators have maintained, with no
+little confidence, that this ancient American civilization came
+originally from the Ph&#339;nicians. Among those who use reason in their
+inquiries sufficiently to be incapable of accepting the absurdities of
+monkish fancy, this hypothesis has found more favor than any other.
+Wherever inquiry begins by assuming that the original civilizers came
+from some other part of the world, it seems more reasonable than any
+other, for more can be said to give it the appearance of probability.</p>
+
+<p>The people known to us as Ph&#339;nicians were pre-eminent as the colonizing
+navigators of antiquity. They were an enlightened and enterprising
+maritime people, whose commerce traversed every known sea, and extended
+its operations beyond the &#8220;Pillars of Hercules&#8221; into the &#8220;great exterior
+ocean.&#8221; The early Greeks called them Ethiopians (not meaning either
+black men or Africans), and said they went every where, establishing
+their colonies and their commerce in all the coast regions, &#8220;from the
+extreme east to the extreme west.&#8221; But the great ages of this people are
+in the distant past, far beyond the beginning of what we call history.
+History has knowledge only of a few of their later communities, the
+Sabeans of Southern Arabia, the Ph&#339;nicians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> (meaning chiefly the
+Tyrians), and the Carthaginians. What a change there would be in the
+prevalent conceptions of the past if we could have a complete record of
+this race from the beginning of its development!</p>
+
+<p>It is not difficult to believe that communities of the Ph&#339;nician or
+Ethiopian race were established all around the Mediterranean, and even
+beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, in ages quite as old as Egypt or
+Chaldea, and that they had communication with America before Tyre or
+Sidon was built. Why did the ancients say so much of a &#8220;great Saturnian
+continent&#8221; beyond the Atlantic if nobody in the pre-historic ages had
+ever seen that continent? It was there, as they said and as we know; but
+whence came their knowledge of it, and such knowledge as led them to
+describe it as &#8220;larger than Asia (meaning Asia Minor), Europe, and Libya
+together?&#8221; This ancient belief must have been due to Ph&#339;nician or
+Ethiopian communication with America in earlier times, which was
+imperfectly recollected, or perhaps never completely revealed to other
+nations; and this must have taken place at a very remote period, for
+imperfect recollection of the great continent across the Atlantic,
+including what Solon heard in Egypt of Atlantis, was more ancient than
+the constrained voyage of that Tyrian ship of which Diodorus Siculus
+gives an account; and it can be seen that the early Greeks had a better
+knowledge even of Western Europe than those of later times. A dark age,
+so far as relates to geographical knowledge, set in upon the countries
+around the &AElig;gean Sea and on the coast of Asia Minor after the
+independence and enter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>prise of Tyre and the other Ph&#339;nician cities were
+destroyed by the Assyrians, toward the close of the ninth century before
+Christ, which was disturbed some four hundred and fifty or five hundred
+years later by the conquests of Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+<p>The known enterprise of the Ph&#339;nician race, and this ancient knowledge
+of America, so variously expressed, strongly encourage the hypothesis
+that the people called Ph&#339;nicians came to this continent, established
+colonies in the region where ruined cities are found, and filled it with
+civilized life. It is argued that they made voyages on the &#8220;great
+exterior ocean,&#8221; and that such navigators must have crossed the
+Atlantic; and it is added that symbolic devices similar to those of the
+Ph&#339;nicians are found in the American ruins, and that an old tradition of
+the native Mexicans and Central Americans described the first civilizers
+as &#8220;bearded white men,&#8221; who &#8220;came from the East in ships.&#8221; Therefore, it
+is urged, the people described in the native books and traditions as
+&#8220;Colhuas&#8221; must have been Ph&#339;nicians.</p>
+
+<p>But if it were true that the civilization found in Mexico and Central
+America came from people of the Ph&#339;nician race, it would be true also
+that they built in America as they never built any where else, that they
+established a language here radically unlike their own, and that they
+used a style of writing totally different from that which they carried
+into every other region occupied by their colonies. All the forms of
+alphabetical writing used at present in Europe and Southwestern Asia
+came directly or indirectly from that anciently invented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> race to
+which the Ph&#339;nicians belonged, and they have traces of a common
+relationship which can easily be detected. Now the writing of the
+inscriptions at Palenque, Copan, and elsewhere in the ruins has no more
+relatedness to the Ph&#339;nician than to the Chinese writing. It has not a
+single characteristic that can be called Ph&#339;nician any more than the
+language of the inscriptions or the style of architecture with which it
+is associated; therefore we can not reasonably suppose this American
+civilization was originated by people of the Ph&#339;nician race, whatever
+may be thought relative to the supposed ancient communication between
+the two continents and its probable influence on civilized communities
+already existing here.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_ATLANTIC_THEORY" id="THE_ATLANTIC_THEORY"></a>THE &#8220;ATLANTIC&#8221; THEORY.</h3>
+
+<p>I have already stated in general terms the hypothesis advanced by
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and some other writers. This may be called the
+&#8220;Atlantic&#8221; theory, for it attributes the civilization of Ancient America
+to the Atlantides or Atlantic race, who occupied the lost &#8220;island of
+Atlantis.&#8221; Brasseur de Bourbourg has studied the monuments, writings,
+and traditions left by this civilization more carefully and thoroughly
+than any other man living. He has fancies which may be safely rejected,
+and he has theories which, doubtless, will always lack confirmation; but
+he has much, also, which demands respectful consideration. There is a
+great deal in his books to provoke criticism; those well acquainted with
+the antiquities and ancient speech of Egypt may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> reasonably give way to
+a smile of incredulity while reading what he says in support of the
+notion that the great civilization of Egypt also came originally from
+this Atlantic race. Nevertheless, his volumes are important, because
+they furnish materials which others can use more carefully, and because
+he has learned to decipher some of the Central American writings and
+brought to view certain paths of inquiry which others may pursue with a
+more rigid method.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, his Atlantic theory of the old American civilization
+is, that it was originated on this continent, but on a portion of the
+continent which is now below the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It
+supposes the continent extended, anciently, from New Granada, Central
+America, and Mexico in a long, irregular peninsula, so far across the
+Atlantic that the Canary, Madeira, and Azores or Western Islands may be
+remains of this portion of it. High mountains stood where we now find
+the West India islands. Beyond these, toward Africa and Europe, was a
+great extent of fertile and beautiful land, and here arose the first
+civilization of mankind, which flourished many ages, until at length
+this extended portion of the continent was ingulfed by a tremendous
+convulsion of nature, or by a succession of such convulsions which made
+the ruin complete. After the cataclysm, a part of the Atlantic people
+who escaped destruction settled in Central America, where perhaps their
+civilization had been previously introduced. The reasons urged in
+support of this hypothesis make it seem plausible, if not probable, to
+imaginative minds.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>In the first place, Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that there is in the
+old Central American books a constant tradition of an immense
+catastrophe of the character supposed; that this tradition existed every
+where among the people when they first became known to Europeans; and
+that recollections of the catastrophe were preserved in some of their
+festivals, especially in one celebrated in the month of <i>Izcalli</i>, which
+was instituted to commemorate this frightful destruction of land and
+people, and in which &#8220;princes and people humbled themselves before the
+divinity, and besought Him to withhold a return of such terrible
+calamities.&#8221; This tradition affirms that a part of the continent
+extending into the Atlantic was destroyed in the manner supposed, and
+appears to indicate that the destruction was accomplished by a
+succession of frightful convulsions. Three are constantly mentioned, and
+sometimes there is mention of one or two others. &#8220;The land was shaken by
+frightful earthquakes, and the waves of the sea combined with volcanic
+fires to overwhelm and ingulf it.&#8221; Each convulsion swept away portions
+of the land, until the whole disappeared, leaving the line of the coast
+as it is now. Most of the inhabitants, overtaken amid their regular
+employments, were destroyed; but some escaped in ships, and some fled
+for safety to the summits of high mountains, or to portions of the land
+which, for the time, escaped immediate destruction. Quotations are made
+from the old books in which this tradition is recorded which appear to
+verify his report of what is found in them. To criticise intelligently
+his interpretation of their significance, one needs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> to have a knowledge
+of those books and traditions equal at least to his own.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, he appeals to the story of Atlantis, preserved in
+the annals of Egypt, and related to Solon by the priests of Sais. It is
+stated in Plutarch&#8217;s life of Solon that while in Egypt &#8220;he conferred
+with the priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis, and Sais, and
+learned from them the story of Atlantis.&#8221; Brasseur de Bourbourg cites
+Cousin&#8217;s translation of Plato&#8217;s record of this story as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Among the great deeds of Athens, of which recollection is preserved in
+our books, there is one which should be placed above all others. Our
+books tell that the Athenians destroyed an army which came across the
+Atlantic Sea, and insolently invaded Europe and Asia; for this sea was
+then navigable, and beyond the strait where you place the Pillars of
+Hercules there was an island larger than Asia [Minor] and Libya
+combined. From this island one could pass easily to the other islands,
+and from these to the continent which lies around the interior sea. The
+sea on this side of the strait (the Mediterranean) of which we speak
+resembles a harbor with a narrow entrance; but there is a genuine sea,
+and the land which surrounds it is a veritable continent. In the island
+of Atlantis reigned three kings with great and marvelous power. They had
+under their dominion the whole of Atlantis, several other islands, and
+some parts of the continent. At one time their power extended into
+Libya, and into Europe as far as Tyrrhenia; and, uniting their whole
+force, they sought to destroy our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> countries at a blow, but their defeat
+stopped the invasion and gave entire independence to all the countries
+on this side of the Pillars of Hercules. Afterward, in one day and one
+fatal night, there came mighty earthquakes and inundations, which
+ingulfed that warlike people; Atlantis disappeared beneath the sea, and
+then that sea became inaccessible, so that navigation on it ceased on
+account of the quantity of mud which the ingulfed island left in its
+place.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This invasion took place many ages before Athens was known as a Greek
+city. It is referred to an extremely remote antiquity. The festival
+known as the &#8220;Lesser Panathen&aelig;a,&#8221; which, as symbolic devices used in it
+show, commemorated this triumph over the Atlantes, is said to have been
+instituted by the mythical Erichthonius in the earliest times remembered
+by Athenian tradition. Solon had knowledge of the Atlantes before he
+went to Egypt, but he heard there, for the first time, this account of
+their &#8220;island&#8221; and of its disappearance in a frightful cataclysm. But
+Atlantis is mentioned by other ancient writers. An extract preserved in
+Proclus, taken from a work now lost, which is quoted by Boeckh in his
+commentary on Plato, mentions islands in the exterior sea beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, and says it was known that in one of these islands
+&#8220;the inhabitants preserved from their ancestors a remembrance of
+Atlantis, an extremely large island, which for a long time held dominion
+over all the islands of the Atlantic Ocean.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that these traditions, on both sides of the
+Atlantic, mean the same thing. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> &#8220;island of Atlantis,&#8221; larger than
+Libya and Asia Minor together, was the extended portion of the American
+continent. These concurring traditions can not be devoid of historical
+significance. The constant references by ancient Greek writers to the
+Atlantes, who are always placed at the extremity of Europe and Africa,
+on the ocean which bears their name, may reasonably be regarded as vague
+and faded recollections of such a history connected with that ocean as
+that implied by what was said of their island in the annals of Egypt. In
+support of his view of what is meant by the traditions, he adds this
+philological argument:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The words <i>Atlas</i> and <i>Atlantic</i> have no satisfactory etymology in any
+language known to Europe. They are not Greek, and can not be referred to
+any known language of the Old World. But in the Nahuatl language we find
+immediately the radical <i>a</i>, <i>atl</i>, which signifies water, war, and the
+top of the head. (Molina, <i>Vocab. en lengua mexicana y castellana</i>,
+etc.) From this comes a series of words, such as <i>atlan</i>, on the border
+of or amid the water, from which we have the adjective <i>Atlantic</i>. We
+have also atla&ccedil;a, to combat or be in agony; it means likewise to hurl or
+dart from the water, and in the preterit makes <i>atlaz</i>. A city named
+<i>Atlan</i> existed when the continent was discovered by Columbus, at the
+entrance of the Gulf of Uraba, in Darien, with a good harbor; it is now
+reduced to an unimportant pueblo named <i>Acla</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, he quotes opinions expressed without any regard
+whatever to his theory to show that sci<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>entific men who have considered
+the question believe that there was formerly a great extension of the
+land into the Atlantic in the manner supposed. The first quotation is
+from Moreau de Saint-Mery&#8217;s &#8220;Description topographique et politique de
+la Partie Espagnole a l&#8217;Isle de Saint-Domingue,&#8221; published in 1796, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There are those who, in examining the map of America, do not confine
+themselves to thinking with the French Pliny that the innumerable
+islands situated from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Bahama Channel
+(islands which include several <i>Grenadins</i> not always visible in very
+high tides or great agitations of the sea) should be considered as
+summits of vast mountains whose bases and sides are covered with water,
+but who go farther, and suppose these islands to be the tops of the most
+elevated of a chain of mountains which crowned a portion of the
+continent whose submersion has produced the Gulf of Mexico. But to
+sustain this opinion it must be added that another vast surface of land
+which united the islands of this archipelago to the continent, from
+Yucatan to the mouth of the Orinoco, was submerged in the same way, and
+also a third surface which connected them with the peninsula of Florida
+and with whatever land may have constituted the northern termination;
+for we can not imagine that these mountains whose summits appear above
+water stood on the terminating line of the continent.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He quotes, also, another authority which &#8220;can not be suspected,&#8221; namely,
+M. Charles Martins, who said, in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i> for March
+1, 1867, &#8220;Now, hy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>drography, geology, and botany agree in teaching us
+that the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira are the remains of a great
+continent which formerly united Europe to North America.&#8221; He could have
+added other quotations in the same strain. Those geologists who believe
+that &#8220;our continents have long remained in nearly the same relative
+position&#8221; would probably give the supposed change a much greater
+antiquity than Brasseur de Bourbourg would be likely to accept; and the
+geological &#8220;Uniformitarians&#8221; would deny with emphasis that so great a
+change in the shape of a continent was ever effected by such means, or
+with such rapidity as he supposes. But the latest and most advanced
+school of geological speculation does not exclude &#8220;Catastrophism,&#8221; and,
+therefore, will not deny the possibility of sudden and great changes by
+this method.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless the antiquity of the human race is much greater than is
+usually assumed by those whose views of the past are still regulated by
+medi&aelig;val systems of chronology. Arch&aelig;ology and linguistic science, not
+to speak here of geology, make it certain that the period between the
+beginning of the human race and the birth of Christ would be more
+accurately stated if the centuries counted in the longest estimate of
+the rabbinical chronologies should be changed to millenniums. And they
+present also another fact, namely, that the antiquity of civilization is
+very great, and suggest that in remote ages it may have existed, with
+important developments, in regions of the earth now described as
+barbarous, and even, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes, on ancient
+continents or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> portions of continents now out of sight below the surface
+of the oceans. The representation of some speculators that the condition
+of the human race since its first appearance on earth has been a
+condition of universal and hopeless savagery down to a comparatively
+modern date, is an assumption merely, an unwarranted assumption used in
+support of an unproved and unprovable theory of man&#8217;s origin. Its use in
+the name of science by advocates of this theory, like the theory itself,
+shows that the constructive power of fancy and imagination will
+sometimes supersede every thing else, and substitute its ingenious
+constructions for legitimate conclusions, even in scientific
+speculation.</p>
+
+<p>We may claim reasonably that Brasseur de Bourbourg&#8217;s Atlantic theory is
+not proved, and on this ground refuse to accept it. So far as appears,
+it is a fanciful theory which can not be proved. No one is under
+obligation to attempt disproving it. It may, in some cases, win
+supporters by enlisting in its favor all the forces of imagination, to
+which it appeals with seductive plausibility. On the other hand, it will
+be rejected without much regard to what can be said in its favor, for it
+interferes with current unreasoning beliefs concerning antiquity and
+ancient history, and must encounter vehement contradiction from habits
+of thought fixed by these beliefs. True, some of the stock views of
+antiquity, by which it will be earnestly opposed, are themselves far
+more destitute of foundation in either fact or reason; but this will
+make no difference, as the habit of never allowing them to be subjected
+to the searching power of reason does<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> not permit such persons either to
+believe or deny any thing connected with this topic in a reasonable
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the uses made of this theory can not endure criticism. For
+instance, when he makes it the basis of an assumption that all the
+civilization of the Old World went originally from America, and claims
+particularly that the supposed &#8220;Atlantic race&#8221; created Egypt, he goes
+quite beyond reach of the considerations used to give his hypothesis a
+certain air of probability. It may be, as he says, that for every
+pyramid in Egypt there are a thousand in Mexico and Central America, but
+the ruins in Egypt and those in America have nothing in common. The two
+countries were entirely different in their language, in their styles of
+architecture, in their written characters, and in the physical
+characteristics of their earliest people, as they are seen sculptured or
+painted on the monuments. An Egyptian pyramid is no more the same thing
+as a Mexican pyramid than a Chinese pagoda is the same thing as an
+English light-house. It was not made in the same way, nor for the same
+uses. The ruined monuments show, in generals and in particulars, that
+the original civilizers in America were profoundly different from the
+ancient Egyptians. The two peoples can not explain each other.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, does not require us to assert positively that the Central
+American &#8220;Colhuas&#8221; and the legendary Atlantes could not possibly have
+been the same people, or people of the same race. Room may be left for
+any amount of conjecture not inconsistent with known facts, without
+making it necessary to accept a theory of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> origin of the old Mexican
+race which at present can neither be proved nor disproved.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="IT_WAS_AN_ORIGINAL_CIVILIZATION" id="IT_WAS_AN_ORIGINAL_CIVILIZATION"></a>IT WAS AN ORIGINAL CIVILIZATION.</h3>
+
+<p>It has been said, very justly, by one explorer of the Mexican and
+Central American ruins, that &#8220;the American monuments are different from
+those of any other known people, of a new order, and entirely and
+absolutely anomalous; they stand alone.&#8221; The more we study them, the
+more we find it necessary to believe that the civilization they
+represent was originated in America, and probably in the region where
+they are found. It did not come from the Old World; it was the work of
+some remarkably gifted branch of the race found on the southern part of
+this continent when it was discovered in 1492. Undoubtedly it was very
+old. Its original beginning may have been as old as Egypt, or even
+farther back in the past than the ages to which Atlantis must be
+referred; and it may have been later than the beginning of Egypt. Who
+can certainly tell its age? Whether earlier or later, it was original.</p>
+
+<p>Its constructions seem to have been a refined and artistic development
+of a style of building different from that of any other people, which
+began with ruder forms, but in all the periods of its history preserved
+the same general conception. They show us the idea of the Mound-Builders
+wrought out in stone and embellished by art. The decorations, and the
+writing also, are wholly original. There is no imitation of the work of
+any people ever known in Asia, Africa, or Europe. It appears evident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+that the method of building seen in the great ruins began with the ruder
+forms of mound-work, and became what we find it by gradual development,
+as the advancing civilization supplied new ideas and gave higher skill.
+But the culture and the work were wholly original, wholly American.</p>
+
+<p>The civilized life of the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans may
+have had its original beginning somewhere in South America, for they
+seem more closely related to the ancient South Americans than to the
+wild Indians north of the Mexican border; but the peculiar development
+of it represented by the ruins must have begun in the region where they
+are found. I find myself more and more inclined to the opinion that the
+aboriginal South Americans are the oldest people on this continent; that
+they are distinct in race; and that the wild Indians of the North came
+originally from Asia, where the race to which they belong seems still
+represented by the Koraks and Chookchees found in that part of Asia
+which extends to Behring&#8217;s Strait.</p>
+
+<p>If, as there is reason to believe, the countries on the Mediterranean
+had communication with America in very ancient times, they found here a
+civilization already developed, and contributed nothing to change its
+style of building and decorating cities. They may have influenced it in
+other respects; for, if such communication was opened across the
+Atlantic, it was probably continued for a long time, and its
+interruption may or may not be due, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes,
+to the cataclysm which ingulfed Atlantis. Religious symbols are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> found
+in the American ruins which remind us of those of the Ph&#339;nicians, such
+as figures of the serpent, which appear constantly, and the cross,
+supposed by some to represent the mounting of the magnetic needle,
+which was among the emblems peculiar to the goddess Astarte. A figure
+appears occasionally in the sculptures, in which some have sought to
+recognize Astarte, one at Palenque being described as follows: &#8220;It is a
+female figure moulded in stucco, holding a child on her left arm and
+hand, just as Astarte appears on the Sidonian medals.&#8221; I find it
+impossible to see that this figure has any resemblance whatever to the
+Ph&#339;nician goddess. They are not alike either in dress, posture, or
+expression. Dupaix describes it correctly in saying it represents a
+person apparently &#8220;absorbed in devotion&#8221;&mdash;a worshiper, and not a
+goddess. Moreover, Astarte usually appears on the medals standing on
+the forward deck of a vessel, holding a cross with one hand, and
+pointing forward with the other. And, finally, this figure seems to
+represent, not a woman, but a priest. There was sun-worship in America,
+and the phallic ceremonies existed in some places in the time of
+Cortez. In Asia these ceremonies and figures of the serpent were
+usually associated with sun-worship. Humboldt was sure that these
+symbols came to America from the Old World. A more careful study of the
+subject might have led him to modify this belief. But, whether we adopt
+his explanation or some other, the traditions on both sides of the
+Atlantic are without meaning unless it be admitted that there was
+communication between the two continents in times of which we have no
+history.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_170-1_2" id="Footnote_170-1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170-1_2"><span class="label">170-*</span></a> See <a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix C</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">If</span> a consecutive history of the ancient people of Central America and
+Mexico were ever written, it has been lost. Probably nothing of the kind
+ever was written in the manner which we call history, although there
+must have been regular annals of some kind. The ruins show that they had
+the art of writing, and that, at the south, this art was more developed,
+more like a phonetic system of writing than that found in use among the
+Aztecs. The inscriptions of Palenque, and the characters used in some of
+the manuscript books that have been preserved, are not the same as the
+&#8220;Mexican Picture Writing.&#8221; It is known that books or manuscript writings
+were abundant among them in the ages previous to the Aztec period. They
+had an accurate measure of the solar year and a system of chronology,
+and many of their writings were historical. Among the Mayas, and in
+other communities of the same family, writing was largely used in the
+time of the Spaniards. It was common also among the Aztecs, but they
+used &#8220;picture writing.&#8221; Las Casas wrote on this point as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It should be known that in all the commonwealths of these countries, in
+the kingdoms of New Spain and elsewhere, among other professions duly
+filled by suita<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>ble persons was that of chronicler and historian. These
+chroniclers had knowledge of the origin of the kingdoms, and of whatever
+related to religion and the gods, as well as to the founders of towns
+and cities. They recorded the history of kings, and of the modes of
+their election and succession; of their labors, actions, wars, and
+memorable deeds, good and bad; of the virtuous men or heroes of former
+days, their great deeds, the wars they had waged, and how they had
+distinguished themselves; who had been the earliest settlers, what had
+been their ancient customs, their triumphs, and defeats. They knew, in
+fact, whatever pertained to history, and were able to give an account of
+all past events. * * * These chroniclers had likewise to calculate the
+days, months, and years; and though they had no writing like ours, they
+had their symbols and characters through which they understood every
+thing; and they had great books, which were composed with such ingenuity
+and art that our characters were really of no great assistance to them.
+Our priests have seen those books, and I myself have seen them likewise,
+though many were burned at the instigation of the monks, who were afraid
+they might impede the work of conversion.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Books such as those here described by Las Casas must have contained
+important historical information. The older books, belonging to the ages
+of Copan and Palenque, went to decay doubtless long previous to his
+time, in the wars and revolutions of the Toltec period, or by the wear
+of time. The later books, not otherwise lost, were destroyed by Aztec
+and Spanish vandalism.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> According to tradition, and the testimony of
+writings still in existence when the Spaniards went there, the Aztec or
+Mexican sovereign Ytzcoatl destroyed many of the old Toltec books. His
+aim was probably to exterminate among the people all memory of the
+previous times. Such things have been done with similar motives, as we
+know, in other countries, by successful usurpers and conquerors. We
+learn from Spanish writers that a still greater destruction of the old
+books was effected by the more ignorant and fanatical of the Spanish
+priests who were established in the country as missionaries after the
+Conquest. This is stated by Las Casas, himself one of the missionaries.
+Besides the many smaller bonfires of this fanaticism, there is record of
+a great conflagration, under the auspices of Bishop Zumarraga, in which
+a vast collection of these old writings was consumed. As the writing was
+all on paper (which had long been used in the country), the burning was
+easily accomplished.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_OLD_BOOKS_NOT_ALL_LOST" id="THE_OLD_BOOKS_NOT_ALL_LOST"></a>THE OLD BOOKS NOT ALL LOST.</h3>
+
+<p>The Franciscan and Dominican fanatics, whose learning and religion
+consisted of ignorance and bigotry, hoped to exterminate among the
+people all recollection of their former history, ideas, and religious
+customs. A few of the books, however, escaped; none, indeed, that were
+very old, for it does not appear that any of the manuscripts rescued
+from destruction were written or copied earlier than the age which
+closed the Aztec domination. None of the great books of annals
+described<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> by Las Casas are among them, but they relate to the ancient
+times, and most of them are copies or reproductions of much older books.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;">
+<a name="fig-49" id="fig-49"></a><a href="images/fig-49-full.png"><img src="images/fig-49.png" width="259" height="256" alt="Drawing of the inscription on the top of Altar Q, Copan" title="Fig. 49.&mdash;Inscriptions carved on Stone." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.&mdash;Inscriptions carved on Stone.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among these destroying Spanish ecclesiastics, there was here and there
+one who quietly secured some of the manuscripts, or copies of them.
+These were kept from the flames. Others were secreted by the people; and
+subsequently, in years after the conquest was completed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> some of the
+more intelligent churchmen wrote histories of the country, or portions
+of it, which were preserved in manuscript. Sahagun wrote such a history,
+which shows that he had studied the traditions and some of the old
+books; this work is printed in the great collection of Lord
+Kingsborough. Diego de Landa, first bishop of Yucatan, wrote a history
+of the Mayas and their country, which was preserved in manuscript at
+Madrid in the library of the Royal Academy of History. It is one of the
+most important works on the country written by a Spaniard, because it
+contains a description and explanation of the phonetic alphabet of the
+Mayas. Landa&#8217;s manuscript seems to have lain neglected in the library,
+for little or nothing was heard of it until it was discovered and
+studied by Brasseur de Bourbourg, who, by means of it, has deciphered
+some of the old American writings. He says &#8220;the alphabet and signs
+explained by Landa have been to me a Rosetta stone.&#8221; <a href="#fig-49">Figure 49</a>
+represents a specimen of the inscriptions as carved upon stone. <a href="#fig-50">Figure
+50</a> gives them as they appear in manuscript.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 113px;">
+<a name="fig-50" id="fig-50"></a><a href="images/fig-50-full.png"><img src="images/fig-50.png" width="113" height="101" alt="Detail of an inscription from a Codex" title="Fig. 50.&mdash;Manuscript Writing." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;Manuscript Writing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>An extensive and important manuscript work, written two hundred years
+ago by Francisco Ximenes, an ecclesiastic, is preserved in Guatemala.
+He, being drawn to inquiries concerning the antiquities and ancient
+history of the country, was able to get possession of several of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> the
+old books, one of them being that known as &#8220;Popol-Vuh.&#8221; His manuscript,
+arranged in four great volumes (one of which, it is said, has
+disappeared), contains valuable information in regard to the ancient
+history and traditions of Guatemala. One of the volumes has a copy of
+the &#8220;Popol-Vuh&#8221; in the native tongue, and another has a Spanish
+translation of the work. He left also a manuscript Dictionary of the
+principal Guatemalan dialects (which belong to the Maya family),
+entitled &#8220;Tesoro de las Lenguas Quich&eacute;, Cakchiquel, y Tzutohil.&#8221;
+Probably other manuscripts of the same character exist at Madrid and in
+Central America which are not yet known to those who can understand
+their importance.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, none of the great books of annals have been
+discovered, but some of the old American manuscripts now preserved in
+several of the libraries and private collections of Europe are
+important. Three are specified as particularly valuable to students of
+American antiquity: that called the &#8220;Codex Chimalpopoca,&#8221; an old Toltec
+book, written in the Toltec language; one now entitled the &#8220;Codex
+Cakchiquel;&#8221; and the &#8220;Popol-Vuh.&#8221; The latter, written in the Quich&eacute;
+dialect, was translated into Spanish two hundred years ago by Ximenes,
+but his translation remained in Guatemala unprinted and quite unknown
+until it was discovered in our time. Brasseur de Bourbourg, who is
+master of the Quich&eacute; language, and to whom we are indebted for most that
+is known of the manuscripts of Ximenes, thought this Spanish translation
+very imperfect; therefore he has translated the work into French.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>The &#8220;Popol-Vuh&#8221; was written in 1558 as an abridged reproduction of a
+very ancient Quich&eacute; book which contained an account of the history,
+traditions, religion, and cosmogony of the Quich&eacute;s. The first part of it
+is devoted to the cosmogony and traditional lore; the rest gives an
+account of the Quich&eacute;s, who, at the time of the Conquest, were the
+dominant people in the Central American regions south of the great
+forest. If the history were consecutive and clear, it would not take us
+back into the past more than three or four centuries beyond 1558, for
+the Quich&eacute; domination was probably not much older than that of the
+Aztecs. But the history is not clear. Putting aside the mythical and
+legendary portion of it which relates to origins and migrations, we can
+see that it extends over some fourteen generations, which may indicate
+that Quich&eacute; became an independent and ruling power about 1200 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>For those who study the book it is full of interest. It shows us their
+conceptions of the Supreme Being and his relation to the world; it
+enables us to see what they admired in character as virtue, heroism,
+nobleness, and beauty; it discloses their mythology and their notions of
+religious worship; in a word, it bears witness to the fact that the
+various families of mankind are all of &#8220;one blood,&#8221; so far, at least, as
+to be precisely alike in nature.</p>
+
+<p>The cosmogony and mythical lore of the Quich&eacute;s seem to have their root
+in the beliefs and facts of a time far more ancient than the national
+beginning of this people. In assuming the form in which we find them,
+they must have passed through several phases of growth, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> changed
+their appearance and obscured their meaning. Manifestly the history of
+the country did not begin with the Quich&eacute;s. The account of the creation,
+with every thing else in this cosmogony and mythology, is original, like
+the civilization to which they belong.</p>
+
+<p>According to the &#8220;Popol-Vuh,&#8221; the world had a beginning. There was a
+time when it did not exist. Only &#8220;Heaven&#8221; existed, below which all space
+was an empty, silent, unchanging solitude. Nothing existed there,
+neither man, nor animal, nor earth, nor tree. Then appeared a vast
+expanse of water on which divine beings moved in brightness. &#8220;They said
+&#8216;earth!&#8217; and instantly the earth was created. It came into being like a
+vapor; mountains rose above the waters like lobsters and were made. Thus
+was the earth created by the Heart of Heaven.&#8221; Next came the creation of
+animals; but the gods were disappointed because the animals could
+neither tell their names nor worship the Heart of Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it was resolved that man should be created. First, man was
+made of earth, but his flesh had no cohesion; he was inert, could not
+turn his head, and had no mind, although he could speak; therefore he
+was consumed in the water. Next, men were made of wood, and these
+multiplied, but they had neither heart nor intellect, and could not
+worship, and so they withered up and disappeared in the waters. A third
+attempt followed: man was made of a tree called tzit&eacute;, and woman of the
+pith of a reed; but these failed to think, speak, or worship, and were
+destroyed, all save a remnant which still exists as a race of small
+monkeys found in forests.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>A fourth attempt to create the human race was successful, but the
+circumstances attending this creation are veiled in mystery. It took
+place before the beginning of dawn, when neither sun nor moon had risen,
+and was a wonder-work of the Heart of Heaven. Four men were created, and
+they could reason, speak, and see in such a manner as to know all things
+at once. They worshiped the Creator with thanks for existence, but the
+gods, dismayed and scared, breathed clouds on their eyes to limit their
+vision, and cause them to be men and not gods. Afterward, while the four
+men were asleep, the gods made for them beautiful wives, and from these
+came all the tribes and families of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>No account of the rescued fragments of this old literature of Ancient
+America should omit giving due credit to Chevalier Boturini, the
+Milanese, who went from Italy to America in 1735 as an agent of the
+Countess Santiba&ntilde;ey, who claimed to be a descendant of Montezuma. He,
+too, was a devotee, and believed that St. Thomas preached the Gospel in
+America; but he had antiquarian tastes, and was sufficiently intelligent
+to understand the importance of the old manuscripts which had furnished
+so much fuel for the bonfires of fanaticism. During the eight years of
+his residence in Mexico and Central America he hunted diligently for
+those still in existence, and made a considerable collection, including
+in it some of the Mexican &#8220;picture writings.&#8221; But when about to leave,
+he was despoiled of his treasure and flung into prison by the Spanish
+viceroy. He finally left the country with a portion of them, but was
+captured by an En<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>glish cruiser and again despoiled. The manuscripts
+left in Mexico were finally sold at auction while Humboldt was there; he
+secured a portion of them. Another portion was brought to France about
+1830 by M. Aubin, who made important additions to it. M. Aubin himself
+spent years searching for remains of the old writings, and he has now,
+it is supposed, the most valuable collection in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It is likely that most of the recovered books may be translated by those
+who can bring to the work habits of patient study and a thorough
+knowledge of the native dialects. Dictionaries of these dialects, as
+they were spoken at the time of the Conquest, were prepared by some of
+the Spanish priests, and other facilities are not wanting. It is
+surprising, however, that no one has translated the &#8220;Codex Chimalpopoca&#8221;
+(which seems the most important) if the language in which it is written
+is in fact sufficiently modern to be managed as easily as that of &#8220;Popol
+Vuh.&#8221; It must be translatable, for its general tenor is known, and
+passages of it are quoted. Brasseur de Bourbourg states that he has
+undertaken a translation. But who will translate the inscriptions at
+Copan and Palenque? Is the language in which they were written an old
+form of speech, from which the dialects of the Maya family, or a portion
+of them, were derived? They have not been translated. No one has found a
+clew to their meaning. The characters are understood, but they appear to
+show an older form of the language, which at present can not be
+deciphered. Brasseur de Bourbourg&#8217;s &#8220;Rosetta Stone,&#8221; discovered in
+Lan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>da&#8217;s manuscript, will not serve him here. Another more potent must
+be found before these old inscriptions can be made to give up their
+secrets.<a name="FNanchor_197-1_3" id="FNanchor_197-1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_197-1_3" class="fnanchor">197-*</a></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_ANCIENT_HISTORY_SKETCHED" id="THE_ANCIENT_HISTORY_SKETCHED"></a>THE ANCIENT HISTORY SKETCHED.</h3>
+
+<p>It is impossible to know what was contained in the books of annals
+written by the official chroniclers of these ancient American countries,
+for these books are lost. They existed at the time of the Conquest; some
+of them were seen and described by Las Casas; but, so far as is known,
+not one of these books of regular annals, such as he described, has
+escaped destruction; therefore it is impossible to know any thing
+certainly of their character as histories.</p>
+
+<p>The books preserved furnish little more than vague outlines of the past,
+with obscure views of distinct periods in the history, created by
+successive dominations of different peoples or different branches of the
+same people. What they enable us to know of the old history resembles
+what is known of the early times of the Greeks, who had no ancient
+histories excepting such as were furnished by their &#8220;poets of the
+cycle.&#8221; In one case we are told of Pelasgians, Leleges, Cadmeans,
+Argives, and Eolians very much as in the other we are told of Colhuas,
+Chichimecs, Quinames, and Nahuas.</p>
+
+<p>But the outline is not wholly dark; it does not exclude the possibility
+of a reasonable attempt at hypothesis. When Cortez entered Mexico, the
+Aztecs, Montezuma&#8217;s people, had been in power more than two centuries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+Most of the ancient history, of which something is said in these books,
+relates to ages previous to their time, and chiefly to their
+predecessors, the Toltecs. According to these writings, the country
+where the ruins are found was occupied in successive periods by three
+distinct peoples, the Chichimecs, the Colhuas, and the Toltecs or
+Nahuas. The Toltecs are said to have come into the country about a
+thousand years before the Christian era. Their supremacy appears to have
+ceased, and left the country broken up into small states, two or three
+centuries before the Aztecs appeared. They were preceded by the Colhuas,
+by whom this old civilization was originated and developed. The most
+ancient people, those found in the country by the Colhuas, are called
+Chichimecs. They are described as a barbarous people who lived by
+hunting and fishing, and had neither towns nor agriculture. This term
+Chichimecs appears to have been a generic appellation for all
+uncivilized aborigines. Brasseur de Bourbourg says, &#8220;Under the generic
+name Chichimecs, which has much embarrassed some writers, the Mexican
+traditions include the whole aboriginal population of the New World, and
+especially the people by whom it was first occupied at the beginning of
+time.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Some of the traditions state that the Colhuas came from the east in
+ships. Sahagun mentions that a tradition to this effect was current in
+Yucatan. The precise value of these traditional reports is uncertain;
+but, if accepted as vague historical recollections, they could be
+explained by supposing the civilized people called Colhuas came from
+South America through the Caribbean<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> Sea, and landed in Yucatan and
+Tabasco. They are uniformly described as the people who first
+established civilization and built great cities. They taught the
+Chichimecs to cook their food, cultivate the earth, and adopt the ways
+of civilized life; and the Chichimecs civilized by their influence are
+sometimes called Quinames.</p>
+
+<p>The Colhuas are connected with vague references to a long and important
+period in the history previous to the Toltec ages. They seem to have
+been, in some respects, more advanced in civilization than the Toltecs.
+What is said of events in their history relates chiefly to their great
+city called Xibalba, the capital of an important kingdom to which this
+name was given. The Toltecs, in alliance with the uncivilized Chichimecs
+of the mountains, subjugated this city and kingdom, and thus brought to
+a close the period which may be termed Colhuan. This kingdom appears to
+have included Guatemala, Yucatan, Tabasco, Tehuantepec, Chiapa,
+Honduras, and other districts in Central America; and it may have
+included all Southern Mexico, for places north of the Tampico River are
+mentioned as being within its limits when the Toltecs came into the
+country. Some of the principal seats of the Colhuan civilization were in
+the region now covered by the great forest. Some investigators have
+sought to identify the city of Xibalba with the ruined city known to us
+as Palenque. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: &#8220;Palenque appears to have been
+the same city to which the books give the name of Xibalba;&#8221; but this is
+nothing but conjecture. We may as reasonably suppose Copan, Quirigua, or
+some other old ruin, to have been Xibalba.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>Those who attempt to believe this old American civilization was brought
+across the Atlantic by the Ph&#339;nicians in very remote times, assume,
+against the plain testimony of the monuments, that the Colhuas came to
+America from some country on the Mediterranean. They may have come from
+some other part of this continent. In my judgment, it is not improbable
+that they came by sea from South America. Brasseur de Bourbourg would
+say they were people of the Atlantic race, who, having escaped
+destruction by the cataclysm, found their way to Yucatan and Tabasco.
+But there is little beside conjecture to support any theory of their
+origin. We have only the fact that, according to the old books and
+traditions of the country, they occupied that region at a remote period,
+and originated the civilization whose monuments are found there.
+Tradition places their first settlements on the Gulf coast in Tabasco,
+between Tehuantepec and Yucatan. It is inferred that the Mayas,
+Tzendals, Quich&eacute;s, and some other communities of the old race, were
+descendants of the Colhuas, their speech being more highly developed
+than that of any native community not connected with this family, and
+their written characters having a close resemblance to those of the
+oldest inscriptions.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_TOLTECS_OUR_MOUND-BUILDERS" id="THE_TOLTECS_OUR_MOUND-BUILDERS"></a>THE TOLTECS OUR MOUND-BUILDERS.</h3>
+
+<p>As the remains of the Mound-Builders show clearly that they had
+commercial intercourse with the Mexican and Central American countries,
+and as it seems probable that they had otherwise a very close relation
+to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> people of those countries, it would be surprising to find no
+mention of their country in the old books and traditions of the Central
+Americans and Mexicans. If we could have the lost books, especially
+those of the more ancient time, and learn to read them, it might be
+possible to know something of the origin and history of the
+Mound-Builders. It is believed that distinct reference to their country
+has been found in the books still in existence, and there appears to be
+reason for this belief. Brasseur de Bourbourg, one of the few
+investigators who have explored them, says:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Previous to the history of the Toltec domination in Mexico, we notice
+in the annals of the country two facts of great importance, but equally
+obscure in their details: first, the tradition concerning the landing of
+a foreign race, conducted by an illustrious personage, who came from an
+eastern country; and, second, the existence of an ancient empire known
+as Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs or Nahuas came to Mexico, in
+consequence of a revolution or invasion, and from which they had a long
+and toilsome migration to the Aztec plateau.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He believes that Huehue-Tlapalan was the country of the Mound-Builders
+in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. According to the native books he
+has examined, it was somewhere at a distance in the northeast; and it is
+constantly said that some of the Toltecs came by land and some by sea.
+Sahagun learned from the old books and traditions, and stated in the
+introduction to the first book of his history, that the Toltecs came
+from that distant northeastern country; and he mentions a company<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> that
+came by sea, settled near the Tampico River, and built a town called
+Panuco. Brasseur de Bourbourg finds that an account of this or another
+company was preserved at Xilanco, an ancient city situated on the point
+of an island between Lake Terminos and the sea, and famous for its
+commerce, wealth, and intelligence. The company described in this
+account came from the northeast in the same way, it is said, to the
+Tampico River, and landed at Panuco. It consisted of twenty chiefs and a
+numerous company of people. Torquemada found a record which describes
+them as people of fine appearance. They went forward into the country
+and were well received. He says they were industrious, orderly, and
+intelligent, and that they worked metals, and were skillful artists and
+lapidaries. All the accounts say the Toltecs came at different times, by
+land and sea, mostly in small companies, and always from the northeast.
+This can be explained only by supposing they came by sea from the mouth
+of the Mississippi River or from the Gulf coast near it, and by land
+through Texas. But the country from which they came was invariably
+Huehue-Tlapalan.</p>
+
+<p>Cabrera says Huehue-Tlapalan was the ancient country of the Toltecs. Its
+simple name was Tlapalan, but they called it Huehue, old, to distinguish
+it from three other Tlapalans which they founded in the districts of
+their new kingdom. Torquemada says the same. We are not authorized to
+reject a fact so distinctly stated and so constantly reported in the old
+books. The most we can do against it with any show of reason is to
+re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>ceive it with doubt. Therefore it seems not improbable that the &#8220;Old
+Tlapalan&#8221; of Central American tradition was the country of our
+Mound-Builders.</p>
+
+<p>Another circumstance mentioned is not without significance. It is said,
+in connection with this account of the Toltec migration, that
+Huehue-Tlapalan was successfully invaded by Chichimecs, meaning
+barbarous aboriginal tribes, who were united under one great leader.
+Here is one statement (a little condensed) touching this point: &#8220;There
+was a terrible struggle, but, after about thirteen years, the Toltecs,
+no longer able to resist successfully, were obliged to abandon their
+country to escape complete subjugation. Two chiefs guided the march of
+the emigrating nation. At length they reached a region near the sea
+named &#8216;Tlapalan-Conco,&#8217; where they remained several years. But they
+finally undertook another migration and reached Mexico, where they built
+a town called &#8216;Tollanzinco,&#8217; and later the city of Tullan, which became
+the seat of their government.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is substantially what is told of the defeat and migrations of the
+Toltecs. The history of Ixtlilxochitl adds doubtful modifications and
+particulars not found in the &#8220;Codex Chimalpopoca.&#8221; (See Quatre Lettres,
+etc.) This Chichimec invasion of Huehue-Tlapalan is placed at a period
+which, in the chronology of the native books, was long previous to the
+Christian era, and is mentioned to explain the beginning of the Toltec
+movement toward Mexico; but the account of it is obscure.</p>
+
+<p>To find a system of chronology in these old books is not surprising when
+we consider that even the Aztecs of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> Montezuma&#8217;s time knew enough of
+astronomy to have a correct measure of the year. The Aztecs adopted the
+methods of astronomy and chronology which were used by their
+predecessors. They divided the year into eighteen months of twenty days
+each; but, as this gave the year only three hundred and sixty days, five
+supplementary days were added to each year, and a sixth day to every
+fourth year. The bissextile is known to have been used by the Mayas,
+Tzendals, and Quich&eacute;s, and it was probably common.</p>
+
+<p>We can not reasonably refuse to give some attention to their chronology,
+even while doubting its value as a means of fixing dates and measuring
+historical periods. Its method was to count by equal periods of years,
+as we count by centuries, and their chronology presents a series of
+periods which carries back their history to a very remote time in the
+past. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: &#8220;In the histories written in the
+Nahuatl language, the oldest certain date is nine hundred and fifty-five
+years before Christ.&#8221; This, he means, is the oldest date in the history
+of the Nahuas or Toltecs which has been accurately determined. The
+calculation by which it is found is quoted from the later portion of the
+&#8220;Codex Chimalpopoca&#8221; as follows: &#8220;Six times 400 years plus 113 years&#8221;
+previous to the year 1558 A.D. This is given as the date of a division
+of the land by the Nahuas. The division was made 2513 years previous to
+1558 A.D., or in 955 B.C. If this date could be accepted as authentic,
+it would follow that the Nahuas or Toltecs left Huehue-Tlapalan more
+than a thousand years previous to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> Christian era, for they dwelt a
+long time in the country of Xibalba as peaceable settlers before they
+organized the civil war which raised them to power.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="SOME_CONFIRMATION_OF_THIS_HISTORY" id="SOME_CONFIRMATION_OF_THIS_HISTORY"></a>SOME CONFIRMATION OF THIS HISTORY.</h3>
+
+<p>That the ancient history of the country was something like what is
+reported in the old writings seems not improbable when we consider the
+condition in which the native population was found three hundred and
+fifty years ago. This shows that Mexico and Central America had been
+subjected to disrupting political changes caused by violent transfers of
+supreme influence from one people to another several times in the course
+of a long history. Such a history is indicated by the monuments, and its
+traces were noticeable in peculiarities of the native inhabitants of the
+various districts at the time of the Spanish Conquest. They are still
+manifest to travelers who study the existing representatives of the old
+race and the old dialects sufficiently to find them. There were several
+distinct families or groups of language, and, in many cases, the people
+represented by each family of dialects were in a state of separation or
+disruption. To a considerable extent they existed in fragmentary
+communities, sometimes widely separated.</p>
+
+<p>The most important group of related dialects was that which included the
+speech of the Mayas, Quich&eacute;s, and Tzendals, which, it is supposed,
+represented the language of the original civilizers, the Colhuas.
+Dialects of this family are found on both sides of the great forest.
+There were other dialects supposed to indicate Toltec commu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>nities; and
+there were communities south of Mexico, in Nicaragua, and even farther
+south, which used the Aztec speech. Very likely all these differing
+groups of language came originally from the same source, and really
+represent a single race, but comparative philology has not yet reported
+on them. Mention is made of another people, called Waiknas or Caribs,
+and conjecture sees in them remains of the aboriginal barbarians termed
+Chichimecs. They dwelt chiefly in the &#8220;dense, dank forests&#8221; found
+growing on the low alluvion of the Atlantic coast. So far as is known,
+their speech had no affinity with that of any other native community.
+People of this race constitute a chief element in the mixed population
+of the &#8220;Mosquito Coast,&#8221; known as Moscos.</p>
+
+<p>In Yucatan the old inhabitants were Mayas, and people using dialects
+related to theirs were numerous in Tabasco, Chiapa, Guatemala, and the
+neighboring districts, while all around the country were scattered
+communities supposed to be of Toltec origin, as their speech could not
+be classed with these dialects nor with that of the Aztecs. The most
+reasonable explanation of this condition of the people is that furnished
+by the old chronicles and traditions. The country must have been
+occupied, during successive periods, by different peoples, who are
+represented by these broken communities and unlike groups of language.
+When all the native writings still in existence shall have been
+translated, and especially when the multitude of inscriptions found in
+the ruins shall have been deciphered, we may be able to see in a clearer
+light the ruins, the people, and their history.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_197-1_3" id="Footnote_197-1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197-1_3"><span class="label">197-*</span></a> See <a href="#APPENDIX_D">Appendix D</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">If</span> a clever gleaner of the curious and notable things in literature
+should write on the curiosities of historical speculation, he would be
+sure to take some account of &#8220;A New History of the Conquest of Mexico&#8221;
+published in Philadelphia in 1859. The special aim of this work is to
+deny utterly the civilization of the Aztecs. The author has ability,
+earnestness, and knowledge of what has been written on the subject; he
+writes with vigor, and with a charming extravagance of dogmatic
+assumption, which must be liked for its heartiness, while it fails to
+convince those who study it. This writer fully admits the significance
+of the old ruins, and maintains that a great civilization formerly
+existed in that part of the continent. This he ascribes to the
+Ph&#339;nicians, while he gives it an extreme antiquity, and thinks the
+present ruins have existed as ruins &#8220;for thousands of years,&#8221; explaining
+these words to mean that their history &#8220;is separated by a cycle of
+thousands of years from the civilization of our day.&#8221; In his view, the
+people who constructed the old cities were subjugated and destroyed,
+long ages since, &#8220;by inroads of northern savages,&#8221; who were the only
+people in the country when the Spaniards arrived.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>The chief business of this &#8220;New History&#8221; is to set forth these views.
+Under the treatment of its author, Montezuma becomes a rude Indian
+sachem, his kingdom a confederation of barbarous Indian tribes like that
+of the Iroquois, the city of Mexico a cluster of mud huts or wigwams in
+an everglade, its causeways rude Indian footpaths, its temples and
+palaces pure fictions of lying Spanish romance, and all previous
+histories of the Aztecs and their country extravagant inventions with a
+&#8220;Moorish coloring.&#8221; He would have us believe that what he calls &#8220;the
+pretended civilization of Montezuma and his Aztecs&#8221; was a monstrous
+fable of the Spaniards, a &#8220;pure fabrication,&#8221; encouraged by the civil
+authority in Spain, and supported by the censorship of the Inquisition.
+Therefore he undertakes to destroy &#8220;the fabric of lies,&#8221; unveil those
+&#8220;Mexican savages&#8221; the Aztecs, and tell a &#8220;new&#8221; story of their actual
+character and condition.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, views so preposterous do not find much favor. If the Mexicans
+had been nothing more than this, the experience of Cortez among them
+would have been like that of De Soto in his long and disastrous march
+through Florida, the Gulf regions, and the country on the lower
+Mississippi. Cortez and his men had a different fortune, because their
+march was among people who had towns, cities, settled communities, and
+the appliances and accumulations of civilized life. Doubtless some of
+the Spaniards exaggerated and romanced for effect in Spain, but they did
+not invent either the city of Mexico or the kingdom of Montezuma. We can
+see clearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> that the Mexicans were a civilized people, that Montezuma&#8217;s
+city of Mexico was larger than the present city, and that an important
+empire was substantially conquered when that city was finally subjugated
+and destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>That the ancient city of Mexico was a great city, well built partly of
+timber and partly of cut stone laid in a mortar of lime, appears in all
+that is said of the siege, and of the dealings of Cortez with its people
+and their rulers. Montezuma, wishing to remove false notions of the
+Spaniards concerning his wealth, said to Cortez during their first
+interview, &#8220;The Tlascalans, I know, have told you that I am like a god,
+and that all about me is gold, silver, and precious stones; but you now
+see that I am mere flesh and blood, and that <i>my houses are built of
+lime, stone, and timber</i>.&#8221; Lime, stone, and timber! This was the poorest
+view of the old city of Mexico that could be given to those who saw it.
+It is not easy to understand how a denial of the Aztec civilization was
+possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_DISCOVERY_AND_INVASION" id="THE_DISCOVERY_AND_INVASION"></a>THE DISCOVERY AND INVASION.</h3>
+
+<p>The first inhabitants of that part of the continent seen by Spaniards
+were Mayas from Yucatan. Columbus met them in 1502 at an island near
+Ruatan, off the coast of Honduras. While he was stopping at this island,
+these Mayas came there &#8220;in a vessel of considerable size&#8221; from a port in
+Yucatan, thirty leagues distant. It was a trading vessel, freighted with
+a variety of merchandise, and it used sails. Its cargo consisted of a
+variety of textile fabrics of divers colors, wearing apparel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> arms,
+household furniture, and cacao, and the crew numbered twenty men.
+Columbus, who treated them very kindly, described these strangers as
+well clothed, intelligent, and altogether superior to any other people
+he had discovered in America. Adventurers hunting for prey soon began to
+make voyages in that direction and report what they saw. Sailing along
+the coast of Yucatan, they discovered cities, and &#8220;the grandeur of the
+buildings filled them with astonishment.&#8221; On the main land and on one or
+two islands they saw great edifices built of stone. The seeming riches
+and other attractions of the country led the Spaniards to invade
+Yucatan, but they were defeated and driven off. At this time they gained
+considerable knowledge of Mexico, and persuaded themselves that immense
+wealth could be found there.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in March, 1519, Cortez landed near the place where Vera Cruz
+was afterward built, and moved on through the country toward the city of
+Mexico. Studying, in all the histories of the Conquest, only their
+incidental references to the civilized condition of the people, we can
+see plainly what it was. As the invaders approached Tlascala, they found
+&#8220;beautiful whitewashed houses&#8221; scattered over the country. The
+Tlascalans had towns, cities, agriculture, and markets. Cortez found
+among them all that was needed by his troops. His supremacy in Tlascala
+was easily established; and it was not difficult to induce the people to
+aid him cordially in his operations against Mexico, for they hated the
+Aztecs, by whom they had recently been subjugated. In a de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>scription of
+their capital, he stated that it was as large as the city of Granada, in
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>He went next to Cholulu, where, near the great mound, was an important
+city, in which they saw a &#8220;great plaza.&#8221; Bernal Diaz said of this city,
+&#8220;I well remember, when we first entered this town and looked up to the
+elevated white temples, how the whole place put us completely in mind of
+Valladolid.&#8221; The &#8220;white temples&#8221; were &#8220;elevated&#8221; because they stood on
+high pyramidal foundations, just as they are seen in the old ruins. It
+is probable, however, that these were built of adobe bricks or of
+timber. The city very likely was much older than the Aztec empire. A
+Spanish officer named Ordaz ascended Mount Popocatapetl, and one thing
+he saw was &#8220;the Valley of Mexico, with its city, its lagunas and
+islands, and its scattered hamlets, a busy throng of life being every
+where visible.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_CITY_OF_MEXICO" id="THE_CITY_OF_MEXICO"></a>THE CITY OF MEXICO.</h3>
+
+<p>At the city of Mexico Cortez had a great reception, negotiation having
+established the form of friendly relations between him and Montezuma.
+Quarters were provided in the city for the Spanish portion of his army,
+a vast edifice being set apart for their use which furnished ample
+accommodations for the whole force. The place could be entered only by
+causeways. They marched on a wide avenue which led through the heart of
+the city, beholding the size, architecture, and beauty of the Aztec
+capital with astonishment. This avenue was lined with some of the finest
+houses, built of a porous red<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> stone dug from quarries in the
+neighborhood. The people gathered in crowds on the streets, on the flat
+roofs, in the doorways, and at the windows to witness the arrival of the
+Spaniards. Most of the streets were narrow, and had houses of a much
+less imposing character. The great streets went over numerous canals, on
+well-built bridges. Montezuma&#8217;s palace was a low, irregular pile of
+stone structures extending over a large space of ground.</p>
+
+<p>Among the <i>teocallis</i> of the Aztec capital the &#8220;great temple&#8221; stood
+foremost. It was situated in the centre of a vast inclosure, which was
+surrounded by a heavy wall eight feet high, built of prepared stone.
+This inclosure was entered by four gateways opening on the four
+principal streets of the city. The &#8220;temple&#8221; was a solid structure built
+of earth and pebbles, and faced from top to bottom with hewn stone laid
+in mortar. It had five stages, each receding so as to be smaller than
+that below it. In general outline it was a rectangular pyramid three
+hundred feet square at the base, with a level summit of considerable
+extent, on which were two towers, and two altars where &#8220;perpetual fires&#8221;
+were maintained. Here the religious ceremonies were conducted. The
+ascent was by a circular flight of steps on the outside which went four
+times around the structure. The water in the lagoons being salt, the
+city was supplied with water by means of an aqueduct which extended to
+Chapultepec.</p>
+
+<p>Such substantially is the account given of the old city of Mexico and
+its great temple by every writer who saw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> them before the Conquest, and
+all the struggles which took place for possession of this capital had a
+character that would have been impossible any where save in a large
+city. In every account of the attacks on the great temple, we can see
+that it was a great temple; and we may perceive what the old city was by
+reading any account of the desperate and bloody battles in which the
+Spaniards were driven from it, after standing a ten days&#8217; siege in the
+great stone building they occupied.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_CONQUEST" id="THE_CONQUEST"></a>THE CONQUEST.</h3>
+
+<p>This battle took place in the latter part of June, 1520, several months
+after the friendly reception, and was occasioned by the treacherous and
+most atrocious proceedings of the Spaniards, which drove the Mexicans to
+madness. Nearly a year passed before Cortez made another attack on the
+Mexican capital. During this time he found means among the Tlascalans to
+build a flotilla of thirteen vessels, which were transported in pieces
+to Lake Tezcuco and there put together. This would have been impossible
+if he had not found in the country suitable tools and mechanics. By
+means of these vessels armed with cannon, and assisted by a great army
+of native allies consisting of Tlascalans, Cholulans, and many others,
+he took control of the lagunas, secured possession of the causeways, and
+attacked the city in vain for forty-five days, although his men several
+times penetrated to the great square. He now resolved to enter by
+gradual advances, and destroy every thing as he went. This he did,
+burning what was combustible, and tearing down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> most of the edifices
+built of stone; nevertheless, thirty or forty days more passed before
+this work of destruction was complete. The inhabitants of the city were
+given over to extermination.</p>
+
+<p>The conquerors proceeded immediately to rebuild the city, native
+architects chiefly being employed to do the work. Materials for the
+rebuilding were taken from the ruins; probably many of the old Aztec
+foundations were retained, and there may now be edifices in the city of
+Mexico which stand on some of these foundations. Twelve acres of the
+great inclosure of the Aztec temple were taken for a Spanish plaza, and
+are still used for this purpose, while the site of the temple is
+occupied by a cathedral. The plaza is paved with marble. Like the rest
+of the great inclosure, it was paved when the Spaniards first saw it,
+and the paving was so perfect and so smooth that their horses were
+liable to slip and fall when they attempted to ride over it.</p>
+
+<p>Some relics recovered from ruins of the old temple have been preserved.
+Among them is the great Aztec calendar which belonged to it, on which
+are carved hieroglyphics representing the months of the year. This
+calendar was found in 1790 buried in the great square. It was carved
+from a mass of porous basalt, and made eleven feet eight inches in
+diameter. It was a fixture of the Aztec temple; it is now walled into
+one side of the cathedral. The &#8220;stone of sacrifice,&#8221; another relic of
+the temple, nine feet in diameter, and covered with sculptured
+hieroglyphics, can still be seen in the city, and in the suburbs, it is
+said, vestiges of the ruins of long lines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> of edifices can be traced.
+Calendars made of gold and silver were common in Mexico. Before Cortez
+reached the capital, Montezuma sent him two &#8220;as large as cartwheels,&#8221;
+one representing the sun, the other the moon, both &#8220;richly carved.&#8221;
+During the sack of the city a calendar of gold was found by a soldier in
+a pond of Guatemozin&#8217;s garden. But these Spaniards did not go to Mexico
+to study Aztec astronomy, nor to collect curiosities. In their hands
+every article of gold was speedily transformed into coin.</p>
+
+<p>In every Spanish description of the city we can see its resemblance to
+cities whose ruins are found farther south. If the Spaniards had
+invented the temple, they would not have made it unlike any thing they
+had ever before seen or heard of, by placing its altar on the summit of
+a high pyramid. This method of constructing temples is seen in the old
+ruins, but it was unknown to Cortez and his men until they found it in
+Mexico. The only reasonable or possible explanation of what they said of
+it is, that the temple actually existed at the Aztec capital, and that
+the Spaniards, being there, described what they saw. The uniform
+testimony of all who saw the country at that time shows that the
+edifices of towns and cities, wherever they went, were most commonly
+built of cut stone laid in mortar, or of timber, and that in the more
+rural districts thatch was frequently used for the roofs of dwellings.
+Moreover, we are told repeatedly that the Spaniards employed &#8220;Mexican
+masons,&#8221; and found them &#8220;very expert&#8221; in the arts of building and
+plastering. There is no good reason to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> doubt that the civilized
+condition of the country, when the Spaniards found it, was superior to
+what it has been at any time since the Conquest.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="WHO_WERE_THE_AZTECS" id="WHO_WERE_THE_AZTECS"></a>WHO WERE THE AZTECS?</h3>
+
+<p>The Mexicans, or Aztecs, subjugated by Cortez, were themselves invaders,
+whose extended dominion was probably less than two hundred and fifty
+years old, although they had been much longer in the Valley of Mexico.
+There were important portions of the country, especially at the south,
+to which their rule had not been extended. In several districts besides
+those of the Mayas and the Quich&eacute;s the natives still maintained
+independent governments. The Aztec conquest of the central region,
+between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, was completed only a few
+years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards, and the conquest of this
+region had not been fully secured at some points, as appeared in the
+readiness of the Tlascalans and others to act in alliance with Cortez.
+But the Aztecs did not come from abroad. They belonged in the country,
+and seem to have been originally an obscure and somewhat rude branch of
+the native race.</p>
+
+<p>It is very probable that the Colhuas and Nahuas or Toltecs of the old
+books and traditions, together with the Aztecs, were all substantially
+the same people. They established in the country three distinct family
+groups of language, it is said, but the actual significance of this
+difference in speech has not been clearly determined. These unlike
+groups of language have not been suffi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>ciently analyzed and studied to
+justify us in assuming that they did not all come from the same original
+source, or that there is a more radical difference between them than
+between the Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Scandinavian groups in Europe.
+These ancient Americans were distinct from each other at the time of the
+Conquest, but not so distinct as to show much difference in their
+religious ideas, their mythology, their ceremonies of worship, their
+methods of building, or in the general character of their civilization.</p>
+
+<p>If the Toltecs and our Mound-Builders were the same people, they
+probably went from Mexico and Central America to the Valley of the
+Mississippi at a very remote period, as Colhuan colonies, and after a
+long residence there returned so much changed in speech and in other
+respects as to seem a distinct people. The Aztecs appear to have dwelt
+obscurely in the south before they rose to power. They must have been at
+first much less advanced in civilization than their predecessors, but
+ready to adopt the superior knowledge and methods of the country they
+invaded.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THEY_CAME_FROM_THE_SOUTH" id="THEY_CAME_FROM_THE_SOUTH"></a>THEY CAME FROM THE SOUTH.</h3>
+
+<p>It has sometimes been assumed that the Aztecs came to Mexico from the
+north, but there is nothing to warrant this assumption, nothing to make
+it probable, nothing even to explain the fact that some persons have
+entertained it. People of the ancient Mexican and Central American race
+are not found farther north than New Mexico and Arizona, where they are
+known as Pueblos,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> or Village Indians. In the old times that was a
+frontier region, and the Pueblos seem to represent ancient settlers who
+went there from the south. There was the border line between the Mexican
+race and the wild Indians, and the distinction between the Pueblos and
+the savage tribes is every way so uniform and so great that it is
+well-nigh impossible to believe they all belong to the same race. In
+fact, no people really like our wild Indians of North America have ever
+been found in Mexico, Central America, or South America.</p>
+
+<p>Investigation has made it probable that the Mexicans or Aztecs went to
+the Valley of Mexico from the south. Mr. Squier says: &#8220;The hypothesis of
+a migration from Nicaragua and Cuscutlan to Anahuac is altogether more
+consonant with probabilities and with tradition than that which derives
+the Mexicans from the north; and it is a significant fact, that in the
+map of their migrations presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of
+the Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (<i>atl</i> standing for
+Aztlan), a pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a palm-tree.&#8221;
+Humboldt thought this indicated a southern origin.</p>
+
+<p>Communities of Aztecs still exist as far south as Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica, with some variations in their speech, but not so great, probably,
+as to make them unintelligible to each other. The Spanish historian,
+Oviedo, called attention to the fact that an isolated community of
+Aztecs was found occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the
+Pacific. They were called Niquirans, and Mr. Squier seems to have
+verified this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> fact. The result of his investigation is that the people
+of the district specified are Aztecs, and that, &#8220;from the comparative
+lateness of the separation or some other cause,&#8221; their distinguishing
+features were easily recognized, their speech being nearly identical
+with the native speech heard in the Valley of Mexico. Oviedo said of
+them: &#8220;The Niquirans who speak the Mexican language have the same
+manners and appearance as the people of New Spain (Mexico).&#8221; In the
+neighboring districts, communities closely related to the Mayas are
+found, and others that appear to belong to the Toltec family. Aztecs are
+found still farther south, and there appear to be conclusive reasons for
+believing that Montezuma&#8217;s people went from the south to Anahuac or
+Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>According to the native histories as reported by Clavigero, the Aztecs
+began their migration northward from Aztlan about the year 1160 A.D.,
+and founded the more important of their first settlements in the Valley
+of Mexico about the year 1216 A.D., a little over three hundred years
+previous to the Spanish invasion. Another result of investigation adds a
+century to this estimate. This result is reached as follows: the
+Mexicans stated constantly that their calendar was reformed some time
+after they left Aztlan, and that in the year 1519 eight cycles of
+fifty-two years each and thirteen years of a ninth cycle had passed
+since that reform was made. This carries back the beginning of their
+migration considerably beyond the year 1090 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>Their sway seems to have been confined for a long time to Anahuac. They
+grew to supremacy in part prob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>ably by the arrival of new immigrants,
+but chiefly by conquest of the small states into which the country was
+divided. They could learn from their more cultivated neighbors to reform
+their calendar, compute time with greater accuracy, and make important
+improvements in other respects. They must also have modified their
+religious system to some extent, for it does not appear that they had
+adopted the worship of Kukulcan (whose name they transformed into
+Quetzalcohuatl) before they came to Mexico. But they brought with them
+an effective political organization, and very likely they were better
+fitted than most of their new neighbors for the rude work of war.</p>
+
+<p>Before the city of Mexico was built, the seat of their government was at
+Tezcuco. The character of their civilization after they rose to
+pre-eminence was shown in their organization, in their skill as
+builders, in the varied forms of their industry, and in the development
+of their religious ceremonies. It is manifest that they adopted all the
+astronomical knowledge and appliances found in the neighboring states
+which they subjugated. Their measure of the solar year and their
+numbering of the months were precisely like what had long existed in
+this part of the country; and they had the same astronomical implements
+or contrivances. One of these contrivances, found at Chapultepec, is
+described as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;On the horizontal plane of a large, carefully-worked stone, three
+arrows were cut in relief, so that the shaft ends came together and made
+equal angles in the centre. The points were directed eastward, the two
+outside show<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>ing the two solstitial points, and that in the centre the
+equinoctial. A line on the carved band holding them together was in
+range with holes in two stones which stood exactly north and south. A
+cord drawn tightly through the holes in these two stones would, at the
+moment of noon, cast its shadow on the line drawn across the band. It
+was a perfect instrument for ascertaining east and west with precision,
+and for determining the exact time by the rising and setting of the sun
+at the equinoxes and solstices. This stone has now been broken up and
+used to construct a furnace.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These Aztecs were manifestly something very different from &#8220;Mexican
+savages.&#8221; At the same time, they were less advanced in many things than
+their predecessors. Their skill in architecture and architectural
+ornamentation did not enable them to build such cities as Mitla and
+Palenque, and their &#8220;picture writing&#8221; was a much ruder form of the
+graphic art than the phonetic system of the Mayas and Quich&eacute;s. It does
+not appear that they ever went so far in literary improvement as to
+adopt this simpler and more complete system for any purpose whatever. If
+the country had never, in the previous ages, felt the influence of a
+higher culture than that of the Aztecs, it would not have now, and never
+could have had, ruined cities like Mitla, Copan, and Palenque. Not only
+was the system of writing shown by the countless inscriptions quite
+beyond the attainments of Aztec art, but also the abundant sculptures
+and the whole system of decoration found in the old ruins.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="X" id="X"></a>X.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">ANCIENT PERU.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> ruins of Ancient Peru are found chiefly on the elevated table-lands
+of the Andes, between Quito and Lake Titicaca; but they can be traced
+five hundred miles farther south, to Chili, and throughout the region
+connecting these high plateaus with the Pacific coast. The great
+district to which they belong extends north and south about two thousand
+miles. When the marauding Spaniards arrived in the country, this whole
+region was the seat of a populous and prosperous empire, complete in its
+civil organization, supported by an efficient system of industry, and
+presenting a very notable development of some of the more important arts
+of civilized life. These ruins differ from those in Mexico and Central
+America. No inscriptions are found in Peru; there is no longer a
+&#8220;marvelous abundance of decorations;&#8221; nothing is seen like the monoliths
+of Copan or the bas-reliefs of Palenque. The method of building is
+different; the Peruvian temples were not high truncated pyramids, and
+the great edifices were not erected on pyramidal foundations. The
+Peruvian ruins show us remains of cities, temples, palaces, other
+edifices of various kinds, fortresses, aqueducts (one of them four
+hundred and fifty miles long), great roads (extending through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> whole
+length of the empire), and terraces on the sides of mountains. For all
+these constructions the builders used cut stone laid in mortar or
+cement, and their work was done admirably, but it is every where seen
+that the masonry, although sometimes ornamented, was generally plain in
+style and always massive. The antiquities in this region have not been
+as much explored and described as those north of the isthmus, but their
+general character is known, and particular descriptions of some of them
+have been published.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_SPANISH_HUNT_FOR_PERU" id="THE_SPANISH_HUNT_FOR_PERU"></a>THE SPANISH HUNT FOR PERU.</h3>
+
+<p>The Spanish conquest of Peru furnishes one of the most remarkable
+chapters in the history of audacious villainy. It was the work of
+successful buccaneers as unscrupulous as any crew of pirates that ever
+robbed and murdered on the ocean. After their settlements began on the
+islands and the Atlantic coast, rumors came to them of a wonderful
+country somewhere at a distance in the west. They knew nothing of
+another ocean between them and the Indies; the western side of the
+continent was a veiled land of mystery, but the rumors, constantly
+repeated, assured them that there was a country in that unknown region
+where gold was more abundant than iron among themselves. Their strongest
+passions were moved; greed for the precious metals and thirst for
+adventures.</p>
+
+<p>Balboa was hunting for Peru when he discovered the Pacific, about 1511
+A.D. He was guided across the isthmus by a young native chief, who told
+him of that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> ocean, saying it was the best way to the country where all
+the common household utensils were made of gold. At the Bay of Panama
+Balboa heard more of Peru, and went down the coast to find it, but did
+not go south much beyond the eighth degree of north latitude. In his
+company of adventurers at this time was Francisco Pizarro, by whom Peru
+was found, subjugated, robbed, and ruined, some fifteen or twenty years
+later. Balboa was superseded by Pedrarias, another greedy adventurer,
+whose jealousy arrested his operations and finally put him to death. The
+town of Panama was founded in 1519 by this Pedrarias, chiefly as a point
+on the Pacific from which he could seek and attack Peru. Under his
+direction, in 1522, the search was attempted by Pascual de Andagoya, but
+he failed to get down the coast beyond the limit of Balboa&#8217;s
+exploration. Meanwhile clearer and more abundant reports of the rich and
+marvelous nation to be found somewhere below that point were circulated
+among the Spaniards, and their eagerness to reach it became intense.</p>
+
+<p>In 1524, three men could have been seen in Panama busily engaged
+preparing another expedition to go in search of the golden country.
+These were Francisco Pizarro, a bold and capable adventurer, who could
+neither read nor write; Diego de Almagro, an impulsive, passionate,
+reckless soldier of fortune, and Hernando de Luque, a Spanish
+ecclesiastic, Vicar of Panama, and a man well acquainted with the world
+and skilled in reading character, acting at this time, it is said, for
+another person who kept out of view. They had formed an alli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>ance to
+discover and rob Peru. Luque would furnish most of the funds, and wait
+in Panama for the others to do the work. Pizarro would be
+commander-in-chief. The vessels used would necessarily be such as could
+be built at Panama, and, therefore, not very efficient.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro went down the coast, landing from time to time to explore and
+rob villages, until he reached about the fourth degree of north
+latitude, when he was obliged to return for supplies and repairs. It
+became necessary to reconstruct the contract and allow Pedrarias an
+interest in it. On the next voyage, one of the vessels went half a
+degree south of the equator, and encountered a vessel &#8220;like a European
+caravel,&#8221; which was, in fact, a Peruvian <i>balsa</i>, loaded with
+merchandise, vases, mirrors of burnished silver, and curious fabrics of
+cotton and woolen.</p>
+
+<p>It became again indispensable to send back to Panama for supplies and
+repairs, and Pizarro was doomed to wait for them seven months on an
+island. He next visited Tumbez, in Peru, and went to the ninth degree of
+south latitude; but he was obliged to visit Spain to get necessary aid
+before he could attempt any thing more, and it was not until the year
+1531 that the conquest of Peru was actually undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>In 1531 Pizarro finally entered Tumbez with his buccaneers, and marched
+into the country, sending word to the Inca that he came to aid him
+against his enemies. There had been a civil war in the country, which
+had been divided by the great Inca, Huayna Capac, the conqueror of
+Quito, between his two sons, Huascar and Ata<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>huallpa, and Huascar had
+been defeated and thrown into prison, and finally put to death. At a
+city called Caxamalca, Pizarro contrived, by means of the most atrocious
+treachery, to seize the Inca and massacre some ten thousand of the
+principal Peruvians, who came to his camp unarmed on a friendly visit.
+This threw the whole empire into confusion, and made the conquest easy.
+The Inca filled a room with gold as the price of his ransom; the
+Spaniards took the gold, broke their promise, and put him to death.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_RUINS_NEAR_LAKE_TITICACA" id="THE_RUINS_NEAR_LAKE_TITICACA"></a>THE RUINS NEAR LAKE TITICACA.</h3>
+
+<p>It is now agreed that the Peruvian antiquities represent two distinct
+periods in the ancient history of the country, one being much older than
+the other. Mr. Prescott accepts and repeats the opinion that &#8220;there
+existed in the country a race advanced in civilization before the time
+of the Incas,&#8221; and that the ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+older than the reign of the first Inca. In the work of Rivero and Von
+Tschudi, it is stated that a critical examination of the monuments
+&#8220;indicates two very different epochs in Peruvian art, at least so far as
+concerns architecture; one before and the other after the arrival of the
+first Inca.&#8221; Among the ruins which belong to the older civilization are
+those at Lake Titicaca, old Huanuco, Tiahuanaco, and Gran-Chimu, and it
+probably originated the roads and aqueducts. At Cuzco and other places
+are remains of buildings which represent the later time; but Cuzco of
+the Incas appears to have occupied the site of a ruined city<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> of the
+older period. <a href="#fig-51">Figure 51</a> gives a view of the ancient Peruvian masonry.
+Montesinos supposes the name of Cuzco was derived from <i>cosca</i>, a
+Peruvian word signifying to level, or from heaps of earth called
+<i>coscos</i>, which abounded there. In his account of the previous times
+there is mention that an old city built there was in ruins. Perhaps the
+first Inca found on its site nothing but <i>coscos</i>, or heaps of ruins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;">
+<a name="fig-51" id="fig-51"></a><a href="images/fig-51-full.png"><img src="images/fig-51.png" width="273" height="205" alt="View of masonry wall" title="Fig. 51.&mdash;Ancient Peruvian Masonry." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;Ancient Peruvian Masonry.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a name="fig-52" id="fig-52"></a><a href="images/fig-52-full.png"><img src="images/fig-52.png" width="315" height="193" alt="View of buildings" title="Fig. 52.&mdash;Ruins of &#8220;Temple&#8221; on the Island of Titicaca." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Ruins of &#8220;Temple&#8221; on the Island of Titicaca.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;">
+<a name="fig-53" id="fig-53"></a><a href="images/fig-53-full.png"><img src="images/fig-53.png" width="396" height="252" alt="View of ruins" title="Fig. 53.&mdash;Ruins on Titicaca Island." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Ruins on Titicaca Island.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At Lake Titicaca some of the more important remains are on the islands.
+On Titicaca Island are the ruins of a great edifice described as &#8220;a
+palace or temple.&#8221; Remains of other structures exist, but their ruins<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+are old, much older than the time of the Incas. Figures <a href="#fig-52">52</a> and <a href="#fig-53">53</a>
+represent different ruins on the island of Titicaca. They were all built
+of hewn stone, and had doors and windows, with posts, sills, and
+thresholds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"><br />[230]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"><br /><br />[231]</a></span> stone, the doorways being narrower above than below. On
+the island of Coati there are remarkable ruins. The largest building
+here is also described as &#8220;a palace or temple,&#8221; although it may have
+been something else. It was not high, but very large in extent. It stood
+around three sides of a parallelogram, with some peculiarities of
+construction connected with the ends or wings. Making allowance for the
+absence of the pyramidal foundations, it has more resemblance to some of
+the great constructions in Central America than to any thing peculiar to
+the later period of Peruvian architecture. Another ruin on this island
+is shown in <a href="#fig-54">Figure 54</a>. The antiquities on the islands and shores of this
+lake need to be more completely explored and described, and probably
+interesting discoveries could be made at some points by means of
+well-directed excavations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="fig-54" id="fig-54"></a><a href="images/fig-54-full.png"><img src="images/fig-54.png" width="150" height="123" alt="View of building" title="Fig. 54.&mdash;Ruins on the Island of Coati." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Ruins on the Island of Coati.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A few miles from Lake Titicaca, at Tiahuanaco, are ruins which were very
+imposing when first seen by the Spaniards in the time of Pizarro. It is
+usual to speak<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> of them as the oldest ruins in Peru, which may or may
+not be correct. They must, however, be classed with those at the lake.
+Not much now remains of the edifices, which were in a very ruinous
+condition three hundred and forty years ago. They were described by
+Cie&ccedil;a de Leon, who accompanied Pizarro, and also by Diego d&#8217;Alcoba&ccedil;a.
+Cie&ccedil;a de Leon mentions &#8220;great edifices&#8221; that were in ruins, &#8220;an
+artificial hill raised on a groundwork of stone,&#8221; and &#8220;two stone idols
+resembling the human figure, and apparently made by skillful
+artificers.&#8221; These &#8220;idols&#8221; were great statues, ten or twelve feet high.
+One of them, which was carried to La Paz in 1842, measured &#8220;three and a
+half yards&#8221; in length. Sculptured decorations appear on them, and,
+according to Cie&ccedil;a de Leon, the figures seemed to be &#8220;clothed in long
+vestments&#8221; different from those worn in the time of the Incas. Of a very
+remarkable edifice, whose foundations could be traced near these
+statues, nothing remained then &#8220;but a well-built wall, which must have
+been there for ages, the stones being very much worn and crumbled.&#8221;
+Cie&ccedil;a de Leon&#8217;s description goes on as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In this place, also, there are stones so large and so overgrown that
+our wonder is incited, it being incomprehensible how the power of man
+could have placed them where we see them. They are variously wrought,
+and some of them, having the form of men, must have been idols. Near the
+walls are many caves and excavations under the earth, but in another
+place, farther west, are other and greater monuments, such as large
+gateways with hinges, platforms, and porches, each made of a sin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>gle
+stone. It surprised me to see these enormous gateways made of great
+masses of stone, some of which were thirty feet long, fifteen high, and
+six thick.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 242px;">
+<a name="fig-55" id="fig-55"></a><a href="images/fig-55-full.png"><img src="images/fig-55.png" width="242" height="173" alt="View of stone gateway" title="Fig. 55.&mdash;Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the stone monuments at Tiahuanaco have been removed, some for
+building, some for other purposes. In one case, &#8220;large masses of
+sculptured stone ten yards in length and six in width&#8221; were used to make
+grinding stones for a chocolate mill. The principal monuments now seen
+on this field of ruins are a vast mound covering several acres, where
+there seems to have been a great edifice, fragments of columns, erect
+slabs of stone which formed parts of buildings, and several of the
+monolithic gateways, the largest of which was made of a single stone ten
+feet high and thirteen broad. <a href="#fig-55">Figure 55</a> gives a view of one. The doorway
+is six feet four inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> high, and three feet two inches wide. Above it,
+along the whole length of the stone, which is now broken, is a cornice
+covered with sculptured figures. &#8220;The whole neighborhood,&#8221; says Mr.
+Squier, &#8220;is strewn with immense blocks of stone elaborately wrought,
+equaling, if not surpassing in size, any known to exist in Egypt or
+India.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a name="fig-56" id="fig-56"></a><a href="images/fig-56-full.png"><img src="images/fig-56.png" width="318" height="114" alt="View of ruins" title="Fig. 56.&mdash;Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a name="fig-57" id="fig-57"></a><a href="images/fig-57-full.png"><img src="images/fig-57.png" width="326" height="187" alt="View of ruins" title="Fig. 57.&mdash;End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57.&mdash;End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At Cuzco, two or more degrees north of Lake Titicaca, there are ruins of
+buildings that were occupied until the rule of the Incas was overthrown.
+Remains of the old structures are seen in various parts of the present
+town, some of them incorporated into new edifices built by the
+Spaniards. Cyclopean remains of walls of the Temple of the Sun now
+constitute a portion of the Convent of St. Domingo. In the days of the
+Incas, this temple stood &#8220;a circuit of more than four hundred paces,&#8221;
+and was surrounded by a great wall built of cut stone. Remains of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> the
+old fortifications are seen; and there is an extensive ruin here which
+shows what is supposed to be all that remains of the palace of the
+Incas. Figures <a href="#fig-56">56</a> and <a href="#fig-57">57</a> give views of remains of the ancient fortress
+walls at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> Cuzco. Occasionally there is search at Cuzco, by means of
+excavation, for antiquities. Within a few years an important discovery
+has been made; a lunar calendar of the Incas, made of gold, has been
+exhumed. At first it was described as &#8220;a gold breastplate or sun;&#8221; but
+William Bollaert, who gives an account of it, finds that it is a
+calendar, the first discovered in Peru. Many others, probably, went to
+the melting-pot at the time of the Conquest. This is not quite circular.
+The outer ring is five inches and three tenths in diameter, and the
+inner four inches. It was made to be fastened to the breast of an Inca
+or priest. The figures were stamped on it, and there &#8220;seem to be
+twenty-four compartments, large and small, including three at the top.
+At the bottom are two spaces; figures may or may not have been there,
+but it looks as if they had been worn away.&#8221; It was found about the year
+1859.</p>
+
+<p>The uniform and constant report of Peruvian tradition places the
+beginning of this old civilization in the Valley of Cuzco, near Lake
+Titicaca. There appeared the first civilizers and the first civilized
+communities. This beautiful valley is the most elevated table-land on
+the continent, Lake Titicaca being 12,846 feet above the sea level. Were
+it not within the tropics, it would be a region of eternal snow, for it
+is more than 4000 feet higher than the beginning of perpetual snow on
+Mont Blanc. Near it are some of the higher peaks of the Andes, among
+them Sorato, Illimani, and Sahama.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="OTHER_RUINS_IN_PERU" id="OTHER_RUINS_IN_PERU"></a>OTHER RUINS IN PERU.</h3>
+
+<p>The ancient Peru conquered and robbed by Pizarro is now divided into
+Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili as far down as the thirty-seventh
+degree of south latitude. Its remains are found to some extent in all
+these countries, although most abundantly in Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins known as &#8220;the Palaces of Gran-Chimu&#8221; are situated in the
+northwestern part of Peru, near Truxillo. Here, in the time of the first
+Incas, was an independent state, which was subjugated by the Inca set
+down in the list of Montesinos as the grandfather of Huayna Capac, about
+a century before the Spaniards arrived. For what is known of these ruins
+we are chiefly indebted to Mariano Rivero, director of the National
+Museum at Lima. They cover a space of three quarters of a league,
+without including the walled squares found on every side. The chief
+objects of interest are the remains of two great edifices called
+palaces. &#8220;These palaces are immense areas surrounded by high walls of
+brick, the walls being now ten or twelve yards high and six feet thick
+at the base.&#8221; There was in each case another wall exterior to this.
+Within the palace walls were squares and dwellings, with narrow passages
+between them, and the walls are decorated. In the largest palace are the
+remains of a great reservoir for water, which was brought to it by
+subterranean aqueducts from the River Moche, two miles distant. Outside
+the inclosures of these palaces are remains of a vast number of
+buildings, which indicate that the city contained a great population.
+The Spaniards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> took vast quantities of gold from the <i>huacas</i> or tombs
+at this place. The amount taken from a single tomb in the years 1566 and
+1592 was officially estimated at nearly a million dollars. <a href="#fig-58">Figure 58</a>
+presents an end view of the walls at Gran-Chimu. Figures <a href="#fig-59">59</a> and <a href="#fig-60">60</a>
+represent some of the decorations at Chimu-Canchu.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 152px;">
+<a name="fig-58" id="fig-58"></a><a href="images/fig-58-full.png"><img src="images/fig-58.png" width="152" height="98" alt="View of stone walls" title="Fig. 58.&mdash;End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 58.&mdash;End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 161px;">
+<a name="fig-59" id="fig-59"></a><a name="fig-60" id="fig-60"></a><a href="images/fig-59-60-full.png"><img src="images/fig-59-60.png" width="161" height="178" alt="Detail of architectural decoration" title="Figs. 59 and 60.&mdash;Decorations at Chimu-Canchu." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Figs. 59 and 60.&mdash;Decorations at Chimu-Canchu.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a name="fig-61" id="fig-61"></a><a href="images/fig-61-full.png"><img src="images/fig-61.png" width="297" height="123" alt="View of building" title="Fig. 61.&mdash;Edifice, with Gateway, at Old Huanuco." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;Edifice, with Gateway, at Old Huanuco.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Remarkable ruins exist at Cuelap, in Northern Peru. &#8220;They consist of a
+wall of wrought stones 3600 feet long, 560 broad, and 150 high,
+constituting a solid mass with a level summit.&#8221; Probably the interior
+was made of earth. On this mass was another, &#8220;600 feet long, 500 broad,
+and 150 high.&#8221; In this, and also in the lower structure, there are many
+rooms made of wrought stone, in which are a great number of niches or
+cells one or two yards deep, which were used as tombs. Other old
+structures exist in that neighborhood. Farther south, at Huanuco el
+Viego, or Old Huanuco, are two peculiar edifices and a terrace, and near
+them the faded traces of a large town. The two edifices were built of a
+composition of pebbles and clay, faced with hewn stone. One of them is
+called the &#8220;Look-out,&#8221; but it is impossible to discover the purpose for
+which it was built. The interior of the other is crossed by six walls,
+in each of which is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> a gateway, the outer one being finely finished, and
+showing a sculptured animal on each of the upper corners. It has a large
+court, and rooms made of cut stones. Connected with this structure was a
+well-built aqueduct. Figures <a href="#fig-61">61</a> and <a href="#fig-62">62</a> give views of the so-called
+palace and its ground plan. <a href="#fig-63">Figure 63</a> represents the Look-out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 155px;">
+<a name="fig-62" id="fig-62"></a><a href="images/fig-62-full.png"><img src="images/fig-62.png" width="155" height="165" alt="Plan of structure" title="Fig. 62.&mdash;Ground Plan of Edifice at Old Huanuco." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;Ground Plan of Edifice at Old Huanuco.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a name="fig-63" id="fig-63"></a><a href="images/fig-63-full.png"><img src="images/fig-63.png" width="243" height="113" alt="View of structure" title="Fig. 63.&mdash;&#8220;Look-out&#8221; at Old Huanuco." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;&#8220;Look-out&#8221; at Old Huanuco.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"><br />[242]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a name="fig-64" id="fig-64"></a><a href="images/fig-64-full.png"><img src="images/fig-64.png" width="316" height="195" alt="View of ruins" title="Fig. 64.&mdash;Ruins at Pachacamac." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64.&mdash;Ruins at Pachacamac.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>Seven leagues from Lima, near the sea, are the much-dilapidated ruins,
+shown in <a href="#fig-64">Figure 64</a>, of a large city of the Incas, which was built
+chiefly of adobes or sun-dried bricks. It is called Pachacamac. Ruins of
+towns, castles, fortresses, and other structures are found all about the
+country. At one place, near Chavin de Huanta, there are remarkable ruins
+which are very old. The material used here was like that seen at Old
+Huanuco. From the interior of one of the great buildings there is a
+subterranean passage which, it is said, goes under the river to the
+opposite bank. Very ancient ruins, showing remains of large and
+remarkable edifices, were seen near Huamanga, and described by Cie&ccedil;a de
+Leon. The native traditions said this city was built by &#8220;bearded white
+men, who came there long before the time of the Incas, and established a
+settlement.&#8221; It is noticed every where that the ancient Peruvians made
+large use of aqueducts, which they built with notable skill, using hewn
+stones and cement, and making them very substantial. Some of them are
+still in use. They were used to carry water to the cities and to
+irrigate the cultivated lands. A few of them were very long. There is
+mention of one which was a hundred and fifty miles long, and of another
+which was extended four hundred and fifty miles across sierras and over
+rivers, from south to north.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_GREAT_PERUVIAN_ROADS" id="THE_GREAT_PERUVIAN_ROADS"></a>THE GREAT PERUVIAN ROADS.</h3>
+
+<p>Nothing in Ancient Peru was more remarkable than the public roads. No
+ancient people has left traces of works more astonishing than these, so
+vast was their ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>tent, and so great the skill and labor required to
+construct them. One of these roads ran along the mountains through the
+whole length of the empire, from Quito to Chili. Another, starting from
+this at Cuzco, went down to the coast and extended northward to the
+equator. These roads were built on beds or &#8220;deep under-structures&#8221; of
+masonry. The width of the roadways varied from twenty to twenty-five
+feet, and they were made level and smooth by paving, and in some places
+by a sort of macadamizing with pulverized stone mixed with lime and
+bituminous cement. This cement was used in all the masonry. On each side
+of the roadway was &#8220;a very strong wall more than a fathom in thickness.&#8221;
+These roads went over marshes, rivers, and great chasms of the sierras,
+and through rocky precipices and mountain sides. The great road passing
+along the mountains was a marvelous work. In many places its way was cut
+through rock for leagues. Great ravines were filled up with solid
+masonry. Rivers were crossed by means of a curious kind of suspension
+bridges, and no obstruction was encountered which the builders did not
+overcome. The builders of our Pacific Railroad, with their superior
+engineering skill and mechanical appliances, might reasonably shrink
+from the cost and the difficulties of such a work as this. Extending
+from one degree north of Quito to Cuzco, and from Cuzco to Chili, it was
+quite as long as the two Pacific railroads, and its wild route among the
+mountains was far more difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Sarmiento, describing it, said, &#8220;It seems to me that if the emperor
+(Charles V.) should see fit to order the con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>struction of another road
+like that which leads from Quito to Cuzco, or that which from Cuzco goes
+toward Chili, I certainly think he would not be able to make it, with
+all his power.&#8221; Humboldt examined some of the remains of this road, and
+described as follows a portion of it seen in a pass of the Andes,
+between Mansi and Loxa: &#8220;Our eyes rested continually on superb remains
+of a paved road of the Incas. The roadway, paved with well-cut, dark
+porphyritic stone, was twenty feet wide, and rested on deep foundations.
+This road was marvelous. None of the Roman roads I have seen in Italy,
+in the South of France, or in Spain, appeared to me more imposing than
+this work of the ancient Peruvians.&#8221; He saw remains of several other
+shorter roads which were built in the same way, some of them between
+Loxa and the River Amazon. Along these roads at equal distances were
+edifices, a kind of caravanseras, built of hewn stone, for the
+accommodation of travelers.</p>
+
+<p>These great works were described by every Spanish writer on Peru, and in
+some accounts of them we find suggestions in regard to their history.
+They are called &#8220;roads of the Incas,&#8221; but they were probably much older
+than the time of these rulers. The mountain road running toward Quito
+was much older than the Inca Huayna Capac, to whom it has sometimes been
+attributed. It is stated that when he started by this route to invade
+the Quit&uacute;s, the road was so bad that &#8220;he found great difficulties in the
+passage.&#8221; It was then an old road, much out of repair, and he
+immediately ordered the necessary reconstructions. Gomara says, &#8220;Huayna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+Capac restored, enlarged, and completed these roads, but he did not
+build them, as some pretend.&#8221; These great artificial highways were
+broken up and made useless at the time of the Conquest, and the
+subsequent barbarous rule of the Spaniards allowed them to go to decay.
+Now only broken remains of them exist to show their former character.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="THE_PERUVIAN_CIVILIZATION" id="THE_PERUVIAN_CIVILIZATION"></a>THE PERUVIAN CIVILIZATION.</h3>
+
+<p>The development of civilization in Peru was very different from that in
+Mexico and Central America. In both regions the people were
+sun-worshipers, but their religious organizations, as well as their
+methods of building temples, were unlike. Neither of these peoples seems
+to have borrowed from the other. It may be that all the old American
+civilizations had a common origin in South America, and that all the
+ancient Americans whose civilization can be traced in remains found
+north of the Isthmus came originally from that part of the continent.
+This hypothesis appears to me more probable than any other I have heard
+suggested. But, assuming this to be true, the first migration of
+civilized people from South America must have taken place at a very
+distant period in the past, for it preceded not only the history
+indicated by the existing antiquities, but also an earlier history,
+during which the Peruvians and Central Americans grew to be as different
+from their ancestors as from each other. In each case, the development
+of civilization represented by existing monuments, so far as we can
+study it, appears to have been original.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>In some respects the Peruvian civilization was developed to such a
+degree as challenged admiration. The Peruvians were highly skilled in
+agriculture and in some kinds of manufactures. No people ever had a more
+efficient system of industry. This created their wealth and made
+possible their great public works. All accounts of the country at the
+time of the Conquest agree in the statement that they cultivated the
+soil in a very admirable way and with remarkable success, using
+aqueducts for irrigation, and employing guano as one of their most
+important fertilizers. Europeans learned from them the value of this
+fertilizer, and its name, <i>guano</i>, is Peruvian. The remains of their
+works show what they were as builders. Their skill in cutting stone and
+their wonderful masonry can be seen and admired by modern builders in
+what is left of their aqueducts, their roads, their temples, and their
+other great edifices.</p>
+
+<p>They had great proficiency in the arts of spinning, weaving, and dyeing.
+For their cloth they used cotton and the wool of four varieties of the
+llama, that of the vicu&ntilde;a being the finest. Some of their cloth had
+interwoven designs and ornaments very skillfully executed. Many of their
+fabrics had rare excellence in the eyes of the Spaniards. Garcilasso
+says, &#8220;The coverings of the beds were blankets and friezes of the wool
+of the vicu&ntilde;a, which is so fine and so much prized that, among other
+precious things from that land, they have been brought for the bed of
+Don Philip II.&#8221; Of their dyes, this account is given in the work of
+Rivero and Von Tschudi:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;They possessed the secret of fixing the dye of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> colors,
+flesh-color, yellow, gray, blue, green, black, etc., so firmly in the
+thread, or in the cloth already woven, that they never faded during the
+lapse of ages, even when exposed to the air or buried (in tombs) under
+ground. Only the cotton became slightly discolored, while the woolen
+fabrics preserved their primitive lustre. It is a circumstance worth
+remarking that chemical analyses made of pieces of cloth of all the
+different dyes prove that the Peruvians extracted all their colors from
+the vegetable and none from the mineral kingdom. In fact, the natives of
+the Peruvian mountains now use plants unknown to Europeans, producing
+from them bright and lasting colors.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>They had great skill in the art of working metals, especially gold and
+silver. Besides these precious metals, they had copper, tin, lead, and
+quicksilver. Figures <a href="#fig-65">65</a> and <a href="#fig-66">66</a> show some of the implements used by the
+Peruvians. Iron was unknown to them in the time of the Incas, although
+some maintain that they had it in the previous ages, to which belong the
+ruins at Lake Titicaca. Iron ore was and still is very abundant in Peru.
+It is impossible to conceive how the Peruvians were able to cut and work
+stone in such a masterly way, or to construct their great roads and
+aqueducts without the use of iron tools. Some of the languages of the
+country, and perhaps all, had names for iron; in official Peruvian it
+was called <i>quillay</i>, and in the old Chilian tongue <i>panilic</i>. &#8220;It is
+remarkable,&#8221; observes Molina, &#8220;that iron, which has been thought unknown
+to the ancient Americans, has particular names in some of their
+tongues.&#8221; It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> is not easy to understand why they had names for this
+metal, if they never at any time had knowledge of the metal itself. In
+the Mercurio Peruano, tome i., p. 201, 1791, it is stated that,
+anciently, the Peruvian sovereigns &#8220;worked magnificent iron mines at
+Ancoriames, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca;&#8221; but I can not give the
+evidence used in support of this statement.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="fig-65" id="fig-65"></a><a href="images/fig-65-full.png"><img src="images/fig-65.png" width="248" height="136" alt="Two knives." title="Fig. 65.&mdash;Copper Knives." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65.&mdash;Copper Knives.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 110px;">
+<a name="fig-66" id="fig-66"></a><a href="images/fig-66-full.png"><img src="images/fig-66.png" width="110" height="89" alt="Two pairs of tweezers." title="Fig. 66.&mdash;Copper Tweezers." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66.&mdash;Copper Tweezers.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their goldsmiths and silversmiths had attained very great proficiency.
+They could melt the metals in furnaces, cast them in moulds made of clay
+and gypsum, hammer their work with remarkable dexterity, inlay it, and
+solder it with great perfection. The gold and silver work of these
+artists was extremely abundant in the country at the time of the
+Conquest, but Spanish greed had it all melted for coinage. It was with
+articles of this gold-work that the Inca Atahuallpa filled a room in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+his vain endeavor to purchase release from captivity. One of the old
+chroniclers mentions &#8220;statuary, jars, vases, and every species of
+vessels, all of fine gold.&#8221; Describing one of the palaces, he said:
+&#8220;They had an artificial garden, the soil of which was made of small
+pieces of fine gold, and this was artificially sowed with different
+kinds of maize which were of gold, their stems, leaves, and ears.
+Besides this, they had more than twenty sheep (llamas), with their
+lambs, attended by shepherds, all made of gold.&#8221; This may be the same
+artificial garden which was mentioned by Francisco Lopez de Gomara, who
+places it on &#8220;an island near Puna.&#8221; Similar gardens of gold are
+mentioned by others. It is believed that a large quantity of Peruvian
+gold-work was thrown into Lake Titicaca to keep it from the Spanish
+robbers. In a description of one lot of golden articles sent to Spain in
+1534 by Pizarro, there is mention of &#8220;four llamas, ten statues of women
+of full size, and a cistern of gold so curious that it incited the
+wonder of all.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is more constantly mentioned by the old Spanish chroniclers than
+the vast abundance of gold in Peru. It was more common than any other
+metal. Temples and palaces were covered with it, and it was very
+beautifully wrought into ornaments, temple furniture, articles for
+household use, and imitations of almost every object in nature. In the
+course of twenty-five years after the Conquest, the Spaniards sent from
+Peru to Spain more than four hundred million ducats (800,000,000
+dollars) worth of gold, all or nearly all of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> it having been taken from
+the subjugated Peruvians as &#8220;booty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Figures <a href="#fig-67">67</a> and <a href="#fig-68">68</a> show a golden and a silver vase, reduced from the
+actual size. Figures <a href="#fig-69">69</a> and <a href="#fig-70">70</a> represent various articles of pottery;
+all these illustrations are copies from articles taken from old Peruvian
+tombs.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="figs 67 and 68">
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;"><a name="fig-67" id="fig-67"></a><a href="images/fig-67-full.png"><img src="images/fig-67.png" width="90" height="131" alt="Cylindrical vase" title="Fig. 67.&mdash;Golden Vase." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67.&mdash;Golden Vase.</span></td>
+  <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;"><a name="fig-68" id="fig-68"></a><a href="images/fig-68-full.png"><img src="images/fig-68.png" width="134" height="146" alt="Vessel with a face on the side" title="Fig. 68.&mdash;Silver Vase." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68.&mdash;Silver Vase.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The most perfectly manufactured articles of Peruvian pottery were used
+in the tombs. Some of those made for other uses were very curious. A
+considerable number of articles made for common use have been preserved.
+Mariano Rivero, a Peruvian, says: &#8220;At this day there exist in many
+houses pitchers, large jars, and earthen pots of this manufacture, which
+are preferred for their solidity to those manufactured by our own
+potters.&#8221; The ancient Peruvians were inferior to the Central Americans
+in the arts of ornamentation and sculpture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;">
+<a name="fig-69" id="fig-69"></a><a href="images/fig-69-full.png"><img src="images/fig-69.png" width="305" height="154" alt="Three elaborate ceramic vessels" title="Fig. 69.&mdash;Articles of Pottery." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 69.&mdash;Articles of Pottery.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 295px;">
+<a name="fig-70" id="fig-70"></a><a href="images/fig-70-full.png"><img src="images/fig-70.png" width="295" height="127" alt="Two elaborate ceramic vessels" title="Fig. 70.&mdash;Articles of Pottery." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 70.&mdash;Articles of Pottery.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Science among the Peruvians was not very highly de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>veloped, but
+engineering skill of some kind is indicated by the great roads and
+aqueducts. Their knowledge of the art of preparing colors and certain
+useful medicines implied a study of plants. Their progress in astronomy
+was not equal to that found in Central America; never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>theless, they had
+an accurate measure of the solar year, but, unlike the Central
+Americans, they divided the year into twelve months, and they used
+mechanical contrivances successfully to fix the times of the solstices
+and equinoxes. A class of men called <i>amautas</i> was trained to preserve
+and teach whatever knowledge existed in the country. It was their
+business to understand the <i>quippus</i>, keep in memory the historical
+poems, give attention to the science and practice of medicine, and train
+their pupils in knowledge. These were not priests; they were the
+&#8220;learned men&#8221; of Peru, and the government allowed them every facility
+for study and for communicating instruction. How much they knew of
+astronomy it is not easy to say. They had knowledge of some of the
+planets, and it is claimed that there is some reason to believe they
+used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> aids to eyesight in studying the heavens, such as some suppose
+were used by our Mound-Builders. A discovery made in Bolivia a few years
+since is cited in support of this belief. It is the figure of a man in
+the act of using a tube to aid vision, which was taken from an ancient
+tomb. Mr. David Forbes, an English chemist and geologist, obtained it in
+Bolivia, and carried it to England in 1864. William Bollaert describes
+it as follows in a paper read to the London Anthropological Society:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is a nude figure, of silver, two inches and a half in height, on a
+flat, pointed pedestal. In the right hand it has the mask of a human
+face, but in the left a tube over half an inch in length, the narrow
+part placed to the left eye in a diagonal position, as if observing some
+celestial object. This is the first specimen of a figure in the act of
+looking through a hollow tube directed to the heavens that has been
+found in the New World. We can not suppose the Peruvians had any thing
+that more nearly resembled a telescope. It was found in a chulpa, or
+ancient Indian tomb, at Caquingora, near Corocoro (lat. 17&deg; 15' S., and
+long. 68&deg; 35' W.), in Bolivia.&#8221; He forgets the astronomical monument
+described by Captain Dupaix.</p>
+
+<p>The art of writing in alphabetical characters, so far as appears, was
+unknown to the Peruvians in the time of the Incas. No Peruvian books
+existed at that time, and no inscriptions have been found in any of the
+ruins. They had a method of recording events, keeping accounts, and
+making reports to the government by means of the <i>quippu</i>. This was made
+of cords of twisted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> wool fastened to a base prepared for the purpose.
+These cords were of various sizes and colors, and every size and color
+had its meaning. The record was made by means of an elaborate system of
+knots and artificial intertwinings. The <i>amautas</i> were carefully
+educated to the business of understanding and using the <i>quippus</i>, and
+&#8220;this science was so much perfected that those skilled in it attained
+the art of recording historical events, laws, and decrees, so as to
+transmit to their descendants the most striking events of the empire;
+thus the <i>quippus</i> could supply the place of documents.&#8221; Each <i>quippu</i>
+was a book full of information for those who could read it.</p>
+
+<p>Among the <i>amautas</i> memory was educated to retain and transmit to
+posterity songs, historical narratives, and long historical poems. It is
+said, also, that tragedies and comedies were composed and preserved in
+this way, and that dramatic performances were among the regular
+entertainments encouraged and supported by the Incas. Whether the art of
+writing ever existed in the country can not now be determined. Some of
+the Peruvian tongues had names for paper; the people knew that a kind of
+paper or parchment could be made of plantain leaves, and, according to
+Montesinos, writing and books were common in the older times, that is to
+say, in ages long previous to the Incas. He explains how the art was
+lost, as I shall presently show.</p>
+
+<p>It is not improbable that a kind of hieroglyphical writing existed in
+some of the Peruvian communities, especially among the Aymaraes.
+Humboldt mentions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> books of hieroglyphical writing found among the
+Panoes, on the River Ucayali, which were &#8220;bundles of their paper
+resembling our volumes in quarto.&#8221; A Franciscan missionary found an old
+man sitting at the foot of a palm-tree and reading one of these books to
+several young persons. The Franciscan was told that the writing
+&#8220;contained hidden things which no stranger ought to know.&#8221; It was seen
+that the pages of the book were &#8220;covered with figures of men, animals,
+and isolated characters, deemed hieroglyphical, and arranged in lines
+with order and symmetry.&#8221; The Panoes said these books &#8220;were transmitted
+to them by their ancestors, and had relation to wanderings and ancient
+wars.&#8221; There is similar writing on a prepared llama skin found among
+other antiquities on a peninsula in Lake Titicaca, which is now in the
+museum at La Paz, Bolivia. It appears to be a record of atrocities
+perpetrated by the Spaniards at the time of the Conquest, and shows that
+some of the Aymaraes could at that time write hieroglyphics.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Peruvians, like most other important peoples in all ages, had
+mythical wonder-stories instead of authentic ancient history to explain
+the origin of their nation. These were told in traditions and legends
+preserved and transmitted from generation to generation by the
+<i>amautas</i>. If they were also recorded in secret books of hieroglyphical
+writing, such as those found among the Panoes on the Ucayali, which
+&#8220;contained hidden things that no stranger ought to know,&#8221; satisfactory
+evidence of the fact has never been brought to light. In addition to
+these, they had many historical traditions of much more importance,
+related in long poems and preserved in the same way; and there were
+annals and national documents recorded in the <i>quippus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the Spanish writers on Peru, who described what they saw in the
+country at the time of the Conquest, discussed its history. If they had
+used the proper sources of information with a more penetrating and
+complete investigation, and studied the subject as it might have been
+studied at that time, their historical sketches would now have great
+value. The two most important works written at this time, the &#8220;Relacion&#8221;
+of Sarmiento and the &#8220;Relaciones&#8221; of Polo de Ondegardo, were never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+printed. But none of these writers sought to study Peruvian antiquity
+beyond the period of the Incas, although some of them (Acosta for
+instance) inquired sufficiently to see that Manco Capac was a mythical
+personage prefixed to the dynastic line of the Incas without actually
+belonging to it. This limited view of the ancient history, which was
+inconsistent with what could be seen in the antiquities and traditions
+of the country, was generally accepted, because nothing more could be
+known in Europe, and its influence was established by the undue
+importance accorded to the &#8220;Commentarios Reales&#8221; of Garcilasso de la
+Vega, published in 1609.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="GARCILASSOS_HISTORY" id="GARCILASSOS_HISTORY"></a>GARCILASSO&#8217;S HISTORY.</h3>
+
+<p>Garcilasso de la Vega, the son of a distinguished Spaniard of the same
+name, was born at Cuzco in 1540. His mother, named &Ntilde;usta, was a niece of
+the great Inca Huayna Capac, and granddaughter of his no less eminent
+predecessor, Tupac Yupanqui. The intimate blood relationship which
+connected him with the Incas naturally drew attention to his work, and,
+with more haste than reason, was treated as the best possible
+qualification for writing Peruvian history; therefore his &#8220;Commentarios&#8221;
+acquired a very great celebrity, and came to be regarded as the highest
+authority on all questions relating to Peru previous to the Conquest.
+The work never deserved this reputation, although it was not without
+value as an addition to what had been written on the subject by
+Spaniards. Garcilasso was not well qualified to write a faithful history
+of Peru either by his knowl<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>edge or by the temper of his mind. His aim
+was to glorify the Incas and their times, and much of his work was in
+the strain of tales heard in childhood from his mother.</p>
+
+<p>The &#8220;Commentarios Reales&#8221; were written just as their author&#8217;s training
+had prepared him to write them. He lived in Cuzco without education
+until he was nearly twenty years old, his intellectual development being
+confined to the instruction necessary to make him a good Catholic. He
+then went to Spain and never returned to Peru. The next period of his
+life was devoted to seeking distinction in the Spanish military service;
+but political influence was against him, and he could not attain the
+object of his ambition. He finally retired to Cordova, acquired some
+literary culture, and resolved to win distinction by writing a history
+of his native country. His materials for such a history, in addition to
+what could be learned from the earlier Spanish writers, consisted
+entirely of what he had learned of his mother and his early Peruvian
+associates at Cuzco, and of such acquisitions as could be gained by
+means of correspondence with his acquaintances in Peru, after the
+purpose to write a history was formed. It can be seen readily that
+Garcilasso&#8217;s history written in this way might have a certain value,
+while it could not be safely accepted as an authority. The first part of
+his work was published in 1609, when he was nearly seventy years old.</p>
+
+<p>According to his version of the Peruvian annals, the rule of the Incas
+began with the mythical Manco Capac, and lasted over five hundred years;
+and this version, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> some variations in estimates of the time, has
+been repeated ever since. The dynastic line of the Incas thus determined
+is given in the work of Rivero and Von Tschudi as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Manco-Capac, mysterious &#8220;son of the sun,&#8221; who began to reign in 1021
+A.D., and died in 1062, having reigned forty years. 2. Sinchi-Rocca,
+who reigned thirty years, from 1062 to 1091. 3. Lloque-Yupanqui,
+reigned thirty-five years, from 1091 to 1126. 4. Mayta-Capac, thirty
+years, from 1126 to 1156. 5. Capac-Yupanqui, forty-one years, from 1156
+to 1197. 6. Inca Rocca, fifty-one years, from 1197 to 1249. 7.
+Yahuar-Capac, forty years, from 1249 to 1289. 8. Viracocha, fifty-one
+years, from 1289 to 1340; his son Inca Urco reigned after him eleven
+days, and was then deposed &#8220;as a fool incapable of governing.&#8221; 9.
+Titu-Manco-Capac-Pachacutec, sixty years, from 1340 to 1400, living,
+says tradition, to be one hundred and three years old. 10. Yupanqui,
+thirty-nine years, from 1400 to 1439. 11. Tupac-Yupanqui (Garcilasso&#8217;s
+great-grandfather) thirty-six years, from 1439 to 1475. 12.
+Huayna-Capac, &#8220;the most glorious of the Incas,&#8221; fifty years, from 1475
+to 1525. After his death the empire was divided between his two sons
+Huascar and Atahuallpa. This caused a civil war, which ended with the
+death of Huascar in 1532. One year later Atahuallpa was himself
+destroyed by Cortez.</p>
+
+<p>Manco-Capac, here set down as the first Inca, with a marvelous story of
+his mysterious origin and his miraculous powers as a civilizer, was
+undoubtedly borrowed from traditions of the origin of civilization in
+the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> ancient times, which had been used by the Incas in support of
+their claim to direct descent from the sun. In reality, the first Inca
+was Rocca, or Sinchi-Rocca, and several of the early Spanish writers
+were sufficiently well informed to see this. The period of the Incas
+must have been less than five hundred years if their dynasty consisted
+of no more than twelve or thirteen sovereigns. In other respects, this
+table of the sovereigns may be substantially correct, for there is a
+general agreement in regard to the names and the order of succession,
+although Montesinos maintains that the fifth Inca on the list was
+borrowed by Garcilasso from traditions of a much more ancient sovereign
+who was greatly celebrated in the historical poems, or confounded with
+him. The period of the Incas was very distinct in Peruvian history, but
+it is now understood that they represent only the last period in the
+history of a civilization which began much farther back in the past.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="FERNANDO_MONTESINOS" id="FERNANDO_MONTESINOS"></a>FERNANDO MONTESINOS.</h3>
+
+<p>The only Spanish writer who really studied the ancient history of Peru
+in the traditional and other records of the country was Fernando
+Montesinos, who went there about a century after the Conquest. He was
+sent from Spain on service which took him to every part of Peru, and
+gave him the best possible opportunities for investigation. He was a
+scholar and a worker, with a strong inclination to such studies, and,
+during two periods of residence in the country, he devoted fifteen years
+to these inquiries with unremitting industry and great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> success. He soon
+learned to communicate freely with the Peruvians in their own language;
+then he applied himself to collect the historical poems, narratives, and
+traditions. He succeeded in getting assistance from many of the older
+men who had learned of the <i>amautas</i>, and especially of those who were
+trained to read the <i>quippus</i>. Nothing was omitted which could aid his
+purpose. In this way Montesinos made a great collection of what may be
+called the <i>old Peruvian documents</i>, and gained a vast amount of
+information which no other writer had used or even sought to acquire.</p>
+
+<p>The materials collected were more important than is at once understood
+by those accustomed to depend wholly on writing and printing for the
+preservation of literature, because they can not easily realize to what
+extent the faculty of memory may be sharpened and developed by a class
+of men devoted to this culture in communities where such mechanical aids
+do not exist. It is known that long poems, stories, and historical
+narratives have been preserved by unlettered peoples much below the
+civilized condition of the Peruvians. Long poems, extending to three and
+four hundred lines, were retained by memory, and transmitted from
+generation to generation among the Sandwich Islanders. Many scholars
+have believed that all the early literature of Greece, including the
+Iliad, the Odyssey, and all other &#8220;poems of the Cycle,&#8221; was preserved in
+this way by the Rhapsodists for centuries, down to the time of
+Peisistratus, and then for the first time reduced to writing. This shows
+at least what they have believed was possible. In Max M&uuml;l<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>ler&#8217;s &#8220;History
+of Ancient Sanskrit Literature&#8221; it is argued strongly that the Vedas
+were not written at first, but were transmitted orally, being learned by
+heart in the great religious schools of the Indo-Aryans as an
+indispensable part of education. This is likely to be true, whether we
+assume that the Indo-Aryans had or had not the art of writing; for, in
+the Vaidic age, the divine songs of the Veda were so intimately
+associated with the mysteries of their religion that they may have been
+held too sacred to be made common by written characters.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it is no wise incredible, nor even surprising, that a
+considerable amount of literature existed in Peru without the aid of
+writing. On the contrary, it would be surprising if they had failed to
+do what has been done by every other people in like circumstances. The
+schools of the <i>amautas</i> were national institutions specially set apart
+for the business of preserving and increasing knowledge, teaching, and
+literary work of every kind. In a country where civilization was so much
+advanced in many respects, they could not have been entirely barren.
+Those who criticise Montesinos admit that &#8220;his advantages were great,&#8221;
+that &#8220;no one equaled him in arch&aelig;ological knowledge of Peru,&#8221; and that
+&#8220;he became acquainted with original instruments which he occasionally
+transferred to his own pages, and which it would now be difficult to
+meet elsewhere.&#8221; The results of his investigation are embodied in a work
+entitled &#8220;Memorias Antiguas Historiales del Peru.&#8221; This, with another
+work on the Conquest entitled &#8220;Annales,&#8221; remained in manuscript at
+Madrid until the &#8220;Memorias<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>&#8221; was translated into French by M.
+Ternaux-Compans, and printed in his collection of original documents
+relating to the discovery and exploration of America.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="HIS_SCHEME_OF_PERUVIAN_HISTORY" id="HIS_SCHEME_OF_PERUVIAN_HISTORY"></a>HIS SCHEME OF PERUVIAN HISTORY.</h3>
+
+<p>According to Montesinos, there were three distinct periods in the
+history of Peru. First, there was a period which began with the origin
+of civilization, and lasted until the first or second century of the
+Christian era. Second, there was a period of disintegration, decline,
+and disorder, introduced by successful invasions from the east and
+southeast, during which the country was broken up into small states, and
+many of the arts of civilization were lost; this period lasted more than
+a thousand years. Third and last came the period of the Incas, who
+revived civilization and restored the empire. He discards the
+wonder-stories told of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and gives the
+Peruvian nation a beginning which is, at least, not incredible. It was
+originated, he says, by a people led by four brothers, who settled in
+the Valley of Cuzco, and developed civilization there in a very human
+way. The youngest of these brothers assumed supreme authority, and
+became the first of a long line of sovereigns.</p>
+
+<p>Montesinos gives a list of sixty-four sovereigns who reigned in the
+first period. The first was P&ucirc;hua Manco, or Ayar-Uchu-Topa, the youngest
+of the four brothers, whose power was increased by the willing
+submission of &#8220;neighboring nations.&#8221; His successor, called Manco-Capac,
+is described as a remarkable character; &#8220;adja<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>cent nations dreaded his
+power,&#8221; and in his time the kingdom was much increased. Next came
+Huainaevi-Pishua, and &#8220;during his reign was known the use of letters,
+and the <i>amautas</i> taught astrology and the art of writing on leaves of
+the plantain tree.&#8221; Sinchi-Cozque won victories, and &#8220;adorned and
+fortified the city of Cuzco.&#8221; Inti-Capac-Yupanqui, another remarkable
+character, divided the kingdom into districts and subdistricts,
+introduced a complete civil organization, instituted the solar year of
+three hundred and sixty-five days, and established the system of
+couriers. Manco-Capac II. &#8220;made great roads from Cuzco to the
+provinces.&#8221; These are the first six rulers named on the list.</p>
+
+<p>In the next thirteen reigns nothing special is noted save attention to
+civil affairs, occasional conquests, and &#8220;a great plague.&#8221; The twentieth
+sovereign, called Huascar-Titupac, &#8220;gave all the provinces new governors
+of royal blood, and introduced in the army a cuirass made of cotton and
+copper.&#8221; The twenty-first, Manco-Capac-Amauta, &#8220;being addicted to
+astronomy, convened a scientific council, which agreed that the sun was
+at a greater distance from the earth than the moon, and that they
+followed different courses.&#8221; In the next twelve reigns, wars, conquests,
+and some indications of religious controversy are noted. The
+thirty-fourth ruler, called Ayay-Manco, &#8220;assembled the <i>amautas</i> in
+Cuzco to reform the calendar, and it was decided that the year should be
+divided into months of thirty days, and weeks of ten days, calling the
+five days at the end of the year a small week; they also collected the
+years into decades or groups of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> tens, and determined that each group of
+ten decades should form a sun.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Among the next twenty-nine sovereigns, Capac-Raymi-Amauta, the
+thirty-eighth of the line, and Yahuar-Huquiz, the fifty-first, were
+&#8220;celebrated for astronomical knowledge,&#8221; and the latter &#8220;intercalated a
+year at the end of four centuries.&#8221; Manco-Capac III., the sixtieth
+sovereign of this line, is supposed to have reigned at the beginning of
+the Christian era, and in his time &#8220;Peru had reached her greatest
+elevation and extension.&#8221; The next three reigns covered thirty-two
+years, it is said. Then came Titu-Yupanqui-Pachacuti, the sixty-fourth
+and last sovereign of the old kingdom, who was killed in battle with a
+horde of invaders who came from the east and southeast across the Andes.
+His death threw the kingdom into confusion. There was rebellion as well
+as invasion, by which it was broken up into small states. The account of
+what happened says: &#8220;Many ambitious ones, taking advantage of the new
+king&#8217;s youth, denied him obedience, drew away from him the people, and
+usurped several provinces. Those who remained faithful to the heir of
+Titu-Yupanqui conducted him to Tambotoco, whose inhabitants offered him
+obedience. From this it happened that this monarch took the title of
+King of Tambotoco.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>During the next twenty-six reigns the sway of the old royal house was
+confined to this little state. These twenty-six successors of the old
+sovereigns were merely kings of Tambotoco. The country, overrun by rude
+invaders, torn by civil war, and harried by &#8220;many simul<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>taneous
+tyrants,&#8221; became semi-barbarous; &#8220;all was found in great confusion; life
+and personal safety were endangered, and civil disturbances caused an
+entire loss of the use of letters.&#8221; The art of writing seems to have
+been mixed up with the issues of a religious controversy in the time of
+the old kingdom. It was proscribed now, even in the little state of
+Tambotoco, for we read that the fourteenth of its twenty-six rulers
+&#8220;prohibited, under the severest penalties, the use of <i>quellca</i> for
+writing, and forbade, also, the invention of letters. <i>Quellca</i> was a
+kind of parchment made of plantain leaves.&#8221; It is added that an
+<i>amauta</i>, who sought to restore the art of writing was put to death.
+This period of decline, disorder, and disintegration, which covered the
+&#8220;dark ages&#8221; of Peru, lasted until the rise of the Incas brought better
+times and reunited the country.</p>
+
+<p>Rocca, called Inca-Rocca, was the first of the Incas. He was connected
+with the old royal family, but did not stand in the direct line of
+succession. The story of his rise to power is told as follows: &#8220;A
+princess of royal blood, named Mama-Ciboca, contrived, by artifice and
+intrigue, to raise to the throne her son called Rocca, a youth of twenty
+years, and so handsome and valiant that his admirers called him <i>Inca</i>,
+which means lord. This title of <i>Inca</i> began with him, and was adopted
+by all his successors.&#8221; He appears to have had great qualities as a
+ruler. Not much time passed before he secured possession of Cuzco, made
+war successfully against the neighboring princes, and greatly extended
+his dominions. Under his successors, the empire thus begun con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>tinued to
+grow, until it was extended from Quito to Chili, and became the Peruvian
+empire which the Spaniards robbed and destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="PROBABILITIES" id="PROBABILITIES"></a>PROBABILITIES.</h3>
+
+<p>It has been the fashion to depreciate Montesinos, but I find it
+impossible to discover the reasons by which this depreciation can be
+justified. It is alleged that he uses fanciful hypotheses to explain
+Peru. The reply to this seems to me conclusive. In the first place, he
+is, in this respect, like all other writers of his time. That was an age
+of fanciful theories. Montesinos is certainly no worse than others in
+this respect, while he has the merit of being somewhat more original. He
+brought the Peruvian civilization from Armenia, and argued that Peru was
+Solomon&#8217;s Ophir. Undue importance has been accorded to several of the
+old Spanish chroniclers, whose works contain suggestions and fancies
+much more irrational. In the second place, his theories have nothing
+whatever to do with his facts, by which they are sometimes contradicted.
+He found in Peru materials for the scheme of its ancient history, which
+he sets forth. Readers will form their own estimates of its value, but
+no reasonable critic will confound this part of his work with his
+fanciful explanations, which are sometimes inconsistent with it. For
+instance, his theory assumes that the first monarch of the old kingdom
+began his reign as far back in the past as the year 2500 B.C. But he
+reports only sixty-four rulers of that old kingdom. Now, if there were
+so many as sixty-four, and if we allow an av<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>erage of twenty years to
+each reign (which is sufficient), we can not carry back the beginning of
+that first reign to the year 1200 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>There is another objection, which must be stated in the words of one of
+the critics who have urged it: &#8220;Montesinos treats the ancient history of
+Peru in a mode so original and distinct from all others that we can
+perceive it to be a production alike novel and unknown.&#8221; If this means
+any thing, it means that it was highly improper for Montesinos to find
+in Peru what was &#8220;unknown&#8221; to poorly-informed and superficial Spanish
+writers, who had already been accepted as &#8220;authorities.&#8221; It would have
+been singular if his careful investigation, continued through fifteen
+years, had not given him a great amount of information which others had
+never taken pains to acquire. His treatment of the subject was &#8220;original
+and distinct from all others,&#8221; because he knew what other writers did
+not know. His information did not allow him to repeat the marvelous
+story of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, nor to confine Peruvian history to
+the time of the Incas. But when the result of his inquiries was
+announced in Europe, Garcilasso and others regulated the fashion of
+Peruvian studies, and the influence of their limited and superficial
+knowledge of the subject has been felt ever since.</p>
+
+<p>The curious theories of Montesinos may be brushed aside as rubbish, or
+be studied with other vagaries of that age in order to understand its
+difference from ours; but whoever undertakes to criticise his facts
+needs to be his equal in knowledge of Peru. His works, however, tell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> us
+all that can ever be known of Peruvian ancient history, for the
+facilities for investigation which existed in his time are no longer
+possible. It may, however, be useful to consider that the main fact in
+his report on the subject is no more &#8220;original and distinct&#8221; than the
+testimony of the monuments around Lake Titicaca. The significance of
+this testimony is now generally admitted. There <i>was</i> a period in the
+history of Peruvian civilization much earlier than that of the Incas, a
+period still represented by these old monuments which, so far as relates
+to this point, are as &#8220;novel&#8221; and &#8220;original&#8221; as Montesinos himself.</p>
+
+<p>That the civilization found in the country was much older than the Incas
+can be seen in what we know of their history. Their empire had grown to
+be what Pizarro found it by subjugating and absorbing a considerable
+number of small states, which had existed as civilized states before
+their time. The conquest of Quito, which was not inferior to the Valley
+of Cuzco in civilization, had just been completed when the Spaniards
+arrived. The Chimus, subjugated a few years earlier, are described as
+even more advanced in civilization than any other Peruvian community.
+The small states thus absorbed by Peru were much alike in manners,
+customs, manufactures, methods of building, and general culture. It is
+manifest that their civilization had a common origin, and that to find
+its origin we must go back into the past far beyond Inca-Rocco, the
+first of his line, who began the work of uniting them under one
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, there were civilized communities in that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> part of the
+continent which the Incas had not subjugated, such as the Muyscas on the
+table-land of Bogota, north of Quito, who had a remarkable civil and
+religious organization, a temple of the sun built with stone columns, a
+regular system of computing time, a peculiar calendar, and who used
+small circular gold plates as coin. They were described by Humboldt.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the people composing the Peruvian empire at the time of
+the Conquest bore witness to an ancient history something like that
+reported by Montesinos. There were indications that the country had
+undergone important revolutionary changes before this empire was
+established. The Peruvians at that time were not all one people. The
+political union was complete, but there were differences of speech, and,
+to some extent, of physical characteristics. Three numerous and
+important branches of the population were known as Aymaraes, Chinchas,
+and Huancas. They used different tongues, although the Quichua dialect,
+spoken by the Incas, and doubtless a dialect of the Aymaraes, to whom
+the Incas belonged, was the official language in every part of the
+empire. There was a separated and fragmentary condition of the
+communities with respect to their unlike characteristics, which implied
+something different from a quiet and uniform political history. These
+differences and peculiarities suggest that there was a period when Peru,
+after an important career of civilization and empire, was subjected to
+great political changes brought about by invasion and revolution, by
+which the nation was for a long time broken up into separate states.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>Here, as in Mexico and Central America, there was in the traditions
+frequent mention of strangers or foreigners who came by sea to the
+Pacific coast and held intercourse with the people; but this was in the
+time of the old kingdom. As the Malays and other island people under
+their influence formerly traversed the Pacific, this is not improbable.
+Some have assumed that the Peruvians had no communication with the
+Mexicans and Central Americans, and that the two peoples were unknown to
+each other. This, however, seems to be contradicted by the fact that an
+accurate knowledge of Peru was found among the people inhabiting the
+Isthmus and the region north of it. The Spaniards heard of Peru on the
+Atlantic coast of South America, but on the Isthmus Balboa gained clear
+information in regard to that country from natives who had evidently
+seen it. To what extent there was intercourse between the two civilized
+portions of the continent is unknown. They had vessels quite as good as
+most of those constructed at Panama by the Spanish hunters for Peru,
+such as the <i>balsas</i> of the Peruvians and the &#8220;shallop&#8221; of the Mayas
+seen by Columbus, which made communication possible up and down the
+coast; but whether regular intercourse between them was ever
+established, and every thing else relating to this matter, must
+necessarily be left to a calculation of probabilities.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION.</h3>
+
+<p>If, as seems most likely, there was in South America an ancient
+development of civilized human life, out of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> which arose the
+civilizations found in Peru and Central America, its antiquity was much
+greater than can be comprehended by the current chronologies. This,
+however, can not make it improbable, for these chronologies are really
+no more reasonable than the monkish fancies used in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries to explain these civilizations. We find the
+hagiologists very absurd, but the condition of mind which made them
+possible is closely akin to that which moves some men in our time to
+deny or limit the past, and reject the results of any investigation
+which tend to enlarge it. Rational inquiry constantly forces upon us the
+suggestion that there was more in the unwritten history of the human
+race than our inherited modes of thinking have allowed us to suppose,
+and that the beginning of civilization is far more ancient than our long
+accepted theories of antiquity are able to admit.</p>
+
+<p>What may be discovered in South America by a more complete geological
+and pal&aelig;ontological investigation it is not now possible to say.
+Professor Orton, in his recent book, &#8220;The Andes and the Amazon,&#8221; far
+exceeds Montesinos in his estimate of the antiquity of Peruvian
+civilization. He says on this point:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Geology and arch&aelig;ology are combining to prove that Sorato and
+Chimborazo have looked down upon a civilization far more ancient than
+that of the Incas, and perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall
+and the shell-mounds of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+extensive ruins which antedate the advent of Manco-Capac, and may be as
+venerable as the lake-dwell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>ings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six
+terraces in going up from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas
+toward Quito, and underneath the living forest, which is older than the
+Spanish invasion, many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost
+population were found. In all cases these relics are situated below the
+high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which he infers that
+this part of the country formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be
+true, vast must be the antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and
+subsidence of the coast is exceedingly slow.&#8221;&mdash;P. 109.</p>
+
+<p>This refers to discoveries made on the coast of Ecuador in 1860, by
+James S. Wilson, Esq. At various points along this coast he found
+&#8220;ancient or fossil pottery, vessels, images,&#8221; and other manufactured
+articles, all finely wrought. Some of these articles were made of gold.
+The most remarkable fact connected with them is that they were taken
+from &#8220;a stratum of ancient surface earth&#8221; which was covered with a
+marine deposit six feet thick. The geological formation where these
+remains were found is reported to be &#8220;as old as the drift strata of
+Europe,&#8221; and &#8220;identical with that of Guayaquil in which bones of the
+mastodon are met with.&#8221; The ancient surface earth or vegetable mould,
+with its pottery, gold-work, and other relics of civilized human life,
+was, therefore, below the sea when that marine deposit was spread over
+it. This land, after being occupied by men, had subsided and settled
+below the ocean, remained there long enough to accumulate the marine
+deposit, and again been elevated to its former position above the sea
+level.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> Since this elevation, forests have been established over it
+which are older than the Spanish Conquest, and now it is once more
+subsiding. In 1862, at a meeting of the Royal Geological Society, Sir
+Roderick Murchison spoke of these discoveries as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The discoveries Mr. Wilson has made of the existence of the works of
+man in a stratum of mould beneath the sea level, and covered by several
+feet of clay, the phenomenon being persistent for sixty miles, are of
+the highest interest to physical geographers and geologists. The facts
+seem to demonstrate that, within the human period, the lands on the west
+coast of Equatorial America were depressed and submerged, and that after
+the accumulation of marine clays above the terrestrial relics the whole
+coast was elevated to its present position.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Assuming the facts to be as Mr. Wilson reports (and they have not been
+called in question), it follows that there was human civilization to a
+certain extent in South America at the time of the older stone age of
+Western Europe. The oldest Peruvian date of Montesinos is quite modern
+compared with this. The fact may be considered in connection with
+another mentioned in the section on American Ethnology, namely, that the
+most ancient fauna on this continent, man probably included, is that of
+South America. But, without regard to what may be signified by these
+discoveries of Mr. Wilson, there is good reason for believing that the
+Peruvian civilization was much more ancient than it has been the fashion
+to admit.</p>
+
+<p>Peru would now be a very different country if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> Spaniards had been
+sufficiently controlled by Christianity and civilization to treat the
+Peruvians justly, and seek nothing more than friendly intercourse with
+them. But they went there as greedy buccaneers, unscrupulous robbers,
+and brought every thing to ruin. At no time since the Spanish Conquest
+has the country been as orderly, as prosperous, or as populous as they
+found it. It has fallen to a much lower condition. Industry and thrift
+have been supplanted by laziness and beggarly poverty. Ignorance and
+incapacity have taken the place of that intelligence and enterprise
+which enabled the old Peruvians to maintain their remarkable system of
+agriculture, complete their great works, and made them so industrious
+and skillful in their manufactures. The region covered by the Peruvian
+empire has not half as many people now as it had in the time of the
+Incas. Is it possible to imagine the present inhabitants of Ecuador,
+Peru, and Bolivia cultivating their soil with intelligent industry,
+building aqueducts five hundred miles long, and constructing
+magnificently paved roads through the rocks and across the ravines of
+the Andes, from Quito to Chili? One of the scholars connected with the
+scientific expedition which visited South America in 1867, describing
+the ancient greatness and present inferior condition of Quito, exclaims,
+&#8220;May the future bring it days equal to those when it was called the
+&#8216;City of the Incas!&#8217;&#8221; He might appropriately utter a similar wish for
+the whole country.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead" style="margin-bottom: 3em;">APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a>A.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">THE NORTHMEN IN AMERICA.</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is generally known, I suppose, that original manuscript records of
+Norse voyages to this continent have been carefully preserved in
+Iceland, and that they were first published at Copenhagen in 1837, with
+a Danish and a Latin translation. These narratives are plain,
+straightforward, business-like accounts of actual voyages made by the
+Northmen, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, to Greenland,
+Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the coast of Massachusetts and Rhode
+Island. Within the whole range of the literature of discovery and
+adventure no volumes can be found which have more abundant internal
+evidence of authenticity. It always happens, when something important is
+unexpectedly added to our knowledge of the past, that somebody will
+blindly disbelieve. Dugald Stewart could see nothing but &#8220;frauds of
+arch-forgers&#8221; in what was added to our knowledge of ancient India when
+the Sanskrit language and literature were discovered. In the same way,
+here and there a doubter has hesitated to accept the fact communicated
+by these Norse records; but, with the evidence before us, we may as
+reasonably doubt any unquestioned fact of history which depends on
+similar testimony.</p>
+
+<p>Any account of these voyages should be prefaced by some notice of
+Iceland. Look on a map at the position of Iceland, and you will see at
+once that it should not be classed as a European island. It belongs to
+North America. It was, in fact, unknown to modern Europe until the year
+861 A.D., when it was discovered by Nadodd, a Norse rover. There is some
+reason to believe the Irish had previously sailed to this island, but no
+settlement was established in it previous to the year 875, when it was
+occupied by a colony of Norwegians under a chief named Ingolf. Owing to
+civil troubles in Norway, he was soon followed by many of the most
+intelligent, wealthy, and honorable of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Iceland, away in the Northern Ocean, became a place of great
+interest. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the Icelanders had
+become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> eminent among the Norse communities for intellectual culture
+and accomplishment. They were far superior to their countrymen in
+Norway. To them we are indebted for the existing records of Scandinavian
+mythology. They were daring and adventurous navigators, and, when we
+consider how near Iceland is to America, it should not surprise us to
+hear that they found the American continent; on the contrary, it would
+have been surprising if they had failed to find it. They first
+discovered Greenland, and in 982 established a colony there. Afterward,
+in the course of many voyages, they explored the coast of America much
+farther south.</p>
+
+<p>Narratives of some of these voyages were carefully written and
+preserved. There are two principal records. One is entitled &#8220;An Account
+of Eirek the Red and Greenland.&#8221; This appears to have been written in
+Greenland, where Eirek settled, and where the Northmen had a colony
+consisting of two hundred and eighty settlements. The other record is an
+&#8220;Account of Thorfinn Karlsefne.&#8221; This was written in Iceland by a
+bishop, one of Thorfinn&#8217;s immediate descendants. The Norse narrative
+introduces Eirek&#8217;s voyage of discovery as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There was a man of noble family, whose name was Thorvald. He and his
+son Eirek, surnamed the Red, were obliged to flee from Jadir (in the
+southwest part of Norway) because, in some feud that arose, they
+committed a homicide. They went to Iceland, which, at that time, was
+thoroughly colonized.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thorvald died soon after reaching Iceland, but Eirek inherited his
+restless spirit. The record says he was at length involved in another
+feud in Iceland. Eirek, being unjustly treated by some of his neighbors,
+committed another homicide, and the narrative relates what followed:
+&#8220;Having been condemned by the court, he resolved to leave Iceland. His
+vessel being prepared, and every thing ready, Eirek&#8217;s partisans in the
+quarrel accompanied him some distance. He told them he had determined to
+quit Iceland and settle somewhere else, adding that he was going in
+search of the land Gunniborn had seen when driven by a storm into the
+Western Ocean, and promising to revisit them if his search should be
+successful. Sailing from the western side of Iceland, Eirek steered
+boldly to the west. At length he found land, and called the place
+Midjokul. Then, coasting along the shore in a southerly direction, he
+sought to find a place more suitable for settlement. He spent the winter
+on a part of the coast which he named &#8220;Eirek&#8217;s Island.&#8221; A satisfactory
+situation for his colony was found, and he remained there two
+<a name="corr5" title="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="years&#8221;">years.</ins></p>
+
+<p>On returning to Iceland he called the discovered country &#8220;Greenland,&#8221;
+saying to his confidential friends, &#8220;A name so inviting will induce men
+to emigrate thither.&#8221; Finally, he went again to Greenland, accompanied
+by &#8220;twenty-five ships&#8221; filled with emigrants and stores, and his colony
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> established. &#8220;This happened,&#8221; says the chronicle, &#8220;fifteen winters
+before the Christian religion was introduced into Iceland;&#8221; that is to
+say, Eirek made this second voyage to Greenland fifteen years previous
+to 1000 A.D. Biarni, son of Heriulf, a chief man among these colonists,
+was absent in Norway when his father left Iceland. On returning, he
+decided to follow and join the colony, although neither he nor any of
+his companions had ever seen Greenland, or sailed on the &#8220;Greenland
+Ocean.&#8221; Having arranged his business, he set sail, and made one of the
+most remarkable and fearful voyages on record.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Iceland they sailed three days with a fair wind; then arose a
+storm of northeasterly winds, accompanied by very cloudy, thick weather.
+They were driven before this storm for many days, they knew not whither.
+At length the weather cleared, and they could see the sky. Then they
+sailed west another day, and saw land different from any they had
+previously known, for it &#8220;was not mountainous.&#8221; In reply to the anxious
+sailors, Biarni said this could not be Greenland. They put the ship
+about and steered in a northeasterly direction two days more. Again they
+saw land which was low and level. Biarni thought this could not be
+Greenland. For three more days they sailed in the same direction, and
+came to a land that was &#8220;mountainous, and covered with ice.&#8221; This proved
+to be an island, around which they sailed. Steering toward the north,
+they sailed four days and again discovered land, which Biarni thought
+was Greenland, and so it proved. They were on the southern coast, near
+the new settlement.</p>
+
+<p>It is manifest that the first land Biarni saw was either Nantucket or
+Cape Cod; the next was Nova Scotia, around Cape Sable; and the island
+around which they coasted was Newfoundland. This voyage was made five
+hundred and seven years earlier than the first voyage of Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>Biarni&#8217;s report of his discoveries was heard with great interest, and
+caused much speculation; but the settlers in Greenland were too busy
+making their new homes to undertake voyages in that direction
+immediately. Fourteen years later, Leif, a son of Eirek the Red, being
+in Norway, was incited to fit out an expedition to go in search of the
+strange lands Biarni had seen. On returning to Greenland &#8220;he had an
+interview with Biarni, and bought his ship, which he fitted out and
+manned with thirty-five men.&#8221; The first land seen by Leif, after he
+sailed from Greenland, was the island around which Biarni sailed. This
+he named Helluland (the land of broad stones). Sailing on toward the
+south, they came next to a land that was low and level, and covered with
+wood. This they called Markland (the land of woods). The narrative goes
+on: &#8220;They now put to sea with a northeast wind, and, sailing still
+toward the south, after two days touched at an island [Nantucket?] which
+lay opposite the north<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>east part of the main land.&#8221; Then they &#8220;sailed
+through a bay between this island and a cape running northeast, and,
+going westward, sailed past the Cape;&#8221; and at length they &#8220;passed up a
+river into a bay,&#8221; where they landed. They had probably reached Mount
+Hope Bay.</p>
+
+<p>They constructed rude dwellings, and prepared to spend the winter at
+this place. It was about mid-autumn, and, finding wild grapes, they
+called the country Vinland. Leif and his people were much pleased with
+&#8220;the mildness of the climate and goodness of the soil.&#8221; The next spring
+they loaded their vessels with timber and returned to Greenland, where,
+Eirek the Red having died, Leif inherited his estate and authority, and
+left exploring expeditions to others.</p>
+
+<p>The next year Leif&#8217;s brother Thorvald went to Vinland with one ship and
+thirty men, and there passed the winter. The following summer he
+explored the coast westward and southward, and seems to have gone as far
+south as the Carolinas. In the autumn they returned to Vinland, where
+they passed another winter. The next summer they coasted around Cape Cod
+toward Boston Harbor, and, getting aground on Cape Cod, they called it
+<i>Kialarness</i>, Keel Cape. Here the chronicle first speaks of the natives,
+whom it calls &#8220;Skr&aelig;llings.&#8221; It says: &#8220;They perceived on the sandy shore
+of the bay three small elevations. On going to them they found three
+boats made of skins, and under each boat three men. They seized all the
+men but one, who was so nimble as to escape with his boat;&#8221; and &#8220;<i>they
+killed all those whom they had taken</i>.&#8221; The doctrine of &#8220;natural
+enemies&#8221; was more current among the old Northmen than that of human
+brotherhood.</p>
+
+<p>A retribution followed swiftly. They were presently attacked by a swarm
+of natives in boats. The &#8220;Skr&aelig;llings&#8221; were beaten off; but Thorvald,
+being fatally wounded in the skirmish, died, and was buried on a
+neighboring promontory. His companions, after passing a third winter in
+Vinland, returned to Greenland, having been absent three years. This,
+considering the circumstances, was an adventurous voyage, a brave
+exploring expedition sent from the arctic regions to make discoveries in
+the mysterious world at the south. On reading the narrative, one longs
+for that more ample account of the voyage which would have been given if
+Thorvald himself had lived to return.</p>
+
+<p>The &#8220;Account of Eirek the Red and Greenland&#8221; tells of an expedition
+planned by Eirek&#8217;s youngest son, Thorstein, which was prevented by
+Thorstein&#8217;s death. It relates the particulars of a voyage to Vinland
+made by Eirek&#8217;s daughter, Freydis, with her husband and his two
+brothers. Freydis is described as a cruel, hard-hearted, enterprising
+woman, &#8220;mindful only of gain.&#8221; The chronicle says her husband, named
+Thorvald, was &#8220;weak-minded,&#8221; and that she married him because he was
+rich. During<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> the voyage she contrived to destroy her husband&#8217;s brothers
+and seize their ship, for which evil deed she was made to feel her
+brother Leif&#8217;s anger on her return. The same chronicle gives an account
+of a voyage northward, up Baffin&#8217;s Bay, and through what is now called
+Wellington Channel. There is also a romantic story of Thorstein&#8217;s widow,
+Gudrid, an exceedingly beautiful and noble-minded woman, which tells how
+she was courted and married by Thorfinn Karlsefne, a man of
+distinguished character and rank, who came from Iceland with ships, and
+was entertained by Leif.</p>
+
+<p>Thorfinn came to Greenland in the year 1006, and, having married Gudrid,
+Thorstein&#8217;s widow, was induced by her to undertake a voyage to Vinland.
+They left Greenland with three ships and a hundred and sixty men, taking
+with them livestock and all things necessary to the establishment of a
+colony. The vessels touched at Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and, having
+reached Vinland, they passed up Buzzard&#8217;s Bay, disembarked their
+livestock, and preparations were made for winter residence. Here they
+passed the winter; and here Gudrid gave birth to a son, who lived and
+grew to manhood, and among whose lineal descendants was Thorvaldsen, the
+Danish sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>The winter was severe; their provisions began to fail, and they were
+threatened with famine. This occasioned many anxieties and some
+adventures. One of the company, a fierce, resolute man, bewailed their
+apostasy from the old religion, and declared that to find relief they
+must return to the worship of Thor. But they found a supply of
+provisions without trying this experiment. Thor&#8217;s worshiper afterward
+left the company with a few companions to pursue an expedition of his
+own, and was killed by the natives.</p>
+
+<p>The next spring Thorfinn explored the coast farther west and south. Then
+he went to the bay where Leif spent the winter, and there passed his
+second winter in Vinland. He called the bay H&oacute;p. The Indians called it
+Haup; we call it Hope. During the next season they saw many natives and
+had much intercourse with them, which finally led to hostilities. The
+natives, in great numbers, attacked them fiercely, but were signally
+defeated. Freydis, being with the company, fought desperately in this
+battle, and greatly distinguished herself as a terrible combatant,
+although in that peculiar condition which does not specially qualify a
+woman for such exploits. Thorfinn afterward explored Massachusetts Bay,
+spent a third winter in Vinland, and then, with part of the company,
+returned to Greenland. He finally went back to his home in Iceland, and
+there remained during the rest of his life.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians had traditions which appear to have preserved recollections
+of these visits of the Northmen. In 1787, Michael Lort, Vice-president
+of the London Antiquarian Society, published a work, in which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> quoted
+the following extract of a letter from New England, dated more than half
+a century earlier: &#8220;There was a tradition current with the oldest
+Indians in these parts that there came a wooden house, and men of
+another country in it, swimming up the Assoonet, as this (Taunton) river
+was then called, who fought the Indians with mighty success.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There was now a settlement in Vinland, at H&oacute;p Bay, and voyages to that
+region became frequent. The old Norse narrative says: &#8220;Expeditions to
+Vinland now became very frequent matters of consideration, for these
+expeditions were considered both lucrative and honorable.&#8221; The following
+appears in Wheaton&#8217;s History of the Northmen: &#8220;A part of Thorfinn&#8217;s
+company remained in Vinland, and were afterward joined by two Icelandic
+chieftains. * * In the year 1059, it is said, an Irish or Saxon priest
+named Jon or John, who had spent some time in Iceland, went to preach to
+the colonists in Vinland, where he was murdered by the heathen.&#8221; The
+following is from the Introduction to Henderson&#8217;s Iceland: &#8220;In the year
+1121, Eirek, bishop of Greenland, made a voyage to Vinland.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus it appears to be an authenticated fact that the Northmen had a
+settlement or settlements in New England six hundred years previous to
+the arrival of English settlers. It is probable that their Vinland
+settlements consisted chiefly of trading and lumbering establishments.
+The first explorers &#8220;loaded their vessels with timber&#8221; when ready to
+return to Greenland, where the lack of timber was so great that the
+settlers found it necessary to use stone for building material. The
+Vinland timber-trade became naturally an important business, but neither
+Greenland nor Iceland could furnish emigrants to occupy the country.
+Traces of the old Norse settlements in Greenland are still visible in
+the ruins of stone buildings. Near the Bay of Igalito, in Greenland, are
+remains of a stone church. Vinland was covered with great forests, and
+there it was much easier and cheaper to build houses of wood.</p>
+
+<p>The Norse records speak also of a region south of Vinland to which
+voyages were made. It is called Huitramannaland. Indeed, two great
+regions farther south are mentioned. There is a romantic story of one
+Biorn Asbrandson, a noble Icelander, who, being crossed in his
+matrimonial desires, went away toward Vinland; but his vessel was driven
+much farther south by a storm. Nothing was heard of him until part of
+the crew of a Norse vessel, on a voyage to Huitramannaland, were
+captured by the natives, among whom Biorn was living as a chief. He
+discovered an old acquaintance among the prisoners whom he found means
+to release. He talked freely with his old friend of the past, and of
+Iceland, but would not leave his savage friends.</p>
+
+<p>How little we know of what has been in the past ages, notwithstanding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+our many volumes of history! We listen attentively to what gets a wide
+and brilliant publication, and either fail to hear or doubt every thing
+else. If these Norse adventurers had sailed from England or Spain, those
+countries being what they were in the time of Columbus, their colonies
+would not have failed, through lack of men and means to support and
+extend them, and the story of their discoveries would have been told in
+every language and community of the civilized world. But the little
+communities in Iceland and Greenland were very different from rich and
+powerful nations. Instead of being in direct communication with the
+great movements of human life in Europe, recorded in what we read as
+history, they were far off in the Northern Ocean, and, out of Norway,
+almost unknown to Europe. Afterward, when the name and discoveries of
+Columbus had taken control of thought and imagination, it became
+difficult for even intelligent men, with the old Norse records before
+them, to see the claims of the Northmen.</p>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a>B.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">THE WELSH IN AMERICA.</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> story of the emigration to America of Prince Madoc, or Madog, is
+told in the old Welsh books as follows:</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1168 or 1169 A.D., Owen Gwynedd, ruling prince of North
+Wales, died, and among his sons there was a contest for the succession,
+which, becoming angry and fierce, produced a civil war. His son Madoc,
+who had &#8220;command of the fleet,&#8221; took no part in this strife. Greatly
+disturbed by the public trouble, and not being able to make the
+combatants hear reason, he resolved to leave Wales and go across the
+ocean to the land at the west. Accordingly, in the year 1170 A.D., he
+left with a few ships, going south of Ireland, and steering westward.
+The purpose of this voyage was to explore the western land and select a
+place for settlement. He found a pleasant and fertile region, where his
+settlement was established. Leaving one hundred and twenty persons, he
+returned to Wales, prepared ten ships, prevailed on a large company,
+some of whom were Irish, to join him, and sailed again to America.
+Nothing more was ever heard in Wales of Prince Madog or his settlement.</p>
+
+<p>All this is related in old Welsh annals preserved in the abbeys of
+Conway and Strat Flur. These annals were used by Humphrey Llwyd in his
+translation and continuation of Caradoc&#8217;s History of Wales, the
+continuation extending from 1157 to 1270 A.D. This emigration of Prince
+Madog is mentioned in the preserved works of several Welsh bards who
+lived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> before the time of Columbus. It is mentioned by Hakluyt, who had
+his account of it from writings of the bard Guttun Owen. As the Northmen
+had been in New England over one hundred and fifty years when Prince
+Madog went forth to select a place for his settlement, he knew very well
+there was a continent on the other side of the Atlantic, for he had
+knowledge of their voyages to America; and knowledge of them was also
+prevalent in Ireland. His emigration took place when Henry II. was king
+of England, but in that age the English knew little or nothing of Welsh
+affairs in such a way as to connect them with English history very
+closely.</p>
+
+<p>It is supposed that Madog settled somewhere in the Carolinas, and that
+his colony, unsupported by new arrivals from Europe, and cut off from
+<a name="corr6" title="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="communication">communicated</ins> with that side of the ocean, became weak, and, after
+being much reduced, was destroyed or absorbed by some powerful tribe of
+Indians. In our colony times, and later, there was no lack of reports
+that relics of Madog&#8217;s Welshmen, and even their language, had been
+discovered among the Indians; but generally they were entitled to no
+credit. The only report of this kind having any show of claim to
+respectful consideration is that of Rev. Morgan Jones, made in 1686, in
+a letter giving an account of his adventures among the Tuscaroras. These
+Tuscarora Indians were lighter in color than the other tribes, and this
+peculiarity was so noticeable that they were frequently mentioned as
+&#8220;White Indians.&#8221; Mr. Jones&#8217;s account of his experiences among them was
+written in March, 1686, and published in the Gentleman&#8217;s Magazine for
+the year 1740, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">&#8220;REV. MORGAN JONES&#8217;S STATEMENT.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;These presents certify all persons whatever, that in the year
+1660, being an inhabitant of Virginia, and chaplain to Major
+General Bennet, of Mansoman County, the said Major General Bennet
+and Sir William Berkeley sent two ships to Port Royal, now called
+South Carolina, which is sixty leagues southward of Cape Fair, and
+I was sent therewith to be their minister. Upon the 8th of April we
+set out from Virginia, and arrived at the harbor&#8217;s mouth of Port
+Royal the 19th of the same month, where we waited for the rest of
+the fleet that was to sail from Barbadoes and Bermuda with one Mr.
+West, who was to be deputy governor of said place. As soon as the
+fleet came in, the smallest vessels that were with us sailed up the
+river to a place called the Oyster Point; there I continued about
+eight months, all which time being almost starved for want of
+provisions: I and five more traveled through the wilderness till we
+came to the Tuscarora country.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There the Tuscarora Indians took us prisoners because we told them
+that we were bound to Roanock. That night they carried us to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+town and shut us up close, to our no small dread. The next day they
+entered into a consultation about us, and, after it was over, their
+interpreter told us that we must prepare ourselves to die next
+morning, whereupon, being very much dejected, I spoke to this
+effect in the British [Welsh] tongue: &#8216;Have I escaped so many
+dangers, and must I now be knocked on the head like a dog!&#8217; Then
+presently came an Indian to me, which afterward appeared to be a
+war captain belonging to the sachem of the Doegs (whose original, I
+find, must needs be from the Old Britons), and took me up by the
+middle, and told me in the British [Welsh] tongue I should not die,
+and thereupon went to the emperor of Tuscarora, and agreed for my
+ransom and the men that were with me.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;They (the Doegs) then welcomed us to their town, and entertained
+us very civilly and cordially four months, during which time I had
+the opportunity of conversing with them familiarly in the British
+[Welsh] language, and did preach to them in the same language three
+times a week, and they would confer with me about any thing that
+was difficult therein, and at our departure they abundantly
+supplied us with whatever was necessary to our support and well
+doing. They are settled upon Pontigo River, not far from Cape
+Atros. This is a brief recital of my travels among the Doeg
+Indians. <span class="smcap" style="padding-left: 5em;">Morgan Jones,</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -1em;">&#8220;the son of John Jones, of Basateg, near Newport, in the County of
+Monmouth. I am ready to conduct any Welshman or others to the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;New York, March 10th, 1685-6.&#8221;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other accounts of his &#8220;travels&#8221; among the &#8220;Doegs&#8221; of the Tuscarora
+nation were published much earlier, but no other has been preserved. His
+veracity was never questioned. What shall be said of his statement? Were
+the remains of Prince Madog&#8217;s company represented in these &#8220;Doeg&#8221;
+Tuscaroras? He is very explicit in regard to the matter of language, and
+it is not easy to see how he could be mistaken. They understood his
+Welsh, not without needing explanation of some things &#8220;difficult
+therein.&#8221; He was able to converse with them and preach to them in Welsh;
+and yet, if he got an explanation of the existence of the Welsh language
+among these &#8220;Doegs,&#8221; or sought to know any thing in regard to their
+traditional history, he omits entirely to say so. Without meaning to
+doubt his veracity, one feels skeptical, and desires a more intelligent
+and complete account of these &#8220;travels.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>&#8221;</p>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a>C.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">ANTIQUITIES OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS.</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are indications that the Pacific world had an important ancient
+history, and these multiply as our knowledge of that world increases.
+The wide diffusion of Malay dialects in the Pacific islands suggests the
+controlling influence by which that ancient history was directed. The
+ancient remains at Easter Island are known; two of the &#8220;great images&#8221;
+found there are now in the British Museum. All who have examined this
+island believe these remains &#8220;were the work of a former race,&#8221; and that
+it had formerly &#8220;an abundant population.&#8221; It is not generally known that
+antiquities more important than these exist on many of the other islands
+of the Pacific Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>An educated and very intelligent gentleman, who has lived many years on
+one of these islands, and visited a considerable portion of Polynesia,
+finds that the Pacific has antiquities which deserve attention. He has
+sent me papers containing descriptions of some of them, taken from the
+diary of an intelligent and observant shipmaster, much of whose life as
+a mariner has been passed on the Pacific. These papers were prepared for
+publication in a newspaper at Sydney. The gentleman sending them says in
+his letter: &#8220;These researches are not very minute or accurate, but they
+indicate that there is a vast field ready for exploration in the
+Pacific, as well as in Central America and Egypt.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The papers to which I refer begin with ruins observed in the island of
+Ascension or Fanipe, and describe &#8220;the great temple&#8221; at Metallanine.
+This was a large edifice, well built of stone, and connected with canals
+and earth-works. &#8220;Vaults, passages, and platforms, all of basaltic
+stones,&#8221; are mentioned; also, &#8220;below the pavement of the main
+quadrangle, on opposite sides, are two passages or gateways, each about
+ten feet square, pierced through the outer wall down to the waters of
+the canal.&#8221; Within the walls is a &#8220;central pyramidal chamber or temple,&#8221;
+with a tree growing on it. The whole ruin is now covered with trees and
+other vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Other ruins exist in the island, one or two of which are described.
+&#8220;Some are close upon the sea-shore, others are on the tops of solitary
+hills, and some are found on plateaus or cleared spaces far inland, but
+commanding views of the sea. One of the latter kind is a congeries of
+ruinous heaps of square stones, covering at least five or six acres. It
+is situated on a piece of table-land, surrounded by dense forest
+growths, and itself covered with low jungle. There is the appearance of
+a ditch, in the form of a cross, at the intersecting angles of which are
+tall mounds of ruin, of which the original form is now undistinguishable
+beyond the fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> that the basements, constructed of large stones,
+indicate that the structures were square. The natives can not be induced
+to go near this place, although it abounds in wild pigeons, which they
+are extremely fond of hunting.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These ruined structures were not built by barbarous people such as now
+inhabit the island of Ascension. There is no tradition relating to their
+origin or history among the present inhabitants, who, it is said,
+attribute them to &#8220;mauli,&#8221; evil spirits. The &#8220;great temple&#8221; was occupied
+for a time, &#8220;several generations ago,&#8221; according to the natives, by the
+shipwrecked crew of a Spanish buccaneer; and relics of these outlaws are
+still found in its vaults, which they used as storehouses.</p>
+
+<p>On many low islands of the Marshall and Gilbert groups are curious
+pyramids, tall and slender, built of stones. The natives regard them
+with superstitious fear. The author of these papers, being a mariner,
+suggests that they are &#8220;landmarks or relics of ancient copper-colored
+voyagers of the Polynesian race during their great migrations.&#8221;
+Remarkable structures of this kind are found on Tapituea, one of the
+Kingsmill islands, and on Tinian, one of the Ladrones, where, also,
+remarkable Cyclopean structures are found. They are solid, truncated
+pyramidal columns, generally about twenty feet high and ten feet square
+at the base. The monuments on Tinian were seen by M. Arago, who
+accompanied Bougainville. According to his description they form two
+long colonnades, the two rows being thirty feet apart, and seeming to
+have once been connected by something like roofing. On Swallow&#8217;s Island,
+some twelve degrees eastward of Tapituea, is a pyramid similar in
+construction; and on the west side of this island is &#8220;a vast
+quadrangular inclosure of stone, containing several mounds, or probably
+edifices of some kind, of which the form and contents are not known by
+reason of their being buried under drift-sand and guano.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On Strong&#8217;s Island, and others connected with it, are ruins similar to
+those at Metallanine. On Lele, which is separated from Strong&#8217;s Island
+at the harbor by a very narrow channel, there is a &#8220;conical mountain
+surrounded by a wall some twenty feet high, and of enormous thickness.&#8221;
+The whole island appears to present &#8220;a series of Cyclopean inclosures
+and lines of great walls every where overgrown with forest.&#8221; Some of the
+inclosures are parallelograms 200 by 100 feet in extent; one is much
+larger. The walls are generally twelve feet thick, and within are
+vaults, artificial caverns, and secret passages. No white man is allowed
+to live on Lele, and strangers are forbidden to examine the ruins, in
+which, it is supposed, is concealed the plunder taken by the natives
+from captured or stranded ships. On the southwest side of the harbor, at
+Strong&#8217;s Island, &#8220;are many canals lined with stone. They cross each
+other at right angles, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> islands between their intersections were
+artificially raised, and had tall buildings erected on them, some of
+which are still entire. One quadrangular tower, about forty feet high,
+is very remarkable. The forest around them is dense and gloomy; the
+canals are broken and choked with mangroves.&#8221; Not more than 500 people
+now inhabit these islands; their tradition is, that an ancient city
+formerly stood around this harbor, mostly on Lele, occupied by a
+powerful people whom they call &#8220;Anut,&#8221; and who had large vessels, in
+which they made long voyages east and west, &#8220;many moons&#8221; being required
+for one of these voyages.</p>
+
+<p>Great stone structures on some of Navigator&#8217;s Islands, of which the
+natives can give no account, are mentioned without being particularly
+described. Some account is given of one remarkable structure. On a
+mountain ridge 1500 feet above the sea, and near the edge of a precipice
+500 feet high, is a circular platform built of huge blocks of volcanic
+stone. It is 150 feet in diameter, and about 20 feet high. On one side
+was the precipice, and on the other a ditch that may have been
+originally 20 feet deep. Trees six feet in diameter are now growing in
+the ruins of this platform. Remarkable ruins exist on some of the
+Marquesas Islands, but they have not been clearly described.</p>
+
+<p>At first, when these antiquities were noticed by seamen, it was
+suggested that they were the remains of works constructed by the old
+buccaneers; but closer examination soon put aside this theory. Neither
+the buccaneers, nor any other people from Europe, would have constructed
+such works; and, besides, it is manifest that they were ruins before any
+crew of buccaneers sailed on the Pacific. The remains on Easter Island
+were described by Captain Cook. It has now been discovered that such
+remains exist at various points throughout Polynesia, and greater
+familiarity with the islands will very likely bring to light many that
+have not yet been seen by Europeans. The author of these papers,
+referring to the old discarded suggestion relative to the buccaneers,
+says: &#8220;Centuries of European occupation would have been required for the
+existence of such extensive remains, which are, moreover, not in any
+style of architecture practiced by people of the Old World.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is stated that similar stone-work, consisting of &#8220;walls, strongholds,
+and great inclosures,&#8221; exists on the eastern side of Formosa, which is
+occupied by a people wholly distinct in race from the Mongols who
+invaded and occupied the other side. The influence to which these
+ancient works are due seems to have pervaded Polynesia from the
+Marquesas Islands at the east, to the Ladrone and Carolina Islands at
+the west, and what is said of the present inhabitants of Ascension
+Island might have a wider application, namely, &#8220;They create on the mind
+of a stranger the impression of a people who have degenerated from
+something higher and better.&#8221; At a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> few points in Polynesia a small
+portion of the people show Mongol traits. Dark-colored people, evidently
+of the Papuan variety, somewhat mixed with the brown race it may be, are
+found at various points in larger numbers; but the great body of the
+Polynesians are a brown race, established (at a very remote period,
+perhaps) by a mixture of the Papuans with the Malays. Now take into
+consideration the former existence of a great Malayan empire, the wide
+distribution of Malay dialects on the Pacific, and the various
+indications that there was formerly in Polynesia something higher and
+better in the condition of the people, and the ancient history indicated
+by these ruins will not seem mysterious, nor shall we feel constrained
+to treat as incredible the Central American and Peruvian traditions that
+anciently strangers came from the Pacific world in ships to the west
+coast of America for commercial intercourse with the civilized countries
+existing here.</p>
+
+<p>Ruins similar in character are found in the Sandwich Islands, but here
+the masonry is occasionally superior to that found elsewhere. A
+gentleman interested in arch&aelig;ological inquiries gives the following
+account of a Hawaiian ruin which he visited in the interior, about
+thirty miles from Hilo. He says he went with several companions to the
+hill of Kukii, which he describes as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The hill is so regular in its outline that it appears like a work of
+art, a giant effort of the Mound-Builders. Its general form resembles
+very much the pyramid of Cholulu in Mexico, and from this fact I felt a
+great interest in climbing it. We proceeded, Conway, Eldhardt, Kaiser,
+and I, on foot up the grassy slope of the hill. There was an absence of
+all volcanic matter; no stone on the hill except what had been brought
+there by the hand of man. As we arrived near the summit we came upon
+great square blocks of hewn stone overgrown by shrubbery, and on
+reaching the summit we found that it had been leveled and squared
+according to the cardinal points, and paved. We found two square blocks
+of hewn stone imbedded in the earth in an upright position, some fifteen
+feet apart, and ranging exactly east and west. Over the platform was
+rank grass, and a grove of cocoanuts some hundred years old. Examining
+farther, I found that the upper portion of the hill had been terraced;
+the terraces near the summit could be distinctly traced, and they had
+evidently been faced with hewn stone. The stones were in perfect squares
+of not less than three feet in diameter, many of them of much greater
+size. They were composed of a dark vitreous basalt, the most durable of
+all stone. It is remarkable that every slab was faced and polished upon
+every side, so that they could fit together like sheets of paper. They
+reminded me much of the polished stones in some of the walls of
+Tiahuanuco, and other ruins in Peru. Many of the blocks were lying
+detached; probably some had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> removed; but there were still some
+thirty feet of the facing on the lower terrace partly in position. But
+all showed the ravages of time and earthquakes, and were covered with
+accumulated soil, grass, and shrubbery. Conway and myself, in descending
+the hill, had our attention attracted by a direct line of shrubbery
+running from the summit to the base of the hill, on the western side, to
+the cocoanut grove below. Upon examination, we found it to be the
+remains of a stairway, evidently of hewn stone, that had led from the
+foot of the hill to the first terrace, a height of nearly 300 feet.
+Within this stairway, near the base, we found a cocoanut-tree growing,
+more than 200 years old, the roots pressing out the rocks. The site for
+a temple is grand and imposing, and the view extensive, sweeping the
+ocean, the mountains, and the great lava plain of Puna. It was also
+excellent in a military point of view as a lookout. From the summit it
+appeared as an ancient green island, around which had surged and rolled
+a sea of lava; and so it evidently has been.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;By whom and when was this hill terraced and these stones hewn? There is
+a mystery hanging around this hill which exists nowhere else in the
+Sandwich Islands. The other structures so numerously scattered over the
+group are made of rough stone; there is no attempt at a terrace; there
+is no flight of steps leading to them; there is no hewn or polished
+stone, nor is there any evidence of the same architectural skill
+evinced. They are the oldest ruins yet discovered, and were evidently
+erected by a people considerably advanced in arts, acquainted with the
+use of metallic instruments, the cardinal points, and some mathematical
+knowledge. Were they the ancestors of the present Hawaiians, or of a
+different race that has passed away?&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He inquired of the oldest natives concerning the history of this ruin,
+but &#8220;they could give only vague and confused traditions in regard to it,
+and these were contradictory. The only point on which they agreed was
+that it had never been used within the memory of man.&#8221; They also said
+there was another old structure of the same kind in Kona, whose history
+is lost. The language of the Sandwich Islands is so manifestly a dialect
+of the Malayan tongue, that the influence of the Malays must have been
+paramount in these islands in ancient times.</p>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<h3 class="sectionhead"><a name="APPENDIX_D" id="APPENDIX_D"></a>D.<br />
+
+<span class="chaptitle">DECIPHERING THE INSCRIPTIONS.</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the &#8220;Actes de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Philologique,&#8221; Paris, for March, 1870, Mons.
+H. de Charencey gives some particulars of his attempt to decipher
+&#8220;fragments&#8221; of one or two very brief inscriptions on the bas-relief of
+the cross at Palenque. I know nothing of his qualifications for this
+work, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> he appears to have studied the characters of the Maya
+alphabet preserved and explained by Landa. It is seen, however, that his
+attempt to decipher the inscriptions is a complete failure. In fact, he
+professes to have done no more than reproduce two or three words in
+Roman characters. He gives us <i>Hunab-ku</i>, <i>Eznab</i>, and <i>Kukulcan</i> as
+words found on the cross. <i>Eznab</i> is supposed to be the name of a month,
+or of a day of the week, and the others names of divinities. He finds
+that the characters of the inscriptions are not in all respects
+identical with those found in Landa, and that Landa&#8217;s list, especially
+when tested by the inscriptions, is incomplete. There is not absolute
+certainty in regard to the name Kukulcan; nevertheless, M. de Charencey
+makes this speculative use of it:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The presence of the name &#8216;Kukulcan&#8217; on the bas-relief of the cross is
+important in a historical point of view. The name of this demigod, which
+signifies &#8216;the serpent with the quetzal plumes,&#8217; is the Maya form of the
+Mexican name &#8216;Quetzalcohuatl,&#8217; which has precisely the same meaning. But
+we know that the name and worship of this god were brought to the high
+plateaus of Central America toward the ninth century of our era,
+consequently the bas-relief in question can not be more ancient.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This assumes that the worship of Kukulcan was never heard of by the
+Mayas until the Aztecs arrived in Mexico, an assumption for which there
+is no warrant, and which proceeds in utter disregard of facts. It was
+the Aztecs who had never heard of Kukulcan, or, at least, had not
+adopted his worship, previous to this time. The Aztecs, when they
+settled in Anahuac, did not impart new ideas, religion, or culture to
+any body; on the contrary, they received much from the civilization of
+their new neighbors, which was more advanced than their own. It is very
+certain that neither the Mayas nor the Quich&eacute;s borrowed any thing from
+them.</p>
+
+<p>We need not go back so far as the ninth century to find the time when
+the Aztecs adopted, or at least organized in Mexico, the worship of
+Kukulcan, whose name they transformed into Quetzalcohuatl. His worship
+did not begin with them; they did not introduce it; they found it in the
+country as a very ancient worship, and adopted their form of it from the
+people who yielded to their sway.</p>
+
+<p>If M. de Charencey will inquire with a little more care, he will
+discover that Kukulcan was one of the very oldest personages in Central
+American mythology, as <i>Con</i> was one of the oldest in that of Peru.
+Kukulcan, sometimes as Zamn&agrave;, was associated with almost every thing in
+civilization. He introduced the beginnings of civilized life, invented
+the art of writing, and was to the Central Americans not wholly unlike
+what Thoth was to the Egyptians, and Tautus, or Taut, to the Ph&#339;nicians.
+If the bas-relief of the cross at Palenque were half as old as his
+worship in Central America, it would be far more ancient than any one
+has supposed.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="GENERAL_INDEX" id="GENERAL_INDEX"></a>GENERAL INDEX.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decorative" />
+
+<p class="titlepage">[The figures in this Index refer to pages.]</p>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Adobe</span> used in Northern Mexico, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in Peru for later constructions, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">used by Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ancient history of Mexico and Central America in the old books and traditions, <a href="#Page_197">197-200</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Aztecs preceded by Toltecs, and Toltecs by Colhuas, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Colhuas the original civilizers, <a href="#Page_198">198-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">they may have come from South America, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Chichimecs the original barbarians, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Colhuas first settled in Tabasco, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Mayas, Quich&eacute;s, Tzendals, etc., originally Colhuas, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Colhuan kingdom of Xibalba, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Colhuas, Toltecs, and Aztecs branches of the same people, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">such a history implied by the political condition in which the country was found, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">theories of this old civilization considered, <a href="#Page_165">165-183</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">it was original in America, <a href="#Page_184">184-6</a>.</li>
+  <li>Antiquity of man and civilization, <a href="#Page_181">181-2</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273-5</a>.</li>
+  <li>Antiquity of the Mexican and Central American ruins, <a href="#Page_151">151-59</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the great forest was 450 years ago what it is now, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">it covers an ancient seat of civilization, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Copan forgotten and mysterious before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">there was a long period of history preceded by development of the civilization, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">distinct epochs traced, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">no perishable materials left in the ruins, <a href="#Page_156">156-159</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">an extreme notion of their antiquity, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">another notion makes this the &#8220;oldest civilization in the world,&#8221; <a href="#Page_159">159-61</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Tyrians saw the old cities 3000 years ago, <a href="#Page_162">162-64</a>.</li>
+  <li>Antiquity of the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_45">45-51</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">a new river terrace formed since they left, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">decayed condition of their skeletons shows antiquity, <a href="#Page_48">48-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">&#8220;primeval&#8221; forests found growing over their works, <a href="#Page_50">50-1</a>.</li>
+  <li>Astronomical monument in Southern Mexico, <a href="#Page_122">122-3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">at Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_220">220-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in Peru, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Mexican calendars, <a href="#Page_214">214-15</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Peruvian calendars, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+  <li class="subhead">See <a href="#telescopic">Telescopic Tubes</a>.</li>
+  <li>Atlantis supposed to be an ingulfed part of America, <a href="#Page_175">175-7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">its destruction recorded in Egypt and related to Solon, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">said to be recorded in old Central American books, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Proclus on remembrance of Atlantis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">derivation of the words Atlas, Atlantes, and Atlantic, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">opinions relative to former existence of such land, <a href="#Page_180">180-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">geological probabilities, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">memory of war with the Atlantes preserved at Athens, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aztec civilization denied in a &#8220;New History,&#8221; <a href="#Page_207">207-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">facts discredit this denial, <a href="#Page_208">208-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Cortez found abundant supplies, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">found Mexican mechanics, masons, and the like, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the city of Mexico and its great temple, realities, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">both described, <a href="#Page_211">211-12</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">present remains of them, <a href="#Page_214">214-15</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aztecs, the, were less civilized than their predecessors, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">they came from the south, <a href="#Page_217">217-18</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">when they left Aztlan, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how long they had been in Mexico, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what they learned and borrowed of their neighbors, <a href="#Page_220">220-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">did not adopt the phonetic system of writing, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">could not have left such ruined cities as Palenque and Mitla, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Aztecs still found at the south, <a href="#Page_218">218-19</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Balboa&#8217;s hunt for Peru, <a href="#Page_223">223-4</a>.</li>
+  <li>Basques, their fishing voyages to America, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Books of ancient America destroyed in Mexico and Central America by the Aztec Ytzcoatl, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">by Spanish fanaticism, <a href="#Page_188">188-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">a few of the later books saved, <a href="#Page_180">180-196</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">some of the more important, <a href="#Page_195">195-6</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">books of hieroglyphics in Peru, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Boturini collected Mexican and Central American books, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">misfortunes of his collection, <a href="#Page_195">195-6</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brasseur de Bourbourg on the antiquity of the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on their Mexican origin, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on their religion, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on the Chichimecs, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on Huehue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>on Nahuatl chronology, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his &#8220;Atlantic theory,&#8221; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-83</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">he has great knowledge of American traditions and antiquities, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">discovered the works of Ximenes and Landa&#8217;s Maya alphabet, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">translated &#8220;Popol-Vuh,&#8221; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">he is unsystematic, confused, and fanciful, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brereton on the wild Indians of New England, <a href="#Page_62">62-5</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his invented stories of their copper and flax, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Calendars in Mexico, <a href="#Page_214">214-15</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in Peru, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+  <li>Central American and Southern Mexican ruins most important, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their masonry and ornamentation, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">a great forest covers most of them, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">a road built into the forest in 1695, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151-2</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">this forest covers a chief seat of the ancient civilization, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Cinaca-Mecallo, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cevola, &#8220;Seven Cities&#8221; of, <a href="#Page_85">85-9</a>.</li>
+  <li>Charencey, M. de, attempts to decipher an inscription, <a href="#Page_292">292-3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his singular speculation concerning the worship of Kukulcan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+  <li>Charnay, Desir&eacute;, his account of Mitla, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chronology of the Mexican race, <a href="#Page_203">203-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">of the Peruvians, <a href="#Page_265">265-6</a>.</li>
+  <li>Civilization, antiquity of, underrated, <a href="#Page_181">181-2</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cloth of Mound-Builders, fragments of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+  <li>Coin among the Muyscas, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>&#8220;Coliseum&#8221; at Copan, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+  <li>Columbus and the Mayas, <a href="#Page_209">209-10</a>.</li>
+  <li>Copan, its ruins situated in wild region, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">first discovered in 1576, and were then mysterious to the natives, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what Mr. Stephens saw there, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what Palacios found there 300 years ago, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the inscriptions, monoliths, and decorations, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">seems older than Palenque, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+  <li>Copper of Lake Superior described, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+  <li>Coronado&#8217;s conquest of &#8220;Cevola,&#8221; <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cortez invades Mexico, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his progress, <a href="#Page_210">210-11</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">well received at the city of Mexico, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">driven from the city, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how the city was taken, <a href="#Page_213">213-14</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">it was immediately rebuilt, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the plaza made of part of the inclosure of the great temple, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Cortez could not have invented the temple, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cross, the, not originally a Christian emblem, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">vastly older than Christianity as a symbolic device, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">common in Central American ruins, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the assumption that it was first used as a Christian emblem has misled inquiry as to the age and origin of antiquities, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cuzco, Montesinos on its name, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">was probably built by the Incas on the site of a ruined city of the older times, <a href="#Page_226">226-7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the ruins at Cuzco, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234-5</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Egyptian pyramids totally unlike those in America, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">no resemblance between Egyptians and the Mexican race, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ethnology, American, discussed, <a href="#Page_65">65-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">South Americans the oldest aborigines, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Huxley&#8217;s suggestion, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Gallatin, Albert, on Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+  <li>Garcilasso partly of Inca blood, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">not well qualified to write a history of Peru, <a href="#Page_258">258-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">he began with the fable of Manco-Capac, and confined all history to the Incas, <a href="#Page_259">259-61</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">was received as an &#8220;authority,&#8221; <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his influence has misdirected Peruvian studies, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gila, valley of, its ruins, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gold the most common metal in Peru, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">astonishing abundance of Peruvian gold-work, <a href="#Page_249">249-50</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their gardens made of gold, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">amount of gold sent from Peru to Spain, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">gold calendar found recently at Cuzco, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><a name="corr7" title="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="Herrera">Herrara</ins> on the buildings in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="huehue" id="huehue"></a>Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs went to Mexico, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201-3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">supposed to be the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">described in old Central American books, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Toltecs driven from Huehue-Tlapalan by the Chichimecs, or wild Indians, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">it was at a distance northeast of Mexico, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Cabrera and others on Huehue-Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humboldt on Ph&#339;nician symbols in America, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on the origin of the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on Peruvian great roads, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on books of hieroglyphics found in Peru, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">describes the pyramid of Papantla, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li>Huxley on American ethnology, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Incas of Peru, origin of the title, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">they represent only the last period of Peruvian history, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their dynasty began 500 years or less before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_260">260-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">list of the Incas, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Manco-Capac a fable, <a href="#Page_260">260-1</a>.</li>
+  <li>Indians of North America, vain endeavors to connect them with the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">came toward the Atlantic from the northwest, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Iroquois group may have come first, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their distribution relative to the Algonquins, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">date of Algonquin migration estimated, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">these Indians resemble the Koraks and Chookchees, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>they are entirely distinct from Mound-Builders and Pueblos, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their barbarism original, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li>&#8220;Inscription Rock,&#8221; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+  <li>Inscriptions in Central America written in Maya characters, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">written perhaps in an old form of speech from which the Maya family of dialects was derived, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">attempts to decipher them, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+  <li>Iron, names for, in ancient Peru, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+  <li>Israelitish theory of ancient America, <a href="#Page_166">166-7</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Keweenaw Point, a copper district, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kukulcan, his worship, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Lake Peten in the forest, Maya settlement there, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Ursua&#8217;s road from Yucatan to the lake, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Landa wrote on the Mayas of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">preserved the Maya alphabet, with explanations, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Languages in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">three groups, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">probably not radically distinct, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the most important group supposed to be Colhuan, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+  <li>Las Casas on Central American annalists, <a href="#Page_187">187-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what he says of the old books and their destruction, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Maize, did Indians get it from Mound-Builders? 35.</li>
+  <li>Malays, their ancient empire, <a href="#Page_167">167-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their navigation of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">spread of their dialects, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">came to America, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead"><a name="corr8" title="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="El Mas&#8217;&uacute;d&iacute;">El Mas&uacute;d&iacute;</ins> on the Malays, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">were not civilizers in America, <a href="#Page_170">170-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">ruins of Malayan cities in Java, <a href="#Page_163">163-9</a>.</li>
+  <li>Manco-Capac a fiction of the Incas, <a href="#Page_260">260-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">discarded by Montesinos and other early Spanish writers, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mandan Indians supposed Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mayas first seen by Columbus, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their phonetic alphabet preserved, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">descendants of the first civilizers, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mexican cities noticed by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what Montezuma said of his building materials, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mexican &#8220;picture-writing&#8221; a peculiarity of the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">much inferior to the Maya writing, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">something like it at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Aztecs could not have left such inscriptions as those seen in the ruined cities, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mexican ruins in the central region, <a href="#Page_89">89-92</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Tulha, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Xochicalco, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Papantla, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Cholula, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">pyramids with galleries, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">unexplored antiquities in this region, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mining works of Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_43">43-6</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">mining method of the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">ound, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">they left a detached mass of copper in a mine, <a href="#Page_43">43-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">antiquity of their mining works, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mitla, its ruins show refined skill in the builders, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the decorations, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">present state of the ruins, <a href="#Page_117">117-122</a>.</li>
+  <li>Montesinos, Fernando, explored and studied Peru fifteen years, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">unequaled in knowledge of its antiquities and traditional history, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his means of information, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how historical narratives and poems were preserved by the <i>amautas</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how literature can be preserved by trained memory, <a href="#Page_262">262-3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Homer and the Vedas, <a href="#Page_262">262-3</a>.</li>
+  <li>Montesinos on Peruvian history, <a href="#Page_264">264-7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">there were three distinct periods, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">he rejects the Manco-Capac fable, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">does not begin the history with such stories, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">reports 64 kings in the first period, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his account of the Peruvian sovereigns, <a href="#Page_264">264-7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the art of writing existed in the older time, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how the first period closed, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the second period, for 1000 years, a period of invasions, divisions, small states, and general decline of civilization, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in this period the art of writing was lost, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in it the 26 successors of the 64 kings were merely kings of Tambotoco, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how this period ended, <a href="#Page_267">267-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the third period began with Rocca, the first Inca, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">why Montesinos has not been duly appreciated, <a href="#Page_268">268-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his facts stand apart from his theories, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">probabilities favor his report of three periods, <a href="#Page_270">270-1</a>.</li>
+  <li>Montezuma on his building-material, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morgan, Lewis H., on the Indians, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mound-Builders, their national name unknown, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their mound-work and its uses, <a href="#Page_17">17-19</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">like mound-work in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their civilization, <a href="#Page_33">33-39</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">used wood for building material, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their inclosures, <a href="#Page_19">19-24</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their works at the south, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their principal settlements, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their border settlements, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">had commerce with Mexico, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">relics of their manufactures, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their long stay in the country, <a href="#Page_51">51-55</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">were not ancestors of wild Indians, <a href="#Page_58">58-61</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">came from Mexico, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">were connected with Mexico through Texas, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">probably were Toltecs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200-3</a>.</li>
+  <li>Muyscas, their civilization, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Nahuatl or Toltec chronology, <a href="#Page_203">203-4</a>.</li>
+  <li>Natchez Indians, were they degenerate Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li>Northmen in America, <a href="#Page_279">279-85</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>they discovered Greenland, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their settlements in Greenland, <a href="#Page_280">280-1</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Biarni&#8217;s constrained voyage to Massachusetts in 985 A.D., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">subsequent voyages to New England, <a href="#Page_281">281-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">encounters with the Indians, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Norse settlements in Vinland were probably lumbering and trading establishments, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">not people enough in Greenland and Iceland to make extensive settlements, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">written narratives of these discoveries, <a href="#Page_279">279-80</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Origin of Mexican and Central American civilization, theories of, <a href="#Page_165">165-183</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the &#8220;lost tribes&#8221; theory absurd, <a href="#Page_166">166-7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Malay theory untenable, <a href="#Page_170">170-1</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Ph&#339;nician theory fails to explain it, <a href="#Page_173">173-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Atlantic theory explained by Brasseur de Bourbourg not likely to be received, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">it was an original American civilization, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">may have begun in South America, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272-3</a>.</li>
+  <li>Orton, Prof., on Peruvian antiquity, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Pacific islands, their antiquities, <a href="#Page_288">288-92</a>.</li>
+  <li>Palenque, Stephens&#8217;s first view of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">this city&#8217;s name unknown, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">supposed to have been the ancient Xibalba, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">some of its ruins described, <a href="#Page_105">105-9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">extent of the old city can not be determined, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">difficulties of exploration, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the cross at Palenque, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">aqueduct, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+  <li>Papantla, its remarkable stone pyramid, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">important ruins in the forests of Papantla and Misantla, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li>Paper, Peruvian name of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">manufacture of, for writing, proscribed in the second period of Peruvian history, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  <li>Peruvian ancient history, <a href="#Page_257">257-67</a>.</li>
+  <li>Peruvian civilization, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">differed from Central American, <a href="#Page_222">222-3</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">is seen in the civil and industrial organization, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in their agriculture, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">in their manufactures, <a href="#Page_247">247-51</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their dyes, <a href="#Page_247">247-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their skill in gold-work, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the abundance of gold-work, <a href="#Page_249">249-50</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their schools of the <i>amautas</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their literature, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">anciently had the art of writing, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">had names for iron, and said to have worked iron mines, <a href="#Page_248">248-9</a>.</li>
+  <li>Peruvian ruins, where found, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">they represent two periods of civilization, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">remains on islands in Lake Titicaca, <a href="#Page_227">227-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">at Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Page_233">233-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">remarkable monolithic gateways, <a href="#Page_233">233-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">at old Huanuco, <a href="#Page_239">239-40</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">at Gran-Chimu, <a href="#Page_237">237-8</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">ruins of a large and populous city, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Cuelap, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Pachacamac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">subterranean passage under a river, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the aqueducts, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the great roads, <a href="#Page_243">243-6</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">ruins at Cuzco, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ph&#339;nicians, or people of that race, came probably to America in very ancient times, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">decline of geographical knowledge around the &AElig;gean after Ph&#339;nicia was subjugated, about B.C. 813, <a href="#Page_272">272-3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">supposed Ph&#339;nician symbols in Central America, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Ph&#339;nician race may have influenced Central American civilization, but did not originate it, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Tyrians storm-driven to America, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pizarro seeks Peru, <a href="#Page_224">224-5</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">discovers the country, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">goes to Spain for aid, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">finally lands at Tumbez, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">marches to Caxamalca, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">perpetrates wholesale murder and seizes the Inca, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Inca fills a room with gold for ransom, and is murdered, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+  <li>&#8220;Popol-Vuh,&#8221; an old Quich&eacute; book translated, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what it contains, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Quich&eacute; account of the creation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">four attempts to create man, <a href="#Page_194">194-5</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">its mythology grew out of an older system, <a href="#Page_193">193-4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">kingdom of Quich&eacute; not older than 1200 A.D., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pueblos, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Pueblo ruins, <a href="#Page_77">77-89</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">occupied northern frontier of the Mexican race, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217-18</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">unlike the wild Indians, <a href="#Page_67">67-8</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Quich&eacute;s, notices of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quippus, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_254">254-5</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quirigua, its ruins like those of Copan, but older, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">it is greatly decayed, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">has inscriptions, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quito subjugated by Huayna-Capac, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">was civilized like Peru, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">modern traveler&#8217;s remark on, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Savage theory of human history, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+  <li>&#8220;Semi-Village Indians,&#8221; <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  <li>Serpent, figures of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">great serpent inclosure, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+  <li>Simpson, Lieut., describes a Pueblo ruin, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+  <li>Spinning and weaving in Peru, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">vestiges of these arts among the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the Mayas had textile fabrics, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+  <li>Squier on the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on the more southern ruins in Central America, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on the monoliths of Copan, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on Central American forests, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">on the ruins of Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><a name="telescopic" id="telescopic"></a>Telescopic tubes of the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">silver figure of a Peruvian using such a tube, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">such a tube on a Mexican monument, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+  <li>&#8220;Tennis Court&#8221; at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>Titicaca Lake, its elevation above sea-level, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tlascalans, what Cortez found among them, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">their capital, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">aided the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+  <li>Toltecs identified with the Mound-Builders, <a href="#Page_201">201-205</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">how they came to Mexico, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">date of their migration, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li class="subhead">See <a href="#huehue">Huehue Tlapalan</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tuloom, in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Uxmal described, <a href="#Page_131">131-137</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">more modern than Palenque, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">partly inhabited, perhaps, when Cortez invaded Mexico, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Valley of Rio Verde, its ruins, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Wallace, A. R., on ruins in Java, <a href="#Page_168">168-9</a>.</li>
+  <li>Welsh, the, in America, <a href="#Page_285">285-7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Prince Madog&#8217;s emigration, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his colony supposed to have been destroyed or absorbed by the Indians, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">letter of Rev. Morgan Jones on his &#8220;travels&#8221; among the Doeg Indians who spoke Welsh, <a href="#Page_286">286-7</a>.</li>
+  <li>Whipple, Lieut., on Pueblo ruins, <a href="#Page_78">78-85</a>.</li>
+  <li>Whittlesey on the ancient mining, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wilson&#8217;s discoveries in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_274">274-5</a>.</li>
+  <li>Writing, phonetic, among the Mayas, <a href="#Page_187">187-91</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Aztec writing much ruder, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">writing in Peru, <a href="#Page_254">254-6</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Peruvian books of hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">such writing on a llama skin found at Lake Titicaca, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Xibalba, an ancient Colhuan kingdom, where it was situated, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">subjugated by the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ximenes, Father Francisco, his manuscript work on Guatemala, <a href="#Page_191">191-2</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">his dictionary of the native tongues, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">discovered and translated &#8220;Popol Vuh,&#8221; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+  <li>Xochicalco, its pyramidal temple situated on an excavated and chambered hill, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Yucatan, its native name is Maya, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what is seen at Mayapan, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">the old edifices at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_131">131-137</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">very ancient ruins at Kabah, <a href="#Page_137">137-139</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">curious construction at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">remarkable remains at Ake, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">aguadas in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">subterranean reservoirs, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">Merida built on the site of a ruined city, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">what the Spaniards saw when they first sailed along its coast, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Zuni, an inhabited Pueblo described by Lieut. Whipple, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+  <li class="subhead">ruins of an &#8220;old Zuni&#8221; near it, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage">THE END.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="pagebreak" />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left: 0;" summary="errors">
+<tr>
+  <td>Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+  <td>Correction</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr1">ix</a></td>
+  <td>Quiragua</td>
+  <td>Quirigua</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr2">xi</a></td>
+  <td>Los Monjas</td>
+  <td>Las Monjas</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr3">124</a></td>
+  <td>of &#8220;great size.&#8221;</td>
+  <td>&#8216;great size.&#8217;&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr4">158</a></td>
+  <td>sufficently</td>
+  <td>sufficiently</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr5">280</a></td>
+  <td>there two years.</td>
+  <td>there two years.&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr6">286</a></td>
+  <td>communicated</td>
+  <td>communication</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr7">296</a></td>
+  <td>Herrara</td>
+  <td>Herrera</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr8">297</a></td>
+  <td>El Mas&uacute;d&iacute;</td>
+  <td>El Mas&#8217;&uacute;d&iacute;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:</p>
+
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li>Cholula / Cholulu</li>
+  <li>Chiapa / Chiapas</li>
+  <li>Inca-Rocca / Inca-Rocco</li>
+  <li>Mesantla / Misantla</li>
+  <li>Popol-Vuh / Popol Vuh</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient America, in Notes on American Archaeology
+
+Author: John D. Baldwin
+
+Release Date: August 21, 2008 [EBook #26382]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from scans of public domain material produced by
+Microsoft for their Live Search Books site.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
+[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text. Oe ligatures have been expanded.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Gateway at Labna. [See p. 144.]
+
+
+
+
+           ANCIENT AMERICA,
+                  IN
+    NOTES ON AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY.
+
+
+      BY JOHN D. BALDWIN, A.M.,
+  AUTHOR OF "PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS."
+
+
+        _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+
+              NEW YORK:
+    HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+           FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+  Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by
+  JOHN D. BALDWIN,
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The purpose of this volume is to give a summary of what is known of
+American Antiquities, with some thoughts and suggestions relative to
+their significance. It aims at nothing more. No similar work, I believe,
+has been published in English or in any other language. What is known of
+American Archaeology is recorded in a great many volumes, English,
+French, Spanish, and German, each work being confined to some particular
+department of the subject, or containing only an intelligent traveler's
+brief sketches of what he saw as he went through some of the districts
+where the old ruins are found. Many of the more important of these works
+are either in French or Spanish, or in great English quartos and folios
+which are not accessible to general readers, and not one of them
+attempts to give a comprehensive view of the whole subject.
+
+Therefore I have prepared this work for publication, believing it will
+be acceptable to many who are not now much acquainted with the remains
+of Ancient America, and that some who read it may be induced to study
+the but as Ancient America covers all time previous to the discovery by
+Columbus, they may not be deemed out of place. Materials for the paper
+on "Antiquities of the Pacific Islands" came to me from the Pacific
+World while I was preparing the others. The discovery of the Pacific is
+so intimately connected with the discovery of America, that this paper
+would not be out of place even if the Mexican and Peruvian traditions
+did not mention that a foreign people communicated with the western
+coast of America in very ancient times.
+
+WORCESTER, MASS., _November_, 1871.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                              Page
+     I. ANCIENT AMERICA.--THE MOUND-BUILDERS                    13
+        Works of the Mound-Builders                             14
+        Extent of their Settlements                             31
+        Their Civilization                                      33
+        Their Ancient Mining Works                              43
+
+    II. ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS                         47
+        How long were they here?                                51
+
+   III. WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?                            57
+        Not Ancestors of the Wild Indians                       58
+        Brereton's Story                                        62
+        American Ethnology                                      65
+        Who the Mound-Builders were                             70
+
+    IV. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA                              76
+        Their Northern Remains                                  77
+        The "Seven Cities of Cevola"                            85
+        Central Mexico                                          89
+        The great Ruins at the South                            93
+
+     V. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA                             103
+        Palenque                                               104
+        Copan and Quiragua[TN-1]                               111
+        Mitla                                                  117
+        An Astronomical Monument                               122
+        Ruins farther South                                    123
+        The Ruins in Yucatan                                   125
+        Mayapan                                                127
+        Uxmal                                                  131
+        Kabah                                                  137
+        Chichen-Itza                                           140
+        Other Ruins                                            144
+
+    VI. ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS                                 151
+        Distinct Eras traced                                   155
+        Nothing perishable left                                156
+        "The Oldest of Civilizations"                          159
+        American Cities seen by Tyrians                        161
+
+   VII. WHENCE CAME THIS CIVILIZATION?                         165
+        The "Lost Tribes of Israel"                            166
+        The "Malay" Theory                                     167
+        The Phoenician Theory                                  171
+        The "Atlantic" Theory                                  174
+        It was an original Civilization                        184
+
+  VIII. AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY                               187
+        The Old Books not all lost                             189
+        The Ancient History sketched                           197
+        The Toltecs our Mound-Builders                         200
+        Some confirmation of the History                       205
+
+    IX. THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION                                 207
+        The Discovery and Invasion                             209
+        The City of Mexico                                     211
+        The Conquest                                           213
+        Who were the Aztecs?                                   216
+        They came from the South                               217
+
+     X. ANCIENT PERU                                           222
+        The Spanish Hunt for Peru                              223
+        The Ruins near Lake Titicaca                           226
+        Other Ruins in Peru                                    237
+        The great Peruvian Roads                               243
+        The Peruvian Civilization                              246
+
+    XI. PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY                               257
+        Garcilasso's History                                   258
+        Fernando Montesinos                                    261
+        His Scheme of Peruvian History                         264
+        Probabilities                                          268
+        Conclusion                                             272
+
+  APPENDIX                                                     277
+        A. The Northmen in America                             279
+        B. The Welsh in America                                285
+        C. Antiquities of the Pacific Islands                  288
+        D. Deciphering the Inscriptions                        292
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                              Page
+   1. Gateway at Labna                             _Frontispiece._
+   2. Great Mound near Miamisburg                               16
+   3. Square Mound near Marietta                                18
+   4. Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio                                 19
+   5. Works in Washington County, Mississippi                   20
+   6. Works at Hopeton, Ohio                                    22
+   7. Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works                    23
+   8. Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio                             25
+   9. Great Serpent Inclosure                                   29
+  10. Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio                       30
+  11. Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio                    35
+  12. Work on North Fork of Paint Creek                         36
+  13. Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio                           38
+  14. Work near Brownsville, Ohio                               38
+  15. Works near Liberty, Ohio                                  39
+  16. Work in Randolph County, Indiana                          40
+  17. } Vases from the Mounds                                   41
+  18. }
+  19. Ancient Mining Shaft                                      45
+  20. Pueblo Ruin at Pecos                                      80
+  21. Modern Zuni                                               81
+  22. Ruins in the Valley of the Gila                           83
+  23. Pueblo Building restored                                  87
+  24. Ground Plan of the Building                               88
+  25. Arch of Los[TN-2] Monjas, Uxmal                           98
+  26. Arch most common in the Ruins                            100
+  27. Casa No. 1, Palenque                                     107
+  28. Casa No. 2 (La Cruz), Palenque                           108
+  29. Great Wall at Copan                                      112
+  30. Ruins at Mitla                                           116
+  31. Great Hall at Mitla                                      118
+  32. A ruined "Palace" at Mitla                               119
+  33. Mosaic Decoration at Mitla                               120
+  34. Great Mound at Mayapan                                   127
+  35. Circular Edifice at Mayapan                              129
+  36. Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal                               132
+  37. Ground Plan                                              132
+  38. Two-headed Figure at Uxmal                               133
+  39. Decorations over Doorway, Uxmal                          134
+  40. Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal                         136
+  41. Ruined Arch at Kabah                                     139
+  42. Casa Colorada, Chichen-Itza                              141
+  43. Great Stone Ring                                         143
+  44. Great Mound at Xcoch                                     145
+  45. Bottom of an Aguada                                      146
+  46. Subterranean Reservoir                                   147
+  47. Plan of the Walls of Tuloom                              148
+  48. Watch-tower at Tuloom                                    149
+  49. Specimen of Inscriptions on Stone                        190
+  50. Specimen of the Manuscript Writing                       191
+  51. Ancient Masonry at Cuzco                                 227
+  52. Ruins of a "Temple" on the Island of Titicaca            228
+  53. Ruin on the Island of Titicaca                           229
+  54. Ruin on the Island of Coati                              231
+  55. Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco                         233
+  56. Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco                       234
+  57. End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco                      235
+  58. End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu                          238
+  59. } Decorations at Chimu-Canchu                            238
+  60. }
+  61. Edifice at Old Huanuco                                   239
+  62. Ground Plan of the Edifice                               240
+  63. "Look-out" at Old Huanuco                                240
+  64. Ruins at Pachacamac                                      242
+  65. Peruvian Copper Knives                                   249
+  66. Copper Tweezers                                          249
+  67. Golden Vase of Ancient Peru                              251
+  68. Ancient Peruvian Silver Vase                             251
+  69. Ancient Peruvian Pottery                                 252
+  70. Ancient Peruvian Pottery                                 253
+
+
+
+
+ANCIENT AMERICA.
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+
+One of the most learned writers on American antiquities, a Frenchman,
+speaking of discoveries in Peru, exclaims, "America is to be again
+discovered! We must remove the veil in which Spanish politics has sought
+to bury its ancient civilization!" In this case, quite as much is due to
+the ignorance, indifference, unscrupulous greed, and religious
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, as to Spanish politics. The gold-hunting
+marauders who subjugated Mexico and Peru could be robbers and
+destroyers, but they were not qualified in any respect to become
+intelligent students of American antiquity. What a select company of
+investigators, such as could be organized in our time, might have done
+in Mexico and Central America, for instance, three hundred and fifty
+years ago, is easily understood. In what they did, and in what they
+failed to do, the Spaniards who went there acted in strict accordance
+with such character as they had; and yet we are not wholly without
+obligation to some of the more intelligent Spaniards connected with the
+Conquest.
+
+There are existing monuments of an American ancient history which invite
+study, and most of which might, doubtless, have been studied more
+successfully in the first part of the sixteenth century, before nearly
+all the old books of Central America had been destroyed by Spanish
+fanaticism, than at present. Remains of ancient civilizations, differing
+to some extent in degree and character, are found in three great
+sections of the American continent: the west side of South America,
+between Chili and the first or second degree of north latitude; Central
+America and Mexico; and the valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio.
+These regions have all been explored to some extent--not completely, but
+sufficiently to show the significance and importance of their
+archaeological remains, most of which were already mysterious antiquities
+when the continent was discovered by Columbus. I propose to give some
+account of these antiquities, not for the edification of those already
+learned in American archaeology, but for general readers who have not
+made the subject a study. My sketches will begin with the Mississippi
+Valley and the regions connected with it.
+
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS--THEIR WORKS.
+
+An ancient and unknown people left remains of settled life, and of a
+certain degree of civilization, in the valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries. We have no authentic name for them either as a nation
+or a race; therefore they are called "Mound-Builders," this name
+having been suggested by an important class of their works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The Great Mound, near Miamisburg.]
+
+Prominent among the remains by which we know that such a people once
+inhabited that region are artificial mounds constructed with
+intelligence and great labor. Most of them are terraced and truncated
+pyramids. In shape they are usually square or rectangular, but sometimes
+hexagonal or octagonal, and the higher mounds appear to have been
+constructed with winding stairways on the outside leading to their
+summits. Many of these structures have a close resemblance to the
+_teocallis_ of Mexico. They differ considerably in size. The great mound
+at Grave Creek, West Virginia, is 70 feet high and 1000 feet in
+circumference at the base. A mound in Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high
+and 852 feet in circumference. The great truncated pyramid at Cahokia,
+Illinois, is 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 in height. Generally,
+however, these mounds range from 6 to 30 feet high. In the lower valley
+of the Mississippi they are usually larger in horizontal extent, with
+less elevation.
+
+Figure 2 represents the great mound near Miamisburg, Ohio, which may be
+compared with a similar structure at Mayapan, Yucatan (Fig. 34). Figure
+3 shows a square mound near Marietta, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Square Mound, near Marietta.]
+
+There have been a great many conjectures in regard to the purposes for
+which these mounds were built, some of them rather fanciful. I find it
+most reasonable to believe that the mounds in this part of the continent
+were used precisely as similar structures were used in Mexico and
+Central America. The lower mounds, or most of them, must have been
+constructed as foundations of the more important edifices of the
+mound-building people. Many of the great buildings erected on such
+pyramidal foundations, at Palenque, Uxmal, and elsewhere in that region,
+have not disappeared, because they were built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar. For reasons not difficult to understand, the Mound-Builders,
+beginning their works on the lower Mississippi, constructed such
+edifices of wood or some other perishable material; therefore not a
+trace of them remains. The higher mounds, with broad, flat summits,
+reached by flights of steps on the outside, are like the Mexican
+_teocallis_, or temples. In Mexico and Central America these structures
+were very numerous. They are described as solid pyramidal masses of
+earth, cased with brick or stone, level at the top, and furnished with
+ascending ranges of steps on the outside. The resemblance is striking,
+and the most reasonable explanation seems to be that in both regions
+mounds of this class were intended for the same uses. Figure 4 shows the
+works at Cedar Bank, Ohio, inclosing a mound. The mound within the
+inclosure is 245 feet long by 150 broad. Figure 5 shows a group of
+mounds in Washington County, Mississippi, some of which are connected by
+means of causeways.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4--Works at Cedar Bank, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Works in Washington County, Mississippi.]
+
+Another class of these antiquities consists of inclosures formed by
+heavy embankments of earth and stone. There is nothing to explain these
+constructions so clearly as to leave no room for conjecture and
+speculation. It has been suggested that some of them may have been
+intended for defense, others for religious purposes. A portion of them,
+it may be, encircled villages or towns. In some cases the ditches or
+fosses were on the inside, in others on the outside. But no one can
+fully explain why they were made. We know only that they were
+prepared intelligently, with great labor, for human uses. "Lines of
+embankment varying from 5 to 30 feet in height, and inclosing from 1 to
+50 acres, are very common, while inclosures containing from 100 to 200
+acres are not infrequent, and occasional works are found inclosing as
+many as 400 acres." Figures 6 and 7 give views of the Hopeton works,
+four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio. Combinations of the square and
+circle are common in these ancient works, and the figures are always
+perfect. This perfection of the figures proves, as Squier and Davis
+remark, that "the builders possessed a standard of measurement, and had
+a means of determining angles."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Works at Hopeton, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Principal Figures of the Hopeton Works.]
+
+About 100 inclosures and 500 mounds have been examined in Ross County,
+Ohio. The number of mounds in the whole state is estimated at over
+10,000, and the number of inclosures at more than 1500. The great number
+of these ancient remains in the regions occupied by the Mound-Builders
+is really surprising. They are more numerous in the regions on the lower
+Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico than any where else; and here, in
+some cases, sun-dried brick was used in the embankments.
+
+One peculiarity at the South is, that while the inclosures are generally
+smaller and comparatively less numerous, there is a greater proportion
+of low mounds, and these are often larger in extent. Harrison Mound, in
+South Carolina, is 480 feet in circumference and 15 feet high. Another
+is described as 500 feet in circumference at the base, 225 at the
+summit, and 34 feet high. In a small mound near this, which was opened,
+there was found "an urn holding 46 quarts," and also a considerable
+deposit of beads and shell ornaments very much decomposed. Broad
+terraces of various heights, mounds with several stages, elevated
+passages, and long avenues, and aguadas or artificial ponds, are common
+at the South. Figure 8 shows the remains of a graded way of this ancient
+people near Piketon, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.]
+
+At Seltzertown, Mississippi, there is a mound 600 feet long, 400 wide,
+and 40 feet high. The area of its level summit measures 4 acres. There
+was a ditch around it, and near it are smaller mounds. Mr. J. R.
+Bartlett says, on the authority of Dr. M. W. Dickeson, "The north side
+of this mound is supported by a wall of sun-dried brick two feet thick,
+filled with grass, rushes, and leaves." Dr. Dickeson mentions angular
+tumuli, with corners "still quite perfect," and "formed of large bricks
+bearing the impression of human hands." In Louisiana, near the Trinity,
+there is a great inclosure partially faced with sun-dried bricks of
+large size; and in this neighborhood ditches and artificial ponds have
+been examined. In the Southern States these works appear to assume a
+closer resemblance to the mound work of Central America.
+
+The result of intelligent exploration and study of these antiquities is
+stated as follows: "Although possessing throughout certain general
+points of resemblance going to establish a kindred origin, these works
+nevertheless resolve themselves into three grand geographical divisions,
+which present in many respects striking contrasts, yet so gradually
+merge into each other that it is impossible to determine where one
+series terminates and another begins." On the upper lakes, and to a
+certain extent in Michigan, Iowa, and Missouri, but particularly in
+Wisconsin, the outlines of the inclosures (elsewhere more regular in
+form) were designed in the forms of animals, birds, serpents, and even
+men, appearing on the surface of the country like huge _relievos_. The
+embankment of an irregular inclosure in Adams County, Ohio, is
+described as follows by Squier and Davis, Mr. Squier having made the
+drawing of it for the work published by the Smithsonian Institution:
+
+"It is in the form of a serpent, upward of 1000 feet in length, extended
+in graceful curves, and terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The
+embankment constituting this figure is more than 5 feet high, with a
+base 30 feet wide at the centre of the body, diminishing somewhat toward
+the head and tail. The neck of the figure is stretched out and slightly
+curved. The mouth is wide open, and seems in the act of swallowing or
+ejecting an oval figure which rests partly within the distended jaws.
+This oval is formed by an embankment 4 feet high, and is perfectly
+regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being
+respectively 160 and 80 feet. The combined figure has been regarded as a
+symbolical illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the serpent
+and the egg; but, however this may be, little doubt can exist of the
+symbolical character of the monument."
+
+Figure 9 gives a view of this work.
+
+No symbolic device is more common among the antiquities of Mexico and
+Central America than the form of the serpent, and it was sometimes
+reproduced in part in architectural constructions. One of the old books,
+giving account of a temple dedicated to Quetzalcohuatl, says, "It was
+circular in form, and the entrance represented the mouth of a serpent,
+opened in a frightful manner, and extremely terrifying to those who
+approached it for the first time."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Great Serpent, Adams County, Ohio.]
+
+On the Ohio and its tributaries, and farther south, where the mounds are
+numerous, the inclosures have more regular forms; and in the Ohio Valley
+very often their great extent has incited speculation. At Newark, Ohio,
+when first discovered, they were spread over an area more than two miles
+square, and still showed more than twelve miles of embankment from two to
+twenty feet high. Farther south, as already stated, the inclosures are
+fewer and smaller, or, to speak more exactly, the great inclosures and
+high mounds are much less common than low truncated pyramids, and
+pyramidal platforms or foundations with dependent works. Passing up the
+valley, it is found that Marietta, Newark, Portsmouth, Chillicothe,
+Circleville, Ohio; St. Louis, Missouri, and Frankfort, Kentucky, were
+favorite seats of the Mound-Builders. This leads one of the most
+intelligent investigators to remark that "the centres of population are
+now where they were when the mysterious race of Mound-Builders existed."
+There is, however, this difference: the remains indicate that their most
+populous and advanced communities were at the South. Figure 10 shows a
+fortified hill in Butler County, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio.]
+
+Among those who have examined and described remains of the
+Mound-Builders, Messrs. Squier and Davis rank first in importance,
+because they have done most to give a particular and comprehensive
+account of them. Their great work, published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, must be regarded as the highest authority, and those who
+desire to study the whole subject more in detail will find that work
+indispensable.
+
+
+EXTENT OF THEIR SETTLEMENTS.
+
+Careful study of what is shown in the many reports on these ancient
+remains seems plainly to authorize the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders entered the country at the South, and began their
+settlements near the Gulf. Here they must have been very numerous, while
+their works at every point on the limit of their distribution, north,
+east, and west, indicate a much less numerous border population. Remains
+of their works have been traced through a great extent of country. They
+are found in West Virginia, and are spread through Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and Iowa to Nebraska. Lewis and Clarke reported seeing them on the
+Missouri River, a thousand miles above its junction with the
+Mississippi; but this report has not been satisfactorily verified. They
+have been observed on the Kansas, Platte, and other remote Western
+rivers, it is said. They are found all over the intermediate and the
+more southern country, being most numerous in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
+Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas.
+
+This ancient race seems to have occupied nearly the whole basin of the
+Mississippi and its tributaries, with the fertile plains along the Gulf,
+and their settlements were continued across the Rio Grande into Mexico;
+but toward their eastern, northern, and western limit the population was
+evidently smaller, and their occupation of the territory less complete
+than in the Valley of the Ohio, and from that point down to the Gulf. No
+other united people previous to our time can be supposed to have
+occupied so large an extent of territory in this part of North America.
+
+It has heretofore been stated that remains of this people exist in
+Western New York, but a more intelligent and careful examination shows
+that the works in Western New York are not remains of the
+Mound-Builders. This is now the opinion of Mr. Squier, formed on
+personal investigation since the great work of Squier and Davis was
+published.
+
+
+THEIR CIVILIZATION.
+
+It is usual to rank the civilized life of the Mound-Builders much below
+that of the ancient people of Mexico and Central America. This may be
+correct, for the remains as they now exist appear to justify it. But if
+all the ancient stone-work in Central America, with its finely-carved
+inscriptions and wonderful decorations, had disappeared in the ages
+before Europeans visited this continent, the difference might not appear
+to be so great; for then the Central American remains, consisting only
+of earth-works, truncated pyramids, pyramidal foundations, and their
+connected works made of earth, would have a closer resemblance to works
+of the Mound-Builders, to those especially found on the lower
+Mississippi. On the other hand, if we now had in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys remains of the more important edifices anciently
+constructed there, the Mound-Builders might be placed considerably
+higher in the scale of civilization than it has been customary to allow.
+
+It can be seen, without long study of their works as we know them, that
+the Mound-Builders had a certain degree of civilization which raised
+them far above the condition of savages. To make such works possible
+under any circumstances, there must be settled life, with its
+accumulations and intelligently organized industry. Fixed habits of
+useful work, directed by intelligence, are what barbarous tribes lack
+most of all. A profound change in this respect is indispensable to the
+beginning of civilization in such tribes.
+
+No savage tribe found here by Europeans could have undertaken such
+constructions as those of the Mound-Builders. The wild Indians found in
+North America lived rudely in tribes. They had only such organization as
+was required by their nomadic habits, and their methods of hunting and
+fighting. These barbarous Indians gave no sign of being capable of the
+systematic application to useful industry which promotes intelligence,
+elevates the condition of life, accumulates wealth, and undertakes great
+works. This condition of industry, of which the worn and decayed works
+of the Mound-Builders are unmistakable monuments, means civilization.
+
+Albert Gallatin, who gave considerable attention to their remains,
+thought their works indicated not only "a dense agricultural
+population," but also a state of society essentially different from that
+of the Iroquois and Algonquin Indians. He was sure that the people who
+established such settlements and built such works must have been
+"eminently agricultural." No trace of their ordinary dwellings is left.
+These must have been constructed of perishable materials, which went to
+dust long before great forests had again covered most of the regions
+through which they were scattered. Doubtless their dwellings and other
+edifices were made of wood, and they must have been numerous. It is
+abundantly evident that there were large towns at such places as Newark,
+Circleville, and Marietta, in Ohio. Figures 11 and 12 give views of
+works on Paint Creek, Ohio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Stone-work in Paint Creek Valley, Ohio.]
+
+Their agricultural products may have been similar to many of those found
+in Mexico; and it is not improbable that the barbarous Indians, who
+afterward occupied the country, learned from them the cultivation of
+maize. Their unity as a people, which is every where so manifest, must
+have been expressed in political organization, else it could not have
+been maintained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Work on North Fork of Paint Creek.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Ancient Work, Pike County, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Elliptical Work near Brownsville, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Works near Liberty, Ohio.]
+
+In the details of their works, and in manufactured articles taken from
+the mounds, there is evidence of considerable civilization. For
+instance, it has been ascertained that the circular inclosures are
+perfect circles, and the square inclosures perfect squares. They were
+constructed with a geometrical precision which implies a kind of
+knowledge in the builders that may be called scientific. Figures 13, 14,
+15, 16 show some of the more important works of the Mound-Builders,
+chiefly in Ohio. Relics of art have been dug from some of the mounds,
+consisting of a considerable variety of ornaments and implements, made
+of copper, silver, obsidian, porphyry, and greenstone, finely wrought.
+There are axes, single and double; adzes, chisels, drills or gravers,
+lance-heads, knives, bracelets, pendants, beads, and the like, made of
+copper. There are articles of pottery, elegantly designed and finished;
+ornaments made of silver, bone, mica from the Alleghanies, and shells
+from the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Rectangular Work, Randolph County, Indiana.]
+
+The articles made of stone show fine workmanship; some of them are
+elaborately carved. Tools of some very hard material must have been
+required to work the porphyry in this manner. Obsidian is a volcanic
+product largely used by the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians for arms and
+cutting instruments. It is found in its natural state nowhere nearer the
+Mississippi Valley than the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo.
+
+There appears to be evidence that the Mound-Builders had the art of
+spinning and weaving, for cloth has been found among their remains. At
+the meeting of the International Congress of Pre-Historic Archaeology
+held at Norwich, England, in 1868, one of the speakers stated this fact
+as follows: "Fragments of charred cloth made of spun fibres have been
+found in the mounds. A specimen of such cloth, taken from a mound in
+Butler County, Ohio, is in Blackmore Museum, Salisbury. In the same
+collection are several lumps of burnt clay which formed part of the
+'altar,' so called, in a mound in Ross County, Ohio: to this clay a few
+charred threads are still attached." Figures 17 and 18 represent
+specimens of vases taken from the mounds.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 17, 18.--Vases from the Mounds.]
+
+Mr. Schoolcraft gives this account of a discovery made in West Virginia:
+"_Antique tube: telescopic device._ In the course of excavations made in
+1842 in the easternmost of the three mounds of the Elizabethtown group,
+several tubes of stone were disclosed, the precise object of which has
+been the subject of various opinions. The longest measured twelve
+inches, the shortest eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite,
+being skillfully cut and polished. The diameter of the tube externally
+was one inch and four tenths; the bore, eight tenths of an inch. This
+calibre was continued till within three eighths of an inch of the sight
+end, when it diminishes to two tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at
+the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and
+distant objects are more clearly discerned."
+
+He points out that the carving and workmanship generally are very
+superior to Indian pipe carvings, and adds, if this article was a work
+of the Mound-Builders "intended for a telescopic tube, it is a most
+interesting relic." An ancient Peruvian relic, found a few years since,
+shows the figure of a man wrought in silver, in the act of studying the
+heavens through such a tube. Similar tubes have been found among relics
+of the Mound-Builders in Ohio and elsewhere. In Mexico, Captain Dupaix
+saw sculptured on a peculiar stone structure the figure of a man making
+use of one. Astronomical devices were sculptured below the figure. This
+structure he supposed to have been used for observation of the stars.
+His account of it will be given in the chapter on Mexican and Central
+American ruins.
+
+The Mound-Builders used large quantities of copper such as that taken
+from the copper beds on Lake Superior, where the extensive mines yield
+copper, not in the ore, but as pure metal. It exists in those beds in
+immense masses, in small veins, and in separated lumps of various sizes.
+The Mound-Builders worked this copper without smelting it. Spots of pure
+silver are frequently found studding the surface of Lake Superior
+copper, and appearing as if welded to it, but not alloyed with it. No
+other copper has this peculiarity; but copper with similar blotches of
+silver has been dug from the mounds. It was naturally inferred from this
+fact that the ancient people represented by these antiquities had some
+knowledge of the art of mining copper which had been used in the copper
+region of Lake Superior. This inference finally became an ascertained
+fact.
+
+
+THEIR ANCIENT MINING WORKS.
+
+Remains of their mining works were first discovered in 1848 by Mr. S. O.
+Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, and in 1849 they were
+described by Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in his geological report to the
+national government. Those described were found at the Minnesota mine,
+in upper Michigan, near Lake Superior. Their mining was chiefly surface
+work; that is to say, they worked the surface of the veins in open pits
+and trenches. At the Minnesota mine, the greatest depth of their
+excavations was thirty feet; and here, "not far below the bottom of a
+trough-like cavity, among a mass of leaves, sticks, and water, Mr. Knapp
+discovered a detached mass of copper weighing nearly six tons. It lay
+upon a cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter,
+the ends of which showed plainly the marks of a small axe or cutting
+tool about two and a half inches wide. They soon shriveled and decayed
+when exposed to the air. The mass of copper had been raised several
+feet, along the foot of the lode, on timbers, by means of wedges." At
+this place was found a stone maul weighing thirty-six pounds, and also a
+copper maul or sledge weighing twenty-five pounds. Old trees showing 395
+rings of annual growth stood in the debris, and "the fallen and decayed
+trunks of trees of a former generation were seen lying across the pits."
+Figure 19 (opposite) presents a section of this mining shaft of the
+Mound-Builders: _a_ shows the mass of copper; _b_ the bottom of the
+shaft; _c_ the earth and debris which had been thrown out. The dark
+spots are masses of copper.
+
+The modern mining works are mostly confined to that part of the copper
+region known as Keweenaw Point. This is a projection of land extending
+into Lake Superior, and described as having the shape of an immense
+horn. It is about eighty miles in length, and, at the place where it
+joins the main land, about forty-five miles in width. All through this
+district, wherever modern miners have worked, remains of ancient mining
+works are abundant; and they are extensive on the adjacent island, known
+as Isle Royale. The area covered by the ancient works is larger than
+that which includes the modern mines, for they are known to exist in the
+dense forests of other districts, to which the modern mining has not
+yet been extended.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Ancient Mining Shaft.]
+
+One remarkable mining excavation of the Mound-Builders was found near
+the Waterbury mine. Here, in the face of a vertical bluff, was
+discovered "an ancient, artificial, cavern-like recess, twenty-five feet
+in horizontal length, fifteen feet high, and twelve feet deep. In front
+of it is a pile of excavated rock on which are standing, in full size,
+the forest trees common to this region." Some of the blocks of stone
+removed from this recess would weigh two or three tons, and must have
+required levers to get them out. Beneath the surface rubbish were the
+remains of a gutter or trough made of cedar, placed there to carry off
+water from the mine. At the bottom of the excavation a piece of white
+cedar timber was found on which were the marks of an axe. Cedar shovels,
+mauls, copper gads or wedges, charcoal, and ashes were discovered, over
+which "primeval" forest trees had grown to full size.
+
+Modern mining on Lake Superior began effectively in 1845. The whole
+copper region has not been fully explored. Works of the ancient miners
+are found at all the mines of any importance; and they show remarkable
+skill in discovering and tracing actual veins of the metal. Colonel
+Charles Whittlesey, one of the best authorities on this point, believes
+the Mound-Builders worked the copper-beds of that region during "a great
+length of time," and more of their works will undoubtedly be explored
+when the forests shall be cleared away from those portions of the copper
+region not yet worked by modern miners. So far as they have been traced,
+they every where show the same methods, the same implements, and the
+same peculiarities of both knowledge and lack of knowledge in the old
+miners.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+ANTIQUITY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+
+That the Mound-Builders and their works belong to a distant period in
+the past is evident; but, of course, we have no means of determining
+their antiquity with any approach to accuracy, no scheme of chronology
+by which their distance from us in time can be measured. Nevertheless,
+some things observed in their remains make it certain that the works are
+very ancient.
+
+1. One fact showing this is pointed out by those who have examined them
+carefully as follows: None of these works (mounds and inclosures) occur
+on the lowest-formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence of
+the western streams; and as there is no good reason why their builders
+should have avoided erecting them on that terrace, while they raised
+them promiscuously on all the others, it follows, not unreasonably, that
+this terrace has been formed since the works were erected. It is
+apparent, also, that in some cases the works were long ago partly
+destroyed by streams which have since receded more than half a mile, and
+at present could not reach them under any circumstances. Those streams
+generally show four successive terraces, which mark four distinct eras
+of their subsidence since they began to flow in their present courses.
+The fourth terrace, on which none of the works are found, marks the
+last and longest of these periods; and it marks also the time since the
+Mound-Builders ceased to occupy the river-valleys where it was formed.
+The period marked by this fourth terrace must be the longest, because
+the excavating power of such streams necessarily diminishes as their
+channels grow deeper. This geological change, which has taken place
+since the latest of the mounds and inclosures were constructed, shows
+that the works are very old; no one can tell how old. To count the years
+is impossible; but we can see that the date, if found, would take us
+back to a remote period in the past.
+
+2. Great antiquity is indicated by the skeletons taken from the mounds.
+Every skeleton of a Mound-Builder is found in a condition of extreme
+decay. It sometimes appears that the surface of a mound has been used by
+the wild Indians for interments; but their skeletons, which are always
+found well preserved, can be readily distinguished by their position in
+the mounds, as well as by other peculiarities. The decayed bones of
+Mound-Builders are invariably found within the mounds, never on the
+surface, usually at the bottom of the structure, and nearly always "in
+such a state of decay as to render all attempts to restore the skull,
+or, indeed, any part of the skeleton, entirely hopeless." Not more than
+one or two skeletons of that people have been recovered in a condition
+suitable for intelligent examination. It is stated in the work of Squier
+and Davis that the only skull belonging incontestably to an individual
+of the Mound-Building race, which has been preserved entire, was taken
+from a mound situated on a knoll (itself artificial apparently) on the
+summit of a hill, in the Scioto Valley, four miles below Chillicothe.
+
+What, save time itself, can have brought these skeletons to a condition
+in which they fall to pieces when touched, and are ready to dissolve and
+become dust? All the circumstances attending their burial were unusually
+favorable for their preservation. The earth around them has invariably
+been found "wonderfully compact and dry." And yet, when exhumed, they
+are in such a decomposed and crumbling condition that to restore them is
+impossible. Sound and well-preserved skeletons, known to be nearly two
+thousand years old, have been taken from burial-places in England, and
+other European countries less favorable for preserving them. The
+condition of an ancient skeleton can not be used as an accurate measure
+of time, but it is sufficiently accurate to show the difference between
+the ancient and the modern, and in this case it allows us to assume that
+these extremely decayed skeletons of the Mound-Builders are much more
+than two thousand years old.
+
+Those familiar with the facts established by geologists and
+palaeontologists are aware that remains of human skeletons have been
+discovered in deposits of the "Age of Stone" in Western Europe; not to
+any great extent, it is true, although the discoveries are sufficient to
+show that fragments of skeletons belonging to that age still exist. It
+is not without reason, therefore, that the condition of decay in which
+all skeletons of the Mound-Builders are exhumed from their burial-places
+is considered a proof of their great antiquity. There is no other
+explanation which, so far as appears, can be reasonably accepted.
+
+3. The great age of these mounds and inclosures is shown by their
+relation to the primeval forests in which most of them were discovered.
+I say _primeval_ forests, because they seemed primeval to the first
+white men who explored them. Of course there were no unbroken forests at
+such points as the Ohio Valley, for instance, while they were occupied
+by the Mound-Builders, who were a settled agricultural people, whose
+civilized industry is attested by their remains. If they found forests
+in the valleys they occupied, these were cleared away to make room for
+their towns, inclosures, mounds, and cultivated fields; and when, after
+many ages of such occupation, they finally left, or were driven away, a
+long period must have elapsed before the trees began to grow freely in
+and around their abandoned works. Moreover, observation shows that the
+trees which first make their appearance in such deserted places are not
+regular forest trees. The beginning of such growths as will cover them
+with great forests comes later, when other preliminary growths have
+appeared and gone to decay.
+
+When the Ohio Valley was first visited by Europeans it was covered by an
+unbroken forest, most of the trees being of great age and size; and it
+was manifest that several generations of great forest trees had preceded
+those found standing in the soil. The mounds and inclosures were
+discovered in this forest, with great trees growing in them. Eight
+hundred rings of annual growth were counted in the trunk of a tree
+mentioned by Sir Charles Lyell and others, which was found growing on a
+mound at Marietta. In the same way, successive generations of forest
+trees had grown over their extensive mining works near Lake Superior,
+and many of those works are still hidden in what seem to be primeval
+forests.
+
+General Harrison made the following suggestion in regard to the
+establishment of these forests in Ohio. When the individual trees that
+first got possession of the soil had died out one after another, they
+would, in many cases, be succeeded by other kinds, till at last, after a
+great number of centuries, that remarkable diversity of species
+characteristic of North America would be established. His suggestion,
+the result of practical observation and study, is not without reason. It
+is certain, in any case, that the period when these old constructions
+were deserted is so far back in the past, that sufficient time has since
+passed for the abandoned towns and fields to remain for years, and
+perhaps centuries, as waste places, pass through the transition from
+waste lands to the beginning of forest growths, and then be covered by
+several generations of such great forest trees as were cleared away to
+prepare the soil for the settlements, towns, and farms of our people.
+
+
+HOW LONG WERE THEY HERE?
+
+There are many indications to warrant the conclusion that the
+Mound-Builders occupied their principal seats in the Ohio and
+Mississippi Valleys during a very long period. If they came from the
+south, as appears evident, their settlements must have been extended up
+the valley gradually. After their first communities were established in
+the Gulf regions, considerable time must have elapsed before their
+advancing settlements were extended northward, through the intervening
+region, into the Valley of the Ohio. On the Ohio and in the valleys of
+its tributaries their settlements were very numerous, and evidently
+populous. The surprising abundance of their works in this region, which
+have been traced in our time, shows that they dwelt here in great
+numbers, and had no lack of industry.
+
+This region seems to have been one of the principal centres from which
+their settlements were advanced into the western part of Virginia; into
+Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. The spread
+of their settlements was necessarily gradual, and a long period must
+have been required to extend them over all the country where remains of
+their works are known to exist. If their civilization was chiefly
+developed after their arrival in the country, which is unlikely, many
+years must have elapsed before colonies went forth, to any great extent,
+from the original seat of its development. In any case, time was
+required to make their chief settlements sufficiently old and populous
+to send forth colonies. It is manifest in their remains that the
+communities of this ancient people most remote from the populous centres
+on the Ohio, east, north, and west, were, like all border settlements,
+the rudest and least populous. The remains at these points do not
+indicate either as much wealth or as many workers, and the places where
+these borderers settled must have been the latest occupied and the
+earliest abandoned. One diligent investigator, who believes they came
+originally from Mexico, speaks of the time of their stay in the country
+as follows:
+
+"When we consider the time required to people the whole extent of the
+territory where their remains are found, and bring that people into a
+condition to construct such monuments, and when we reflect on the
+interval that must have passed after their construction until the epoch
+of their abandonment, we are constrained to accord them a very high
+antiquity."
+
+He points out that they were sun worshipers, like the Mexicans and
+Peruvians, and calls attention to the disks dug from their mounds, which
+appear to have been designed as representations of the sun and moon.
+
+Their long occupation of the country is suggested by the great extent of
+their mining works. All who have examined these works agree with Colonel
+Whittlesey that they worked the Lake Superior copper mines "for a great
+length of time." How long they had dwelt in the Ohio Valley when this
+mining began can not be told, but a very considerable period must have
+elapsed after their arrival at that point before the mines were
+discovered. We can not suppose the first settlers who came up from the
+Gulf region to the Ohio Valley went on immediately, through the
+wilderness a thousand miles, to hunt for copper mines on Lake Superior;
+and, even after they began to explore that region, some time must have
+passed before the copper was found.
+
+After they discovered the mines and began to work them, their progress
+could not have been rapid. As their open trenches and pits could be
+worked only in the summers, and by methods that made their operations
+much slower than those of modern miners, no great advance of their work
+was possible during the working time of each season; and yet remains of
+their mining works have been discovered wherever mines have been opened
+in our day; and, as previously stated, they are known to exist in heavy
+forests, where the modern mining works have not yet been established.
+There is nothing to indicate that they had settlements any where in the
+mining region. Colonel Whittlesey, and others whose study of the subject
+gives their opinion much weight, believe the Mound-Builders went up from
+the settlements farther south in the summers, remained in the copper
+region through the season, and worked the mines in organized companies
+until the advance of winter terminated their operations.
+
+Colonel Whittlesey says: "As yet, no remains of cities, graves,
+domiciles, or highways have been found in the copper region;" and adds,
+"as the race appears to have been farther advanced in civilization than
+their successors, whom we call aborigines, they probably had better
+means of transportation than bark canoes." It may be said, also, that
+the accumulations called wealth were necessary to make this regular and
+systematic mining possible. Without these they could not have provided
+the supplies of every kind required to sustain organized companies of
+miners through a single season. A great many summers must have passed
+away before such companies of miners, with all needed tools and
+supplies, could have made their works so extensive by means of such
+methods as they were able to use.
+
+They probably occupied the country on the Gulf and Lower Mississippi
+much longer than any other portion of the great valley. Their oldest and
+latest abandoned settlements appear to have been in this region, where,
+we may reasonably suppose, they continued to dwell long after they were
+driven from the Ohio Valley and other places at the north.
+
+The Natchez Indians found settled on the Lower Mississippi may have been
+a degenerate remnant of the Mound-Builders. They differed in language,
+customs, and condition from all other Indians in the country; and their
+own traditions connected them with Mexico. Like the Mexicans, they had
+temples or sacred buildings in which the "perpetual fire" was
+maintained. Each of their villages was furnished with a sacred building
+of this kind. They had also peculiarities of social and political
+organization different from those of other tribes. They were
+sun-worshipers, and claimed that their chief derived his descent from
+the sun. The Natchez were more settled and civilized than the other
+Indians, and, in most respects, seemed like another race. One learned
+investigator classes them with the Nahuatl or Toltec race, thinks they
+came from Mexico, and finds that, like the ancient people of Panuco and
+Colhuacan, they had the phallic ceremonies among their religious
+observances. Their history can not be given, and there is little or
+nothing but conjecture to connect them with the Mound-Builders. The
+Natchez were exterminated in 1730 by the French, whom they had treated
+with great kindness. Of the few who escaped death, some were received
+among the Chickasaws and Muskogees, but more were sent to Santo Domingo
+and sold as slaves.
+
+No view that can be taken of the relics left by the Mound-Builders will
+permit us to believe their stay in the country was short. Any hypothesis
+based on the shortest possible estimate of the time must count the years
+by centuries.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?
+
+
+This ancient people, whose remains indicate unity and civilization, must
+have been organized as a nation, with a central administration which all
+recognized. They must have had a national name, but nobody can tell
+certainly what it was. No record or tradition has preserved it, unless
+discovery of it can be made in a national designation found, without
+clear explanation, in the old books and traditions of Central America,
+and applied to some country situated at a distance from that part of the
+continent in the northeast. These old books and traditions mention
+"Huehue-Tlapalan" as a distant northeastern country, from which the
+Nahuas or Toltecs came to Mexico; and Brasseur de Bourbourg, who has
+translated one of the old books and given much attention to others,
+supposes the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders to be the same people, or
+did suppose this previous to the appearance of his "Atlantic theory."
+But this point will be more fully considered when we come to the Central
+American antiquities.
+
+Some antiquaries suggest that the Mound-Builders were the people called
+"Allighewi" in old traditions of the Iroquois, but we have nothing to
+make this very probable. The Iroquois were somewhat superior to the
+other great family of barbarous Indians in organization for the business
+of fighting. There are some reasons for believing they came to the lake
+regions and the Ohio Valley much earlier than the Algonquin branch of
+the wild Indian race. It is permissible, at least, to conjecture, if one
+feels inclined to do so, that it was the Iroquois migration from the
+northwest, or that of the great family to which the Iroquois family
+belonged, which expelled the Mound-Builders from their border
+settlements, cut them off from the copper mines, and finally pushed them
+down the Mississippi; but nothing more than conjecture is possible in
+this case, and the supposition gives the Iroquois migration a greater
+antiquity than may be allowable. Moreover, the traditionary lore of the
+wild Indians had nothing to say of the Mound-Builders, who appear to
+have been as unknown and mysterious to these Indians as they are to us.
+
+
+NOT ANCESTORS OF THE WILD INDIANS.
+
+Some inquirers, not always without hesitation, suggest that the Indians
+inhabiting the United States two hundred years ago were degenerate
+descendants of the Mound-Builders. The history of the world shows that
+civilized communities may lose their enlightenment, and sink to a
+condition of barbarism; but the degraded descendants of a civilized
+people usually retain traditional recollections of their ancestors, or
+some traces of the lost civilization, perceptible in their customs and
+their legendary lore. The barbarism of the wild Indians of North America
+had nothing of this kind. It was original barbarism. There was nothing
+to indicate that either the Indians inhabiting our part of the
+continent, or their ancestors near or remote, had ever been civilized,
+even to the extent of becoming capable of settled life and organized
+industry. And, besides, the constant tradition of these Indians,
+supported by concurring circumstantial evidence, appears to warrant the
+belief that they came to this part of the continent originally from the
+west or northwest, at a period too late to connect them in this way with
+the Mound-Builders.
+
+Two hundred years ago the Valley of the Mississippi, and the regions
+east of it, were occupied by two great families of Indians, the Iroquois
+and the Algonquins, each divided into separate tribes. Between these two
+families there was a radical difference of language. The Indians of New
+England were Algonquins. The Iroquois dwelt chiefly in New York, and
+around Lake Erie, from Niagara to Detroit, although separate communities
+of the group to which they immediately belonged were found in other
+places, such as the Dacotahs and Winnebagoes at the West, and the
+isolated Tuscaroras of the Carolinas. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who has
+discussed "Indian Migrations" in several interesting papers printed in
+the North American Review, thinks the Iroquois were separated very early
+from the same original stem which produced the great Dacotah family. The
+Algonquins were spread most widely over the country when it was first
+visited by Europeans.
+
+Among all these Indians there was a tradition that their ancestors came
+from a distant region in the Northwest, and this tradition is accepted
+as true by those who have studied them most carefully. Mr. Morgan
+supposes they came across the continent, and estimates that not less
+than a thousand years must have passed between the departure of the
+various groups of the Algonquin family from a common centre in the
+northwest and the condition in which they were found two hundred years
+ago. When Europeans began to explore North America, this family had
+become divided into several branches, and each of these branches had a
+modified form of the common language, which, in turn, had developed
+several dialects. A long period was required to effect so great a
+change; but, whatever estimate of the time may be accepted, it seems to
+be a fact that the Algonquins came to the Mississippi Valley long after
+the Mound-Builders left it, and also later than the Iroquois or Dacotah
+family. That the Iroquois preceded the Algonquins at the East appears to
+be indicated by the relative position of the two families in this part
+of the country. Mr. Parkman, in his work on "The Jesuits in North
+America," describes it as follows: "Like a great island in the midst of
+the Algonquins lay the country of tribes speaking the generic tongue of
+the Iroquois."
+
+There is no trace or probability of any direct relationship whatever
+between the Mound-Builders and the barbarous Indians found in the
+country. The wild Indians of this continent had never known such a
+condition as that of the Mound-Builders. They had nothing in common with
+it. In Africa, Asia, and elsewhere among the more uncultivated families
+of the human race, there is not as much really _original_ barbarism as
+some anthropologists are inclined to assume; but there can be no serious
+doubt that the wild Indians of North America were original barbarians,
+born of a stock which had never, at any time, been either civilized or
+closely associated with the influences of civilization.
+
+Some of the pottery and wrought ornaments of the Mound-Builders is equal
+in finish and beauty to the finest manufactured by the ancient
+Peruvians. They constructed artificial ponds like the aguadas in Central
+America. They used sun-dried brick, especially at the South, where walls
+of this material have been discovered supporting some of the mounds and
+embankments. They manufactured cloth. But their intelligence, skill, and
+civilized ways are shown not only by their constructions and
+manufactures, but also by their mining works. Who can imagine the
+Iroquois or the Algonquins working the copper mines with such
+intelligence and skill, and such a combination of systematic and
+persistent industry! They had no tradition of such a condition of life,
+no trace of it. It is absurd to suppose a relationship, or a connection
+of any kind, between the original barbarism of these Indians and the
+civilization of the Mound-Builders. The two peoples were entirely
+distinct and separate from each other. If they really belonged to the
+same race, which is extremely doubtful, we must go back through
+unnumbered ages to find their common origin and the date of their
+separation.
+
+
+BRERETON'S STORY.
+
+Those who seek to identify the Mound-Builders with the barbarous Indians
+find nothing that will support their hypothesis. Nevertheless, some of
+them have tried very strangely to give it aid by one or two quotations
+from early voyagers to America. The most important are taken from
+Brereton's account of Gosnold's voyage in 1602. The following occurred
+on the coast of Maine:
+
+"Eight Indians, in a Basque shallop, with mast and sail, an iron
+grapple, and a kettle, came boldly aboard us, one of them appareled with
+a waistcoat and breeches of black serge, made after our sea fashion,
+hose and shoes on his feet: all the rest (saving one that had a pair of
+breeches of blue cloth) were naked."
+
+It is known that the Basques were accustomed to send fishing vessels to
+the northeastern coast of America long before this continent was
+discovered by Columbus. They continued to do this after the discovery.
+These Indians had evidently become well acquainted with the Basques,
+and, therefore, did not fear to approach Gosnold's ship. Probably some
+of them had been employed on board Basque fishing vessels. Certainly
+their boat and apparel came from the Basque fishermen, and did not show
+them to be Mound-Builders. Of the Indians on the coast of Massachusetts,
+Brereton says:
+
+"They had great store of copper, some very red, some of a paler color;
+none of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal. They
+had some of their arrows herewith, much like our broad arrow-heads,
+very workmanly made. Their chains are many hollow pieces cemented
+together, each piece of the bigness of one of our reeds, a finger in
+length, ten or twelve of them together on a string, which they wear
+about their necks: their collars they wear about their bodies like
+bandeliers a handful broad, all hollow pieces like the other, but
+somewhat shorter, four hundred pieces in a collar, very fine and evenly
+set together." He adds: "I am persuaded they have great store (of flax)
+growing upon the main, as also mines and many other rich commodities,
+which we, wanting time, could not possibly discover."
+
+If all this had been true, it would not serve the purpose for which it
+is quoted; for remains of the Mound-Builders have never existed in
+Massachusetts, and we should necessarily suppose these Indians had
+procured copper and copper ornaments by trading with the Basques or with
+other French voyagers. If only one or two Indians had been represented
+as wearing ornaments made of copper, this explanation could be readily
+accepted. But he avers that they had "great store of copper," and adds,
+"None of them but have chains, earrings, or collars of this metal."
+Therefore his statement is incredible. The following considerations will
+show why it must not be regarded as honest, unadorned truth.
+
+1. Those interested in Gosnold's voyage aimed to establish a colony on
+that coast; and all who served them, or were controlled by them, were
+easily moved to tell seductive stories of the country "upon the main."
+The chief aim of Brereton's account of this voyage was to incite
+emigration. Therefore he gave this wonderfully colored account of
+mines, flax-growing, copper chains and collars, and "other rich
+commodities" among the wild Indians of Massachusetts. Settlements on
+that coast, it was believed, would bring profit to those in whose
+interest he wrote. Gosnold actually proposed at that time to establish a
+colony on one of the islands in Buzzard's Bay, and had with him twenty
+men who were expected to stay as colonists, but finally refused to do
+so. He saw a great deal of the Indians, and knew much more of their
+actual condition than the story admits.
+
+2. Eighteen years later the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth from the
+Mayflower. Neither copper mines nor flax fields were then known in
+Massachusetts. No Indians with "great store" of copper and flax, and
+covered with copper ornaments, were seen or heard of by the Pilgrims,
+either at that time or afterward. In 1602, Brereton, or any other writer
+employed to write in such a way as would promote emigration, could tell
+such stories, and romance freely concerning the Indians, without fear of
+contradiction. Afterward, when the actual barbarism of the Indian tribes
+in New England and other parts of the country had become generally
+known, no one could describe any of these Indians as successful miners
+and flax-growers, and assert gravely that they had such stores of copper
+that "none of them" lacked great abundance of copper "chains, earrings,
+collars," and the like, without being laughed at. Brereton's story must
+be regarded as an invention designed to serve a special purpose, but not
+warranted by any thing seen during the voyage he describes. Neither in
+New England nor any where else in our part of the continent did the
+early colonists find Indians who worked copper mines and had "great
+store of copper." What Brereton says was not true of any Indians known
+to our first colonists or to their successors. It corresponds to no
+reality found in any part of our territory during the last two hundred
+and fifty years. Therefore, to use his story in support of an absurd
+hypothesis is not a satisfactory proceeding.
+
+
+AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
+
+It may be true that all the aboriginal peoples found inhabiting North
+and South America, save the Esquimaux, belonged originally to the same
+race. Some writers assume it to be true, although it seems strongly
+improbable, not to say impossible. If they were all of the same race,
+time and development, under different conditions of life, had divided
+this race into at least two extremely unlike branches. The wild Indians
+of North America were profoundly different from the ancient people of
+Central America and Peru. The Pueblo or Village Indians of New Mexico
+have scarcely any thing in common with the Apaches, Comanches, and
+Sioux. Even the uncivilized Indians of South America are different from
+those in the United States. Our wild Indians have more resemblance to
+the nomadic Koraks and Chookchees found in Eastern Siberia, throughout
+the region that extends to Behring's Strait, than to any people on this
+continent. Those who have seen these Siberians, traveled with them, and
+lived in their tents, have found the resemblance very striking; but I
+infer from what they say that the Korak or Chookchee is superior to the
+Indian. See Kennan's "Tent Life in Siberia."
+
+Mr. Lewis H. Morgan finds evidence that the American aborigines had a
+common origin in what he calls "their systems of consanguinity and
+affinity." If it can be made to appear beyond question that these
+systems prevail and are identical every where from Patagonia to the
+Arctic Zone, his argument will have great force. But this has not yet
+been shown. He says: "The Indian nations, from the Atlantic to the Rocky
+Mountains, and from the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico, with the
+exception of the Esquimaux, have the same system. It is elaborate and
+complicated in its general form and details; and, while deviations from
+uniformity occur in the systems of different stocks, the radical
+features are, in the main, constant. This identity in the essential
+characteristics of a system so remarkable tends to show that it must
+have been transmitted with the blood to each stock from a common
+original source. It affords the strongest evidence yet obtained of unity
+in origin of the Indian nations within the region defined."
+
+But unity in race among wild Indians found within the region specified
+would be sufficiently manifest without this evidence. That the same
+system of consanguinity and affinity, with precisely the same features
+of identity, ever was extended over the whole continent, remains
+unproved. The supposed traces of it among the Pueblos are by no means
+clear. A more complete and accurate research is required to show that
+identically the same system ever has existed any where between the
+United States and Patagonia. A system not wholly unlike it, though not
+the same, might grow up any where in widely separated tribal communities
+of barbarous peoples, without doing any thing more than the tribal
+system itself to show a common origin in race.
+
+The aborigines of America may have been originally all of the same race.
+There are some considerations in favor of this hypothesis which have
+been used by writers entitled to great respect; but it can not yet be
+claimed with reason that they have been able to settle this question
+beyond the reach of doubt, even in their own minds. Therefore, to speak
+moderately, it would be premature to assume that the Mound-Builders were
+even remotely of the same race with the wild Indians, from whom they
+were so different in all we know of them.
+
+The attempt to establish this hypothesis of identity in race has given
+rise to a tendency to underrate the development of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and to lower the estimate of their
+attainments sufficiently to bring them within reach of close
+relationship to the wild Indians. The difficulty being reduced in this
+way, there follows an attempt to get rid of it entirely, and establish
+connection between these unlike peoples, by talking of "Semi-Village
+Indians." But the hypothesis used in this case is not well warranted by
+facts. Such "Semi-Village Indians" as are supposed, really standing half
+way between the savages and the Pueblos, and being actually savages half
+developed into Pueblos, have never had a clearly defined and
+unquestionable existence here since the continent became known to
+Europeans. In the border region between the northern wild Indians and
+the old Mexican race there are exceptional communities formed by
+association or mixture, but we can not reasonably give them the
+significance claimed for the supposed "Semi-Village Indians." Moreover,
+these exceptional communities are usually Pueblos whose habits have been
+changed and their civilization lessened by association with wild
+Indians, or in some other way. The Navajos began their present condition
+by fleeing to the mountains from the Spaniards. The Mound-Builders, who
+must have been, still more than the Pueblos, unlike the barbarous
+Indians, can not be explained by any reference whatever to such
+communities. If they were of the same race, they were far from being the
+same people.
+
+Some ethnologists, whose suggestions are entitled to respectful
+attention whether accepted or rejected, specify considerations which
+they believe forbid us to regard the ancient Mexicans and the northern
+wild Indians as identical in race. They point to the well known fact
+that the fauna of the American continent below the northern frontier of
+Mexico is remarkably different from that between this line and the
+Arctic Sea. At the north, America abounds in species similar to those of
+Europe and Asia, with some admixture of forms wholly American, while at
+the south the old-world forms disappear, and the fauna of the whole
+region between Mexico and Cape Horn becomes "as peculiar as that of
+Australia."
+
+The explanation given is, that during the glacial period the larger
+part of North America, like Northern Asia and Europe, was covered with
+ice and partly submerged, and that the fauna found in this part of North
+America was introduced after the glacial period by immigration from Asia
+and Europe over connecting lands or islands at the northwest and the
+northeast, and perhaps by some migration from the south; the fauna at
+the south meanwhile remaining very much as it was before, with very
+little change through later migrations from the north.
+
+Professor Huxley called attention to this subject in a brief address to
+the London Ethnological Society in 1869. After stating the case, he
+presented the following queries and suggestions: "The Austro-Columbian
+fauna, as a whole, therefore, existed antecedently to the glacial epoch.
+Did man form part of that fauna? To this profoundly interesting question
+no positive answer can be given; but the discovery of human remains
+associated with extinct animals in the caves of Brazil, by Lund, lends
+some color to the supposition. Assuming this supposition to be correct,
+we should have to look in the human population of America, as in the
+fauna generally, for an indigenous or Austro-Columbian element, and an
+immigrant or 'Arctogeal' element." He then suggests that the Esquimaux
+may now represent the immigrant element, and the old Mexican and South
+American race that which was indigenous, and that the "Red Indians of
+North America" may have appeared originally as a mixture of these two
+races. He adds, very reasonably, "It is easy to suggest such problems as
+these, but quite impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
+solve them."
+
+
+WHO WERE THE MOUND-BUILDERS?
+
+They were unquestionably American aborigines, and not immigrants from
+another continent. That appears to me the most reasonable suggestion
+which assumes that the Mound-Builders came originally from Mexico and
+Central America. It explains many facts connected with their remains. In
+the Great Valley their most populous settlements were at the south.
+Coming from Mexico and Central America, they would begin their
+settlements on the Gulf coast, and afterward advance gradually up the
+river to the Ohio Valley. It seems evident that they came by this route;
+and their remains show that their only connection with the coast was at
+the south. Their settlements did not reach the coast at any other point.
+
+Their constructions were similar in design and arrangement to those
+found in Mexico and Central America. Like the Mexicans and Central
+Americans, they had many of the smaller structures known as _teocallis_,
+and also large high mounds, with level summits, reached by great flights
+of steps. Pyramidal platforms or foundations for important edifices
+appear in both regions, and are very much alike. In Central America
+important edifices were built of hewn stone, and can still be examined
+in their ruins. The Mound-Builders, like some of the ancient people of
+Mexico and Yucatan, used wood, sun-dried brick, or some other material
+that could not resist decay. There is evidence that they used timber for
+building purposes. In one of the mounds opened in the Ohio Valley two
+chambers were found with remains of the timber of which the walls were
+made, and with arched ceilings precisely like those in Central America,
+even to the overlapping stones. Chambers have been found in some of the
+Central American and Mexican mounds, but there hewn stones were used for
+the walls. In both regions the elevated and terraced foundations remain,
+and can be compared. I have already called attention to the close
+resemblance between them, but the fact is so important in any endeavor
+to explain the Mound-Builders that I must bring it to view here.
+
+Consider, then, that elevated and terraced foundations for important
+buildings are peculiar to the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans;
+that this method of construction, which, with them, was the rule, is
+found nowhere else, save that terraced elevations, carefully
+constructed, and precisely like theirs in form and appearance, occupy a
+chief place among the remaining works of the Mound-Builders. The use
+made of these foundations at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen-Itza, shows
+the purpose for which they were constructed in the Mississippi Valley.
+The resemblance is not due to chance. The explanation appears to me very
+manifest. This method of construction was brought to the Mississippi
+Valley from Mexico and Central America, the ancient inhabitants of that
+region and the Mound-Builders being the same people in race, and also in
+civilization, when it was brought here.
+
+A very large proportion of the old structures in Ohio and farther south
+called "mounds," namely, those which are low in proportion to their
+horizontal extent, are terraced foundations for buildings, and if they
+were situated in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Southern Mexico, they would
+never be mistaken for any thing else. The high mounds also in the two
+regions are remarkably alike. In both cases they are pyramidal in shape,
+and have level summits of considerable extent, which were reached by
+means of stairways on the outside. The great mound at Chichen-Itza is 75
+feet high, and has on its summit a ruined stone edifice; that at Uxmal
+is 60 feet high, and has a similar ruin on its summit; that at Mayapan
+is 60 feet high; the edifice placed on its summit has disappeared. The
+great mound at Miamisburg, Ohio, is 68 feet high; and that at Grave
+Creek, West Virginia, is 75 feet high. Both had level summits, and
+stairways on the outside, but no trace of any structure remains on them.
+All these mounds were constructed for religious uses, and they are, in
+their way, as much alike as any five Gothic churches.
+
+Could these works of the Mound-Builders be restored to the condition in
+which they were when the country was filled with their busy communities,
+we should doubtless see great edifices, similar in style to those in
+Yucatan, standing on the upper terraces of all the low and extended
+"mounds," and smaller structures on the high mounds, such as those above
+named. There would seem to be an extension of ancient Mexico and Central
+America through Texas into the Mississippi and Ohio valleys; and so, if
+there were no massive stone-work in the old ruins of those countries, it
+might seem that the Mound-Builders' works were anciently extended into
+them by way of Texas.
+
+The fact that the settlements and works of the Mound-Builders extended
+through Texas and across the Rio Grande indicates very plainly their
+connection with the people of Mexico, and goes far to explain their
+origin. We have other evidence of intercourse between the two peoples;
+for the obsidian dug from the mounds, and perhaps the porphyry also, can
+be explained only by supposing commercial relations between them.
+
+We can not suppose the Mound-Builders to have come from any other part
+of North America, for nowhere else north of the Isthmus was there any
+other people capable of producing such works as they left in the places
+where they dwelt. Beyond the relics of the Mound-Builders themselves, no
+traces of the former existence of such a people have been discovered in
+any part of North America save Mexico, and Central America, and
+districts immediately connected with them. At the same time, it is not
+unreasonable to suppose the civilized people of these regions extended
+their settlements through Texas, and also migrated across the Gulf into
+the Mississippi Valley. In fact, the connection of settlements by way of
+Texas appears to have been unbroken from Ohio to Mexico.
+
+This colonizing extension of the old Mexican race must have taken place
+at a remote period in the past; for what has been said of the antiquity
+of the Mound-Builders shows that a very long period, far more than two
+thousand years, it may be, must have elapsed since they left the Valley
+of the Ohio. Perhaps they found the country mostly unoccupied, and saw
+there but little of any other people until an irruption of warlike
+barbarians came upon them from the Northwest.
+
+In speculating on the causes of their withdrawal after centuries of
+occupation, absolute certainty is impossible, and we have no means of
+going much beyond mere conjecture. We may suppose as most probable that
+an influx of barbarians destroyed their border settlements, interrupted
+their mining operations, and caused them to retire gradually toward the
+Gulf. Fragments of their communities may have become incorporated with
+the barbarous tribes. This conjecture has been used to explain certain
+exceptional peculiarities noticed in some of the wild Indian tribes. For
+instance, it has been suggested that the Mandan Indians were a separated
+and lost fragment of the mound-building people, they being noticeably
+unlike other Indians in many respects, lighter in color, and peculiar in
+manners and customs. What is conjectured may be true, but we have no
+means of proving its truth. That the Mandans were like what a lost
+community of Mound-Builders might have become by degeneration through
+mixture and association with barbarians may be supposed, but the actual
+history of that remarkable tribe might give its peculiarities a very
+different explanation. The Mandans were supposed to be a branch of the
+Dacotahs. They may have been, like the Navajos, a changed community of
+Pueblos, but any attempt to explain them by means of conjecture is
+useless.
+
+The supposition that the Toltecs and the Mound-Builders were the same
+people seems to me not improbable. The reasons for it will be stated
+when we come to a discussion of the antiquities, books, and traditions
+of Central America. I will only say here that, according to dates given
+in the Central American books, the Toltecs came from "Huehue-Tlapalan,"
+a distant country in the northeast, long previous to the Christian era.
+They played a great part and had a long career in Mexico previous to the
+rise of their successors in power, the Aztecs, who were overthrown by
+the Spaniards.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+
+Ruins and other vestiges revealing an ancient civilization are found
+throughout the whole southern section of North America, extending as far
+north as New Mexico and Arizona. But here the antiquities do not all
+belong to the same period in the past, nor exhibit unvarying likeness
+and unity of civilized life. They are somewhat less homogeneous, and do
+not constantly represent the same degree of civilization. In this
+region, the monuments suggest successive and varying periods in the
+civilized condition of the old inhabitants, some of the oldest and most
+mysterious monuments seeming to indicate the highest development.
+
+In the northern part of this region we find ruins of great buildings
+similar in plan and arrangement to those still used by the Pueblos, but
+far superior as monuments of architecture, science, and skill, and much
+more unlike those farther south than is apparent in the principal
+structures of the Mound-Builders. They show that the old settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley did not belong to the Pueblo branch of the Mexican
+race. Farther south, in the central part of the region specified,
+development was more advanced. Here, in the last ages of American
+ancient history, was the seat of the Mexican or Aztec civilization,
+but the monuments in this part of the country are mostly older than the
+Aztec period. The most astonishing remains are found still farther
+south, in Chiapa, Tabasco, Oxaca, Yucatan, Honduras, Tehuantepec,
+Guatemala, and other parts of Central America. In this southern region,
+mostly buried in heavy forests, are wonderful ruins of great cities and
+temples. Only a small part of modern Mexico is included in the region
+where these ruins are situated, and most of them, probably, were not
+much better understood by the ancient Mexicans than they are by us. Many
+of those explored in later times were unknown to that people, just as
+others, more in number, doubtless, than those already described, still
+remain unvisited and unknown in the great and almost impenetrable
+forests of the country.
+
+
+THE NORTHERN REMAINS.
+
+The ruins in Northern Mexico, including New Mexico and Arizona, consist
+chiefly, as already stated, of the remains of structures similar in
+general design and purpose to those of the Village Indians, the Pueblos.
+In the more ancient times, doubtless, as at present, a large proportion
+of the dwellings and other edifices, like those in the Mississippi
+Valley, were built of perishable materials which have left no trace.
+Many of them, however, were built of stone, and have left ruins which
+show their character. Stone ruins are common in this northern region,
+although wood and adobe seems to have been more commonly used as
+building material. Some of the ruined stone edifices were inhabited when
+the country was conquered by the Spaniards. The remains present every
+where the same characteristics. They represent a people who built always
+in the same way, with some variations in the forms of their structures,
+and had substantially the same condition of life; but the ruins are not
+all of the same age. Their character can be sufficiently shown by
+describing a few of them.
+
+In New Mexico, west of the Rio Grande, between the head waters of the
+San Jose and Zuni rivers, a bluff or ridge rises in a valley two hundred
+feet high. The Spaniards named it "El Moro." One side of this bluff is
+vertical, and shows yellowish-white sandstone rock, on the face of which
+are inscriptions; "Spanish inscriptions and Indian hieroglyphics." It
+was carefully described in 1849 by Lieutenant Simpson, and was explored
+again four or five years later by Lieutenant A. W. Whipple, who
+described it in his report to the government, published in the third
+volume of "Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route to the
+Pacific." On the summit of this height, which Lieutenant Simpson named
+"Inscription Rock," are the ruins of an extensive Pueblo edifice built
+of stone. The walls were built "with considerable skill." In some places
+they are still "perfect to the height of six or eight feet, vertical,
+straight, and smooth; and the masonry is well executed, the stones being
+of uniform size--about fourteen inches long and six wide." The layers
+are horizontal, each successive layer breaking joints with that below
+it. Remains of cedar beams were discovered, and also obsidian
+arrow-heads, painted pottery, and other relics. Another ruin was seen on
+a height across the gorge. It was found to be similar to this, both in
+character and condition of decay.
+
+Lieutenant Whipple went westward along the thirty-fifth parallel. We can
+not do better than follow the report of what he saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Pueblo Ruin at Pecos.]
+
+His next stopping-place, after leaving "El Moro," was in the beautiful
+valley of Ojo Pescado. Here, close by a spring that showed artificial
+stone-work of ancient date, were two old Pueblo buildings in ruins, "so
+ancient that the traditions of present races do not reach them." Not far
+away is a deserted town of later date. The two ancient structures were
+circular in form and equal in size, each being about eight hundred feet
+in circumference. They were built of stone, but the walls have crumbled
+and become chiefly heaps of rubbish. The pottery found here, like that
+at "El Moro," is "painted with bright colors, in checks, bands, and
+wavy stripes; many fragments show a beautiful polish. A few pieces were
+discovered larger in size, inferior in color and quality, but indicating
+a more fanciful taste. United, they formed an urn with a curious handle;
+a frog painted on the outside and a butterfly within." In the same
+neighborhood, on the summit of a cliff twenty feet high, was another old
+ruin "strongly walled around." In the centre was a mound on which were
+traces of a circular edifice.
+
+The next place of encampment was at Zuni, where, as shown in Figure 21,
+can be seen one of these great Pueblo buildings inhabited by two
+thousand people (Lieutenant Whipple's estimate). It has five stories,
+the walls of each receding from those below it. Looking from the top, he
+says it reminded him of a busy ant-hill, turkeys and tamed eagles
+constituting a portion of its inhabitants. Not more than a league away
+is an "old Zuni" which shows nothing but ruins. Its crumbling walls,
+worn away until they are only from two to twelve feet high, are "crowded
+together in confused heaps over several acres of ground." This old town
+became a ruin in ancient times. After remaining long in a ruined
+condition it was again rebuilt, and again deserted after a considerable
+period of occupation. It is still easy to distinguish the differences in
+construction between the two periods. "The standing walls rest upon
+ruins of greater antiquity;" and while the primitive masonry is about
+six feet thick, that of the later period is only from a foot to a foot
+and a half thick. Small blocks of sandstone were used for the latter.
+Heaps of debris cover a considerable space, in which, among other
+things, are relics of pottery and of ornaments made of sea-shells.
+Pieces of quaintly-carved cedar posts were found here, and their
+condition of decay, compared with that of the cedar beams at "El Moro,"
+"indicated great antiquity." The place of this ruin is now one of the
+consecrated places of the Village Indians; it has "a Zuni altar" which
+is constantly used and greatly venerated. On leaving the place, their
+guide blew a white powder toward the altar three times, and muttered a
+prayer. This, he explained, was "asking a blessing of Montezuma and the
+sun." This altar seems to represent recollections of the ancient
+sun-worship.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21--Modern Zuni.]
+
+At a place west of Zuni ancient relics were found, indicating that an
+extensive Pueblo town had formerly stood there, but "the structures were
+probably of adobes," as there was no debris of stone walls, and only
+very faint traces of foundations. Near the Colorado Chiquito is an
+extensive ruin, on the summit of an isolated hill of sandstone, the
+faces of its walls being here and there visible above heaps of debris.
+It appears to be very old. As near as could be ascertained, the great
+rectangular Pueblo building was three hundred and sixty feet in extent
+on one side, and one hundred and twenty on the other. In some places the
+walls are ten feet thick, "with small rooms inserted in them." Stone
+axes, painted pottery, and other articles are found in the debris: "The
+indented pottery, said to be so very ancient, is found here in many
+patterns." On a ridge overlooking the valley of Pueblo Creek are traces
+of an old settlement of large extent, supposed to have been that heard
+of in 1539 by the friar Marco de Nica as "the kingdom of Totonteac."
+Adobe seems to have been used here for building. Traces of other ruins
+were seen in various places, and springs along the route showing ancient
+stone-work are mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Pueblo Ruins in the Valley of the Gila.]
+
+Ruins are abundant in the Rio Verde Valley down to the confluence of
+that river with the Rio Salinas. It is manifest that this whole region
+was anciently far more populous than it is now. Lieutenant Whipple says,
+"Large fields in the valley of the Rio Gila, and many spots among the
+Pinal Lena Mountains, are marked with the foundations of adobe houses."
+Figure 22 represents a Pueblo ruin in the Valley of the Gila. "In
+Canyon Chelly, near San Francisco Mountain, and upon Rio Verde, there
+are ruins of more permanent structures of stone, which in their day must
+have excelled the famed Pueblos of New Mexico." There was a higher
+degree of civilization in the ancient times, so far as relates to
+architecture and skill in the arts and appliances of life, than has been
+shown by people of the same race dwelling there in our time; but the
+ancient condition of life seems to have been maintained from age to age
+without material change.
+
+
+THE "SEVEN CITIES OF CEVOLA."
+
+In the New Mexican valley of the Chaco, one degree or more north of
+Zuni, are ruins of what some suppose to have been the famous "Seven
+Cities of Cevola." In 1540, Spanish cupidity having been strongly
+incited by tales of the greatness and vast wealth of Cevola, Coronado,
+then governor of New Galicia, set out with an army to conquer and rob
+its cities. The report in which he tells the story of this conquest and
+of his disappointment is still in existence. The Cevolans defended
+themselves with arrows and spears, and hurled stones upon his army from
+the tops of their buildings. But resistance was of no avail; Cevola was
+conquered by Coronado, and immediately deserted by all its inhabitants
+who escaped death. The conquering buccaneer, however, did not find the
+treasures of gold and silver he expected. Three hundred and thirty years
+or more have passed away since this expedition of the Spanish marauders
+was undertaken, but the "Seven Cities of Cevola" (if they really were
+the "cities" whose remains are found in the Chaco Valley), although much
+dilapidated, are still sufficiently well preserved to show us what they
+were.
+
+There are seven ruins in the Chaco Valley, all of the same age, from one
+to three miles apart, the whole line along which they are situated being
+not more than ten miles in extent. Coronado said of Cevola, "The seven
+cities are seven small towns, standing all within four leagues
+together;" and "all together they are called Cevola." The Chaco ruins
+show that each of these "cities" was, Pueblo fashion, a single edifice
+of vast size, capable of accommodating from five hundred to three
+thousand people. They were all built of stone, around three sides of a
+square, the side opposite the main building being left open. Figure 23
+represents one of these buildings restored, according to Lieutenant
+Simpson. Figure 24 is a ground plan of this structure. The outer faces
+of the walls were constructed with thin and regular blocks of sandstone;
+the inner surfaces were made of cobblestone laid in mortar, and the
+outer walls were three feet thick. They were four or five stories high,
+and the only entrances to them were "window openings" in the second
+story. Above the canyon inclosing the valley containing these ruins, at a
+distance of thirteen miles, are the remains of another "city" of
+precisely the same kind. Its walls are at present between twenty and
+thirty feet high, their foundations being deeply sunk into the earth.
+Lieutenant Simpson, who explored that region in 1849, says it was built
+of tabular pieces of hard, fine-grained, compact gray sandstone, none of
+the layers being more than three inches thick. He adds, "It discovers
+in the masonry a combination of science and art which can only be
+referred to a higher stage of civilization and refinement than is
+discoverable in the work of Mexicans or Pueblos of the present day.
+Indeed, so beautifully diminutive and true are the details of the
+structure as to cause it at a little distance to have all the appearance
+of a magnificent piece of mosaic."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Pueblo Building, restored.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Ground Plan of Pueblo Building.]
+
+Other ruins have been examined in this northern part of the old Mexican
+territory, and more will be brought to light, for the whole region has
+not been carefully examined, and new discoveries are constantly
+reported.
+
+
+CENTRAL MEXICO.
+
+As we go down into Central Mexico, the remains assume another character,
+and become more important; but the antiquities in this part of the
+country have not been very completely explored and described, the
+attention of explorers having been drawn more to the south. Some of them
+are well known, and it can be seen that to a large extent they are much
+older than the time of the Aztecs whom Cortez found in power.
+
+In the northern part of the Mexican Valley was the city of Tulha, the
+ancient capital of the Toltecs. At the time of the conquest its site was
+an extensive field of ruins. At Xochicalco, in the State of Mexico, is a
+remarkable pyramid, with a still more remarkable base. It was
+constructed with five stages or stories, and stands on a hill consisting
+chiefly of rock, which was excavated and hollowed for the construction
+of galleries and chambers. The opening serves as an entrance to several
+galleries, which are six feet high and paved with cement, their sides
+and ceilings seeming to have been covered with some very durable
+preparation which made them smooth and glistening. Captain Dupaix found
+the main gallery sixty yards, or one hundred and eighty feet long,
+terminating at two chambers which are separated only by two massive
+square pillars carefully fashioned of portions of the rock left for the
+purpose by the excavators. Over a part of the inner chamber, toward one
+corner, is a dome or cupola six feet in diameter at the base, and rather
+more in height. It has a regular slope, and was faced with square stones
+well prepared and admirably laid in cement. From the top went up a tube
+or circular aperture nine inches in diameter, which probably reached the
+open air or some point in the pyramid.
+
+In this part of Mexico can be seen, among other things, the great
+pyramid or mound of Cholulu, the very ancient and remarkable pyramidal
+structures at Teotihuacan, and an uncounted number of _teocallis_ or
+pyramids of smaller size. The pyramid of Cholulu covers an area of
+forty-five acres. It was terraced and built with four stages. When
+measured by Humboldt it was 1400 feet square at the base, and 160 feet
+high. At present it is a ruin, and, to superficial observers, seems
+little more than a huge artificial mound of earth. Its condition of
+decay indicates that it is much older than even the Toltec period. The
+largest structure at Teotihuacan covers eleven acres. These structures,
+and the Mexican _teocallis_ generally, were made of earth, and faced
+with brick or stone.
+
+Captain Dupaix saw, not far from Antequera, two truncated pyramids which
+were penetrated by two carefully constructed galleries. A gallery lined
+with hewn stone, bearing sculptured decorations, went through one of
+them. A similar gallery went partly through the other, and two branches
+were extended at right angles still farther, but terminating within. He
+mentions also the ruins of elaborately decorated edifices which had
+stood on elevated terraces. At one place he excavated a terraced mound,
+and discovered burnt brick; and he describes two ancient bridges of the
+Tlascalans, both built of hewn stone laid in cement, one of them being
+200 feet long and 36 wide. Obelisks or pillars 42 feet high stood at the
+corners of these bridges. Important remains of the ancient people exist
+in many other places; and "thousands of other monuments unrecorded by
+the antiquaries invest every sierra and valley of Mexico with profound
+interest."
+
+At Papantla, in the State of Vera Cruz, there is a very ancient
+pyramidal structure somewhat peculiar in style and character. It is
+known that important ruins exist in the forests of Papantla and Mesantla
+which have never been described. The remarkable pyramid at Papantla was
+examined and described by Humboldt. The only material employed in
+constructing it was hewn stone. The stone was prepared in immense
+blocks, which were laid in mortar. The pyramid was an exact square at
+the base, each side being 82 feet in length, and the height about 60
+feet. The stones were admirably cut and polished, and the structure was
+remarkably symmetrical. Six stages could be discerned by Humboldt, and
+his account of it says, "A seventh appears to be concealed by the
+vegetation which covers the sides of the pyramid." A great flight of
+steps leads to the level summit, by the sides of which are smaller
+nights. "The facing of the stones is decorated with hieroglyphics, in
+which serpents and crocodiles carved in relievo are visible. Each story
+contains a great number of square niches symmetrically distributed. In
+the first story there are 24 on each side, in the second 20, and in the
+third 16. There are 366 of these niches on the whole pyramid, and 12 in
+the stairs toward the east."
+
+The civilization of the Aztecs who built the old city of Mexico will be
+made a separate topic; but it may be said here that when they came into
+the Valley of Mexico they were much less advanced in civilization than
+their predecessors. There is no reason whatever to doubt that they had
+always resided in the country as an obscure branch of the aboriginal
+people. Some have assumed, without much warrant, that they came to
+Mexico from the North. Mr. Squier shows, with much probability, that
+they came from the southern part of the country, where communities are
+still found speaking the Aztec language. When they rose to supremacy
+they adopted, so far as their condition allowed, the superior knowledge
+of their predecessors, and continued, in a certain way, and with a lower
+standard, the civilization of the Toltecs. It has been said, not without
+reason, that the civilization found in Mexico by the Spanish conquerors
+consisted, to a large extent, of "fragments from the wreck that befell
+the American civilization of antiquity."
+
+
+THE GREAT RUINS AT THE SOUTH.
+
+To find the chief seats and most abundant remains of the most remarkable
+civilization of this old American race, we must go still farther south
+into Central America and some of the more southern states of Mexico.
+Here ruins of many ancient cities have been discovered, cities which
+must have been deserted and left to decay in ages previous to the
+beginning of the Aztec supremacy. Most of these ruins were found buried
+in dense forests, where, at the time of the Spanish Conquest, they had
+been long hidden from observation.
+
+The ruins known as Palenque, for instance, seem to have been entirely
+unknown to both natives and Spaniards until about the year 1750. Cortez
+and some of his companions went through the open region near the forest
+in which these ruins are situated without hearing of them or suspecting
+their existence. The great ruins known as Copan were in like manner
+unknown in the time of Cortez. The Spaniards assaulted and captured a
+native town not far from the forest that covered them, but heard nothing
+of the ruins. The captured town, called Copan, afterward gave its name
+to the remains of this nameless ancient city, which were first
+discovered in 1576, and described by the Spanish licentiate Palacios.
+This was little more than forty years after the native town was
+captured; but, although Palacios tried, "in all possible ways," to get
+from the older and more intelligent natives some account of the origin
+and history of the ruined city, they could tell him nothing about it.
+To them the ruins were entirely mythical and mysterious. With the facts
+so accessible, and the antiquity of the ruins so manifest, it is very
+singular that Mr. Stephens fell into the mistake of confounding this
+ruined city, situated in an old forest that was almost impenetrable,
+with the town captured by the Spaniards. The ruins here were discovered
+accidentally; and to approach them it was necessary, as at Palenque, to
+cut paths through the dense tropical undergrowth of the forest.
+
+To understand the situation of most of the old ruins in Central America,
+one must know something of the wild condition of the country. Mr. Squier
+says:
+
+"By far the greater proportion of the country is in its primeval state,
+and covered with dense, tangled, and almost impenetrable tropical
+forests, rendering fruitless all attempts at systematic investigation.
+There are vast tracts untrodden by human feet, or traversed only by
+Indians who have a superstitious reverence for the moss-covered and
+crumbling monuments hidden in the depths of the wilderness. * * * For
+these and other reasons, it will be long before the treasures of the
+past, in Central America, can become fully known."
+
+A great forest of this character covers the southern-half of Yucatan,
+and extends far into Guatemala, which is half covered by it. It extends
+also into Chiapa and Tabasco, and reaches into Honduras. The ruins known
+as Copan and Palenque are in this forest, not far from its southern
+edge. Its vast depths have never been much explored. There are ruins in
+it which none but wandering natives have ever seen, and some, perhaps,
+which no human foot has approached for ages. It is believed that ruins
+exist in nearly every part of this vast wilderness.
+
+According to the old Central American books and traditions, some of the
+principal seats of the earliest civilization, that of the "Colhuas," was
+in this forest-covered region. In their time the whole was cultivated
+and filled with inhabitants. Here was a populous and important part of
+the Colhuan kingdom of "Xibalba," which, after a long existence, was
+broken up by the Toltecs, and which had a relation, in time, to the
+Aztec dominion of Montezuma, much like that of the old monarchy of Egypt
+to the kingdom of the Ptolemies.
+
+In the time of the Spaniards there was in the forest at Lake Peten a
+solitary native town, founded nearly a century previous to their time by
+a Maya prince of Itza, who, with a portion of his people, fled from
+Yucatan to that lonely region to escape from the disorder and bloodshed
+of a civil war. This was the civil war which destroyed Mayapan, and
+broke up the Maya kingdom of Yucatan. In 1695, Don Martin Ursua, a
+Spanish official, built a road from Yucatan to Lake Peten, captured the
+town, and destroyed it. He reported that the builders of this road found
+evidence that "wrecks of ancient cities lie buried in this wilderness."
+All along the route they discovered vestiges of ruins, and special
+mention is made of "remains of edifices on raised terraces, deserted and
+overgrown, and apparently very ancient."
+
+
+CHARACTER OF THE SOUTHERN RUINS.
+
+Should you visit the ruins of one of these mysterious old cities, you
+would see scattered over a large area great edifices in different stages
+of decay, which were erected on the level summits of low pyramidal
+mounds or platforms. The summits of these mounds are usually of
+sufficient extent to furnish space for extensive terraces or "grounds,"
+as well as room for the buildings. The edifices were built of hewn stone
+laid in a mortar of lime and sand, the masonry being admirable, and the
+ornamentation, in most cases, very abundant. The pyramid-foundations of
+earth were faced with hewn stone, and provided with great stone
+stairways. These, we may suppose, were the most important buildings in
+the old city. The ordinary dwellings, and all the other less important
+structures, must have been made chiefly of wood or some other material,
+which had perished entirely long ago and left no trace, for at present
+their remains are no more visible than those of the forest leaves which
+grew five hundred years ago.
+
+One explorer of Palenque says: "For five days did I wander up and down
+among these crumbling monuments of a city which, I hazard little in
+saying, must have been one of the largest ever seen." There is, however,
+nothing to show us certainly the actual size of any of these ancient
+cities. It is manifest that some of them were very large; but, as only
+the great structures made of stone remain to be examined, the actual
+extent of the areas covered by the other buildings can not be
+determined.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Arch of Las Monjas.]
+
+The chief peculiarity of these ruins, that which especially invites
+attention, is the evidence they furnish that their builders had
+remarkable skill in architecture and architectural ornamentation. All
+who have visited them bear witness that the workmanship was of a high
+order. The rooms and corridors in these edifices were finely and often
+elaborately finished, plaster, stucco, and sculpture being used. In one
+room of a great building at Uxmal Mr. Stephens says "the walls were
+coated with a very fine plaster of Paris, equal to the best seen on
+walls in this country." Speaking of the construction of this edifice, he
+says, "throughout, the laying and polishing of the stones are as perfect
+as under the rules of the best modern masonry." All the ruins explored
+have masonry of the same character. The floors, especially of the courts
+and corridors, were made sometimes of flat stones admirably wrought and
+finely polished, and sometimes of cement, which is now "as hard as
+stone." Mr. Stephens, describing corridors of the "Palace" at Palenque,
+says "the floors are of cement, as hard as the best seen in the remains
+of Roman baths and cisterns." We give two illustrations of their method
+of constructing the arch. Figure 25 shows an arch of Las Monjas, at
+Uxmal. Figure 26 shows the most common form of the arch in the older
+ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26--Common Form of Arch.]
+
+The ornamentation is no less remarkable than the masonry and
+architectural finish. It is found on the walls within and without, and
+appears in elaborate designs on the heavy cornices. The exterior
+ornamentation is generally carved or sculptured on the smooth surface
+of the stone, and must have required a vast amount of time and labor, as
+well as skillful artists. In some of the ruins inscriptions are
+abundant, being found on walls, tablets, and pillars. The general effect
+of the exterior decoration is thus described by Mr. Stephens in the
+account of his first view of the ruins at Palenque: "We saw before us a
+large building richly ornamented with stuccoed figures on pilasters,
+curious and elegant; trees growing close to it, and their branches
+entering the doors; the style and effect of structure and ornament
+unique, extraordinary, and mournfully beautiful." In a description of
+the walls around an interior court of a building at Uxmal, we have this
+tribute to the artistic skill of the decorators: "It would be
+difficult, in arranging four sides facing a court-yard, to have more
+variety, and, at the same time, more harmony of ornament."
+
+In some of the ruins, and especially at Copan, there are clusters of
+four-sided stone pillars or obelisks varying from twelve to over twenty
+feet high. These are elaborately sculptured, and show human figures,
+ornamental designs, and many inscriptions. One or two statues have been
+discovered, and a statuette twelve inches high is described; "it is made
+of baked clay, very hard, and the surface is smooth as if coated with
+enamel." At Palenque are remains of a well-built aqueduct; and near the
+ruins, especially in Yucatan, are frequently found the remains of many
+finely constructed aguadas or artificial lakes. The bottoms of these
+lakes were made of flat stones laid in cement, several layers deep. In
+Yucatan traces of a very ancient paved road have been found. This road
+ran north and south, and probably led to cities in the region now
+covered by the great wilderness. It was raised above the graded level of
+the ground, and made very smooth.
+
+These antiquities show that this section of the continent was anciently
+occupied by a people admirably skilled in the arts of masonry, building,
+and architectural decoration. Some of their works can not be excelled by
+the best of our constructors and decorators. They were highly skilled,
+also, in the appliances of civilized life, and they had the art of
+writing, a fact placed beyond dispute by their many inscriptions.
+
+A more particular account of some of these ruins will be given in the
+next chapter. Among the more important works relating to them are those
+of Stephens and Catherwood, some of the volumes of Mr. Squier, Frederick
+Waldeck's work, and a recent French volume by Desire Charnay, which is
+accompanied by a folio volume of photographs. Palacios, who described
+Copan in 1576, may properly be called the first explorer. A brief
+account of Palenque was prepared by Captain Del Rio in 1787, and
+published in 1822. Captain Dupaix's folios, in French, with the drawings
+of Castenada, contain the first really important memoir on these ruins.
+It was prepared in 1807, detained in Mexico during the Mexican
+Revolution, and finally published at Paris in 1834-5. The volumes of
+Brasseur de Bourbourg are valuable. They relate chiefly to matters not
+always understood, and seldom discussed with care, by those who merely
+visit and describe the monuments, such as the writing, books, and
+traditions of the ancient Mexican and Central American people. His style
+is diffuse, sometimes confused, and rather tedious; and some of his
+theories are very fanciful. But he has discovered the key to the Maya
+alphabet and translated one of the old Central American books. No
+careful student of American archaeology can afford to neglect what he has
+written on this subject.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+
+To understand the situation and historical significance of the more
+important antiquities in Southern Mexico and Central America, we must
+keep in view their situation relative to the great unexplored forest to
+which attention has been called. Examine carefully any good map of
+Mexico and Central America, and consider well that the ruins already
+explored or visited are wholly in the northern half of Yucatan, or far
+away from this region, at the south, beyond the great wilderness, or in
+the southern edge of it. Uxmal, Mayapan, Chichen-Itza, and many others,
+are in Yucatan. Palenque, Copan, and others are in the southern part of
+the wilderness, in Chiapa, Honduras, and Guatemala. Mr. Squier visited
+ruins much farther south, in San Salvador, and in the western parts of
+Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
+
+The vast forest which is spread over the northern half of Guatemala and
+the southern half of Yucatan, and extended into other states, covers an
+area considerably larger in extent than Ohio or Pennsylvania. Does its
+position relative to the known ruins afford no suggestion concerning the
+ancient history of this forest-covered region? It is manifest that, in
+the remote ages when the older of the cities now in ruins were built,
+this region was a populous and important part of the country. And this
+is shown also by the antiquities found wherever it has been penetrated
+by explorers who knew how to make discoveries, as well as by the old
+books and traditions. Therefore it is not unreasonable to assume that
+Copan and Palenque are specimens of great ruins that lie buried in it.
+The ruins of which something is known have merely been visited and
+described in part by explorers, some of whom brought away drawings of
+the principal objects. In giving a brief account of the more important
+ruins, I will begin with the old city of which most has been heard.
+
+
+PALENQUE.
+
+No one can tell the true name of the ancient city now called Palenque.
+It is known to us by this name because the ruins are situated a few
+miles distant from the town of Palenque, now a village, but formerly a
+place of some importance. The ruins are in the northern part of the
+Mexican State of Chiapa, hidden out of sight in the forest, where they
+seem to have been forgotten long before the time of Cortez. More than
+two hundred years passed after the arrival of the Spaniards before their
+existence became known to Europeans. They were discovered about the year
+1750. Since that year decay has made some progress in them. Captain Del
+Rio, who visited and described them in 1787, examined "fourteen
+edifices" admirably built of hewn stone, and estimated the extent of the
+ruins to be "seven or eight leagues one way [along the River Chacamas],
+and half a league the other." He mentions "a subterranean aqueduct of
+great solidity and durability, which passes under the largest building."
+
+Other explorers have since visited Palenque, and reported on the ruins
+by pen and pencil; but it is not certain that all the ruined edifices
+belonging to them have been seen, nor that the explorations have made it
+possible to determine the ancient extent of the city with any approach
+to accuracy. The very great difficulties which obstruct all attempts at
+complete exploration have not allowed any explorer to say he has
+examined or discovered all the mouldering monuments hidden in the dense
+and tangled forest, even within the space allowed by Del Rio's "half
+league" from the river, not to speak of what may lie buried and unknown
+in the dense mass of trees and undergrowth beyond this limit.
+
+The largest known building at Palenque is called the "Palace." It stands
+near the river, on a terraced pyramidal foundation 40 feet high and 310
+feet long, by 260 broad at the base. The edifice itself is 228 feet
+long, 180 wide, and 25 feet high. It faces the east, and has 14 doorways
+on each side, with 11 at the ends. It was built entirely of hewn stone,
+laid with admirable precision in mortar which seems to have been of the
+best quality. A corridor 9 feet wide, and roofed by a pointed arch, went
+round the building on the outside; and this was separated from another
+within of equal width. The "Palace" has four interior courts, the
+largest being 70 by 80 feet in extent. These are surrounded by
+corridors, and the architectural work facing them is richly decorated.
+Within the building were many rooms. From the north side of one of the
+smaller courts rises a high tower, or pagoda-like structure, thirty feet
+square at the base, which goes up far above the highest elevation of the
+building, and seems to have been still higher when the whole structure
+was in perfect condition. The great rectangular mound used for the
+foundation was cased with hewn stone, the workmanship here, and every
+where else throughout the structure, being very superior. The piers
+around the courts are "covered with figures in stucco, or plaster,
+which, where broken, reveals six or more coats or layers, each revealing
+traces of painting." This indicates that the building had been used so
+long before it was deserted that the plastering needed to be many times
+renewed. There is some evidence that painting was used as a means of
+decoration; but that which most engages attention is the artistic
+management of the stone-work, and, above all, the beautifully executed
+sculptures for ornamentation.
+
+Two other buildings at Palenque, marked by Mr. Stephens, in his plan of
+the ruins, as "Casa No. 1" and "Casa No. 2," views of which are shown in
+Figures 27 and 28, are smaller, but in some respects still more
+remarkable. The first of these, 75 feet long by 25 wide, stands on the
+summit of a high truncated pyramid, and has solid walls on all sides
+save the north, where there are five doorways. Within are a corridor and
+three rooms. Between the doorways leading from the corridor to these
+rooms are great tablets, each 13 feet long and 8 feet high, and all
+covered with elegantly-carved inscriptions. A similar but smaller
+tablet, covered with an inscription, appears on the wall of the central
+room.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Casa No. 1, Palenque--Front View and Ground
+Plan.]
+
+"Casa No. 2" consists of a steep and lofty truncated pyramid, which
+stands on a terraced foundation, and has its level summit crowned with a
+building 50 feet long by 31 wide, which has three doorways at the south,
+and within a corridor and three rooms. This edifice, sometimes called
+"La Cruz," has, above the height required for the rooms, what is
+described as "two stories of interlaced stucco-work, resembling a high,
+fanciful lattice." Here, too, inscribed tablets appear on the walls; but
+the inscriptions, which are abundant at Palenque, are by no means
+confined to tablets. As to the ornamentation, the walls, piers, and
+cornices are covered with it. Every where the masterly workmanship and
+artistic skill of the old constructors compel admiration; Mr. Stephens
+going so far as to say of sculptured human figures found in fragments,
+"In justness of proportion and symmetry they must have approached the
+Greek models."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Casa No. 2, Palenque (La Cruz)--Front View and
+Ground Plan.]
+
+"Casa No. 2" of Mr. Stephens is usually called "La Cruz" because the
+most prominent object within the building is a great bas-relief on which
+are sculptured a cross and several human figures. This building stands
+on the high pyramid, and is approached by a flight of steps. Dupaix
+says, "It is impossible to describe adequately the interior decorations
+of this sumptuous temple." The cross is supposed to have been the
+central object of interest. It was wonderfully sculptured and decorated;
+human figures stand near it, and some grave ceremony seems to be
+represented. The infant held toward the cross by one of the figures
+suggests a christening ceremony. The cross is one of the most common
+emblems present in all the ruins. This led the Catholic missionaries to
+assume that knowledge of Christianity had been brought to that part of
+America long before their arrival; and they adopted the belief that the
+Gospel was preached there by St. Thomas. This furnished excellent
+material for the hagiologists of that age; but, like every thing else
+peculiar to these monkish romancers, it betrayed great lack of
+knowledge.
+
+The cross, even the so-called Latin cross, is not exclusively a
+Christian emblem. It was used in the Oriental world many centuries
+(perhaps millenniums) before the Christian era. It was a religious
+emblem of the Phoenicians, associated with Astarte, who is usually
+figured bearing what is called a Latin cross. She is seen so figured on
+Phoenician coin. The cross is found in the ruins of Nineveh. Mr. Layard,
+describing one of the finest specimens of Assyrian sculpture (the figure
+of "an early Nimrod king" he calls it), says: "Round his neck are hung
+the four sacred signs; the crescent, the star or sun, the trident, and
+_the cross_." These "signs," the cross included, appear suspended from
+the necks or collars of Oriental prisoners figured on Egyptian monuments
+known to be fifteen hundred years older than the Christian era. The
+cross was a common emblem in ancient Egypt, and the Latin form of it was
+used in the religious mysteries of that country, in connection with a
+monogram of the moon. It was to degrade this religious emblem of the
+Phoenicians that Alexander ordered the execution of two thousand
+principal citizens of Tyre by crucifixion.
+
+The cross, as an emblem, is very common among the antiquities of Western
+Europe, where archaeological investigation has sometimes been embarrassed
+and confused by the assumption that any old monument bearing the figure
+of a cross can not be as old as Christianity.
+
+What more will be found at Palenque, when the whole field of its ruins
+has been explored, can not now be reported. The chief difficulty by
+which explorers are embarrassed is manifest in this statement of Mr.
+Stephens: "Without a guide, we might have gone within a hundred feet of
+the buildings without discovering one of them." More has been discovered
+there than I have mentioned, my purpose being to give an accurate view
+of the style, finish, decoration, and general character of the
+architecture and artistic work found in the ruins rather than a
+complete account of every thing connected with them. The ruins of
+Palenque are deemed important by archaeologists partly on account of the
+great abundance of inscriptions found there, which, it is believed, will
+at length be deciphered, the written characters being similar to those
+of the Mayas, which are now understood.
+
+
+COPAN AND QUIRIGUA.
+
+The ruins known as Copan are situated in the extreme western part of
+Honduras, where they are densely covered by the forest. As already
+stated, they were first discovered by Europeans about forty years after
+the war of the conquest swept through that part of the country, and were
+at that time wholly mysterious to the natives. The monuments seem older
+than those at Palenque, but we have only scant descriptions of them.
+They are situated in a wild and solitary part of the country, where the
+natives "see as little of strangers as the Arabs about Mount Sinai, and
+are more suspicious." For this reason they have not been very carefully
+explored. It is known that these ruins extend two or three miles along
+the left bank of the River Copan. Not much has been done to discover how
+far they extend from the river into the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Great Wall at Copan.]
+
+Mr. Stephens describes as follows his first view of them: "We came to
+the right bank of the river, and saw directly opposite a stone wall from
+60 to 90 feet high, with furze growing out of the top, running north and
+south along the river 624 feet, in some places fallen, in others
+entire." This great wall supported the rear side of the elevated
+foundation of a great edifice. It was made of cut stone well laid in
+mortar or cement, the blocks of stone being 6 feet long. Figure 29 shows
+the wall somewhat imperfectly. He saw next a square stone column
+standing by itself, 14 feet high and 3 feet on each side. From top to
+bottom it was richly ornamented with sculptured designs on two opposite
+sides, the other sides being covered with inscriptions finely carved on
+the stone. On the front face, surrounded by the sculptured ornaments,
+was the figure of a man. Fourteen other obelisks of the same kind were
+seen, some of them being higher than this. Some of them had fallen.
+These sculptured and inscribed pillars constitute the chief peculiarity
+of Copan. Mr. Squier says of them: "The ruins of Copan, and the
+corresponding monuments which I examined in the valley of the
+Chamelican, are distinguished by singular and elaborately carved
+_monoliths_, which seem to have been replaced at Palenque by equally
+elaborate _basso relievos_, belonging, it would seem, to a later and
+more advanced period of art."
+
+The great building first noticed stands, or stood, on a pyramidal
+foundation, which is supported along the river by that high back wall.
+The structure extends 624 feet on the river line. Mr. Stephens described
+it as an "oblong inclosure," and states that it has a wide terrace
+nearly 100 feet above the river, on which great trees are growing, some
+of them more than 20 feet in circumference. Here, as at Palenque, the
+ornamentation was "rich and abundant." The ruins, greatly worn by decay,
+still show that "architecture, sculpture, painting, and all the arts
+that embellish life had flourished in this overgrown forest." Some
+beautifully executed sculptures were found buried in the earth, and
+there can be no doubt that extensive excavation, if it were possible in
+that almost invincible forest, would lead to important and valuable
+discoveries. Besides the great building and the monoliths, several
+pyramidal structures are mentioned by Mr. Stephens, who points out that
+extensive exploration is impossible unless one shall first clear away
+the forest and burn up the trees.
+
+Palacios, who described this ruined city nearly three hundred years ago,
+saw much more than Mr. Stephens. He described "the ruins of superb
+edifices, built of hewn stone, which manifestly belonged to a large
+city." He mentions, in connection with the great wall, an enormous
+eagle carved in stone, which bore a square shield on its breast covered
+with undecipherable characters. He mentions, also, a "stone giant," and
+a "stone cross" with one arm broken. He saw a "plaza," circular in form,
+surrounded by ranges of steps or seats, which reminded him of the
+Coliseum at Rome, "as many as eighty ranges still remaining in some
+places." This "plaza" was "paved with beautiful stones, all square and
+well worked." Six of the great obelisks, which he described as
+"statues," stood in this inclosure, and in its centre was a great stone
+basin.
+
+A history of Guatemala, by a writer named Huarros, states that the
+"Circus of Copan," as he calls the "plaza" described by Palacios, was
+still entire in the year 1700. He mentions gateways which led into the
+inclosure, and says it was surrounded on the outside by stone pyramids
+six yards high, near which were standing sculptured figures or obelisks.
+No doubt, remains of this remarkable "circus" would be found now, if the
+forest should be removed. What else could be found there by means of
+careful and thorough exploration may never be known, for the region is
+uninviting, the forest very difficult, and such an exploration would
+require much more than the means and efforts of one or two individuals.
+
+Not very far away, in the neighboring State of Guatemala, on the right
+bank of the River Motagua, to which the Copan is a tributary, are the
+ruins called Quirigua. It is manifest that a great city once stood here.
+These ruins have a close resemblance to those at Copan, but they appear
+to be much older, for they have, to a great extent, become little
+more than heaps of rubbish. Over a large space of ground traces of what
+has gone to decay are visible. Doubtless important relics of the old
+city are now more abundant below the surface than above it. Mr.
+Stephens, describing what he saw there, confines his attention chiefly
+to a pyramidal structure with flights of steps, and monoliths larger and
+higher than those at Copan, but otherwise similar. He states, however,
+that while they have the same general style, the sculptures are in lower
+relief and hardly so rich in design. One of the obelisks here is twenty
+feet high, five feet six inches wide, and two feet eight inches thick.
+The chief figures carved on it are that of a man on the front, and that
+of a woman on the back. The sides are covered with inscriptions similar
+in appearance to those at Copan. Some of the other standing obelisks are
+higher than this. It seems reasonable to infer that the structures at
+Quirigua were more ancient than those at Copan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Ruins at Mitla.]
+
+
+MITLA.
+
+The ruins called Mitla are in the Mexican State of Oxaca, about twelve
+leagues east from the city of Oxaca. They are situated in the upper part
+of a great valley, and surrounded by a waste, uncultivated region. At
+the time of the Spanish Conquest they were old and much worn by time and
+the elements, but a very large area was then covered by remains of
+ancient buildings. At present only six decaying edifices and three
+ruined pyramids, which were very finely terraced, remain for
+examination, the other structures being now reduced to the last stage
+of decay. Figures 30 and 31 present views of some of these structures,
+as given by Von Temski. Figure 32, from Charnay's photograph, shows a
+ruin at Mitla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Great Hall at Mitla.]
+
+These important ruins were not described by Stephens and Catherwood.
+Captain Dupaix's work gives some account of them, and Desire Charnay,
+who saw them since 1860, brought away photographs of some of the
+monuments. Four of the standing edifices are described by Dupaix as
+"palaces," and these, he says, "were erected with lavish magnificence;
+* * * they combine the solidity of the works of Egypt with the elegance
+of those of Greece." And he adds, "But what is most remarkable,
+interesting, and striking in these monuments, and which alone would be
+sufficient to give them the first rank among all known orders of
+architecture, is the execution of their mosaic relievos, very different
+from plain mosaic, and consequently requiring more ingenious combination
+and greater art and labor. They are inlaid on the surface of the wall,
+and their duration is owing to the method of fixing the prepared stones
+into the stone surface, which made their union with it perfect." Figure
+33, taken from Charnay's photograph, shows part of the mosaic decoration
+on a wall of one of the great edifices at Mitla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Ruined Palace at Mitla.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Mosaics at Mitla.]
+
+The general character of the architecture and masonry is much like that
+seen in the structures at Palenque, but the finish of the workmanship
+appears to have been more artistic and admirable. These ruins are
+remarkable among those of the country where they are found. All who have
+seen them speak much as Dupaix speaks of the perfection of the masonry,
+the admirable design and finish of the work, and the beauty of the
+decorations. Their beauty, says M. Charnay, can be matched only by the
+monuments of Greece and Rome in their best days. One fact presented by
+some of the edifices at Mitla has a certain degree of historical
+significance. There appears to be evidence that they were occupied at
+some period by people less advanced in civilization than their builders.
+M. Charnay, describing one of them, points out this fact. He says of the
+structure:
+
+"It is a bewildering maze of courts and buildings, with facings
+ornamented with mosaics in relief of the purest design; but under the
+projections are found traces of paintings wholly primitive in style, in
+which the right line is not even respected. These are rude figures of
+idols, and meandering lines that have no significance. Similar paintings
+appear, with the same imperfection, on every great edifice, in places
+which have allowed them shelter against the ravages of time. These rude
+designs, associated with palaces so correct in architecture, and so
+ornamented with panels of mosaic of such marvelous workmanship, put
+strange thoughts in the mind. To find the explanation of this
+phenomenon, must we not suppose these palaces were occupied by a race
+less advanced in civilization than their first builders?"
+
+Two miles or more away from the great edifices here mentioned, toward
+the west, is the "Castle of Mitla." It was built on the summit of an
+isolated and precipitous hill of rock, which is accessible only on the
+east side. The whole leveled summit of this hill is inclosed by a solid
+wall of hewn stone twenty-one feet thick and eighteen feet high. This
+wall has salient and retiring angles, with curtains interposed. On the
+east side it is flanked by double walls. Within the inclosure are the
+remains of several small buildings. The field of these ruins was very
+large three hundred years ago. At that time it may have included this
+castle.
+
+
+AN ASTRONOMICAL MONUMENT.
+
+In this part of Mexico Captain Dupaix examined a peculiar ruin, of which
+he gave the following account: "Near the road from the village of
+Tlalmanalco to that called Mecamecan, about three miles east of the
+latter, there is an isolated granite rock, which was artificially
+formed into a kind of pyramid with six hewn steps facing the east. The
+summit of this structure is a platform, or horizontal plane, well
+adapted to observation of the stars on every side of the hemisphere. It
+is almost demonstrable that this very ancient monument was exclusively
+devoted to astronomical observations, for on the south side of the rock
+are sculptured several hieroglyphical figures having relation to
+astronomy. The most striking figure in the group is that of a man in
+profile, standing erect, and directing his view to the rising stars in
+the sky. He holds to his eye a tube or optical instrument. Below his
+feet is a frieze divided into six compartments, with as many celestial
+signs carved on its surface." It has been already stated that
+finely-wrought "telescopic tubes" have been found among remains of the
+Mound-Builders. They were used, it seems, by the ancient people of
+Mexico and Central America, and they were known also in ancient Peru,
+where a silver figure of a man in the act of using such a tube has been
+discovered in one of the old tombs.
+
+
+RUINS FARTHER SOUTH.
+
+Old ruins, of which but little is known, exist in Guatemala, Honduras,
+San Salvador, and the more southern portion of Central America. Mr.
+Squier, who tells us more of them than any other explorer, says, "I
+heard of remains and monuments in Honduras and San Salvador equal to
+those of Copan in extent and interest." He mentions the ruins of Opico,
+near San Vincente, in San Salvador, which "cover nearly two square
+miles, and consist of vast terraces, ruins of edifices, circular and
+square towers, and subterranean galleries, all built of cut stones: a
+single carving has been found here on a block of stone." Remains of
+"immense works" exist in the district of Chontales, near the northern
+shore of Lake Nicaragua; and pottery found in Nicaragua "equals the best
+specimens of Mexico and Peru." Don Jose Antonio Urritia, cure of
+Jutiapa, gave the following account of a great ruin on a mountain in San
+Salvador, near the town of Comapa: it is called Cinaca-Mecallo:
+
+"The walls, or remains of the city wall, describe an oval figure, within
+which roads or streets may be traced, and there are various subterranean
+passages and many ruined edifices. The materials of construction are
+chiefly thin stones, or a species of slate, united by a kind of cement
+which in appearance resembles melted lead." It does not appear that he
+made a complete examination of the monuments, but he mentions three that
+gained his attention, and left upon his mind a very strong impression.
+"The first is a temple consecrated to the sun, chiefly excavated in the
+solid rock, and having its entrance toward the east. On the archway of
+the entrance are carved representations of the sun and moon.
+Hieroglyphics are found in the interior. Besides the sculptured _bassi
+relievi_, these stones bear hieroglyphics painted with a kind of red
+varnish which remains unimpaired. The second is a great stone slab
+covered with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. The third is the figure of a
+wild animal sculptured on a rock or stone, of "great size."[TN-3]
+
+
+THE RUINS IN YUCATAN.
+
+The remains of ancient cities are abundant in the settled portion of
+Yucatan, which lies north of the great forest. Charnay found "the
+country covered with them from north to south." Stephens states, in the
+Preface to his work on Yucatan, that he visited "forty-four ruined
+cities or places" in which such remains are still found, most of which
+were unknown to white men, even to those inhabiting the country; and he
+adds that "time and the elements are hastening them to utter
+destruction."
+
+Previous to the Spanish Conquest, the region known to us as Yucatan was
+called Maya. It is still called Maya by the natives among themselves,
+and this is the true name of the country. Why the Spaniards called it
+Yucatan is unknown, but the name is wholly arbitrary and without reason.
+It is said to have arisen from an odd mistake like that which occasioned
+the name given to one of the capes by Hernandez de Cordova. Being on the
+coast in 1517, he met some of the natives. Their cacique said to him,
+"Conex cotoch," meaning "Come to our town." The Spaniard, supposing he
+had mentioned the name of the place, immediately named the projecting
+point of land "Cape Cotoche," and it is called so still.
+
+At that time the country was occupied by the people still known as
+Mayas. They all spoke the same language, which was one of a closely
+related family of tongues spoken in Guatemala, Chiapas, Western
+Honduras, and in some other districts of Central America and Mexico.
+Yucatan was then much more populous than at present. The people had more
+civilization, more regular industry, and more wealth. They were much
+more highly skilled in the arts of civilized life. They had cities and
+large towns; and dwelling-houses, built of timber and covered with
+thatch, like those common in England, were scattered over all the rural
+districts. Some of the cities now found in ruins were then inhabited.
+This peninsula had been the seat of an important feudal monarchy, which
+arose probably after the Toltecs overthrew the very ancient kingdom of
+Xibalba. It was broken up by a rebellion of the feudal lords about a
+hundred years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. According to the
+Maya chronicles, its downfall occurred in the year 1420. Mayapan, the
+capital of this kingdom, was destroyed at that time, and never afterward
+inhabited.
+
+Merida, the present capital of Yucatan, was built on the site of an
+ancient Maya city called Tihoo. It is stated in the old Spanish accounts
+of Merida that it was built on that site because there was in the ruins
+an abundance of building material. There is mention of two "mounds"
+which furnished a vast amount of hewn stone. Mr. Stephens noticed in
+some of the edifices stones with "sculptured figures, from the ruins of
+ancient buildings;" and he mentions that a portion of an ancient
+building, including an arch in the Maya style, was retained in the
+construction of the Franciscan convent.
+
+
+MAYAPAN.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Great Mound at Mayapan.]
+
+We shall notice only some of the principal ruins in Yucatan, beginning
+with Mayapan, the ancient capital. The remains of this city are situated
+about ten leagues, in a southern direction, from Merida. They are spread
+over an extensive plain, and overgrown by trees and other vegetation.
+The most prominent object seen by the approaching explorer is a great
+mound, 60 feet high and 100 feet square at the base. It is an imposing
+structure, seen through the trees, and is itself overgrown like a wooded
+hill. Figure 34 shows one view of this. Four stairways, in a ruinous
+condition, 25 feet wide, lead up to an esplanade within 6 feet of the
+top, which is reached by a smaller stairway. The summit is a plain stone
+platform 15 feet square. This, of course, was a temple. Sculptured
+stones are scattered around the base, and within the mound subterranean
+chambers have been discovered.
+
+It is probable that the principal edifices at Mayapan were not all built
+wholly of stone, for they have mostly disappeared. Only one remains, a
+circular stone building 25 feet in diameter, which stands on a pyramidal
+foundation 35 feet high. This is represented in Figure 35. On the
+southwest side of it, on a terrace projecting from the mound, was a
+double row of columns without capitals, 8 feet apart. There are
+indications that this city was old, and that the buildings had been more
+than once renewed. Brasseur de Bourbourg classes some of the foundations
+at Mayapan with the oldest seen at Palenque and Copan. This point,
+however, can not be determined with sufficient accuracy to remove all
+doubt. Mayapan may have stood upon the foundations of a very ancient
+city which was several times rebuilt, but the city destroyed in 1420
+could not have been as old as either Palenque or Copan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Circular Edifice at Mayapan.]
+
+
+UXMAL.
+
+The ruins of Uxmal have been regarded as the most important in Yucatan,
+partly on account of the edifices that remain standing, but chiefly
+because they have been more visited and explored than the others. It is
+supposed, and circumstantial evidence appears to warrant the
+supposition, that this city had not been wholly deserted at the time of
+the Spanish Conquest, although it had previously begun to be a ruin. It
+was wholly a ruin in 1673. The area covered by its remains is extensive.
+Charnay makes it a league or more in diameter; but most of the
+structures have fallen, and exist now only in fragments scattered over
+the ground. It may be that many of them were not built wholly of hewn
+stone, and had not "Egyptian solidity" with their other characteristics.
+
+The most important of those remaining was named "Casa del Gobernador" by
+the Spaniards. It is 320 feet long, and was built of hewn stone laid in
+mortar or cement. The faces of the walls are smooth up to the cornice.
+Then follows, on all the four sides, "one solid mass of rich,
+complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments, forming a sort of
+arabesque." Figure 36 gives a view of the south end of this edifice, but
+no engraving can show all the details of the ornamentation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.]
+
+This building has eleven doorways in front, and one at each end, all
+having wooden lintels, which have fallen. The two principal rooms are 60
+feet long, and from 11 to 13 feet wide. This structure is long and
+narrow The arrangement and number of the rooms are shown in the
+following ground plan of the building (Figure 37):
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Ground Plan of Casa del Gobernador]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Double-headed Figure, Casa del Gobernador.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Decorations over Doorway, Casa del
+Gobernador.]
+
+It stands on the summit of one of the grandest of the terraced
+foundations. This foundation, like all the others, is pyramidal. It has
+three terraces. The lowest is 3 feet high, 15 wide, and 575 long; the
+second is 20 feet high, 275 wide, and 545 long; the third, 19 feet high,
+30 wide, and 360 long. Structures formerly existed on the second
+terrace, remains of which are visible. At the northwest corner one of
+them still shows its dilapidated walls, portions of them being
+sufficiently complete to show what they were. This edifice was 94 feet
+long and 34 wide. It seems to have been finely finished in a style more
+simple than that of the great "casa" on the upper terrace. The figures
+of turtles sculptured along the upper edge of the cornice have given it
+the current designation, "House of the Turtles." Sculptured monuments
+have been found buried in the soil of the second terrace. The opening of
+a small, low mound situated on it brought to view the double-headed
+figure shown in No. 38. Figure 39 shows part of the sculptured
+decoration over the centre doorway of Casa del Gobernador.
+
+Another important edifice at Uxmal has been named "Casa de las Monjas,"
+House of the Nuns. It stands on a terraced foundation, and is arranged
+around a quadrangular court-yard 258 feet one way and 214 the other. The
+front structure is 279 feet long, and has a gateway in the centre 10
+feet 8 inches wide leading into the court, and four doors on each side
+of it. The outer face of the wall, above the cornice, is ornamented with
+sculptures. The terrace without and within the inclosure was found
+covered with a very dense growth of vegetation, which it was necessary
+to clear away before the walls could be carefully examined. All the
+doorways, save those in front, open on the court. Mr. Stephens found the
+four great facades fronting the court-yard "ornamented from one end to
+the other with the richest and most intricate carving known to the
+builders of Uxmal, presenting a scene of strange magnificence which
+surpasses any other now seen among its ruins." The long outer
+structure, on the side facing the entrance, had high turret-like
+elevations over each of its thirteen doorways, all covered with
+sculptured ornaments. This building appears to have inclosed another of
+older date. Figure 40 shows the ground plan of "Las Monjas."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Ground Plan of Las Monjas, Uxmal.]
+
+Other less important edifices in the ruins of Uxmal have been described
+by explorers, some of which stand on high pyramidal mounds; and
+inscriptions are found here, but they are not so abundant as at Palenque
+and Copan.
+
+
+KABAH.
+
+The ruins known as Kabah are on the site of what must have been one of
+the most imposing and important of the more ancient cities. Here the
+most conspicuous object is a stone-faced mound 180 feet square at the
+base, with a range of ruined apartments at the bottom. Three or four
+hundred yards from this mound is a terraced foundation 20 feet high and
+200 by 142 in extent, on which stand the remains of a great edifice. At
+the right of the esplanade before it is a "high range of ruined
+structures overgrown with trees, with an immense back wall on the outer
+line of the esplanade perpendicular to the bottom of the terrace." On
+the left is another range of ruined buildings, and in the centre a stone
+inclosure 27 feet square and 7 feet high, with sculptures and
+inscriptions around the base. Some of the ornamentation of this building
+has been described in the strongest terms of admiration. Mr. Stephens
+said of it, "The cornice running over the doorways, tried by the
+severest rules of art recognized among us, would embellish the
+architecture of any known era." At Uxmal the walls were smooth below the
+cornice; here they are covered with decorations from top to bottom.
+
+This field of ruins is extensive, and only a portion of it has been
+examined. It is so overgrown that exploration is very difficult. The
+buildings and mounds are much decayed, and they seem to be very old. It
+is believed that ruined edifices of which nothing is known are hidden
+among the trees in places which no explorer has approached. Mr. Stephens
+gave the first account of Kabah, and described three other important
+edifices besides that already named. One of these he thought was, when
+entire, the most imposing structure at Kabah. It was 147 feet long by
+106 wide, and had three distinct stories, each successive story being
+smaller than that below it. Another, standing on the upper terrace of an
+elevated foundation 170 feet long by 110 broad, was 164 feet in length,
+and comparatively narrow. It is mentioned as a peculiarity of this
+edifice that it had pillars in its doorways, used as supports. The
+other, found standing on a terrace, is also long and narrow, and has a
+comparatively plain front.
+
+Remains of other buildings are visible, but in all cases they are so
+completely in ruins as to be little more than heaps of debris. Some of
+the ruins in the woods beyond that part of the field which is most
+accessible, are visible from the great mound described. A resolute
+attempt to penetrate the forest brought the explorers in view of great
+edifices standing on an elevated terrace estimated to be 800 feet long
+by 100 feet wide. The decorations seemed to have been abundant and very
+rich, but the structures were in a sad state of dilapidation. One
+remarkable monument found at Kabah resembles a triumphal arch. It stands
+by itself on a ruined mound apart from the other structures. It is
+described as a "lonely arch, having a span of 14 feet," rising on the
+field of ruins "in solitary grandeur." Figure 41 gives a view of it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Ruined Arch at Kabah.]
+
+Kabah was an ancient city. The ruins are old, and the city may have
+belonged to the first age of the Maya period.
+
+
+CHICHEN-ITZA.
+
+The ruins of Chichen-Itza are situated east of Mayapan, about half way
+between the eastern and western coasts of the peninsula of Yucatan. A
+public road runs through the space of ground over which they are spread.
+The area covered by them is something less than a mile in diameter. The
+general character of the ruined structures found here is in every
+respect like that shown by ruins already described.
+
+One of the great buildings at this place has a rude, unornamental
+exterior, and does not stand on an artificial terrace, although the
+ground before it was excavated so as to give the appearance of an
+elevated foundation. It is one hundred and forty-nine feet long by
+forty-eight deep. Its special peculiarity consists of a stone lintel, in
+a very dark inner room, which has an inscription and a sculptured figure
+on the under side. The writing closely resembles that seen at Palenque
+and Copan. Was this sculptured stone made originally for the place it
+now occupies, or was it taken from the ruins of some older city which
+flourished and went to decay before Chichen-Itza was built?
+
+Another structure seen here closely resembles Las Monjas at Uxmal, and
+bears the same name, but it differs somewhat from the Uxmal Monjas in
+arrangement. In the descriptions, special mention is made of "the
+richness and beauty" of its ornaments.
+
+A noticeable edifice connected with the Monjas, called the "Church," is
+26 feet long, 14 deep, 31 high, and has three cornices, the spaces
+between them being covered with carved ornaments. There is but one room
+in it. One of the most picturesque ruins at Chichen-Itza is circular in
+form, and stands on the upper level of a double-terraced platform. It is
+22 feet in diameter, and has four doors, which face the cardinal points.
+Above the cornice it slopes gradually almost to a point, and the top is
+about 60 feet above the ground. The grand staircase of 20 steps, leading
+up to this building, is 45 feet wide, and has a sort of balustrade
+formed of the entwined bodies of huge serpents. At some distance from
+this is the ruined structure known as the "Casa Colorada," or Red House.
+This is shown in Figure 42.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Casa Colorada.]
+
+It is 43 feet long by 23 deep, and stands on a platform 62 feet long by
+55 wide. It was ornamented above the cornice, but the decorations are
+much defaced by decay. A stone tablet extending the whole length of the
+back wall, inside, is covered by an inscription.
+
+A remarkable structure is found at this place, which Mr. Stephens called
+the "Gymnasium, or Tennis Court." It consists of two immense parallel
+walls 274 feet long, 30 thick, and 120 apart. On elevations facing the
+two ends of the open space between them, 100 feet from the ends of the
+walls, stand two edifices much ruined, but showing, in their remains,
+that they were richly ornamented. Midway in the length of the walls,
+facing each other, and 20 feet above the ground, are two massive stone
+rings or circles 4 feet in diameter, each having in the centre a hole 1
+foot and 7 inches in diameter. On the borders around these holes two
+entwined serpents are sculptured, as seen in Figure 43.
+
+There was a similar structure in the old city of Mexico, and remains of
+one like it are found at Mayapan. They were, probably, used for games of
+some kind. Among the other ruins at Chichen-Itza are the remains of a
+lofty edifice which has two high ranges or stories. On the outside the
+ornamentation is simple and tasteful, but the walls of its chambers are
+very elaborately decorated, mostly with sculptured designs, which seem
+to have been painted. In one of the upper rooms Mr. Stephens found a
+beam of sapote wood used as a lintel, which was covered with very
+elegantly carved decorations. The walls of this room were covered, from
+the bottom to the top of the arched ceiling, with painted designs
+similar to those seen in the Mexican "picture writing." Decay had
+mutilated these "pictures," but the colors were still bright. There are
+indications that painting was generally used by the aboriginal builders,
+even on their sculptures. The colors seen in this room were green, red,
+yellow, blue, and reddish-brown. Another edifice, standing on a high
+mound, is reached by means of the usual great stairway, which begins at
+the bottom, with a sort of balustrade on each side, the ends of which
+are stone figures of heads of immense serpents.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Great Stone Ring.]
+
+Not far from this is a singular ruin, consisting of groups of small
+columns standing in rows five abreast, the tallest being not more than
+six feet high. Many of them have fallen. It is impossible to determine
+how they were used, or what they mean.
+
+
+OTHER RUINS IN YUCATAN.
+
+Izamal, Labna, Zayi, and some of the other ruins are sufficiently
+important for special notice; but they present every where the same
+characteristics, differing a little in the style or method of
+ornamentation. At Labna there is among the ruins an ancient gateway,
+beautiful in design and construction, a view of which is given in the
+Frontispiece. The best account of some of the other ruins on this
+peninsula can be found in the volumes of Mr. Stephens, entitled
+"Incidents of Travel in Yucatan." At Zayi there is a singular building,
+which, as seen at a distance by Mr. Stephens, "had the appearance of a
+New England factory." But what seemed to be a "factory" is, in fact,
+nothing more than a massive wall with oblong openings, which runs along
+the middle of the roof, and rises thirty feet above it. The building was
+below this wall, but the front part of it had fallen. Among the remains
+at Xcoch is the great mound represented in Figure 44.
+
+There is a remarkable ruin at Ake, at the south, which deserves mention.
+Here, on the summit of a great mound, very level, and 225 feet by 50 in
+extent, stand 36 shafts or columns, in three parallel rows. The columns
+are about 15 feet high and 4 feet square. The ruins of Ake, which cover
+a great space, are ruder and more massive than most of the others. The
+island of Cozumel and the adjacent coast of Yucatan were populous when
+the Spaniards first went there, but the great towns then inhabited are
+now in ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Great Mound at Xcoch.]
+
+Water is scarce on this peninsula, and a sufficient supply is not
+obtained without considerable difficulty. The ancient inhabitants
+provided for this lack of water by constructing aguadas or artificial
+ponds. These, or many of them, doubtless, are as old as the oldest of
+the ruined cities. Intelligence, much skill in masonry, and much labor
+were required to construct them. They were paved with several courses of
+stone laid in cement, and in their bottoms wells or cavities were
+constructed. More than forty such wells were found in the bottom of one
+of these aguadas at Galal, which has been repaired and restored to use.
+A section of the bottom of this aguada is shown in Figure 45. In some
+places long subterranean passages lead down to pools of water, which are
+used in the dry season. One of these subterranean reservoirs, and the
+cavernous passage leading to it, are shown in Figure 46. The reservoir
+is 450 feet below the surface of the ground, and the passage leading to
+it is about 1400 feet long. Branching passages, not shown, lead to two
+or three other basins of water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Bottom of an Aguada.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Subterranean Reservoir.]
+
+The wooden lintels, which are common in Yucatan, do not appear in the
+other ruins, and there is a difference in the style of ornamentation
+between those at Palenque or Copan, for instance, and those at Uxmal,
+but every where the architecture is regulated by the same idea, the
+differences indicating nothing more than different periods and
+different phases of development in the history of the same people.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Plan of the Walls at Tuloom.]
+
+Some of the great edifices in these old ruins, such as the "Palace" at
+Palenque, and the "Casa del Gobernador" at Uxmal, remind us of the
+"communal buildings" of the Pueblos, and yet there is a wide difference
+between them. They are not alike either in character or purpose,
+although such great buildings as the "Palace" may have been designed for
+the occupation of several families. There is no indication that
+"communal" residences were ever common in this part of the country. At
+the time of the Conquest the houses of the people were ordinary family
+dwellings, made of wood, and we may reasonably suppose this fashion of
+building was handed down from the earlier ages. Herrera, who supposed,
+mistakenly, that all the great stone edifices were temples, said, in
+his account of Yucatan, "There were so many and such stately stone
+buildings that it was amazing; and the greatest wonder was that, having
+no use of any metal, they were able to raise such structures, which seem
+to have been temples; for their houses were all of timber, and
+thatched." But they had the use of metals, and they had the art of
+making some of them admirable for use in cutting stone and carving wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Watch-tower at Tuloom.]
+
+Among the buildings of later date are some of those on the western
+coast, which were still inhabited three hundred and fifty years ago. The
+city of Tuloom was inhabited then. Figure 47 shows a ground plan of the
+walls of this city, with the position of some of the ruined monuments.
+
+Within the walls are remains of finely constructed buildings on elevated
+foundations, none of them, however, very large. One of them had a wooden
+roof, and timber seems to have been considerably used here. The walls
+still standing were made of hewn stone. Remains of stone edifices exist
+all along this coast, but the whole region is now covered by a dense
+growth of trees and other vegetation. Tuloom was seen in 1518 by
+Grijalva, who sailed along the coast. At that time the island of
+Cozumel, where noteworthy ruins are found, was inhabited by many people.
+Figure 48 shows one of the watch-towers on the walls of Tuloom.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+ANTIQUITY OF THE RUINS.
+
+
+The Mexican and Central American ruins make it certain that in ancient
+times an important civilization existed in that part of the continent,
+which must have begun at a remote period in the past. If they have any
+significance, this must be accepted as an ascertained fact. A large
+proportion of them had been forgotten in the forests, or become mythical
+and mysterious, long before the arrival of the Spaniards.
+
+In 1520, three hundred and fifty years ago, the forest which so largely
+covers Yucatan, Guatemala, and Chiapa was growing as it grows now; yes,
+four hundred and fifty years ago, for it was there a century previous to
+this date, when, the Maya kingdom being broken up, one of its princes
+fled into this forest with a portion of his people, the Itzas, and
+settled at Lake Peten. It was the same then as now. How many additional
+centuries it had existed no one can tell. If its age could be told, it
+would still be necessary to consider that the ruins hidden in it are
+much older than the forest, and that the period of civilization they
+represent closed long before it was established.
+
+In the ages previous to the beginning of this immense forest, the region
+it covers was the seat of a civilization which grew up to a high degree
+of development, flourished a long time, and finally declined, until its
+cities were deserted, and its cultivated fields left to the wild
+influences of nature. It may be safely assumed that both the
+forest-covered ruins and the forest itself are far older than the Aztec
+period; but who can tell how much older? Copan, first discovered and
+described three hundred years ago, was then as strange to the natives
+dwelling near it as the old Chaldean ruins are to the Arabs who wander
+over the wasted plains of Lower Mesopotamia. Native tradition had
+forgotten its history and become silent in regard to it. How long had
+ruined Copan been in this condition? No one can tell. Manifestly it was
+forgotten, left buried in the forest without recollection of its
+history, long before Montezuma's people, the Aztecs, rose to power; and
+it is easily understood that this old city had an important history
+previous to that unknown time in the past when war, revolution, or some
+other agency of destruction put an end to its career and left it to
+become what it is now.
+
+Moreover, these old ruins, in all cases, show us only the cities last
+occupied in the periods to which they belong. Doubtless others still
+older preceded them; and, besides, it can be seen that some of the
+ruined cities which can now be traced were several times renewed by
+reconstructions. We must consider, also, that building magnificent
+cities is not the first work of an original civilization. The
+development was necessarily gradual. Its first period was more or less
+rude. The art of building and ornamenting such edifices arose slowly.
+Many ages must have been required to develop such admirable skill in
+masonry and ornamentation. Therefore the period between the beginning of
+this mysterious development of civilized life and the first builders who
+used cut stone laid in mortar and cement, and covered their work with
+beautifully sculptured ornaments and inscriptions, must have been very
+long.
+
+We have no measure of the time, no clew to the old dates, nothing
+whatever, beyond such considerations as I have stated, to warrant even a
+vague hypothesis. It can be seen clearly that the beginning of this old
+civilization was much older than the earliest great cities, and, also,
+that these were much more ancient than the time when any of the later
+built or reconstructed cities whose relics still exist, were left to
+decay. If we suppose Palenque to have been deserted some six hundred
+years previous to the Spanish Conquest, this date will carry us back
+only to the last days of its history as an inhabited city. Beyond it, in
+the distant past, is a vast period, in which the civilization
+represented by Palenque was developed, made capable of building such
+cities, and then carried on through the many ages during which cities
+became numerous, flourished, grew old, and gave place to others, until
+the long history of Palenque itself began.
+
+Those who have sought to discredit what is told of the Aztec
+civilization and the empire of Montezuma have never failed to admit
+fully the significance of Copan, Palenque, and Mitla. One or two
+writers, pursuing the assumption that the barbarous tribes at the north
+and the old Mexicans were of the same race, and substantially the same
+people, have undertaken to give us the history of Montezuma's empire
+"entirely rewritten," and show that his people were "Mexican savages."
+In their hands Montezuma is transformed into a barbarous Indian chief,
+and the city of Mexico becomes a rude Indian village, situated among the
+islands and lagoons of an everglade which afforded unusual facilities
+"for fishing and snaring birds." One goes so far as to maintain this
+with considerable vehemence and amusing unconsciousness of absurdity. He
+is sure that Montezuma was nothing more than the principal chief of a
+parcel of wild Indian tribes, and that the Pueblos are wild Indians
+changed to their present condition by Spanish influence. There is
+something in this akin to lunacy.
+
+But this topic will receive more attention in another place. I bring it
+to view here because those who maintain so strangely that the Aztecs
+were Indian savages, admit all that is claimed for the wonderful ruins
+at the south, and give them a very great antiquity. They maintain,
+however, that the civilization represented by these ruins was brought to
+this continent in remote pre-historic times by the people known as
+Phoenicians, and their method of finding the Phoenicians at Palenque,
+Copan, and every where else, is similar in character and value to that
+by which they transform the Aztec empire into a rude confederacy of wild
+Indians.
+
+
+DISTINCT ERAS TRACED.
+
+It is a point of no little interest that these old constructions belong
+to different periods in the past, and represent somewhat different
+phases of civilization. Uxmal, which is supposed to have been partly
+inhabited when the Spaniards arrived in the country, is plainly much
+more modern than Copan or Palenque. This is easily traced in the ruins.
+Its edifices were finished in a different style, and show fewer
+inscriptions. Round pillars, somewhat in the Doric style, are found at
+Uxmal, but none like the square, richly-carved pillars, bearing
+inscriptions, discovered in some of the other ruins. Copan and Palenque,
+and even Kabah, in Yucatan, may have been very old cities, if not
+already old ruins, when Uxmal was built. Accepting the reports of
+explorers as correct, there is evidence in the ruins that Quirigua is
+older than Copan, and that Copan is older than Palenque. The old
+monuments in Yucatan represent several distinct epochs in the ancient
+history of that peninsula. Some of them are kindred to those hidden in
+the great forest, and remind us more of Palenque than of Uxmal. Among
+those described, the most modern, or most of these, are in Yucatan; they
+belong to the time when the kingdom of the Mayas flourished. Many of the
+others belong to ages previous to the rise of this kingdom; and in ages
+still earlier, ages older than the great forest, there were other
+cities, doubtless, whose remains have perished utterly, or were long ago
+removed for use in the later constructions.
+
+The evidence of repeated reconstructions in some of the cities before
+they were deserted has been pointed out by explorers. I have quoted what
+Charnay says of it in his description of Mitla. At Palenque, as at
+Mitla, the oldest work is the most artistic and admirable. Over this
+feature of the monuments, and the manifest signs of their difference in
+age, the attention of investigators has lingered in speculation. They
+find in them a significance which is stated as follows by Brasseur de
+Bourbourg: "Among the edifices forgotten by time in the forests of
+Mexico and Central America, we find architectural characteristics so
+different from each other, that it is as impossible to attribute them
+all to the same people as to believe they were all built at the same
+epoch." In his view, "the substructions at Mayapan, some of those at
+Tulha, and a great part of those at Palenque," are among the older
+remains. These are not the oldest cities whose remains are still
+visible, but they may have been built, in part, upon the foundations of
+cities much more ancient.
+
+
+NOTHING PERISHABLE LEFT.
+
+No well considered theory of these ruins can avoid the conclusion that
+most of them are very ancient, and that, to find the origin of the
+civilization they represent, we must go far back into the "deeps of
+antiquity." On all the fields of desolation where they exist, every
+thing perishable has disappeared. Wooden lintels are mentioned, but
+these can hardly be regarded as constituting an exception when the
+character of the wood, and the circumstances that contributed to their
+preservation, are considered. Moreover, wooden lintels seem to have been
+peculiar to Yucatan, where many of the great edifices were constructed
+in the later times, and some of them of perishable materials. Every
+where in the older ruins, nothing remains but the artificial mounds and
+foundations of earth, the stone, the cement, the stucco hard as marble,
+and other imperishable materials used by the builders.
+
+If the edifices had all been made of wood, there would now be nothing to
+show us that the older cities had ever existed. Every trace of them
+would have been obliterated long before our time, and most of them would
+have disappeared entirely long before the country was seen by the
+Spaniards. The places where they stood, with no relics save the mounds
+and pyramidal platforms, would resemble the works of our Mound-Builders,
+and not a few "sound historical critics" would consider it in the
+highest degree absurd to suggest that cities with such structures have
+ever existed there. Under the circumstances supposed, how wisely
+skepticism could talk against a suggestion of this kind at Copan, Mitla,
+or Palenque! and how difficult it would be to find a satisfactory answer
+to its reasonings! Nevertheless, those mysterious structures have not
+wholly disappeared, and we can easily understand that there was a time
+when large areas connected with them were covered with buildings of a
+less durable character.
+
+I have referred to a writer who maintains, with more vehemence than
+candor, that the Aztecs, and all the other people found in the
+country, were "savages" not greatly different from the wild Indians
+farther north, while he admits the significance and great antiquity of
+these ruins. His conception of their antiquity is somewhat extreme, for
+he says they must have existed "for thousands of years" when the
+Spaniards arrived. If he had maintained that civilized communities were
+there "thousands of years" previous to that time, developing the skill
+in architecture, decoration, and writing, to which the monuments bear
+witness, it might be possible to agree with him. Some of us, however,
+would probably stipulate that he should not count too many "thousands,"
+nor claim a similar antiquity for the ruins now visible. It is not easy
+to suppose that any of these old monuments, with their well-preserved
+sculptures and inscriptions, represent the first period of the ancient
+history they suggest, nor that they have existed as ruins many
+"thousands of years," for the climate of Mexico and Central America does
+not preserve such remains like that of Egypt.
+
+Nevertheless, some of them must be very old. The forest established
+since the ruin began, the entire disappearance of every thing more
+perishable than stone, the utter oblivion which veiled their history in
+the time of Montezuma, and probably long previous to his time, all these
+facts bear witness to their great antiquity. In many of them, as at
+Quirigua and Kabah, the stone structures have become masses of debris;
+and even at Copan, Palenque, and Mitla, only a few of them are
+sufficently[TN-4] well preserved to show us what they were in the
+great days of their history. Meanwhile, keep in mind that the ruined
+cities did not begin their present condition until the civilization that
+created them had declined; and, also, that if we could determine exactly
+the date when they were deserted and left to decay, we should only reach
+that point in the past where their history as inhabited cities was
+brought to a close.
+
+Take Copan, for instance. This city may have become a ruin during the
+time of the Toltecs, which began long before the Christian era, and
+ended some five or six centuries probably before the country was invaded
+by Cortez. It was built before their time, for the style of writing, and
+many features of the architecture and ornamentation, show the
+workmanship of their predecessors, judging by the historical intimations
+found in the old books and traditions. We may suppose it to have been an
+old city at the time of the Toltec invasion, although not one of the
+first cities built by that more ancient and more cultivated people by
+whom this old American civilization was originated. The present
+condition of the monuments at Quirigua is still more suggestive of great
+age.
+
+
+"THE OLDEST OF CIVILIZATIONS."
+
+Some investigators, who have given much study to the antiquities,
+traditions, old books, and probable geological history of Mexico and
+Central America, believe that the first civilization the world ever saw
+appeared in this part of Ancient America, or was immediately connected
+with it. They hold that the human race first rose to civilized life in
+America, which is, geologically, the oldest of the continents; and that,
+ages ago, the portion of this continent on which the first civilizers
+appeared was sunk beneath the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Usually the
+ingulfing of this portion of the land is supposed to have been effected
+by some tremendous convulsion of nature; and there is appeal to
+recollections of such a catastrophe, said to have been preserved in the
+old books of Central America, and also in those of Egypt, from which
+Solon received an account of the lost Atlantis.
+
+According to this hypothesis, the American continent formerly extended
+from Mexico, Central America, and New Granada far into the Atlantic
+Ocean toward Europe and Africa, covering all the space now occupied by
+the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the West India islands, and
+going far beyond them toward the east and northeast. This lost portion
+of the continent was the Atlantis of which the old annals of Egypt told
+so much in the time of Solon, as we learn from Plato; and it was the
+original seat of the first human civilization, which, after the great
+cataclysm, was renewed and perpetuated in the region where we now trace
+the mysterious remains of ancient cities. Those desiring to know what
+can be said in support of this view of Ancient America must read the
+later volumes of Brasseur de Bourbourg, especially his "Quatre Lettres
+sur le Mexique," and his "Sources de l'Histoire Primitive du Mexique,"
+etc. He is not a perspicuous writer; he uses but little system in
+treating the subject, and he introduces many fanciful speculations which
+do more to embarrass than to help the discussion; but those who read
+the books patiently can find and bring together all that relates to the
+point in question, and consider it in their own way. They can also find
+it set forth and defended in a small volume by George Catlin, entitled
+"The Lifted and Subsided Rocks of America," published in London, not
+long since, by Truebner and Company.
+
+I shall give more attention to this theory in the next chapter. I refer
+to it here on account of the very great antiquity it claims for the
+ancient American civilization. It represents that the advanced human
+development whose crumbling monuments are studied at Copan, Mitla, and
+Palenque antedates every thing else in the human period of our globe,
+excepting, perhaps, an earlier time of barbarism and pastoral
+simplicity; that its history goes back through all the misty ages of
+pre-historic time to an unknown date previous to the beginning of such
+civilization in any part of the Old World. It is hardly possible to make
+it more ancient.
+
+
+AMERICAN CITIES SEEN BY TYRIANS.
+
+The view just stated touches the imagination and stirs the feelings like
+a genuine "wonder story;" but this should not be allowed to deny it a
+fair hearing. Those who reject it should disprove it before they hasten
+to pronounce it "absurd" and "impossible," else it may be suspected that
+their accustomed views of antiquity are due more to education, and to
+the habit of following a given fashion of thinking, than to actual
+reflection. It needs demonstration; and we may reasonably suggest that,
+in the present state of our knowledge of the past, demonstration is
+impossible. Meanwhile, a clear historical record appears to make it
+certain that flourishing towns and cities were seen and visited in
+America three thousand years ago, by persons who went to them across the
+Atlantic.
+
+It is said, more or less clearly, by more than one Greek writer, that
+the Phoenicians and Carthaginians knew the way to a continent beyond
+the Atlantic. One fact preserved in the annals of Tyrian commerce, and
+mentioned by several ancient writers, is related by Diodorus Siculus
+very particularly as a matter of authentic history. His narration begins
+with the following statement:
+
+"Over against Africa lies a very great island, in the vast ocean, many
+days' sail from Libya westward. The soil there is very fruitful, a great
+part whereof is mountainous, but much likewise champaign, which is the
+most sweet and pleasant part, for it is watered by several navigable
+streams, and beautified with many gardens of pleasure planted with
+divers sorts of trees and an abundance of orchards. The towns are
+adorned with stately buildings and banqueting houses pleasantly situated
+in their gardens and orchards." The great ruins in Yucatan, and
+elsewhere in Mexico and Central America, bear witness that there was,
+anciently, such a country as this, across the ocean, "many days' sail
+from Libya westward;" but Diodorus Siculus lived before the Christian
+era, and how was this known to him and others more than fifteen hundred
+years before America was discovered by Columbus? He tells us as follows:
+"The Phoenicians (Tyrians) having found out the coasts beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, sailed along by the coast of Africa. One of their
+ships, on a sudden, was driven by a furious storm far off into the main
+ocean. After they had lain under this violent tempest many days, they at
+length arrived at this island."
+
+This reminds us of the constrained voyage of Biarni, the Northman, from
+Iceland to the coast of Massachusetts, in the year 985 A.D.[163-*] He,
+too, was storm-driven "many days," and in this way forced to the
+discovery of New England. He started for Greenland, and finally reached
+it by way of Martha's Vineyard and Cape Cod. The tempest-driven ship of
+the Tyrians must have been carried to the West Indies, and to the coast
+of Honduras or Yucatan, where the Tyrians saw the gardens, cities, and
+stately edifices. The description of what they saw brings to mind
+similar accounts of what was seen in Yucatan by the Spaniards, when they
+began to sail along the coast of that peninsula in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century; Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincente Yanez Pincon in 1506,
+and Hernandez de Cordova in 1517. They, too, saw handsome towns and
+stately buildings.
+
+This undesigned voyage of the Tyrian ship seems to have been made
+previous to the building of Gadir, or Gades. Perhaps they made other
+voyages to that region, but it was a custom of the Phoenicians to be
+very secret in regard to the methods and paths of their commerce. A
+complete history of their commerce and navigation from the earliest
+times would unquestionably give us views of the past quite as startling
+to the prevalent assuming, unreasoning habits of belief, or rather
+disbelief, concerning antiquity, as that hypothesis of Atlantis and the
+earliest civilization. What is told by Diodorus authorizes us to suppose
+that the Tyrians who went across the Atlantic as described beheld some
+of the ancient American cities which are now found in ruins, for it is
+certain that nothing of the kind existed any where else "many days' sail
+from Libya [Northern Africa] westward." Their voyage was made more than
+eleven hundred years previous to the Christian era. If the old Central
+American books may be trusted, this was not very long previous to the
+beginning of the Toltec domination.
+
+Beyond this date, the history of the "Colhuas," who are described as the
+original civilizers, must have covered a very long period; how long we
+may imagine, but can not know. Gadir, now Cadiz, founded eleven hundred
+years previous to the Christian era, is still an inhabited city; it has
+been several times reconstructed, but never deserted. When it was built,
+Tartessus, then a very old city, still existed, although it was in ruins
+long before Christ appeared. How long had Palenque been in existence
+when that Tyrian ship was driven across the Atlantic? And how long had
+that region been a region of cities and civilization? There is no
+history which can answer these questions.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[163-*] See Appendix A.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+WHENCE CAME THAT OLD CIVILIZATION?
+
+
+Various theories, some of them very wild and irrational, have been
+advanced to explain the origin of what is seen in these relics of
+Ancient America. If it had been the fashion to explore and study them as
+their importance deserves, as Egypt and Nineveh have been explored and
+studied, our knowledge of them would now be much more extensive and
+valuable, and it might be possible to go farther toward a solution of
+the problem they present. But not many persons have sought to explore
+and understand these remains, and not more than two or three have really
+sought in earnest to examine the old traditions and books of the
+country. The abundant inscriptions at Palenque fade in their forest
+solitude while waiting for the Champollion who shall interpret their
+mysteries. Something is known, but we have no history of these old
+cities, no authentic historical record of the people who built them.
+Therefore theorizing has very naturally been stimulated to great
+activity, and most of this theorizing has been regulated by the old,
+unreasoning assumption that civilization found in any place, especially
+in the olden times, must have been brought and established there as a
+foreign production. Generally the hypotheses used in this case have
+presumed as a matter of course that the original civilizers came to
+this continent from Europe or Asia.
+
+
+THE "LOST TRIBES OF ISRAEL."
+
+One of these theories is (or was), that the original civilizers of
+Mexico and Central America were the "lost ten tribes of Israel." This
+extremely remarkable explanation of the mystery was devised very early,
+and it has been persistently defended by some persons, although nothing
+can be more unwarranted or more absurd. It was put forward by the
+Spanish monks who first established missions in the country, a class of
+men to whom the world is indebted for a great variety of amazing
+contributions to the literature of hagiology; and the same men, in a way
+equally conclusive, explained the sculptured crosses found in the old
+ruins by assuming that the Gospel was preached in America by St. Thomas.
+Lord Kingsborough adopted their views, and gave up nearly the whole of
+one of his immense volumes on Mexican Antiquities to an elaborate digest
+of all that had been written to explain and support these absurdities.
+Others have maintained this Israelitish hypothesis without deeming it
+necessary to estimate in a reasonable way what was possible to those
+Israelites.
+
+According to this truly monkish theory, the "lost ten tribes of Israel"
+left Palestine, Syria, Assyria, or whatever country they dwelt in at the
+time, traversed the whole extent of Asia, crossed over into America at
+Behring's Strait, went down the Pacific coast, and established a
+wonderful civilization in that part of the continent where the great
+ruins are found. The kingdom of the ten tribes was destroyed not long
+previous to the year 700 B.C. How many years are allowed, after their
+escape from captivity, for this unparalleled journey, has not yet been
+ascertained. But, if such a journey had been possible, it would have
+resulted in utter barbarism rather than any notable phase of civilized
+life. Even the Jews who remained faithful to Moses, although important
+on account of their scriptures and their religion, were not remarkable
+for civilization. They were incapable of building their own Temple
+without aid from the Tyrians. Moreover, there is not any where either a
+fact, a suggestion, or a circumstance of any kind to show that the "lost
+ten tribes" ever left the countries of Southwestern Asia, where they
+dwelt after the destruction of their kingdom. They were "lost" to the
+Jewish nation because they rebelled, apostatized, and, after their
+subjugation by the Assyrians in 721 B.C., were to a great extent
+absorbed by other peoples in that part of Asia. Some of them probably
+were still in Palestine when Christ appeared. This wild notion, called a
+theory, scarcely deserves so much attention. It is a lunatic fancy,
+possible only to men of a certain class, which in our time does not
+multiply.
+
+
+THE "MALAY" THEORY.
+
+Another hypothesis, much less improbable, though not satisfactory, is
+that civilization was brought to America in ancient times by the Malays.
+There was a great island empire of the Malays, whose history extended
+far back into pre-historic times, how far back can not now be known. It
+was still in existence when the Portuguese first went to India around
+the Cape of Good Hope; and we have several accounts of this empire
+written by travelers who saw and described it six hundred years before
+this first Indian voyage of the Portuguese was undertaken. El Mas'udi,
+who was one of these travelers, used very strong terms to describe its
+extent, intelligence, and power. Speaking of its sovereign, he said,
+"The islands under his sceptre are so numerous that the fastest sailing
+vessel is not able to go round them in two years," implying that his
+sway was acknowledged by the island world over a large portion of the
+Pacific. This Malayan empire was maritime and commercial; it had fleets
+of great ships; and there is evidence that its influence reached most of
+the Pacific islands. This is shown by the fact that dialects of the
+Malay language have been found in most of these islands as far in this
+direction as Easter Island. The language of the Sandwich Islanders, for
+instance, is Malayan, and has a close relationship to that now spoken in
+the Malay islands.
+
+The metropolis of this great empire was in the island of Java, where old
+ruins still bear witness to the former "civilization, wealth, and
+splendor" celebrated by El Mas'udi. Mr. A. R. Wallace, in his work on
+the Malay Archipelago, says, "Few Englishmen are aware of the number and
+beauty of the architectural remains in Java. They have never been
+popularly illustrated or described, and it will therefore take most
+persons by surprise to learn that they far surpass those of Central
+America, perhaps even those of India." The purpose of his visit to the
+island did not allow him to explore ruins, but he describes some of
+them. He saw what still remains of an ancient city called "Modjo-pahit,"
+and says, "There were two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a
+gateway. The extreme perfection and beauty of the brick-work astonished
+me. The bricks are exceedingly fine and hard, with sharp angles and true
+surfaces. They were laid with great exactness, without visible mortar or
+cement, yet somehow fastened together so that the joints are hardly
+perceptible, and sometimes the two surfaces coalesce in a most
+incomprehensible manner. Such admirable brick-work I have never seen
+before or since. There was no sculpture here, but abundance of bold
+projections and finely-worked mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for
+many miles in every direction, and almost every road and pathway shows a
+foundation of brick-work beneath it, the paved roads of the old city."
+In other places he saw sculptures and beautifully carved figures in high
+relief.
+
+The Malays still read and write, have some literature, and retain many
+of the arts and usages of civilization, but they are now very far below
+the condition indicated by these ruins, and described by El Mas'udi, who
+traveled among them a thousand years ago. It is by no means improbable
+that their ships visited the western coast of America, and traded with
+the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the days of their greatest power
+and activity. It is not easy to believe they could fail to do so after
+taking such control of Easter Island as to leave their language there;
+and, according to the old traditions of both Mexico and Peru, the
+Pacific coast in both countries was anciently visited by a foreign
+people who came in ships. But they did not come to America as
+civilizers; there is nothing Malayan in either the antiquities or the
+ancient speech of these countries.
+
+What is known of the former great condition and power of the Malays
+furnishes important suggestions relative to the ancient history of the
+islands of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean,[170-*] as well as those
+of the Indian Ocean.
+
+The people who inhabit the eastern side of Formosa, it is said, use a
+Malay dialect, and have no resemblance whatever to the Mongols. Who can
+fully explain the little known Ainos, who formerly occupied the whole,
+or nearly the whole of Japan? The unmistakable traces of Malay influence
+every where in the islands of the Pacific can have but one meaning. The
+Malays formerly sailed on that ocean, occupied its islands, and
+doubtless visited America.
+
+That there was communication between Eastern Asia and America in very
+ancient times, through the Malays or otherwise, is in a high degree
+probable. This continent was known to the Japanese and Chinese long
+before the time of Columbus. Accounts of it were recorded in their books
+previous to his time. They called it "Fusang," and evidently, at some
+period, had been accustomed to make voyages to some part of the American
+coast. But neither the Malays, the Chinese, nor the Japanese came here
+as civilizers, for there is no trace of either of these peoples in the
+old ruins, in the ancient language of the country, or in any thing we
+know of the people whom these American ruins represent.
+
+
+THE PHOENICIAN THEORY.
+
+Some of the more intelligent investigators have maintained, with no
+little confidence, that this ancient American civilization came
+originally from the Phoenicians. Among those who use reason in their
+inquiries sufficiently to be incapable of accepting the absurdities of
+monkish fancy, this hypothesis has found more favor than any other.
+Wherever inquiry begins by assuming that the original civilizers came
+from some other part of the world, it seems more reasonable than any
+other, for more can be said to give it the appearance of probability.
+
+The people known to us as Phoenicians were pre-eminent as the colonizing
+navigators of antiquity. They were an enlightened and enterprising
+maritime people, whose commerce traversed every known sea, and extended
+its operations beyond the "Pillars of Hercules" into the "great exterior
+ocean." The early Greeks called them Ethiopians (not meaning either
+black men or Africans), and said they went every where, establishing
+their colonies and their commerce in all the coast regions, "from the
+extreme east to the extreme west." But the great ages of this people are
+in the distant past, far beyond the beginning of what we call history.
+History has knowledge only of a few of their later communities, the
+Sabeans of Southern Arabia, the Phoenicians (meaning chiefly the
+Tyrians), and the Carthaginians. What a change there would be in the
+prevalent conceptions of the past if we could have a complete record of
+this race from the beginning of its development!
+
+It is not difficult to believe that communities of the Phoenician or
+Ethiopian race were established all around the Mediterranean, and even
+beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, in ages quite as old as Egypt or
+Chaldea, and that they had communication with America before Tyre or
+Sidon was built. Why did the ancients say so much of a "great Saturnian
+continent" beyond the Atlantic if nobody in the pre-historic ages had
+ever seen that continent? It was there, as they said and as we know; but
+whence came their knowledge of it, and such knowledge as led them to
+describe it as "larger than Asia (meaning Asia Minor), Europe, and Libya
+together?" This ancient belief must have been due to Phoenician or
+Ethiopian communication with America in earlier times, which was
+imperfectly recollected, or perhaps never completely revealed to other
+nations; and this must have taken place at a very remote period, for
+imperfect recollection of the great continent across the Atlantic,
+including what Solon heard in Egypt of Atlantis, was more ancient than
+the constrained voyage of that Tyrian ship of which Diodorus Siculus
+gives an account; and it can be seen that the early Greeks had a better
+knowledge even of Western Europe than those of later times. A dark age,
+so far as relates to geographical knowledge, set in upon the countries
+around the AEgean Sea and on the coast of Asia Minor after the
+independence and enterprise of Tyre and the other Phoenician cities
+were destroyed by the Assyrians, toward the close of the ninth century
+before Christ, which was disturbed some four hundred and fifty or five
+hundred years later by the conquests of Alexander the Great.
+
+The known enterprise of the Phoenician race, and this ancient knowledge
+of America, so variously expressed, strongly encourage the hypothesis
+that the people called Phoenicians came to this continent, established
+colonies in the region where ruined cities are found, and filled it with
+civilized life. It is argued that they made voyages on the "great
+exterior ocean," and that such navigators must have crossed the
+Atlantic; and it is added that symbolic devices similar to those of the
+Phoenicians are found in the American ruins, and that an old tradition
+of the native Mexicans and Central Americans described the first
+civilizers as "bearded white men," who "came from the East in ships."
+Therefore, it is urged, the people described in the native books and
+traditions as "Colhuas" must have been Phoenicians.
+
+But if it were true that the civilization found in Mexico and Central
+America came from people of the Phoenician race, it would be true also
+that they built in America as they never built any where else, that they
+established a language here radically unlike their own, and that they
+used a style of writing totally different from that which they carried
+into every other region occupied by their colonies. All the forms of
+alphabetical writing used at present in Europe and Southwestern Asia
+came directly or indirectly from that anciently invented by the race to
+which the Phoenicians belonged, and they have traces of a common
+relationship which can easily be detected. Now the writing of the
+inscriptions at Palenque, Copan, and elsewhere in the ruins has no more
+relatedness to the Phoenician than to the Chinese writing. It has not a
+single characteristic that can be called Phoenician any more than the
+language of the inscriptions or the style of architecture with which it
+is associated; therefore we can not reasonably suppose this American
+civilization was originated by people of the Phoenician race, whatever
+may be thought relative to the supposed ancient communication between
+the two continents and its probable influence on civilized communities
+already existing here.
+
+
+THE "ATLANTIC" THEORY.
+
+I have already stated in general terms the hypothesis advanced by
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and some other writers. This may be called the
+"Atlantic" theory, for it attributes the civilization of Ancient America
+to the Atlantides or Atlantic race, who occupied the lost "island of
+Atlantis." Brasseur de Bourbourg has studied the monuments, writings,
+and traditions left by this civilization more carefully and thoroughly
+than any other man living. He has fancies which may be safely rejected,
+and he has theories which, doubtless, will always lack confirmation; but
+he has much, also, which demands respectful consideration. There is a
+great deal in his books to provoke criticism; those well acquainted with
+the antiquities and ancient speech of Egypt may reasonably give way to
+a smile of incredulity while reading what he says in support of the
+notion that the great civilization of Egypt also came originally from
+this Atlantic race. Nevertheless, his volumes are important, because
+they furnish materials which others can use more carefully, and because
+he has learned to decipher some of the Central American writings and
+brought to view certain paths of inquiry which others may pursue with a
+more rigid method.
+
+As already stated, his Atlantic theory of the old American civilization
+is, that it was originated on this continent, but on a portion of the
+continent which is now below the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It
+supposes the continent extended, anciently, from New Granada, Central
+America, and Mexico in a long, irregular peninsula, so far across the
+Atlantic that the Canary, Madeira, and Azores or Western Islands may be
+remains of this portion of it. High mountains stood where we now find
+the West India islands. Beyond these, toward Africa and Europe, was a
+great extent of fertile and beautiful land, and here arose the first
+civilization of mankind, which flourished many ages, until at length
+this extended portion of the continent was ingulfed by a tremendous
+convulsion of nature, or by a succession of such convulsions which made
+the ruin complete. After the cataclysm, a part of the Atlantic people
+who escaped destruction settled in Central America, where perhaps their
+civilization had been previously introduced. The reasons urged in
+support of this hypothesis make it seem plausible, if not probable, to
+imaginative minds.
+
+In the first place, Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that there is in the
+old Central American books a constant tradition of an immense
+catastrophe of the character supposed; that this tradition existed every
+where among the people when they first became known to Europeans; and
+that recollections of the catastrophe were preserved in some of their
+festivals, especially in one celebrated in the month of _Izcalli_, which
+was instituted to commemorate this frightful destruction of land and
+people, and in which "princes and people humbled themselves before the
+divinity, and besought Him to withhold a return of such terrible
+calamities." This tradition affirms that a part of the continent
+extending into the Atlantic was destroyed in the manner supposed, and
+appears to indicate that the destruction was accomplished by a
+succession of frightful convulsions. Three are constantly mentioned, and
+sometimes there is mention of one or two others. "The land was shaken by
+frightful earthquakes, and the waves of the sea combined with volcanic
+fires to overwhelm and ingulf it." Each convulsion swept away portions
+of the land, until the whole disappeared, leaving the line of the coast
+as it is now. Most of the inhabitants, overtaken amid their regular
+employments, were destroyed; but some escaped in ships, and some fled
+for safety to the summits of high mountains, or to portions of the land
+which, for the time, escaped immediate destruction. Quotations are made
+from the old books in which this tradition is recorded which appear to
+verify his report of what is found in them. To criticise intelligently
+his interpretation of their significance, one needs to have a knowledge
+of those books and traditions equal at least to his own.
+
+In the second place, he appeals to the story of Atlantis, preserved in
+the annals of Egypt, and related to Solon by the priests of Sais. It is
+stated in Plutarch's life of Solon that while in Egypt "he conferred
+with the priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis, and Sais, and
+learned from them the story of Atlantis." Brasseur de Bourbourg cites
+Cousin's translation of Plato's record of this story as follows:
+
+"Among the great deeds of Athens, of which recollection is preserved in
+our books, there is one which should be placed above all others. Our
+books tell that the Athenians destroyed an army which came across the
+Atlantic Sea, and insolently invaded Europe and Asia; for this sea was
+then navigable, and beyond the strait where you place the Pillars of
+Hercules there was an island larger than Asia [Minor] and Libya
+combined. From this island one could pass easily to the other islands,
+and from these to the continent which lies around the interior sea. The
+sea on this side of the strait (the Mediterranean) of which we speak
+resembles a harbor with a narrow entrance; but there is a genuine sea,
+and the land which surrounds it is a veritable continent. In the island
+of Atlantis reigned three kings with great and marvelous power. They had
+under their dominion the whole of Atlantis, several other islands, and
+some parts of the continent. At one time their power extended into
+Libya, and into Europe as far as Tyrrhenia; and, uniting their whole
+force, they sought to destroy our countries at a blow, but their defeat
+stopped the invasion and gave entire independence to all the countries
+on this side of the Pillars of Hercules. Afterward, in one day and one
+fatal night, there came mighty earthquakes and inundations, which
+ingulfed that warlike people; Atlantis disappeared beneath the sea, and
+then that sea became inaccessible, so that navigation on it ceased on
+account of the quantity of mud which the ingulfed island left in its
+place."
+
+This invasion took place many ages before Athens was known as a Greek
+city. It is referred to an extremely remote antiquity. The festival
+known as the "Lesser Panathenaea," which, as symbolic devices used in it
+show, commemorated this triumph over the Atlantes, is said to have been
+instituted by the mythical Erichthonius in the earliest times remembered
+by Athenian tradition. Solon had knowledge of the Atlantes before he
+went to Egypt, but he heard there, for the first time, this account of
+their "island" and of its disappearance in a frightful cataclysm. But
+Atlantis is mentioned by other ancient writers. An extract preserved in
+Proclus, taken from a work now lost, which is quoted by Boeckh in his
+commentary on Plato, mentions islands in the exterior sea beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules, and says it was known that in one of these islands
+"the inhabitants preserved from their ancestors a remembrance of
+Atlantis, an extremely large island, which for a long time held dominion
+over all the islands of the Atlantic Ocean."
+
+Brasseur de Bourbourg claims that these traditions, on both sides of the
+Atlantic, mean the same thing. The "island of Atlantis," larger than
+Libya and Asia Minor together, was the extended portion of the American
+continent. These concurring traditions can not be devoid of historical
+significance. The constant references by ancient Greek writers to the
+Atlantes, who are always placed at the extremity of Europe and Africa,
+on the ocean which bears their name, may reasonably be regarded as vague
+and faded recollections of such a history connected with that ocean as
+that implied by what was said of their island in the annals of Egypt. In
+support of his view of what is meant by the traditions, he adds this
+philological argument:
+
+"The words _Atlas_ and _Atlantic_ have no satisfactory etymology in any
+language known to Europe. They are not Greek, and can not be referred to
+any known language of the Old World. But in the Nahuatl language we find
+immediately the radical _a_, _atl_, which signifies water, war, and the
+top of the head. (Molina, _Vocab. en lengua mexicana y castellana_,
+etc.) From this comes a series of words, such as _atlan_, on the border
+of or amid the water, from which we have the adjective _Atlantic_. We
+have also atlaca, to combat or be in agony; it means likewise to hurl or
+dart from the water, and in the preterit makes _atlaz_. A city named
+_Atlan_ existed when the continent was discovered by Columbus, at the
+entrance of the Gulf of Uraba, in Darien, with a good harbor; it is now
+reduced to an unimportant pueblo named _Acla_."
+
+In the third place, he quotes opinions expressed without any regard
+whatever to his theory to show that scientific men who have considered
+the question believe that there was formerly a great extension of the
+land into the Atlantic in the manner supposed. The first quotation is
+from Moreau de Saint-Mery's "Description topographique et politique de
+la Partie Espagnole a l'Isle de Saint-Domingue," published in 1796, as
+follows:
+
+"There are those who, in examining the map of America, do not confine
+themselves to thinking with the French Pliny that the innumerable
+islands situated from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Bahama Channel
+(islands which include several _Grenadins_ not always visible in very
+high tides or great agitations of the sea) should be considered as
+summits of vast mountains whose bases and sides are covered with water,
+but who go farther, and suppose these islands to be the tops of the most
+elevated of a chain of mountains which crowned a portion of the
+continent whose submersion has produced the Gulf of Mexico. But to
+sustain this opinion it must be added that another vast surface of land
+which united the islands of this archipelago to the continent, from
+Yucatan to the mouth of the Orinoco, was submerged in the same way, and
+also a third surface which connected them with the peninsula of Florida
+and with whatever land may have constituted the northern termination;
+for we can not imagine that these mountains whose summits appear above
+water stood on the terminating line of the continent."
+
+He quotes, also, another authority which "can not be suspected," namely,
+M. Charles Martins, who said, in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ for March
+1, 1867, "Now, hydrography, geology, and botany agree in teaching us
+that the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira are the remains of a great
+continent which formerly united Europe to North America." He could have
+added other quotations in the same strain. Those geologists who believe
+that "our continents have long remained in nearly the same relative
+position" would probably give the supposed change a much greater
+antiquity than Brasseur de Bourbourg would be likely to accept; and the
+geological "Uniformitarians" would deny with emphasis that so great a
+change in the shape of a continent was ever effected by such means, or
+with such rapidity as he supposes. But the latest and most advanced
+school of geological speculation does not exclude "Catastrophism," and,
+therefore, will not deny the possibility of sudden and great changes by
+this method.
+
+Doubtless the antiquity of the human race is much greater than is
+usually assumed by those whose views of the past are still regulated by
+mediaeval systems of chronology. Archaeology and linguistic science, not
+to speak here of geology, make it certain that the period between the
+beginning of the human race and the birth of Christ would be more
+accurately stated if the centuries counted in the longest estimate of
+the rabbinical chronologies should be changed to millenniums. And they
+present also another fact, namely, that the antiquity of civilization is
+very great, and suggest that in remote ages it may have existed, with
+important developments, in regions of the earth now described as
+barbarous, and even, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes, on ancient
+continents or portions of continents now out of sight below the surface
+of the oceans. The representation of some speculators that the condition
+of the human race since its first appearance on earth has been a
+condition of universal and hopeless savagery down to a comparatively
+modern date, is an assumption merely, an unwarranted assumption used in
+support of an unproved and unprovable theory of man's origin. Its use in
+the name of science by advocates of this theory, like the theory itself,
+shows that the constructive power of fancy and imagination will
+sometimes supersede every thing else, and substitute its ingenious
+constructions for legitimate conclusions, even in scientific
+speculation.
+
+We may claim reasonably that Brasseur de Bourbourg's Atlantic theory is
+not proved, and on this ground refuse to accept it. So far as appears,
+it is a fanciful theory which can not be proved. No one is under
+obligation to attempt disproving it. It may, in some cases, win
+supporters by enlisting in its favor all the forces of imagination, to
+which it appeals with seductive plausibility. On the other hand, it will
+be rejected without much regard to what can be said in its favor, for it
+interferes with current unreasoning beliefs concerning antiquity and
+ancient history, and must encounter vehement contradiction from habits
+of thought fixed by these beliefs. True, some of the stock views of
+antiquity, by which it will be earnestly opposed, are themselves far
+more destitute of foundation in either fact or reason; but this will
+make no difference, as the habit of never allowing them to be subjected
+to the searching power of reason does not permit such persons either to
+believe or deny any thing connected with this topic in a reasonable
+manner.
+
+Some of the uses made of this theory can not endure criticism. For
+instance, when he makes it the basis of an assumption that all the
+civilization of the Old World went originally from America, and claims
+particularly that the supposed "Atlantic race" created Egypt, he goes
+quite beyond reach of the considerations used to give his hypothesis a
+certain air of probability. It may be, as he says, that for every
+pyramid in Egypt there are a thousand in Mexico and Central America, but
+the ruins in Egypt and those in America have nothing in common. The two
+countries were entirely different in their language, in their styles of
+architecture, in their written characters, and in the physical
+characteristics of their earliest people, as they are seen sculptured or
+painted on the monuments. An Egyptian pyramid is no more the same thing
+as a Mexican pyramid than a Chinese pagoda is the same thing as an
+English light-house. It was not made in the same way, nor for the same
+uses. The ruined monuments show, in generals and in particulars, that
+the original civilizers in America were profoundly different from the
+ancient Egyptians. The two peoples can not explain each other.
+
+This, however, does not require us to assert positively that the Central
+American "Colhuas" and the legendary Atlantes could not possibly have
+been the same people, or people of the same race. Room may be left for
+any amount of conjecture not inconsistent with known facts, without
+making it necessary to accept a theory of the origin of the old Mexican
+race which at present can neither be proved nor disproved.
+
+
+IT WAS AN ORIGINAL CIVILIZATION.
+
+It has been said, very justly, by one explorer of the Mexican and
+Central American ruins, that "the American monuments are different from
+those of any other known people, of a new order, and entirely and
+absolutely anomalous; they stand alone." The more we study them, the
+more we find it necessary to believe that the civilization they
+represent was originated in America, and probably in the region where
+they are found. It did not come from the Old World; it was the work of
+some remarkably gifted branch of the race found on the southern part of
+this continent when it was discovered in 1492. Undoubtedly it was very
+old. Its original beginning may have been as old as Egypt, or even
+farther back in the past than the ages to which Atlantis must be
+referred; and it may have been later than the beginning of Egypt. Who
+can certainly tell its age? Whether earlier or later, it was original.
+
+Its constructions seem to have been a refined and artistic development
+of a style of building different from that of any other people, which
+began with ruder forms, but in all the periods of its history preserved
+the same general conception. They show us the idea of the Mound-Builders
+wrought out in stone and embellished by art. The decorations, and the
+writing also, are wholly original. There is no imitation of the work of
+any people ever known in Asia, Africa, or Europe. It appears evident
+that the method of building seen in the great ruins began with the ruder
+forms of mound-work, and became what we find it by gradual development,
+as the advancing civilization supplied new ideas and gave higher skill.
+But the culture and the work were wholly original, wholly American.
+
+The civilized life of the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans may
+have had its original beginning somewhere in South America, for they
+seem more closely related to the ancient South Americans than to the
+wild Indians north of the Mexican border; but the peculiar development
+of it represented by the ruins must have begun in the region where they
+are found. I find myself more and more inclined to the opinion that the
+aboriginal South Americans are the oldest people on this continent; that
+they are distinct in race; and that the wild Indians of the North came
+originally from Asia, where the race to which they belong seems still
+represented by the Koraks and Chookchees found in that part of Asia
+which extends to Behring's Strait.
+
+If, as there is reason to believe, the countries on the Mediterranean
+had communication with America in very ancient times, they found here a
+civilization already developed, and contributed nothing to change its
+style of building and decorating cities. They may have influenced it in
+other respects; for, if such communication was opened across the
+Atlantic, it was probably continued for a long time, and its
+interruption may or may not be due, as Brasseur de Bourbourg supposes,
+to the cataclysm which ingulfed Atlantis. Religious symbols are found
+in the American ruins which remind us of those of the Phoenicians,
+such as figures of the serpent, which appear constantly, and the cross,
+supposed by some to represent the mounting of the magnetic needle, which
+was among the emblems peculiar to the goddess Astarte. A figure appears
+occasionally in the sculptures, in which some have sought to recognize
+Astarte, one at Palenque being described as follows: "It is a female
+figure moulded in stucco, holding a child on her left arm and hand, just
+as Astarte appears on the Sidonian medals." I find it impossible to see
+that this figure has any resemblance whatever to the Phoenician
+goddess. They are not alike either in dress, posture, or expression.
+Dupaix describes it correctly in saying it represents a person
+apparently "absorbed in devotion"--a worshiper, and not a goddess.
+Moreover, Astarte usually appears on the medals standing on the forward
+deck of a vessel, holding a cross with one hand, and pointing forward
+with the other. And, finally, this figure seems to represent, not a
+woman, but a priest. There was sun-worship in America, and the phallic
+ceremonies existed in some places in the time of Cortez. In Asia these
+ceremonies and figures of the serpent were usually associated with
+sun-worship. Humboldt was sure that these symbols came to America from
+the Old World. A more careful study of the subject might have led him to
+modify this belief. But, whether we adopt his explanation or some other,
+the traditions on both sides of the Atlantic are without meaning unless
+it be admitted that there was communication between the two continents
+in times of which we have no history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[170-*] See Appendix C.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+AMERICAN ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+If a consecutive history of the ancient people of Central America and
+Mexico were ever written, it has been lost. Probably nothing of the kind
+ever was written in the manner which we call history, although there
+must have been regular annals of some kind. The ruins show that they had
+the art of writing, and that, at the south, this art was more developed,
+more like a phonetic system of writing than that found in use among the
+Aztecs. The inscriptions of Palenque, and the characters used in some of
+the manuscript books that have been preserved, are not the same as the
+"Mexican Picture Writing." It is known that books or manuscript writings
+were abundant among them in the ages previous to the Aztec period. They
+had an accurate measure of the solar year and a system of chronology,
+and many of their writings were historical. Among the Mayas, and in
+other communities of the same family, writing was largely used in the
+time of the Spaniards. It was common also among the Aztecs, but they
+used "picture writing." Las Casas wrote on this point as follows:
+
+"It should be known that in all the commonwealths of these countries, in
+the kingdoms of New Spain and elsewhere, among other professions duly
+filled by suitable persons was that of chronicler and historian. These
+chroniclers had knowledge of the origin of the kingdoms, and of whatever
+related to religion and the gods, as well as to the founders of towns
+and cities. They recorded the history of kings, and of the modes of
+their election and succession; of their labors, actions, wars, and
+memorable deeds, good and bad; of the virtuous men or heroes of former
+days, their great deeds, the wars they had waged, and how they had
+distinguished themselves; who had been the earliest settlers, what had
+been their ancient customs, their triumphs, and defeats. They knew, in
+fact, whatever pertained to history, and were able to give an account of
+all past events. * * * These chroniclers had likewise to calculate the
+days, months, and years; and though they had no writing like ours, they
+had their symbols and characters through which they understood every
+thing; and they had great books, which were composed with such ingenuity
+and art that our characters were really of no great assistance to them.
+Our priests have seen those books, and I myself have seen them likewise,
+though many were burned at the instigation of the monks, who were afraid
+they might impede the work of conversion."
+
+Books such as those here described by Las Casas must have contained
+important historical information. The older books, belonging to the ages
+of Copan and Palenque, went to decay doubtless long previous to his
+time, in the wars and revolutions of the Toltec period, or by the wear
+of time. The later books, not otherwise lost, were destroyed by Aztec
+and Spanish vandalism. According to tradition, and the testimony of
+writings still in existence when the Spaniards went there, the Aztec or
+Mexican sovereign Ytzcoatl destroyed many of the old Toltec books. His
+aim was probably to exterminate among the people all memory of the
+previous times. Such things have been done with similar motives, as we
+know, in other countries, by successful usurpers and conquerors. We
+learn from Spanish writers that a still greater destruction of the old
+books was effected by the more ignorant and fanatical of the Spanish
+priests who were established in the country as missionaries after the
+Conquest. This is stated by Las Casas, himself one of the missionaries.
+Besides the many smaller bonfires of this fanaticism, there is record of
+a great conflagration, under the auspices of Bishop Zumarraga, in which
+a vast collection of these old writings was consumed. As the writing was
+all on paper (which had long been used in the country), the burning was
+easily accomplished.
+
+
+THE OLD BOOKS NOT ALL LOST.
+
+The Franciscan and Dominican fanatics, whose learning and religion
+consisted of ignorance and bigotry, hoped to exterminate among the
+people all recollection of their former history, ideas, and religious
+customs. A few of the books, however, escaped; none, indeed, that were
+very old, for it does not appear that any of the manuscripts rescued
+from destruction were written or copied earlier than the age which
+closed the Aztec domination. None of the great books of annals
+described by Las Casas are among them, but they relate to the ancient
+times, and most of them are copies or reproductions of much older books.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Inscriptions carved on Stone.]
+
+Among these destroying Spanish ecclesiastics, there was here and there
+one who quietly secured some of the manuscripts, or copies of them.
+These were kept from the flames. Others were secreted by the people; and
+subsequently, in years after the conquest was completed, some of the
+more intelligent churchmen wrote histories of the country, or portions
+of it, which were preserved in manuscript. Sahagun wrote such a history,
+which shows that he had studied the traditions and some of the old
+books; this work is printed in the great collection of Lord
+Kingsborough. Diego de Landa, first bishop of Yucatan, wrote a history
+of the Mayas and their country, which was preserved in manuscript at
+Madrid in the library of the Royal Academy of History. It is one of the
+most important works on the country written by a Spaniard, because it
+contains a description and explanation of the phonetic alphabet of the
+Mayas. Landa's manuscript seems to have lain neglected in the library,
+for little or nothing was heard of it until it was discovered and
+studied by Brasseur de Bourbourg, who, by means of it, has deciphered
+some of the old American writings. He says "the alphabet and signs
+explained by Landa have been to me a Rosetta stone." Figure 49
+represents a specimen of the inscriptions as carved upon stone. Figure
+50 gives them as they appear in manuscript.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Manuscript Writing.]
+
+An extensive and important manuscript work, written two hundred years
+ago by Francisco Ximenes, an ecclesiastic, is preserved in Guatemala.
+He, being drawn to inquiries concerning the antiquities and ancient
+history of the country, was able to get possession of several of the
+old books, one of them being that known as "Popol-Vuh." His manuscript,
+arranged in four great volumes (one of which, it is said, has
+disappeared), contains valuable information in regard to the ancient
+history and traditions of Guatemala. One of the volumes has a copy of
+the "Popol-Vuh" in the native tongue, and another has a Spanish
+translation of the work. He left also a manuscript Dictionary of the
+principal Guatemalan dialects (which belong to the Maya family),
+entitled "Tesoro de las Lenguas Quiche, Cakchiquel, y Tzutohil."
+Probably other manuscripts of the same character exist at Madrid and in
+Central America which are not yet known to those who can understand
+their importance.
+
+As already stated, none of the great books of annals have been
+discovered, but some of the old American manuscripts now preserved in
+several of the libraries and private collections of Europe are
+important. Three are specified as particularly valuable to students of
+American antiquity: that called the "Codex Chimalpopoca," an old Toltec
+book, written in the Toltec language; one now entitled the "Codex
+Cakchiquel;" and the "Popol-Vuh." The latter, written in the Quiche
+dialect, was translated into Spanish two hundred years ago by Ximenes,
+but his translation remained in Guatemala unprinted and quite unknown
+until it was discovered in our time. Brasseur de Bourbourg, who is
+master of the Quiche language, and to whom we are indebted for most that
+is known of the manuscripts of Ximenes, thought this Spanish translation
+very imperfect; therefore he has translated the work into French.
+
+The "Popol-Vuh" was written in 1558 as an abridged reproduction of a
+very ancient Quiche book which contained an account of the history,
+traditions, religion, and cosmogony of the Quiches. The first part of it
+is devoted to the cosmogony and traditional lore; the rest gives an
+account of the Quiches, who, at the time of the Conquest, were the
+dominant people in the Central American regions south of the great
+forest. If the history were consecutive and clear, it would not take us
+back into the past more than three or four centuries beyond 1558, for
+the Quiche domination was probably not much older than that of the
+Aztecs. But the history is not clear. Putting aside the mythical and
+legendary portion of it which relates to origins and migrations, we can
+see that it extends over some fourteen generations, which may indicate
+that Quiche became an independent and ruling power about 1200 A.D.
+
+For those who study the book it is full of interest. It shows us their
+conceptions of the Supreme Being and his relation to the world; it
+enables us to see what they admired in character as virtue, heroism,
+nobleness, and beauty; it discloses their mythology and their notions of
+religious worship; in a word, it bears witness to the fact that the
+various families of mankind are all of "one blood," so far, at least, as
+to be precisely alike in nature.
+
+The cosmogony and mythical lore of the Quiches seem to have their root
+in the beliefs and facts of a time far more ancient than the national
+beginning of this people. In assuming the form in which we find them,
+they must have passed through several phases of growth, which changed
+their appearance and obscured their meaning. Manifestly the history of
+the country did not begin with the Quiches. The account of the creation,
+with every thing else in this cosmogony and mythology, is original, like
+the civilization to which they belong.
+
+According to the "Popol-Vuh," the world had a beginning. There was a
+time when it did not exist. Only "Heaven" existed, below which all space
+was an empty, silent, unchanging solitude. Nothing existed there,
+neither man, nor animal, nor earth, nor tree. Then appeared a vast
+expanse of water on which divine beings moved in brightness. "They said
+'earth!' and instantly the earth was created. It came into being like a
+vapor; mountains rose above the waters like lobsters and were made. Thus
+was the earth created by the Heart of Heaven." Next came the creation of
+animals; but the gods were disappointed because the animals could
+neither tell their names nor worship the Heart of Heaven.
+
+Therefore it was resolved that man should be created. First, man was
+made of earth, but his flesh had no cohesion; he was inert, could not
+turn his head, and had no mind, although he could speak; therefore he
+was consumed in the water. Next, men were made of wood, and these
+multiplied, but they had neither heart nor intellect, and could not
+worship, and so they withered up and disappeared in the waters. A third
+attempt followed: man was made of a tree called tzite, and woman of the
+pith of a reed; but these failed to think, speak, or worship, and were
+destroyed, all save a remnant which still exists as a race of small
+monkeys found in forests.
+
+A fourth attempt to create the human race was successful, but the
+circumstances attending this creation are veiled in mystery. It took
+place before the beginning of dawn, when neither sun nor moon had risen,
+and was a wonder-work of the Heart of Heaven. Four men were created, and
+they could reason, speak, and see in such a manner as to know all things
+at once. They worshiped the Creator with thanks for existence, but the
+gods, dismayed and scared, breathed clouds on their eyes to limit their
+vision, and cause them to be men and not gods. Afterward, while the four
+men were asleep, the gods made for them beautiful wives, and from these
+came all the tribes and families of the earth.
+
+No account of the rescued fragments of this old literature of Ancient
+America should omit giving due credit to Chevalier Boturini, the
+Milanese, who went from Italy to America in 1735 as an agent of the
+Countess Santibaney, who claimed to be a descendant of Montezuma. He,
+too, was a devotee, and believed that St. Thomas preached the Gospel in
+America; but he had antiquarian tastes, and was sufficiently intelligent
+to understand the importance of the old manuscripts which had furnished
+so much fuel for the bonfires of fanaticism. During the eight years of
+his residence in Mexico and Central America he hunted diligently for
+those still in existence, and made a considerable collection, including
+in it some of the Mexican "picture writings." But when about to leave,
+he was despoiled of his treasure and flung into prison by the Spanish
+viceroy. He finally left the country with a portion of them, but was
+captured by an English cruiser and again despoiled. The manuscripts
+left in Mexico were finally sold at auction while Humboldt was there; he
+secured a portion of them. Another portion was brought to France about
+1830 by M. Aubin, who made important additions to it. M. Aubin himself
+spent years searching for remains of the old writings, and he has now,
+it is supposed, the most valuable collection in Europe.
+
+It is likely that most of the recovered books may be translated by those
+who can bring to the work habits of patient study and a thorough
+knowledge of the native dialects. Dictionaries of these dialects, as
+they were spoken at the time of the Conquest, were prepared by some of
+the Spanish priests, and other facilities are not wanting. It is
+surprising, however, that no one has translated the "Codex Chimalpopoca"
+(which seems the most important) if the language in which it is written
+is in fact sufficiently modern to be managed as easily as that of "Popol
+Vuh." It must be translatable, for its general tenor is known, and
+passages of it are quoted. Brasseur de Bourbourg states that he has
+undertaken a translation. But who will translate the inscriptions at
+Copan and Palenque? Is the language in which they were written an old
+form of speech, from which the dialects of the Maya family, or a portion
+of them, were derived? They have not been translated. No one has found a
+clew to their meaning. The characters are understood, but they appear to
+show an older form of the language, which at present can not be
+deciphered. Brasseur de Bourbourg's "Rosetta Stone," discovered in
+Landa's manuscript, will not serve him here. Another more potent must
+be found before these old inscriptions can be made to give up their
+secrets.[197-*]
+
+
+THE ANCIENT HISTORY SKETCHED.
+
+It is impossible to know what was contained in the books of annals
+written by the official chroniclers of these ancient American countries,
+for these books are lost. They existed at the time of the Conquest; some
+of them were seen and described by Las Casas; but, so far as is known,
+not one of these books of regular annals, such as he described, has
+escaped destruction; therefore it is impossible to know any thing
+certainly of their character as histories.
+
+The books preserved furnish little more than vague outlines of the past,
+with obscure views of distinct periods in the history, created by
+successive dominations of different peoples or different branches of the
+same people. What they enable us to know of the old history resembles
+what is known of the early times of the Greeks, who had no ancient
+histories excepting such as were furnished by their "poets of the
+cycle." In one case we are told of Pelasgians, Leleges, Cadmeans,
+Argives, and Eolians very much as in the other we are told of Colhuas,
+Chichimecs, Quinames, and Nahuas.
+
+But the outline is not wholly dark; it does not exclude the possibility
+of a reasonable attempt at hypothesis. When Cortez entered Mexico, the
+Aztecs, Montezuma's people, had been in power more than two centuries.
+Most of the ancient history, of which something is said in these books,
+relates to ages previous to their time, and chiefly to their
+predecessors, the Toltecs. According to these writings, the country
+where the ruins are found was occupied in successive periods by three
+distinct peoples, the Chichimecs, the Colhuas, and the Toltecs or
+Nahuas. The Toltecs are said to have come into the country about a
+thousand years before the Christian era. Their supremacy appears to have
+ceased, and left the country broken up into small states, two or three
+centuries before the Aztecs appeared. They were preceded by the Colhuas,
+by whom this old civilization was originated and developed. The most
+ancient people, those found in the country by the Colhuas, are called
+Chichimecs. They are described as a barbarous people who lived by
+hunting and fishing, and had neither towns nor agriculture. This term
+Chichimecs appears to have been a generic appellation for all
+uncivilized aborigines. Brasseur de Bourbourg says, "Under the generic
+name Chichimecs, which has much embarrassed some writers, the Mexican
+traditions include the whole aboriginal population of the New World, and
+especially the people by whom it was first occupied at the beginning of
+time."
+
+Some of the traditions state that the Colhuas came from the east in
+ships. Sahagun mentions that a tradition to this effect was current in
+Yucatan. The precise value of these traditional reports is uncertain;
+but, if accepted as vague historical recollections, they could be
+explained by supposing the civilized people called Colhuas came from
+South America through the Caribbean Sea, and landed in Yucatan and
+Tabasco. They are uniformly described as the people who first
+established civilization and built great cities. They taught the
+Chichimecs to cook their food, cultivate the earth, and adopt the ways
+of civilized life; and the Chichimecs civilized by their influence are
+sometimes called Quinames.
+
+The Colhuas are connected with vague references to a long and important
+period in the history previous to the Toltec ages. They seem to have
+been, in some respects, more advanced in civilization than the Toltecs.
+What is said of events in their history relates chiefly to their great
+city called Xibalba, the capital of an important kingdom to which this
+name was given. The Toltecs, in alliance with the uncivilized Chichimecs
+of the mountains, subjugated this city and kingdom, and thus brought to
+a close the period which may be termed Colhuan. This kingdom appears to
+have included Guatemala, Yucatan, Tabasco, Tehuantepec, Chiapa,
+Honduras, and other districts in Central America; and it may have
+included all Southern Mexico, for places north of the Tampico River are
+mentioned as being within its limits when the Toltecs came into the
+country. Some of the principal seats of the Colhuan civilization were in
+the region now covered by the great forest. Some investigators have
+sought to identify the city of Xibalba with the ruined city known to us
+as Palenque. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: "Palenque appears to have been
+the same city to which the books give the name of Xibalba;" but this is
+nothing but conjecture. We may as reasonably suppose Copan, Quirigua, or
+some other old ruin, to have been Xibalba.
+
+Those who attempt to believe this old American civilization was brought
+across the Atlantic by the Phoenicians in very remote times, assume,
+against the plain testimony of the monuments, that the Colhuas came to
+America from some country on the Mediterranean. They may have come from
+some other part of this continent. In my judgment, it is not improbable
+that they came by sea from South America. Brasseur de Bourbourg would
+say they were people of the Atlantic race, who, having escaped
+destruction by the cataclysm, found their way to Yucatan and Tabasco.
+But there is little beside conjecture to support any theory of their
+origin. We have only the fact that, according to the old books and
+traditions of the country, they occupied that region at a remote period,
+and originated the civilization whose monuments are found there.
+Tradition places their first settlements on the Gulf coast in Tabasco,
+between Tehuantepec and Yucatan. It is inferred that the Mayas,
+Tzendals, Quiches, and some other communities of the old race, were
+descendants of the Colhuas, their speech being more highly developed
+than that of any native community not connected with this family, and
+their written characters having a close resemblance to those of the
+oldest inscriptions.
+
+
+THE TOLTECS OUR MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+As the remains of the Mound-Builders show clearly that they had
+commercial intercourse with the Mexican and Central American countries,
+and as it seems probable that they had otherwise a very close relation
+to the people of those countries, it would be surprising to find no
+mention of their country in the old books and traditions of the Central
+Americans and Mexicans. If we could have the lost books, especially
+those of the more ancient time, and learn to read them, it might be
+possible to know something of the origin and history of the
+Mound-Builders. It is believed that distinct reference to their country
+has been found in the books still in existence, and there appears to be
+reason for this belief. Brasseur de Bourbourg, one of the few
+investigators who have explored them, says:
+
+"Previous to the history of the Toltec domination in Mexico, we notice
+in the annals of the country two facts of great importance, but equally
+obscure in their details: first, the tradition concerning the landing of
+a foreign race, conducted by an illustrious personage, who came from an
+eastern country; and, second, the existence of an ancient empire known
+as Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs or Nahuas came to Mexico, in
+consequence of a revolution or invasion, and from which they had a long
+and toilsome migration to the Aztec plateau."
+
+He believes that Huehue-Tlapalan was the country of the Mound-Builders
+in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. According to the native books he
+has examined, it was somewhere at a distance in the northeast; and it is
+constantly said that some of the Toltecs came by land and some by sea.
+Sahagun learned from the old books and traditions, and stated in the
+introduction to the first book of his history, that the Toltecs came
+from that distant northeastern country; and he mentions a company that
+came by sea, settled near the Tampico River, and built a town called
+Panuco. Brasseur de Bourbourg finds that an account of this or another
+company was preserved at Xilanco, an ancient city situated on the point
+of an island between Lake Terminos and the sea, and famous for its
+commerce, wealth, and intelligence. The company described in this
+account came from the northeast in the same way, it is said, to the
+Tampico River, and landed at Panuco. It consisted of twenty chiefs and a
+numerous company of people. Torquemada found a record which describes
+them as people of fine appearance. They went forward into the country
+and were well received. He says they were industrious, orderly, and
+intelligent, and that they worked metals, and were skillful artists and
+lapidaries. All the accounts say the Toltecs came at different times, by
+land and sea, mostly in small companies, and always from the northeast.
+This can be explained only by supposing they came by sea from the mouth
+of the Mississippi River or from the Gulf coast near it, and by land
+through Texas. But the country from which they came was invariably
+Huehue-Tlapalan.
+
+Cabrera says Huehue-Tlapalan was the ancient country of the Toltecs. Its
+simple name was Tlapalan, but they called it Huehue, old, to distinguish
+it from three other Tlapalans which they founded in the districts of
+their new kingdom. Torquemada says the same. We are not authorized to
+reject a fact so distinctly stated and so constantly reported in the old
+books. The most we can do against it with any show of reason is to
+receive it with doubt. Therefore it seems not improbable that the "Old
+Tlapalan" of Central American tradition was the country of our
+Mound-Builders.
+
+Another circumstance mentioned is not without significance. It is said,
+in connection with this account of the Toltec migration, that
+Huehue-Tlapalan was successfully invaded by Chichimecs, meaning
+barbarous aboriginal tribes, who were united under one great leader.
+Here is one statement (a little condensed) touching this point: "There
+was a terrible struggle, but, after about thirteen years, the Toltecs,
+no longer able to resist successfully, were obliged to abandon their
+country to escape complete subjugation. Two chiefs guided the march of
+the emigrating nation. At length they reached a region near the sea
+named 'Tlapalan-Conco,' where they remained several years. But they
+finally undertook another migration and reached Mexico, where they built
+a town called 'Tollanzinco,' and later the city of Tullan, which became
+the seat of their government."
+
+This is substantially what is told of the defeat and migrations of the
+Toltecs. The history of Ixtlilxochitl adds doubtful modifications and
+particulars not found in the "Codex Chimalpopoca." (See Quatre Lettres,
+etc.) This Chichimec invasion of Huehue-Tlapalan is placed at a period
+which, in the chronology of the native books, was long previous to the
+Christian era, and is mentioned to explain the beginning of the Toltec
+movement toward Mexico; but the account of it is obscure.
+
+To find a system of chronology in these old books is not surprising when
+we consider that even the Aztecs of Montezuma's time knew enough of
+astronomy to have a correct measure of the year. The Aztecs adopted the
+methods of astronomy and chronology which were used by their
+predecessors. They divided the year into eighteen months of twenty days
+each; but, as this gave the year only three hundred and sixty days, five
+supplementary days were added to each year, and a sixth day to every
+fourth year. The bissextile is known to have been used by the Mayas,
+Tzendals, and Quiches, and it was probably common.
+
+We can not reasonably refuse to give some attention to their chronology,
+even while doubting its value as a means of fixing dates and measuring
+historical periods. Its method was to count by equal periods of years,
+as we count by centuries, and their chronology presents a series of
+periods which carries back their history to a very remote time in the
+past. Brasseur de Bourbourg says: "In the histories written in the
+Nahuatl language, the oldest certain date is nine hundred and fifty-five
+years before Christ." This, he means, is the oldest date in the history
+of the Nahuas or Toltecs which has been accurately determined. The
+calculation by which it is found is quoted from the later portion of the
+"Codex Chimalpopoca" as follows: "Six times 400 years plus 113 years"
+previous to the year 1558 A.D. This is given as the date of a division
+of the land by the Nahuas. The division was made 2513 years previous to
+1558 A.D., or in 955 B.C. If this date could be accepted as authentic,
+it would follow that the Nahuas or Toltecs left Huehue-Tlapalan more
+than a thousand years previous to the Christian era, for they dwelt a
+long time in the country of Xibalba as peaceable settlers before they
+organized the civil war which raised them to power.
+
+
+SOME CONFIRMATION OF THIS HISTORY.
+
+That the ancient history of the country was something like what is
+reported in the old writings seems not improbable when we consider the
+condition in which the native population was found three hundred and
+fifty years ago. This shows that Mexico and Central America had been
+subjected to disrupting political changes caused by violent transfers of
+supreme influence from one people to another several times in the course
+of a long history. Such a history is indicated by the monuments, and its
+traces were noticeable in peculiarities of the native inhabitants of the
+various districts at the time of the Spanish Conquest. They are still
+manifest to travelers who study the existing representatives of the old
+race and the old dialects sufficiently to find them. There were several
+distinct families or groups of language, and, in many cases, the people
+represented by each family of dialects were in a state of separation or
+disruption. To a considerable extent they existed in fragmentary
+communities, sometimes widely separated.
+
+The most important group of related dialects was that which included the
+speech of the Mayas, Quiches, and Tzendals, which, it is supposed,
+represented the language of the original civilizers, the Colhuas.
+Dialects of this family are found on both sides of the great forest.
+There were other dialects supposed to indicate Toltec communities; and
+there were communities south of Mexico, in Nicaragua, and even farther
+south, which used the Aztec speech. Very likely all these differing
+groups of language came originally from the same source, and really
+represent a single race, but comparative philology has not yet reported
+on them. Mention is made of another people, called Waiknas or Caribs,
+and conjecture sees in them remains of the aboriginal barbarians termed
+Chichimecs. They dwelt chiefly in the "dense, dank forests" found
+growing on the low alluvion of the Atlantic coast. So far as is known,
+their speech had no affinity with that of any other native community.
+People of this race constitute a chief element in the mixed population
+of the "Mosquito Coast," known as Moscos.
+
+In Yucatan the old inhabitants were Mayas, and people using dialects
+related to theirs were numerous in Tabasco, Chiapa, Guatemala, and the
+neighboring districts, while all around the country were scattered
+communities supposed to be of Toltec origin, as their speech could not
+be classed with these dialects nor with that of the Aztecs. The most
+reasonable explanation of this condition of the people is that furnished
+by the old chronicles and traditions. The country must have been
+occupied, during successive periods, by different peoples, who are
+represented by these broken communities and unlike groups of language.
+When all the native writings still in existence shall have been
+translated, and especially when the multitude of inscriptions found in
+the ruins shall have been deciphered, we may be able to see in a clearer
+light the ruins, the people, and their history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[197-*] See Appendix D.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION.
+
+
+If a clever gleaner of the curious and notable things in literature
+should write on the curiosities of historical speculation, he would be
+sure to take some account of "A New History of the Conquest of Mexico"
+published in Philadelphia in 1859. The special aim of this work is to
+deny utterly the civilization of the Aztecs. The author has ability,
+earnestness, and knowledge of what has been written on the subject; he
+writes with vigor, and with a charming extravagance of dogmatic
+assumption, which must be liked for its heartiness, while it fails to
+convince those who study it. This writer fully admits the significance
+of the old ruins, and maintains that a great civilization formerly
+existed in that part of the continent. This he ascribes to the
+Phoenicians, while he gives it an extreme antiquity, and thinks the
+present ruins have existed as ruins "for thousands of years," explaining
+these words to mean that their history "is separated by a cycle of
+thousands of years from the civilization of our day." In his view, the
+people who constructed the old cities were subjugated and destroyed,
+long ages since, "by inroads of northern savages," who were the only
+people in the country when the Spaniards arrived.
+
+The chief business of this "New History" is to set forth these views.
+Under the treatment of its author, Montezuma becomes a rude Indian
+sachem, his kingdom a confederation of barbarous Indian tribes like that
+of the Iroquois, the city of Mexico a cluster of mud huts or wigwams in
+an everglade, its causeways rude Indian footpaths, its temples and
+palaces pure fictions of lying Spanish romance, and all previous
+histories of the Aztecs and their country extravagant inventions with a
+"Moorish coloring." He would have us believe that what he calls "the
+pretended civilization of Montezuma and his Aztecs" was a monstrous
+fable of the Spaniards, a "pure fabrication," encouraged by the civil
+authority in Spain, and supported by the censorship of the Inquisition.
+Therefore he undertakes to destroy "the fabric of lies," unveil those
+"Mexican savages" the Aztecs, and tell a "new" story of their actual
+character and condition.
+
+Of course, views so preposterous do not find much favor. If the Mexicans
+had been nothing more than this, the experience of Cortez among them
+would have been like that of De Soto in his long and disastrous march
+through Florida, the Gulf regions, and the country on the lower
+Mississippi. Cortez and his men had a different fortune, because their
+march was among people who had towns, cities, settled communities, and
+the appliances and accumulations of civilized life. Doubtless some of
+the Spaniards exaggerated and romanced for effect in Spain, but they did
+not invent either the city of Mexico or the kingdom of Montezuma. We can
+see clearly that the Mexicans were a civilized people, that Montezuma's
+city of Mexico was larger than the present city, and that an important
+empire was substantially conquered when that city was finally subjugated
+and destroyed.
+
+That the ancient city of Mexico was a great city, well built partly of
+timber and partly of cut stone laid in a mortar of lime, appears in all
+that is said of the siege, and of the dealings of Cortez with its people
+and their rulers. Montezuma, wishing to remove false notions of the
+Spaniards concerning his wealth, said to Cortez during their first
+interview, "The Tlascalans, I know, have told you that I am like a god,
+and that all about me is gold, silver, and precious stones; but you now
+see that I am mere flesh and blood, and that _my houses are built of
+lime, stone, and timber_." Lime, stone, and timber! This was the poorest
+view of the old city of Mexico that could be given to those who saw it.
+It is not easy to understand how a denial of the Aztec civilization was
+possible.
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY AND INVASION.
+
+The first inhabitants of that part of the continent seen by Spaniards
+were Mayas from Yucatan. Columbus met them in 1502 at an island near
+Ruatan, off the coast of Honduras. While he was stopping at this island,
+these Mayas came there "in a vessel of considerable size" from a port in
+Yucatan, thirty leagues distant. It was a trading vessel, freighted with
+a variety of merchandise, and it used sails. Its cargo consisted of a
+variety of textile fabrics of divers colors, wearing apparel, arms,
+household furniture, and cacao, and the crew numbered twenty men.
+Columbus, who treated them very kindly, described these strangers as
+well clothed, intelligent, and altogether superior to any other people
+he had discovered in America. Adventurers hunting for prey soon began to
+make voyages in that direction and report what they saw. Sailing along
+the coast of Yucatan, they discovered cities, and "the grandeur of the
+buildings filled them with astonishment." On the main land and on one or
+two islands they saw great edifices built of stone. The seeming riches
+and other attractions of the country led the Spaniards to invade
+Yucatan, but they were defeated and driven off. At this time they gained
+considerable knowledge of Mexico, and persuaded themselves that immense
+wealth could be found there.
+
+Finally, in March, 1519, Cortez landed near the place where Vera Cruz
+was afterward built, and moved on through the country toward the city of
+Mexico. Studying, in all the histories of the Conquest, only their
+incidental references to the civilized condition of the people, we can
+see plainly what it was. As the invaders approached Tlascala, they found
+"beautiful whitewashed houses" scattered over the country. The
+Tlascalans had towns, cities, agriculture, and markets. Cortez found
+among them all that was needed by his troops. His supremacy in Tlascala
+was easily established; and it was not difficult to induce the people to
+aid him cordially in his operations against Mexico, for they hated the
+Aztecs, by whom they had recently been subjugated. In a description of
+their capital, he stated that it was as large as the city of Granada, in
+Spain.
+
+He went next to Cholulu, where, near the great mound, was an important
+city, in which they saw a "great plaza." Bernal Diaz said of this city,
+"I well remember, when we first entered this town and looked up to the
+elevated white temples, how the whole place put us completely in mind of
+Valladolid." The "white temples" were "elevated" because they stood on
+high pyramidal foundations, just as they are seen in the old ruins. It
+is probable, however, that these were built of adobe bricks or of
+timber. The city very likely was much older than the Aztec empire. A
+Spanish officer named Ordaz ascended Mount Popocatapetl, and one thing
+he saw was "the Valley of Mexico, with its city, its lagunas and
+islands, and its scattered hamlets, a busy throng of life being every
+where visible."
+
+
+THE CITY OF MEXICO.
+
+At the city of Mexico Cortez had a great reception, negotiation having
+established the form of friendly relations between him and Montezuma.
+Quarters were provided in the city for the Spanish portion of his army,
+a vast edifice being set apart for their use which furnished ample
+accommodations for the whole force. The place could be entered only by
+causeways. They marched on a wide avenue which led through the heart of
+the city, beholding the size, architecture, and beauty of the Aztec
+capital with astonishment. This avenue was lined with some of the finest
+houses, built of a porous red stone dug from quarries in the
+neighborhood. The people gathered in crowds on the streets, on the flat
+roofs, in the doorways, and at the windows to witness the arrival of the
+Spaniards. Most of the streets were narrow, and had houses of a much
+less imposing character. The great streets went over numerous canals, on
+well-built bridges. Montezuma's palace was a low, irregular pile of
+stone structures extending over a large space of ground.
+
+Among the _teocallis_ of the Aztec capital the "great temple" stood
+foremost. It was situated in the centre of a vast inclosure, which was
+surrounded by a heavy wall eight feet high, built of prepared stone.
+This inclosure was entered by four gateways opening on the four
+principal streets of the city. The "temple" was a solid structure built
+of earth and pebbles, and faced from top to bottom with hewn stone laid
+in mortar. It had five stages, each receding so as to be smaller than
+that below it. In general outline it was a rectangular pyramid three
+hundred feet square at the base, with a level summit of considerable
+extent, on which were two towers, and two altars where "perpetual fires"
+were maintained. Here the religious ceremonies were conducted. The
+ascent was by a circular flight of steps on the outside which went four
+times around the structure. The water in the lagoons being salt, the
+city was supplied with water by means of an aqueduct which extended to
+Chapultepec.
+
+Such substantially is the account given of the old city of Mexico and
+its great temple by every writer who saw them before the Conquest, and
+all the struggles which took place for possession of this capital had a
+character that would have been impossible any where save in a large
+city. In every account of the attacks on the great temple, we can see
+that it was a great temple; and we may perceive what the old city was by
+reading any account of the desperate and bloody battles in which the
+Spaniards were driven from it, after standing a ten days' siege in the
+great stone building they occupied.
+
+
+THE CONQUEST.
+
+This battle took place in the latter part of June, 1520, several months
+after the friendly reception, and was occasioned by the treacherous and
+most atrocious proceedings of the Spaniards, which drove the Mexicans to
+madness. Nearly a year passed before Cortez made another attack on the
+Mexican capital. During this time he found means among the Tlascalans to
+build a flotilla of thirteen vessels, which were transported in pieces
+to Lake Tezcuco and there put together. This would have been impossible
+if he had not found in the country suitable tools and mechanics. By
+means of these vessels armed with cannon, and assisted by a great army
+of native allies consisting of Tlascalans, Cholulans, and many others,
+he took control of the lagunas, secured possession of the causeways, and
+attacked the city in vain for forty-five days, although his men several
+times penetrated to the great square. He now resolved to enter by
+gradual advances, and destroy every thing as he went. This he did,
+burning what was combustible, and tearing down most of the edifices
+built of stone; nevertheless, thirty or forty days more passed before
+this work of destruction was complete. The inhabitants of the city were
+given over to extermination.
+
+The conquerors proceeded immediately to rebuild the city, native
+architects chiefly being employed to do the work. Materials for the
+rebuilding were taken from the ruins; probably many of the old Aztec
+foundations were retained, and there may now be edifices in the city of
+Mexico which stand on some of these foundations. Twelve acres of the
+great inclosure of the Aztec temple were taken for a Spanish plaza, and
+are still used for this purpose, while the site of the temple is
+occupied by a cathedral. The plaza is paved with marble. Like the rest
+of the great inclosure, it was paved when the Spaniards first saw it,
+and the paving was so perfect and so smooth that their horses were
+liable to slip and fall when they attempted to ride over it.
+
+Some relics recovered from ruins of the old temple have been preserved.
+Among them is the great Aztec calendar which belonged to it, on which
+are carved hieroglyphics representing the months of the year. This
+calendar was found in 1790 buried in the great square. It was carved
+from a mass of porous basalt, and made eleven feet eight inches in
+diameter. It was a fixture of the Aztec temple; it is now walled into
+one side of the cathedral. The "stone of sacrifice," another relic of
+the temple, nine feet in diameter, and covered with sculptured
+hieroglyphics, can still be seen in the city, and in the suburbs, it is
+said, vestiges of the ruins of long lines of edifices can be traced.
+Calendars made of gold and silver were common in Mexico. Before Cortez
+reached the capital, Montezuma sent him two "as large as cartwheels,"
+one representing the sun, the other the moon, both "richly carved."
+During the sack of the city a calendar of gold was found by a soldier in
+a pond of Guatemozin's garden. But these Spaniards did not go to Mexico
+to study Aztec astronomy, nor to collect curiosities. In their hands
+every article of gold was speedily transformed into coin.
+
+In every Spanish description of the city we can see its resemblance to
+cities whose ruins are found farther south. If the Spaniards had
+invented the temple, they would not have made it unlike any thing they
+had ever before seen or heard of, by placing its altar on the summit of
+a high pyramid. This method of constructing temples is seen in the old
+ruins, but it was unknown to Cortez and his men until they found it in
+Mexico. The only reasonable or possible explanation of what they said of
+it is, that the temple actually existed at the Aztec capital, and that
+the Spaniards, being there, described what they saw. The uniform
+testimony of all who saw the country at that time shows that the
+edifices of towns and cities, wherever they went, were most commonly
+built of cut stone laid in mortar, or of timber, and that in the more
+rural districts thatch was frequently used for the roofs of dwellings.
+Moreover, we are told repeatedly that the Spaniards employed "Mexican
+masons," and found them "very expert" in the arts of building and
+plastering. There is no good reason to doubt that the civilized
+condition of the country, when the Spaniards found it, was superior to
+what it has been at any time since the Conquest.
+
+
+WHO WERE THE AZTECS?
+
+The Mexicans, or Aztecs, subjugated by Cortez, were themselves invaders,
+whose extended dominion was probably less than two hundred and fifty
+years old, although they had been much longer in the Valley of Mexico.
+There were important portions of the country, especially at the south,
+to which their rule had not been extended. In several districts besides
+those of the Mayas and the Quiches the natives still maintained
+independent governments. The Aztec conquest of the central region,
+between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, was completed only a few
+years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards, and the conquest of this
+region had not been fully secured at some points, as appeared in the
+readiness of the Tlascalans and others to act in alliance with Cortez.
+But the Aztecs did not come from abroad. They belonged in the country,
+and seem to have been originally an obscure and somewhat rude branch of
+the native race.
+
+It is very probable that the Colhuas and Nahuas or Toltecs of the old
+books and traditions, together with the Aztecs, were all substantially
+the same people. They established in the country three distinct family
+groups of language, it is said, but the actual significance of this
+difference in speech has not been clearly determined. These unlike
+groups of language have not been sufficiently analyzed and studied to
+justify us in assuming that they did not all come from the same original
+source, or that there is a more radical difference between them than
+between the Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Scandinavian groups in Europe.
+These ancient Americans were distinct from each other at the time of the
+Conquest, but not so distinct as to show much difference in their
+religious ideas, their mythology, their ceremonies of worship, their
+methods of building, or in the general character of their civilization.
+
+If the Toltecs and our Mound-Builders were the same people, they
+probably went from Mexico and Central America to the Valley of the
+Mississippi at a very remote period, as Colhuan colonies, and after a
+long residence there returned so much changed in speech and in other
+respects as to seem a distinct people. The Aztecs appear to have dwelt
+obscurely in the south before they rose to power. They must have been at
+first much less advanced in civilization than their predecessors, but
+ready to adopt the superior knowledge and methods of the country they
+invaded.
+
+
+THEY CAME FROM THE SOUTH.
+
+It has sometimes been assumed that the Aztecs came to Mexico from the
+north, but there is nothing to warrant this assumption, nothing to make
+it probable, nothing even to explain the fact that some persons have
+entertained it. People of the ancient Mexican and Central American race
+are not found farther north than New Mexico and Arizona, where they are
+known as Pueblos, or Village Indians. In the old times that was a
+frontier region, and the Pueblos seem to represent ancient settlers who
+went there from the south. There was the border line between the Mexican
+race and the wild Indians, and the distinction between the Pueblos and
+the savage tribes is every way so uniform and so great that it is
+well-nigh impossible to believe they all belong to the same race. In
+fact, no people really like our wild Indians of North America have ever
+been found in Mexico, Central America, or South America.
+
+Investigation has made it probable that the Mexicans or Aztecs went to
+the Valley of Mexico from the south. Mr. Squier says: "The hypothesis of
+a migration from Nicaragua and Cuscutlan to Anahuac is altogether more
+consonant with probabilities and with tradition than that which derives
+the Mexicans from the north; and it is a significant fact, that in the
+map of their migrations presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of
+the Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (_atl_ standing for
+Aztlan), a pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a palm-tree."
+Humboldt thought this indicated a southern origin.
+
+Communities of Aztecs still exist as far south as Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica, with some variations in their speech, but not so great, probably,
+as to make them unintelligible to each other. The Spanish historian,
+Oviedo, called attention to the fact that an isolated community of
+Aztecs was found occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the
+Pacific. They were called Niquirans, and Mr. Squier seems to have
+verified this fact. The result of his investigation is that the people
+of the district specified are Aztecs, and that, "from the comparative
+lateness of the separation or some other cause," their distinguishing
+features were easily recognized, their speech being nearly identical
+with the native speech heard in the Valley of Mexico. Oviedo said of
+them: "The Niquirans who speak the Mexican language have the same
+manners and appearance as the people of New Spain (Mexico)." In the
+neighboring districts, communities closely related to the Mayas are
+found, and others that appear to belong to the Toltec family. Aztecs are
+found still farther south, and there appear to be conclusive reasons for
+believing that Montezuma's people went from the south to Anahuac or
+Mexico.
+
+According to the native histories as reported by Clavigero, the Aztecs
+began their migration northward from Aztlan about the year 1160 A.D.,
+and founded the more important of their first settlements in the Valley
+of Mexico about the year 1216 A.D., a little over three hundred years
+previous to the Spanish invasion. Another result of investigation adds a
+century to this estimate. This result is reached as follows: the
+Mexicans stated constantly that their calendar was reformed some time
+after they left Aztlan, and that in the year 1519 eight cycles of
+fifty-two years each and thirteen years of a ninth cycle had passed
+since that reform was made. This carries back the beginning of their
+migration considerably beyond the year 1090 A.D.
+
+Their sway seems to have been confined for a long time to Anahuac. They
+grew to supremacy in part probably by the arrival of new immigrants,
+but chiefly by conquest of the small states into which the country was
+divided. They could learn from their more cultivated neighbors to reform
+their calendar, compute time with greater accuracy, and make important
+improvements in other respects. They must also have modified their
+religious system to some extent, for it does not appear that they had
+adopted the worship of Kukulcan (whose name they transformed into
+Quetzalcohuatl) before they came to Mexico. But they brought with them
+an effective political organization, and very likely they were better
+fitted than most of their new neighbors for the rude work of war.
+
+Before the city of Mexico was built, the seat of their government was at
+Tezcuco. The character of their civilization after they rose to
+pre-eminence was shown in their organization, in their skill as
+builders, in the varied forms of their industry, and in the development
+of their religious ceremonies. It is manifest that they adopted all the
+astronomical knowledge and appliances found in the neighboring states
+which they subjugated. Their measure of the solar year and their
+numbering of the months were precisely like what had long existed in
+this part of the country; and they had the same astronomical implements
+or contrivances. One of these contrivances, found at Chapultepec, is
+described as follows:
+
+"On the horizontal plane of a large, carefully-worked stone, three
+arrows were cut in relief, so that the shaft ends came together and made
+equal angles in the centre. The points were directed eastward, the two
+outside showing the two solstitial points, and that in the centre the
+equinoctial. A line on the carved band holding them together was in
+range with holes in two stones which stood exactly north and south. A
+cord drawn tightly through the holes in these two stones would, at the
+moment of noon, cast its shadow on the line drawn across the band. It
+was a perfect instrument for ascertaining east and west with precision,
+and for determining the exact time by the rising and setting of the sun
+at the equinoxes and solstices. This stone has now been broken up and
+used to construct a furnace."
+
+These Aztecs were manifestly something very different from "Mexican
+savages." At the same time, they were less advanced in many things than
+their predecessors. Their skill in architecture and architectural
+ornamentation did not enable them to build such cities as Mitla and
+Palenque, and their "picture writing" was a much ruder form of the
+graphic art than the phonetic system of the Mayas and Quiches. It does
+not appear that they ever went so far in literary improvement as to
+adopt this simpler and more complete system for any purpose whatever. If
+the country had never, in the previous ages, felt the influence of a
+higher culture than that of the Aztecs, it would not have now, and never
+could have had, ruined cities like Mitla, Copan, and Palenque. Not only
+was the system of writing shown by the countless inscriptions quite
+beyond the attainments of Aztec art, but also the abundant sculptures
+and the whole system of decoration found in the old ruins.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+ANCIENT PERU.
+
+
+The ruins of Ancient Peru are found chiefly on the elevated table-lands
+of the Andes, between Quito and Lake Titicaca; but they can be traced
+five hundred miles farther south, to Chili, and throughout the region
+connecting these high plateaus with the Pacific coast. The great
+district to which they belong extends north and south about two thousand
+miles. When the marauding Spaniards arrived in the country, this whole
+region was the seat of a populous and prosperous empire, complete in its
+civil organization, supported by an efficient system of industry, and
+presenting a very notable development of some of the more important arts
+of civilized life. These ruins differ from those in Mexico and Central
+America. No inscriptions are found in Peru; there is no longer a
+"marvelous abundance of decorations;" nothing is seen like the monoliths
+of Copan or the bas-reliefs of Palenque. The method of building is
+different; the Peruvian temples were not high truncated pyramids, and
+the great edifices were not erected on pyramidal foundations. The
+Peruvian ruins show us remains of cities, temples, palaces, other
+edifices of various kinds, fortresses, aqueducts (one of them four
+hundred and fifty miles long), great roads (extending through the whole
+length of the empire), and terraces on the sides of mountains. For all
+these constructions the builders used cut stone laid in mortar or
+cement, and their work was done admirably, but it is every where seen
+that the masonry, although sometimes ornamented, was generally plain in
+style and always massive. The antiquities in this region have not been
+as much explored and described as those north of the isthmus, but their
+general character is known, and particular descriptions of some of them
+have been published.
+
+
+THE SPANISH HUNT FOR PERU.
+
+The Spanish conquest of Peru furnishes one of the most remarkable
+chapters in the history of audacious villainy. It was the work of
+successful buccaneers as unscrupulous as any crew of pirates that ever
+robbed and murdered on the ocean. After their settlements began on the
+islands and the Atlantic coast, rumors came to them of a wonderful
+country somewhere at a distance in the west. They knew nothing of
+another ocean between them and the Indies; the western side of the
+continent was a veiled land of mystery, but the rumors, constantly
+repeated, assured them that there was a country in that unknown region
+where gold was more abundant than iron among themselves. Their strongest
+passions were moved; greed for the precious metals and thirst for
+adventures.
+
+Balboa was hunting for Peru when he discovered the Pacific, about 1511
+A.D. He was guided across the isthmus by a young native chief, who told
+him of that ocean, saying it was the best way to the country where all
+the common household utensils were made of gold. At the Bay of Panama
+Balboa heard more of Peru, and went down the coast to find it, but did
+not go south much beyond the eighth degree of north latitude. In his
+company of adventurers at this time was Francisco Pizarro, by whom Peru
+was found, subjugated, robbed, and ruined, some fifteen or twenty years
+later. Balboa was superseded by Pedrarias, another greedy adventurer,
+whose jealousy arrested his operations and finally put him to death. The
+town of Panama was founded in 1519 by this Pedrarias, chiefly as a point
+on the Pacific from which he could seek and attack Peru. Under his
+direction, in 1522, the search was attempted by Pascual de Andagoya, but
+he failed to get down the coast beyond the limit of Balboa's
+exploration. Meanwhile clearer and more abundant reports of the rich and
+marvelous nation to be found somewhere below that point were circulated
+among the Spaniards, and their eagerness to reach it became intense.
+
+In 1524, three men could have been seen in Panama busily engaged
+preparing another expedition to go in search of the golden country.
+These were Francisco Pizarro, a bold and capable adventurer, who could
+neither read nor write; Diego de Almagro, an impulsive, passionate,
+reckless soldier of fortune, and Hernando de Luque, a Spanish
+ecclesiastic, Vicar of Panama, and a man well acquainted with the world
+and skilled in reading character, acting at this time, it is said, for
+another person who kept out of view. They had formed an alliance to
+discover and rob Peru. Luque would furnish most of the funds, and wait
+in Panama for the others to do the work. Pizarro would be
+commander-in-chief. The vessels used would necessarily be such as could
+be built at Panama, and, therefore, not very efficient.
+
+Pizarro went down the coast, landing from time to time to explore and
+rob villages, until he reached about the fourth degree of north
+latitude, when he was obliged to return for supplies and repairs. It
+became necessary to reconstruct the contract and allow Pedrarias an
+interest in it. On the next voyage, one of the vessels went half a
+degree south of the equator, and encountered a vessel "like a European
+caravel," which was, in fact, a Peruvian _balsa_, loaded with
+merchandise, vases, mirrors of burnished silver, and curious fabrics of
+cotton and woolen.
+
+It became again indispensable to send back to Panama for supplies and
+repairs, and Pizarro was doomed to wait for them seven months on an
+island. He next visited Tumbez, in Peru, and went to the ninth degree of
+south latitude; but he was obliged to visit Spain to get necessary aid
+before he could attempt any thing more, and it was not until the year
+1531 that the conquest of Peru was actually undertaken.
+
+In 1531 Pizarro finally entered Tumbez with his buccaneers, and marched
+into the country, sending word to the Inca that he came to aid him
+against his enemies. There had been a civil war in the country, which
+had been divided by the great Inca, Huayna Capac, the conqueror of
+Quito, between his two sons, Huascar and Atahuallpa, and Huascar had
+been defeated and thrown into prison, and finally put to death. At a
+city called Caxamalca, Pizarro contrived, by means of the most atrocious
+treachery, to seize the Inca and massacre some ten thousand of the
+principal Peruvians, who came to his camp unarmed on a friendly visit.
+This threw the whole empire into confusion, and made the conquest easy.
+The Inca filled a room with gold as the price of his ransom; the
+Spaniards took the gold, broke their promise, and put him to death.
+
+
+THE RUINS NEAR LAKE TITICACA.
+
+It is now agreed that the Peruvian antiquities represent two distinct
+periods in the ancient history of the country, one being much older than
+the other. Mr. Prescott accepts and repeats the opinion that "there
+existed in the country a race advanced in civilization before the time
+of the Incas," and that the ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+older than the reign of the first Inca. In the work of Rivero and Von
+Tschudi, it is stated that a critical examination of the monuments
+"indicates two very different epochs in Peruvian art, at least so far as
+concerns architecture; one before and the other after the arrival of the
+first Inca." Among the ruins which belong to the older civilization are
+those at Lake Titicaca, old Huanuco, Tiahuanaco, and Gran-Chimu, and it
+probably originated the roads and aqueducts. At Cuzco and other places
+are remains of buildings which represent the later time; but Cuzco of
+the Incas appears to have occupied the site of a ruined city of the
+older period. Figure 51 gives a view of the ancient Peruvian masonry.
+Montesinos supposes the name of Cuzco was derived from _cosca_, a
+Peruvian word signifying to level, or from heaps of earth called
+_coscos_, which abounded there. In his account of the previous times
+there is mention that an old city built there was in ruins. Perhaps the
+first Inca found on its site nothing but _coscos_, or heaps of ruins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Ancient Peruvian Masonry.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Ruins of "Temple" on the Island of Titicaca.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Ruins on Titicaca Island.]
+
+At Lake Titicaca some of the more important remains are on the islands.
+On Titicaca Island are the ruins of a great edifice described as "a
+palace or temple." Remains of other structures exist, but their ruins
+are old, much older than the time of the Incas. Figures 52 and 53
+represent different ruins on the island of Titicaca. They were all built
+of hewn stone, and had doors and windows, with posts, sills, and
+thresholds of stone, the doorways being narrower above than below. On
+the island of Coati there are remarkable ruins. The largest building
+here is also described as "a palace or temple," although it may have
+been something else. It was not high, but very large in extent. It stood
+around three sides of a parallelogram, with some peculiarities of
+construction connected with the ends or wings. Making allowance for the
+absence of the pyramidal foundations, it has more resemblance to some of
+the great constructions in Central America than to any thing peculiar to
+the later period of Peruvian architecture. Another ruin on this island
+is shown in Figure 54. The antiquities on the islands and shores of this
+lake need to be more completely explored and described, and probably
+interesting discoveries could be made at some points by means of
+well-directed excavations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Ruins on the Island of Coati.]
+
+A few miles from Lake Titicaca, at Tiahuanaco, are ruins which were very
+imposing when first seen by the Spaniards in the time of Pizarro. It is
+usual to speak of them as the oldest ruins in Peru, which may or may
+not be correct. They must, however, be classed with those at the lake.
+Not much now remains of the edifices, which were in a very ruinous
+condition three hundred and forty years ago. They were described by
+Cieca de Leon, who accompanied Pizarro, and also by Diego d'Alcobaca.
+Cieca de Leon mentions "great edifices" that were in ruins, "an
+artificial hill raised on a groundwork of stone," and "two stone idols
+resembling the human figure, and apparently made by skillful
+artificers." These "idols" were great statues, ten or twelve feet high.
+One of them, which was carried to La Paz in 1842, measured "three and a
+half yards" in length. Sculptured decorations appear on them, and,
+according to Cieca de Leon, the figures seemed to be "clothed in long
+vestments" different from those worn in the time of the Incas. Of a very
+remarkable edifice, whose foundations could be traced near these
+statues, nothing remained then "but a well-built wall, which must have
+been there for ages, the stones being very much worn and crumbled."
+Cieca de Leon's description goes on as follows:
+
+"In this place, also, there are stones so large and so overgrown that
+our wonder is incited, it being incomprehensible how the power of man
+could have placed them where we see them. They are variously wrought,
+and some of them, having the form of men, must have been idols. Near the
+walls are many caves and excavations under the earth, but in another
+place, farther west, are other and greater monuments, such as large
+gateways with hinges, platforms, and porches, each made of a single
+stone. It surprised me to see these enormous gateways made of great
+masses of stone, some of which were thirty feet long, fifteen high, and
+six thick."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Monolithic Gateway at Tiahuanaco.]
+
+Many of the stone monuments at Tiahuanaco have been removed, some for
+building, some for other purposes. In one case, "large masses of
+sculptured stone ten yards in length and six in width" were used to make
+grinding stones for a chocolate mill. The principal monuments now seen
+on this field of ruins are a vast mound covering several acres, where
+there seems to have been a great edifice, fragments of columns, erect
+slabs of stone which formed parts of buildings, and several of the
+monolithic gateways, the largest of which was made of a single stone ten
+feet high and thirteen broad. Figure 55 gives a view of one. The doorway
+is six feet four inches high, and three feet two inches wide. Above it,
+along the whole length of the stone, which is now broken, is a cornice
+covered with sculptured figures. "The whole neighborhood," says Mr.
+Squier, "is strewn with immense blocks of stone elaborately wrought,
+equaling, if not surpassing in size, any known to exist in Egypt or
+India."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Remains of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--End View of Fortress Walls at Cuzco.]
+
+At Cuzco, two or more degrees north of Lake Titicaca, there are ruins of
+buildings that were occupied until the rule of the Incas was overthrown.
+Remains of the old structures are seen in various parts of the present
+town, some of them incorporated into new edifices built by the
+Spaniards. Cyclopean remains of walls of the Temple of the Sun now
+constitute a portion of the Convent of St. Domingo. In the days of the
+Incas, this temple stood "a circuit of more than four hundred paces,"
+and was surrounded by a great wall built of cut stone. Remains of the
+old fortifications are seen; and there is an extensive ruin here which
+shows what is supposed to be all that remains of the palace of the
+Incas. Figures 56 and 57 give views of remains of the ancient fortress
+walls at Cuzco. Occasionally there is search at Cuzco, by means of
+excavation, for antiquities. Within a few years an important discovery
+has been made; a lunar calendar of the Incas, made of gold, has been
+exhumed. At first it was described as "a gold breastplate or sun;" but
+William Bollaert, who gives an account of it, finds that it is a
+calendar, the first discovered in Peru. Many others, probably, went to
+the melting-pot at the time of the Conquest. This is not quite circular.
+The outer ring is five inches and three tenths in diameter, and the
+inner four inches. It was made to be fastened to the breast of an Inca
+or priest. The figures were stamped on it, and there "seem to be
+twenty-four compartments, large and small, including three at the top.
+At the bottom are two spaces; figures may or may not have been there,
+but it looks as if they had been worn away." It was found about the year
+1859.
+
+The uniform and constant report of Peruvian tradition places the
+beginning of this old civilization in the Valley of Cuzco, near Lake
+Titicaca. There appeared the first civilizers and the first civilized
+communities. This beautiful valley is the most elevated table-land on
+the continent, Lake Titicaca being 12,846 feet above the sea level. Were
+it not within the tropics, it would be a region of eternal snow, for it
+is more than 4000 feet higher than the beginning of perpetual snow on
+Mont Blanc. Near it are some of the higher peaks of the Andes, among
+them Sorato, Illimani, and Sahama.
+
+
+OTHER RUINS IN PERU.
+
+The ancient Peru conquered and robbed by Pizarro is now divided into
+Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili as far down as the thirty-seventh
+degree of south latitude. Its remains are found to some extent in all
+these countries, although most abundantly in Peru.
+
+The ruins known as "the Palaces of Gran-Chimu" are situated in the
+northwestern part of Peru, near Truxillo. Here, in the time of the first
+Incas, was an independent state, which was subjugated by the Inca set
+down in the list of Montesinos as the grandfather of Huayna Capac, about
+a century before the Spaniards arrived. For what is known of these ruins
+we are chiefly indebted to Mariano Rivero, director of the National
+Museum at Lima. They cover a space of three quarters of a league,
+without including the walled squares found on every side. The chief
+objects of interest are the remains of two great edifices called
+palaces. "These palaces are immense areas surrounded by high walls of
+brick, the walls being now ten or twelve yards high and six feet thick
+at the base." There was in each case another wall exterior to this.
+Within the palace walls were squares and dwellings, with narrow passages
+between them, and the walls are decorated. In the largest palace are the
+remains of a great reservoir for water, which was brought to it by
+subterranean aqueducts from the River Moche, two miles distant. Outside
+the inclosures of these palaces are remains of a vast number of
+buildings, which indicate that the city contained a great population.
+The Spaniards took vast quantities of gold from the _huacas_ or tombs
+at this place. The amount taken from a single tomb in the years 1566 and
+1592 was officially estimated at nearly a million dollars. Figure 58
+presents an end view of the walls at Gran-Chimu. Figures 59 and 60
+represent some of the decorations at Chimu-Canchu.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--End View of Walls at Gran-Chimu.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 59 and 60.--Decorations at Chimu-Canchu.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Edifice, with Gateway, at Old Huanuco.]
+
+Remarkable ruins exist at Cuelap, in Northern Peru. "They consist of a
+wall of wrought stones 3600 feet long, 560 broad, and 150 high,
+constituting a solid mass with a level summit." Probably the interior
+was made of earth. On this mass was another, "600 feet long, 500 broad,
+and 150 high." In this, and also in the lower structure, there are many
+rooms made of wrought stone, in which are a great number of niches or
+cells one or two yards deep, which were used as tombs. Other old
+structures exist in that neighborhood. Farther south, at Huanuco el
+Viego, or Old Huanuco, are two peculiar edifices and a terrace, and near
+them the faded traces of a large town. The two edifices were built of a
+composition of pebbles and clay, faced with hewn stone. One of them is
+called the "Look-out," but it is impossible to discover the purpose for
+which it was built. The interior of the other is crossed by six walls,
+in each of which is a gateway, the outer one being finely finished, and
+showing a sculptured animal on each of the upper corners. It has a large
+court, and rooms made of cut stones. Connected with this structure was a
+well-built aqueduct. Figures 61 and 62 give views of the so-called
+palace and its ground plan. Figure 63 represents the Look-out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Ground Plan of Edifice at Old Huanuco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--"Look-out" at Old Huanuco.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Ruins at Pachacamac.]
+
+Seven leagues from Lima, near the sea, are the much-dilapidated ruins,
+shown in Figure 64, of a large city of the Incas, which was built
+chiefly of adobes or sun-dried bricks. It is called Pachacamac. Ruins of
+towns, castles, fortresses, and other structures are found all about the
+country. At one place, near Chavin de Huanta, there are remarkable ruins
+which are very old. The material used here was like that seen at Old
+Huanuco. From the interior of one of the great buildings there is a
+subterranean passage which, it is said, goes under the river to the
+opposite bank. Very ancient ruins, showing remains of large and
+remarkable edifices, were seen near Huamanga, and described by Cieca de
+Leon. The native traditions said this city was built by "bearded white
+men, who came there long before the time of the Incas, and established a
+settlement." It is noticed every where that the ancient Peruvians made
+large use of aqueducts, which they built with notable skill, using hewn
+stones and cement, and making them very substantial. Some of them are
+still in use. They were used to carry water to the cities and to
+irrigate the cultivated lands. A few of them were very long. There is
+mention of one which was a hundred and fifty miles long, and of another
+which was extended four hundred and fifty miles across sierras and over
+rivers, from south to north.
+
+
+THE GREAT PERUVIAN ROADS.
+
+Nothing in Ancient Peru was more remarkable than the public roads. No
+ancient people has left traces of works more astonishing than these, so
+vast was their extent, and so great the skill and labor required to
+construct them. One of these roads ran along the mountains through the
+whole length of the empire, from Quito to Chili. Another, starting from
+this at Cuzco, went down to the coast and extended northward to the
+equator. These roads were built on beds or "deep under-structures" of
+masonry. The width of the roadways varied from twenty to twenty-five
+feet, and they were made level and smooth by paving, and in some places
+by a sort of macadamizing with pulverized stone mixed with lime and
+bituminous cement. This cement was used in all the masonry. On each side
+of the roadway was "a very strong wall more than a fathom in thickness."
+These roads went over marshes, rivers, and great chasms of the sierras,
+and through rocky precipices and mountain sides. The great road passing
+along the mountains was a marvelous work. In many places its way was cut
+through rock for leagues. Great ravines were filled up with solid
+masonry. Rivers were crossed by means of a curious kind of suspension
+bridges, and no obstruction was encountered which the builders did not
+overcome. The builders of our Pacific Railroad, with their superior
+engineering skill and mechanical appliances, might reasonably shrink
+from the cost and the difficulties of such a work as this. Extending
+from one degree north of Quito to Cuzco, and from Cuzco to Chili, it was
+quite as long as the two Pacific railroads, and its wild route among the
+mountains was far more difficult.
+
+Sarmiento, describing it, said, "It seems to me that if the emperor
+(Charles V.) should see fit to order the construction of another road
+like that which leads from Quito to Cuzco, or that which from Cuzco goes
+toward Chili, I certainly think he would not be able to make it, with
+all his power." Humboldt examined some of the remains of this road, and
+described as follows a portion of it seen in a pass of the Andes,
+between Mansi and Loxa: "Our eyes rested continually on superb remains
+of a paved road of the Incas. The roadway, paved with well-cut, dark
+porphyritic stone, was twenty feet wide, and rested on deep foundations.
+This road was marvelous. None of the Roman roads I have seen in Italy,
+in the South of France, or in Spain, appeared to me more imposing than
+this work of the ancient Peruvians." He saw remains of several other
+shorter roads which were built in the same way, some of them between
+Loxa and the River Amazon. Along these roads at equal distances were
+edifices, a kind of caravanseras, built of hewn stone, for the
+accommodation of travelers.
+
+These great works were described by every Spanish writer on Peru, and in
+some accounts of them we find suggestions in regard to their history.
+They are called "roads of the Incas," but they were probably much older
+than the time of these rulers. The mountain road running toward Quito
+was much older than the Inca Huayna Capac, to whom it has sometimes been
+attributed. It is stated that when he started by this route to invade
+the Quitus, the road was so bad that "he found great difficulties in the
+passage." It was then an old road, much out of repair, and he
+immediately ordered the necessary reconstructions. Gomara says, "Huayna
+Capac restored, enlarged, and completed these roads, but he did not
+build them, as some pretend." These great artificial highways were
+broken up and made useless at the time of the Conquest, and the
+subsequent barbarous rule of the Spaniards allowed them to go to decay.
+Now only broken remains of them exist to show their former character.
+
+
+THE PERUVIAN CIVILIZATION.
+
+The development of civilization in Peru was very different from that in
+Mexico and Central America. In both regions the people were
+sun-worshipers, but their religious organizations, as well as their
+methods of building temples, were unlike. Neither of these peoples seems
+to have borrowed from the other. It may be that all the old American
+civilizations had a common origin in South America, and that all the
+ancient Americans whose civilization can be traced in remains found
+north of the Isthmus came originally from that part of the continent.
+This hypothesis appears to me more probable than any other I have heard
+suggested. But, assuming this to be true, the first migration of
+civilized people from South America must have taken place at a very
+distant period in the past, for it preceded not only the history
+indicated by the existing antiquities, but also an earlier history,
+during which the Peruvians and Central Americans grew to be as different
+from their ancestors as from each other. In each case, the development
+of civilization represented by existing monuments, so far as we can
+study it, appears to have been original.
+
+In some respects the Peruvian civilization was developed to such a
+degree as challenged admiration. The Peruvians were highly skilled in
+agriculture and in some kinds of manufactures. No people ever had a more
+efficient system of industry. This created their wealth and made
+possible their great public works. All accounts of the country at the
+time of the Conquest agree in the statement that they cultivated the
+soil in a very admirable way and with remarkable success, using
+aqueducts for irrigation, and employing guano as one of their most
+important fertilizers. Europeans learned from them the value of this
+fertilizer, and its name, _guano_, is Peruvian. The remains of their
+works show what they were as builders. Their skill in cutting stone and
+their wonderful masonry can be seen and admired by modern builders in
+what is left of their aqueducts, their roads, their temples, and their
+other great edifices.
+
+They had great proficiency in the arts of spinning, weaving, and dyeing.
+For their cloth they used cotton and the wool of four varieties of the
+llama, that of the vicuna being the finest. Some of their cloth had
+interwoven designs and ornaments very skillfully executed. Many of their
+fabrics had rare excellence in the eyes of the Spaniards. Garcilasso
+says, "The coverings of the beds were blankets and friezes of the wool
+of the vicuna, which is so fine and so much prized that, among other
+precious things from that land, they have been brought for the bed of
+Don Philip II." Of their dyes, this account is given in the work of
+Rivero and Von Tschudi:
+
+"They possessed the secret of fixing the dye of all colors,
+flesh-color, yellow, gray, blue, green, black, etc., so firmly in the
+thread, or in the cloth already woven, that they never faded during the
+lapse of ages, even when exposed to the air or buried (in tombs) under
+ground. Only the cotton became slightly discolored, while the woolen
+fabrics preserved their primitive lustre. It is a circumstance worth
+remarking that chemical analyses made of pieces of cloth of all the
+different dyes prove that the Peruvians extracted all their colors from
+the vegetable and none from the mineral kingdom. In fact, the natives of
+the Peruvian mountains now use plants unknown to Europeans, producing
+from them bright and lasting colors."
+
+They had great skill in the art of working metals, especially gold and
+silver. Besides these precious metals, they had copper, tin, lead, and
+quicksilver. Figures 65 and 66 show some of the implements used by the
+Peruvians. Iron was unknown to them in the time of the Incas, although
+some maintain that they had it in the previous ages, to which belong the
+ruins at Lake Titicaca. Iron ore was and still is very abundant in Peru.
+It is impossible to conceive how the Peruvians were able to cut and work
+stone in such a masterly way, or to construct their great roads and
+aqueducts without the use of iron tools. Some of the languages of the
+country, and perhaps all, had names for iron; in official Peruvian it
+was called _quillay_, and in the old Chilian tongue _panilic_. "It is
+remarkable," observes Molina, "that iron, which has been thought unknown
+to the ancient Americans, has particular names in some of their
+tongues." It is not easy to understand why they had names for this
+metal, if they never at any time had knowledge of the metal itself. In
+the Mercurio Peruano, tome i., p. 201, 1791, it is stated that,
+anciently, the Peruvian sovereigns "worked magnificent iron mines at
+Ancoriames, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca;" but I can not give the
+evidence used in support of this statement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Copper Knives.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Copper Tweezers.]
+
+Their goldsmiths and silversmiths had attained very great proficiency.
+They could melt the metals in furnaces, cast them in moulds made of clay
+and gypsum, hammer their work with remarkable dexterity, inlay it, and
+solder it with great perfection. The gold and silver work of these
+artists was extremely abundant in the country at the time of the
+Conquest, but Spanish greed had it all melted for coinage. It was with
+articles of this gold-work that the Inca Atahuallpa filled a room in
+his vain endeavor to purchase release from captivity. One of the old
+chroniclers mentions "statuary, jars, vases, and every species of
+vessels, all of fine gold." Describing one of the palaces, he said:
+"They had an artificial garden, the soil of which was made of small
+pieces of fine gold, and this was artificially sowed with different
+kinds of maize which were of gold, their stems, leaves, and ears.
+Besides this, they had more than twenty sheep (llamas), with their
+lambs, attended by shepherds, all made of gold." This may be the same
+artificial garden which was mentioned by Francisco Lopez de Gomara, who
+places it on "an island near Puna." Similar gardens of gold are
+mentioned by others. It is believed that a large quantity of Peruvian
+gold-work was thrown into Lake Titicaca to keep it from the Spanish
+robbers. In a description of one lot of golden articles sent to Spain in
+1534 by Pizarro, there is mention of "four llamas, ten statues of women
+of full size, and a cistern of gold so curious that it incited the
+wonder of all."
+
+Nothing is more constantly mentioned by the old Spanish chroniclers than
+the vast abundance of gold in Peru. It was more common than any other
+metal. Temples and palaces were covered with it, and it was very
+beautifully wrought into ornaments, temple furniture, articles for
+household use, and imitations of almost every object in nature. In the
+course of twenty-five years after the Conquest, the Spaniards sent from
+Peru to Spain more than four hundred million ducats (800,000,000
+dollars) worth of gold, all or nearly all of it having been taken from
+the subjugated Peruvians as "booty."
+
+Figures 67 and 68 show a golden and a silver vase, reduced from the
+actual size. Figures 69 and 70 represent various articles of pottery;
+all these illustrations are copies from articles taken from old Peruvian
+tombs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Golden Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Silver Vase.]
+
+The most perfectly manufactured articles of Peruvian pottery were used
+in the tombs. Some of those made for other uses were very curious. A
+considerable number of articles made for common use have been preserved.
+Mariano Rivero, a Peruvian, says: "At this day there exist in many
+houses pitchers, large jars, and earthen pots of this manufacture, which
+are preferred for their solidity to those manufactured by our own
+potters." The ancient Peruvians were inferior to the Central Americans
+in the arts of ornamentation and sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Articles of Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Articles of Pottery.]
+
+Science among the Peruvians was not very highly developed, but
+engineering skill of some kind is indicated by the great roads and
+aqueducts. Their knowledge of the art of preparing colors and certain
+useful medicines implied a study of plants. Their progress in astronomy
+was not equal to that found in Central America; nevertheless, they had
+an accurate measure of the solar year, but, unlike the Central
+Americans, they divided the year into twelve months, and they used
+mechanical contrivances successfully to fix the times of the solstices
+and equinoxes. A class of men called _amautas_ was trained to preserve
+and teach whatever knowledge existed in the country. It was their
+business to understand the _quippus_, keep in memory the historical
+poems, give attention to the science and practice of medicine, and train
+their pupils in knowledge. These were not priests; they were the
+"learned men" of Peru, and the government allowed them every facility
+for study and for communicating instruction. How much they knew of
+astronomy it is not easy to say. They had knowledge of some of the
+planets, and it is claimed that there is some reason to believe they
+used aids to eyesight in studying the heavens, such as some suppose
+were used by our Mound-Builders. A discovery made in Bolivia a few years
+since is cited in support of this belief. It is the figure of a man in
+the act of using a tube to aid vision, which was taken from an ancient
+tomb. Mr. David Forbes, an English chemist and geologist, obtained it in
+Bolivia, and carried it to England in 1864. William Bollaert describes
+it as follows in a paper read to the London Anthropological Society:
+
+"It is a nude figure, of silver, two inches and a half in height, on a
+flat, pointed pedestal. In the right hand it has the mask of a human
+face, but in the left a tube over half an inch in length, the narrow
+part placed to the left eye in a diagonal position, as if observing some
+celestial object. This is the first specimen of a figure in the act of
+looking through a hollow tube directed to the heavens that has been
+found in the New World. We can not suppose the Peruvians had any thing
+that more nearly resembled a telescope. It was found in a chulpa, or
+ancient Indian tomb, at Caquingora, near Corocoro (lat. 17 deg. 15' S.,
+and long. 68 deg. 35' W.), in Bolivia." He forgets the astronomical
+monument described by Captain Dupaix.
+
+The art of writing in alphabetical characters, so far as appears, was
+unknown to the Peruvians in the time of the Incas. No Peruvian books
+existed at that time, and no inscriptions have been found in any of the
+ruins. They had a method of recording events, keeping accounts, and
+making reports to the government by means of the _quippu_. This was made
+of cords of twisted wool fastened to a base prepared for the purpose.
+These cords were of various sizes and colors, and every size and color
+had its meaning. The record was made by means of an elaborate system of
+knots and artificial intertwinings. The _amautas_ were carefully
+educated to the business of understanding and using the _quippus_, and
+"this science was so much perfected that those skilled in it attained
+the art of recording historical events, laws, and decrees, so as to
+transmit to their descendants the most striking events of the empire;
+thus the _quippus_ could supply the place of documents." Each _quippu_
+was a book full of information for those who could read it.
+
+Among the _amautas_ memory was educated to retain and transmit to
+posterity songs, historical narratives, and long historical poems. It is
+said, also, that tragedies and comedies were composed and preserved in
+this way, and that dramatic performances were among the regular
+entertainments encouraged and supported by the Incas. Whether the art of
+writing ever existed in the country can not now be determined. Some of
+the Peruvian tongues had names for paper; the people knew that a kind of
+paper or parchment could be made of plantain leaves, and, according to
+Montesinos, writing and books were common in the older times, that is to
+say, in ages long previous to the Incas. He explains how the art was
+lost, as I shall presently show.
+
+It is not improbable that a kind of hieroglyphical writing existed in
+some of the Peruvian communities, especially among the Aymaraes.
+Humboldt mentions books of hieroglyphical writing found among the
+Panoes, on the River Ucayali, which were "bundles of their paper
+resembling our volumes in quarto." A Franciscan missionary found an old
+man sitting at the foot of a palm-tree and reading one of these books to
+several young persons. The Franciscan was told that the writing
+"contained hidden things which no stranger ought to know." It was seen
+that the pages of the book were "covered with figures of men, animals,
+and isolated characters, deemed hieroglyphical, and arranged in lines
+with order and symmetry." The Panoes said these books "were transmitted
+to them by their ancestors, and had relation to wanderings and ancient
+wars." There is similar writing on a prepared llama skin found among
+other antiquities on a peninsula in Lake Titicaca, which is now in the
+museum at La Paz, Bolivia. It appears to be a record of atrocities
+perpetrated by the Spaniards at the time of the Conquest, and shows that
+some of the Aymaraes could at that time write hieroglyphics.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+PERUVIAN ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+The Peruvians, like most other important peoples in all ages, had
+mythical wonder-stories instead of authentic ancient history to explain
+the origin of their nation. These were told in traditions and legends
+preserved and transmitted from generation to generation by the
+_amautas_. If they were also recorded in secret books of hieroglyphical
+writing, such as those found among the Panoes on the Ucayali, which
+"contained hidden things that no stranger ought to know," satisfactory
+evidence of the fact has never been brought to light. In addition to
+these, they had many historical traditions of much more importance,
+related in long poems and preserved in the same way; and there were
+annals and national documents recorded in the _quippus_.
+
+Some of the Spanish writers on Peru, who described what they saw in the
+country at the time of the Conquest, discussed its history. If they had
+used the proper sources of information with a more penetrating and
+complete investigation, and studied the subject as it might have been
+studied at that time, their historical sketches would now have great
+value. The two most important works written at this time, the "Relacion"
+of Sarmiento and the "Relaciones" of Polo de Ondegardo, were never
+printed. But none of these writers sought to study Peruvian antiquity
+beyond the period of the Incas, although some of them (Acosta for
+instance) inquired sufficiently to see that Manco Capac was a mythical
+personage prefixed to the dynastic line of the Incas without actually
+belonging to it. This limited view of the ancient history, which was
+inconsistent with what could be seen in the antiquities and traditions
+of the country, was generally accepted, because nothing more could be
+known in Europe, and its influence was established by the undue
+importance accorded to the "Commentarios Reales" of Garcilasso de la
+Vega, published in 1609.
+
+
+GARCILASSO'S HISTORY.
+
+Garcilasso de la Vega, the son of a distinguished Spaniard of the same
+name, was born at Cuzco in 1540. His mother, named Nusta, was a niece of
+the great Inca Huayna Capac, and granddaughter of his no less eminent
+predecessor, Tupac Yupanqui. The intimate blood relationship which
+connected him with the Incas naturally drew attention to his work, and,
+with more haste than reason, was treated as the best possible
+qualification for writing Peruvian history; therefore his "Commentarios"
+acquired a very great celebrity, and came to be regarded as the highest
+authority on all questions relating to Peru previous to the Conquest.
+The work never deserved this reputation, although it was not without
+value as an addition to what had been written on the subject by
+Spaniards. Garcilasso was not well qualified to write a faithful history
+of Peru either by his knowledge or by the temper of his mind. His aim
+was to glorify the Incas and their times, and much of his work was in
+the strain of tales heard in childhood from his mother.
+
+The "Commentarios Reales" were written just as their author's training
+had prepared him to write them. He lived in Cuzco without education
+until he was nearly twenty years old, his intellectual development being
+confined to the instruction necessary to make him a good Catholic. He
+then went to Spain and never returned to Peru. The next period of his
+life was devoted to seeking distinction in the Spanish military service;
+but political influence was against him, and he could not attain the
+object of his ambition. He finally retired to Cordova, acquired some
+literary culture, and resolved to win distinction by writing a history
+of his native country. His materials for such a history, in addition to
+what could be learned from the earlier Spanish writers, consisted
+entirely of what he had learned of his mother and his early Peruvian
+associates at Cuzco, and of such acquisitions as could be gained by
+means of correspondence with his acquaintances in Peru, after the
+purpose to write a history was formed. It can be seen readily that
+Garcilasso's history written in this way might have a certain value,
+while it could not be safely accepted as an authority. The first part of
+his work was published in 1609, when he was nearly seventy years old.
+
+According to his version of the Peruvian annals, the rule of the Incas
+began with the mythical Manco Capac, and lasted over five hundred years;
+and this version, with some variations in estimates of the time, has
+been repeated ever since. The dynastic line of the Incas thus determined
+is given in the work of Rivero and Von Tschudi as follows:
+
+1. Manco-Capac, mysterious "son of the sun," who began to reign in 1021
+A.D., and died in 1062, having reigned forty years. 2. Sinchi-Rocca,
+who reigned thirty years, from 1062 to 1091. 3. Lloque-Yupanqui,
+reigned thirty-five years, from 1091 to 1126. 4. Mayta-Capac, thirty
+years, from 1126 to 1156. 5. Capac-Yupanqui, forty-one years, from 1156
+to 1197. 6. Inca Rocca, fifty-one years, from 1197 to 1249. 7.
+Yahuar-Capac, forty years, from 1249 to 1289. 8. Viracocha, fifty-one
+years, from 1289 to 1340; his son Inca Urco reigned after him eleven
+days, and was then deposed "as a fool incapable of governing." 9.
+Titu-Manco-Capac-Pachacutec, sixty years, from 1340 to 1400, living,
+says tradition, to be one hundred and three years old. 10. Yupanqui,
+thirty-nine years, from 1400 to 1439. 11. Tupac-Yupanqui (Garcilasso's
+great-grandfather) thirty-six years, from 1439 to 1475. 12.
+Huayna-Capac, "the most glorious of the Incas," fifty years, from 1475
+to 1525. After his death the empire was divided between his two sons
+Huascar and Atahuallpa. This caused a civil war, which ended with the
+death of Huascar in 1532. One year later Atahuallpa was himself
+destroyed by Cortez.
+
+Manco-Capac, here set down as the first Inca, with a marvelous story of
+his mysterious origin and his miraculous powers as a civilizer, was
+undoubtedly borrowed from traditions of the origin of civilization in
+the more ancient times, which had been used by the Incas in support of
+their claim to direct descent from the sun. In reality, the first Inca
+was Rocca, or Sinchi-Rocca, and several of the early Spanish writers
+were sufficiently well informed to see this. The period of the Incas
+must have been less than five hundred years if their dynasty consisted
+of no more than twelve or thirteen sovereigns. In other respects, this
+table of the sovereigns may be substantially correct, for there is a
+general agreement in regard to the names and the order of succession,
+although Montesinos maintains that the fifth Inca on the list was
+borrowed by Garcilasso from traditions of a much more ancient sovereign
+who was greatly celebrated in the historical poems, or confounded with
+him. The period of the Incas was very distinct in Peruvian history, but
+it is now understood that they represent only the last period in the
+history of a civilization which began much farther back in the past.
+
+
+FERNANDO MONTESINOS.
+
+The only Spanish writer who really studied the ancient history of Peru
+in the traditional and other records of the country was Fernando
+Montesinos, who went there about a century after the Conquest. He was
+sent from Spain on service which took him to every part of Peru, and
+gave him the best possible opportunities for investigation. He was a
+scholar and a worker, with a strong inclination to such studies, and,
+during two periods of residence in the country, he devoted fifteen years
+to these inquiries with unremitting industry and great success. He soon
+learned to communicate freely with the Peruvians in their own language;
+then he applied himself to collect the historical poems, narratives, and
+traditions. He succeeded in getting assistance from many of the older
+men who had learned of the _amautas_, and especially of those who were
+trained to read the _quippus_. Nothing was omitted which could aid his
+purpose. In this way Montesinos made a great collection of what may be
+called the _old Peruvian documents_, and gained a vast amount of
+information which no other writer had used or even sought to acquire.
+
+The materials collected were more important than is at once understood
+by those accustomed to depend wholly on writing and printing for the
+preservation of literature, because they can not easily realize to what
+extent the faculty of memory may be sharpened and developed by a class
+of men devoted to this culture in communities where such mechanical aids
+do not exist. It is known that long poems, stories, and historical
+narratives have been preserved by unlettered peoples much below the
+civilized condition of the Peruvians. Long poems, extending to three and
+four hundred lines, were retained by memory, and transmitted from
+generation to generation among the Sandwich Islanders. Many scholars
+have believed that all the early literature of Greece, including the
+Iliad, the Odyssey, and all other "poems of the Cycle," was preserved in
+this way by the Rhapsodists for centuries, down to the time of
+Peisistratus, and then for the first time reduced to writing. This shows
+at least what they have believed was possible. In Max Mueller's "History
+of Ancient Sanskrit Literature" it is argued strongly that the Vedas
+were not written at first, but were transmitted orally, being learned by
+heart in the great religious schools of the Indo-Aryans as an
+indispensable part of education. This is likely to be true, whether we
+assume that the Indo-Aryans had or had not the art of writing; for, in
+the Vaidic age, the divine songs of the Veda were so intimately
+associated with the mysteries of their religion that they may have been
+held too sacred to be made common by written characters.
+
+Therefore it is no wise incredible, nor even surprising, that a
+considerable amount of literature existed in Peru without the aid of
+writing. On the contrary, it would be surprising if they had failed to
+do what has been done by every other people in like circumstances. The
+schools of the _amautas_ were national institutions specially set apart
+for the business of preserving and increasing knowledge, teaching, and
+literary work of every kind. In a country where civilization was so much
+advanced in many respects, they could not have been entirely barren.
+Those who criticise Montesinos admit that "his advantages were great,"
+that "no one equaled him in archaeological knowledge of Peru," and that
+"he became acquainted with original instruments which he occasionally
+transferred to his own pages, and which it would now be difficult to
+meet elsewhere." The results of his investigation are embodied in a work
+entitled "Memorias Antiguas Historiales del Peru." This, with another
+work on the Conquest entitled "Annales," remained in manuscript at
+Madrid until the "Memorias" was translated into French by M.
+Ternaux-Compans, and printed in his collection of original documents
+relating to the discovery and exploration of America.
+
+
+HIS SCHEME OF PERUVIAN HISTORY.
+
+According to Montesinos, there were three distinct periods in the
+history of Peru. First, there was a period which began with the origin
+of civilization, and lasted until the first or second century of the
+Christian era. Second, there was a period of disintegration, decline,
+and disorder, introduced by successful invasions from the east and
+southeast, during which the country was broken up into small states, and
+many of the arts of civilization were lost; this period lasted more than
+a thousand years. Third and last came the period of the Incas, who
+revived civilization and restored the empire. He discards the
+wonder-stories told of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and gives the
+Peruvian nation a beginning which is, at least, not incredible. It was
+originated, he says, by a people led by four brothers, who settled in
+the Valley of Cuzco, and developed civilization there in a very human
+way. The youngest of these brothers assumed supreme authority, and
+became the first of a long line of sovereigns.
+
+Montesinos gives a list of sixty-four sovereigns who reigned in the
+first period. The first was Puhua Manco, or Ayar-Uchu-Topa, the youngest
+of the four brothers, whose power was increased by the willing
+submission of "neighboring nations." His successor, called Manco-Capac,
+is described as a remarkable character; "adjacent nations dreaded his
+power," and in his time the kingdom was much increased. Next came
+Huainaevi-Pishua, and "during his reign was known the use of letters,
+and the _amautas_ taught astrology and the art of writing on leaves of
+the plantain tree." Sinchi-Cozque won victories, and "adorned and
+fortified the city of Cuzco." Inti-Capac-Yupanqui, another remarkable
+character, divided the kingdom into districts and subdistricts,
+introduced a complete civil organization, instituted the solar year of
+three hundred and sixty-five days, and established the system of
+couriers. Manco-Capac II. "made great roads from Cuzco to the
+provinces." These are the first six rulers named on the list.
+
+In the next thirteen reigns nothing special is noted save attention to
+civil affairs, occasional conquests, and "a great plague." The twentieth
+sovereign, called Huascar-Titupac, "gave all the provinces new governors
+of royal blood, and introduced in the army a cuirass made of cotton and
+copper." The twenty-first, Manco-Capac-Amauta, "being addicted to
+astronomy, convened a scientific council, which agreed that the sun was
+at a greater distance from the earth than the moon, and that they
+followed different courses." In the next twelve reigns, wars, conquests,
+and some indications of religious controversy are noted. The
+thirty-fourth ruler, called Ayay-Manco, "assembled the _amautas_ in
+Cuzco to reform the calendar, and it was decided that the year should be
+divided into months of thirty days, and weeks of ten days, calling the
+five days at the end of the year a small week; they also collected the
+years into decades or groups of tens, and determined that each group of
+ten decades should form a sun."
+
+Among the next twenty-nine sovereigns, Capac-Raymi-Amauta, the
+thirty-eighth of the line, and Yahuar-Huquiz, the fifty-first, were
+"celebrated for astronomical knowledge," and the latter "intercalated a
+year at the end of four centuries." Manco-Capac III., the sixtieth
+sovereign of this line, is supposed to have reigned at the beginning of
+the Christian era, and in his time "Peru had reached her greatest
+elevation and extension." The next three reigns covered thirty-two
+years, it is said. Then came Titu-Yupanqui-Pachacuti, the sixty-fourth
+and last sovereign of the old kingdom, who was killed in battle with a
+horde of invaders who came from the east and southeast across the Andes.
+His death threw the kingdom into confusion. There was rebellion as well
+as invasion, by which it was broken up into small states. The account of
+what happened says: "Many ambitious ones, taking advantage of the new
+king's youth, denied him obedience, drew away from him the people, and
+usurped several provinces. Those who remained faithful to the heir of
+Titu-Yupanqui conducted him to Tambotoco, whose inhabitants offered him
+obedience. From this it happened that this monarch took the title of
+King of Tambotoco."
+
+During the next twenty-six reigns the sway of the old royal house was
+confined to this little state. These twenty-six successors of the old
+sovereigns were merely kings of Tambotoco. The country, overrun by rude
+invaders, torn by civil war, and harried by "many simultaneous
+tyrants," became semi-barbarous; "all was found in great confusion; life
+and personal safety were endangered, and civil disturbances caused an
+entire loss of the use of letters." The art of writing seems to have
+been mixed up with the issues of a religious controversy in the time of
+the old kingdom. It was proscribed now, even in the little state of
+Tambotoco, for we read that the fourteenth of its twenty-six rulers
+"prohibited, under the severest penalties, the use of _quellca_ for
+writing, and forbade, also, the invention of letters. _Quellca_ was a
+kind of parchment made of plantain leaves." It is added that an
+_amauta_, who sought to restore the art of writing was put to death.
+This period of decline, disorder, and disintegration, which covered the
+"dark ages" of Peru, lasted until the rise of the Incas brought better
+times and reunited the country.
+
+Rocca, called Inca-Rocca, was the first of the Incas. He was connected
+with the old royal family, but did not stand in the direct line of
+succession. The story of his rise to power is told as follows: "A
+princess of royal blood, named Mama-Ciboca, contrived, by artifice and
+intrigue, to raise to the throne her son called Rocca, a youth of twenty
+years, and so handsome and valiant that his admirers called him _Inca_,
+which means lord. This title of _Inca_ began with him, and was adopted
+by all his successors." He appears to have had great qualities as a
+ruler. Not much time passed before he secured possession of Cuzco, made
+war successfully against the neighboring princes, and greatly extended
+his dominions. Under his successors, the empire thus begun continued to
+grow, until it was extended from Quito to Chili, and became the Peruvian
+empire which the Spaniards robbed and destroyed.
+
+
+PROBABILITIES.
+
+It has been the fashion to depreciate Montesinos, but I find it
+impossible to discover the reasons by which this depreciation can be
+justified. It is alleged that he uses fanciful hypotheses to explain
+Peru. The reply to this seems to me conclusive. In the first place, he
+is, in this respect, like all other writers of his time. That was an age
+of fanciful theories. Montesinos is certainly no worse than others in
+this respect, while he has the merit of being somewhat more original. He
+brought the Peruvian civilization from Armenia, and argued that Peru was
+Solomon's Ophir. Undue importance has been accorded to several of the
+old Spanish chroniclers, whose works contain suggestions and fancies
+much more irrational. In the second place, his theories have nothing
+whatever to do with his facts, by which they are sometimes contradicted.
+He found in Peru materials for the scheme of its ancient history, which
+he sets forth. Readers will form their own estimates of its value, but
+no reasonable critic will confound this part of his work with his
+fanciful explanations, which are sometimes inconsistent with it. For
+instance, his theory assumes that the first monarch of the old kingdom
+began his reign as far back in the past as the year 2500 B.C. But he
+reports only sixty-four rulers of that old kingdom. Now, if there were
+so many as sixty-four, and if we allow an average of twenty years to
+each reign (which is sufficient), we can not carry back the beginning of
+that first reign to the year 1200 B.C.
+
+There is another objection, which must be stated in the words of one of
+the critics who have urged it: "Montesinos treats the ancient history of
+Peru in a mode so original and distinct from all others that we can
+perceive it to be a production alike novel and unknown." If this means
+any thing, it means that it was highly improper for Montesinos to find
+in Peru what was "unknown" to poorly-informed and superficial Spanish
+writers, who had already been accepted as "authorities." It would have
+been singular if his careful investigation, continued through fifteen
+years, had not given him a great amount of information which others had
+never taken pains to acquire. His treatment of the subject was "original
+and distinct from all others," because he knew what other writers did
+not know. His information did not allow him to repeat the marvelous
+story of Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, nor to confine Peruvian history to
+the time of the Incas. But when the result of his inquiries was
+announced in Europe, Garcilasso and others regulated the fashion of
+Peruvian studies, and the influence of their limited and superficial
+knowledge of the subject has been felt ever since.
+
+The curious theories of Montesinos may be brushed aside as rubbish, or
+be studied with other vagaries of that age in order to understand its
+difference from ours; but whoever undertakes to criticise his facts
+needs to be his equal in knowledge of Peru. His works, however, tell us
+all that can ever be known of Peruvian ancient history, for the
+facilities for investigation which existed in his time are no longer
+possible. It may, however, be useful to consider that the main fact in
+his report on the subject is no more "original and distinct" than the
+testimony of the monuments around Lake Titicaca. The significance of
+this testimony is now generally admitted. There _was_ a period in the
+history of Peruvian civilization much earlier than that of the Incas, a
+period still represented by these old monuments which, so far as relates
+to this point, are as "novel" and "original" as Montesinos himself.
+
+That the civilization found in the country was much older than the Incas
+can be seen in what we know of their history. Their empire had grown to
+be what Pizarro found it by subjugating and absorbing a considerable
+number of small states, which had existed as civilized states before
+their time. The conquest of Quito, which was not inferior to the Valley
+of Cuzco in civilization, had just been completed when the Spaniards
+arrived. The Chimus, subjugated a few years earlier, are described as
+even more advanced in civilization than any other Peruvian community.
+The small states thus absorbed by Peru were much alike in manners,
+customs, manufactures, methods of building, and general culture. It is
+manifest that their civilization had a common origin, and that to find
+its origin we must go back into the past far beyond Inca-Rocco, the
+first of his line, who began the work of uniting them under one
+government.
+
+Moreover, there were civilized communities in that part of the
+continent which the Incas had not subjugated, such as the Muyscas on the
+table-land of Bogota, north of Quito, who had a remarkable civil and
+religious organization, a temple of the sun built with stone columns, a
+regular system of computing time, a peculiar calendar, and who used
+small circular gold plates as coin. They were described by Humboldt.
+
+The condition of the people composing the Peruvian empire at the time of
+the Conquest bore witness to an ancient history something like that
+reported by Montesinos. There were indications that the country had
+undergone important revolutionary changes before this empire was
+established. The Peruvians at that time were not all one people. The
+political union was complete, but there were differences of speech, and,
+to some extent, of physical characteristics. Three numerous and
+important branches of the population were known as Aymaraes, Chinchas,
+and Huancas. They used different tongues, although the Quichua dialect,
+spoken by the Incas, and doubtless a dialect of the Aymaraes, to whom
+the Incas belonged, was the official language in every part of the
+empire. There was a separated and fragmentary condition of the
+communities with respect to their unlike characteristics, which implied
+something different from a quiet and uniform political history. These
+differences and peculiarities suggest that there was a period when Peru,
+after an important career of civilization and empire, was subjected to
+great political changes brought about by invasion and revolution, by
+which the nation was for a long time broken up into separate states.
+
+Here, as in Mexico and Central America, there was in the traditions
+frequent mention of strangers or foreigners who came by sea to the
+Pacific coast and held intercourse with the people; but this was in the
+time of the old kingdom. As the Malays and other island people under
+their influence formerly traversed the Pacific, this is not improbable.
+Some have assumed that the Peruvians had no communication with the
+Mexicans and Central Americans, and that the two peoples were unknown to
+each other. This, however, seems to be contradicted by the fact that an
+accurate knowledge of Peru was found among the people inhabiting the
+Isthmus and the region north of it. The Spaniards heard of Peru on the
+Atlantic coast of South America, but on the Isthmus Balboa gained clear
+information in regard to that country from natives who had evidently
+seen it. To what extent there was intercourse between the two civilized
+portions of the continent is unknown. They had vessels quite as good as
+most of those constructed at Panama by the Spanish hunters for Peru,
+such as the _balsas_ of the Peruvians and the "shallop" of the Mayas
+seen by Columbus, which made communication possible up and down the
+coast; but whether regular intercourse between them was ever
+established, and every thing else relating to this matter, must
+necessarily be left to a calculation of probabilities.
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+If, as seems most likely, there was in South America an ancient
+development of civilized human life, out of which arose the
+civilizations found in Peru and Central America, its antiquity was much
+greater than can be comprehended by the current chronologies. This,
+however, can not make it improbable, for these chronologies are really
+no more reasonable than the monkish fancies used in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries to explain these civilizations. We find the
+hagiologists very absurd, but the condition of mind which made them
+possible is closely akin to that which moves some men in our time to
+deny or limit the past, and reject the results of any investigation
+which tend to enlarge it. Rational inquiry constantly forces upon us the
+suggestion that there was more in the unwritten history of the human
+race than our inherited modes of thinking have allowed us to suppose,
+and that the beginning of civilization is far more ancient than our long
+accepted theories of antiquity are able to admit.
+
+What may be discovered in South America by a more complete geological
+and palaeontological investigation it is not now possible to say.
+Professor Orton, in his recent book, "The Andes and the Amazon," far
+exceeds Montesinos in his estimate of the antiquity of Peruvian
+civilization. He says on this point:
+
+"Geology and archaeology are combining to prove that Sorato and
+Chimborazo have looked down upon a civilization far more ancient than
+that of the Incas, and perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall
+and the shell-mounds of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+extensive ruins which antedate the advent of Manco-Capac, and may be as
+venerable as the lake-dwellings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six
+terraces in going up from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas
+toward Quito, and underneath the living forest, which is older than the
+Spanish invasion, many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost
+population were found. In all cases these relics are situated below the
+high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which he infers that
+this part of the country formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be
+true, vast must be the antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and
+subsidence of the coast is exceedingly slow."--P. 109.
+
+This refers to discoveries made on the coast of Ecuador in 1860, by
+James S. Wilson, Esq. At various points along this coast he found
+"ancient or fossil pottery, vessels, images," and other manufactured
+articles, all finely wrought. Some of these articles were made of gold.
+The most remarkable fact connected with them is that they were taken
+from "a stratum of ancient surface earth" which was covered with a
+marine deposit six feet thick. The geological formation where these
+remains were found is reported to be "as old as the drift strata of
+Europe," and "identical with that of Guayaquil in which bones of the
+mastodon are met with." The ancient surface earth or vegetable mould,
+with its pottery, gold-work, and other relics of civilized human life,
+was, therefore, below the sea when that marine deposit was spread over
+it. This land, after being occupied by men, had subsided and settled
+below the ocean, remained there long enough to accumulate the marine
+deposit, and again been elevated to its former position above the sea
+level. Since this elevation, forests have been established over it
+which are older than the Spanish Conquest, and now it is once more
+subsiding. In 1862, at a meeting of the Royal Geological Society, Sir
+Roderick Murchison spoke of these discoveries as follows:
+
+"The discoveries Mr. Wilson has made of the existence of the works of
+man in a stratum of mould beneath the sea level, and covered by several
+feet of clay, the phenomenon being persistent for sixty miles, are of
+the highest interest to physical geographers and geologists. The facts
+seem to demonstrate that, within the human period, the lands on the west
+coast of Equatorial America were depressed and submerged, and that after
+the accumulation of marine clays above the terrestrial relics the whole
+coast was elevated to its present position."
+
+Assuming the facts to be as Mr. Wilson reports (and they have not been
+called in question), it follows that there was human civilization to a
+certain extent in South America at the time of the older stone age of
+Western Europe. The oldest Peruvian date of Montesinos is quite modern
+compared with this. The fact may be considered in connection with
+another mentioned in the section on American Ethnology, namely, that the
+most ancient fauna on this continent, man probably included, is that of
+South America. But, without regard to what may be signified by these
+discoveries of Mr. Wilson, there is good reason for believing that the
+Peruvian civilization was much more ancient than it has been the fashion
+to admit.
+
+Peru would now be a very different country if the Spaniards had been
+sufficiently controlled by Christianity and civilization to treat the
+Peruvians justly, and seek nothing more than friendly intercourse with
+them. But they went there as greedy buccaneers, unscrupulous robbers,
+and brought every thing to ruin. At no time since the Spanish Conquest
+has the country been as orderly, as prosperous, or as populous as they
+found it. It has fallen to a much lower condition. Industry and thrift
+have been supplanted by laziness and beggarly poverty. Ignorance and
+incapacity have taken the place of that intelligence and enterprise
+which enabled the old Peruvians to maintain their remarkable system of
+agriculture, complete their great works, and made them so industrious
+and skillful in their manufactures. The region covered by the Peruvian
+empire has not half as many people now as it had in the time of the
+Incas. Is it possible to imagine the present inhabitants of Ecuador,
+Peru, and Bolivia cultivating their soil with intelligent industry,
+building aqueducts five hundred miles long, and constructing
+magnificently paved roads through the rocks and across the ravines of
+the Andes, from Quito to Chili? One of the scholars connected with the
+scientific expedition which visited South America in 1867, describing
+the ancient greatness and present inferior condition of Quito, exclaims,
+"May the future bring it days equal to those when it was called the
+'City of the Incas!'" He might appropriately utter a similar wish for
+the whole country.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+
+A.
+
+THE NORTHMEN IN AMERICA.
+
+It is generally known, I suppose, that original manuscript records of
+Norse voyages to this continent have been carefully preserved in
+Iceland, and that they were first published at Copenhagen in 1837, with
+a Danish and a Latin translation. These narratives are plain,
+straightforward, business-like accounts of actual voyages made by the
+Northmen, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, to Greenland,
+Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the coast of Massachusetts and Rhode
+Island. Within the whole range of the literature of discovery and
+adventure no volumes can be found which have more abundant internal
+evidence of authenticity. It always happens, when something important is
+unexpectedly added to our knowledge of the past, that somebody will
+blindly disbelieve. Dugald Stewart could see nothing but "frauds of
+arch-forgers" in what was added to our knowledge of ancient India when
+the Sanskrit language and literature were discovered. In the same way,
+here and there a doubter has hesitated to accept the fact communicated
+by these Norse records; but, with the evidence before us, we may as
+reasonably doubt any unquestioned fact of history which depends on
+similar testimony.
+
+Any account of these voyages should be prefaced by some notice of
+Iceland. Look on a map at the position of Iceland, and you will see at
+once that it should not be classed as a European island. It belongs to
+North America. It was, in fact, unknown to modern Europe until the year
+861 A.D., when it was discovered by Nadodd, a Norse rover. There is some
+reason to believe the Irish had previously sailed to this island, but no
+settlement was established in it previous to the year 875, when it was
+occupied by a colony of Norwegians under a chief named Ingolf. Owing to
+civil troubles in Norway, he was soon followed by many of the most
+intelligent, wealthy, and honorable of his countrymen.
+
+Thus Iceland, away in the Northern Ocean, became a place of great
+interest. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the Icelanders had
+become eminent among the Norse communities for intellectual culture
+and accomplishment. They were far superior to their countrymen in
+Norway. To them we are indebted for the existing records of Scandinavian
+mythology. They were daring and adventurous navigators, and, when we
+consider how near Iceland is to America, it should not surprise us to
+hear that they found the American continent; on the contrary, it would
+have been surprising if they had failed to find it. They first
+discovered Greenland, and in 982 established a colony there. Afterward,
+in the course of many voyages, they explored the coast of America much
+farther south.
+
+Narratives of some of these voyages were carefully written and
+preserved. There are two principal records. One is entitled "An Account
+of Eirek the Red and Greenland." This appears to have been written in
+Greenland, where Eirek settled, and where the Northmen had a colony
+consisting of two hundred and eighty settlements. The other record is an
+"Account of Thorfinn Karlsefne." This was written in Iceland by a
+bishop, one of Thorfinn's immediate descendants. The Norse narrative
+introduces Eirek's voyage of discovery as follows:
+
+"There was a man of noble family, whose name was Thorvald. He and his
+son Eirek, surnamed the Red, were obliged to flee from Jadir (in the
+southwest part of Norway) because, in some feud that arose, they
+committed a homicide. They went to Iceland, which, at that time, was
+thoroughly colonized."
+
+Thorvald died soon after reaching Iceland, but Eirek inherited his
+restless spirit. The record says he was at length involved in another
+feud in Iceland. Eirek, being unjustly treated by some of his neighbors,
+committed another homicide, and the narrative relates what followed:
+"Having been condemned by the court, he resolved to leave Iceland. His
+vessel being prepared, and every thing ready, Eirek's partisans in the
+quarrel accompanied him some distance. He told them he had determined to
+quit Iceland and settle somewhere else, adding that he was going in
+search of the land Gunniborn had seen when driven by a storm into the
+Western Ocean, and promising to revisit them if his search should be
+successful. Sailing from the western side of Iceland, Eirek steered
+boldly to the west. At length he found land, and called the place
+Midjokul. Then, coasting along the shore in a southerly direction, he
+sought to find a place more suitable for settlement. He spent the winter
+on a part of the coast which he named "Eirek's Island." A satisfactory
+situation for his colony was found, and he remained there two
+years.[TN-5]
+
+On returning to Iceland he called the discovered country "Greenland,"
+saying to his confidential friends, "A name so inviting will induce men
+to emigrate thither." Finally, he went again to Greenland, accompanied
+by "twenty-five ships" filled with emigrants and stores, and his colony
+was established. "This happened," says the chronicle, "fifteen winters
+before the Christian religion was introduced into Iceland;" that is to
+say, Eirek made this second voyage to Greenland fifteen years previous
+to 1000 A.D. Biarni, son of Heriulf, a chief man among these colonists,
+was absent in Norway when his father left Iceland. On returning, he
+decided to follow and join the colony, although neither he nor any of
+his companions had ever seen Greenland, or sailed on the "Greenland
+Ocean." Having arranged his business, he set sail, and made one of the
+most remarkable and fearful voyages on record.
+
+On leaving Iceland they sailed three days with a fair wind; then arose a
+storm of northeasterly winds, accompanied by very cloudy, thick weather.
+They were driven before this storm for many days, they knew not whither.
+At length the weather cleared, and they could see the sky. Then they
+sailed west another day, and saw land different from any they had
+previously known, for it "was not mountainous." In reply to the anxious
+sailors, Biarni said this could not be Greenland. They put the ship
+about and steered in a northeasterly direction two days more. Again they
+saw land which was low and level. Biarni thought this could not be
+Greenland. For three more days they sailed in the same direction, and
+came to a land that was "mountainous, and covered with ice." This proved
+to be an island, around which they sailed. Steering toward the north,
+they sailed four days and again discovered land, which Biarni thought
+was Greenland, and so it proved. They were on the southern coast, near
+the new settlement.
+
+It is manifest that the first land Biarni saw was either Nantucket or
+Cape Cod; the next was Nova Scotia, around Cape Sable; and the island
+around which they coasted was Newfoundland. This voyage was made five
+hundred and seven years earlier than the first voyage of Columbus.
+
+Biarni's report of his discoveries was heard with great interest, and
+caused much speculation; but the settlers in Greenland were too busy
+making their new homes to undertake voyages in that direction
+immediately. Fourteen years later, Leif, a son of Eirek the Red, being
+in Norway, was incited to fit out an expedition to go in search of the
+strange lands Biarni had seen. On returning to Greenland "he had an
+interview with Biarni, and bought his ship, which he fitted out and
+manned with thirty-five men." The first land seen by Leif, after he
+sailed from Greenland, was the island around which Biarni sailed. This
+he named Helluland (the land of broad stones). Sailing on toward the
+south, they came next to a land that was low and level, and covered with
+wood. This they called Markland (the land of woods). The narrative goes
+on: "They now put to sea with a northeast wind, and, sailing still
+toward the south, after two days touched at an island [Nantucket?] which
+lay opposite the northeast part of the main land." Then they "sailed
+through a bay between this island and a cape running northeast, and,
+going westward, sailed past the Cape;" and at length they "passed up a
+river into a bay," where they landed. They had probably reached Mount
+Hope Bay.
+
+They constructed rude dwellings, and prepared to spend the winter at
+this place. It was about mid-autumn, and, finding wild grapes, they
+called the country Vinland. Leif and his people were much pleased with
+"the mildness of the climate and goodness of the soil." The next spring
+they loaded their vessels with timber and returned to Greenland, where,
+Eirek the Red having died, Leif inherited his estate and authority, and
+left exploring expeditions to others.
+
+The next year Leif's brother Thorvald went to Vinland with one ship and
+thirty men, and there passed the winter. The following summer he
+explored the coast westward and southward, and seems to have gone as far
+south as the Carolinas. In the autumn they returned to Vinland, where
+they passed another winter. The next summer they coasted around Cape Cod
+toward Boston Harbor, and, getting aground on Cape Cod, they called it
+_Kialarness_, Keel Cape. Here the chronicle first speaks of the natives,
+whom it calls "Skraellings." It says: "They perceived on the sandy shore
+of the bay three small elevations. On going to them they found three
+boats made of skins, and under each boat three men. They seized all the
+men but one, who was so nimble as to escape with his boat;" and "_they
+killed all those whom they had taken_." The doctrine of "natural
+enemies" was more current among the old Northmen than that of human
+brotherhood.
+
+A retribution followed swiftly. They were presently attacked by a swarm
+of natives in boats. The "Skraellings" were beaten off; but Thorvald,
+being fatally wounded in the skirmish, died, and was buried on a
+neighboring promontory. His companions, after passing a third winter in
+Vinland, returned to Greenland, having been absent three years. This,
+considering the circumstances, was an adventurous voyage, a brave
+exploring expedition sent from the arctic regions to make discoveries in
+the mysterious world at the south. On reading the narrative, one longs
+for that more ample account of the voyage which would have been given if
+Thorvald himself had lived to return.
+
+The "Account of Eirek the Red and Greenland" tells of an expedition
+planned by Eirek's youngest son, Thorstein, which was prevented by
+Thorstein's death. It relates the particulars of a voyage to Vinland
+made by Eirek's daughter, Freydis, with her husband and his two
+brothers. Freydis is described as a cruel, hard-hearted, enterprising
+woman, "mindful only of gain." The chronicle says her husband, named
+Thorvald, was "weak-minded," and that she married him because he was
+rich. During the voyage she contrived to destroy her husband's brothers
+and seize their ship, for which evil deed she was made to feel her
+brother Leif's anger on her return. The same chronicle gives an account
+of a voyage northward, up Baffin's Bay, and through what is now called
+Wellington Channel. There is also a romantic story of Thorstein's widow,
+Gudrid, an exceedingly beautiful and noble-minded woman, which tells how
+she was courted and married by Thorfinn Karlsefne, a man of
+distinguished character and rank, who came from Iceland with ships, and
+was entertained by Leif.
+
+Thorfinn came to Greenland in the year 1006, and, having married Gudrid,
+Thorstein's widow, was induced by her to undertake a voyage to Vinland.
+They left Greenland with three ships and a hundred and sixty men, taking
+with them livestock and all things necessary to the establishment of a
+colony. The vessels touched at Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and, having
+reached Vinland, they passed up Buzzard's Bay, disembarked their
+livestock, and preparations were made for winter residence. Here they
+passed the winter; and here Gudrid gave birth to a son, who lived and
+grew to manhood, and among whose lineal descendants was Thorvaldsen, the
+Danish sculptor.
+
+The winter was severe; their provisions began to fail, and they were
+threatened with famine. This occasioned many anxieties and some
+adventures. One of the company, a fierce, resolute man, bewailed their
+apostasy from the old religion, and declared that to find relief they
+must return to the worship of Thor. But they found a supply of
+provisions without trying this experiment. Thor's worshiper afterward
+left the company with a few companions to pursue an expedition of his
+own, and was killed by the natives.
+
+The next spring Thorfinn explored the coast farther west and south. Then
+he went to the bay where Leif spent the winter, and there passed his
+second winter in Vinland. He called the bay Hop. The Indians called it
+Haup; we call it Hope. During the next season they saw many natives and
+had much intercourse with them, which finally led to hostilities. The
+natives, in great numbers, attacked them fiercely, but were signally
+defeated. Freydis, being with the company, fought desperately in this
+battle, and greatly distinguished herself as a terrible combatant,
+although in that peculiar condition which does not specially qualify a
+woman for such exploits. Thorfinn afterward explored Massachusetts Bay,
+spent a third winter in Vinland, and then, with part of the company,
+returned to Greenland. He finally went back to his home in Iceland, and
+there remained during the rest of his life.
+
+The Indians had traditions which appear to have preserved recollections
+of these visits of the Northmen. In 1787, Michael Lort, Vice-president
+of the London Antiquarian Society, published a work, in which he quoted
+the following extract of a letter from New England, dated more than half
+a century earlier: "There was a tradition current with the oldest
+Indians in these parts that there came a wooden house, and men of
+another country in it, swimming up the Assoonet, as this (Taunton) river
+was then called, who fought the Indians with mighty success."
+
+There was now a settlement in Vinland, at Hop Bay, and voyages to that
+region became frequent. The old Norse narrative says: "Expeditions to
+Vinland now became very frequent matters of consideration, for these
+expeditions were considered both lucrative and honorable." The following
+appears in Wheaton's History of the Northmen: "A part of Thorfinn's
+company remained in Vinland, and were afterward joined by two Icelandic
+chieftains. * * In the year 1059, it is said, an Irish or Saxon priest
+named Jon or John, who had spent some time in Iceland, went to preach to
+the colonists in Vinland, where he was murdered by the heathen." The
+following is from the Introduction to Henderson's Iceland: "In the year
+1121, Eirek, bishop of Greenland, made a voyage to Vinland."
+
+Thus it appears to be an authenticated fact that the Northmen had a
+settlement or settlements in New England six hundred years previous to
+the arrival of English settlers. It is probable that their Vinland
+settlements consisted chiefly of trading and lumbering establishments.
+The first explorers "loaded their vessels with timber" when ready to
+return to Greenland, where the lack of timber was so great that the
+settlers found it necessary to use stone for building material. The
+Vinland timber-trade became naturally an important business, but neither
+Greenland nor Iceland could furnish emigrants to occupy the country.
+Traces of the old Norse settlements in Greenland are still visible in
+the ruins of stone buildings. Near the Bay of Igalito, in Greenland, are
+remains of a stone church. Vinland was covered with great forests, and
+there it was much easier and cheaper to build houses of wood.
+
+The Norse records speak also of a region south of Vinland to which
+voyages were made. It is called Huitramannaland. Indeed, two great
+regions farther south are mentioned. There is a romantic story of one
+Biorn Asbrandson, a noble Icelander, who, being crossed in his
+matrimonial desires, went away toward Vinland; but his vessel was driven
+much farther south by a storm. Nothing was heard of him until part of
+the crew of a Norse vessel, on a voyage to Huitramannaland, were
+captured by the natives, among whom Biorn was living as a chief. He
+discovered an old acquaintance among the prisoners whom he found means
+to release. He talked freely with his old friend of the past, and of
+Iceland, but would not leave his savage friends.
+
+How little we know of what has been in the past ages, notwithstanding
+our many volumes of history! We listen attentively to what gets a wide
+and brilliant publication, and either fail to hear or doubt every thing
+else. If these Norse adventurers had sailed from England or Spain, those
+countries being what they were in the time of Columbus, their colonies
+would not have failed, through lack of men and means to support and
+extend them, and the story of their discoveries would have been told in
+every language and community of the civilized world. But the little
+communities in Iceland and Greenland were very different from rich and
+powerful nations. Instead of being in direct communication with the
+great movements of human life in Europe, recorded in what we read as
+history, they were far off in the Northern Ocean, and, out of Norway,
+almost unknown to Europe. Afterward, when the name and discoveries of
+Columbus had taken control of thought and imagination, it became
+difficult for even intelligent men, with the old Norse records before
+them, to see the claims of the Northmen.
+
+
+B.
+
+THE WELSH IN AMERICA.
+
+The story of the emigration to America of Prince Madoc, or Madog, is
+told in the old Welsh books as follows:
+
+About the year 1168 or 1169 A.D., Owen Gwynedd, ruling prince of North
+Wales, died, and among his sons there was a contest for the succession,
+which, becoming angry and fierce, produced a civil war. His son Madoc,
+who had "command of the fleet," took no part in this strife. Greatly
+disturbed by the public trouble, and not being able to make the
+combatants hear reason, he resolved to leave Wales and go across the
+ocean to the land at the west. Accordingly, in the year 1170 A.D., he
+left with a few ships, going south of Ireland, and steering westward.
+The purpose of this voyage was to explore the western land and select a
+place for settlement. He found a pleasant and fertile region, where his
+settlement was established. Leaving one hundred and twenty persons, he
+returned to Wales, prepared ten ships, prevailed on a large company,
+some of whom were Irish, to join him, and sailed again to America.
+Nothing more was ever heard in Wales of Prince Madog or his settlement.
+
+All this is related in old Welsh annals preserved in the abbeys of
+Conway and Strat Flur. These annals were used by Humphrey Llwyd in his
+translation and continuation of Caradoc's History of Wales, the
+continuation extending from 1157 to 1270 A.D. This emigration of Prince
+Madog is mentioned in the preserved works of several Welsh bards who
+lived before the time of Columbus. It is mentioned by Hakluyt, who had
+his account of it from writings of the bard Guttun Owen. As the Northmen
+had been in New England over one hundred and fifty years when Prince
+Madog went forth to select a place for his settlement, he knew very well
+there was a continent on the other side of the Atlantic, for he had
+knowledge of their voyages to America; and knowledge of them was also
+prevalent in Ireland. His emigration took place when Henry II. was king
+of England, but in that age the English knew little or nothing of Welsh
+affairs in such a way as to connect them with English history very
+closely.
+
+It is supposed that Madog settled somewhere in the Carolinas, and that
+his colony, unsupported by new arrivals from Europe, and cut off from
+communicated[TN-6] with that side of the ocean, became weak, and, after
+being much reduced, was destroyed or absorbed by some powerful tribe of
+Indians. In our colony times, and later, there was no lack of reports
+that relics of Madog's Welshmen, and even their language, had been
+discovered among the Indians; but generally they were entitled to no
+credit. The only report of this kind having any show of claim to
+respectful consideration is that of Rev. Morgan Jones, made in 1686, in
+a letter giving an account of his adventures among the Tuscaroras. These
+Tuscarora Indians were lighter in color than the other tribes, and this
+peculiarity was so noticeable that they were frequently mentioned as
+"White Indians." Mr. Jones's account of his experiences among them was
+written in March, 1686, and published in the Gentleman's Magazine for
+the year 1740, as follows:
+
+     "REV. MORGAN JONES'S STATEMENT.
+
+     "These presents certify all persons whatever, that in the year
+     1660, being an inhabitant of Virginia, and chaplain to Major
+     General Bennet, of Mansoman County, the said Major General Bennet
+     and Sir William Berkeley sent two ships to Port Royal, now called
+     South Carolina, which is sixty leagues southward of Cape Fair, and
+     I was sent therewith to be their minister. Upon the 8th of April we
+     set out from Virginia, and arrived at the harbor's mouth of Port
+     Royal the 19th of the same month, where we waited for the rest of
+     the fleet that was to sail from Barbadoes and Bermuda with one Mr.
+     West, who was to be deputy governor of said place. As soon as the
+     fleet came in, the smallest vessels that were with us sailed up the
+     river to a place called the Oyster Point; there I continued about
+     eight months, all which time being almost starved for want of
+     provisions: I and five more traveled through the wilderness till we
+     came to the Tuscarora country.
+
+     "There the Tuscarora Indians took us prisoners because we told them
+     that we were bound to Roanock. That night they carried us to their
+     town and shut us up close, to our no small dread. The next day they
+     entered into a consultation about us, and, after it was over, their
+     interpreter told us that we must prepare ourselves to die next
+     morning, whereupon, being very much dejected, I spoke to this
+     effect in the British [Welsh] tongue: 'Have I escaped so many
+     dangers, and must I now be knocked on the head like a dog!' Then
+     presently came an Indian to me, which afterward appeared to be a
+     war captain belonging to the sachem of the Doegs (whose original, I
+     find, must needs be from the Old Britons), and took me up by the
+     middle, and told me in the British [Welsh] tongue I should not die,
+     and thereupon went to the emperor of Tuscarora, and agreed for my
+     ransom and the men that were with me.
+
+     "They (the Doegs) then welcomed us to their town, and entertained
+     us very civilly and cordially four months, during which time I had
+     the opportunity of conversing with them familiarly in the British
+     [Welsh] language, and did preach to them in the same language three
+     times a week, and they would confer with me about any thing that
+     was difficult therein, and at our departure they abundantly
+     supplied us with whatever was necessary to our support and well
+     doing. They are settled upon Pontigo River, not far from Cape
+     Atros. This is a brief recital of my travels among the Doeg
+     Indians.
+
+     MORGAN JONES,
+
+     "the son of John Jones, of Basateg, near Newport, in the County of
+     Monmouth. I am ready to conduct any Welshman or others to the
+     country.
+
+     "New York, March 10th, 1685-6."
+
+Other accounts of his "travels" among the "Doegs" of the Tuscarora
+nation were published much earlier, but no other has been preserved. His
+veracity was never questioned. What shall be said of his statement? Were
+the remains of Prince Madog's company represented in these "Doeg"
+Tuscaroras? He is very explicit in regard to the matter of language, and
+it is not easy to see how he could be mistaken. They understood his
+Welsh, not without needing explanation of some things "difficult
+therein." He was able to converse with them and preach to them in Welsh;
+and yet, if he got an explanation of the existence of the Welsh language
+among these "Doegs," or sought to know any thing in regard to their
+traditional history, he omits entirely to say so. Without meaning to
+doubt his veracity, one feels skeptical, and desires a more intelligent
+and complete account of these "travels."
+
+
+C.
+
+ANTIQUITIES OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS.
+
+There are indications that the Pacific world had an important ancient
+history, and these multiply as our knowledge of that world increases.
+The wide diffusion of Malay dialects in the Pacific islands suggests the
+controlling influence by which that ancient history was directed. The
+ancient remains at Easter Island are known; two of the "great images"
+found there are now in the British Museum. All who have examined this
+island believe these remains "were the work of a former race," and that
+it had formerly "an abundant population." It is not generally known that
+antiquities more important than these exist on many of the other islands
+of the Pacific Ocean.
+
+An educated and very intelligent gentleman, who has lived many years on
+one of these islands, and visited a considerable portion of Polynesia,
+finds that the Pacific has antiquities which deserve attention. He has
+sent me papers containing descriptions of some of them, taken from the
+diary of an intelligent and observant shipmaster, much of whose life as
+a mariner has been passed on the Pacific. These papers were prepared for
+publication in a newspaper at Sydney. The gentleman sending them says in
+his letter: "These researches are not very minute or accurate, but they
+indicate that there is a vast field ready for exploration in the
+Pacific, as well as in Central America and Egypt."
+
+The papers to which I refer begin with ruins observed in the island of
+Ascension or Fanipe, and describe "the great temple" at Metallanine.
+This was a large edifice, well built of stone, and connected with canals
+and earth-works. "Vaults, passages, and platforms, all of basaltic
+stones," are mentioned; also, "below the pavement of the main
+quadrangle, on opposite sides, are two passages or gateways, each about
+ten feet square, pierced through the outer wall down to the waters of
+the canal." Within the walls is a "central pyramidal chamber or temple,"
+with a tree growing on it. The whole ruin is now covered with trees and
+other vegetation.
+
+Other ruins exist in the island, one or two of which are described.
+"Some are close upon the sea-shore, others are on the tops of solitary
+hills, and some are found on plateaus or cleared spaces far inland, but
+commanding views of the sea. One of the latter kind is a congeries of
+ruinous heaps of square stones, covering at least five or six acres. It
+is situated on a piece of table-land, surrounded by dense forest
+growths, and itself covered with low jungle. There is the appearance of
+a ditch, in the form of a cross, at the intersecting angles of which are
+tall mounds of ruin, of which the original form is now undistinguishable
+beyond the fact that the basements, constructed of large stones,
+indicate that the structures were square. The natives can not be induced
+to go near this place, although it abounds in wild pigeons, which they
+are extremely fond of hunting."
+
+These ruined structures were not built by barbarous people such as now
+inhabit the island of Ascension. There is no tradition relating to their
+origin or history among the present inhabitants, who, it is said,
+attribute them to "mauli," evil spirits. The "great temple" was occupied
+for a time, "several generations ago," according to the natives, by the
+shipwrecked crew of a Spanish buccaneer; and relics of these outlaws are
+still found in its vaults, which they used as storehouses.
+
+On many low islands of the Marshall and Gilbert groups are curious
+pyramids, tall and slender, built of stones. The natives regard them
+with superstitious fear. The author of these papers, being a mariner,
+suggests that they are "landmarks or relics of ancient copper-colored
+voyagers of the Polynesian race during their great migrations."
+Remarkable structures of this kind are found on Tapituea, one of the
+Kingsmill islands, and on Tinian, one of the Ladrones, where, also,
+remarkable Cyclopean structures are found. They are solid, truncated
+pyramidal columns, generally about twenty feet high and ten feet square
+at the base. The monuments on Tinian were seen by M. Arago, who
+accompanied Bougainville. According to his description they form two
+long colonnades, the two rows being thirty feet apart, and seeming to
+have once been connected by something like roofing. On Swallow's Island,
+some twelve degrees eastward of Tapituea, is a pyramid similar in
+construction; and on the west side of this island is "a vast
+quadrangular inclosure of stone, containing several mounds, or probably
+edifices of some kind, of which the form and contents are not known by
+reason of their being buried under drift-sand and guano."
+
+On Strong's Island, and others connected with it, are ruins similar to
+those at Metallanine. On Lele, which is separated from Strong's Island
+at the harbor by a very narrow channel, there is a "conical mountain
+surrounded by a wall some twenty feet high, and of enormous thickness."
+The whole island appears to present "a series of Cyclopean inclosures
+and lines of great walls every where overgrown with forest." Some of the
+inclosures are parallelograms 200 by 100 feet in extent; one is much
+larger. The walls are generally twelve feet thick, and within are
+vaults, artificial caverns, and secret passages. No white man is allowed
+to live on Lele, and strangers are forbidden to examine the ruins, in
+which, it is supposed, is concealed the plunder taken by the natives
+from captured or stranded ships. On the southwest side of the harbor, at
+Strong's Island, "are many canals lined with stone. They cross each
+other at right angles, and the islands between their intersections were
+artificially raised, and had tall buildings erected on them, some of
+which are still entire. One quadrangular tower, about forty feet high,
+is very remarkable. The forest around them is dense and gloomy; the
+canals are broken and choked with mangroves." Not more than 500 people
+now inhabit these islands; their tradition is, that an ancient city
+formerly stood around this harbor, mostly on Lele, occupied by a
+powerful people whom they call "Anut," and who had large vessels, in
+which they made long voyages east and west, "many moons" being required
+for one of these voyages.
+
+Great stone structures on some of Navigator's Islands, of which the
+natives can give no account, are mentioned without being particularly
+described. Some account is given of one remarkable structure. On a
+mountain ridge 1500 feet above the sea, and near the edge of a precipice
+500 feet high, is a circular platform built of huge blocks of volcanic
+stone. It is 150 feet in diameter, and about 20 feet high. On one side
+was the precipice, and on the other a ditch that may have been
+originally 20 feet deep. Trees six feet in diameter are now growing in
+the ruins of this platform. Remarkable ruins exist on some of the
+Marquesas Islands, but they have not been clearly described.
+
+At first, when these antiquities were noticed by seamen, it was
+suggested that they were the remains of works constructed by the old
+buccaneers; but closer examination soon put aside this theory. Neither
+the buccaneers, nor any other people from Europe, would have constructed
+such works; and, besides, it is manifest that they were ruins before any
+crew of buccaneers sailed on the Pacific. The remains on Easter Island
+were described by Captain Cook. It has now been discovered that such
+remains exist at various points throughout Polynesia, and greater
+familiarity with the islands will very likely bring to light many that
+have not yet been seen by Europeans. The author of these papers,
+referring to the old discarded suggestion relative to the buccaneers,
+says: "Centuries of European occupation would have been required for the
+existence of such extensive remains, which are, moreover, not in any
+style of architecture practiced by people of the Old World."
+
+It is stated that similar stone-work, consisting of "walls, strongholds,
+and great inclosures," exists on the eastern side of Formosa, which is
+occupied by a people wholly distinct in race from the Mongols who
+invaded and occupied the other side. The influence to which these
+ancient works are due seems to have pervaded Polynesia from the
+Marquesas Islands at the east, to the Ladrone and Carolina Islands at
+the west, and what is said of the present inhabitants of Ascension
+Island might have a wider application, namely, "They create on the mind
+of a stranger the impression of a people who have degenerated from
+something higher and better." At a few points in Polynesia a small
+portion of the people show Mongol traits. Dark-colored people, evidently
+of the Papuan variety, somewhat mixed with the brown race it may be, are
+found at various points in larger numbers; but the great body of the
+Polynesians are a brown race, established (at a very remote period,
+perhaps) by a mixture of the Papuans with the Malays. Now take into
+consideration the former existence of a great Malayan empire, the wide
+distribution of Malay dialects on the Pacific, and the various
+indications that there was formerly in Polynesia something higher and
+better in the condition of the people, and the ancient history indicated
+by these ruins will not seem mysterious, nor shall we feel constrained
+to treat as incredible the Central American and Peruvian traditions that
+anciently strangers came from the Pacific world in ships to the west
+coast of America for commercial intercourse with the civilized countries
+existing here.
+
+Ruins similar in character are found in the Sandwich Islands, but here
+the masonry is occasionally superior to that found elsewhere. A
+gentleman interested in archaeological inquiries gives the following
+account of a Hawaiian ruin which he visited in the interior, about
+thirty miles from Hilo. He says he went with several companions to the
+hill of Kukii, which he describes as follows:
+
+"The hill is so regular in its outline that it appears like a work of
+art, a giant effort of the Mound-Builders. Its general form resembles
+very much the pyramid of Cholulu in Mexico, and from this fact I felt a
+great interest in climbing it. We proceeded, Conway, Eldhardt, Kaiser,
+and I, on foot up the grassy slope of the hill. There was an absence of
+all volcanic matter; no stone on the hill except what had been brought
+there by the hand of man. As we arrived near the summit we came upon
+great square blocks of hewn stone overgrown by shrubbery, and on
+reaching the summit we found that it had been leveled and squared
+according to the cardinal points, and paved. We found two square blocks
+of hewn stone imbedded in the earth in an upright position, some fifteen
+feet apart, and ranging exactly east and west. Over the platform was
+rank grass, and a grove of cocoanuts some hundred years old. Examining
+farther, I found that the upper portion of the hill had been terraced;
+the terraces near the summit could be distinctly traced, and they had
+evidently been faced with hewn stone. The stones were in perfect squares
+of not less than three feet in diameter, many of them of much greater
+size. They were composed of a dark vitreous basalt, the most durable of
+all stone. It is remarkable that every slab was faced and polished upon
+every side, so that they could fit together like sheets of paper. They
+reminded me much of the polished stones in some of the walls of
+Tiahuanuco, and other ruins in Peru. Many of the blocks were lying
+detached; probably some had been removed; but there were still some
+thirty feet of the facing on the lower terrace partly in position. But
+all showed the ravages of time and earthquakes, and were covered with
+accumulated soil, grass, and shrubbery. Conway and myself, in descending
+the hill, had our attention attracted by a direct line of shrubbery
+running from the summit to the base of the hill, on the western side, to
+the cocoanut grove below. Upon examination, we found it to be the
+remains of a stairway, evidently of hewn stone, that had led from the
+foot of the hill to the first terrace, a height of nearly 300 feet.
+Within this stairway, near the base, we found a cocoanut-tree growing,
+more than 200 years old, the roots pressing out the rocks. The site for
+a temple is grand and imposing, and the view extensive, sweeping the
+ocean, the mountains, and the great lava plain of Puna. It was also
+excellent in a military point of view as a lookout. From the summit it
+appeared as an ancient green island, around which had surged and rolled
+a sea of lava; and so it evidently has been.
+
+"By whom and when was this hill terraced and these stones hewn? There is
+a mystery hanging around this hill which exists nowhere else in the
+Sandwich Islands. The other structures so numerously scattered over the
+group are made of rough stone; there is no attempt at a terrace; there
+is no flight of steps leading to them; there is no hewn or polished
+stone, nor is there any evidence of the same architectural skill
+evinced. They are the oldest ruins yet discovered, and were evidently
+erected by a people considerably advanced in arts, acquainted with the
+use of metallic instruments, the cardinal points, and some mathematical
+knowledge. Were they the ancestors of the present Hawaiians, or of a
+different race that has passed away?"
+
+He inquired of the oldest natives concerning the history of this ruin,
+but "they could give only vague and confused traditions in regard to it,
+and these were contradictory. The only point on which they agreed was
+that it had never been used within the memory of man." They also said
+there was another old structure of the same kind in Kona, whose history
+is lost. The language of the Sandwich Islands is so manifestly a dialect
+of the Malayan tongue, that the influence of the Malays must have been
+paramount in these islands in ancient times.
+
+
+D.
+
+DECIPHERING THE INSCRIPTIONS.
+
+In the "Actes de la Societe Philologique," Paris, for March, 1870, Mons.
+H. de Charencey gives some particulars of his attempt to decipher
+"fragments" of one or two very brief inscriptions on the bas-relief of
+the cross at Palenque. I know nothing of his qualifications for this
+work, but he appears to have studied the characters of the Maya
+alphabet preserved and explained by Landa. It is seen, however, that his
+attempt to decipher the inscriptions is a complete failure. In fact, he
+professes to have done no more than reproduce two or three words in
+Roman characters. He gives us _Hunab-ku_, _Eznab_, and _Kukulcan_ as
+words found on the cross. _Eznab_ is supposed to be the name of a month,
+or of a day of the week, and the others names of divinities. He finds
+that the characters of the inscriptions are not in all respects
+identical with those found in Landa, and that Landa's list, especially
+when tested by the inscriptions, is incomplete. There is not absolute
+certainty in regard to the name Kukulcan; nevertheless, M. de Charencey
+makes this speculative use of it:
+
+"The presence of the name 'Kukulcan' on the bas-relief of the cross is
+important in a historical point of view. The name of this demigod, which
+signifies 'the serpent with the quetzal plumes,' is the Maya form of the
+Mexican name 'Quetzalcohuatl,' which has precisely the same meaning. But
+we know that the name and worship of this god were brought to the high
+plateaus of Central America toward the ninth century of our era,
+consequently the bas-relief in question can not be more ancient."
+
+This assumes that the worship of Kukulcan was never heard of by the
+Mayas until the Aztecs arrived in Mexico, an assumption for which there
+is no warrant, and which proceeds in utter disregard of facts. It was
+the Aztecs who had never heard of Kukulcan, or, at least, had not
+adopted his worship, previous to this time. The Aztecs, when they
+settled in Anahuac, did not impart new ideas, religion, or culture to
+any body; on the contrary, they received much from the civilization of
+their new neighbors, which was more advanced than their own. It is very
+certain that neither the Mayas nor the Quiches borrowed any thing from
+them.
+
+We need not go back so far as the ninth century to find the time when
+the Aztecs adopted, or at least organized in Mexico, the worship of
+Kukulcan, whose name they transformed into Quetzalcohuatl. His worship
+did not begin with them; they did not introduce it; they found it in the
+country as a very ancient worship, and adopted their form of it from the
+people who yielded to their sway.
+
+If M. de Charencey will inquire with a little more care, he will
+discover that Kukulcan was one of the very oldest personages in Central
+American mythology, as _Con_ was one of the oldest in that of Peru.
+Kukulcan, sometimes as Zamna, was associated with almost every thing in
+civilization. He introduced the beginnings of civilized life, invented
+the art of writing, and was to the Central Americans not wholly unlike
+what Thoth was to the Egyptians, and Tautus, or Taut, to the
+Phoenicians. If the bas-relief of the cross at Palenque were half as old
+as his worship in Central America, it would be far more ancient than any
+one has supposed.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX.
+
+
+[The figures in this Index refer to pages.]
+
+  Adobe used in Northern Mexico, 82;
+    in Peru for later constructions, 243;
+    used by Mound-Builders, 27.
+
+  Ancient history of Mexico and Central America in the old books and
+      traditions, 197-200;
+    Aztecs preceded by Toltecs, and Toltecs by Colhuas, 198;
+    Colhuas the original civilizers, 198-9;
+    they may have come from South America, 198, 200;
+    Chichimecs the original barbarians, 198;
+    the Colhuas first settled in Tabasco, 199;
+    Mayas, Quiches, Tzendals, etc., originally Colhuas, 200, 205;
+    Colhuan kingdom of Xibalba, 199;
+    Colhuas, Toltecs, and Aztecs branches of the same people, 206;
+    such a history implied by the political condition in which the
+      country was found, 206;
+    theories of this old civilization considered, 165-183;
+    it was original in America, 184-6.
+
+  Antiquity of man and civilization, 181-2, 273-5.
+
+  Antiquity of the Mexican and Central American ruins, 151-59, 184;
+    the great forest was 450 years ago what it is now, 151;
+    it covers an ancient seat of civilization, 95, 151, 152;
+    Copan forgotten and mysterious before the Conquest, 152;
+    there was a long period of history preceded by development of the
+      civilization, 152, 153;
+    distinct epochs traced, 155, 156;
+    no perishable materials left in the ruins, 156-159;
+    an extreme notion of their antiquity, 157, 158, 207;
+    another notion makes this the "oldest civilization in the world,"
+      159-61;
+    Tyrians saw the old cities 3000 years ago, 162-64.
+
+  Antiquity of the Mound-Builders, 45-51;
+    a new river terrace formed since they left, 47;
+    decayed condition of their skeletons shows antiquity, 48-9;
+    "primeval" forests found growing over their works, 50-1.
+
+  Astronomical monument in Southern Mexico, 122-3;
+    at Chapultepec, 220-1;
+    in Peru, 254;
+    Mexican calendars, 214-15;
+    Peruvian calendars, 236. See Telescopic Tubes.
+
+  Atlantis supposed to be an ingulfed part of America, 175-7;
+    its destruction recorded in Egypt and related to Solon, 177-8;
+    said to be recorded in old Central American books, 176;
+    Proclus on remembrance of Atlantis, 178;
+    derivation of the words Atlas, Atlantes, and Atlantic, 179;
+    opinions relative to former existence of such land, 180-1;
+    geological probabilities, 181;
+    memory of war with the Atlantes preserved at Athens, 178.
+
+  Aztec civilization denied in a "New History," 207-8;
+    facts discredit this denial, 208-9;
+    Cortez found abundant supplies, 208, 210;
+    found Mexican mechanics, masons, and the like, 213, 214, 215;
+    the city of Mexico and its great temple, realities, 208, 212, 215;
+    both described, 211-12;
+    present remains of them, 214-15.
+
+  Aztecs, the, were less civilized than their predecessors, 221;
+    they came from the south, 217-18;
+    when they left Aztlan, 219;
+    how long they had been in Mexico, 219;
+    what they learned and borrowed of their neighbors, 220-1;
+    did not adopt the phonetic system of writing, 221;
+    could not have left such ruined cities as Palenque and Mitla, 221;
+    Aztecs still found at the south, 218-19.
+
+
+  Balboa's hunt for Peru, 223-4.
+
+  Basques, their fishing voyages to America, 62.
+
+  Books of ancient America destroyed in Mexico and Central America by
+      the Aztec Ytzcoatl, 189;
+    by Spanish fanaticism, 188-9;
+    a few of the later books saved, 180-196;
+    some of the more important, 195-6;
+    books of hieroglyphics in Peru, 256.
+
+  Boturini collected Mexican and Central American books, 195;
+    misfortunes of his collection, 195-6.
+
+  Brasseur de Bourbourg on the antiquity of the Mound-Builders, 53;
+    on their Mexican origin, 57;
+    on their religion, 53;
+    on the Chichimecs, 198;
+    on Huehue Tlapalan, 201;
+    on Nahuatl chronology, 204;
+    his "Atlantic theory," 159, 160, 174-83;
+    he has great knowledge of American traditions and antiquities, 174;
+    discovered the works of Ximenes and Landa's Maya alphabet, 191, 192;
+    translated "Popol-Vuh," 192;
+    he is unsystematic, confused, and fanciful, 102, 160.
+
+  Brereton on the wild Indians of New England, 62-5;
+    his invented stories of their copper and flax, 62, 63.
+
+
+  Calendars in Mexico, 214-15;
+    in Peru, 236.
+
+  Central American and Southern Mexican ruins most important, 93;
+    their masonry and ornamentation, 99-101;
+    a great forest covers most of them, 94, 103, 104;
+    a road built into the forest in 1695, 95, 151-2;
+    this forest covers a chief seat of the ancient civilization, 95;
+    Cinaca-Mecallo, 124.
+
+  Cevola, "Seven Cities" of, 85-9.
+
+  Charencey, M. de, attempts to decipher an inscription, 292-3;
+    his singular speculation concerning the worship of Kukulcan, 293.
+
+  Charnay, Desire, his account of Mitla, 121, 122.
+
+  Chronology of the Mexican race, 203-4;
+    of the Peruvians, 265-6.
+
+  Civilization, antiquity of, underrated, 181-2, 273.
+
+  Cloth of Mound-Builders, fragments of, 41.
+
+  Coin among the Muyscas, 271.
+
+  "Coliseum" at Copan, 114.
+
+  Columbus and the Mayas, 209-10.
+
+  Copan, its ruins situated in wild region, 111;
+    first discovered in 1576, and were then mysterious to the natives,
+      93, 111;
+    what Mr. Stephens saw there, 111, 112;
+    what Palacios found there 300 years ago, 113, 114;
+    the inscriptions, monoliths, and decorations, 112;
+    seems older than Palenque, 112, 113, 155.
+
+  Copper of Lake Superior described, 43.
+
+  Coronado's conquest of "Cevola," 85, 86.
+
+  Cortez invades Mexico, 210;
+    his progress, 210-11;
+    well received at the city of Mexico, 211;
+    driven from the city, 213;
+    how the city was taken, 213-14;
+    it was immediately rebuilt, 214;
+    the plaza made of part of the inclosure of the great temple, 214;
+    Cortez could not have invented the temple, 215.
+
+  Cross, the, not originally a Christian emblem, 109;
+    vastly older than Christianity as a symbolic device, 109, 110;
+    common in Central American ruins, 109;
+    the assumption that it was first used as a Christian emblem has
+      misled inquiry as to the age and origin of antiquities, 110.
+
+  Cuzco, Montesinos on its name, 227;
+    was probably built by the Incas on the site of a ruined city of the
+      older times, 226-7;
+    the ruins at Cuzco, 226, 234-5.
+
+
+  Egyptian pyramids totally unlike those in America, 183;
+    no resemblance between Egyptians and the Mexican race, 183.
+
+  Ethnology, American, discussed, 65-9;
+    South Americans the oldest aborigines, 68, 69, 185;
+    Huxley's suggestion, 69.
+
+
+  Gallatin, Albert, on Mound-Builders, 34.
+
+  Garcilasso partly of Inca blood, 258;
+    not well qualified to write a history of Peru, 258-9;
+    he began with the fable of Manco-Capac, and confined all history
+      to the Incas, 259-61;
+    was received as an "authority," 269;
+    his influence has misdirected Peruvian studies, 269.
+
+  Gila, valley of, its ruins, 82.
+
+  Gold the most common metal in Peru, 250;
+    astonishing abundance of Peruvian gold-work, 249-50;
+    their gardens made of gold, 250;
+    amount of gold sent from Peru to Spain, 238, 250;
+    gold calendar found recently at Cuzco, 236.
+
+
+  Herrara[TN-7] on the buildings in Yucatan, 149.
+
+  Huehue-Tlapalan, from which the Toltecs went to Mexico, 57, 75, 201-3;
+    supposed to be the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, 202, 203;
+    described in old Central American books, 202;
+    the Toltecs driven from Huehue-Tlapalan by the Chichimecs, or wild
+      Indians, 203;
+    it was at a distance northeast of Mexico, 201, 202;
+    Cabrera and others on Huehue-Tlapalan, 202.
+
+  Humboldt on Phoenician symbols in America, 186;
+    on the origin of the Aztecs, 218;
+    on Peruvian great roads, 245;
+    on books of hieroglyphics found in Peru, 246, 255;
+    describes the pyramid of Papantla, 91, 92.
+
+  Huxley on American ethnology, 69.
+
+
+  Incas of Peru, origin of the title, 267;
+    they represent only the last period of Peruvian history, 261;
+    their dynasty began 500 years or less before the Conquest, 260-1;
+    list of the Incas, 261;
+    Manco-Capac a fable, 260-1.
+
+  Indians of North America, vain endeavors to connect them with the
+      Mound-Builders, 62;
+    came toward the Atlantic from the northwest, 59;
+    the Iroquois group may have come first, 58;
+    their distribution relative to the Algonquins, 59, 60;
+    date of Algonquin migration estimated, 60;
+    these Indians resemble the Koraks and Chookchees, 65, 185;
+    they are entirely distinct from Mound-Builders and Pueblos, 60, 65;
+    their barbarism original, 61.
+
+  "Inscription Rock," 78.
+
+  Inscriptions in Central America written in Maya characters, 196;
+    written perhaps in an old form of speech from which the Maya family
+      of dialects was derived, 196;
+    attempts to decipher them, 292.
+
+  Iron, names for, in ancient Peru, 248.
+
+  Israelitish theory of ancient America, 166-7.
+
+
+  Keweenaw Point, a copper district, 44.
+
+  Kukulcan, his worship, 220, 293.
+
+
+  Lake Peten in the forest, Maya settlement there, 95;
+    Ursua's road from Yucatan to the lake, 95.
+
+  Landa wrote on the Mayas of Yucatan, 191;
+    preserved the Maya alphabet, with explanations, 191.
+
+  Languages in Mexico and Central America, 200, 205;
+    three groups, 216;
+    probably not radically distinct, 206, 216;
+    the most important group supposed to be Colhuan, 205.
+
+  Las Casas on Central American annalists, 187-8;
+    what he says of the old books and their destruction, 188.
+
+
+  Maize, did Indians get it from Mound-Builders? 35.
+
+  Malays, their ancient empire, 167-8;
+    their navigation of the Pacific, 168;
+    spread of their dialects, 168;
+    came to America, 169, 170, 272;
+    El Masudi[TN-8] on the Malays, 168;
+    were not civilizers in America, 170-1;
+    ruins of Malayan cities in Java, 163-9.
+
+  Manco-Capac a fiction of the Incas, 260-1;
+    discarded by Montesinos and other early Spanish writers, 261, 269.
+
+  Mandan Indians supposed Mound-Builders, 74.
+
+  Mayas first seen by Columbus, 209;
+    their phonetic alphabet preserved, 191;
+    descendants of the first civilizers, 170.
+
+  Mexican cities noticed by Spaniards, 211, 215;
+    what Montezuma said of his building materials, 209.
+
+  Mexican "picture-writing" a peculiarity of the Aztecs, 221;
+    much inferior to the Maya writing, 221;
+    something like it at Chichen-Itza, 143;
+    Aztecs could not have left such inscriptions as those seen in the
+      ruined cities, 221.
+
+  Mexican ruins in the central region, 89-92;
+    Tulha, 89;
+    Xochicalco, 89, 90;
+    Papantla, 91, 92;
+    Cholula, 90;
+    Teotihuacan, 90;
+    pyramids with galleries, 91;
+    unexplored antiquities in this region, 91.
+
+  Mining works of Mound-Builders, 43-6;
+    mining method of the Mound-Builders, 43;
+    their mining tools found, 44, 46;
+    they left a detached mass of copper in a mine, 43-4;
+    antiquity of their mining works, 46, 53, 64.
+
+  Mitla, its ruins show refined skill in the builders, 118, 121;
+    the decorations, 121;
+    present state of the ruins, 117-122.
+
+  Montesinos, Fernando, explored and studied Peru fifteen years, 261;
+    unequaled in knowledge of its antiquities and traditional history, 263;
+    his means of information, 262;
+    how historical narratives and poems were preserved by the _amautas_,
+      263;
+    how literature can be preserved by trained memory, 262-3;
+    Homer and the Vedas, 262-3.
+
+  Montesinos on Peruvian history, 264-7;
+    there were three distinct periods, 264;
+    he rejects the Manco-Capac fable, 264;
+    does not begin the history with such stories, 264;
+    reports 64 kings in the first period, 264;
+    his account of the Peruvian sovereigns, 264-7;
+    the art of writing existed in the older time, 265;
+    how the first period closed, 266;
+    the second period, for 1000 years, a period of invasions, divisions,
+      small states, and general decline of civilization, 264, 267;
+    in this period the art of writing was lost, 267;
+    in it the 26 successors of the 64 kings were merely kings of
+      Tambotoco, 266;
+    how this period ended, 267-8;
+    the third period began with Rocca, the first Inca, 267;
+    why Montesinos has not been duly appreciated, 268-9;
+    his facts stand apart from his theories, 268;
+    probabilities favor his report of three periods, 270-1.
+
+  Montezuma on his building-material, 209.
+
+  Morgan, Lewis H., on the Indians, 59, 60, 66.
+
+  Mound-Builders, their national name unknown, 14, 57;
+    their mound-work and its uses, 17-19;
+    like mound-work in Mexico and Central America, 70, 71, 72;
+    their civilization, 33-39;
+    used wood for building material, 70, 71;
+    their inclosures, 19-24;
+    their works at the south, 24, 27;
+    their principal settlements, 30, 31, 34;
+    their border settlements, 52;
+    had commerce with Mexico, 73;
+    relics of their manufactures, 40, 41, 61;
+    their long stay in the country, 51-55;
+    were not ancestors of wild Indians, 58-61;
+    came from Mexico, 70;
+    were connected with Mexico through Texas, 73;
+    probably were Toltecs, 74, 200-3.
+
+  Muyscas, their civilization, 271.
+
+
+  Nahuatl or Toltec chronology, 203-4.
+
+  Natchez Indians, were they degenerate Mound-Builders, 58, 56.
+
+  Northmen in America, 279-85;
+    they discovered Greenland, 280;
+    their settlements in Greenland, 280-1, 284;
+    Biarni's constrained voyage to Massachusetts in 985 A.D., 163, 281;
+    subsequent voyages to New England, 281-4;
+    encounters with the Indians, 282, 283;
+    the Norse settlements in Vinland were probably lumbering and trading
+      establishments, 284;
+    not people enough in Greenland and Iceland to make extensive
+      settlements, 284;
+    written narratives of these discoveries, 279-80.
+
+
+  Origin of Mexican and Central American civilization, theories of,
+      165-183;
+    the "lost tribes" theory absurd, 166-7;
+    the Malay theory untenable, 170-1;
+    the Phoenician theory fails to explain it, 173-4;
+    the Atlantic theory explained by Brasseur de Bourbourg not likely
+      to be received, 182;
+    it was an original American civilization, 184;
+    may have begun in South America, 185, 246, 272-3.
+
+  Orton, Prof., on Peruvian antiquity, 273, 274.
+
+
+  Pacific islands, their antiquities, 288-92.
+
+  Palenque, Stephens's first view of, 100;
+    this city's name unknown, 104;
+    supposed to have been the ancient Xibalba, 199;
+    some of its ruins described, 105-9;
+    extent of the old city can not be determined, 96, 105;
+    difficulties of exploration, 105, 110;
+    the cross at Palenque, 109;
+    aqueduct, 105.
+
+  Papantla, its remarkable stone pyramid, 91, 92;
+    important ruins in the forests of Papantla and Misantla, 91.
+
+  Paper, Peruvian name of, 267;
+    manufacture of, for writing, proscribed in the second period of
+      Peruvian history, 267.
+
+  Peruvian ancient history, 257-67.
+
+  Peruvian civilization, 246;
+    differed from Central American, 222-3, 246;
+    is seen in the civil and industrial organization, 247;
+    in their agriculture, 247;
+    in their manufactures, 247-51;
+    their dyes, 247-8;
+    their skill in gold-work, 249;
+    the abundance of gold-work, 249-50;
+    their schools of the _amautas_, 253, 263;
+    their literature, 255;
+    anciently had the art of writing, 255, 267;
+    had names for iron, and said to have worked iron mines, 248-9.
+
+  Peruvian ruins, where found, 222, 237;
+    they represent two periods of civilization, 226;
+    remains on islands in Lake Titicaca, 227-8;
+    at Tiahuanaco, 233-4;
+    remarkable monolithic gateways, 233-4;
+    at old Huanuco, 239-40;
+    at Gran-Chimu, 237-8;
+    ruins of a large and populous city, 237;
+    Cuelap, 239;
+    Pachacamac, 243;
+    subterranean passage under a river, 243;
+    the aqueducts, 222, 237, 243;
+    the great roads, 243-6;
+    ruins at Cuzco, 234.
+
+  Phoenicians, or people of that race, came probably to America in very
+      ancient times, 172, 173;
+    decline of geographical knowledge around the AEgean after Phoenicia
+      was subjugated, about B.C. 813, 272-3;
+    supposed Phoenician symbols in Central America, 186;
+    Phoenician race may have influenced Central American civilization,
+      but did not originate it, 173, 185;
+    Tyrians storm-driven to America, 162, 163.
+
+  Pizarro seeks Peru, 224-5;
+    discovers the country, 225;
+    goes to Spain for aid, 225;
+    finally lands at Tumbez, 225;
+    marches to Caxamalca, 220;
+    perpetrates wholesale murder and seizes the Inca, 220;
+    the Inca fills a room with gold for ransom, and is murdered, 220, 249.
+
+  "Popol-Vuh," an old Quiche book translated, 192;
+    what it contains, 193;
+    Quiche account of the creation, 194;
+    four attempts to create man, 194-5;
+    its mythology grew out of an older system, 193-4;
+    kingdom of Quiche not older than 1200 A.D., 193.
+
+  Pueblos, 76, 77;
+    Pueblo ruins, 77-89;
+    occupied northern frontier of the Mexican race, 68, 217-18;
+    unlike the wild Indians, 67-8.
+
+
+  Quiches, notices of, 193.
+
+  Quippus, Peruvian, 254-5.
+
+  Quirigua, its ruins like those of Copan, but older, 114;
+    it is greatly decayed, 117;
+    has inscriptions, 117.
+
+  Quito subjugated by Huayna-Capac, 225;
+    was civilized like Peru, 270;
+    modern traveler's remark on, 276.
+
+
+  Savage theory of human history, 182.
+
+  "Semi-Village Indians," 67, 68.
+
+  Serpent, figures of, 28;
+    great serpent inclosure, 28.
+
+  Simpson, Lieut., describes a Pueblo ruin, 88, 89.
+
+  Spinning and weaving in Peru, 247;
+    vestiges of these arts among the Mound-Builders, 41;
+    the Mayas had textile fabrics, 209.
+
+  Squier on the Aztecs, 92;
+    on the more southern ruins in Central America, 123, 124;
+    on the monoliths of Copan, 112;
+    on Central American forests, 94;
+    on the ruins of Tiahuanaco, 234.
+
+
+  Telescopic tubes of the Mound-Builders, 42;
+    silver figure of a Peruvian using such a tube, 254;
+    such a tube on a Mexican monument, 123.
+
+  "Tennis Court" at Chichen-Itza, 142.
+
+  Titicaca Lake, its elevation above sea-level, 236.
+
+  Tlascalans, what Cortez found among them, 210;
+    their capital, 211;
+    aided the Spaniards, 211.
+
+  Toltecs identified with the Mound-Builders, 201-205;
+    how they came to Mexico, 201, 202;
+    date of their migration, 204. See Huehue Tlapalan.
+
+  Tuloom, in Yucatan, 150.
+
+
+  Uxmal described, 131-137;
+    more modern than Palenque, 155;
+    partly inhabited, perhaps, when Cortez invaded Mexico, 131, 155.
+
+
+  Valley of Rio Verde, its ruins, 82, 85.
+
+
+  Wallace, A. R., on ruins in Java, 168-9.
+
+  Welsh, the, in America, 285-7;
+    Prince Madog's emigration, 285;
+    his colony supposed to have been destroyed or absorbed by the
+      Indians, 286;
+    letter of Rev. Morgan Jones on his "travels" among the Doeg Indians
+      who spoke Welsh, 286-7.
+
+  Whipple, Lieut., on Pueblo ruins, 78-85.
+
+  Whittlesey on the ancient mining, 46, 54.
+
+  Wilson's discoveries in Ecuador, 274-5.
+
+  Writing, phonetic, among the Mayas, 187-91;
+    Aztec writing much ruder, 221;
+    writing in Peru, 254-6, 267;
+    Peruvian books of hieroglyphics, 256;
+    such writing on a llama skin found at Lake Titicaca, 256.
+
+
+  Xibalba, an ancient Colhuan kingdom, where it was situated, 199;
+    subjugated by the Toltecs, 199.
+
+  Ximenes, Father Francisco, his manuscript work on Guatemala, 191-2;
+    his dictionary of the native tongues, 192;
+    discovered and translated "Popol Vuh," 192.
+
+  Xochicalco, its pyramidal temple situated on an excavated and chambered
+      hill, 89, 90.
+
+
+  Yucatan, its native name is Maya, 125;
+    what is seen at Mayapan, 127, 128;
+    the old edifices at Uxmal, 131-137;
+    very ancient ruins at Kabah, 137-139;
+    curious construction at Chichen-Itza, 142;
+    remarkable remains at Ake, 144;
+    aguadas in Yucatan, 145, 146;
+    subterranean reservoirs, 146;
+    Merida built on the site of a ruined city, 126;
+    what the Spaniards saw when they first sailed along its coast,
+      163, 210.
+
+
+  Zuni, an inhabited Pueblo described by Lieut. Whipple, 79, 80;
+    ruins of an "old Zuni" near it, 80, 81.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The following errors were found:
+
+         Page  Error
+  TN-1   ix    Quiragua should read Quirigua
+  TN-2   xi    Los Monjas should read Las Monjas
+  TN-3   124   of "great size." should read of 'great size.'"
+  TN-4   158   sufficently should read sufficiently
+  TN-5   280   there two years. should read there two years."
+  TN-6   286   communicated should read communication
+  TN-7   296   Herrara should read Herrera
+  TN-8   297   El Masudi should read El Mas'udi
+
+The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  Cholula / Cholulu
+  Chiapa / Chiapas
+  Inca-Rocca / Inca-Rocco
+  Mesantla / Misantla
+  Popol-Vuh / Popol Vuh
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient America, in Notes on American
+Archaeology, by John D. Baldwin
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