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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Care of Books, by John Willis Clark
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Care of Books
+
+Author: John Willis Clark
+
+Release Date: August 20, 2008 [EBook #26378]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CARE OF BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Sigal Alon, Christine D. and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  CARE OF BOOKS
+
+
+  London: C. J. CLAY AND SONS,
+  CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
+  AVE MARIA LANE,
+  Glasgow: 50, WELLINGTON STREET.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS.
+  New York: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+  Bombay: E. SEYMOUR HALE.
+
+[_All Rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  CARE OF BOOKS
+
+  An Essay on the
+  Development of Libraries and
+  their Fittings, from the earliest times to
+  the end of the Eighteenth Century
+
+  By
+
+  JOHN WILLIS CLARK, M.A., F.S.A.
+
+  Registrary of the University
+  and formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
+
+  CAMBRIDGE
+  at the University Press
+  1901
+
+
+  Cambridge:
+
+  PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY,
+  AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
+
+
+  FRANCISCO AIDANO GASQUET
+  MONACHO BENEDICTINO
+  D.D.
+  MAGISTRO DISCIPULUS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+When engaged in editing and completing _The Architectural History of the
+University and Colleges of Cambridge_, I devoted much time and attention
+to the essay called _The Library_. The subject was entirely new; and the
+more I looked into it, the more convinced did I become that it would well
+repay fuller investigation than was then possible. For instance, I felt
+certain that the Customs affecting monastic libraries would, if one could
+only discover them, throw considerable light on collegiate statutes
+relating to the same subject.
+
+The _Architectural History_ having been published, I had leisure to study
+libraries from my new point of view; and, while thus engaged, I
+fortunately met with the admirable paper by Dom Gasquet which he modestly
+calls _Some Notes on Medieval Monastic Libraries_. This brief essay--it
+occupies only 20 pages--opened my eyes to the possibilities that lay
+before me, and I gladly place on record here the debt I owe to the
+historian to whom I have dedicated this book.
+
+When I had the honour of delivering the Rede Lecture before the University
+of Cambridge in June 1894, I attempted a reconstruction of the monastic
+library, shewing its relationship, through its fittings, to the
+collegiate libraries of Oxford and Cambridge; and I was also able,
+following the example set by Dom Gasquet in the above-mentioned essay, to
+indicate the value of illuminated manuscripts as illustrating the life of
+a medieval student or scribe. In my lectures as Sandars Reader in
+Bibliography, delivered before the University of Cambridge in 1900, I
+developed the subject still further, extending the scope of my enquiries
+so as to include the libraries of Greece and Rome.
+
+In writing my present book I have availed myself freely of the three works
+above mentioned. At the same time I have incorporated much fresh material;
+and I am glad to take this opportunity of stating, that, with the single
+exception of the Escorial, I have personally examined and measured every
+building which I have had occasion to describe; and many of the
+illustrations are from my own sketches.
+
+I call my book an _Essay_, because I wish to indicate that it is only an
+attempt to deal, in a summary fashion, with an extremely wide and
+interesting subject--a subject, too, which might easily be subdivided into
+separate heads each capable of more elaborate treatment. For instance,
+with regard to libraries in Religious Houses, I hope to see a book
+written, dealing not merely with the way in which the books were cared
+for, but with the subjects most generally studied, as indicated to us by
+the catalogues which have survived.
+
+A research such as I have had to undertake has naturally involved the
+co-operation of numerous librarians and others both in England and on the
+Continent. From all these officials I have experienced unfailing courtesy
+and kindness, and I beg them to accept this collective expression of my
+gratitude. To some, however, I am under such particular obligations, that
+I wish to mention them by name.
+
+In the first place I have to thank my friends Dr Jackson of Trinity
+College, Dr Sandys of S. John's College, Dr James of King's College, and
+F. J. H. Jenkinson, M.A., University Librarian, for their kind help in
+reading proofs and making suggestions. Dr Sandys devoted much time to the
+revision of the first chapter. As my work deals largely with monastic
+institutions it is almost needless to say that I have consulted and
+received efficient help from my old friend W. H. St John Hope, M.A.,
+Assistant Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries.
+
+My researches in Rome were made easy to me by the unfailing kindness and
+ready help accorded on every occasion by Father C. J. Ehrle, S.J., Prefect
+of the Vatican Library. My best thanks are also due to Signor Rodolfo
+Lanciani, to Professor Petersen of the German Archeological Institute,
+Rome, and to Signor Guido Biagi of the Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence.
+At Milan Monsignor Ceriani of the Ambrosian Library was so kind as to have
+the library photographed for my use.
+
+The courteous officials who administer the great libraries of Paris with
+so much ability, have assisted me in all my researches. I wish specially
+to thank in this place M. Leopold Delisle and M. Leon Dorez of the
+Bibliotheque Nationale; M. A. Franklin of the Bibliotheque Mazarine; M. H.
+Martin of the Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal; and M. A. Perate,
+Sous-Conservateur du Chateau de Versailles.
+
+I have also to thank Senor Ricardo Velasquez for his beautiful elevation
+of the bookcases in the Escorial Library; Father J. van den Gheyn, S.J.,
+of the Royal Library, Brussels, for his trouble in shewing me, and
+allowing me to have photographed, several MSS. from the library under his
+charge; my friends Mr T. G. Jackson, R.A., Architect, for lending me his
+section of Bishop Cobham's library at Oxford; E. W. B. Nicholson, M.A.,
+Librarian, and Falconer Madan, M.A., Sub-Librarian, in the Bodleian
+Library, for information respecting the building and its contents; Mr F.
+E. Bickley of the British Museum for much help in finding and examining
+MSS.; and Lionel Cust, M.A., Director of the National Portrait Gallery,
+for general direction and encouragement.
+
+Messrs Macmillan have allowed me to use three illustrations which appear
+in the first chapter; Mr Murray has given the same permission for the
+woodcut of the carrells at Gloucester; and Messrs Blades for the
+representation of James Leaver's book-press.
+
+Lastly I wish to thank the staff of the University Press for using their
+best efforts to produce the work rapidly and well, and for many acts of
+personal kindness to myself.
+
+                                                     JOHN WILLIS CLARK.
+
+  SCROOPE HOUSE,
+    CAMBRIDGE,
+      _September 23rd, 1901._
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  Introduction. Assyrian Record-Rooms. Libraries in Greece, Alexandria,
+  Pergamon, Rome. Their size, use, contents, and fittings. Armaria or
+  presses. The Vatican Library of Sixtus V. a type of an ancient
+  Roman library                                                           1
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  Christian libraries connected with churches. Use of the apse. Monastic
+  communities. S. Pachomius. S. Benedict and his successors. Each
+  House had a library. Annual audit of books. Loan on security. Modes
+  of protection. Curses. Prayers for donors. Endowment of libraries.
+  Use of the cloister. Development of Cistercian book-room. Common
+  press. Carrells                                                        61
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  Increase of monastic collections. S. Riquier, Bobbio, Durham, Canterbury.
+  Books kept in other places than the cloister. Expedients for housing
+  them at Durham, Citeaux, and elsewhere. Separate libraries built in
+  fifteenth century at Durham, S. Albans, Citeaux, Clairvaux, etc.
+  Gradual extension of library at S. Germain des Pres. Libraries
+  attached to Cathedrals. Lincoln, Salisbury, Wells, Noyon, Rouen,
+  etc.                                                                  101
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  The fittings of monastic libraries and of collegiate libraries probably
+  identical. Analysis of some library-statutes. Monastic influence at
+  the Universities. Number of books owned by Colleges. The collegiate
+  library. Bishop Cobham's library at Oxford. Library at
+  Queens' College, Cambridge. At Zutphen. The lectern-system.
+  Chaining of books. Further examples and illustrations                 131
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  Recapitulation. Invention of the stall-system. Library of Corpus Christi
+  College, Oxford, taken as a type. System of chaining in Hereford
+  Cathedral. Libraries of Merton College, Oxford, and Clare College,
+  Cambridge. The stall-system copied at Westminster Abbey, Wells,
+  and Durham Cathedrals. This system possibly monastic. Libraries
+  at Canterbury, Dover Priory, Clairvaux                                171
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  The lectern-system in Italy. Libraries at Cesena, at the Convent of
+  S. Mark, Florence, and at Monte Oliveto. Vatican Library of Sixtus IV.
+  Ducal Library at Urbino. Medicean Library, Florence. System of
+  chaining there used. Characteristics of medieval libraries            199
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  Contrast between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Suppression of
+  the Monasteries. Commissioners of Edward VI. Subsequent changes in
+  library fittings. S. John's College, and University Library, Cambridge.
+  Queen's College, Oxford. Libraries attached to churches and schools.
+  Chaining in recent times. Chains taken off                            245
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  The wall-system. This began on the Continent. Library of the Escorial.
+  Ambrosian Library at Milan. Library of Cardinal Mazarin. Bodleian
+  Library at Oxford. Works and influence of Wren. French conventual
+  libraries of the seventeenth century                                  267
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  Private libraries. Abbat Simon and his book-chest. Library of Charles V.
+  of France. Illustrations of this library from illuminated manuscripts.
+  Book-lectern used in private houses. Book-desks revolving round a
+  central screw. Desks attached to chairs. Wall-cupboards. A scholar's
+  room in the fifteenth century. Study of the Duke of Urbino. Library
+  of Margaret of Austria. Library of Montaigne. Conclusion              291
+
+
+
+
+  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.                                                                 PAGE
+
+  1. Plan of the Record-Rooms in the Palace of Assur-bani-pal, King of
+     Nineveh                                                              2
+
+  2. Plan of the temple and precinct of Athena, Pergamon; with that of the
+     Library and adjacent buildings                                       9
+
+  3. Plan of the Porticus Octaviae, Rome. From _Formae Urbis Romae
+     Antiguae_, Berlin, 1896                                              13
+
+  4. Plan of the Forum of Trajan; after Nibby. From Middleton's
+     _Remains of Ancient Rome_                                           15
+
+  5. Plan of the Stoa of Hadrian, at Athens. From Miss Harrison's
+     _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_                         17
+
+  6. Elevation of a single compartment of the wall of the Library
+     discovered in Rome, 1883. From notes and measurements made by
+     Signor Lanciani and Prof. Middleton                                 23
+
+  7. Plan of the Record-House of Vespasian, with the adjoining
+     structures. From Middleton's _Remains of Ancient Rome_              26
+
+  8. Part of the internal wall of the Record-House of Vespasian. Reduced
+     from a sketch taken in the 16th century by Pirro Ligorio. From
+     _Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma_                         26
+
+  9. A reader with a roll: from a fresco at Pompeii                      28
+
+  10. Book-box or capsa                                                  30
+
+  11. A Roman taking down a roll from its place in a Library             35
+
+  12. Desk to support a roll while it is being read                      36
+
+  13. A Roman reading a roll in front of a press (_armarium_).
+      From a photograph of a sarcophagus in the garden of the Villa
+      Balestra, Rome _To face_                                           38
+
+  14. Press containing the four Gospels. From a mosaic above the tomb of
+      the Empress Galla Placidia at Ravenna                              39
+
+  15. Ezra writing the Law. Frontispiece to the _Codex Amiatinus_.
+      In the background is a press with open doors. The picture was
+      probably drawn in the middle of the sixth century A.D.
+                                                             _Frontispiece_
+
+  16. Great Hall of the Vatican Library, looking west
+      _To face_                                                          47
+
+  17. A single press in the Vatican Library, open. From a photograph
+      _To face_                                                          48
+
+  18. Rough ground-plan of the Great Hall of the Vatican Library,
+      to illustrate the account of the decoration _To face_              60
+
+  19. Press in the cloister at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossa Nuova       83
+
+  20. Ground-plan and elevation of the book-recesses in the cloister of
+      Worcester Cathedral                                                84
+
+  21. Ground-plan of part of the Abbey of Fossa Nuova. To shew the
+      book-room and book-press, and their relations to adjoining
+      structures: partly from Enlart's _Origines Francaises de
+      l'Architecture Gothique en Italie_, partly from my own
+      measurements                                                       85
+
+  22. Ground-plan of part of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire                  86
+
+  23. Ground-plan of part of Furness Abbey. From Mr W. H. St J. Hope's
+      plan                                                               88
+
+  24. Arches in south wall of Church at Beaulieu Abbey, Hampshire, once
+      possibly used as book-presses                  _To face_           89
+
+  25. The cloister, Westminster Abbey. From Mr Micklethwaite's plan of
+      the buildings                                                      91
+
+  26. Part of the ancient press in Bayeux Cathedral, called _Le
+      Chartrier de Bayeux_. From a photograph       _To face_            94
+
+  27. Press in the church at Obazine, Central France. From a photograph
+      _To face_                                                          95
+
+  28. Ground-plan of one of the windows in the cloister of Durham
+      Cathedral                                                          96
+
+  29. Range of carrells in the south cloister at Gloucester Cathedral.
+      From Mr Murray's _Handbook to the Western Cathedrals_              97
+
+  30. A single carrell, Gloucester Cathedral     _To face_               98
+
+  31. Library at Durham, built by Prior Wessyngton about 1446           107
+
+  32. Library of the Grey Friars House, London, commonly called Christ's
+      Hospital. From Trollope's _History of Christ's Hospital_
+      _To face_                                                         109
+
+  33. Bird's-eye view of part of the Monastery of Citeaux. From a drawing
+      dated 1718                                                        110
+
+  34. Ground-plan of part of the Monastery of Citeaux. From a plan dated
+      1718                                                              111
+
+  35. Ground-plan of the Library at Citeaux                             111
+
+  36. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain des Pres, Paris. From a print dated
+      1687; reproduced in _Les Anciennes Bibliotheques de Paris_, par
+      Alf. Franklin, Vol. I. p. 126                                     115
+
+  37. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain des Pres, Paris. From a print in
+      _Histoire de l'Abbaye Royale de Saint Germain des Prez_, par Dom
+      Jacques Bouillart, fol. Paris, 1724, lettered "l'Abbaye ... telle
+      qu'elle est presentement"                                         116
+
+  38. Plan of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral                        119
+
+  39. Interior of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral _To face_          118
+
+  40. Plan of the Cloister, etc., Lincoln Cathedral                     120
+
+  41. Exterior of the Library at Salisbury Cathedral, looking north-east
+      _To face_                                                         122
+
+  42. Plan of the Library in Wells Cathedral                            122
+
+  43. Plan of the Library at Lichfield Cathedral. From _History and
+      Antiquities of Staffordshire_, by Stebbing Shaw, fol. Lond.
+      1798, Vol. II. P. 244                                             123
+
+  44. Chapter-Library at Noyon, France             _To face_            124
+
+  45. A single pillar of the cloister beneath the Chapter-Library
+      at Noyon.                                                         125
+
+  46. Plan of the Library at the south-east angle of the south transept
+      of the Cathedral at Troyes                                        126
+
+  47. Interior of the _Cour des Libraires_, Rouen, shewing the
+      gate of entrance from the street, and the Library    _To face_    130
+
+  48. Pembroke College, Cambridge, reduced from Loggan's print, taken
+      about 1688                                                        149
+
+  49. Long Section of Old Congregation House and Library, Oxford, looking
+      south. From _The Church of S. Mary the Virgin, Oxford_, by
+      T. G. Jackson, Architect                                          150
+
+  50. Ground-plan of the Library at Queens' College, Cambridge          152
+
+  51. Elevation of book-desk in Library of Queens' College, Cambridge   152
+
+  52. Ground-plan of the Library at Zutphen                             154
+
+  53. General view of the north side of the Library attached to the
+      church of S. Walburga at Zutphen                   _To face_      155
+
+  54. Desk and reader on the south side of the Library at Zutphen. From
+      a photograph                                                      155
+
+  55. Elevations of (A) one of the bookcases in the Library at Zutphen;
+      (B) one of those in the Library at Queens' College, Cambridge     156
+
+  56. End of iron bar: Zutphen                                          156
+
+  57. End of one of the desks on the north side of the Library:
+      Zutphen.                                                          157
+
+  58. Piece of chain, shewing the ring attached to the bar, the swivel,
+      and one of the links, actual size: Guildford                      158
+
+  59. Piece of the iron bar, with chain: Zutphen                        159
+
+  60. Chained book, from a Dominican House at Bamberg, South Germany    159
+
+  61. Single desk in the Old Library: Lincoln Cathedral                 161
+
+  62. Elevations of (A) one of the bookcases in the Library at Zutphen;
+      (B) one of those in the Library at Queens' College, Cambridge;
+      (C) one of those in the Library of Lincoln Cathedral              163
+
+  63. Interior of a Library. From a MS. of a French translation of the
+      first book of the _Consolation of Philosophy_ by Boethius,
+      written in Flanders towards the end of the fifteenth century      164
+
+  64. Library of the College de Navarre, Paris, now destroyed
+      _To face_                                                         165
+
+  65. General view of the Library at Trinity Hall, Cambridge
+      _To face_                                                         169
+
+  66. Elevation of a book-desk and seat in the Library of Trinity Hall,
+      Cambridge                                                         168
+
+  67. Lock at end of book-desk: Trinity Hall                            169
+
+  68. A French Library of 1480. From MS. 164 in the Fitzwilliam Museum,
+      Cambridge                                        _To face_        169
+
+  69. The interior of the Library of the University of Leyden. From a
+      print by Jan Cornelis Woudanus, dated 1610       _To follow_      170
+
+  70. Bookcases and seat in the Library at Corpus Christi College,
+      Oxford. From a photograph taken in 1894          _To face_        173
+
+  71. Elevation of one bookcase in the Library of Corpus Christi College,
+      Oxford                                                            173
+
+  72. Bookcase in the Chapter Library, Hereford Cathedral. From a sketch
+      taken in 1876                                                     175
+
+  73. Part of a bookcase in the Chapter Library, Hereford    _To face_  175
+
+  74. Part of a single volume, shewing the clasp, the ring for the chain,
+      and the mode of attaching it: Hereford                            175
+
+  75. A single volume, standing on the shelf, with the chain attached to
+      the iron bar: Hereford                                            176
+
+  76. Iron bar and socket, closed to prevent removal of the bar:
+      Hereford                                                          176
+
+  77. Iron bar, with part of the iron plate or hasp which is secured by
+      the lock and keeps the bar in place: Hereford                     177
+
+  78. Piece of chain, shewing the swivel: Hereford                      178
+
+  79. Hook to hold up the desk: Bodleian Library, Oxford                179
+
+  80. Exterior of the Library at Merton College, Oxford, as seen from
+      'Mob Quadrangle.' From a photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899
+      _To face_                                                         179
+
+  81. Ground-plan of the Library at Merton College, Oxford              180
+
+  82. Interior of the West Library at Merton College, Oxford. From a
+      photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899                  _To face_        181
+
+  83. Bookcase in the West Library of Merton College, Oxford. From a
+      photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899                  _To face_        181
+
+  84. Elevation of a bookcase and seat in the West Library at Merton
+      College, Oxford. Measured and drawn by T. D. Atkinson, Architect  182
+
+  85. Stall-end in the Library of Clare College, Cambridge              187
+
+  86. Ring for attachment of chain, Wells                               189
+
+  87. Bookcases in the Library of Durham Cathedral. From a photograph
+      _To face_                                                         189
+
+  88. Conjectural plan of the Library over the Prior's Chapel at Christ
+      Church, Canterbury                                                191
+
+  89. Sketch of the probable appearance of a bookcase, and a reader's
+      seat, in the Library at Christ Church, Canterbury                 193
+
+  90, 91. Ground-plan and section of Library at Cesena                  200
+
+  92. General view of the Library at Cesena. From a photograph
+      _To face_                                                         201
+
+  93. Bookcases at west end of south side of Library, Cesena            201
+
+  94. Part of a bookcase, at Cesena to shew the system of chaining      202
+
+  95. Piece of a chain, Cesena                                          203
+
+  96. Chained book at Ghent                                             204
+
+  97. Ground-plan of part of the Vatican Palace, shewing the building of
+      Nicholas V., as arranged for library purposes by Sixtus IV., and
+      its relation to the surrounding structures. From Letarouilly, _Le
+      Vatican_, fol. Paris, 1882, as reproduced by M. Fabre             210
+
+  98. Ground-plan of the rooms in the Vatican Palace fitted up for
+      library-purpose by Sixtus IV                  _To follow_         208
+
+  99. Interior of the Library of Sixtus IV., as shewn in a fresco in the
+      Ospedale di Santo Spirito, Rome. From a photograph taken by
+      Danesi                                          _To face_         225
+
+  100. The library-settles (_spalliere_) once used in the Vatican
+       Library of Sixtus IV., and now in the Appartamento Borgia. From a
+       photograph                                     _To face_         228
+
+  101. Bookcases in the Medicean Library, Florence                      235
+
+  102. Copy, slightly reduced, of a sketch by Michelangelo for one of the
+       bookcases in the Medicean Library, Florence                      236
+
+  103. Elevation of desks at Cesena                                     237
+
+  104. Elevation of desks in the Medicean Library: Florence             237
+
+  105. A book in the Medicean Library, to shew attachment of chain      238
+
+  106. Piece of chain in the Medicean Library, of the actual size       238
+
+  107. Diagram to explain the ironwork at the Medicean Library          239
+
+  108. Outline of bolt forming part of ironwork                         239
+
+  109. West oriel of the Library at S. John's College, Cambridge        249
+
+  110. Bookcases in the Library of S. John's College, Cambridge         250
+
+  111. Bookcases in the Library of Peterhouse, Cambridge                252
+
+  112. Bookcases in the south room of the University Library, Cambridge.
+       _To face_                                                        253
+
+  113. Bookcase in the old Library of King's College, Cambridge, made
+       with the bequest of Nicholas Hobart, 1659                        255
+
+  114. Ground-plan of Library, Grantham, Lincolnshire                   257
+
+  115. Ring and link of chain: Wimborne Minster                         261
+
+  116. Bookpress in the school at Bolton, Lancashire. From
+       _Bibliographical Miscellanies_ by William Blades
+       _To face_                                                        264
+
+  117. General view of the Library of the Escorial, looking north
+       _To face_                                                        269
+
+  118. Bookcases in the Library of the Escorial on an enlarged scale    268
+
+  119. Elevation of a bookcase, and section of a desk, in the Library
+       of the Escorial                                                  270
+
+  120. Ground-plan of the Ambrosian Library at Milan                    271
+
+  121. Interior of the Ambrosian Library at Milan. From a photograph
+       taken in 1899                                 _To face_          271
+
+  122. Bookcases, in the Bibliotheque Mazarine, Paris. From a photograph
+       by Dujardin, 1898                             _To face_          273
+
+  123. Elevation of a bookcase and section of a desk in the Bibliotheque
+       Mazarine, Paris                                                  274
+
+  124. A portion of the bookcases set up in the eastern wing of the
+       Bodleian Library, Oxford, built 1610-1612. From Loggan's _Oxonia
+       Illustrata_, 1675                                                275
+
+  125. Entrance to Wren's Library at Lincoln Cathedral, with part of
+       the bookcase which lines the north wall      _To face_           277
+
+  126. Part of Wren's elevation of the east side of the Library of
+       Trinity College, Cambridge, with a section of the north range
+       of Nevile's Court, shewing the door to the Library from the
+       first floor                                                      278
+
+  127. Elevation of one bay on the east side of the Library of Trinity
+       College, Cambridge, drawn to scale from the existing building    279
+
+  128. Interior of the north-east corner of the Library of Trinity
+       College, Cambridge, shewing the bookcases, table, desk and
+       stools, as designed by Sir Christopher Wren                      281
+
+  129. Ground-plan of Library and adjacent parts of S. Paul's Cathedral,
+       London. Designed by Sir Christopher Wren                         283
+
+  130. Sir Christopher Wren's Library at S. Paul's Cathedral, London,
+       looking north-east                            _To face_          282
+
+  131. Bookcase in the north room of the University Library, Cambridge,
+       designed by James Essex, 1731-1734                               286
+
+  132. Interior of the Library of the Jesuits at Rheims, now the
+       _Lingerie de l'Hopital General_           _To face_              287
+
+  133. Ground-plan of the Library of the Jesuits at Rheims              288
+
+  134. Simon, Abbat of S. Albans (1167-1183), seated at his book-chest.
+       From MSS. Cotton                                                 293
+
+  135. Two men in a library. From a MS. of _Les cas des malheureux
+       nobles hommes et femmes_ in the British Museum                   295
+
+  136. A Carmelite in his study. From a MS. of Le Miroir Historial in
+       the British Museum                             _To face_         296
+
+  137. Three musicians in a Library. From a MS. of a French translation
+       of _Valerius Maximus_, in the British Museum                     297
+
+  138. A bibliomaniac at his desk. From the _Ship of Fools_             298
+
+  139. S. John writing his Gospel. From a MS. _Hours_ in the
+       Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge                                    303
+
+  140. S. Jerome writing. From an oil painting by Benedetto Bonfigli,
+       in the Church of S. Peter at Perugia         _To face_           304
+
+  141. Circular book-desk. From a MS. of _Fais et Gestes du Roi
+       Alexandre_, in the British Museum                                304
+
+  142. S. Luke writing his Gospel. From the Dunois _Horae_, a MS. in
+       the possession of H. Y. Thompson, Esq.                           305
+
+  143. A lady seated in her chair reading. From a MS. written in France,
+       early in the fifteenth century                                   306
+
+  144. Screw-desk. From a fifteenth century MS. in the Bibliotheque de
+       l'Arsenal, Paris                                                 307
+
+  145. Hexagonal desk, with central spike, probably for a candle. From a
+       French MS. of _Le Miroir Historial_                              307
+
+  146. A lecturer addressing an audience. From a MS. of _Livre des cas
+       des malheureux nobles hommes et femmes_, written in France at
+       end of fifteenth century                      _To face_          308
+
+  147. S. Mark writing his Gospel. From a MS. _Hours_ written in
+       France in the fifteenth century                                  309
+
+  148. The author of _The Chronicles of Hainault_ in his study
+       (1446) _To face_                                                 309
+
+  149. S. Jerome in his study. From _Les Miracles de Nostre Dame_,
+       written at the Hague in 1456                   _To face_         310
+
+  150. A writer with his desk and table. From a MS. of _Le Livre des
+       Proprietes des Choses_ in the British Museum  _To face_          309
+
+  151. S. Luke writing his Gospel. MSS. Douce, Bodl. Lib. Oxf.,
+       No. 381                                                          311
+
+  152. S. Augustine at his desk. From a painting by Fra Filippo Lippi at
+       Florence                                                         312
+
+  153. S. Jerome reading. From an oil painting by Catena, in the National
+       Gallery, London                               _To face_          313
+
+  154. A writer at work. From a French translation of Valerius Maximus,
+       written and illuminated in Flanders in 1479, for King Edward IV.
+       _To face_                                                        313
+
+  155. A scholar's room in the fifteenth century. From a MS. in the Royal
+       Library at Brussels                           _To face_          314
+
+  156. Dean Boys in his Library, 1622                                   317
+
+
+
+
+THE CARE OF BOOKS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+    INTRODUCTION. ASSYRIAN RECORD-ROOMS. LIBRARIES IN
+    GREECE, ALEXANDRIA, PERGAMON, ROME. THEIR SIZE, USE,
+    CONTEXTS, AND FITTINGS. ARMARIA OR PRESSES. THE VATICAN
+    LIBRARY OF SIXTUS V. A TYPE OF AN ANCIENT ROMAN LIBRARY.
+
+I propose, in the following Essay, to trace the methods adopted by man in
+different ages and countries to preserve, to use, and to make accessible
+to others, those objects, of whatever material, on which he has recorded
+his thoughts. In this investigation I shall include the position, the
+size, and the arrangement, of the rooms in which these treasures were
+deposited, with the progressive development of fittings, catalogues, and
+other appliances, whether defensive, or to facilitate use. But, though I
+shall have to trace out these matters in some detail, I shall try to
+eschew mere antiquarianism, and to impart human interest, so far as
+possible, to a research which might otherwise exhaust the patience of my
+readers. Bibliography, it must be understood, will be wholly excluded.
+From my special point of view books are simply things to be taken care of:
+even their external features concern me only so far as they modify the
+methods adopted for arrangement and preservation. I must dismiss the
+subject-matter of the volumes which filled the libraries of former days
+with a brevity of which I deeply regret the necessity. I shall point out
+the pains taken to sort the books under various comprehensive heads; but I
+shall not enumerate the authors which fall under this or that division.
+
+The earliest repositories of books were connected with temples or palaces,
+either because priests under all civilisations have been _par excellence_
+the learned class, while despots have patronised art and literature; or
+because such a position was thought to offer greater security.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Plan of the Record-Rooms in the Palace of
+Assur-bani-pal, King of Nineveh.]
+
+I will begin with Assyria, where the record-rooms, or we might almost say
+the library, in the palace of Assur-bani-pal, King of Nineveh, were
+discovered by Mr Layard in 1850 at Kouyunjik, on the Tigris, opposite
+Mosul. The plan (fig. 1), taken from Mr Layard's work[1], will shew,
+better than a long description, the position of these rooms, and their
+relation to the rest of the building--which is believed to date from about
+700 B.C. The long passage (No. XLIX) is one of the entrances to the
+palace. Passing thence along the narrower passage (No. XLII) the explorers
+soon reached a doorway (E), which led them into a large hall (No. XXIX),
+whence a second doorway (F) brought them into a chamber (No. XXXVIII). On
+the north side of this room were two doorways (G. G), each "formed by two
+colossal bas-reliefs of Dagon, the fish-god." "The first doorway," says Mr
+Layard, "guarded by the fish-gods, led into two small chambers opening
+into each other, and once panelled with bas-reliefs, the greater part of
+which had been destroyed. I shall call these chambers 'the chambers of
+records,' for, like 'the house of the rolls' or records, which Darius
+ordered to be searched for the decree of Cyrus concerning the building of
+the Temple of Jerusalem[2], they appear to have contained the decrees of
+the Assyrian kings, as well as the archives of the empire."
+
+Mr Layard was led to this conclusion by finding, in these rooms, enormous
+quantities of inscribed tablets and cylinders of baked clay. "To a height
+of a foot or more from the floor they were entirely filled with them; some
+entire, but the greater part broken into many fragments, probably by the
+falling in of the upper part of the building.... These documents appear to
+be of various kinds. Many are historical records of wars, and distant
+expeditions undertaken by the Assyrians; some seem to be royal decrees,
+and are stamped with the name of a king, the son of Esarhaddon; others
+again ... contain lists of the gods, and probably a register of offerings
+made in their temples[3]."
+
+So far Mr Layard. Subsequent researches have shewn that these two small
+rooms--they were 27 feet and 23 feet long respectively, with a uniform
+breadth of 20 feet--contained the literature as well as the official
+documents of Assyria. The tablets have been sorted under the following
+heads: History; Law; Science; Magic; Dogma; Legends: and it has been shewn
+(1) that there was a special functionary to take charge of them; (2) that
+they were arranged in series, with special precautions for keeping the
+tablets forming a particular series in their proper sequence; (3) that
+there was a general catalogue, and probably a class-catalogue as well[4].
+
+Excavations in other parts of Assyria have added valuable information to
+Layard's first discovery. Dr Wallis Budge, of the British Museum, whom I
+have to thank for much kind assistance, tells me that "Kouyunjik is hardly
+a good example of a Mesopotamian library, for it is certain that the
+tablets were thrown about out of their proper places when the city was
+captured by the Medes about B.C. 609. The tablets were kept on shelves....
+When I was digging at Derr some years ago we found the what I call 'Record
+Chamber,' and we saw the tablets lying _in situ_ on slate shelves. There
+were, however, not many literary tablets there, for the chamber was meant
+to hold the commercial documents relating to the local temple...." Dr
+Budge concludes his letter with this very important sentence: "We have no
+definite proof of what I am going to say now, but I believe that the
+bilingual[5] lists, which Assur-bani-pal had drawn up for his library at
+Nineveh, were intended 'for the use of students.'"
+
+To this suggestion I would add the following. Does not the position of
+these two rooms, easily accessible from the entrance to the palace, shew
+that their contents might be consulted by persons who were denied
+admission to the more private apartments? And further, does not the
+presence of the god Dagon at the entrance indicate that the library was
+under the protection of the deity as well as of the sovereign?
+
+As a pendant to these Assyrian discoveries I may mention the vague rumour
+echoed by Athenaeus of extensive libraries collected in the sixth century
+before our era by Polycrates[6], tyrant of Samos, and Peisistratus,
+tyrant of Athens, the latter collection, according to Aulus Gellius[7],
+having been accessible to all who cared to use it. It must be admitted
+that these stories are of doubtful authenticity; and further, that we have
+no details of the way in which books were cared for in Greece during the
+golden age of her literature. This dearth of information is the more
+tantalizing as it is obvious that private libraries must have existed in a
+city so cultivated as Athens; and we do, in fact, find a few notices which
+tell us that such was the case. Xenophon[8], for instance, speaks of the
+number of volumes in the possession of Euthydemus, a follower of Socrates;
+and Athenaeus records, in the passage to which I have already alluded, the
+names of several book-collectors, among whom are Euripides and Aristotle.
+
+An allusion to the poet's bibliographical tastes has been detected in the
+scene of _The Frogs_ of Aristophanes, where AEschylus and Euripides are
+weighing verses against each other in the presence of Dionysus. AEschylus
+exclaims:
+
+  [Greek: kai meket' emoige kat' epos, all' es ton stathmon
+  autos ta paidi', he gyne, kephisophon,
+  embas kathestho syllabon ta biblia,
+  ego de dy' epe ton emon ero monon.]
+
+  Come, no more single lines--let him bring all,
+  His wife, his children, his Cephisophon,
+  His books and everything, himself to boot--
+  I'll counterpoise them with a couple of lines[9].
+
+With regard to Aristotle Strabo has preserved a tradition that he "was the
+first who made a collection of books, and taught the kings of Egypt how to
+arrange a library[10]"--words which may be taken to mean that Aristotle
+was the first to work out the arrangement of books on a definite system
+which was afterwards adopted by the Ptolemies at Alexandria.
+
+These notices are extremely disappointing. They merely serve to shew that
+collections of books did exist in Greece; but they give us no indication
+of either their extent or their arrangement. It was left to the Emperor
+Hadrian to build the first public library at Athens, to which, as it was
+naturally constructed on a Roman design, I shall return after I have
+described those from which it was in all probability imitated.
+
+But, if what may be termed Greece in Europe declines to give us
+information, that other Greece which extended itself to Asia Minor and to
+Egypt--Greater Greece it would be called in modern times--supplies us with
+a type of library-organisation which has been of far-reaching influence.
+
+After the death of Alexander the Great (B.C. 323) a Greek dynasty, that of
+the Ptolemies, established itself at Alexandria, and another Greek dynasty
+at Pergamon. Both were distinguished--like Italian despots of the
+Renaissance--for the splendour and the culture of their courts, and they
+rivalled one another in the extent and richness of their libraries; but,
+if we are to believe Strabo, the library at Pergamon was not begun until
+the reign of Eumenes II. (B.C. 197-159), or 126 years after that at
+Alexandria[11].
+
+The libraries at Alexandria (for there were two)--though far more
+celebrated and more extensive than the library at Pergamon--need not, from
+my point of view, detain us for more than a moment, for we are told very
+little about their position, and nothing about their arrangement. The site
+of the earliest, the foundation of which is ascribed to Ptolemy the Second
+(B.C. 285-247), must undoubtedly be sought for within the circuit of the
+royal palace, which was in the fashionable quarter of the city called
+Brucheion. This palace was a vast enceinte, not a separate building, and,
+as Strabo, who visited Alexandria 24 B.C., says,
+
+    Within the precincts of the palace is the Museum. It has
+    a colonnade, a lecture-room, and a vast establishment
+    where the men of letters who share the use of the Museum
+    take their meals together. This College has a common
+    revenue; and is managed by a priest who is over the
+    Museum, an officer formerly appointed by the kings of
+    Egypt, but, at the present time, by the Emperor[12].
+
+That the older of the two libraries must have been in some way connected
+with these buildings seems to me certain from two considerations. First, a
+ruler who took so keen an interest in books as Ptolemy, would assuredly
+have kept his treasures under his own eye; and, secondly, he would hardly
+have placed them at a distance from the spot where the learned men of
+Alexandria held their meetings[13].
+
+At some period subsequent to the foundation of Ptolemy's first library, a
+second, called the daughter of the first[14], was established in connexion
+with the Temple of Serapis, a magnificent structure in the quarter
+Rhacotis, adorned so lavishly with colonnades, statuary, and other
+architectural enrichments, that the historian Ammianus Marcellinus
+declares that nothing in the world could equal it, except the Roman
+Capitol[15].
+
+This brief notice of the libraries of Alexandria shews that the earlier of
+the two, besides being in a building dedicated to the Muses, was also
+connected in all probability with a palace, and the second with a temple.
+If we now turn to Pergamon, we shall find the library associated with the
+temple and [Greek: temenos] of Athena.
+
+The founder selected for the site of his city a lofty and precipitous
+hill, about a thousand feet above the sea-level. The rocky plateau which
+forms the summit is divided into three gigantic steps or terraces. On the
+highest, which occupies the northern end of the hill, the royal palace is
+believed to have been built. On the next terrace, to the south, was the
+temple of Athena; and on the third, the altar of Zeus. External to those
+three groups of buildings, partly on the edge of the hill, partly on its
+sides, were the rest of the public buildings. The lower slopes were
+probably occupied in ancient times, as at present, by the houses of the
+citizens.
+
+These magnificent structures, which won for Pergamon the distinction of
+being "by far the noblest city in Asia minor[16]," were in the main due to
+Eumenes the Second, who, during his reign of nearly forty years (B.C.
+197-159), was enabled, by the wise policy of supporting the Romans, to
+transform his petty state into a powerful monarchy. The construction of a
+library is especially referred to him by Strabo[17], and from the
+statement of Vitruvius that it was built for the delight of the world at
+large (_in communem delectationem_), we may infer that it was intended to
+be public[18]. That he was an energetic book-collector, under whose
+direction a large staff of scribes was perpetually at work, may be
+gathered from the well-known story that his bibliographical rival at
+Alexandria, exasperated by his activity and success, conceived the
+ingenious device of crippling his endeavours by forbidding the exportation
+of papyrus. Eumenes, however, says the chronicler, was equal to the
+occasion, and defeated the scheme by inventing parchment[19]. It is
+probable that Eumenes not only began but completed the library, for in
+less than a quarter of a century after his death (B.C. 133) the last of
+his descendants bequeathed the city and state of Pergamon to the Romans.
+It is improbable that they would do much to increase the library, though
+they evidently took care of it, for ninety years later, when Mark Antony
+is said to have given it to Cleopatra, the number of works in it amounted
+to two hundred thousand[20].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Plan of the temple and precinct of Athena,
+Pergamon; with that of the Library and adjacent buildings.]
+
+The site of the acropolis of Pergamon was thoroughly explored between 1878
+and 1886 at the expense of the German Government; and in the course of
+their researches the archeologists employed discovered certain rooms which
+they believe to have been originally appropriated to the library. I have
+had the accompanying ground-plan (fig. 2) reduced from one of their
+plates, and have condensed my description of the locality from that given
+in their work[21]. I have also derived much valuable information from a
+paper published by Alexander Conze in 1884[22].
+
+Of the temple of Athena only the foundations remain, but its extent and
+position can be readily ascertained. The enclosure, paved with slabs of
+marble, was entered at the south-east corner. It was open to the west and
+to the south, where the ground falls away precipitously, but on the east
+and north it was bounded by a cloister in two floors. The pillars of this
+cloister were Doric on the ground-floor, Ionic above. The height of those
+in the lower range, measured from base to top of capital, was about 16
+feet, of those in the upper range about 9 feet.
+
+This enclosure had a mean length of about 240 feet, with a mean breadth of
+162 feet[23]. The north cloister was 37 feet broad, and was divided down
+the centre by a row of columns. The east cloister was of about half this
+width, and was undivided.
+
+On the north side of the north cloister, the German explorers found four
+rooms, which they believe to have been assigned to library purposes. The
+platform of rock on which these chambers stood was nearly 20 feet above
+the level of the floor of the enclosure, and they could only be entered
+from the upper cloister. Of these rooms the easternmost is the largest,
+being 42 feet long, by 49 feet broad. Westward of it are three others,
+somewhat narrower, having a uniform width of 39 feet. The easternmost of
+these three rooms is also the smallest, being only 23 feet long; while the
+two next have a uniform length of about 33 feet.
+
+At the south-west corner of this building, but on a lower level, and not
+accessible from it, other rooms were found, the use of which is uncertain.
+
+We will now return to the eastern room. The foundations of a narrow
+platform or bench extended along the eastern, northern, and western sides,
+and in the centre of the northern side there was a mass of stone-work
+which had evidently formed the base for a statue (fig. 2, A). The
+discovery of a torso of a statue of Athena[24] in this very room indicated
+what statue had occupied this commanding position, and also what had
+probably been the use of the room.
+
+This theory was confirmed by the discovery in the north wall of two rows
+of holes in the stone-work, one above the other, which had evidently been
+made for the reception of brackets, or battens, or other supports for
+shelves[25], or some piece of furniture. The lower of these two rows was
+carried along the east wall as well as along the north wall. Further,
+stones were found bearing the names of Herodotus, Alcaeus, Timotheus of
+Miletus, and Homer, evidently the designations of portrait-busts or
+portrait-medallions; and also, two titles of comedies.
+
+Lastly, the very position of these rooms in connexion with the colonnade
+indicates their use. It will be observed that the colonnade on the north
+side of the area is twice as wide as that on the east side--a peculiarity
+which is sufficient of itself to prove that it must have been intended for
+some other purpose than as a mere covered way. But, if it be remembered
+that libraries in the ancient world were usually connected with colonnades
+(as was probably the case at the Serapeum at Alexandria, and was certainly
+the case at Rome, as I shall proceed to shew) a reason is found for this
+dignified construction, and a strong confirmation is afforded for the
+theory that the rooms beyond it once contained the famous library.
+
+When the Romans had taken possession of Pergamon, those who had charge of
+the city would become familiar with the library; and it seems to me almost
+certain that, when the necessity for establishing a public library at Rome
+had been recognised, the splendid structure at Pergamon would be turned to
+as a model. But, if I mistake not, Roman architecture had received an
+influence from Pergamon long before this event occurred. What this was I
+will mention presently.
+
+No public library was established in Rome until the reign of Augustus.
+Julius Caesar had intended to build one on the largest possible scale, and
+had gone so far as to commission Varro to collect books for it[26]; but it
+was reserved for C. Asinius Pollio, general, lawyer, orator, poet, the
+friend of Virgil and Horace, to devote to this purpose the spoils he had
+obtained in his Illyrian campaign, B.C. 39. In the striking words of Pliny
+"he was the first to make men's talents public property (_ingenia hominum
+rem publicam fecit_)" The same writer tells us that he also introduced the
+fashion of decorating libraries with busts of departed authors, and that
+Varro was the only living writer whose portrait was admitted[27]. Pollio
+is further credited, by Suetonius, with having built an _atrium
+libertatis_[28], in which Isidore, a writer of the seventh century,
+probably quoting a lost work of Suetonius, places the library, with the
+additional information, that the collection contained Greek as well as
+Latin books[29].
+
+The work of Pollio is recorded among the acts of generosity which Augustus
+suggested to others. But before long the emperor turned his own attention
+to libraries, and enriched his capital with two splendid structures which
+may be taken as types of Roman libraries,--the library of Apollo on the
+Palatine Hill, and that in the Campus Martius called after Octavia, sister
+to the emperor. I will take the latter first.
+
+The _Porticus Octaviae_, or, as it was sometimes called, the _Opera
+Octaviae_, must have been one of the most magnificent structures in Rome
+(fig. 3). It stood in the Campus Martius, near the Theatre of Marcellus,
+between the Capitoline Hill and the Tiber. A double colonnade surrounded
+an area which measured 443 feet by 377 feet, with _Jani_, or four-faced
+archways, at the four corners, and on the side next the Tiber a double
+hexastyle porch, which, with a few fragments of the colonnade, still
+exists in a fairly good state of preservation[30]. Within this space were
+two temples, one of Jupiter, the other of Juno, a _curia_ or hall, in
+which the Senate frequently met, a _schola_ or "Conversation Hall[31],"
+and two libraries, the one of Greek, the other of Latin books. The area
+and buildings were crowded with masterpieces in bronze and marble.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plan of the Porticus Octaviae, Rome. From _Formae
+Urbis Romae Antiqua_, Berlin, 1896.]
+
+This structure was originally built by Quintus Metellus, about 146
+B.C.[32]. One of the temples was due to his own liberality, the other had
+been erected by Domitius Lepidus, B.C. 179. Now twenty years before,
+Metellus had fought in a successful campaign against Perseus king of
+Macedonia, in which the Romans had been assisted by Eumenes II.: and in
+B.C. 148, as Praetor, he received Macedonia as his province. Is it not
+possible that on one or other of these occasions he may have visited
+Pergamon, and, when designing his buildings in Rome, have copied what he
+had seen there? Again, in B.C. 157, Crates of Mallus, a distinguished
+grammarian, was sent from Pergamon as ambassador to Rome, and, being laid
+up there by an accident, gave lectures on grammar, in the course of which
+he could hardly have failed to mention the new library[33].
+
+The buildings of Metellus were altered, if not entirely rebuilt, by
+Augustus, B.C. 33, out of the proceeds of his victorious campaign against
+the Dalmatians; with the additional structures above enumerated. The
+_schola_ is believed to have stood behind the temples, and the libraries
+behind the _schola_, with the _curia_ between them[34]. Thus the
+colonnades, which Metellus had restricted to the two temples, came at last
+to serve the double purpose for which they were originally intended in
+connexion with a library as well as with a temple.
+
+The temple and area of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, which Augustus began
+B.C. 36 and dedicated B.C. 28, exhibit an arrangement precisely similar to
+that of the Porticus Octaviae. The size was nearly the same[35], and the
+structures included in the area were intended to serve the same purposes.
+The temple stood in the middle of a large open peristyle, connected with
+which were two libraries, one for Greek, the other for Latin books; and
+between them, used perhaps as a reading-room or vestibule, was a hall in
+which Augustus occasionally convened the Senate. It contained a colossal
+statue of Apollo, made of gilt bronze; and on its walls were
+portrait-reliefs of celebrated writers, in the form of medallions, in the
+same material[36].
+
+Of the other public libraries of Rome--of which there are said to have
+been in all twenty-six--I need mention only three as possessing some
+peculiarity to which I shall have to draw attention. Of these the first
+was established by Tiberius in his palace, at no great distance from the
+library of Apollo; the second and third by Vespasian and Trajan in their
+Fora, connected in the one with the temple of Peace, and in the other with
+the temple dedicated in honour of Trajan himself.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Plan of the Forum of Trajan; after Nibby.]
+
+Of the first two of these libraries we have no information; but in the
+case of the third we are more fortunate. The Forum of Trajan (fig. 4) was
+excavated by order of Napoleon I., and the extent of its buildings, with
+their relation to one another, is therefore known with approximate
+accuracy. The Greek and Latin libraries stood to the right and left of the
+small court between the _Basilica Ulpia_ and the _Templum Divi Trajani_,
+the centre of which was marked by the existing Column. They were entered
+from this court, each through a portico of five inter-columniations. The
+rooms, measured internally, were about 60 feet long, by 45 feet broad.
+
+At this point I must mention, parenthetically, the library built by
+Hadrian at Athens. Pausanias records it in the following passage:
+
+    Hadrian also built for the Athenians a temple of Hera
+    and Panhellenian Zeus, and a sanctuary common to all the
+    gods. But most splendid of all are one hundred columns;
+    walls and colonnades alike are made of Phrygian marble.
+    Here, too, is a building adorned with a gilded roof and
+    alabaster and also with statues and paintings: books are
+    stored in it. There is also a gymnasium named after
+    Hadrian; it too has one hundred columns from the
+    quarries of Libya[37].
+
+A building called the Stoa of Hadrian, a ground-plan of which (fig. 5) I
+borrow from Miss Harrison's _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_,
+has been identified with part at least of that which Pausanias describes
+in the above passage. A lofty wall, built of large square blocks of
+Pentelic marble, faced on the west side by a row of Corinthian columns,
+enclosed a quadrangular court, measuring 328 feet from east to west, by
+250 feet from north to south. This court, entered through a sort of
+propylaea on the west side (N), was surrounded by a cloister or colonnade
+27 feet wide, and containing 100 columns. None of those columns are
+standing, but their number can be accurately calculated from the marks of
+the bases still to be seen on the eastern side of the quadrangle.
+
+Within this area are the remains of a building of uncertain use, and at
+present only partially excavated.
+
+On the east side a row of five chambers, of which that in the centre was
+the largest, opened off from the colonnade[38].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Plan of the Stoa of Hadrian, at Athens.
+
+  AE, KI. Pier-arcade of the medieval church of the Panagia.
+  B. North-east angle of this church, of Roman work.
+  B, C, D, F. Portions of the Roman building which preceded the church.
+  L, M. Reservoirs.
+  N. Propylaea through which the court was entered.
+
+]
+
+If the ground plan of this structure (fig. 5) be compared with that of the
+precinct of Athena and library at Pergamon (fig. 2), a striking similarity
+between them will at once be recognised; and, whatever may have been the
+destination of the building within the cloistered area, there can, I
+think, be little doubt that the library was contained in the five rooms
+beyond its limits to the east. They must have been entered from the
+cloister, much as those at Pergamon were. It is possible that Hadrian may
+himself have visited Pergamon, for Trajan had built an imperial residence
+there; but, even if he did not do this, he would accept the type from the
+great libraries built at Rome by Augustus. It should be mentioned that S.
+Jerome specially commemorates this library among Hadrian's works at
+Athens, and says that it was of remarkable construction (_miri
+operis_)[39].
+
+From this brief digression I return to the public libraries of Rome. In
+the first place those built by Augustus had a regular organisation. There
+appears to have been a general director called _Procurator Bibliothecarum
+Augusti_[40]; and subordinate officers for each division: that is to say,
+one for the Greek books, one for the Latin books. These facts are derived
+from inscriptions found in _Columbaria_. Secondly, it may be concluded
+that they were used not merely for reading and reference, but as
+meeting-places for literary men.
+
+The Palatine libraries evidently contained a large collection of old and
+new books; and I think it is quite certain that new books, as soon as
+published, were placed there, unless there was some special reason to the
+contrary. Otherwise there would be no point in the lines in which Ovid
+makes his book--sent from Pontus after his banishment--deplore its
+exclusion. The book is supposed to climb from the Forum to the temple of
+Apollo:
+
+  Signa peregrinis ubi sunt alterna columnis
+    Belides et stricto barbarus ense pater
+  Quaeque viri docto veteres coepere novique
+    Pectore lecturis inspicienda patent.
+  Quaerebam fratres exceptis scilicet illis
+    Quos suus optaret non genuisse parens;
+  Quaerentem frustra custos e sedibus illis
+    Praepositus sancto iussit abire loco[41].
+
+    Where, set between each pair of columns from some
+    foreign quarry, are statues of the Danaids, and their
+    barbarous father with drawn sword; and where whatever
+    the minds of men of old or men of to-day have imagined,
+    is laid open for a reader's use. I sought my brethren,
+    save those of course whom their father would fain have
+    never begotten; and, while I was seeking for them in
+    vain, he who was set over the room bade me leave that
+    holy ground.
+
+The second couplet can only mean that old books and new books were alike
+to be found there. The general nature of the collection, and its extent,
+may be further gathered from the advice which Horace gives to his friend
+Celsus:
+
+  Quid mihi Celsus agit? monitus multumque monendus
+  Privatas ut quaerat opes, et tangere vitet
+  Scripta Palatinus quaecunque recepit Apollo[42].
+
+    What is my friend Celsus about? he who has been
+    reminded, and must still be reminded again and again,
+    that he should draw upon his own resources, and be
+    careful to avoid the multifarious writings which
+    Palatine Apollo has taken under his charge.
+
+A man might say now-a-days, "Trust to your own wits, and don't go so often
+to the library of the British Museum."
+
+Aulus Gellius, who lived A.D. 117-180, speaks of "sitting with a party of
+friends in the library of the palace of Tiberius, when a book happened to
+be taken down with the title M. Catonis Nepotis," and they began asking
+one another who this M. Cato Nepos might be[43]. This library contained
+also public records[44].
+
+The same writer tells a story of a grammatical difficulty which was to be
+settled by reference to a book _in templo Pacis_, in the forum of
+Vespasian; and again, when a particular book was wanted, "we hunted for it
+diligently," he says, "and, when we had found it in the temple of Peace,
+we read it[45]."
+
+The library in the forum of Trajan, often called _Bibliotheca Ulpia_, was
+apparently the Public Record Office of Rome. Aulus Gellius mentions that
+some decrees of former praetors had fallen in his way there when he was
+looking for something else, and that he had been allowed to read them[46];
+and a statement of Vopiscus is still more conclusive as to the nature of
+its contents. It tells us, moreover, something about the arrangement. In
+his life of the Emperor Tacitus (Sept. A.D. 275--Apr. 276) Vopiscus says:
+
+    And lest anybody should think that I have given too
+    hasty a credence to a Greek or Latin author, the Ulpian
+    Library has in its sixth press (_armarium_) an ivory
+    volume (_librum elephantinum_) in which the following
+    decree of the Senate, signed by Tacitus with his own
+    hand, is recorded, etc.[47]
+
+Again, in his life of the Emperor Aurelian, the same writer records how
+his friend Junius Tiberianus, prefect of the city, had urged him to
+undertake the task, and had assured him that: "even the linen-books
+(_libri lintei_) shall be brought out of the Ulpian library for your
+use[48]."
+
+Books could occasionally be borrowed from a public library, but whether
+from one of those in the city of Rome, I cannot say. The scene of the
+story which proves this is laid by Aulus Gellius at Tibur (Tivoli), where
+the library was in the temple of Hercules--another instance of the care of
+a library being entrusted to a temple. Aulus Gellius and some friends of
+his were assembled in a rich man's villa there at the hottest season of
+the year. They were drinking melted snow, a proceeding against which one
+of the party, a peripatetic philosopher, vehemently protested, urging
+against the practice the authority of numerous physicians and of Aristotle
+himself. But none the less the party went on drinking snow-water.
+Whereupon "he fetched a treatise by Aristotle out of the library of Tibur,
+which was then very conveniently accommodated in the temple of Hercules,
+and brought it to us, saying----[49]." But I need not finish the
+quotation, as it has no bearing on my special subject.
+
+It is probable that numerous collections of books had been got together by
+individuals in Rome, before it occurred to Augustus and his friends to
+erect public libraries. One such library, that belonging to the rich and
+luxurious Lucullus, has been noticed as follows by Plutarch[50]:
+
+    His procedure in regard to books was interesting and
+    remarkable. He collected fine copies in large numbers;
+    and if he was splendid in their acquisition, he was more
+    so in their use. His libraries were accessible to all,
+    and the adjoining colonnades and reading-rooms were
+    freely open to Greeks, who, gladly escaping from the
+    routine of business, resorted thither for familiar
+    converse, as to a shelter presided over by the Muses.
+
+The Romans were not slow in following the example set by Lucullus; and a
+library presently became indispensable in every house, whether the owner
+cared for reading or not. This fashionable craze is denounced by Seneca
+(writing about A.D. 49) in a vehement outburst of indignation, which
+contains so many valuable facts about library arrangement, that I will
+give a free translation of it.
+
+    Outlay upon studies, best of all outlays, is reasonable
+    so long only as it is kept within certain limits. What
+    is the use of books and libraries innumerable, if scarce
+    in a lifetime the master reads the titles? A student is
+    burdened by a crowd of authors, not instructed; and it
+    is far better to devote yourself to a few, than to lose
+    your way among a multitude.
+
+    Forty thousand books were burnt at Alexandria. I leave
+    others to praise this splendid monument of royal
+    opulence, as for example Livy, who regards it as "a
+    noble work of royal taste and royal thoughtfulness." It
+    was not taste, it was not thoughtfulness, it was learned
+    extravagance--nay not even learned, for they had bought
+    their books for the sake of show, not for the sake of
+    learning--just as with many who are ignorant even of the
+    lowest branches of learning books are not instruments of
+    study, but ornaments of dining-rooms. Procure then as
+    many books as will suffice for use; but not a single one
+    for show. You will reply: "Outlay on such objects is
+    preferable to extravagance on plate or paintings."
+    Excess in all directions is bad. Why should you excuse a
+    man who wishes to possess book-presses inlaid with
+    _arbor-vitae_ wood or ivory: who gathers together masses
+    of authors either unknown or discredited; who yawns
+    among his thousands of books; and who derives his chief
+    delight from their edges and their tickets?
+
+    You will find then in the libraries of the most arrant
+    idlers all that orators or historians have
+    written--book-cases built up as high as the ceiling.
+    Nowadays a library takes rank with a bathroom as a
+    necessary ornament of a house. I could forgive such
+    ideas, if they were due to extravagant desire for
+    learning. As it is, these productions of men whose
+    genius we revere, paid for at a high price, with their
+    portraits ranged in line above them, are got together to
+    adorn and beautify a wall[51].
+
+A library was discovered in Rome by Signor Lanciani in 1883 while
+excavating a house of the 4th century on the Esquiline in the modern Via
+dello Statuto. I will narrate the discovery in his own words.
+
+    I was struck, one afternoon, with the appearance of a
+    rather spacious hall [it was about 23 feet long by 15
+    feet broad], the walls of which were plain and
+    unornamented up to a certain height, but beautifully
+    decorated above in stucco-work. The decoration consisted
+    of fluted pilasters, five feet apart from centre to
+    centre, enclosing a plain square surface, in the middle
+    of which there were medallions, also in stucco-work, two
+    feet in diameter. As always happens in these cases, the
+    frame was the only well-preserved portion of the
+    medallions. Of the images surrounded by the frames, of
+    the medallions themselves, absolutely nothing was left
+    _in situ_, except a few fragments piled up at the foot
+    of the wall, which, however, could be identified as
+    having been representations of human faces. My hope
+    that, at last, after fifteen years of excavations, I had
+    succeeded in discovering a library, was confirmed beyond
+    any doubt by a legend, written, or rather painted, in
+    bright red colour on one of the frames. There was but
+    one name POLONIVS THYAN ..., but this name told more
+    plainly the purpose of the apartment than if I had
+    discovered there the actual bookshelves and their
+    contents[52].
+
+When I had the pleasure of meeting Signor Lanciani in Rome in April, 1898,
+he most kindly gave me his own sketch of the pilasters and medallion,
+taken at the moment of discovery. I am therefore able to reproduce exactly
+(fig. 6) one compartment of the wall of the library above described. The
+height of the blank wall below the stucco-work, against which the
+furniture containing the books stood, has been laid down as about 3 feet 6
+inches, on the authority of Professor Middleton[53]. The remains of the
+medallion are still to be seen in the Museo del Orto Botanico, Rome. The
+person commemorated is obviously Apollonius Tyaneus, a Pythagorean
+philosopher and wonderworker, said to have been born about four years
+before the Christian era.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Elevation of a single compartment of the wall of
+the Library discovered in Rome, 1883.
+
+From notes and measurements made by Signor Lanciani and Prof. Middleton.]
+
+A similar room was discovered at Herculaneum in 1754. A full account of
+the discovery was drawn up at once by Signor Paderni, keeper of the
+Herculaneum Museum, and addressed to Thomas Hollis, Esq., by whom it was
+submitted to the Royal Society. I will extract, from this and subsequent
+letters, the passages that bear upon my subject.
+
+
+                                   _Naples, 27 April, 1754._
+
+    ... The place where they are digging, at present, is
+    under _Il Bosco di Sant' Agostino_.... All the buildings
+    discover'd in this site are noble; ... in one there has
+    been found an entire library, compos'd of volumes of the
+    Egyptian Papyrus, of which there have been taken out
+    about 250....[54]
+
+                   _To the same._
+
+                                         _18 October, 1754._
+
+    ... As yet we have only entered into one room, the floor
+    of which is formed of mosaic work, not unelegant. It
+    appears to have been a library, adorned with presses,
+    inlaid with different sorts of wood, disposed in rows;
+    at the top of which were cornices, as in our own times.
+
+    I was buried in this spot more than twelve days, to
+    carry off the volumes found there; many of which were so
+    perished, that it was impossible to remove them. Those
+    which I took away amounted to the number of three
+    hundred and thirty-seven, all of them at present
+    uncapable of being opened. These are all written in
+    Greek characters. While I was busy in this work I
+    observed a large bundle, which, from the size, I
+    imagined must contain more than a single volume. I tried
+    with the utmost care to get it out, but could not, from
+    the damp and weight of it. However I perceived that it
+    consisted of about 18 volumes, each of which was in
+    length a palm and three Neapolitan inches, being the
+    largest hitherto discovered. They were wrapped about
+    with the bark of a tree and covered at each end with a
+    piece of wood. All these were written in Latin, as
+    appears by a few words which broke off from them. I was
+    in hopes to have got something out of them, but they are
+    in a worse condition than the Greek[55]....
+
+                   _From Sir J. Gray, Bart._
+
+                                         _29 October, 1754._
+
+    ... They have lately met with more rolls of Papyri of
+    different lengths and sizes, some with the _Umbilicus_
+    remaining in them: the greater part are Greek in small
+    capitals.... The Epicurean Philosophy is the subject of
+    another fragment.
+
+    A small bust of Epicurus, with his name in Greek
+    characters, was found in the same room, and was possibly
+    the ornament of that part of the library where the
+    writings in favour of his principles were kept; and it
+    may also be supposed that some other heads of
+    philosophers found in the same room were placed with the
+    same taste and propriety[56].
+
+Between 1758 and 1763, the place was visited by Winckelmann, who wrote
+long letters in Italian, describing what he saw, to Consigliere Bianconi,
+Physician to the King of Saxony. One of these, dated 1762, gives the
+following account of the library:
+
+    Ii luogo in cui per la prima volta caddero sott' occhio,
+    fu una piccola stanza nella villa d'Ercolano di cui
+    parlammo sopra, la cui lunghezza due uomini colle
+    braccia distese potevano misurare. Tutto all' intorno
+    del muro vi erano degli scaffali quali si vedono
+    ordinariamente negli archivi ad altezza d' uomo, e nel
+    mezzo della stanza v' era un altro scaffale simile o
+    tavola per tenervi scritture, e tale da potervi girare
+    intorno. Il legno di questa tavola era ridotto a
+    carboni, e cadde, come e facile ad imaginarselo, tutta
+    in pezzi quando si tocco. Alcuni di questi rotoli di
+    papiri si trovarono involti insieme con carta piu
+    grossolana, di quella qualita che gli antichi chiamavano
+    _emporetica_, e questi probabilmente formavano le parti
+    ed i libri d' un' opera intiera[57]....
+
+    The place in which they [the rolls] were first seen was
+    a small room in the villa at Herculaneum of which we
+    spoke above, the length of which could be covered by two
+    men with their arms extended. All round the wall there
+    were book-cases such as are commonly seen in
+    record-rooms, of a man's height, and in the middle of
+    the room there was another similar book-case or table to
+    hold writings, of such a size that one could go round
+    it. The wood of this table was reduced to charcoal, and,
+    as may easily be imagined, fell all to pieces when it
+    was touched. Some of these papyrus rolls were found
+    fastened together with paper of coarser texture, of that
+    quality which the ancients called _emporetica_, and
+    these probably formed the parts and books of an entire
+    work.
+
+The information which these observers have given us amounts to this: the
+room was about 12 feet long, with a floor of mosaic. Against the walls
+stood presses, of a man's height, inlaid with different sorts of wood,
+disposed in rows, with cornices at the top; and there was also a table, or
+press, in the centre of the room. Most of the rolls were separate, but a
+bundle of eighteen was found "wrapped about with the bark of a tree, and
+covered at each end with a piece of wood." A room so small as this could
+hardly have been intended for study. It must rather have been the place
+where the books were put away after they had been read elsewhere.
+
+Before I quit this part of my subject, I should like to mention one other
+building, as its arrangements throw light on the question of fitting up
+libraries and record-offices. I allude to the structure built by
+Vespasian, A.D. 78, to contain the documents relating to his restoration of
+the city of Rome. It stood at the south-west corner of the Forum of Peace,
+and what now exists of it is known as the Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano.
+
+The general arrangement and relation to adjoining structures will be
+understood from the plan (fig. 7). The room was about 125 feet long by 65
+feet broad, with two entrances, one on the north-west, from the _Forum
+Pacis_, through a hexastyle portico (fig. 7. 2), the other on the
+north-east, through a square-headed doorway of travertine which still
+exists (_ibid._ 1) together with a considerable portion of a massive wall
+of Vespasian's time. After a restoration by Caracalla the building came to
+be called _Templum Sacrae Urbis_. It was first consecrated as a church by
+pope Felix IV. (526-530), but he did little more than connect it with the
+_Heroon Romuli_ (_ibid._ 5), and build the apse (_ibid._ 4).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Plan of the Record-House of Vespasian, with the
+adjoining structures.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Part of the internal wall of the Record-House of
+Vespasian.
+
+Reduced from a sketch taken in the 16th century by Pirro Ligorio.]
+
+The whole building was mercilessly mutilated by pope Urban VIII. in 1632;
+but fortunately a drawing of the interior had been made by Pirro Ligorio
+in the second half of the sixteenth century, when the original treatment
+of the walls was practically intact. I give a reduced copy of a small
+portion of this drawing (fig. 8). As Lanciani says:
+
+    The walls were divided into three horizontal bands by
+    finely cut cornices. The upper band was occupied by the
+    windows; the lower was simply lined with marble slabs
+    covered by the bookcases ... which contained the ...
+    records ...; the middle one was incrusted with
+    tarsia-work of the rarest kinds of marble with panels
+    representing panoplies, the wolf with the infant
+    founders of Rome, and other allegorical scenes[58].
+
+I explained at the beginning of this chapter that my subject is the care
+of books, not books themselves; but, at the point which we have now
+reached in regard to Roman libraries, it is necessary to make a few
+remarks about their contents. It must be remembered, in the first place,
+that those who fitted them up had to deal with rolls (_volumina_),
+probably of papyrus, but possibly of parchment; and that a book, as we
+understand the word, the Latin equivalent for which was _codex_, did not
+come into general use until long after the Christian era. Some points
+about these rolls require notice.
+
+The length and the width of the roll depended on the taste or convenience
+of the writer[59]. The contents were written in columns, the lines of
+which ran parallel to the long dimension[60], and the reader, holding the
+roll in both hands, rolled up the part he had finished with his left hand,
+and unrolled the unread portion with his right. This way of dealing with
+the roll is well shewn in the accompanying illustration (fig. 9) reduced
+from a fresco at Pompeii[61]. In most examples the two halves of the roll
+are turned inwards, as for instance in the well-known statue of
+Demosthenes in the Vatican[62]. The end of the roll was fastened to a
+stick (usually referred to as _umbilicus_ or _umbilici_). It is obvious
+that this word ought properly to denote the ends of the stick only, but it
+was constantly applied to the whole stick, and not to a part of it, as for
+instance in the following lines:
+
+    ... deus nam me vetat
+  Inceptos olim promissum carmen iambos
+    Ad umbilicum adducere[63].
+
+    ... for heaven forbids me to cover the scroll down to
+    the stick with the iambic lines I had begun a song
+    promised long ago to the world.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. A reader with a roll: from a fresco at Pompeii.]
+
+These sticks were sometimes painted or gilt, and furnished with projecting
+knobs (_cornua_) similarly decorated, intended to serve both as an
+ornament, and as a contrivance to keep the ends of the roll even, while it
+was being rolled up. The sides of the long dimension of the roll
+(_frontes_) were carefully cut, so as to be perfectly symmetrical, and
+afterwards smoothed with pumice-stone and coloured. A ticket (_index_ or
+_titulus_, in Greek [Greek: sillubos] or [Greek: sittubos]), made of a
+piece of papyrus or parchment, was fastened to the edge of the roll in
+such a way that it hung out over one or other of the ends. As Ovid says:
+
+  Cetera turba palam titulos ostendet apertos
+    Et sua detecta nomina fronte geret[64].
+
+    The others will flaunt their titles openly, and carry
+    their names on an uncovered edge.
+
+The roll was kept closed by strings or straps (_lora_), usually of some
+bright colour[65]; and if it was specially precious, an envelope which the
+Greeks called a jacket ([Greek: diphthera][66]), made of parchment or some
+other substance, was provided. Says Martial:
+
+  Perfer Atestinae nondum vulgata Sabinae
+    Carmina, purpurea sed modo culta toga[67].
+
+    Convey to Sabina at Ateste these verses. They have not
+    yet been published, and have been but lately dressed in
+    a purple garment.
+
+Martial has combined in a single epigram most of the ornaments with which
+rolls could be decorated. This I will quote next, premising that the oil
+of cedar, or _arbor-vitae_, mentioned in the second line not only imparted
+an agreeable yellow colour, but was held to be an antiseptic[68].
+
+  Faustini fugis in sinum? sapisti.
+  Cedro nunc licet ambules perunctus
+  Et frontis gemino decens honore
+  Pictis luxurieris umbilicis,
+  Et te purpura delicata velet,
+  Et cocco rubeat superbus index[69].
+
+His book had selected the bibliomaniac Faustinus as a patron. Now, says
+the poet, you shall be anointed with oil of cedar; you shall revel in the
+decoration of both your sets of edges; your sticks shall be painted; your
+covering shall be purple, and your ticket scarlet.
+
+When a number of rolls had to be carried from one place to another, they
+were put into a box (_scrinium_ or _capsa_). This receptacle was
+cylindrical in shape, not unlike a modern hat-box[70]. It was carried by a
+flexible handle, attached to a ring on each side; and the lid was held
+down by what looks very like a modern lock. The eighteen rolls, found in a
+bundle at Herculaneum, had doubtless been kept in a similar receptacle.
+
+My illustration (fig. 10) is from a fresco at Herculaneum. It will be
+noticed that each roll is furnished with a ticket (_titulus_). At the feet
+of the statue of Demosthenes already referred to, and of that of
+Sophocles, are _capsae_, both of which show the flexible handles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Book-box or capsa.]
+
+I will next collect the information available respecting the fittings used
+in Roman libraries. I admit that it is scattered and imperfect; but
+legitimate deductions may, I think, be arrived at from it, which will give
+us tolerably certain ideas of the appearance of one of those collections.
+
+The words used to designate such fittings are: _nidus_; _forulus_, or more
+usually _foruli_; _loculamenta_; _pluteus_; _pegmata_.
+
+_Nidus_ needs no explanation. It can only mean a pigeon-hole. Martial uses
+it of a bookseller, at whose shop his own poems may be bought.
+
+  De primo dabit alterove _nido_
+  Rasum pumice purpuraque cultum
+  Denaris tibi quinque Martialem[71].
+
+    Out of his first or second pigeon-hole, polished with
+    pumice stone, and smart with a purple covering, for five
+    denarii he will give you Martial.
+
+In a subsequent epigram the word occurs with reference to a private
+library, to which the poet is sending a copy of his works.
+
+  Ruris bibliotheca delicati,
+  Vicinam videt unde lector urbem,
+  Inter carmina sanctiora si quis
+  Lascivae fuerit locus Thaliae,
+  Hos _nido_ licet inseras vel imo
+  Septem quos tibi misimus libellos[72].
+
+    O library of that well-appointed villa whence a reader
+    can see the City near at hand--if among more serious
+    poems there be any room for the wanton Muse of Comedy,
+    you may place these seven little books I send you even
+    in your lowest pigeon-hole.
+
+_Forulus_ or _foruli_ occurs in the following passages. Suetonius, after
+describing the building of the temple of the Palatine Apollo by Augustus,
+adds, "he placed the Sibylline books in two gilt receptacles (_forulis_)
+under the base of the statue of Palatine Apollo"[73]; and Juvenal,
+enumerating the gifts that a rich man is sure to receive if burnt out of
+house and home, says,
+
+  Hic libros dabit, et _forulos_, mediamque Minervam[74].
+
+The word is of uncertain derivation, but _forus_, of which it is clearly
+the diminutive, is used by Virgil for the cells of bees:
+
+  Complebuntque _foros_ et floribus horrea texent[75].
+
+The above-quoted passage of Juvenal may therefore be rendered: "Another
+will give books, and cells to put them in, and a statue of Minerva for the
+middle of the room."
+
+The word _loculamentum_ is explained in a passage of Columella, in which
+he gives directions for the making of dovecotes:
+
+    Let small stakes be placed close together, with planks
+    laid across them to carry cells (_loculamenta_) for the
+    birds to build their nests in, or sets of pigeon-holes
+    made of earthenware[76].
+
+In a second passage he uses the same word for a beehive[77]; Vegetius, a
+writer on veterinary surgery, uses it for the socket of a horse's
+tooth[78]; and Vitruvius, in a more general way, for a case to contain a
+small piece of machinery[79]. Generally, the word may be taken to signify
+a long narrow box, open at one end, and, like _nidus_ and _forulus_, may
+be translated "pigeon-hole." Seneca, again, applies the word to books in
+the passage I have already translated, and in a singularly instructive
+manner. "You will find," he says, "in the libraries of the most arrant
+idlers all that orators or historians have written--bookcases
+(_loculamenta_) built up as high as the ceiling[80]."
+
+_Pegmata_, for the word generally occurs in the plural, are, as the name
+implies, things fixed together, usually planks of wood framed into a
+platform, and used in theatres to carry pieces of scenery or performers up
+and down. As applied to books "shelves" are probably meant: an
+interpretation borne out by the _Digest_, in which it is stated that
+"window-frames and _pegmata_ are included in the purchase of a house[81]."
+They were therefore what we should call "fixtures."
+
+A _pluteus_ was a machine used by infantry for protection in the field:
+and hence the word is applied to any fence, or boarding to form the limit
+or edge of anything, as a table or a bed. _Plutei_ were not attached so
+closely to the walls as _pegmata_, for in the _Digest_ they are classed
+with nets to keep out birds, mats, awnings, and the like, and are not to
+be regarded as part and parcel of a house[82]. Juvenal uses the word for
+a shelf in his second Satire, where he is denouncing pretenders to
+knowledge:
+
+
+  Indocti primum, quamquam plena omnia gypso
+  Chrysippi invenias, nam perfectissimus horum est
+  Si quis Aristotelem similem vel Pittacon emit
+  Et iubet archetypos pluteum servare Cleanthas[83].
+
+    In the first place they are dunces, though you find
+    their houses full of plaster figures of Chrysippus: for
+    a man of this sort is not fully equipped until he buys a
+    likeness of Aristotle or Pittacus, and bids a shelf take
+    care of original portraits of Cleanthes.
+
+This investigation has shewn that three of the words applied to the
+preservation of books, namely, _nidus_, _forulus_, and _loculamentum_, may
+be rendered by the English "pigeon-hole"; and that _pegma_ and _pluteus_
+mean contrivances of wood which may be rendered by the English "shelving."
+It is quite clear that _pegmata_ could be run up with great rapidity, from
+a very graphic account in Cicero's letters of the rearrangement of his
+library. He begins by writing to his friend Atticus as follows:
+
+    I wish you would send me any two fellows out of your
+    library, for Tyrannio to make use of as pasters, and
+    assistants in other matters. Remind them to bring some
+    vellum with them to make those titles (_indices_) which
+    you Greeks, I believe, call [Greek: silluboi]. You are
+    not to do this if it is inconvenient to you[84]....
+
+In the next letter he says:
+
+    Your men have made my library gay with their
+    carpentry-work and their titles (_constructione et
+    sillybis_). I wish you would commend them[85].
+
+When all is completed he writes:
+
+    Now that Tyrannio has arranged my books, a new spirit
+    has been infused into my house. In this matter the help
+    of your men Dionysius and Menophilus has been
+    invaluable. Nothing could look neater than those shelves
+    of yours (_illa tua pegmata_), since they smartened up
+    my books with their titles[86].
+
+No other words than those I have been discussing are, so far as I know,
+applied by the best writers to the storage of books; and, after a careful
+study of the passages in which they occur, I conclude that, so long as
+rolls only had to be accommodated, private libraries in Rome were fitted
+with rows of shelves standing against the walls (_plutei_), or fixed to
+them (_pegmata_). The space between these horizontal shelves was
+subdivided by vertical divisions into pigeon-holes (_nidi_, _foruli_,
+_loculamenta_), and it may be conjectured that the width of these
+pigeon-holes would vary in accordance with the number of rolls included in
+a single work. That such receptacles were the common furniture of a
+library is proved, I think, by such evidence as the epigram of Martial
+quoted above, in which he tells his friend that if he will accept his
+poems, he may "put them even in the lowest pigeon-hole (_nido vel imo_),"
+as we should say, "on the bottom shelf"; and by the language of Seneca
+when he sneers at the "pigeon-holes (_loculamenta_) carried up to the
+ceiling."
+
+The height of the woodwork varied, of course, with individual taste. In
+the library on the Esquiline the height was only three feet six inches; at
+Herculaneum about six feet.
+
+I can find no hint of any doors, or curtains, in front of the
+pigeon-holes. That the ends of the rolls (_frontes_) were visible, is, I
+think, quite clear from what Cicero says of his own library after the
+construction of his shelves (_pegmata_); and the various devices for
+making rolls attractive seem to me to prove that they were intended to be
+seen.
+
+A representation of rolls arranged on the system which I have attempted to
+describe, occurs on a piece of sculpture (fig. 11) found at Neumagen near
+Treves in the seventeenth century, among the ruins of a fortified camp
+attributed to Constantine the Great[87]. Two divisions, full of rolls, are
+shewn, from which a man, presumably the librarian, is selecting one. The
+ends of the rolls are furnished with tickets.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. A Roman taking down a roll from its place in a
+library.]
+
+The system of pigeon-holes terminated, in all probability, in a cornice.
+The explorers of Herculaneum depose to the discovery of such an ornament
+there.
+
+The wall-space above the book-cases was decorated with the likenesses of
+celebrated authors--either philosophers, if the owner of the library
+wished to bring into prominence his adhesion to one of the fashionable
+systems--or authors, dead and living, or personal friends. This obvious
+form of decoration was, in all probability, used at Pergamon[88]; Pollio,
+as we have seen, introduced it into Rome: and Pliny, who calls it a
+novelty (_novitium inventum_), deposes to its general adoption[89]. We are
+not told how these portraits were commonly treated--whether they were
+busts standing clear of the wall on the book-cases; or bracketed against
+the wall; or forming part of its decoration, in plaster-work or distemper.
+A suitable inscription accompanied them. Martial has preserved for us a
+charming specimen of one of these complimentary stanzas--for such they
+undoubtedly would be in the case of a contemporary--to be placed beneath
+his own portrait in a friend's library:
+
+  Hoc tibi sub nostra breve carmen imagine vivat
+    Quam non obscuris iungis, Avite, viris:
+  _Ille ego sum nulli nugarum laude secundus,
+    Quem non miraris, sed puto, lector, amas.
+  Maiores maiora sonent: mihi parva locuto
+    Sufficit in vestras saepe redire manus_[90].
+
+  Placed, with my betters, on your study-wall
+  Let these few lines, Avitus, me recall:
+  _To foremost rank in trifles I was raised;
+  I think men loved me, though they never praised.
+  Let greater poets greater themes profess:
+  My modest lines seek but the hand's caress
+  That tells me, reader, of thy tenderness._
+
+The beautiful alto-relievo in the Lateran Museum, Rome, representing an
+actor selecting a mask, contains a contrivance for reading a roll (fig.
+12) which may have been usual in libraries and elsewhere, though I have
+not met with another instance of it. A vertical support attached to the
+table on which two masks and a MS. are lying, carries a desk with a rim
+along its lower edge and one of its sides. The roll is partially opened,
+the closed portion lying towards the left side of the desk, next the rim.
+The roll may be supposed to contain the actor's part[91].
+
+It is much to be regretted that we have no definite information as to the
+way in which the great public libraries built by Augustus were fitted up;
+but I see no reason for supposing that their fittings differed from those
+of private libraries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Desk to support a roll while it is being read.]
+
+When books (_codices_), of a shape similar to that with which modern
+librarians have to deal, had to be accommodated as well as rolls, it is
+manifest that rectangular spaces not more than a few inches wide would be
+singularly inconvenient. They were therefore discarded in favour of a
+press (_armarium_), a piece of furniture which would hold rolls
+(_volumina_) as well as books (_codices_), and was in fact, as I shall
+shew, used for both purposes. The word (_armarium_) occurs commonly in
+Cicero, and other writers of the best period, for a piece of furniture in
+which valuables of all kinds, and household gear, were stowed away; and
+Vitruvius[92] uses it for a book-case. A critic, he says, "produced from
+certain presses an infinite number of rolls." In later Latin writers--that
+is from the middle of the first century A.D.--no other word, speaking
+generally, occurs.
+
+The jurist Ulpian, who died A.D. 228, in a discussion as to what is
+comprised under the term _liber_, decides in favour of including all rolls
+(_volumina_) of whatever material, and then considers the question whether
+_codices_ come under the same category or not--thereby shewing that in his
+day both forms of books were in use. Again, when a library (_bibliotheca_)
+has been bequeathed, it is questioned whether the bequest includes merely
+the press or presses (_armarium vel armaria_), or the books as well[93].
+
+The Ulpian Library, or rather Libraries, in Trajan's Forum, built about
+114 A.D.[94], were fitted up with presses, as we learn from the passage in
+Vopiscus which I have already quoted; and when the ruins of the section of
+that library which stood next to the Quirinal Hill were excavated by the
+French, a very interesting trace of one of these presses was discovered.
+Nibby, the Roman antiquary, thus describes it:
+
+    Beyond the above-mentioned bases [of the columns in the
+    portico] some remains of the inside of the room became
+    visible on the right. They consisted of a piece of
+    curtain-wall, admirably constructed of brick, part of
+    the side-wall, with a rectangular niche of large size in
+    the form of a press (_in foggia di armadio_). One
+    ascended to this by three steps, with a landing-place in
+    front of them, on which it was possible to stand with
+    ease. On the sides of this niche there still exist
+    traces of the hinges, on which the panels and the
+    wickets, probably of bronze, rested[95].
+
+It seems to me that we have here an early instance, perhaps the earliest,
+of those presses in the thickness of the wall which were so common
+afterwards in the monasteries and in private libraries also. A similar
+press, on a smaller scale, is described by the younger Pliny: "My
+bedroom," he says, "has a press let into the wall which does duty as a
+library, and holds books not merely to be read, but read over and over
+again[96]."
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that cupboards were always, or even
+usually, sunk into the wall in Roman times. They were detached pieces of
+furniture, not unlike the wardrobes in which ladies hang their dresses at
+the present day, except that they were fitted with a certain number of
+horizontal shelves, and were used for various purposes according to the
+requirements of their owners. For instance, there is a sarcophagus in the
+Museo Nazionale at Rome, on which is represented a shoemaker at work. In
+front of him is a cupboard, exactly like those I am about to describe, on
+the top of which several pairs of shoes are set out.
+
+I can, however, produce three representations of such presses being used
+by the Romans to contain books.
+
+The first occurs on a marble sarcophagus (fig. 13), now in the garden of
+the Villa Balestra, Rome, where I had the good fortune to find it in
+1898[97]; and Professor Petersen, of the German Archaeological School, was
+so kind as to have it photographed for me. He assigns the work to about
+200 A.D.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. A Roman reading a roll in front of a press
+(_armarium_).
+
+From a photograph of a sarcophagus in the garden of the Villa Balestra.
+Rome.]
+
+In the central portion, 21 in. high, by 15 1/2 in. wide, is a seated
+figure, reading a roll. In front of him is a cupboard, the doors of which
+are open. It is fitted with two shelves, on the uppermost of which are
+eight rolls, the ends of which are turned to the spectator. On the next
+shelf is something which looks like a dish or shallow cup. The lower part
+of the press is solid. Perhaps a second cupboard is intended. Above, it is
+finished off with a cornice, on which rests a very puzzling object. There
+are a few faint lines on the marble, which Professor Petersen believes are
+intended to represent surgical instruments, and so to indicate the
+profession of the seated figure[98]. There is a Greek inscription on the
+sarcophagus, but it merely warns posterity not to disturb the bones of the
+deceased[99].
+
+The second representation (fig. 14) is from the tomb of Galla Placidia, at
+Ravenna. It occurs in a mosaic on the wall of the chapel in which she was
+buried, A.D. 449[100]; and was presumably executed before that date. The
+press closely resembles the one on the Roman sarcophagus, but it is
+evidently intended to indicate a taller piece of furniture, and it
+terminates in a pediment. There are two shelves, on which lie the four
+Gospels, each as a separate _codex_, indicated by the name of the
+Evangelist above it. This press rests upon a stout frame, the legs of
+which are kept in position by a cross-piece nearly as thick as themselves.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Press containing the four Gospels.
+
+From a mosaic above the tomb of the Empress Galla Placidia at Ravenna.]
+
+The third representation of an _armarium_ (fig. 15) occurs in the
+manuscript of the Vulgate now in the Laurentian Library at Florence, known
+as the _Codex Amiatinus_, from the Cistercian convent of Monte Amiata in
+Tuscany, where it was preserved for several centuries[101]. The thorough
+investigation to which this manuscript has lately been subjected shews
+that it was written in England, at Wearmouth or Jarrow, but possibly by an
+Italian scribe, before A.D. 716, in which year it was taken to Rome, as a
+present to the Pope. The first quaternion, however, on one of the leaves
+of which the above representation occurs, is probably older; and it may
+have belonged to a certain _Codex grandior_ mentioned by Cassiodorus, and
+possibly written under his direction[102].
+
+The picture (fig. 15), which appears as the frontispiece to this work,
+shews Ezra writing the law. On the margin of the vellum, in a hand which
+is considered to be later than that of the MS., are the words:
+
+    CODICIBUS SACRIS HOSTILI CLADE PERVSTIS
+    ESDRA DEO FERVENS HOC REPARAVIT OPUS.
+
+Behind him is a press (_armarium_) with open doors. The lower portion,
+below these doors, is filled in with panels which are either inlaid or
+painted, so that the frame on which it is supported is not visible, as in
+the Ravenna example. The bottom of the press proper is used as a shelf, on
+which lie a volume and two objects, one of which probably represents a
+case for pens, while the other is certainly an inkhorn. Above this are
+four shelves, on each of which lie two volumes. These volumes have their
+titles written on their backs, but they are difficult to make out, and my
+artist has not cared to risk mistakes by attempting to reproduce them. The
+words, beginning at the left hand corner of the top-shelf, are:
+
+  OCT.[103] LIB.     REG.
+  HIST. LIB.       PSALM. LIB.
+  SALOMON.         PROPH.
+  EVANG. IIII.     EPIST. XXI.
+  ACT. APOSTOL.
+
+The frame-work of the press above the doors is ornamented in the same
+style as the panels below, and the whole is surmounted by a low pyramid,
+on the side of which facing the spectator is a cross, beneath which are
+two peacocks drinking from a water-trough.
+
+I regret that I could not place this remarkable drawing before my readers
+in the rich colouring of the original. The press is of a reddish brown:
+the books are bound in crimson. Ezra is clad in green, with a crimson
+robe. The background is gold. The border is blue, between an inner and
+outer band of silver. The outermost band of all is vermilion.
+
+I formerly thought that this book-press might represent those in use in
+England at the beginning of the eighth century; but, if the above
+attribution to Cassiodorus be accurate, it must be accounted another
+Italian example. It bears a general similarity to the Ravenna book-press,
+as might be expected, when it is remembered that Cassiodorus held office
+under Theodoric and his successors, and resided at Ravenna till he was
+nearly seventy years old.
+
+The foundation of Christianity did not alter what I may call the Roman
+conception of a library in any essential particular. The philosophers and
+authors of Greece and Rome may have occasionally found themselves in
+company with, or even supplanted by, the doctors of the Church; but in
+other respects, for the first seven centuries, at least, of our era, the
+learned furnished their libraries according to the old fashion, though
+with an ever increasing luxury of material. Boethius, whose _Consolation
+of Philosophy_ was written A.D. 525, makes Philosophy speak of the "walls
+of a library adorned with ivory and glass[104]"; and Isidore, Bishop of
+Seville A.D. 600-636, records that "the best architects object to gilded
+ceilings in libraries, and to any other marble than _cipollino_ for the
+floor, because the glitter of gold is hurtful to the eyes, while the green
+of _cipollino_ is restful to them[105]."
+
+A few examples of such libraries may be cited; but, before doing so, I
+must mention the Record-Office (_Archivum_), erected by Pope Damasus
+(366-384). It was connected with the Basilica of S. Lawrence, which
+Damasus built in the Campus Martius, near the theatre of Pompey. On the
+front of the Basilica, over the main entrance, was an inscription, which
+ended with the three following lines:
+
+    ARCHIVIS FATEOR VOLUI NOVA CONDERE TECTA ADDERE PRAETEREA
+    DEXTRA LAEVAQUE COLUMNAS QUAE DAMASI TENEANT PROPRIUM PER
+    SAECULA NOMEN.
+
+    I confess that I have wished to build a new abode for
+    Archives; and to add columns on the right and left to
+    preserve the name of Damasus for ever.
+
+These enigmatical verses contain all that we know, or are ever likely to
+know, respecting this building, which is called _chartarium ecclesiae
+Romanae_ by S. Jerome[106], and unquestionably held the official documents
+of the Latin Church until they were removed to the Lateran in the seventh
+century. The whole building, or group of buildings, was destroyed in 1486
+by Cardinal Raphael Riario, the dissolute nephew of Sixtus IV., to make
+room for his new palace, now called Palazzo della Cancelleria, and the
+church was rebuilt on a new site. The connexion with Pope Damasus is
+maintained by the name, S. Lorenzo in Damaso. No plan of the old
+buildings, or contemporary record of their arrangement, appears to exist.
+My only reason for drawing attention to a structure which has no real
+connexion with my subject is that the illustrious De Rossi considers that
+in the second line of the above quotation the word column signifies
+colonnades; and that Damasus took as his model one of the great pagan
+libraries of Rome which, in its turn, had been derived from the typical
+library at Pergamon[107]. According to this view he began by building, in
+the centre of the area selected, a basilica, or hall of basilican type,
+dedicated to S. Lawrence; and then added, on the north and south sides, a
+colonnade or loggia from which the rooms occupied by the records would be
+readily accessible. This opinion is also held by Signor Lanciani, who
+follows De Rossi without hesitation. I am unwilling to accept a theory
+which seems to me to have no facts to support it; and find it safer to
+believe that the line in question refers either to the aisles of the
+basilica, or to such a portico in front of it as may be seen at San
+Clemente and other early churches.
+
+A letter to Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons in A.D. 441, from a correspondent
+named Rusticus, gives a charming picture of a library which he had visited
+in his young days, say about A.D. 400:
+
+    I am reminded of what I read years ago, hastily, as a
+    boy does, in the library of a man who was learned in
+    secular literature. There were there portraits of
+    Orators and also of Poets worked in mosaic, or in wax of
+    different colours, or in plaster, and under each the
+    master of the house had placed inscriptions noting their
+    characteristics; but, when he came to a poet of
+    acknowledged merit, as for instance, Virgil, he began as
+    follows:
+
+  Virgilium vatem melius sua carmina laudant;
+  In freta dum fluvii current, dum montibus umbrae
+  Lustrabunt convexa, polus dum sidera pascet,
+  Semper honos nomenque tuum laudesque manebunt.
+
+  Virgil's own lines most fitly Virgil praise:
+  As long as rivers run into the deep,
+  As long as shadows o'er the hillside sweep,
+  As long as stars in heaven's fair pastures graze,
+  So long shall live your honour, name, and praise.[108]
+
+
+Agapetus, who was chosen Pope in 535, and lived for barely a year, had
+intended, in conjunction with Cassiodorus, to found a college for teachers
+of Christian doctrine. He selected for this purpose a house on the Caelian
+Hill, afterwards occupied by S. Gregory, and by him turned into a
+monastery. Agapetus had made some progress with the scheme, so far as the
+library attached to the house was concerned, for the author of the
+Einsiedlen MS., who visited Rome in the ninth century, saw the following
+inscription "in the library of S. Gregory"--i.e. in the library attached
+to the Church of San Gregorio Magno.
+
+  SANCTORVM VENERANDA COHORS SEDET ORDINE LONGO
+    DIVINAE LEGIS MYSTICA DICTA DOCENS
+  HOS INTER RESIDENS AGAPETVS IVRE SACERDOS
+    CODICIBVS PVLCHRVM CONDIDIT ARTE LOCVM
+  GRATIA PAR CVNCTIS SANCTVS LABOR OMNIBVS VNVS
+    DISSONA VERBA QVIDEM SED TAMEN VNA FIDES
+
+  Here sits in long array a reverend troop
+  Teaching the mystic truths of law divine:
+  'Mid these by right takes Agapetus place
+  Who built to guard his books this fair abode.
+  All toil alike, all equal grace enjoy--
+  Their words are different, but their faith the same.
+
+These lines undoubtedly imply that there was on the walls a long series of
+portraits of the Fathers of the Church, including that of Agapetus
+himself, who had won his right to a place among them by building a
+sumptuous home for their works[109].
+
+The design of Agapetus, interrupted by death, was carried forward by his
+friend Cassiodorus, at a place in South Italy called Vivarium, near his
+own native town Squillace. Shortly after his final retirement from court,
+A.D. 538, Cassiodorus established there a brotherhood, which, for a time at
+least, must have been a formidable rival to that of S. Benedict. A library
+held a prominent place in his conception of what was needed for their
+common life. He says little about its size or composition, but much
+rhetoric is expended on the contrivances by which its usefulness and
+attractiveness were to be increased. A staff of bookbinders was to clothe
+the manuscripts in decorous attire; self-supplying lamps were to light
+nocturnal workers; sundials by day, and water-clocks by night, enabled
+them to regulate their hours. Here also was a _scriptorium_, and it
+appears probable that between the exertions of Cassiodorus and his friend
+Eugippius, South Italy was well supplied with manuscripts[110].
+
+These attempts to snatch from oblivion libraries which, though probably
+according to our ideas insignificant, were centres of culture in the
+darkest of dark ages, will be illustrated by the fuller information that
+has come down to us respecting the library of Isidore, Bishop of Seville
+600-636. The "verses composed by himself for his own presses," to quote
+the oldest manuscript containing them[111], have been preserved, with the
+names of the writers under whose portraits they were inscribed.
+
+There were fourteen presses, arranged as follows:
+
+  I.       Origen.
+  II.      Hilary.
+  III.     Ambrose.
+  IV.      Augustine.
+  V.       Jerome.
+  VI.      Chrysostom.
+  VII.     Cyprian.
+  VIII.    Prudentius.
+  IX.      Avitus, Juvencus, Sedulius.
+  X.       Eusebius, Orosius.
+  XI.      Gregory.
+  XII.     Leander.
+  XIII.    Theodosius, Paulus, Gaius.
+  XIV.     Cosmas, Damian, Hippocrates, Galen.
+
+These writers are probably those whom Isidore specially admired, or had
+some particular reason for commemorating. The first seven are obvious
+types of theologians, and the presses over which they presided were
+doubtless filled not merely with their own works, but with bibles,
+commentaries, and works on Divinity in general. Eusebius and Orosius are
+types of ecclesiastical historians; Theodosius, Paulus, and Gaius, of
+jurists; Cosmas, Damian, etc. of physicians. But the Christian poets
+Prudentius to Sedulius could hardly have needed two presses to contain
+their works; nor Gregory the Great the whole of one. Lastly, Leander,
+Isidore's elder brother, could only owe his place in the series to
+fraternal affection. I conjecture that these portraits were simply
+commemorative; and that the presses beneath them contained the books on
+subjects not suggested by the rest of the portraits, as for example,
+secular literature, in which Isidore was a proficient.
+
+The sets of verses[112] begin with three elegiac couplets headed _Titulus
+Bibliothece_, probably placed over the door of entrance.
+
+  Sunt hic plura sacra, sunt hic mundalia plura:
+    Ex his si qua placent carmina, tolle, lege.
+  Prata vides, plena spinis, et copia florum;
+    Si non vis spinas sumere, sume rosas.
+  Hic geminae radiant veneranda volumina legis;
+    Condita sunt pariter hic nova cum veteri.
+
+  Here sacred books with worldly books combine;
+  If poets please you, read them; they are thine.
+  My meads are full of thorns, but flowers are there;
+  If thorns displease, let roses be your share.
+  Here both the Laws in tomes revered behold;
+  Here what is new is stored, and what is old.
+
+The authors selected are disposed of either in a single couplet, or in
+several couplets, according to the writer's taste. I will quote the lines
+on S. Augustine:
+
+  Mentitur qui [te] totum legisse fatetur:
+    An quis cuneta tua lector habere potest?
+  Namque voluminibus mille, Augustine, refulges,
+    Testantur libri, quod loquor ipse, tui.
+  Quamvis multorum placeat prudentia libris,
+    Si Augustinus adest, sufficit ipse tibi.
+
+  They lie who to have read thee through profess;
+  Could any reader all thy works possess?
+  A thousand scrolls thy ample gifts display;
+  Thy own books prove, Augustine, what I say.
+  Though other writers charm with varied lore,
+  Who hath Augustine need have nothing more.
+
+The series concludes with some lines "To an Intruder (_ad
+Interventorem_)," the last couplet of which is too good to be omitted:
+
+  Non patitur quenquam coram se scriba loquentem;
+    Non est hic quod agas, garrule, perge foras.
+
+  A writer and a talker can't agree:
+  Hence, idle chatterer; 'tis no place for thee.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Great Hall of the Vatican Library, looking west.]
+
+With these three examples I conclude the section of my work which deals
+with what may be called the pagan conception of a library in the fulness
+of its later development. Unfortunately, no enthusiast of those distant
+times has handed down to us a complete description of his library, and we
+are obliged to take a detail from one account, and a detail from another,
+and so piece the picture together for ourselves. What I may call "the
+pigeon-hole system," suitable for rolls only, was replaced by presses
+which could contain rolls if required, and certainly did (as shewn (fig.
+13) on the sarcophagus of the Villa Balestra), but which were specially
+designed for _codices_. These presses were sometimes plain, sometimes
+richly ornamented, according to the taste or the means of the owner. With
+the same limitations the floor, the walls, and possibly the roof also were
+decorated. Further, it was evidently intended that the room selected for
+books should be used for no other purpose; and, as the books were hidden
+from view in their presses, the library-note, if I may be allowed the
+expression, was struck by numerous inscriptions, and by portraits in
+various materials, representing either authors whose works were on the
+shelves, or men distinguished in other ways, or friends and relations of
+the owner of the house.
+
+The Roman conception of a library was realised by Pope Sixtus V., in
+1587[113], when the present Vatican Library was commenced from the design
+of the architect Fontana. I am not aware that there is any contemporary
+record to prove that either the Pope or his advisers contemplated this
+direct imitation; but it is evident, from the most cursory inspection of
+the large room (fig. 16), that the main features of a Roman library are
+before us[114]; and perhaps, having regard to the tendency of the
+Renaissance, especially in Italy, it would be unreasonable to expect a
+different design in such a place, and at such a period.
+
+This noble hall--probably the most splendid apartment ever assigned to
+library-purposes--spans the Cortile del Belvedere from east to west, and
+is entered at each end from the galleries connecting the Belvedere with
+the Vatican palace. It is 184 feet long, and 57 feet wide, divided into
+two by six piers, on which rest simple quadripartite vaults. The north and
+south walls are each pierced with seven large windows. No books are
+visible. They are contained in plain wooden presses 7 feet high and 2 feet
+deep, set round the piers, and against the walls between the windows. The
+arrangement of these presses will be understood from the general view
+(fig. 16), and from the view of a single press open (fig. 17).
+
+In the decoration, with which every portion of the walls and vaults is
+covered, Roman methods are reproduced, but with a difference. The great
+writers of antiquity are conspicuous by their absence; but the
+development of the human race is commemorated by the presence of those
+to whom the invention of letters is traditionally ascribed; the walls
+are covered with frescoes representing the foundation of the great
+libraries which instructed the world, and the assemblies of the Councils
+which established the Church; the vaults record the benefits conferred
+on Rome by Sixtus V., in a series of historical views, one above each
+window; and over these again are stately figures, each embodying some
+sacred abstraction--"Thrones, dominations, princedoms, virtues,
+powers"--with angels swinging censers, and graceful nymphs, and laughing
+satyrs--a strange combination of paganism and Christianity--amid wreaths
+of flowers, and arabesques twining round the groups and over every
+vacant space, partly framing, partly hiding, the heraldic devices which
+commemorate Sixtus and his family:--a web of lovely forms and brilliant
+colours, combined in an intricate and yet orderly confusion.
+
+It may be questioned whether such a room as this was ever intended for
+study. The marble floor, the gorgeous decoration, the absence of all
+appliances for work in the shape of desks, tables, chairs, suggest a place
+for show rather than for use. The great libraries of the Augustan age, on
+the other hand, seem, so far as we can judge, to have been used as
+meeting-places and reading-rooms for learned and unlearned alike. In
+general arrangement and appearance, however, the Vatican Library must
+closely resemble its imperial predecessors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. A single press in the Vatican Library, open.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_, 2 vols., 8vo. Lond.
+1853. Vol. II., p. 343.
+
+[2] Ezra, vi. I.
+
+[3] Mr Layard gives a view of the interior of one of these rooms (p. 345)
+after it had been cleared of rubbish.
+
+[4] _La Bibliotheque du Palais de Ninive_, par M. Joachim Menant. 8vo.
+Paris, 1880, p. 32.
+
+[5] The two languages are the ancient Sumerian and the more modern
+Assyrian.
+
+[6] Athenaeus, Book 1., Chap. 4.
+
+[7] _Noct. Att._ Book VII., Chap. 17. Libros Athenis disciplinarum
+liberalium publice ad legendum praebendos primus posuisse dicitur
+Pisistratus tyrannus.
+
+[8] Xenophon, _Memorabilia_, Book IV., Chap. 2.
+
+[9] Aristoph. _Ranae_, 1407-1410, translated by J. H. Frere. The passage
+has been quoted by Castellani, _Biblioteche nell' Antichita_, 8vo.,
+Bologna, 1884, pp. 7, 8, and many others.
+
+[10] Strabo, ed. Kramer, Berlin, 8vo., 1852, Book XIII., Chap. I, Sec. 54.
+[Greek: protos hon hismen synagagon biblia, kai didaxas tous en Aigypto
+basileas bibliothekes syntaxin.]
+
+[11] Book XIII., Chap. 4, Sec. 2.
+
+[12] Book XVII., Chap. 1, Sec. 8. [Greek: ton de basileion meros esti kai to
+Mouseion, echon peripaton kai exedran kai oikon megan, en ps to sussition
+ton metechonton tou Mouseion philologon andron esti de te sunodo taute kai
+chremata koina kai iereus o epi to Monseio, tetagmenos tote men upo ton
+Basileon nun d upo Kaisaros.]
+
+[13] One of the anonymous lives of Apollonius Rhodius states that he
+presided over the Museum Libraries ([Greek: ton bibliothekon ton
+Mouseion]).
+
+[14] Epiphanius, De Pond. et Mens., Chap. 12. [Greek: eti de usteron kai
+etera egeneto bibliotheke en to Serateio, mikrotera tes protes, etis
+thugater onomasthe autes.]
+
+[15] Ammianus Marcellinus, Book XXII., Chap. 16, Sec. 12. Atriis columnariis
+amplissimis et spirantibus signorum figmentis ita est exornatum, ut post
+Capitolium quo se venerabilis Roma in aeternum attollit, nihil orbis
+terrarum ambitiosius cernat. See also Aphthonius, _Progymn._ C. XII. ed.
+Walz, _Rhetores Graeci_, i. 106.
+
+[16] Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, Book V., Chap. 30. Longeque clarissimum Asiae
+Pergamum.
+
+[17] Strabo, Book XIII., Chap. 4, Sec. 2. After recounting the successful
+policy of Eumenes II. towards the Romans, he proceeds: [Greek: kateskenase
+de ontos ten polin, kai to Nikephorion alsei katephuteuse, kai anathemata
+kai bibliothekas kai ten epi tosonde katoikian tou Pergamon ten nun ousan
+ekeinos prosephilokalese].
+
+[18] _De Architectura_, Book VII., Praefatio. The passage is quoted in the
+next note.
+
+[19] Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, Book XIII., Chap. 11. Mox aemulatione circa
+bibliothecas regum Ptolemaei et Eumenis, supprimente chartas Ptolemaeo, idem
+Varro membranas Pergami tradidit repertas. Vitruvius, on the other hand
+(_ut supra_) makes Ptolemy found the library at Alexandria as a rival to
+that at Pergamon. Reges Attalici magnis philologiae dulcedinibus inducti
+cum egregiam bibliothecam Pergami ad communem delectationem instituissent,
+tune item Ptolemaeus, infinito zelo cupiditatisque incitatus studio, non
+minoribus industriis ad eundem modum contenderat Alexandriae comparare.
+
+[20] Plutarch, _Antonius_, Chap. 57. To a list of accusations against
+Antony for his subservience to Cleopatra, is added the fact: [Greek:
+charisasthai men aute tas ek Pergamon bibliothekas, en ais eikosi muriades
+biblon aplon esan].
+
+[21] _Altertuemer von Pergamon_, Fol., Berlin, 1885, Band 11. Das Heiligtum
+der Athena Polias Nikephoros, von Richard Bohn. The ground-plan (fig. 2)
+is reduced from Plate III. in that volume.
+
+[22] _Die Pergamenische Bibliothek._ Sitzungsberichte der Koenigl. Preuss.
+Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1884, II. 1259-1270.
+
+[23] In my first lecture as Sandars Reader at Cambridge in the Lent Term,
+1900, I pointed out that this enclosure was of about the same size as
+Nevile's Court at Trinity College, if to the central area there we add the
+width of one of the cloisters; and that the temple of Athena was of
+exactly the same width as the Hall, but about 15 feet shorter. Nevile's
+Court is 230 feet long from the inside of the pillars supporting the
+Library to the wall of the Hall; and it has a mean breadth of 137 feet. If
+the width of the cloister, 20 feet, be added to this, we get 157 feet in
+lieu of the 162 feet at Pergamon.
+
+[24] Now in the Royal Museum, Berlin.
+
+[25] Similar sockets have been discovered in the walls of the chambers
+connected with the Stoa of King Attalus at Athens. These chambers are
+thought to have been shops, and the sockets to have supported shelves on
+which wares were exposed for sale. Conze, ut supra, p. 1260; Adler, _Die
+Stoa des Koenigs Attalos zu Athen_, Berlin, 1874; Murray's _Handbook for
+Greece_, ed. 1884, 1. p. 255.
+
+[26] Suetonius, _Caesar_, Chap. 44.
+
+[27] Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, Book VII., Chap. 30; Book XXXV., Chap. 2.
+
+[28] Suetonius, _Augustus_, Chap. 29.
+
+[29] Isidore, _Origines_, Book VI., Chap. 5.
+
+[30] Lanciani, _Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome_, ed. 1897, p. 471.
+Middleton, Ancient Rome, 1892, II. 204, 205.
+
+[31] Nibby, _Roma Antica_, p. 601. [Augusto] vi aggiunse un luogo per
+conversare chiamato _Schola_.
+
+[32] Vell. Pat., Book 1., Chap. II. Hic est Metellus Macedonicus qui
+porticus quae fuere circumdatae duabus aedibus sine inscriptione positis, quae
+nunc Octaviae porticibus ambiuntur, fecerat.
+
+[33] Suet. _De Illustr. Gramm._ c. 2.
+
+[34] Middleton, _Ancient Rome_, 1892, II. 205.
+
+[35] I have taken these dimensions from Middleton's Plan of the Palatine
+Hill (_ut supra_, p. 156), but until the site has been excavated they must
+be more or less conjectural.
+
+[36] Middleton, _Ibid._, I. 185-188. The evidence for the portraits rests
+on the following passage in the _Annals_ of Tacitus ii. 37, where he is
+relating how Hortalus, grandson of the orator Hortensius, being reduced to
+poverty, came with his four children to the Senate: "igitur quatuor filiis
+ante limen curiae adstantibus, loco sententiae, cum in Palatio senatus
+haberetur, modo Hortensii inter oratores sitam imaginem, modo Augusti,
+intuens, ad hunc modum coepit."
+
+[37] Pausanias, _Attica_, Book I., Chap. 18, Sec. 9, ed. J. G. Frazer, Vol.
+I., p. 26.
+
+[38] The above description is derived from Miss Harrison's book, _ut
+supra_, pp. 195-198; Pausanias, ed. J. G. Frazer, Vol. II., pp. 184, 185.
+
+[39] Eusebius, _Chronicon_, ed. Schoene, Vol. II., p. 167.
+
+[40] Middleton, _Ancient Rome_, I. 186.
+
+[41] _Tristia_, III. 59.
+
+[42] _Epist._, I. 3. 17.
+
+[43] _Noctes Atticae_, V. 21. 9.
+
+[44] Vopiscus, _Hist. Aug. Script._, II. 637.
+
+[45] Aulus Gellius, _ut supra_, XVI. 8. 2.
+
+[46] _Ibid._, XI. 17. 1.
+
+[47] Flavii Vopisci _Tacitus_, c. 8.
+
+[48] Id., _Aurelianus_, c. 1.
+
+[49] _Noctes Atticae_, XIX. 5.
+
+[50] Plutarch, _Lucullus_, Chap. XLII. [Greek: Spondes d' axia kai logoy
+ta peri ten ton biblion kataskeuen. kai gar polla, kai gegrammena kalos,
+sunege, e te chresis en philotimotera tes kteseos, aneimenon pasi ton
+bibliothekon, kai ton peri autas peripaton kai scholaoterlon akolutos
+upodechomenon tous Ellenas, osper eis Mouson ti katagogion ekeise
+phoitontas kai sundiemereuontas allelois, apo ton allon chreion asmenos
+apotrechontas].
+
+[51] _De Tranquillitate Animi_, Chap. IX. Studiorum quoque quae
+liberalissima impensa est, tamdiu rationem habet quamdiu modum. Quo
+innumerabiles libros et bibliothecas quarum dominus vix tota vita indices
+perlegit? onerat discentem turba, non instruit, multoque satius est paucis
+te auctoribus tradere, quam errare per multos. Quadraginta milia librorum
+Alexandriae arserunt: pulcherrimum regiae opulentiae monumentum alius
+laudaverit, sicut et Livius, qui _elegantiae regum curaeque egregium id
+opus_ ait _fuisse_: non fuit elegantia illud aut cura, sed studiosa
+luxuria, immo ne studiosa quidem, quoniam non in studium sed in
+spectaculum comparaverant sicut plerisque ignaris etiam servilium
+literarum libri non studiorum instrumenta sed coenationum ornamenta sunt.
+Paretur itaque librorum quantum satis sit, nihil in adparatum. "Honestius"
+inquis "hoc impensis quas in Corinthia pictasque tabulas effuderim."
+Vitiosum est ubique quod nimium est. Quid habes cur ignoscas homini
+armaria citro atque ebore captanti, corpora conquirenti aut ignotorum
+auctorum aut improbatorum et inter tot milia librorum oscitanti, cui
+voluminum suorum frontes maxime placent titulique? Apud desidiosissimos
+ergo videbis quicquid orationum historiarumque est, tecto tenus exstructa
+loculamenta. Iam enim inter balnearia et thermas bibliotheca quoque ut
+necessarium domus ornamentum expolitur. Ignoscerem plane, si studiorum
+nimia cupidine oriretur: nunc ista conquisita, cum imaginibus suis
+descripta, sacrorum opera ingeniorum in speciem et cultum parietum
+comparantur. With this passage may be compared Lucian's tract: [Greek:
+Eros apaideuton kai polla biblia onoumenon.] My friend Mr F. Darwin in
+informs me that the Latin citrus, or Greek [Greek: kedros], is the
+coniferous tree called _Thuia articulata = Callitris quadrivalvis_. See
+Helm, _Kulturpflanzen_, Berl. 1894. Engl. Trans, p. 431.
+
+[52] Lanciani, _Ancient Rome_, 8vo. 1888, p. 193.
+
+[53] _Ancient Rome_, ed. 1892, ii. 254.
+
+[54] _Phil. Trans._, Vol. XLVIII., Pt 2, p. 634.
+
+[55] _Ibid._, p. 821.
+
+[56] _Ibid._, p. 825.
+
+[57] _Opere di G. G. Winckelmann_, Prato, 1831, VII. 197.
+
+[58] Lanciani, _Ruins of Ancient Rome_, pp. 213-217. He describes and
+figures Ligorio's elevation, from MS. Vat. 3439, in _Commissione
+Archeologica Comunale di Roma_, Ann. X. Ser. II., 1882. pp. 29-54. See
+also Middleton, _Ancient Rome_, 1892, II. 15-19. The plan of Rome called
+the Capitoline Plan, because it is now preserved in the Museum of the
+Capitol, was fixed to the north-east wall (fig. 7. 3).
+
+[59] The average length of a roll may be taken at 20-30 ft.; the width at
+9-11 in. See _The Palaeography of Greek Papyri_, by F. G. Kenyon, Oxf.
+1899, Chap. II.
+
+[60] The breadth of these columns from left to right was not great, and
+their length was considerably shorter than the width of the roll, as a
+margin was left at the top and bottom.
+
+[61] _Antichita di Ercolano_, Fol. Napoli, 1779. Vol. V., Tavola 55, p.
+243.
+
+[62] In this statue the roll is a restoration, but a perfectly correct
+one. It is original, and slightly different, in the replica of the statue
+at Knowle Park, Sevenoaks, Kent. See a paper on this statue by J. E.
+Sandys. Litt.D. in _Melanges Weil_, 1898. pp. 423-428.
+
+[63] Horace, _Epodes_, XIV. 5-8. Comp. Martial, _Epigrams_, IV. 89. Ohe!
+libelle, Iam pervenimus usque ad umbilicos.
+
+[64] _Tristia_, I. i. 109.
+
+[65] Catullus (XXII. 7) says of a roll which had been got up with special
+smartness:
+
+  Novi umbilici, lora rubra, membrana
+  Directa plumbo, et pumice omnia aequata.
+
+[66] Lucian, _Adv. Indoct._, Chap. 16.
+
+[67] _Epigrams_, X. 93.
+
+[68] My friend M. R. James, Litt.D., of King's College, has kindly given
+me the following note: In the apocryphal Assumption of Moses Joshua is
+told to 'cedar' Moses' words (= rolls), and to lay them up in Jerusalem:
+"quos ordinabis et chedriabis et repones in vasis fictilibus in loco quem
+fecit [Deus] ab initio creaturae orbis terrarum." Assump. Mos., ed.
+Charles, I. 17. See also Dueange, s.v. Cedria. Vitruvius (II. ix. 13)
+says: "ex cedro oleum quod cedreum dicitur nascitur, quo reliquae res cum
+sint unctae, uti etiam libri, a tineis et earie non laeduntur." See above,
+p. 22.
+
+[69] _Epigrams_, III. ii. 6.
+
+[70] Ovid (_Tristia_, I. i. 105) addressing his book, says:
+
+  Cum tamen in nostrum fueris penetrale receptus
+    Contigerisque tuam, scrinia curva, domum.
+
+
+[71] _Epigrams_, I. 117.
+
+[72] _Epigrams_, VII. 17.
+
+[73] Suet. _Aug._ 31. Libros Sibyllinos condidit duobus _forulis_ auratis
+sub Palatini Apollinis basi.
+
+[74] _Sat._ III. 219.
+
+[75] _Georg._ IV. 250.
+
+[76] _De Re Rustica_, VIII. 8. Paxillis adactis tabulae superponantur; quae
+vel loculamenta quibus nidificent aves, vel fictilia columbaria,
+recipiant.
+
+[77] _Ibid._, IX. 12. 2. The writer, having described bees swarming,
+proceeds: protinus custos novum loculamentum in hoc praeparatum perlinat
+intrinsecus praedictis herbis ... tum manibus aut etiam trulla congregatas
+apes recondat, atque ... diligenter compositum et illitum vas ... patiatur
+in eodem loco esse dum advesperascat. Primo deinde crepusculo transferat
+et reponat in ordinem reliquarum alvorum.
+
+[78] Vegetius, _Art. Vet._, III. 32. Si iumento loculamenta dentium vel
+dentes doluerint.
+
+[79] Vitruvius, _De Arch._, ed. Schneider, X. 9. Insuper autem ad capsum
+redae loculamentum firmiter figatur habens tympanum versatile in cultro
+collocatum, etc.
+
+[80] Dr. Sandys, in his edition of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_,
+1893, p. 174, has shewn that in the office of the public clerk a similar
+contrivance was used, called [Greek: epistulion]: "a shelf supporting a
+series of pigeon-holes, and itself supported by wooden pedestals."
+
+[81] Ulpian, _Digest_, 33. 7. 12. In emptionem domus et specularia et
+pegmata cedere solent, sive in aediticiis sint posita, sive ad tempus
+detracta.
+
+[82] _Ibid._, 29. 1. 17. Reticuli circa columnas, plutei circa parietes,
+item cilicia, vela, aedium non sunt.
+
+[83] _Sat._ II. 4. I do not think that these lines refer to a library. The
+whole house, not a single room in it, is full of plaster busts of
+philosophers.
+
+[84] _Ep._ cv. (ed. Billerbeck); _Ad Att._ IV. 4, p. 2.
+
+[85] _Ep._ cvi. (_ibid._); _Ad Att._ IV. 5.
+
+[86] _Ep._ cxi. (_ibid._); _Ad Att._ IV. 8.
+
+[87] This cut is given in _Antiquitatum et Annalium Trevirensium libri_
+XXV. Auctoribus RR. PP. Soc. Jesu P. Christophoro Browero, et P. Jacobo
+Masenio. 2 v. fol. Leodii, 1670. It is headed: Schema voluminum in
+bibliothecam (sic) ordine olim digestorum Noviomagi in loco Castrorum
+Constantini M. hodiedum in lapide reperto excisum. See also C. G. Schwarz,
+_De Ornamentis Librorum_, 4to, Lips. 1756, pp. 86, 172, 231, and Tab. II.,
+fig. 4. I learnt this reference from Sir E. M. Thompson's _Handbook of
+Greek and Latin Palaeography_, ed. 2, 1894, p. 57, _note_. The Director of
+the Museum at Treves informs me that all the antiquities discovered at
+Neumagen were destroyed in the seventeenth century.
+
+[88] See above, p. 11.
+
+[89] _Ibid._, p. 12.
+
+[90] _Epigrams_, Lib. IX. _Introduction_.
+
+[91] The whole relief is figured in Seyffert, _Dictionary of Classical
+Antiquities_, ed. Nettleship and Sandys, p. 649.
+
+[92] _De Architectura_, Lib. VII, Pref. [Aristophanes] e certis amiariis
+infinita volumina eduxit.
+
+[93] _Digesta Justiniani Augusti_, ed. Mommsen. 8vo. Berlin, 1870. Vol.
+II. p. 88. Book XXXII. 52.
+
+[94] This is the date of the _Columna cochlis_. Middleton's Rome, II. 24
+note.
+
+[95] Nibby, _Roma Antica_, 8vo. Roma, 1839, p. 188.
+
+[96] _Epist._ II. 17. 8. Parieti eius [cubiculi mei] in bibliothecae
+speciem armarium insertum est quod non legendos libros sed lectitandos
+capit.
+
+[97] I should not have known of the existence of this sarcophagus had it
+not been figured, accurately enough on the whole, in _Le Palais de
+Scaurus_, by Mazois, published at Paris in 1822. The sarcophagus had
+passed through the hands of several collectors since Mazois figured it,
+and I had a long and amusing search for it.
+
+[98] _Mittheilungen des K. D. Archaeologischen Instituts Rom_, 1900, Band
+XV. p. 171. Der Sarkophag eines Arztes.
+
+[99] The inscription is printed in full in _Antike Bilderwerke in Rom ...
+beschrieben von Friedrich Matz., und F. von Duhn_, 3 vols., 8vo. Leipzig,
+1881, Vol. II. p. 346, No. 3127^*.
+
+[100] Garrucci, _Arte Christiana_, Vol. IV. p. 39. It would appear from
+some curious drawings on glass figured by Garrucci, _ut supra_ Pl. 490,
+that the Jews used presses of similar design in their synagogues to
+contain the rolls of the law.
+
+[101] The original of this picture is 18 in. high by 9-3/4 in. broad,
+including the border. It could not be photographed, and therefore, through
+the kind offices of Miss G. Dixon, and Signor Biagi, Librarian of the
+Laurentian Library, the services of a thoroughly capable artist, Professor
+Attilio Formilli, were secured to make an exact copy in water colours.
+This he has done with singular taste and skill. My figure has been reduced
+from this copy. The press has also been figured in outline by Garrucci,
+_Arte Christiana_, Vol. III., Pl. 126.
+
+[102] The romantic story of the _Codex Amiatinus_ is fully narrated by Mr
+H. J. White in _Studia Biblica et Ecclesiastica_, 8vo. Oxf. 1890, II. pp.
+273-308.
+
+[103] The _Octateuch_, or, the five books of Moses, with the addition of
+Joshua, Judges, and Ruth.
+
+[104] _Consol. Philosoph._, Book I. Ch. 5. Nec bibliothecae potius comptos
+ebore ac vitro parietes quam tuae mentis sedem requiro.
+
+[105] _Origines_, Book VI. Ch. ii. Cum peritiores architecti neque aurea
+lacunaria ponenda in bibliothecis putent neque pavimenta alia quam a
+Carysteo marmore, quod auri fulgor hebetat et Carystei viriditas reficiat
+oculos.
+
+[106] _Apol. adv. Rufinum_, ii. 20: Opera, ed. Vallarsi, II. 549.
+
+[107] _De Origine Historia Indicibus scrinii et bibliothecae Sedis
+Apostolicae commentatio Ioannis Baptistae de Rossi...._ 4to. Romae, 1886,
+Chapter V. A brief, but accurate, summary of his account will be found in
+Lanciani's _Ancient Rome_, 8vo. 1888, pp. 187-190. Father C. J. Ehrle has
+given me much help on this difficult question.
+
+[108] _Sidonii Apollinaris Opera_, ed. Sirmondi. 4to. Paris, 1652. Notes,
+p. 33. The words of this letter, which I have translated very freely, are
+as follows:
+
+Sed dum haec tacitus mecum revolvo, occurrit mihi quod in Bibliotheca
+studiosi saecularium litterarum puer quondam, ut se aetatis illius
+curiositas habet, praetereundo legissem. Nam cum supra memoratae aedis
+ordinator ac dominus, inter expressas lapillis aut ceris discoloribus,
+formatasque effigies vel Oratorum vel etiam Poetarum specialia singulorum
+autotypis epigrammata subdidisset; ubi ad praeiudicati eloquii venit
+poetam, hoc modo orsus est.
+
+The last three lines of the inscription are from the _AEneid_, Book I. 607.
+I owe the most important part of the translation of Rusticus to Lanciani,
+_ut supra_, p. 196: that of Virgil is by Professor Conington.
+
+[109] I have taken the text of the inscription, and my account of Agapetus
+and his work, from De Rossi, _ut supra_, Chap. VIII. p. lv.
+
+[110] Cassiodorus, _De Inst. Div. Litt._ Chap. XXX. pp. 1145, 46. Ed.
+Migne. De Rossi, _ut supra_.
+
+[111] Versus qui scripti sunt in armaria sua ab ipso [Isidoro] compositi.
+_Cod. Vat. Pal._ 1877, a MS. which came from Lorch in Germany. De Rossi,
+_ut supra_. Chap. VII.
+
+[112] _Isidori Opera Omnia_, 410. Rome, 1803. Vol. VII. p. 179.
+
+[113] See Hen. Stevenson, _Topografia e Monumenti di Roma nelle Pitture a
+fresco di Sisto V. della Biblioteca Vaticana_, p. 7; in _Al Sommo
+Pontefice Leone XIII. Omaggio Giubilare della Biblioteca Vaticana_, Fol.
+Rome, 1881.
+
+[114] Signor Lanciani (_Ancient Rome_, p. 195) was the first to suggest a
+comparison between the Vatican Library and those of ancient Rome.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.
+
+DECORATION OF THE VATICAN LIBRARY.
+
+
+The system of decoration carried out in this Library, of which I have just
+given a summary description, is so interesting, and bears evidence of so
+much care and thought, that I subjoin a detailed account of it, which, by
+the kindness of Father Ehrle, prefect of the Library, I was enabled to
+draw up during my late visits to Rome. The diagrammatic ground-plan (fig.
+18) which accompanies this description, if studied in conjunction with the
+general view (fig. 16), will make the relation of the subjects to each
+other perfectly clear. The visitor is supposed to enter the Library from
+the vestibule at the east end; and the notation of the piers, windows,
+wall-frescoes, etc., begins from the same end. Further, the visitor is
+supposed to examine the east face of each pier first, and then to turn to
+the left.
+
+I will begin with the figures on the central piers and half-piers. These
+figures are painted in fresco, of heroic size: and over their heads are
+the letters which they are supposed to have invented.
+
+1. PILASTER AGAINST EAST WALL.
+
+  ADAM.
+
+  A tall stalwart figure dressed in short chiton. He holds an apple in his
+  left hand, and a mattock in his right.
+
+  Adam divinitus edoctus primus scientiarum et litterarum inventor.
+
+2. FIRST PIER.
+
+  (_a_) ABRAHAM.
+
+  Abraham Syras et Chaldaicas litteras invenit.
+
+  (_b_) THE SONS OF SETH.
+
+  Filii Seth columnis duabus rerum coelestium disciplinam inscribunt.
+
+  (_c_) ESDRAS.
+
+  Esdras novas Hebraeorum litteras invenit.
+
+  (_d_) MOSES.
+
+  Moyses antiquas Hebraicas litteras invenit.
+
+On the cornice of the presses round this pier are the following
+inscriptions:
+
+  (_a_) Doctrina bona dabit gratiam. Prov. xiii. 15.
+  (_b_) Volo vos sapientes esse in bono. Rom. xvi. 19.
+  (_c_) Impius ignorat scientiam. Prov. xxix. 7.
+  (_d_) Cor sapientis quaerit doctrinam. Prov. xv. 14.
+
+3. SECOND PIER.
+
+  (_a_) MERCURY.
+
+  Mercurius Thovt AEgyptiis sacras litteras conscripsit.
+
+  (_b_) ISIS.
+
+  Isis regina AEgyptiarum litterarum inventrix.
+
+  (_c_) MENON.
+
+  Menon Phoroneo aequalis litteras in AEgypto invenit.
+
+  (_d_) HERCULES.
+
+  Hercules aegyptius Phrygias litteras invenit.
+
+  On the cornice of the presses:
+
+  (_a_) Recedere a malo intelligentia. Job xxviii. 28.
+  (_b_) Timere Deum ipsa est sapientia. Job xxviii. 22.
+  (_c_) Faciendi plures libros nullus est finis. Eccl. xii. 12.
+  (_d_) Dat scientiam intelligentibus disciplinam. Dan. xi. 12.
+
+4. THIRD PIER.
+
+  (_a_) PHOENIX.
+
+  Phoenix litteras Phoenicibus tradidit.
+
+  (_b_) CECROPS.
+
+  Cecrops Diphyes primus Atheniensium rex Graecarum litterarum auctor.
+
+  (_c_) LINUS.
+
+  Linus Thebanus litterarum Graecarum inventor.
+
+  (_d_) CADMUS.
+
+  Cadmus Phoenicis frater litteras xvi in Graeciam intulit.
+
+  On the cornice of the presses:
+
+  (_a_) In malevolam animam non introibit sapientia. Sap. i. 4.
+  (_b_) Habentes solatio sanctos libros. 1 Mach. xii. 9.
+  (_c_) Cor rectum inquirit scientiam. Prov. xxvii. 12.
+  (_d_) Sapientiam qui abiicit infelix est. Sap. iii. 14.
+
+5. FOURTH PIER.
+
+  (_a_) PYTHAGORAS.
+
+  Pythagoras. Y. litteram ad humanae vitae exemplum invenit.
+
+  (_b_) PALAMEDES.
+
+  Palamedes bello Troiano Graecis litteris quattuor adiecit.
+
+  (_c_) SIMONIDES.
+
+  Simonides Melicus quattuor Graecarum litterarum inventor.
+
+  (_d_) EPICHARMUS.
+
+  Epicharmus Siculus duas Graecas addidit litteras.
+
+  On the cornice of the presses:
+
+  (_a_) Qui evitat discere incidet in mala. Prov. vii. 16.
+  (_b_) Non glorietur sapiens in sapientia sua. Ier. ix. 23.
+  (_c_) Si quis indiget sapientia postulet a Deo. Iac. i. 15.
+  (_d_) Melior est sapientia cunctis pretiosissimis. Prov. viii. 11.
+
+6. FIFTH PIER.
+
+  (_a_) EVANDER.
+
+  Evander Carment. F. aborigines litteras docuit.
+
+  (_b_) NICOSTRATA.
+
+  Nicostrata Carmenta latinarum litterarum inventrix.
+
+  (_c_) DEMARATUS.
+
+  Demaratus Corinthius etruscarum litterarum auctor.
+
+  (_d_) CLAUDIUS.
+
+  Claudius imperator tres novas litteras adinvenit.
+
+  On the cornice of the presses:
+
+  (_a_) Non erudietur qui non est sapiens in bono. Eccl. xxi. 24.
+  (_b_) Viri intelligentes loquantur mihi. Iac. xxxiv. 34.
+  (_c_) Non peribit consilium a sapienti. Ier. xviii. 18.
+  (_d_) Sapientiam atque doctrinam stulti despiciunt. Prov. i. 17.
+
+7. SIXTH PIER.
+
+  (_a_) CHRYSOSTOM.
+
+  S. Io. Chrysostomus litterarum Armenicarum auctor.
+
+  (_b_) VLPHILAS.
+
+  Vlphilas Episcopus Gothorum litteras invenit.
+
+  (_c_) CYRIL.
+
+  S. Cyrillus aliarum Illyricarum litterarum auctor.
+
+  (_d_) JEROME.
+
+  S. Hieronymus litterarum Illyricarum inventor.
+
+  On the cornice of the presses:
+
+  (_a_) Scientia inflat charitas vero aedificat. Cor. viii. 1.
+  (_b_) Sapere ad sobrietatem. Rom. xii. 3.
+  (_c_) Vir sapiens fortis et vir doctus robustus. Prov. xxiv. 5.
+  (_d_) Ubi non est scientia animae non est bonum. Prov. xix. 2.
+
+8. PILASTER AGAINST WEST WALL.
+
+  CHRIST.
+
+  Our Lord is seated. Over His Head [Greek: Alpha], [Greek: Omega]; in His
+  Hand an open book: Ego sum [Greek: Alpha] et [Greek: Omega]; principium
+  et finis. At His Feet: Iesus Christus summus magister, caelestis doctrinae
+  auctor.
+
+  On Christ's right hand is a POPE, standing, with triple cross and tiara.
+
+  Christi Domini vicarius.
+
+  On Christ's left hand is an EMPEROR, also standing, with crown, sword,
+  blue mantle.
+
+  Ecclesiae defensor.
+
+I will now pass to the decoration of the walls. On the south wall, between
+the windows, are representations of famous libraries; on the north wall,
+of the eight general Councils of the Church. Each space is ornamented with
+a broad border, like a picture-frame. In the centre above is the general
+title of the subject or subjects below: e.g. _Bibliotheca Romanorum_; and
+beneath each picture is an inscription describing the special subject.
+Above each window, on the vault, is a large picture, to commemorate the
+benefits conferred by Sixtus V. on Rome and on the world. I will describe
+the libraries first, beginning as before at the east end of the room.
+
+
+I. SIXTUS V. AND THE ARCHITECT FONTANA.
+
+(Right of Entrance.)
+
+    Sixtus V. Pont. M. Bibliothecae Vaticanae aedificationem
+    prescribit.
+
+The Pope is seated. Fontana, a pair of compasses in his right hand, is on
+one knee, exhibiting the plan of the intended library.
+
+
+II. MOSES ENTRUSTS THE TABLES OF THE LAW TO THE LEVITES.
+
+(Left of Entrance.)
+
+    Moyses librum legis Levitis in tabernaculo reponendum
+    tradit.
+
+Moses hands a large folio to a Levite, behind whom more Levites are
+standing. Soldiers, etc., stand behind Moses. Tents in background.
+
+
+III. BIBLIOTHECA HEBRAEA.
+
+(On first wall-space south side.)
+
+    Esdras sacerdos et scriba Bibliothecam sacram restituit.
+
+Ezra, attired in a costume that is almost Roman, stands in the centre of
+the picture, his back half turned to the spectator. An official is
+pointing to a press full of books. Porters are bringing in others.
+
+
+IV. BIBLIOTHECA BABYLONICA.
+
+(Two pictures.)
+
+(_a_) _The education of Daniel in Babylon._
+
+    Daniel et socii linguam scientiamque Chaldaeorum
+    ediscunt.
+
+Daniel and other young men are writing and reading at a table on the right
+of the picture. A group of elderly men in front of them to the left.
+Behind these is a lofty chair and desk, beneath which is a table at which
+a group of boys are reading and writing. In the background a set of
+book-shelves with a desk, quite modern in style.
+
+(_b_) _The search for the decree of Cyrus._
+
+    Cyri decretum de templi restauratione Darii iussu
+    perquiritur.
+
+Darius, crowned, his back half turned to the spectator, is giving orders
+to several young men, who are taking books out of an _armarium_--evidently
+copied from one of the Vatican book-cupboards.
+
+
+V. BIBLIOTHECA ATHENIENSIS.
+
+(Two pictures.)
+
+(_a_) _Pisistratus arranges a library at Athens._
+
+    Pisistratus primus apud Graecos publicam bibliothecam
+    instituit.
+
+Pisistratus, in armour, over which is a blue mantle, is giving orders to
+an old man who kneels before him, holding an open book. Behind the old man
+attendants are placing books on desks--others are reading. Behind
+Pisistratus is a group of officers, and behind them again a book-press
+without doors, and a row of open books on the top.
+
+(_b_) _Restoration of the library by Seleucus._
+
+    Seleucus bibliothecam a Xerxe asportatam referendam
+    curat.
+
+Servants are bringing in books which are being hastily packed into cases.
+In the background is seen the sea, with a ship; and the door of the
+palace. A picture full of life and movement.
+
+
+VI. BIBLIOTHECA ALEXANDRINA.
+
+(Two pictures.)
+
+(_a_) _Ptolemy organises the library at Alexandria._
+
+    Ptolemaeus ingenti bibliotheca instructa Hebreorum libros
+    concupiscit.
+
+Ptolemy, a dignified figure in a royal habit, stands in the centre. He is
+addressing an elderly man who stands on his right. Behind him are three
+porches, within which are seen desks and readers. In the central porch are
+closed presses, with rows of folios on the top. Below are desks, at which
+readers are seated, their backs turned to the presses.
+
+(_b_) _The Seventy Translators bring their work to Ptolemy._
+
+    LXXII interpretes ab Eleazaro missi sacros libros
+    Ptolemaeo reddunt.
+
+Ptolemy is seated on a throne to right of spectator with courtiers on his
+right and left. The messengers kneel before him, and hand him volumes.
+
+
+VII. BIBLIOTHECA ROMANORUM.
+
+(_a_) _Tarquin receives the Sibylline Books._
+
+    Tarquinius Superbus libros Sibyllinos tres aliis a
+    muliere incensis tantidem emit.
+
+Tarquin, seated in the centre of the picture, receives three volumes from
+an aged and dignified woman. In front a lighted brazier in which the other
+books are burning.
+
+
+(_b_) _Augustus opens the Palatine library._
+
+    Augustus Caes. Palatina Bibliotheca magnifice ornata
+    viros litteratos fovet.
+
+Augustus, in armour, with imperial mantle, crown and sceptre, stands left
+of centre. An old man seated at his feet is writing from his dictation.
+Left of the Emperor are five desks; with five closed books lying on the
+top of each. These desks are very probably intended to represent those of
+the Vatican Library as arranged by Sixtus IV. Two men, crowned with
+laurel, are standing behind the last desk, conversing. Behind them again
+is a book-case of three shelves between a pair of columns. Books are lying
+on their sides on these shelves. Beneath the shelves is a desk, with books
+open upon it, and others on their sides beneath it.
+
+
+VIII. BIBLIOTHECA HIEROSOLIMITANA.
+
+_Alexander, Bishop and Martyr, collects a library at Jerusalem._
+
+    S. Alexander Episc. et Mart. Decio Imp. in magna
+    temporum acerbitate sacrorum scriptorum libros
+    Hierosolymis congregat.
+
+A picture full of movement, occupying the whole space between two windows.
+The saint is in the centre of the picture, seated. Young men are bringing
+in the books, and placing them on shelves.
+
+
+IX. BIBLIOTHECA CAESARIENSIS.
+
+_Pamphilus, Priest and Martyr, collects a library at Caesarea._
+
+    S. Pamphilus Presb. et Mart. admirandae sanctitatis et
+    doctrinae Caesareae sacram bibliothecam conficit multos
+    libros sua manu describit.
+
+Pamphilus, in centre of picture, is giving orders to porters who are
+bringing in a basket of books. On his left a large table at which a scribe
+is writing. S. Jerome, seated in right corner of picture, is apparently
+dictating to the scribe. Behind them is a large book-case on the shelves
+of which books lie on their sides; others are being laid on the top by a
+man standing on a ladder. In the left of the picture is a table covered
+with a green cloth, on which book-binders are at work. In front of this
+table a carpenter is preparing boards. In background, seen through a large
+window, is a view of Caesarea.
+
+
+X. BIBLIOTHECA APOSTOLORUM.
+
+_S. Peter orders the safe-keeping of books._
+
+    S. Petrus sacrorum librorum thesaurum in Romana ecclesia
+    perpetuo asservari jubet.
+
+S. Peter is standing before an altar on which are books and a cross. In
+front doctors are writing at a low table.
+
+[A small picture between window and west wall.]
+
+
+XI. BIBLIOTHECA PONTIFICUM.
+
+_The successors of S. Peter carry on the library-tradition._
+
+    Romani pontifices apostolicam bibliothecam magno studio
+    amplificant atque illustrant.
+
+A pope, his left hand resting on a book, is earnestly conversing with a
+cardinal, whose back is half turned to the spectator. Another pope, with
+three aged men, in background.
+
+[A small picture on west wall.]
+
+We will now return to the east end of the room, and take the
+representations of Councils, painted on the east and north walls, in
+chronological order.
+
+
+I. II. CONCILIUM NICAENUM I.
+
+(On east wall.)
+
+_The first Council held at Nicaea_, A.D. 325.
+
+    S. Silvestro PP. Constantino Mag. imp. Christus dei
+    Filius patri consubstantialis declaratur Arii impietas
+    condemnatur.
+
+_The burning of the books of Arius._
+
+    Ex decreto concilii Constantinus Imp. libros Arianorum
+    comburi iubet.
+
+
+III. CONCILIUM CONSTANTINOPOLITANUM I.
+
+_The first Council held at Constantinople_, A.D. 381.
+
+    S. Damaso PP. et Theodosio sen. imp. Spiritus Sancti
+    divinitas propugnatur nefaria Macedonii haeresis
+    extinguitur.
+
+
+IV. CONCILIUM EPHESINUM.
+
+_The Council held at Ephesus_, A.D. 431.
+
+    S. Caelestino PP. et Theodosio Jun. Imp. Nestorius
+    Christum dividens damnatur, B. Maria Virgo dei genetrix
+    praedicatur.
+
+
+V. CONCILIUM CHALCEDONENSE.
+
+_The Council held at Chalcedon_, A.D. 451.
+
+    S. Leone magno PP. et Marciano Imp. infelix Eutyches
+    vnam tantum in Christo post incarnationem naturam
+    asserens confutatur.
+
+
+VI. CONCILIUM CONSTANTINOPOLITANUM II.
+
+_The second Council held at Constantinople_, A.D. 553.
+
+    Vigilio Papa et Iustiniano Imp. contentiones de tribus
+    capitibus sedantur Origenis errores refelluntur.
+
+
+VII. CONCILIUM CONSTANTINOPOLITANUM III.
+
+_The third Council held at Constantinople_, A.D. 680.
+
+    S. Agathone Papa Constantino pogonato Imp. monothelitae
+    haeretici vnam tantum in Christo voluntatem docentes
+    exploduntur.
+
+
+VIII. CONCILIUM NICAENUM II.
+
+_The second Council held at Nicaea_, A.D. 787.
+
+    Hadriano papa Constantino Irenes F. imp. impii
+    iconomachi reiiciuntur sacrarum imaginum veneratio
+    confirmatur.
+
+
+IX. X. CONCILIUM CONSTANTINOPOLITANUM IV.
+
+_The fourth Council held at Constantinople_, A.D. 869.
+
+    Hadriano papa et Basilio imp. S. Ignatius patriarcha
+    Constant. in suam sedem pulso Photio restituitur.
+
+_The burning of the books of Photius._
+
+    Ex decreto concilii Basilius Imp. chirographa Photii et
+    conciliab. acta comburi iubet.
+
+
+In conclusion I will enumerate the series of eighteen large pictures on
+the side-walls and in the lunettes at each end of the room, representing,
+with some few exceptions, the benefits conferred on Rome by Sixtus. The
+most important of these pictures are above the windows (fig. 16), of which
+there are seven on each side-wall. A Latin couplet above the picture
+records the subject, and allegorical figures of heroic size, one on each
+side, further indicate the idea which it is intended to convey.
+
+The series begins at the east end of the room, over the door.
+
+
+I. _Procession of Sixtus to his coronation._
+
+  Hic tria Sixte tuo capiti diademata dantur
+  Sed quantum in coelis te diadema manet.
+
+  ELECTIO SACRA.          MANIFESTATIO.
+
+On the left of this, over the First Nicene Council, is
+
+
+II. _Coronation of Sixtus, with facade of old S. Peter's._
+
+  Ad templum antipodes Sixtum comitantur euntem
+    Jamque novus Pastor pascit ovile novum.
+
+  HONOR.          DIGNITAS.
+
+With the following picture the series on the south wall begins, above the
+windows:
+
+
+III. _An allegorical tableau. A lion with a human face, and a thunder-bolt
+in his right paw, stands on a green hill. A flock of sheep is feeding
+around._
+
+  Alcides partem Italiae praedone redemit
+    Sed totam Sixtus: dic mihi major uter.
+
+  JUSTITIA.          CASTIGATIO.
+
+
+IV. _The obelisk in front of old S. Peter's. The dome rising behind._
+
+  Dum stabit motus nullis Obeliscus ab Euris
+    Sixte tuum stabit nomen honosque tuus.
+
+  RELIGIO.          MUNIFICENTIA.
+
+
+V. _An allegorical tableau. A tree loaded with fruits, up which a lion is
+trying to climb. A flock of sheep beneath._
+
+  Temporibus Sixti redeunt Saturnia regna
+    Et pleno cornu copia fundit opes.
+
+  CHARITAS.          LIBERALITAS.
+
+
+VI. _A Columna Cochlis surmounted by a statue._
+
+  Ut vinclis tenuit Petrum sic alta columna
+    Sustinet; hinc decus est dedecus unde fuit.
+
+  SUBLIMATIO.          MUTATIO.
+
+
+VII. _A crowd assembled in front of a church._
+
+  Sixtus regnum iniens indicit publica vota
+    Ponderis o quanti vota fuisse vides.
+
+  SALUS GENERIS HUMANI.          PIETAS RELIGIONIS.
+
+
+VIII. _The Lateran Palace, with the Baptistery and Obelisk._
+
+  Quintus restituit Laterana palatia Sixtus
+    Atque obelum medias transtulit ante foras.
+
+  SANATIO.          PURGATIO.
+
+
+IX. _A fountain erected by Sixtus._
+
+  Fons felix celebri notus super aethera versu
+    Romulea passim jugis in urbe fuit.
+
+  MISERATIO.          BENIGNITAS.
+
+
+The next two pictures are above the arches leading from the west end of
+the library into the corridor:
+
+X. _Panorama of Rome as altered by Sixtus._
+
+  Dum rectas ad templa vias sanctissima pandit
+    Ipse sibi Sixtus pandit ad astra viam.
+
+  LAETIFICATIO.          NOBILITAS.
+
+
+XI. _An allegorical representation of the Tiara, with adoring
+worshippers._
+
+  Virgo intacta manet nec vivit adultera conjux
+    Castaque nunc Roma est quae fuit ante salax.
+
+  CASTITAS.          DEFENSIO.
+
+
+With the following picture the series on the north wall begins:
+
+
+XII. _Section of S. Peter's, with the dome._
+
+  Virginis absistit mirari templa Dianae;
+    Qui fanum hoc intrat Virgo Maria tuum.
+
+  AEQUIPARATIO.          POTESTAS.
+
+
+XIII. _The Obelisk in the Circus of Nero._
+
+  Maximus est obelus circus quem maximus olim
+    Condidit et Sixtus maximus inde trahit.
+
+  REAEDIFICATIO.          COGNITO VERI DEI.
+
+
+XIV. _The Tiber, with the Ponte Sisto, and the Ospedale di Santo Spirito._
+
+  Quaeris cur tota non sit mendicus in Urbe:
+    Tecta parat Sixtus suppeditatque cibos.
+
+  CLEMENTIA.          OPERATIO BONA.
+
+
+XV. _A similar view._
+
+  Jure Antoninum paulo vis Sixte subesse
+    Nam vere hic pius est impius ille pius.
+
+  ELECTIO SACRA.          VERA GLORIA.
+
+
+XVI. _A similar view, with the Obelisk._
+
+  Transfers Sixte pium transferre an dignior alter
+    Transferri an vero dignior alter erat.
+
+  RECOGNITIO.          GRATITUDO.
+
+
+XVII. _The Obelisk, now in front of S. Peter's, before it was removed._
+
+  Qui Regum tumulis obeliscus serviit olim
+    Ad cunas Christi tu pie Sixte locas.
+
+  OBLATIO.          DEVOTIO.
+
+
+XVIII. _A fleet at sea._
+
+  Instruit hic Sixtus classes quibus aequora purget
+    Et Solymos victos sub sua jura trahat.
+
+  PROVIDENTIA.          SECURITAS.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Rough groundplan of the great hall of the Vatican
+Library, to illustrate the account of the decoration.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CHRISTIAN LIBRARIES CONNECTED WITH CHURCHES. USE OF THE APSE. MONASTIC
+COMMUNITIES. S. PACHOMIUS. S. BENEDICT AND HIS SUCCESSORS. EACH HOUSE HAD
+A LIBRARY. ANNUAL AUDIT OF BOOKS. LOAN ON SECURITY. MODES OF PROTECTION.
+CURSES. PRAYERS FOR DONORS. ENDOWMENT OF LIBRARIES. USE OF THE CLOISTER.
+DEVELOPMENT OF CISTERCIAN BOOK-ROOM. COMMON PRESS. CARRELLS. GLASS.
+
+
+The evidence collected in the last chapter shews that what I have there
+called the Roman conception of a library was maintained, even by Christian
+ecclesiastics, during many centuries of our era. I have next to trace the
+beginning and the development of another class of libraries, directly
+connected with Christianity. We shall find that the books intended for the
+use of the new communities were stored in or near the places where they
+met for service, just as in the most ancient times the safe-keeping of
+similar treasures had been entrusted to temples.
+
+It is easy to see how this came about. The necessary service-books would
+be placed in the hands of the ecclesiastic who had charge of the building
+in which the congregation assembled. To these volumes--which at first were
+doubtless regarded in the same light as vestments or sacred
+vessels--treatises intended for edification or instruction would be
+gradually added, and so the nucleus of a library would be formed.
+
+The existence of such libraries does not rest on inference only. There are
+numerous allusions to them in the Fathers and other writers; S. Jerome,
+for instance, advises a correspondent to consult church-libraries, as
+though every church possessed one[115]. As however the allusions to them
+are general, and say nothing about extent or arrangement, this part of my
+subject need not detain us long[116].
+
+The earliest collection of which I have discovered any record is that got
+together at Jerusalem, by Bishop Alexander, who died A.D. 250. Eusebius,
+when writing his Ecclesiastical History some eighty years later, describes
+this library as a storehouse of historical records, which he had himself
+used with advantage in the composition of his work[117]. A still more
+important collection existed at Caesarea in Palestine. S. Jerome says
+distinctly that it was founded by Pamphilus, "a man who in zeal for the
+acquisition of a library wished to take rank with Demetrius Phalereus and
+Pisistratus[118]." As Pamphilus suffered martyrdom in A.D. 309, this
+library must have been got together soon after that at Jerusalem. It is
+described as not only extensive, but remarkable for the importance of the
+manuscripts it contained. Here was the supposed Hebrew original of S.
+Matthew's Gospel[119], and most of the works of Origen, got together by
+the pious care of Pamphilus, who had been his pupil and devoted admirer.
+S. Jerome himself worked in this library, and collated there the
+manuscripts which Origen had used when preparing his Hexapla[120]. At
+Cirta the church and the library were evidently in the same building,
+from the way in which they are spoken of in the account of the persecution
+of A.D. 303-304. "The officers," we are told, "went into the building
+(_domus_) where the Christians were in the habit of meeting." There they
+took an inventory of the plate and vestments. "But," proceeds the
+narrative, "when they came to the library, the presses there were found
+empty[121]." Augustine, on his deathbed, A.D. 430, gave directions that
+"the library of the church [at Hippo], and all the manuscripts, should be
+carefully preserved by those who came after him[122]."
+
+Further, there appears to be good reason for believing that when a church
+had a triple apse, the lateral apses were separated off by a curtain or a
+door, the one to contain the sacred vessels, the other the books. This
+view, which has been elaborated by De Rossi in explanation of three
+recesses in the thickness of the wall of the apse of a small private
+oratory discovered in Rome in 1876[123], is chiefly supported by the
+language of Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, who lived from about A.D. 353 to
+A.D. 431. He describes a basilica erected by himself at Nola in honour of
+S. Felix, martyr, as having "an apse divided into three (_apsidem
+trichoram_)[124]"; and in a subsequent passage, after stating that there
+are to be two recesses, one to the right, the other to the left of the
+apse, he adds, "these verses indicate the use of each[125]," and gives the
+following couplets, with their headings:
+
+_On the right of the Apse._
+
+  Hic locus est veneranda penus qua conditur, et qua
+  Ponitur alma sacri pompa ministerii.
+
+  Here are the sacred vessels stored, and here
+  The peaceful trappings of our holy rites.
+
+_On the left of the same._
+
+  Si quem sancta tenet meditandi in lege voluntas
+  Hic poterit residens sacris intendere libris.
+
+  Here he whose thoughts are on the laws of God
+  May sit and ponder over holy books.
+
+As De Rossi explains, the first of the two niches was intended to contain
+the vessels and furniture of the altar; the second was reserved for the
+safe-keeping of the sacred books. The word _trichora_, in Greek [Greek:
+tricho], is used by later writers to designate a three-fold division of
+any object--as for instance, by Dioscorides, of the seed-pod of the
+acacia[126].
+
+Whether this theory of the use of the apse be accurate or fanciful, the
+purely Christian libraries to which I have alluded were undoubtedly
+connected, more or less closely, with churches; and I submit that the
+libraries which in the Middle Ages were connected with cathedrals and
+collegiate churches are their lineal descendants.
+
+I have next to consider the libraries formed by monastic communities, the
+origin of which may be traced to very early times. Among the Christians of
+the first three centuries there were enthusiasts who, discontented with
+the luxurious life they led in the populous cities along the coasts of
+Africa and Syria, fled into the Egyptian deserts, there to lead a life of
+rigorous self-denial and religious contemplation. These hermits were
+presently joined by other hermits, and small communities were gradually
+formed, with a regular organization that foreshadowed the Rules and
+Customs of the later monastic life. Those who governed these primitive
+monasteries soon realised the fact that without books their inmates would
+relapse into barbarism, and libraries were got together. The Rule of S.
+Pachomius (A.D. 292-345), whose monastery was at Tabennisi near Denderah
+in Upper Egypt, provides that the books of the House are to be kept in a
+cupboard (_fenestra_) in the thickness of the wall. Any brother who wanted
+a book might have one for a week, at the end of which he was bound to
+return it. No brother might leave a book open when he went to church or
+to meals. In the evening the officer called "the Second," that is, the
+second in command, was to take charge of the books, count them, and lock
+them up.[127]
+
+These provisions, insisted upon at a very early date, form a suitable
+introduction to the most important section of my subject--the care of
+books by the Monastic Orders. With them book-preserving and book-producing
+were reduced to a system, and in their libraries--the public libraries of
+the Middle Ages--literature found a home, until the invention of printing
+handed over to the world at large the duties which had been so well
+discharged by special communities. This investigation is full of
+difficulty; and, though I hope to arrive at some definite conclusions
+respecting the position, size, dimensions, and fittings of monastic
+libraries, I must admit that my results depend to a certain extent on
+analogy and inference. It should be remembered that in England the
+monasteries were swept away more than three centuries ago by a sudden
+catastrophe, and that those who destroyed them were far too busy with
+their own affairs to place on record the aspect or the plan of what they
+were wrecking. In France again, though little more than a century has
+elapsed since her monasteries were overwhelmed by the Revolution, and
+though descriptions and views of many of her great religious houses have
+been preserved, and much has been done in the way of editing catalogues of
+their manuscripts, there is still a lamentable dearth of information on my
+particular subject.
+
+I shall begin by quoting some passages from the Rules and Customs of the
+different Orders, which shew (1) that reading was encouraged and enforced
+by S. Benedict himself, with whom the monastic life, as we conceive it,
+may be said to have originated; (2) that subsequently, as Order after
+Order was founded, a steady development of feeling with regard to books,
+and an ever-increasing care for their safe-keeping, can be traced.
+
+The Rule of S. Benedict was made public early in the sixth century; and
+the later Orders were but offshoots of the Benedictine tree, either using
+his Rule or basing their own statutes upon it. It will therefore be
+desirable to begin this research by examining what S. Benedict said on the
+subject of study, and I will translate a few lines from the 48th chapter
+of his Rule, _Of daily manual labour_.
+
+    Idleness is the enemy of the soul; hence brethren ought,
+    at certain seasons, to occupy themselves with manual
+    labour, and again, at certain hours, with holy
+    reading....
+
+    Between Easter and the calends of October let them apply
+    themselves to reading from the fourth hour till near the
+    sixth hour.
+
+    From the calends of October to the beginning of Lent let
+    them apply themselves to reading until the second
+    hour.... During Lent, let them apply themselves to
+    reading from morning until the end of the third hour ...
+    and, in these days of Lent, let them receive a book
+    apiece from the library, and read it straight through.
+    These books are to be given out at the beginning of
+    Lent[128].
+
+In this passage the _library_--by which a book-press is probably to be
+understood--is specially mentioned. In other words, at that early date the
+formation of a collection of books was contemplated, large enough to
+supply the community with a volume apiece, without counting the
+service-books required for use in the church.
+
+The Benedictine Order flourished and increased abundantly for more than
+four centuries, until, about A.D. 912, the order of Cluni was established.
+It was so called from the celebrated abbey near Macon in Burgundy, which,
+though not the first house of the Order in point of date, became
+subsequently the first in extent, wealth, and reputation. As a stricter
+observance of the Rule of S. Benedict was the main object which the
+founder of this Order had in view, the Benedictine directions respecting
+study are maintained and developed. The Customs prescribe the following
+regulations for books:
+
+    On the second day of Lent the only passage of the Rule
+    to be read in Chapter is that concerning the observance
+    of Lent.
+
+    Then shall be read aloud a note (_brevis_) of the books
+    which a year before had been given out to brethren for
+    their reading. When a brother's name is called, he
+    rises, and returns the book that had been given to him;
+    and if it should happen that he has not read it through,
+    he is to ask forgiveness for his want of diligence.
+
+    A carpet on which those books are to be laid out is to
+    be put down in the Chapter-House; and the titles of
+    those which are distributed to brethren afresh are to be
+    noted, for which purpose a tablet is to be made of
+    somewhat larger size than usual[129].
+
+In a subsequent chapter it is directed that the books are to be entrusted
+to the official "who is called Precentor and _Armarius_, because he
+usually has charge of the library, which is also called the _armarium_
+(press)[130]. This arrangement shews that up to this date all the books,
+whether service-books or not, were regarded as belonging to the church.
+
+I come next to the decrees given to the English Benedictines by Archbishop
+Lanfranc in or about 1070. "We send you" he says "the Customs of our Order
+in writing, selected from the Customs of those houses (_coenobia_) which
+are in our day of the highest authority in the monastic order[131]." The
+section relating to books is so interesting that I will translate it.
+
+    On the Monday after the first Sunday in Lent ... before
+    the brethren go in to Chapter, the librarian (_custos
+    librorum_) ought to have all the books brought together
+    into the Chapter-House and laid out on a carpet, except
+    those which had been given out for reading during the
+    past year: these the brethren ought to bring with them
+    as they come into Chapter, each carrying his book in his
+    hand. Of this they ought to have had notice given to
+    them by the aforesaid librarian on the preceding day in
+    Chapter. Then let the passage in the Rule of S. Benedict
+    about the observance of Lent be read, and a discourse be
+    preached upon it. Next let the librarian read a document
+    (_breve_) setting forth the names of the brethren who
+    have had books during the past year; and let each
+    brother, when he hears his own name pronounced, return
+    the book which had been entrusted to him for reading;
+    and let him who is conscious of not having read the book
+    through which he had received, fall down on his face,
+    confess his fault, and pray for forgiveness.
+
+    Then let the aforesaid librarian hand to each brother
+    another book for reading; and when the books have been
+    distributed in order, let the aforesaid librarian in the
+    same Chapter put on record the names of the books, and
+    of those who receive them[132].
+
+It is, I think, certain that when Lanfranc was writing this passage the
+Cluniac Customs must have been before him[133]. It should be noted that
+the librarian is not defined otherwise than as "keeper of the books," but
+we learn from the Customs of Benedictine houses subsequent to Lanfranc's
+time that this duty was discharged by the Precentor, as in the Cluniac
+Customs. For instance, in the Customs of the Benedictine house at
+Abingdon, in Berkshire, drawn up near the end of the twelfth century, we
+read:
+
+    The precentor shall keep clean the presses belonging to
+    the boys and the novices, and all others in which the
+    books of the convent are stored, repair them when they
+    are broken, provide coverings for the books in the
+    library, and make good any damage done to them[134].
+
+    The precentor cannot sell, or give away, or pledge any
+    books; nor can he lend any except on deposit of a
+    pledge, of equal or greater value than the book itself.
+    It is safer to fall back on a pledge, than to proceed
+    against an individual. Moreover he may not lend except
+    to neighbouring churches, or to persons of conspicuous
+    worth[135].
+
+The Customs of the Abbey of Evesham in Worcestershire give the same
+directions in a slightly different form.
+
+    It is part of the precentor's duty to entrust to the
+    younger monks the care of the presses, and to keep them
+    in repair: whenever the convent is sitting in cloister,
+    he is to go round the cloister as soon as the bell has
+    sounded, and replace the books, in case any brother
+    through carelessness should have forgotten to do so.
+
+    He is to take charge of all the books in the monastery,
+    and have them in his keeping, provided his carefulness
+    and knowledge be such that they may be entrusted to him.
+    No one is to take a book out unless it be entered on his
+    roll: nor is any book to be lent to any one without a
+    proper and sufficient voucher, and this too is to be set
+    down on his roll[136].
+
+The Carthusians--the second offshoot of the Benedictine tree (1084)--also
+preserved the primitive tradition of study. They not only read themselves,
+but were actively employed in writing books for others. In the chapter of
+their statutes which deals with the furniture allowed to each "tenant of a
+cell (_incola celle_)"--(for in this community each brother lived apart,
+with his sitting-room, bed-room, and plot of garden-ground)--all the
+articles needful for writing are enumerated, "for nearly all those whom we
+adopt we teach, if possible, to write," and then the writer passes on to
+books.
+
+    Moreover he--[the tenant of the cell]--receives two
+    books out of the press for reading. He is admonished to
+    take the utmost care and pains that they be not soiled
+    by smoke or dust or dirt of any kind; for it is our wish
+    that books, as being the perpetual food of our souls,
+    should be most jealously guarded, and most carefully
+    produced, that we, who cannot preach the word of God
+    with our lips, may preach it with our hands[137].
+
+They did, however, on occasion lend books, for it is provided that when
+books are lent no one shall retain them contrary to the will of the
+lenders[138]. It would be interesting to know how this rule was enforced.
+
+The Cistercian Order--founded 1128--adopted the Benedictine Rule, and with
+it the obligation of study and writing. Moreover, in their anxiety to take
+due care of their books, they went further than their predecessors; for
+they entrusted them to a special officer, instead of to the precentor, and
+they admitted a special room to contain them into the ground-plan of their
+houses.
+
+At a later point I shall return to the interesting subject of the
+Cistercian book-room. For the present I must content myself with
+translating from their Customs the passage relating to books. It occurs in
+Chapter CXV., _Of the precentor and his assistant_. After describing his
+various duties, the writer proceeds:
+
+    With regard to the production and safe-keeping of
+    charters and books, the abbat is to consider to whom he
+    shall entrust this duty.
+
+    The officer so appointed may go as far as the doors of
+    the writing-rooms when he wants to hand in or to take
+    out a book, but he may not go inside. In the same way
+    for books in common use, as for instance antiphoners,
+    hymnals, graduals, lectionaries [etc.], and those which
+    are read in the Prater and at Collation, he may go as
+    far as the door of the novices, and of the sick, and of
+    the writers, and then ask for what he wants by a sign,
+    but he may not go further unless he have been commanded
+    by the abbat. When Collation is over it is his duty to
+    close the press, and during the period of labour, of
+    sleep, and of meals, and while vespers are being sung,
+    to keep it locked[139].
+
+The Customs of the Augustinian Order are exceedingly full on the subject
+of books. I will translate part of the 14th chapter of the Customs in use
+at Barnwell[140], near Cambridge. It is headed: _Of the safe keeping of
+the books, and of the office of Librarian (armarius)._ As the passage
+occurs also in the Customs as observed in France and in Belgium, it may be
+taken, I presume, to represent the general practice of the Order.
+
+    The Librarian, who is called also Precentor, is to take
+    charge of the books of the church; all which he ought to
+    keep and to know under their separate titles; and he
+    should frequently examine them carefully to prevent any
+    damage or injury from insects or decay. He ought also,
+    at the beginning of Lent, in each year, to shew them to
+    the convent in Chapter, when the souls of those who have
+    given them to the church, or of the brethren who have
+    written them, and laboured over them, ought to be
+    absolved, and a service in convent be held over them. He
+    ought also to hand to the brethren the books which they
+    see occasion to use, and to enter on his roll the titles
+    of the books, and the names of those who receive them.
+    These, when required, are bound to give surety for the
+    volumes they receive; nor may they lend them to others,
+    whether known or unknown, without having first obtained
+    permission from the Librarian. Nor ought the Librarian
+    himself to lend books unless he receive a pledge of
+    equal value; and then he ought to enter on his roll the
+    name of the borrower, the title of the book lent, and
+    the pledge taken. The larger and more valuable books he
+    ought not to lend to anyone, known or unknown, without
+    permission of the Prelate....
+
+    Books which are to be kept at hand for daily use,
+    whether for singing or reading, ought to be in some
+    common place, to which all the brethren can have easy
+    access for inspection, and selection of anything which
+    seems to them suitable. The books, therefore, ought not
+    to be carried away into chambers, or into corners
+    outside the Cloister or the Church. The Librarian ought
+    frequently to dust the books carefully, to repair them,
+    and to point them, lest brethren should find any error
+    or hindrance in the daily service of the church, whether
+    in singing or in reading. No other brother ought to
+    erase or change anything in the books unless he have
+    obtained the consent of the Librarian....
+
+    The press in which the books are kept ought to be lined
+    inside with wood, that the damp of the walls may not
+    moisten or stain the books. This press should be divided
+    vertically as well as horizontally by sundry shelves on
+    which the books may be ranged so as to be separated from
+    one another; for fear they be packed so close as to
+    injure each other or delay those who want them[141].
+
+    Further, as the books ought to be mended, pointed, and
+    taken care of by the Librarian, so ought they to be
+    properly bound by him.
+
+The Order of Premontre--better known as the Premonstratensians, or
+reformed Augustinians--repeat the essential part of these directions in
+their statute, _Of the Librarian (armarius)_, with this addition, that it
+is to be part of the librarian's duty to provide for the borrowing of
+books for the use of the House, as well as for lending[142].
+
+Lastly, the Friars, though property was forbidden, and S. Francis would
+not allow his disciples to own so much as a psalter or a breviary[143],
+soon found that books were a necessity, and the severity of early
+discipline was relaxed in favour of a library. S. Francis died in 1226,
+and only thirty-four years afterwards, among the constitutions adopted by
+a General Chapter of the Order held at Narbonne 10 June, 1260, are several
+provisions relating to books. They are of no great importance, taken by
+themselves, but their appearance at so early a date proves that books had
+become indispensable. It is enacted that no brother may write books, or
+have them written, for sale; nor may the chief officer of a province
+venture to keep books without leave obtained from the chief officer of the
+whole Order; no brother may keep the books assigned to him, unless they
+are altogether the property of the Order--and so forth[144]. A century
+later, when Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham, was writing his
+_Philobiblon_ (completed 24 January, 1344-45), he could say of them and
+the other friars--whom, be it remembered, he, as a regular, would regard
+with scant favour--
+
+    But whenever it happened that we turned aside to the
+    cities and places where the Mendicants had their
+    convents we did not disdain to visit their libraries and
+    any other repositories of books; nay there we found
+    heaped up amidst the utmost poverty the utmost riches of
+    wisdom. We discovered in their fardels and baskets not
+    only crumbs falling from the master's table for the
+    dogs, but the shewbread without leaven and the bread of
+    angels having in it all that is delicious; and indeed
+    the garners of Joseph full of corn, and all the spoil of
+    the Egyptians and the very precious gifts which Queen
+    Sheba brought to Solomon.
+
+    These men are as ants ever preparing their meat in the
+    summer, and ingenious bees continually fabricating cells
+    of honey.... And to pay due regard to truth ... although
+    they lately at the eleventh hour have entered the Lord's
+    vineyard ..., they have added more in this brief hour to
+    the stock of the sacred books than all the other
+    vinedressers; following in the footsteps of Paul, the
+    last to be called but the first in preaching, who spread
+    the gospel of Christ more widely than all others[145].
+
+At Assisi, the parent house of the Franciscan Order, there was a library
+of considerable extent, many volumes of which still exist, with a
+catalogue drawn up in 1381.
+
+At this point I will resume the conclusions which may be deduced from this
+examination of the Benedictine Rule and the Customs founded upon it.
+
+In the first place they all assume the existence of a library. S. Benedict
+contents himself with general directions about study. The Cluniacs put the
+books in charge of the precentor, who is to be called also _armarius_, and
+they prescribe an annual audit of them, with the assignment of a single
+volume to each brother, on the security of a written attestation of the
+fact. These regulations were adopted by the Benedictines, with fuller
+rules for the librarian, who is still precentor also. He is to keep both
+presses and books in repair, and personally to supervise the daily use of
+the manuscripts, restoring to their proper places those that brethren may
+have been reading. Among these rules permission to lend books on receipt
+of a pledge first makes its appearance. The Carthusians maintain the
+principle of lending. Each brother might have two books, and he is to be
+specially careful to keep them clean. The Cistercians appoint a special
+officer to have charge of the books, about the safety of which great care
+is to be taken, and at certain times of the day he is to lock the press.
+The Augustinians and the Premonstratensians follow the Cluniacs and
+Benedictines: but the Premonstratensians direct their librarian to take
+note of the books that the House borrows as well as of those that it
+lends; and they adopt the Cistercian precaution about his opening and
+locking the press.
+
+Secondly, by the time that Lanfranc was writing his statutes for English
+Benedictines, it was evidently contemplated that the number of books would
+have exceeded the number of brethren, for the keeper of the books is
+directed to bring all the books of the House into Chapter, and after that
+the brethren, one by one, are to bring in the books which they have
+borrowed[146]. Among the books belonging to the House there were probably
+some service-books; but, from the language used, it appears to me that we
+may fairly conclude that by the end of the eleventh century Benedictine
+Houses had two sets of books: (1) those which were distributed among the
+brethren; (2) those which were kept in some safe place, as part of the
+possessions of the House: or, to adopt modern phrases, that they had a
+lending library and a library of reference.
+
+Thirdly, it is evident that the loan of books to persons in general, on
+adequate security, began at a very early date. On this account I have
+already ventured to call monastic libraries the public libraries of the
+Middle Ages. As time went on, the practice was developed, and at last
+became general. It was even enjoined upon monks as a duty by their
+ecclesiastical superiors. In 1212 a Council which met at Paris made the
+following decree, but I am not able to say whether it was accepted out of
+France:
+
+    We forbid those who belong to a religious Order, to
+    formulate any vow against lending their books to those
+    who are in need of them; seeing that to lend is
+    enumerated among the principal works of mercy.
+
+    After careful consideration, let some books be kept in
+    the House for the use of brethren; others, according to
+    the decision of the abbat, be lent to those who are in
+    need of them, the rights of the House being
+    safe-guarded.
+
+    From the present date no book is to be retained under
+    pain of incurring a curse [for its alienation], and we
+    declare all such curses to be of no effect[147].
+
+In the same century many volumes were bequeathed to the Augustinian House
+of S. Victor, Paris, on the express condition that they should be so
+lent[148]. It is almost needless to add that one abbey was continually
+lending to another, either for reading or for copying[149].
+
+Houses which lent liberally would probably be the first to relax
+discipline so far as to admit strangers to their libraries; and in the
+sixteenth and following centuries the libraries of the Benedictine House
+of S. Germain des Pres, Paris, as well as the already mentioned House of
+S. Victor, were open to all comers on certain days in the week.
+
+When we try to realise the feelings with which monastic communities
+regarded books, it must always be remembered that they had a paternal
+interest in them. In many cases they had been written in the very House in
+which they were afterwards read from generation to generation: and if not,
+they had probably been procured by the exchange of some work so written.
+In fact, if a book was not a son of the House, it was at least a nephew.
+
+The conviction that books were a possession with which no convent could
+dispense, appears in many medieval writers. The whole matter is summed up
+in the phrase, written about 1170, "claustrum sine armario, castrum sine
+armamentario[150]," an epigram which I will not spoil by trying to
+translate it; and even more clearly in the passionate utterances of Thomas
+a Kempis on the desolate condition of priest and convent without
+books[151]. The "round of creation" is explored for similes to enforce
+this truth. A priest so situated is like a horse without bridle, a ship
+without oars, a writer without pens, a bird without wings, etc.; while the
+House is like a kitchen without stewpans, a table without food, a well
+without water, a river without fish--and many other things which I have no
+space to mention.
+
+Evidence of the solicitude with which they protected their treasures is
+not wanting. The very mode of holding a manuscript was prescribed, if not
+by law, at least by general custom. "When the religious are engaged in
+reading in cloister or in church," says an Order of the General
+Benedictine Chapter, "they shall if possible hold the books in their left
+hands, wrapped in the sleeve of their tunics, and resting on their knees;
+their right hands shall be uncovered with which to hold and turn the
+leaves of the aforesaid books[152]." In a manuscript at Monte Cassino[153]
+is the practical injunction
+
+  Quisquis quem tetigerit
+  Sit illi lota manus;
+
+and at the same House the possession of handkerchiefs--which were
+evidently regarded as effeminate inventions--is specially excused on the
+ground that they would be useful--among other things--"for wrapping round
+the manuscripts which brethren handle[154]." Of similar import is the
+distich at the end of a fine manuscript formerly in the library of S.
+Victor:
+
+  Qui servare libris preciosis nescit honorem
+  Illius a manibus sit procul iste liber[155].
+
+With these injunctions may be compared a note in a fourteenth century
+manuscript from the same library:
+
+    Whoever pursues his studies in this book, should be
+    careful to handle the leaves gently and delicately, so
+    as to avoid tearing them by reason of their thinness;
+    and let him imitate the example of Jesus Christ, who,
+    when he had quietly opened the book of Isaiah and read
+    therein attentively, rolled it up with reverence, and
+    gave it again to the minister[156];
+
+and the advice of Thomas a Kempis to the youthful students for whose
+benefit he composed the treatise called _Doctrinale Juvenum_ which I have
+already quoted:
+
+    Take thou a book into thine hands as Simeon the Just
+    took the Child Jesus into his arms to carry him and kiss
+    him. And when thou hast finished reading, close the book
+    and give thanks for every word out of the mouth of God;
+    because in the Lord's field thou hast found a hidden
+    treasure[157].
+
+In a similar strain a writer or copyist entreats readers to be careful of
+his work--work which has cost him an amount of pains that they cannot
+realise. It is impossible to translate the original exactly, but I hope
+that I have given the meaning with tolerable clearness:
+
+    I beseech you, my friend, when you are reading my book
+    to keep your hands behind its back, for fear you should
+    do mischief to the text by some sudden movement; for a
+    man who knows nothing about writing thinks that it is no
+    concern of his. Whereas to a writer the last line is as
+    sweet as port is to a sailor. Three fingers hold the
+    pen, but the whole body toils. Thanks be to God. I
+    Warembert wrote this book in God's name. Thanks be to
+    God. Amen[158].
+
+Entreaties so gentle and so pathetic as these are seldom met with; but
+curses--in the same strain probably as those to which the Council of Paris
+took exception--are extremely common. In fact, in some Houses, a
+manuscript invariably ended with an imprecation--more or less severe,
+according to the writer's taste[159]. I will append a few specimens.
+
+    This book belongs to S. Maximin at his monastery of
+    Micy, which abbat Peter caused to be written, and with
+    his own labour corrected and punctuated, and on Holy
+    Thursday dedicated to God and S. Maximin on the altar of
+    S. Stephen, with this imprecation that he who should
+    take it away from thence by what device soever, with
+    the intention of not restoring it, should incur
+    damnation with the traitor Judas, with Annas, Caiaphas,
+    and Pilate. Amen[160].
+
+    Should anyone by craft or any device whatever abstract
+    this book from this place [Jumieges] may his soul
+    suffer, in retribution for what he has done, and may his
+    name be erased from the book of the living and not be
+    recorded among the Blessed[161].
+
+A simpler form of imprecation occurs very frequently in manuscripts
+belonging to S. Alban's:
+
+    This book belongs to S. Alban. May whosoever steals it
+    from him or destroys its title be anathema. Amen[162].
+
+A similar form of words occurs at the Cistercian House of Clairvaux, a
+great school of writing like S. Alban's, but whether it habitually
+protected its manuscripts in this manner I am unable to say:
+
+    May whoever steals or alienates this manuscript, or
+    scratches out its title, be anathema. Amen[163].
+
+A very curious form of curse occurs in one of the manuscripts of Christ
+Church, Canterbury. The writer repents of his severity in the last
+sentence.
+
+    May whoever destroys this title, or by gift or sale or
+    loan or exchange or theft or by any other device
+    knowingly alienates this book from the aforesaid Christ
+    Church, incur in this life the malediction of Jesus
+    Christ and of the most glorious Virgin His Mother, and
+    of Blessed Thomas, Martyr. Should however it please
+    Christ, who is patron of Christ Church, may his soul be
+    saved in the Day of Judgment[164].
+
+Lastly, I will quote a specimen in verse, from a breviary now in the
+library of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge:
+
+  Wher so ever y be come over all
+  I belonge to the Chapell of gunvylle hall:
+  He shal be cursed by the grate sentens
+  That felonsly faryth and berith me thens.
+  And whether he bere me in pooke or sekke,
+  For me he shall be hanged by the nekke,
+  (I am so well beknown of dyverse men)
+  But I be restored theder agen[165].
+
+On the other hand, the gift of books to a monastery was gratefully
+recorded and enumerated among the good deeds of their donors. Among the
+Augustinians such gifts, and the labour expended upon books in general,
+was the subject of a special service[166].
+
+It is not uncommon to find a monastic library regularly endowed with part
+of the annual revenue of the House. For instance, at Corbie, the librarian
+received 10 sous from each of the higher, and 5 sous from each of the
+inferior officers, together with a certain number of bushels of corn from
+lands specially set apart for the purpose. This was confirmed by a bull of
+Pope Alexander III. (1166-1179)[167]. A similar arrangement was made at
+the library of S. Martin des Champs, Paris, in 1261[168]. At the
+Benedictine Abbey of Fleury, near Orleans, in 1146, it was agreed in
+chapter on the proposition of the abbat, that in each year on S.
+Benedict's winter festival (21 March), he and the priors subordinate to
+him, together with the officers of the House, should all contribute "to
+the repair of our books, the preparation of new ones, and the purchase of
+parchment." The name of each contributor, and the sum that he was to give,
+are recorded[169]. At the Benedictine Monastery of Ely Bishop Nigel
+(1133-1174) granted the tithe of certain churches in the diocese "as a
+perpetual alms to the _scriptorium_ of the church of Ely for the purpose
+of making and repairing the books of the said church[170]." The books
+referred to were probably, in the first instance, service-books; but the
+number required of these could hardly have been sufficient to occupy the
+whole time of the scribes, and the library would doubtless derive benefit
+from their labours. The _scriptorium_ at S. Alban's was also specially
+endowed.
+
+We must next consider the answer to the following questions: In what part
+of their Houses did the Monastic Orders bestow their books? and what
+pieces of furniture did they use? The answer to the first of these
+questions is a very curious one, when we consider what our climate is, and
+indeed what the climate of the whole of Europe is, during the winter
+months. The centre of the monastic life was the cloister. Brethren were
+not allowed to congregate in any other part of the conventual buildings,
+except when they went into the frater, or dining-hall, for their meals, or
+at certain hours in certain seasons into the warming-house
+(_calefactorium_). In the cloister accordingly they kept their books; and
+there they wrote and studied, or conducted the schooling of the novices
+and choir-boys, in winter and in summer alike.
+
+It is obvious that their work must have been at the mercy of the elements
+during many months of the year, and some important proofs that such was
+the case can be quoted. Cuthbert, Abbat of Wearmouth and Jarrow in the
+second half of the eighth century, excuses himself to a correspondent for
+not having sent him all the works of Bede which he had asked for, on the
+ground that the intense cold of the previous winter had paralysed the
+hands of his scribes[171]; Ordericus Vitalis, who wrote in the first half
+of the twelfth century, closes the fourth book of his Ecclesiastical
+History with a lament that he must lay aside his work for the winter[172];
+and a monk of Ramsey Abbey in Huntingdonshire has recorded his
+discomforts in a Latin couplet which seems to imply that in a place so
+inconvenient as a cloister all seasons were equally destructive of serious
+work:
+
+  In vento minime pluvia nive sole sedere
+  Possumus in claustro nec scribere neque studere[173].
+
+  As we sit here in tempest in rain snow and sun
+  Nor writing nor reading in cloister is done.
+
+But, when circumstances were more propitious, plenty of good work that was
+of permanent value could be done in a cloister. A charming picture has
+come down to us of the literary activity that prevailed in the Abbey of S.
+Martin at Tournai at the end of the eleventh century, when Abbat Odo was
+giving an impulse to the writing of MSS. "When you entered the cloister,"
+says his chronicler, "you could generally see a dozen young monks seated
+on chairs, and silently writing at desks of careful and artistic design.
+With their help, he got accurate copies made of all Jerome's commentaries
+on the Prophets, of the works of Blessed Gregory, and of all the treatises
+he could find of Augustine, Ambrose, Isidore, and Anselm; so that the like
+of his library was not to be found in any of the neighbouring churches;
+and those attached to them used generally to ask for our copies for the
+correction of their own[174]."
+
+The second question cannot be answered so readily. We must begin by
+examining, in some detail, the expressions used to denote furniture in the
+various documents that deal with conventual libraries.
+
+S. Pachomius places his books in a cupboard (_fenestra_); S. Benedict uses
+only the general term, library (_bibliotheca_), which may mean either a
+room or a piece of furniture; and the word press (_armarium_), with which
+we become so familiar afterwards, does not make its appearance till near
+the end of the eleventh century. Lanfranc does not use it, but as I have
+shewn that he based his statutes, at least to some extent, on the Cluniac
+Customs, and as they identify the library (_bibliotheca_) with the press
+(_armarium_), and call the librarian, termed by Lanfranc the keeper of the
+books, the keeper of the press (_armarius_), we may safely assume that the
+books to which Lanfranc refers were housed in a similar piece of
+furniture. Moreover, in Benedictine houses of later date, as for instance
+at Abingdon and Evesham, the word is constantly employed.
+
+I pointed out in the first chapter that the word press (_armarium_) was
+used by the Romans to signify both a detached piece of furniture and a
+recess in a wall into which such a contrivance might be inserted[175]. The
+same use obtained in medieval times[176], and the passage quoted above
+from the Augustinian customs[177] shews that the book-press there
+contemplated was a recess lined with wood and subdivided so as to keep the
+books separate.
+
+The books to be accommodated in a monastery, even of large size, could not
+at its origin have been numerous[178], and would easily have been
+contained in a single receptacle. This, I conceive, was that recess in the
+wall which is so frequently found between the Chapter-House and the door
+into the church at the end of the east pane of the cloister. In many
+monastic ruins this recess is still open, and, by a slight effort of
+imagination, can be restored to its pristine use. Elsewhere it is filled
+in, having been abandoned by the monks themselves in favour of a fresh
+contrivance. The recess I am speaking of was called the common press
+(_armarium commune_), or common cloister-press (_commune armarium
+claustri_); and it contained the books appointed for the general use of
+the community (_communes libri_).
+
+A press of this description (fig. 19) is still to be seen in excellent
+preservation at the Cistercian monastery of Fossa Nuova in Central Italy,
+near Terracina, which I visited in the spring of 1900. This house may be
+dated 1187-1208[179]. The press is in the west wall of the south transept
+(fig. 21), close to the door leading to the church. It measures 4 ft. 3
+in. wide, by 3 ft. 6 in. high; and is raised 2 ft. 3 in. above the floor
+of the cloister. It is lined with slabs of stone; but the hinges are not
+strong enough to have carried doors of any material heavier than wood; and
+I conjecture that the shelf also was of the same material. Stone is
+plentiful in that part of Italy, but wood, especially in large pieces,
+would have to be brought from a distance. Hence its removal, as soon as
+the cupboard was not required for the purpose for which it was
+constructed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Press in the cloister at the Cistercian Abbey of
+Fossa Nuova.]
+
+Two recesses, evidently intended for the same purpose, are to be seen in
+the east walk of the cloister of Worcester Cathedral, formerly a
+Benedictine monastery. They are between the Chapter-House and the passage
+leading to the treasury and other rooms. Each recess is square-headed, 6
+ft. 9 in. high, 2 ft. 6 in. deep, and 11 ft. broad (fig. 20). In front of
+the recesses is a bench-table, 13 in. broad and 16 in. high. This
+book-press was in use so late as 1518, when a book bought by the Prior was
+"delyvered to y^e cloyster awmery[180]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Groundplan and elevation of the book-recesses in
+the cloister of Worcester Cathedral.]
+
+As books multiplied ampler accommodation for them became necessary; and,
+as they were to be read in cloister, it was obvious that the new presses
+or cases must either be placed in the cloister or be easily accessible
+from it. The time had not yet come when the collection could be divided,
+and be placed partly in the cloister, partly in a separate and sometimes
+distant room. This want of book-room was supplied in two ways. In
+Benedictine and possibly in Cluniac houses the books were stored in
+detached wooden presses, which I shall describe presently; but the
+Cistercians adopted a different method. At the beginning of the twelfth
+century, when that Order was founded, the need of additional book-space
+had been fully realised; and, consequently, in their houses we meet with a
+special room set apart for books. But the conservative spirit which
+governed monastic usage, and discouraged any deviation from the lines of
+the primitive plan, made them keep the press in the wall close to the door
+of the church; and, in addition to this, they cut off a piece from the
+west end of the sacristy, which usually intervened between the south
+transept and the Chapter-House, and fitted it up for books. This was done
+at Fossa Nuova. The groundplan (fig. 21) shews the press which I have
+already figured, and the book-room between the transept and the
+Chapter-House, adjoining the sacristy. It is 14 ft. long by 10 ft. broad,
+with a recess in its north wall which perhaps once contained another
+press.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Groundplan of part of the Abbey of Fossa Nuova.
+
+To shew the book-room and book-press, and their relations to adjoining
+structures: partly from M. Enlart's work, partly from my own
+measurements.]
+
+There is a similar book-room at Kirkstall Abbey near Leeds, built about
+1150. The plan (fig. 22, A) shews its relation to the adjoining
+structures. The _armarium commune_ (_ibid._ B) is a little to the north
+of the room, as at Fossa Nuova. A room in a similar position, and destined
+no doubt to the same use, is to be seen at Beaulieu, Hayles, Jervaulx,
+Netley, Tintern, Croxden, and Roche.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22, Groundplan of part of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire.
+
+A, book-room: B, _armarium commune_.]
+
+The catalogue of the books at the Abbey of Meaux in Holderness[181],
+founded about the middle of the 12th century, has fortunately been
+preserved; and it tells us not only what books were kept in one of these
+rooms, but how they were arranged. After the contents of the presses in
+the church, which contained chiefly service-books, we come to the "common
+press in the cloister (_commune almarium claustri_)." On the shelf over
+the door (_in suprema theca[182] supra ostium_) were four psalters. The
+framer of the catalogue then passes to the opposite end of the room, and,
+beginning with the top shelf (_suprema theca opposita_), enumerates 37
+volumes. Next, he deals with the rest of the books, which, he tells us,
+were in other shelves, marked with the letters of the alphabet (_in aliis
+thecis distinctis per alphabetum_). If I understand the catalogue
+correctly, there were eleven of these divisions, each containing an
+average of about 25 volumes. The total number of volumes in the collection
+was 316.
+
+Again, the catalogue of the House of White Canons at Titchfield in
+Hampshire, dated 1400, shews that the books were kept in a small room, on
+sets of shelves called _columpnae_, set against the walls. The catalogue
+begins as follows:
+
+    There are in the Library at Tychefeld four cases to set
+    books on; two of which, namely the first and the second,
+    are on the eastern side. The third is on the south side;
+    and the fourth is on the north side. Each of these has
+    eight shelves [etc.][183].
+
+Nor was this book-closet confined to Cistercian Houses. In the Cluniac
+Priory at Much Wenlock in Shropshire there is a long narrow room on the
+west side of the south transept, opening to the cloister by three arches,
+which could hardly have been put to any other purpose. It is obvious that
+no study could have gone forward in such places; they must have been
+intended for security only.
+
+As time went on, and further room for books became necessary, it was
+provided, at least in some Cistercian Houses, by cutting off two
+rectangular spaces from the west end of the Chapter-House. There is a good
+example of this treatment to be seen at Furness Abbey, built 1150--1200.
+The following description is borrowed from Mr W. H. St John Hope's
+architectural history of the buildings.
+
+    From the transept southwards the whole of the existing
+    work is of later date, and distinctly advanced
+    character. The ground storey is pierced with five large
+    and elaborate round-headed doorways with good moldings
+    and labels, with a delicate dog-tooth ornament. Three of
+    these next the transept form a group....
+
+    The central arch opened, through a vestibule, into the
+    Chapter House. The others open into large square
+    recesses or chambers, with ashlar walls, and rubble
+    barrel-vaults springing from chamfered imposts on each
+    side. In the northern chamber the vault is kept low and
+    segmental, on account of the passage above it of the
+    dorter stair to the church.... The southern chamber has
+    a high pointed vault. Neither chamber has had doors, but
+    the northern has holes in the inner jamb, suggestive of
+    a grate of some kind, of uncertain date.
+
+    The chambers just described probably contained the
+    library, in wooden presses arranged round the
+    walls[184].
+
+To illustrate this description a portion of Mr Hope's plan of Furness
+Abbey (fig. 23) is appended. Each room was about 13 ft. square.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Groundplan of part of Furness Abbey.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Arches in south wall of Church at Beaulieu Abbey,
+Hampshire, once possibly used as book-presses.]
+
+Rooms in a similar position are to be seen at Calder Abbey[185] in
+Cumberland, a daughter-house to Furness; and at Fountains Abbey there are
+clear indications that the western angles of the Chapter-House were
+partitioned off at some period subsequent to its construction, probably
+for a similar purpose. As the Chapter-House was entered from the cloister
+through three large round-headed arches, each of the rooms thus formed
+could be entered directly from the cloister, the central arch being
+reserved for the Chapter-House itself. The arrangement therefore became
+exactly similar to that at Furness. Mr Hope thinks that the series of
+arches in the church wall at Beaulieu in Hampshire, two of which are here
+shewn (fig. 24), may have been used for a like purpose[186]. There is a
+similar series of arches at Hayles, a daughter-house to Beaulieu; and in
+the south cloister of Chester Cathedral there are six recesses of early
+Norman design, which, if not sepulchral, may once have contained books.
+
+The use of the Chapter-House and its neighbourhood as the place in which
+books should be kept is one of the most curious features of the Cistercian
+life. The east walk of the cloister, into which the Chapter-House usually
+opened, must have been one of the most frequented parts of the House, and
+yet it seems to have been deliberately chosen not merely for keeping
+books, but for reading them. At Clairvaux, so late as 1709, the authors of
+the _Voyage Litteraire_ record the following arrangement:
+
+    Le grand cloitre ... est voute et vitre. Les religieux y
+    doivent garder un perpetuel silence. Dans le cote du
+    chapitre il y a des livres enchainez sur des pupitres de
+    bois, dans lesquels les religieux peuvent venir faire
+    des lectures lorsqu'ils veulent[187].
+
+A similar arrangement obtained at Citeaux[188].
+
+Having traced the development of the Cistercian book-closet, from a simple
+recess in the wall to a pair of more or less spacious rooms at the west
+end of the Chapter-House, I return to my starting-point, and proceed to
+discuss the arrangement adopted by the Benedictines. They must have
+experienced the inconvenience arising from want of space more acutely than
+the Cistercians, being more addicted to study and the production of books.
+They made no attempt, however, to provide space by structural changes or
+additions to their Houses, but were content with wooden presses in the
+cloister for their books, and small wooden studies, called carrells, for
+the readers and writers.
+
+The uniformity which governed monastic usage was so strict that the
+practice of almost any large monastery may be taken as a type of what was
+done elsewhere. Hence, when we find a full record of the way in which
+books were used in the great Benedictine House at Durham, we may rest
+assured that, _mutatis mutandis_, we have got a good general idea of the
+whole subject. I will therefore begin by quoting a passage from that
+valuable work _The Rites of Durham_, a description of the House drawn up
+after the Reformation by some one who had known it well in other days,
+premising only that it represents the final arrangements adopted by the
+Order, and takes no account of the steps that led to them.
+
+    In the north syde of the Cloister, from the corner over
+    against the Church dour to the corner over againste the
+    Dorter dour, was all fynely glased from the hight to the
+    sole within a litle of the grownd into the Cloister
+    garth. And in every wyndowe iij Pewes or Carrells, where
+    every one of the old Monks had his carrell, severall by
+    himselfe, that, when they had dyned, they dyd resorte to
+    that place of Cloister, and there studyed upon there
+    books, every one in his carrell, all the after nonne,
+    unto evensong tyme. This was there exercise every daie.
+
+    All there pewes or carrells was all fynely wainscotted
+    and verie close, all but the forepart, which had carved
+    wourke that gave light in at ther carrell doures of
+    wainscott. And in every carrell was a deske to lye there
+    bookes on. And the carrells was no greater then from one
+    stanchell of the wyndowe to another.
+
+    And over against the carrells against the church wall
+    did stande certaine great almeries [or cupbords] of
+    waynscott all full of bookes, wherein did lye as well
+    the old auncyent written Doctors of the Church as other
+    prophane authors with dyverse other holie mens wourks,
+    so that every one dyd studye what Doctor pleased them
+    best, havinge the Librarie at all tymes to goe studie in
+    besydes there carrells.[189]
+
+At Durham the monastic buildings stood to the south of the church, and the
+library-walk of the cloister was that walk, or alley, or pane, or syde
+(for all these words are used), which had the church to the north of it.
+The library was placed there partly for the sake of warmth, partly to
+secure greater privacy. At Canterbury and at Gloucester, where the church
+was to the south of the conventual buildings, the library-walk of the
+cloister was still the walk next to the church, the other walks, as Mr
+Hope has pointed out to me, being apparently kept clear for the Sunday
+procession.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. The cloister, Westminster Abbey.
+
+From Mr Micklethwaite's plan of the buildings.]
+
+I propose to explain the system indicated in the above quotation by
+reference to a plan of the cloister at Westminster Abbey, drawn by my
+friend Mr J. T. Micklethwaite (fig. 25)[190], and by quotations from his
+notes upon it. At Durham every vestige of ancient arrangement has been so
+completely destroyed that it is better to go to another House, where less
+mischief has been done, and it happens fortunately that, so far as the
+position of the cloister with reference to the church is concerned,
+Westminster is the exact counterpart of Durham. I will consider first the
+last paragraph of my quotation from the _Rites of Durham_, that namely
+which deals with the presses for books, there called "almeries or
+cupbords."
+
+Mr Micklethwaite shews that the two bays at the north end of the west walk
+of the cloister, and the second bay from the west in the north walk (fig.
+25, nos. 1, 2, 4), were appropriated to the novices, by the existence of
+several sets of nine holes, evidently cut by boys in their idle moods for
+the playing of some game. Similar holes have been found at Canterbury,
+Gloucester, and elsewhere. Next he points out that "the nosing of the
+wall-bench for six feet of the third bay from the west in the north walk,
+and in the whole of the fourth and fifth bays, and nearly all the sixth,
+has been cut away flush with the riser, as if some large pieces of
+furniture had been placed there (_ibid._ nos. 5, 5, 5, 5). These were
+evidently bookcases." Eastward of these indications of bookcases "the
+bases of the vaulting-shafts are cut in a way which seems to shew that
+there was a double screen there (_ibid._ nos. 6, 6), or perhaps there were
+bookcases arranged so as to form a screen, which is, I think, very likely.
+Beyond this screen to the right are appearances in the wall [next the
+cloister-garth] which seem to indicate a blocked-up locker, but they are
+rather doubtful. And on the left is a large double locker blocked (_ibid._
+7), and the blocking appears to be ancient. This locker is of the date of
+the wall (Edw. I.), and may have been an additional book-closet provided,
+because that on the other side of the church-door [to be described
+presently] had become too small, and [was] blocked up when the larger
+bookcases were made opposite the carrells[191]."
+
+Lastly, at the risk of some repetition, I will quote a passage from a
+letter which Mr Micklethwaite was so good as to write to me on this
+subject, as it brings out some additional points, and states the whole
+question with great clearness. After describing the position of the
+bookcases, he proceeds:
+
+    There was thus a space, the width of the bench, between
+    the back of the case and the cloister-wall, which would
+    help to keep things dry. Whether the floor was boarded
+    we cannot now tell, but there is evidence that this part
+    of the cloister was cut off from the rest by screens of
+    some sort at both ends, which would make it a long
+    gallery lighted on one side, and with bookcases ranged
+    along the other, not unlike Wren's at Lincoln. The
+    windows must have been glazed; indeed remains of the
+    glazing existed to the end of the 17th century; and
+    there were within my memory marks of fittings along the
+    windows-side which I did not then understand, but which,
+    if they still existed, would I have no doubt tell us
+    something of the _carrells_. A "thorough restoration"
+    has taken away every trace of them.
+
+The "bookcase on the other side of the church door" mentioned above was in
+the northernmost bay of the east cloister. Mr Micklethwaite says of it:
+
+"Entering the cloister from the church by the east cloister door (_ibid._
+no. 8), we find on our left hand a very broad bench against the wall,
+extending as far as the entrance to the Chapter-House (_ibid._ 10). In the
+most northern bay the wall-arcade, instead of being brought down by shafts
+as in the others, is stopped off at the springing by original brackets, as
+if to allow of some large piece of furniture being placed against the
+wall. Here, I believe, stood in the thirteenth century the _armarium
+commune_, or common bookcase (_ibid._ 9). At Durham there is a Norman
+arched recess in the same place, not mentioned by the writer of the
+_Rites_, because before his time its use had ceased, books having become
+more numerous, and being provided for elsewhere[192]."
+
+These notes enable us to imagine what this library was like. It was about
+80 feet long by 15 feet broad, extending along four bays of the cloister.
+It was cut off by a screen at one end, and possibly at the other also; the
+book-presses stood against the wall, opposite to the windows, which were
+probably glazed, as we know those at Durham were; and there might have
+been a wooden floor. Further, the older monks sat in "carrells," as we
+learn from the custumary of Abbat Ware, who was in office 1258-83. The
+writer is speaking of the novices, and says that after they have attained
+a certain degree of proficiency they may sit in cloister, and "be allowed
+to glance at books taken out of the presses (_armaria_) belonging to the
+older monks. But they must not be permitted as yet to write or to have
+carrells[193]."
+
+Whatever may have been the discomfort of this library according to our
+ideas, there is good reason for believing that it was in use till 1591,
+when Dean Williams fitted up part of the Dorter as a library for the use
+of the Dean and Canons[194].
+
+The practice of placing the book-press in the cloister obtained with equal
+force in France, for the Benedictines who wrote the _Voyage Litteraire_,
+and who would of course be well acquainted with what was usual in their
+own Order, remark with surprise when they visit the ancient abbey of Cruas
+on the Rhone, that the press is in the church.
+
+    On voit encore dans l'eglise l'armoire ou on enfermoit
+    les livres, contre la coutume des autres monasteres de
+    l'ordre, qui avoient cette armoire dans le cloitre. On y
+    lit ces vers d'un caractere qui peut avoir cinq cent
+    ans:
+
+  Pastor jejunat qui libros non coadunat
+  Nec panem praebet subjectis quem dare debet[195].
+
+  A shepherd starves whose store of books is low:
+  Nor can he on his flock their due bestow.
+
+
+No example of an English book-press has survived, so far as I know, but it
+would be rash to say that none exists; nor have I been so fortunate as to
+find one in France, though I have taken a great deal of pains to obtain
+information on the subject. In default of a press made specially to hold
+books, I must content myself with representations of two well-known pieces
+of furniture--both preserved in French churches.
+
+The first (fig. 26) stands in the upper sacristy of the Cathedral of
+Bayeux, over the south transept. The name usually given to it, _le
+Chartrier de Bayeux_, implies that it was made to hold documents. M.
+Viollet-le-Duc does not accept this view, but considers that it contained
+reliquaries, with which he probably would not object to associate other
+articles of church-plate.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Part of the ancient press in Bayeux Cathedral,
+called _Le Chartrier de Bayeux_.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Press in the church at Obazine, Central France.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+It is of oak, very coarse, rough, and massive. It is 9 ft. 3 inches high,
+from floor to top, 17 ft. 2 inches long--(it was originally 3 ft.
+longer)--and 3 ft. deep. There are two rows of cupboards each 3 ft. 8
+inches high, with massive doors that still preserve their original
+ironwork. The whole piece of furniture has once been painted, indications
+of which still exist, but the subjects can no longer be made out. M.
+Viollet-le-Duc[196], who possibly saw the paintings when they were in a
+better state of preservation than when I examined them in 1896, decides
+that they once represented the translation of relics.
+
+My second example (fig. 27) is in the church of Obazine in Central France
+(Departement de la Correze). It is far simpler and ruder than the press in
+Bayeux Cathedral; and the style of ornamentation employed indicates a
+somewhat earlier date; though M, Viollet-le-Duc places the construction of
+both in the first years of the 13th century. It is 6 ft. 7 in. high, by 7
+ft. broad, and 2 ft. 7 in. deep. The material is oak, which still bears a
+few traces of having once been painted[197].
+
+These pieces of furniture were certainly not made specially for books;
+but, as they belong to a period when the monastic system was in full,
+vigorous, life, it is at least probable that they resemble those used by
+monks to contain their books. I have shewn in the previous chapter that in
+ancient Rome the press used for books was essentially the same as that
+used for very different purposes; and I submit that it is unnecessary to
+suppose that monastic carpenters would invent a special piece of furniture
+to hold books. They would take the _armarium_ that was in daily use, and
+adapt it to their own purposes.
+
+Before I leave this part of my subject I must mention that there is a
+third press in the Church of Saint Germain l'Auxerrois, Paris. It stands
+in a small room over the south end of the west porch, which may once have
+been a muniment room. It was probably made about a century later than
+those which I have figured. In arrangement it bears a general resemblance
+to the example from Bayeux. It consists of six cupboards arranged in two
+tiers, the lower of which is raised to the level of a bench which extends
+along the whole length of the piece of furniture, with its ends mortised
+into those of the cupboards. The seat of this bench lifts up, so as to
+form an additional receptacle for books or papers[198].
+
+The curious wooden contrivances called carrells, which are mentioned in
+the above quotation from the _Rites of Durham_, have of course entirely
+disappeared. Nothing is said about their height; but in breadth each of
+them was equal to the distance from the middle of one mullion of a window
+to the middle of the next; it was made of wainscot, and had a door of open
+carved work by which it was entered from the cloister. This arrangement
+was doubtless part of the systematic supervision of brother by brother
+that was customary in a monastery. Even the aged, though engaged in study,
+were not to be left to their own devices. I have carefully measured the
+windows at Durham (fig. 28); and, though they have been a good deal
+altered, I suppose the mullions are in their original places. If this be
+so the carrells could not have been more than 2 ft. 9 in. wide, and the
+occupant would have found but little room to spare. There are eleven
+windows, so that thirty-three monks could have been accommodated, on the
+supposition that all were fitted with carrells.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Groundplan of one of the windows in the cloister
+of Durham Cathedral.]
+
+In the south cloister at Gloucester there is a splendid series of twenty
+stone carrells (fig. 29), built between 1370 and 1412. Each carrell is 4
+ft. wide, 19 in. deep, and 6 ft. 9 in. high, lighted by a small window of
+two lights; but as figures do not give a very vivid idea of size, and as I
+could not find any one else to do what I wanted, I borrowed a chair from
+the church and a folio from the library, and sat down to read, as one of
+the monks might have done six centuries ago (fig. 30). There is no trace
+of any woodwork appertaining to these carrells; or of any book-press
+having ever stood near them. The easternmost carrell, however, differs a
+good deal from the others, and it may have been used as a book-closet.
+There is a bench-table along the wall of the church opposite to the
+carrells; but it does not appear to have been cut away to make room for
+book-presses, as at Westminster. The south alley appears to have been shut
+off at the east end, and also at the west end, by a screen[199].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Range of carrells in the south cloister at
+Gloucester Cathedral.
+
+(From Mr Murray's _Handbook to the Western Cathedrals_.)]
+
+This drawing will help us to understand the arrangement of the wooden
+carrells used at Durham and elsewhere. Each carrell must have closely
+resembled a modern sentry-box, with this difference, that one side was
+formed by a light of the window looking into the cloister-garth, opposite
+to which was the door of entrance. This, I imagine, would be of no great
+height; and moreover was made of open work, partly that the work of the
+occupant might be supervised, partly to let as much light as possible pass
+through into the cloister-library. The seat would be on one side of the
+carrell and the desk on the other, the latter being so arranged that the
+light would enter on the reader's left hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. A single carrell, Gloucester Cathedral.]
+
+Carrells seem to have been usual in monasteries from very early times, not
+to have been introduced at a comparatively late date in order to ensure
+greater comfort. The earliest passage referring to them is that which I
+have already quoted[200], shewing that they were in use at Westminster
+between 1258 and 1283; at Bury S. Edmunds the destruction of the carrells
+is mentioned among other outrages in a riot in 1327[201]; they occur at
+Evesham between 1367 and 1379[202]; at Abingdon in 1383-84[203]; and at
+Christ Church, Canterbury, it is recorded among the good deeds of Prior
+Sellyng (1472-94), that in the south alley of the cloister "novos Textus
+quos Carolos ex novo vocamus perdecentes fecit"; words which Professor
+Willis renders "constructed there very convenient framed contrivances
+which are now-a-days called carols[204]." Their use--at any rate in some
+Houses--is evident from an injunction among the Customs of S. Augustine's,
+Canterbury, to the effect that the cellarer and others who rarely sit in
+cloister might not have carrells, nor in fact any brother unless he be
+able to help the community by copying or illuminating, or at least by
+adding musical notation[205]. They were in fact devices to provide a
+certain amount of privacy for literary work in Houses where there was no
+_Scriptorium_ or writing-room. At Durham, according to the author of
+_Rites_, they were used exclusively for reading.
+
+The above-mentioned Customs of S. Augustine's, written between 1310 and
+1344, give a valuable contemporary picture of the organization of one of
+the more important cloister-libraries. The care of the presses is to be
+entrusted to the Precentor and his subordinate, called the Succentor. The
+former is to have a seat in front of the press--which doubtless stood
+against the wall--and his carrell is to stand at no great distance, on the
+stone between the piers of the arches next the cloister-garth. The
+Succentor is to have his seat and his carrell on the bench near the
+press--by which the bench which commonly ran along the cloister-wall is
+obviously meant. These arrangements are made "in order that these two
+officers, or at least one of them, may always be at hand to satisfy
+brethren who make any demand upon their time[206]." In other words, they
+were the librarian and sub-librarian, who were to be always ready to
+answer questions. It is clear that brethren were not allowed to handle the
+books as they pleased.
+
+The cloister at Durham, or at least that part of it which was used as a
+library, was glazed; but whether with white glass or stained glass we are
+not informed. So obvious a device for increasing both the comfort and the
+beauty of a much-frequented part of the monastic buildings was doubtless
+adopted in many other Houses. At Bury S. Edmunds part at least of the
+cloister had "painted windows representing the sun, moon and stars and the
+occupations of the months"; at Christ Church, Canterbury, Prior Sellyng
+(1472-94) "had the south walk of the cloister glazed for the use of the
+studious brethren"; at Peterborough the windows of the cloister
+
+    were all compleat and fair, adorned with glass of
+    excellent painting: In the South Cloyster was the
+    History of the Old Testament: In the East Cloyster of
+    the New: In the North Cloyster the Figures of the
+    successive Kings from King _Peada_: In the West Cloyster
+    was the History from the first foundation of the
+    Monastery of King _Peada_, to the restoring of it by
+    King _Edgar_. Every window had at the bottom the
+    explanation of the History thus in Verse[207].
+
+At Westminster, as recorded above, traces of the insertion of glass have
+been observed.
+
+In later times, when regular libraries had been built for the monasteries,
+a special series of portraits occasionally appeared in glass, on a system
+similar to that worked out in other materials in Roman and post-Roman
+libraries; and sometimes, in other libraries, subjects are to be met with
+instead of portraits, to indicate the nature of the works standing near
+them. But I cannot say whether cloister-glass was ever treated in this
+way.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[115] _Epist._ XLIX. Sec. 3. Ad Pammachium. Revolve omnium quos supra
+memoravi commentarios, et ecclesiarum bibliothecis fruere et magis concito
+gradu ad optata coeptaque pervenies.
+
+[116] I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to the article "Libraries," in
+the _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, and to the references there
+given.
+
+[117] _Hist. Eccl._ VI. 20. [Greek: ekmazon de kata touto pleious logioi
+kai ekklesiastikoi andres on kai epistolas as pros allelous diecharatton
+eti nun sozomenas enrein euporon ai kai eis emas ephylachthesan en te kata
+ten Ailian bibliotheke pros tou tenikade ten autothi diepontos paroikian
+Alexandrou episkeuastheioe, aph' hes kai autoi tas ulas tes meta cheiras
+upotheseos epi tauto sunagagein dedunemetha].
+
+[118] _Epist._ XXXIV., _Ad Marcellum._ De aliquot locis Psalmi cxxvi.
+Migne, Vol. XXII. 448.
+
+[119] _Ibid._ _De Viris Illustribus_, Chap. 3. Migne, Vol. XXIII. 613.
+Porro ipsum Hebraicum habetur usque hodie in Caesariensi bibliotheca quam
+Pamphilus martyr studiose confecit.
+
+[120] _Comment. in Titum_, Chap. 3, v. 9. Unde et nobis curae fuit omnes
+Veteris Legis libros quos vir doctus Adamantius in Hexapla digesserat de
+Caesariensi bibliotheca descriptos ex ipsis authenticis emendare.
+
+[121] Optatus: _De schismate Donatistarum._ Fol. Paris, 1702. App. p. 167.
+
+[122] _Augustini Opera_, Paris, 1838, XI. p. 102.
+
+[123] _Bullettino di Archeologia Christiana_, Serie terza, 1876, p. 48.
+
+[124] _Epist._ XXXII. Sec. 10 (ed. Migne, Vol. LXI. p. 335). Basilica igitur
+illa ... reliquiis apostolorum et martyrum intra apsidem trichoram sub
+altaria sacratis.
+
+[125] _Ibid._ Sec. 13. Cum duabus dextra laevaque conchulis intra spatiosum
+sui ambitum apsis sinuata laxetur, una earum immolanti hostias
+jubilationis antistiti parat; altera post sacerdotem capaci sinu receptat
+orantes ... Sec. 16. In secretariis vero duobus quae supra dixi circa apsidem
+esse hi versus indicant officia singulorum.
+
+[126] Book I. Chap. 2. _De Acacia._ [Greek: pherei sperma en thulakois
+sunezeugmenois trichorois e tetrachorois]. Comp. also Book IV. Chap. 167.
+The use of the apse is discussed by Lenoir, _Architecture Monastique_,
+4to. Paris, 1852, Vol. I. p. 111.
+
+[127] Holsten, _Codex Regularum_, fol. 1759, 1. Regula S. Pachomii, No. c.
+p. 31. Nemo vadens ad collectam aut ad vescendum dimittat codicem non
+ligatum. Codices qui in fenestra id est intrinsecus parietis reponuntur ad
+vesperum erunt sub manu secundi qui numerabit eos et ex more concludet.
+The word fenestra is illustrated by a previous section of the Rule, No.
+LXXXII. p. 30. Nullus habebit separatim mordacem pavulam ad evellendas
+spinas si forte calcaverit absque Praeposito domus et secundo: pendeatque
+in fenestra in qua codices collocantur. Ducange says that the word is used
+for the small cupboard in which the Sacrament was reserved. Here it is
+evidently a recess in the wall closed by a door--like one of the later
+armaria. On Pachomius and his foundation see _The Lausiac History of
+Palladius_, by Dom Cuthbert Butler, Camb. 1898, and esp. p. 234.
+
+[128] _Benedicti Regula Monachorum_, ed. E. Woelfflin, Leipzig, Teubner,
+1895.
+
+[129] _De secunda feria quadragesimae._ In capitulo nequaquam alia Regulae
+sententia legitur quam quae est de quadragesima. Recitatur quoque _Brevis_
+librorum qui anno praeterito sunt ad legendum fratribus erogati. Cum
+quilibet frater nominatur, surgit, et librum sibi datum reddit: et si eum
+forte non perlegerit, pro indiligentia veniam petit. Est autem unus tapes
+ibi constratus super quem illi libri ponuntur, de quibus iterum quanti
+dantur, dantur cum _Brevi_; et ad hoc est una tabula aliquantulum major
+facta. _Antiquiores Consuetudines Cluniacensis Monasterii._ Lib. I. Cap.
+LII. D'Achery, _Spicilegium_, ed. 1723, I. 667.
+
+[130] _Ibid._ Lib. III. Cap. X. _Ibid._ 690. _De Praecentore et Armario._
+Praecentor et Armarius Armarii nomen obtinuit eo quod in ejus manu solet
+esse Bibliotheca quae et in alio nomine Armarium appellatur.
+
+[131] Reyner. _Apostolatus Benedictinorum in Anglia_, fol. 1626. App. Part
+III. p. 211. As Lanfranc styles himself in the prologue Bishop of Rouen,
+these decrees must have been issued between August 1067 and August 1070,
+when he was made Archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+[132] Reyner, _Apostolatus Benedictinorum in Anglia_, fol. 1626. App. Part
+III. p. 216.
+
+[133] I am aware that the Customs printed by D'Achery are dated 1110; but
+it need not be assumed that they were written in that year. Similar
+directions are to be found among the Veteres Consuetudines of the
+Benedictine Abbey of S. Benoit sur Loire, or Fleury, founded A.D. 625.
+_Floriacensis vetus Bibliotheca_, 8vo. Lyons, 1605, p. 394.
+
+[134] Cantor almaria puerorum juvenum et alia in quibus libri conventus
+reponentur innovabit fracta praeparabit [reparabit?] pannos librorum
+bibliothecae reperiet fracturas librorum reficiet. _Chronicon monasterii de
+Abingdon_ (De obedientariis Abbendoniae). Rolls Series, II. 371.
+
+[135] Cantor non potest libros vendere dare vel impignorare. Cantor non
+potest libros accommodare nisi pignore, quod tanti vel majoris fuerit,
+reposito. Tutius est pignori incumbere quam in personam agere. Hoc autem
+licet facere tantum vicinis ecclesiis vel excellentibus personis. _Ibid._
+pp. 373, 374.
+
+[136] _Mon. Angl._ II. 39. The last sentence runs as follows in the
+original: Nullus librum capiat nisi scribatur in rotulo ejus; nee alicui
+liber aliquis mutuo tradatur absque competenti et sufficienti memoriali,
+et hoc ponatur in rotulo ipsius. I owe this quotation and the last to
+Father Gasquet's _Some Notes on Medieval Monastic Libraries_, 1891, p. 10.
+
+[137] Adhuc etiam libros ad legendum de armario accipit duos quibus omnem
+diligentiam curamque prebere monetur ne fumo ne puluere vel alia qualibet
+sorde maculentur; Libros quippe tanquam sempiternum animarum nostrarum
+cibum cautissime custodiri et studiosissime volumus fieri vt qui ore non
+possumus dei verbum manibus predicemus. Guigonis, Prioris Carthusiae,
+_Statuta_. Fol. Basle, 1510. _Statuta Antiqua_, Part 2, Cap. XVI. Sec. 9.
+
+[138] Libros cum commodantur nullus contra commodantium retineat
+voluntatem. _Ibid._ Cap. XXXII. Sec. 16.
+
+[139] _Les Monuments primitifs de la Regle Cistercienne_, par Ph.
+Guignard, 8vo. Dijon, 1878, p. 237.
+
+[140] _The Observances in use at the Augustinian Priory of S. Giles and S.
+Andrew at Barnwell_: ed. J. W. Clark. 8vo. Camb., 1897, p. 15. This
+passage also occurs in the Customs of the Augustinian House at Groenendaal
+near Brussels. MS. in the Royal Library, Brussels, fol. 53 v^o. _De
+Armario._
+
+[141] As I know of no other passage in a medieval writer which describes
+an _armarium_, I transcribe the original text: Armarium, in quo libri
+reponuntur, intrinsecus ligno vestitum esse debet ne humor parietum libros
+humectet vel inficiat. In quo eciam diversi ordines seorsum et deorsum
+distincti esse debent, in quibus libri separatim collocari possint, et
+distingui abinvicem, ne nimia compressio ipsis libris noceat, vel querenti
+moram inuectat.
+
+[142] Statuta primaria Praemonstratensis Ordinis, Cap. VII. ap. Le Paige,
+_Bibliotheca Praem. Ord._ fol. Paris, 1633, p. 803. The words are: Ad
+Armarium pertinet libros custodire, et si sciverit emendare; Armarium
+librorum, cum necesse fuerit, claudere et aperire ... libros mutuo
+accipere cum necesse fuerit et nostros quaerentibus commodare sed non sine
+licentia Abbatis vel Prioris absente Abbate et non sine memoriali
+competenti.
+
+[143] The delightful story of S. Francis and the brother who wished for a
+psalter of his own is told in the _Speculum Perfectionis_, ed. Sabatier,
+8vo. Paris, 1898, p. 11.
+
+[144] These Constitutions have been printed by Father F. Ehrle in a paper
+called _Die aeltesten Redactionen der Generalconstitutionen des
+Franziskanerordens_, in "Archiv fuer Literatur und Kirchengeschichte des
+Mittelalters," Band VI. pp. 1-138. The passages cited above will be found
+on p. 111.
+
+[145] _The Philobiblon of Richard de Bury._ ed. E. C. Thomas, 8vo. Lond.
+1888, p. 203.
+
+[146] In the Cluniac Customs those volumes only which had been assigned to
+particular brethren are to be laid on the carpet. It is difficult to
+understand the reason for this formal assignment of a book to each brother
+who chose to ask for one. As brethren in those early times had no separate
+cubicles or cells, it could hardly imply more than a precaution against
+the difficulty of two brethren requiring the use of the same volume.
+Possibly the whole intention was disciplinary, to ensure study as
+prescribed by the Rule.
+
+[147] Delisle, _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_, Ser. 3, Vol. I. p. 225.
+Interdicimus inter alia viris religiosis, ne emittant juramentum de non
+commodando libros suos indigentibus, cum commodare inter praecipua
+misericordiae opera computetur. Sed, adhibita consideratione diligenti,
+alii in domo ad opus fratrum retineantur; alii secundum providentiam
+abbatis, cum indemnitate domus, indigentibus commodentur. Et a modo nullus
+liber sub anathemate teneatur, et omnia predicta anathemata absolvimus.
+Labbe, _Concilia_, XI. 69.
+
+[148] Delisle, _Cab. des Manuscrits_, II. 226.
+
+[149] M. Delisle (_ut supra_, II. 124) cites an inscription in one of the
+MSS. of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris: "Liber iste de Corbeia: sed
+prestaverunt nobis usque Pascha."
+
+[150] Mabillon, _Thesaurus Anecdotorum_, Vol. 1. p. 151.
+
+[151] _Opera Thomae a Campis_, fol. 1523. Fol. XLVII. 7. The passage occurs
+in his _Doctrinale Juvenum_, Cap. V.
+
+[152] _Medieval Monastic Libraries_: by F. A. Gasquet, p. 15. The passage
+translated above occurs in a Custumary of S. Augustine's, Canterbury, MSS.
+Cotton, Faustina, c. XII. fol. 196 b.
+
+[153] _Cat. Monte Cassino_, II. 299.
+
+[154] Theodmarus Cassinensis to Charlemagne, ap. Haeften, _Disquisitiones
+Monasticae_, fol. 1644, p. 1088.
+
+[155] Delisle, _ut supra_, II. 227.
+
+[156] Delisle, _ut supra_, II. 227. Tu, quicunque studebis in hoc libro,
+prospice, et leviter atque dulciter tractes folia, ut cavere possis
+rupturam propter ipsorum tenuitatem; et imitare doctrinam Jesu Christi,
+qui cum modeste aperuisset librum Ysaie et attente legisset, tandem
+reverenter complicuit ac ministro reddidit. This injunction occurs, in
+substance, in the _Philobiblon_ of Richard de Bury, ed. Thomas, p. 241.
+
+[157] _Opera Thomae a Campis_, fol. 1523. Fol. XLVII.
+
+[158] Amice qui legis, retro digitis teneas, ne subito litteras deleas,
+quia ille homo qui nescit scribere nullum se putat habere laborem; quia
+sicut navigantibus dulcis est portus, ita scriptori novissimus versus.
+Calamus tribus digitis continetur, totum corpus laborat. Deo gratias. Ego,
+in Dei nomine, Vuarembertus scripsi. Deo gratias. From a MS. in the Bibl.
+Nat. Paris (MS. Lat. 12296) from the Abbey of Corbie: "les caracteres
+denotent l'epoque carlovingienne." Delisle, _ut supra_, II. 121.
+
+[159] On the curse invariably used at S. Victor's, see Delisle, _ut
+supra_, II. 227 _note_.
+
+[160] Hic est liber Sancti Maximini Miciacensis monasterii, quem Petrus
+abbas scribere jussit et proprio labore providit atque distinxit, et die
+caenae domini super sacrum altare sancti Stephani Deo et sancto Maximino
+habendum obtulit, sub hujusmodi voto ut quisquis eum inde aliquo ingenio
+non reddituius abstulerit, cum Juda proditore, Anna et Caiapha atque
+Pilato damnationem accipiat. Amen. From a Benedictine House at Saint
+Mesmin, Loiret. Delisle, _ut supra_, III. 384. M. Delisle considers that
+the words "providit atque distinxit" mean "a ete revue et ponctuee."
+
+[161] Quem si quis vel dolo seu quoquo modo isti loco substraxerit anime
+sue propter quod fecerit detrimentum patiatur, atque de libro viventium
+deleatur et cum iustis non scribatur. From the Missal of Robert of
+Jumieges, ed. H. Bradshaw Soc., 8vo. 1896, p. 316.
+
+[162] Hic est liber sancti Albani quem qui ei abstulerit aut titulum
+deleverit anathema sit. Amen. I owe this quotation to the kindness of my
+friend Dr James.
+
+[163] _Cat. des MSS. des Departements_, 4to. Vol. I. p. 128 (No. 255).
+
+[164] Quicunque hunc titulum aboleverit vel a prefata ecclesia Christi
+dono vel vendicione vel accommodacione vel mutacione vel furto vel
+quocunque alio modo hunc librum scienter alienaverit malediccionem Ihesu
+Christi et gloriosissime Virginis matris ejus et beati Thome martiris
+habeat ipse in vita presenti. Ita tamen quod si Christo placeat qui est
+patronus ecclesie Christi eius spiritus salvus in die judicii fiat. Given
+to me by Dr James, from a MS. in the library of Trinity College,
+Cambridge.
+
+[165] I have to thank my friend Dr Venn for this quotation. He tells me
+that it was first pointed out by Dr Swete in _The Caian._ II. p. 127.
+
+[166] See above, p. 71.
+
+[167] Delisle, _ut supra_, II. 124.
+
+[168] _Ibid._ p. 239.
+
+[169] _Ibid._ p. 365. Edwards, _Memoirs of Libraries_, I. 283.
+
+[170] _Supplement to Bentham's Ely_, by Wm Stevenson, 4to. 1817, p. 51. I
+have to thank my friend the Rev. J. H. Crosby, Minor Canon of Ely
+Cathedral, for a transcript of Bp Nigel's deed.
+
+[171] _Monumenta Moguntina_, ed. Jaffe, 8vo. Berlin, 1866, in _Bibl. Rer.
+Germ._ Vol. III. p. 301; quoted in Bede's works, ed. Plummer, p. xx.
+
+[172] See Church's _S. Anselm_, ed. 1885, p. 48. The words are: Nunc
+hyemali frigore rigens, aliis occupationibus vacabo, praesentemque libellum
+hic terminare fatigatus decerno. Redeunte vero placidi veris sereno, etc.
+_Hist. Eccl._ Pars II. lib. IV.
+
+[173] This couplet, written on the fly-leaf of a MS. in the library of the
+University of Cambridge (Hh. VI. II), was pointed out to me by my friend
+F. J. H. Jenkinson, M.A., Librarian.
+
+[174] Herimanni liber de restauratione S. Martini Tornacensis: ap. Pertz,
+_Mon. Germ._ XIV. 313.
+
+[175] See above, p. 37.
+
+[176] See _Dictionnaire du Mobilier_, par Henri Havard, S. V. _Armoire_,
+and the passages there quoted.
+
+[177] See above, p. 71.
+
+[178] The Cistercian Customs prescribe the possession of nine volumes at
+least, chiefly service-books, before a house can be founded. _Documents_,
+p. 253.
+
+[179] _Origines Francaises de l'Architecture Gothique en Italie_, par G.
+Enlart, 8vo. Paris, 1894. p. 9. This valuable work contains a full and
+accurate description, copiously illustrated, of Fossa Nuova and other
+abbeys in remote parts of Italy.
+
+[180] _The Monastery and Cathedral of Worcester_, by John Noake, Lond.,
+1866, p. 414.
+
+[181] _Chronica monasterii de Melsa._ Rolls Series, Vol. III. App. p.
+lxxxiii.
+
+[182] The word _theca_ signified in classical Latin a case or receptacle
+in which any object was kept. In medieval Latin it was specially used
+(_fide_ Ducange) for the chest in which the bodies or bones or relics of
+saints, were kept. In this catalogue it is obvious that it may mean either
+a shelf or a cupboard.
+
+[183] Sunt enim in libraria de Tychefeld quatuor columpnae pro libris
+imponendis, unde in orientali fronte due sunt videlicet prima et secunda.
+In latere vero australi est tercia. Et in latere boreali est quarta. Et
+earum singule octo habent gradus [etc.].
+
+[184] _Trans. Cumb. and West. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc._ Vol. XVI. p. 259.
+I take this opportunity of thanking my friend Mr Hope for allowing me to
+use his plan of Furness Abbey, and also for pointing out to me the
+evolution of the Cistercian book-rooms which I have done my best to
+describe in the text.
+
+[185] _Calder Abbey: its Ruins and its History._ By A. G. Loftie, M.A.
+
+[186] Mr Hope tells me that he has lately re-examined these recesses, and
+failed to discover traces of furniture or fittings of any kind within
+them.
+
+[187] _Voyage Litteraire_, Paris, 1717, Vol. I. p. 101.
+
+[188] _Cat. des Manuscrits des Bibliotheques Publiques de France._
+Departements, Tom. V. Catalogue des Manuscrits de Citeaux, No. 635 (p.
+405). Parvus liber incathenatus ad analogium cathedre ex opposito
+capituli.
+
+[189] _The Rites of Durham_, ed. Surtees Soc. 1844, p. 70.
+
+[190] _Notes on the Abbey Buildings of Westminster_, Arch. Journ. XXXIII.
+pp. 15-49.
+
+[191] _Notes on the Abbey Buildings of Westminster_, Arch. Journ. XXXIII.
+pp. 21, 22.
+
+[192] _Notes on the Abbey Buildings of Westminster_, Arch. Journ. XXXIII.
+p. 16.
+
+[193] MSS, Mus. Brit. MSS. Cotton, Otho. c. XI. fol. 84.
+
+[194] See a paper by myself in _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ IX. pp.
+47-56.
+
+[195] _Voyage Litteraire_, ed. 1717. Part I. 297.
+
+[196] _Dictionnaire du Mobilier_, s. v. _Armoire_.
+
+[197] Viollet-le-Duc, _ut supra_, p. 4, where full details of the press at
+Obazine are given. The photograph from which my illustration has been made
+was specially taken for my use through the kind help of my friend Dr
+James, who had seen the press in 1899.
+
+[198] Viollet-le-Duc, _ut supra_, p. 14. I have myself examined this
+press. My friend Mr Hope informs me that there is a press of this
+character in the nether vestry at S. Peter Mancroft, Norwich, described by
+him in _Inventories of the parish church of S. Peter Mancroft, Norwich_,
+Norf. and Norw. Archaeol. Soc, XIV. p. 29.
+
+[199] See Mr Hope's _Notes on the Benedictine Abbey of S. Peter at
+Gloucester_, in _Records of Gloucester Cathedral_, 1897, p. 23.
+
+[200] See above, p. 93.
+
+[201] _Memorials of S. Edmund's Abbey_, Rolls Series, II. 327. The writer
+is describing the mischief done by the rioters of 1327: Deinde claustrum
+ingressi, cistulas, id est caroles, et armariola fregerunt, et libros et
+omnia in eis inventa similiter asportaverunt. I owe this quotation to Dr
+James, _On the Abbey of S. Edmund at Bury_, Camb. Ant. Soc. Octav. Publ.
+No. XXVIII. p. 158.
+
+[202] _Liber Evesham_, Hen. Bradshaw Soc. 1893, p. 196. Abbat Ombresleye
+(1367-79) built "paginam illam claustri contiguam ecclesie ubi carolae
+fratrum consistunt."
+
+[203] _Accounts of the Obedientiaries of Abingdon Abbey_, ed. Camden
+Society, 1892, p. 47. "Expense circa sedilia claustri" is the heading of
+an account for wood bought and for carpenter's work. The sum spent was L2.
+15_s._ 3_d._
+
+[204] _Arch. Hist. of the Conventual Buildings of the Monastery of Christ
+Church, Canterbury_. By R. Willis. 8vo, Lond. 1869, p. 45.
+
+[205] MSS. Mus. Brit. MSS. Cotton, Faustina, c. XII., fol. 149. De karulis
+in claustro habendis hanc consideracionem habere debent quibus committitur
+claustri tutela ut videlicet celerarius seu alii fratres qui raro in
+claustro resident suas karulas in claustro non habeant, set nec aliqui
+fratres nisi in scribendo vel illuminando aut tantum notando communitati
+aut et sibimet ipsis proficere sciant.
+
+[206] MSS. Mus. Brit. MSS. Cotton, Faustina, c. XII., fol. 145. ...
+precentorem et succentorem quibus committitur armariorum custodia. Cantor
+habebit cathedram suam ante armarium in claustro stantem et carulam suam
+iuxta desuper lapidem inter columpnas. Succentor vero super scannum iuxta
+armarium carulam et sedem suam habebit, ut hii duo vel saltem unus eorum
+possint semper esse parati ad respondendum fratribus seruicium petentibus.
+
+[207] _History of the Church of Peterburgh._ By Symon Gunton: fol. 1686,
+p. 103. The author gives the subjects and legends of nine windows. I owe
+this quotation to the kindness of Mr Hope.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+INCREASE OF MONASTIC COLLECTIONS. S. RIQUIER, BOBBIO, DURHAM, CANTERBURY.
+BOOKS KEPT IN OTHER PLACES THAN THE CLOISTER. EXPEDIENTS FOR HOUSING THEM
+AT DURHAM, CITEAUX, AND ELSEWHERE. SEPARATE LIBRARIES BUILT IN FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY AT DURHAM, S. ALBANS, CITEAUX, CLAIRVAUX, ETC. GRADUAL EXTENSION
+OF LIBRARY AT S. GERMAIN DES PRES. LIBRARIES ATTACHED TO CATHEDRALS.
+LINCOLN, SALISBURY, WELLS, NOYON, ROUEN, ETC.
+
+
+In the last chapter I attempted to describe the way in which the Monastic
+Orders provided for the safe keeping of their books, so long as their
+collections were not larger than could be accommodated in a press or
+presses in the cloister, or in the small rooms used by the Cistercians for
+the same purpose. I have now to carry the investigation a step farther,
+and to shew how books were treated when a separate library was built.
+
+It must not be supposed that an extensive collection of books was regarded
+as indispensable in all monastic establishments. In many Houses, partly
+from lack of funds, partly from an indisposition to study, the books were
+probably limited to those required for the services and for the daily life
+of the brethren. In other places, on the contrary, where the fashion of
+book-collecting had been set from very early days, by some abbat or prior
+more learned or more active than his fellows; and where brethren in
+consequence had learnt to take a pride in their books, whether they read
+them or not, a large collection was got together at a date when even a
+royal library could be contained in a single chest of very modest
+dimensions. For instance, when an inventory of the possessions of the
+Benedictine House of S. Riquier near Abbeville was made at the request of
+Louis le Debonnaire in 831 A.D., it was found that the library contained
+250 volumes; and a note at the end of the catalogue informs us that if the
+different treatises had been entered separately, the number of entries
+would have exceeded five hundred, as many books were frequently bound in a
+single volume. The works in this library are roughly sorted under the
+headings Divinity, Grammar, History and Geography, Sermons,
+Service-books[208]. A similar collection existed at S. Gall at the same
+period[209]. In the next century we find nearly seven hundred manuscripts
+in a Benedictine monastery at Bobbio in north Italy[210]; and nearly six
+hundred in a House belonging to the same order at Lorsch in Germany[211].
+At Durham, also a Benedictine House, a catalogue made early in the twelfth
+century contains three hundred and sixty-six titles[212]; but, as at S.
+Riquier, the number of works probably exceeded six or seven hundred.
+
+These instances, which I have purposely selected from different parts of
+Europe, and which could easily have been increased, are sufficient to
+indicate the rapidity with which books could be, and in fact were
+accumulated, when the taste for such collections had once been set. Year
+by year, slowly yet surely, by purchase, by gift, by bequest, by the zeal
+of the staff of writers whom the precentor drilled and kept at work, the
+number grew, till in certain Houses it reached dimensions which must have
+embarrassed those responsible for its bestowal. At Christ Church,
+Canterbury, for instance, the catalogue made by Henry de Estria, Prior
+1285-1331, enumerates about 1850 manuscripts[213].
+
+It must gradually have become impossible to accommodate such collections
+as these according to the old method, even supposing it was desirable to
+do so. There were doubtless many duplicates, and manuscripts of value
+requiring special care. Consequently we find that places other than the
+cloister were used to keep books in. At Durham, for instance, the
+catalogues made at the end of the fourteenth century enumerate (1) "the
+books in the common press at Durham in sundry places in the cloister" (386
+volumes)[214]; (2) "the books in the common press at Durham in the
+Spendment" (408 volumes)[215]; (3) "the inner library at Durham called
+Spendment" (87 volumes)[216]; (4) "the books for reading in the frater
+which lie in the press near the entrance to the farmery" (17
+volumes)[217]; (5) "the books in the common press of the novices at Durham
+in the cloister" (23 volumes)[218]. Of the above catalogues the first
+obviously deals with the contents of the great "almeries of wainscot"
+which stood in the cloister; the second and third with the books for which
+no room could be found there, and which in consequence had been
+transferred to a room on the west side of the cloister, where wages were
+paid and accounts settled. In the _Rites of Durham_ it is termed the
+treasure-house or chancery. It was divided into two by a grate of iron,
+behind which sat the officer who made the payments. The books seem to have
+been kept partly in the outer half of the room, partly within this grate.
+
+At Citeaux, the parent-house of the Cistercian order, a large and wealthy
+monastery in Burgundy, the books were still more scattered, as appears
+from the catalogue[219] drawn up by John de Cirey, abbat at the end of the
+fifteenth century, now preserved, with 312 of the manuscripts enumerated
+in it, in the public library of Dijon.
+
+This catalogue, written on vellum, in double columns, with initial letters
+in red and blue alternately, records the titles of 1200 MSS and printed
+books; but the number of the latter is not great. It is headed:
+
+    Inventory of the books at Citeaux, in the diocese of
+    Chalons, made by us, brother John, abbat of the said
+    House, in the year of our Lord 1480, after we had caused
+    the said books to be set to rights, bound, and covered,
+    at a vast expense, by the labour of two and often three
+    binders, employed continuously during two years[220].
+
+This heading is succeeded by the following statement:
+
+    And first of the books now standing (_existencium_) in
+    the library of the dorter, which we have arranged as it
+    is, because the room had been for a long time useless,
+    and formerly served as a tailory and vestry, ... but for
+    two years or nearly so nothing or very little had been
+    put there[221].
+
+A bird's-eye view of Citeaux, dated 1674, preserved in the Bibliotheque
+Nationale, Paris, shews a small building between the Frater and the
+Dorter, which M. Viollet-le-Duc, who has reproduced[222] part of it,
+letters "staircase to the dorter." The room in question was probably at
+the top of this staircase, and the arrangements which I am about to
+discuss shew beyond all question that the Dorter was at one end of it and
+the Frater at the other.
+
+There were six bookcases, called benches (_banche_), evidently
+corresponding to the _sedilia_ or "seats" mentioned in many English
+medieval catalogues. The writer takes the bookcases in order, beginning as
+follows:
+
+  De prima banca inferius versus refectorium (13 vols.).
+      In 2^a linea prime banche superius (17 vols.).
+  In 2^a banca inferius de latere dormitorii (18 vols.).
+     "   "  superius   "   "  (14 vols.).
+  In 2^a banca inferius de latere refectorii (15 vols.).
+     "   "  superius   "   "  (18 vols.).
+
+The third and fifth _banche_, containing respectively 75 volumes and 68
+volumes, are described in identical language; but the descriptions of the
+4th and 6th differ sufficiently to make quotation necessary:
+
+  In quarta banca de latere dormitorii (24 vols.).
+       "      "        "    refectorii (16 vols.).
+  In sexta banca de latere dormitorii (25 vols.).
+  Libri sequentes sunt in dicta sexta banca de latere dormitorii inferius
+          sub analogio (38 vols.).
+
+It seems to me that the first _banca_ was set against the Dorter wall, so
+that it faced the Frater; and that it consisted of two shelves only, the
+second of which is spoken of as a line (_linea_)[223]. The second, third,
+and fifth _banche_ were detached pieces of furniture, with two shelves on
+each side. I cannot explain why the fourth is described in such different
+language. It is just possible that only one shelf on each side may have
+been occupied by books when the catalogue was compiled. I conjecture that
+the sixth stood against the Frater wall, thus facing the Dorter, and that
+it consisted of a shelf, with a desk below it, and a second shelf of books
+below that again.
+
+Besides these cases there were other receptacles for books called
+cupboards (_armaria_) and also some chests. These are noted in the
+following terms:
+
+  Secuntur libri existentes in armariis librarie.
+  In primo armario de latere versus refectorium (36 vols.).
+  In secundo armario (53 vols.).
+  In tertio armario (24 vols.).
+  Sequuntur libri existentes in cofro seu archa juxta gradus ascensus ad
+          vestiarium in libraria (46 vols.).
+  In quadam cista juxta analogium de latere refectorii (9 vols.).
+
+The total of the MSS. stored in this room amounts to 509. In addition to
+these the catalogue next enumerates "Books of the choir, church, and
+cloister (53 vols.); Books taken out of the library for the daily use of
+the convent (29 vols.); Books chained on desks (_super analogiis_) before
+the Chapter-House (5 vols.); on the second desk (5 vols.); on the third
+desk (4 vols.); on the fifth desk (4 vols.); Books taken out of the
+library partly to be placed in the cloister, partly to be divided among
+the brethren (27 vols.); Books on the small desks in the cloister (5
+vols.); Books to be read publicly in convent or to be divided among the
+brethren for private reading (99 vols.)." These different collections of
+MSS., added together, make a total of 740 volumes, which seem to have been
+scattered over the House, wherever a spare corner could be found for them.
+
+The inconvenience of such an arrangement, or want of arrangement, is
+obvious; and it must have caused much friction in the House. We can
+imagine the officer in charge of the finances resenting the intrusion of
+his brother of the library with an asperity not wholly in accordance with
+fraternal charity. And yet, so strong is the tendency of human nature to
+put up with whatever exists, rather than be at the trouble of changing it,
+no effectual steps in the way of remedy were taken until the fifteenth
+century. In that century, however, we find that in most of the large
+monasteries a special room was constructed to hold books. Reading went
+forward, as heretofore, in the cloister, and I conceive that the books
+stored in the new library were mainly intended for loan or for reference.
+As at Durham, the monks could go there when they chose.
+
+These conventual libraries were usually built over some existing building,
+or over the cloister. Sometimes, especially in France, the library appears
+as an additional storey added to any building with walls strong enough to
+bear it; sometimes again as a detached building. I will cite a few
+examples of libraries in these different positions.
+
+At Christ Church, Canterbury, a library, about 60 ft. long by 22 ft.
+broad, was built by Archbishop Chichele between 1414 and 1443, over the
+Prior's Chapel[224], and William Sellyng (Prior 1472-1494) "adorned [it]
+with beautiful wainscot, and also furnished it with certain volumes
+chiefly for the use of those addicted to study, whom he zealously and
+generously encouraged and patronised[225]."
+
+At Durham Prior Wessyngton, about 1446, either built or thoroughly
+repaired and refitted a room over the old sacristy, between the
+Chapter-House and the south Transept, or, as the _Rites_ say, "betwixt the
+Chapter House and the Te Deum wyndowe, being well replenished with ould
+written Docters and other histories and ecclesiasticall writers[226]."
+Wessyngton's work must have been extensive and thorough, for it cost,
+including the repairs of the books, L90. 16_s._ 0_d._[227]--at least L1100
+or L1200 at the present value of money. The position of this library will
+be understood from the illustration (fig. 31). The room is 44 ft. 10 in.
+long, by 18 ft. wide, with a window at each end, 13 ft. wide, of five
+lights, and a very rough roof of oak, resting on plain stone corbels.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Library at Durham, built by Prior Wessyngton about
+1446.]
+
+At Gloucester the library is in a similar position, but the date of its
+construction is uncertain. It has been described as follows by Mr Hope:
+
+    The library is an interesting room of fourteenth century
+    date, retaining much of its original open roof. The
+    north side has eleven windows, each of two square-headed
+    lights and perfectly plain.... [There are no windows on
+    the south side.] The large end windows are late
+    perpendicular, each of seven lights with a transom.
+    There are other alterations, such as the beautiful
+    wooden corbels from which the roof springs, which are
+    probably contemporary with the work of the cloister when
+    the western stair to the library was built, and the room
+    altered.
+
+At Winchester a precisely similar position was selected between the
+Chapter-House and the south transept, above a passage leading from the
+cloister to the ground at the south-east end of the church.
+
+At the Benedictine House of S. Albans the library was begun in 1452 by
+John Whethamstede, Prior, and completed in the following year at the cost
+of L150[228]--a sum which represents about L2000 at the present day--but
+the position has not been recorded.
+
+At Worcester, also Benedictine, it seems probable that the library
+occupied from very early times the long, narrow room over the south aisle
+of the nave to which it was restored in 1866. This room, which extends
+from the transept to the west end of the church, is 130 ft. 7 in. long, 19
+ft. 6 in. wide, and 8 ft. 6 in. high on the south side. It is lighted by
+twelve windows, eleven of which are of two lights each, and that nearest
+to the transept of three lights. The room is approached by a circular
+stone staircase at the south-west angle of the cathedral, access to which
+is from the outside only[229].
+
+At Bury S. Edmund's abbat William Curteys (1429-45) built a library, on an
+unknown site: but his work is worth commemorating, as another instance of
+the great fifteenth century movement in monasteries for providing special
+rooms to contain books.
+
+At S. Victor, Paris, an Augustinian House, the library was built between
+1501 and 1508, I believe over the sacristy; at Groenendaal, near Brussels,
+also Augustinian, it was built over the whole length of the north cloister
+(a distance of 175 feet), so that its windows faced the south.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Library of the Grey Friars House, London, commonly
+called Christ's Hospital.
+
+From Trollope's History.]
+
+The Franciscan House in London, commonly called Christ's Hospital, had a
+noble library, founded 21 October, 1421, by Sir Richard Whittington,
+mercer and Lord Mayor of London. By Christmas Day in the following year
+the building was roofed in; and before three years were over it was
+floored, plastered, glazed, furnished with desks and wainscot, and stocked
+with books. The cost was L556. 16_s._ 8_d._; of which L400 was paid by
+Whittington, and the rest by Thomas Wynchelsey, one of the brethren, and
+his friends[230]. It extended over the whole of one alley of the cloister
+(fig. 32). Stow tells us that it was 129 ft. long, by 31 ft. broad[231];
+and, according to the letters patent of Henry VIII., dated 13 January,
+1547, by which the site was conveyed to the City of London, it contained
+"28 Desks and 28 Double Settles of Wainscot[232]."
+
+I have recounted the expedients to which the monks of Citeaux were reduced
+when their books had become too numerous for the cloister. I will now
+describe their permanent library. This is shewn in the bird's-eye view
+dated 1674 to which I have already referred, and also in a second similar
+view, dated 1718, preserved in the archives of the town of Dijon[233],
+where I had the good fortune to discover it in 1894. It is accompanied by
+a plan of the whole monastery, and also by a special plan[234] of the
+library (fig. 35). The buildings had by this time been a good deal
+altered, and partly rebuilt in the classical style of the late
+renaissance; but in these changes the library had been respected. I
+reproduce (fig. 33) the portion of the view containing it and the
+adjoining structures, together with the corresponding ground-plan (fig.
+34).
+
+The authors of the _Voyage Litteraire_, Fathers Martene and Durand, who
+visited Citeaux in 1710, thus describe this library:
+
+    Citeaux sent sa grande maison et son chef d'ordre. Tout
+    y est grand, beau et magnifique, mais d'une magnificence
+    qui ne blesse point la simplicite religieuse....
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Bird's-eye view of part of the Monastery of
+Citeaux. From a drawing dated 1718. A, library; B, farmery.]
+
+    Les trois cloitres sont proportionnez au reste des
+    batimens. Dans l'un de ces cloitres on voit de petites
+    cellules comme a Clervaux, qu'on appelle les ecritoires,
+    parce que les anciens moines y ecrivoient des livres. La
+    bibliotheque est au dessus; le vaisseau est grand,
+    voute, et bien perce. Il y a bon fonds de livres
+    imprimez sur toutes sortes de matieres, et sept ou huit
+    cent manuscrits, dont la plupart sont des ouvrages des
+    peres de l'eglise[235].
+
+The ground-plan (fig. 34) shews the writing-rooms or _scriptoria_,
+apparently six in number, eastward of the church; and the bird's-eye view
+(fig. 33) the library built over them. Unfortunately we know nothing of
+the date of its construction. It occupied the greater part of the north
+side of a cloister called "petit cloitre" or Farmery Cloister, from the
+large building on the east side originally built as a Farmery (fig. 33,
+B). It was approached by a newel-stair at its south-west corner (fig. 35).
+This stair gave access to a vestibule, in which, on the west, was a door
+leading into a room called small library (_petite bibliotheque_),
+apparently built over one of the chapels at the east end of the church
+(fig. 34). The destination of this room is not known. The library proper
+was about 83 feet long by 25 feet broad[236], vaulted, and lighted by six
+windows in the north and south walls. There was probably an east window
+also, but as explained above, it was intended, when this plan was drawn,
+to build a new gallery for books at this end of the older structure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34, Ground-plan of part of the Monastery of Citeaux.
+From a plan dated 1718.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35, Ground-plan of the Library at Citeaux.]
+
+I proceed next to the library at Clairvaux, a House which may be called
+the eldest daughter of Citeaux, having been founded by S. Bernard in 1115.
+This library was built in a position precisely similar to that at Citeaux,
+namely, eastward of the church, on the north side of the second cloister,
+over the _Scriptoria_. Begun in 1495, it was completed in 1503; and was
+evidently regarded as a work of singular beauty, over which the House
+ought to rejoice, for the building of it is commemorated in the following
+stanzas written on the first leaf of a catalogue made between 1496 and
+1509, and now preserved in the library at Troyes[237]:
+
+  La construction de cette librairie.
+
+  Jadis se fist cette construction
+  Par bons ouvriers subtilz et plains de sens
+  L'an qu'on disoit de l'incarnation
+  Nonante cinq avec mil quatre cens.
+
+  Et tant y fut besongnie de courage
+  En pierre, en bois, et autre fourniture
+  Qu'apres peu d'ans acheve fut louvrage
+  Murs et piliers et voulte et couverture.
+
+  Puis en apres l'an mil v^c et trois
+  Y furent mis les livres des docteurs:
+  Le doux Jesus qui pendit en la croix
+  Doint paradis aux devotz fondateurs.
+
+                                 Amen.
+
+We fortunately possess a minute description of Clairvaux, written, soon
+after the completion of the new library, by the secretary to the Queen of
+Sicily, who came there 13 July, 1517, and was taken, apparently, through
+every part of the monastery[238]. The account of the library is as
+follows:
+
+    Et de ce meme coste [dudit cloistre] sont xiiii estudes
+    ou les religieulx escripvent et estudient, lesquelles
+    sont tres belles, et au dessus d'icelles estudes est la
+    neufve librairerie, a laquelle l'on va par une vis large
+    et haulte estant audict cloistre, laquelle librairie
+    contient de longeur lxiii passees, et de largeur xvii
+    passees.
+
+    En icelle y a quarante huic banctz, et en chacun banc
+    quatre poulpitres fournys de livres de touttes sciences,
+    et principallement en theologie, dont la pluspart
+    desdicts livres sont en parchemin et escript a la main,
+    richement historiez et enluminez.
+
+    L'ediffice de ladicte librairie est magnificque et
+    massonnee, et bien esclaire de deux costez de belles
+    grandes fenestres, bien vitres, ayant regard sur ledict
+    cloistre et cimitiere des Abbez. La couverture est de
+    plomb et semblablement de ladite eglise et cloistre, et
+    tous les pilliers bouttans d'iceulx ediffices couverts
+    de plomb.
+
+    Le devant d'icelle librairie est moult richement orne et
+    entaille par le bas de collunnes d'estranges facons, et
+    par le hault de riches feuillaiges, pinacles et
+    tabernacles, garnis de grandes ymaiges, qui decorent et
+    embelissent ledict edifice. La vis, par laquelle on y
+    monte, est a six pans, larges pour y monter trois hommes
+    de front, et couronne a l'entour de cleres voyes de
+    massonerie. Ladicte librairerie est toute pavee de
+    petits carreaulx a diverses figures.
+
+It will be interesting to place by the side of this description a second,
+written nearly two hundred years later, by the authors of the _Voyage
+Litteraire_, who visited Clairvaux in the spring of 1709:
+
+    Le grand cloitre ... est voute et vitre. Les religieux y
+    doivent garder un perpetuel silence. Dans le cote du
+    chapitre il y a des livres enchainez sur des pupitres de
+    bois, dans lesquels les religieux peuvent venir faire
+    des lectures lorsqu'ils veulent....
+
+    Du grand cloitre on entre dans le cloitre du colloque,
+    ainsi appelle, parce qu'il est permis aux religieux d'y
+    parler. Il y a dans ce cloitre douze ou quinze petites
+    cellules tout d'un rang, ou les religieux ecrivoient
+    autrefois des livres: c'est pourquoy on les appelle
+    encore aujourd'hui les ecritoires. Au-dessus de ces
+    cellules est la bibliotheque, dont le vaisseau est
+    grand, voute, bien perce, et rempli d'un grand nombre de
+    manuscrits, attachez avec des chaines sur des pupitres,
+    mais il y a peu de livres imprimez[239].
+
+The plan of the substruction of this new library, as shewn on the
+ground-plan of Clairvaux given by Viollet Le Duc[240], is exactly the same
+as that of Citeaux (fig. 33) but on a larger scale. The library itself, as
+there, was approached by a newel stair at its south-west corner. This
+stair was hexagonal, and of a diameter sufficient to allow three men to
+ascend at the same time. The library was of great extent--being about 206
+feet long by 56 feet broad--if the dimensions given in the above account
+be correct, and if I am right in supposing a pace (_passee_) to be
+equivalent to a modern _metre_; vaulted, and well lighted. The Queen's
+secretary seems to have been specially struck by the beauty, the size, and
+the decoration of the windows. The floor was paved with encaustic tiles.
+
+It will be interesting to note how, in some Houses, the library slowly
+expanded itself, occupying, one after another, every coign of
+vantage-ground. An excellent example of this growth is to be found in the
+abbey of Saint Germain des Pres, Paris; and fortunately there are several
+views, taken at different periods before the Revolution, on which the
+gradual extension of the library can be readily traced. I append a portion
+of two of these. The first (fig. 36), dated 1687, shews the library over
+the south walk of the cloister, where it was placed in 1555. It must not,
+however, be supposed that no library existed before this. On the contrary,
+the House seems to have had one from the first foundation, and so early as
+the thirteenth century it could be consulted by strangers, and books
+borrowed from it. The second view (fig. 37), dated 1724, shews a still
+further extension of the library. It has now invaded the west side of the
+cloister, which has received an upper storey; and even the external
+appearance of the venerable Frater, which was respected when nearly all
+the rest of the buildings were rebuilt in a classical style, has been
+sacrificed to a similar gallery. The united lengths of these three rooms
+must have been little short of 384 feet. This library was at the disposal
+of all scholars who desired to use it. When the Revolution came it
+contained more than 49,000 printed books, and 7000 manuscripts[241].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain des Pres, Paris.
+
+From a print dated 1687; reproduced in _Les Anciennes Bibliotheques de
+Paris_, par Alf. Franklin, Vol. I. p 126.]
+
+   1 Porta major monasterii.
+   2 Atrium ecclesie.
+   3 Regalis basilica.
+   4 Sacrarium.
+   5 Claustrum parvum B. M.
+   7 Dormitorium.
+   8 Bibliotheca.
+   9 Dormitoria R. Patrum Congregationis.
+  10 Aulae Hospitum.
+  12 Refectorium.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain des Pres, Paris.
+
+From a print in _Histoire de l'Abbaye Royale de Saint Germain des Prez_,
+par Dom Jacques Bouillart, fol. Paris, 1724, lettered "l'Abbaye ... telle
+qu'elle est presentement."]
+
+  A. Porte Exterieure.
+  B. Maisons de l'enclos.
+  C. Parvis de l'Eglise.
+  D. L'Eglise.
+  F. Saciristie.
+  G. Petit Cloitre.
+  H. Grand Cloitre.
+  I. Bibliotheque.
+  K. Dortoir.
+  L. Refectoire.
+  M. Cuisine.
+  Z. Dortoir des Hotes.
+
+I now pass to Cathedrals, which vied with monasteries in the possession of
+a library; and, as might be expected, the two sets of buildings throw
+light on each other. I regret that it has now become impossible to
+discover the site or the extent of such a library as that of York, which
+was well stocked with books so early as the middle of the eighth century;
+or of that of Notre Dame de Paris, which was a centre of instruction as
+well as of learning; but some good examples of capitular libraries can be
+found in other places; and, like those of the monasteries, they were for
+the most part built in the fifteenth century. I will begin with the
+library of Lincoln Cathedral, part of which is still in existence[242].
+
+The Cathedral of Lincoln was founded at the close of the eleventh century,
+and in the middle of the twelfth we find the books belonging to it kept in
+a press (_armarium_). We learn this from the heading of a list[243] of
+them when placed in the charge of Hamo, Chancellor 1150-1182, written on
+the first page of a copy of the Vulgate, the first volume in the
+collection:
+
+    Quando Hamoni cancellario cancellaria data fuit et
+    librorum cura commissa, hos in armario invenit libros et
+    sub custodia sua recepit, scilicet:
+
+        Bibliothecam in duobus voluminibus [etc.].
+
+The list which follows enumerates 42 volumes, together with a map of the
+world. To this small collection there were added in Hamo's time, either by
+his own gift or by that of other benefactors, 31 volumes more; so that
+before his death the press contained 73 volumes, probably a large
+collection for that period. Besides these, there were service-books in the
+charge of the bursar (_thesaurarius_), and song-books in that of the
+precentor. The three collections were probably kept in the church.
+
+The first indication of a separate room to contain books is afforded by
+the gift of a volume by Philip Repyndon, Bishop 1405-1419, in which year
+he resigned. It is given after his resignation, "to the new library to be
+built within the Church of Lincoln." Again, Thomas Duffield, formerly
+Chancellor, who died in 1426, bequeathed another book "to the new library
+of the aforesaid church." The erection of the new library may therefore be
+placed between 1419 and 1426.
+
+A catalogue, now in the muniment room at Lincoln, which, on internal
+evidence, may be dated about 1450, enumerates 107 works, of which 77
+(more or less) have been identified as still in the library. The heading,
+which I will translate, refers to a chaining of the books which had
+recently taken place, possibly after the construction of the cases which I
+shall describe in a subsequent chapter.
+
+    It is to be noted that in this indenture are enumerated
+    all the books in the library of the church of blessed
+    Mary of Lincoln which have lately been secured with
+    locks and chains; of which indenture one part is
+    stitched into the end of the black book of the aforesaid
+    church, and the other part remains in ...[244].
+
+The library--a timber structure--was placed over the northern half of the
+east walk of the cloister. At present only three bays at the north end
+remain; but there were originally two bays more, at the south end, between
+the existing structure and the Chapter-House. These were destroyed in
+1789, when the following Chapter Order was made (7 May):
+
+    That the old Library adjoining to the Chapter House
+    shall be taken down, and the part of the Cloysters under
+    it new leaded and the walls compleated, and the Stair
+    case therto removed, and a new Stair Case made, agreable
+    to a plan and estimate of the Expence thereof.
+
+I will now briefly describe the room, with the assistance of the plan
+(fig. 38)[245], and the view of the interior (fig. 39).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Interior of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral.
+
+The open door leads into Dean Honywood's Library, as described in Chapter
+VIII.]
+
+The walls are 9 ft. 8 in. high, from the floor to the top of the
+wall-plate. They are divided into bays, each 7 ft. 9 in. wide, by vertical
+shafts, from which, at a height of 5 ft. 9 in. from the ground, spring the
+braces which support the tiebeams of the roof. These are massive beams of
+oak, slightly arched, and molded on their under-surface. Their position is
+indicated by dotted lines on the plan (fig. 38). The whole roof is a
+splendid specimen of fifteenth century work, enriched with carving in the
+finest style of execution. There is a bold ornament in the centre of each
+tiebeam; and at the foot of the central joist in each bay, which is wider
+than the rest, and molded, while the others are plain, there is an angel,
+projecting horizontally from the wall. The purlin, again, is molded, and
+where it intersects the central joist a subject is carved: an angel
+playing on a musical instrument--a bird--a rose--a grotesque figure--and
+the like. Below the wall-plate is a cornice, 12 in. deep, ornamented with
+a row of quatrefoils above a row of battlements. Beneath these there is a
+groove, which seems to indicate that the walls were once panelled or
+plastered.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Plan of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral.]
+
+It is probable that there was originally a row of equidistant windows in
+the east and west walls, one to each bay on each side; but of these, if
+they ever existed, no trace remains. There must also have been a window at
+the north end, and probably one at the south end also. The present windows
+are plainly modern. The room is known to have suffered from a fire, which
+tradition assigns to 1609; and probably the original windows were changed
+during the repairs rendered necessary at that time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Plan of the Cloister, etc., Lincoln Cathedral.]
+
+It is not easy to decide how this library was approached. It has been
+suggested that the stone newel stair at the north-west corner of the
+Chapter-House was used for this purpose; but, if that be the case, how are
+we to explain the words in the above order "the Stair Case thereto
+removed"; and an item which occurs in the Cathedral Accounts for 1789,
+"taking down the old stairs, strings, and banisters, 14_s._"? It appeared
+to me, when examining the building, that there had been originally a door
+on the east side, now replaced by a window, as shewn on the plan (fig.
+38). Possibly the staircase destroyed in 1789 led to this door, which was
+conveniently situated in the centre of a bay. The staircase built in 1789
+is the one still existing at the north-east corner of the old library
+(fig. 40, A).
+
+At Salisbury Bishop Osmund (1078-99) is stated to have "got together a
+quantity of books, for he himself did not disdain either to write books or
+to bind them after they had been written"[246]; but the library, as
+elsewhere, was a work of the fifteenth century. The foundation is very
+clearly recorded in an act of the Chapter, dated 15 January, 1444-45. The
+members present decide that as it is desirable, "for divers reasons, to
+have certain schools suitable for lectures, together with a library for
+the safe keeping of books and the convenience of those who wish to study
+therein--which library up to the present time they have been without--such
+schools and library shall be built as soon as possible over one side of
+the cloister of the church, at the cost of William [Ayscough] now Bishop
+of Salisbury, the Dean, and the Canons of the aforesaid church[247]."
+Accordingly, a building was erected, extending over the whole length of
+the east cloister, conveniently approached by the staircase at the
+south-west corner of the south transept, which originally led only to the
+roof. This library was curtailed to its present dimensions, and otherwise
+altered, in consequence of a Chapter Order dated 25 November, 1758, part
+of which I proceed to quote:
+
+    That the southern part of the library be taken down as
+    far as the partitions within which the manuscripts are
+    placed, the whole being found much too heavy to be
+    properly supported by the Cloysters, which were never
+    designed originally to bear so great a weight.
+
+    That the roof of the northern part of the library (where
+    the Theological lecture antiently used to be given by
+    the Chancellor of the Church) be taken down; the walls
+    lowered, and a new and lighter roof be placed in its
+    room; and that the same be fitted up in a neat and
+    convenient manner for the reception of the present books
+    and any others which shall hereafter be added to them.
+
+The appearance of the library, as the execution of the above order left
+it, will be understood from the view (fig. 41), taken from the roof of an
+adjoining alley of the cloister. Internally the room is 66 feet long, 20
+feet wide, and 12 ft. 9 in. high. It has a flat plaster ceiling, part of
+the "new and lighter roof" imposed on the lowered walls in 1758. The
+fittings are wholly modern.
+
+The library attached to S. Paul's Cathedral, London, by which I mean the
+medieval cathedral commonly called Old S. Paul's, was in a similar
+position. Its history is succinctly recorded by Dugdale. After describing
+the cemetery called Pardon Church Hawgh, with the cloister that surrounded
+it, he proceeds:
+
+    _The Library._
+
+    Over the East quadrant of the before mentioned Cloyster,
+    was a fair _Library_ built, at the costs of _Walter
+    Shiryngton_, Chancelour of the Duchy of Lancaster in
+    King Henry the 6th's time: But in the year MDXLIX. 10.
+    _Apr._ both Chapell, Cloyster, and Monuments, excepting
+    onely that side where the _Library_ was, were pulled
+    down to the ground, by the appointment of _Edward_ Duke
+    of Somerset, then Lord Protector to King _Edward_ 6. and
+    the materialls carried into the Strand, towards the
+    building of that stately fabrick called Somerset-House,
+    which he then erected; the ground where they stood being
+    afterwards converted into a Garden, for the Pettie
+    Canons[248].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. Plan of the Library in Wells Cathedral.
+
+Scale 1/10 inch=1 foot.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. Exterior of the Library at Salisbury Cathedral,
+looking north-east.]
+
+Nothing is known of the dimensions or arrangement of the above room; but,
+as it was over a cloister, it must have been long and narrow, like that
+which still exists in a similar position at Wells Cathedral, which I will
+briefly mention next.
+
+The Chapter Library at Wells Cathedral occupies the south end of a long,
+narrow room over the east pane of the cloister, approached by a spiral
+staircase from the south transept. This room is about 162 feet long by 12
+feet wide; the portion assigned to the library is about 106 feet long
+(fig. 42). The roof was originally divided into 13 spaces by oak
+principals, very slightly arched, resting on stone corbels. There were two
+windows on each side to each space. In the part fitted up as a library the
+principals have been plastered over to imitate stone, and the joists
+between them concealed by a ceiling. There is a tradition that this room
+was fitted up as a library in 1472. The present fittings, which I shall
+have occasion to mention in a subsequent chapter, were put up when the
+library was refitted and stocked with books after the Restoration[249].
+
+These four examples--at Lincoln, Salisbury, S. Paul's, and Wells--are
+typical of Cathedral libraries built over a cloister. I will next notice
+some that were detached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Plan of the Library at Lichfield Cathedral.
+
+From _History and Antiquities of Staffordshire_, by Stebbing Shaw, fol.
+Lond. 1798, Vol. 11. p. 244.]
+
+The library of Lichfield Cathedral[250] stood on the north side of the
+cathedral, west of the north door, at some little distance from the church
+(fig. 43). It was begun in 1489, when Thomas Heywood, dean, "gave L40
+towards building a library of brick," and completed in 1493. It was about
+60 feet long by 15 feet wide, approached by a flight of stairs. As the
+Chapter Order (9 December, 1757) which authorised its destruction speaks
+of the "Library, Chapter Clerk's House, and Cloisters," I suspect that it
+stood on a colonnade, after the manner of the beautiful structure at
+Noyon, a cathedral town in eastern France, at no great distance from
+Amiens.
+
+This library--which I have carefully examined on two occasions--was built
+in pursuance of the following Order of the Chapter, 16 November, 1506.
+
+    Le 16. iour de Nouembre audit an, l'affaire de la
+    Librairie se remet sus. Le sieur Doyen offre cent francs
+    pour cet oeuure. Et le 20. iour de Nouembre, ouy le
+    Maistre de Fabrique et Commissaires a ce deputez, fut
+    arrestee le long de l'allee qui meine de l'Eglise a la
+    porte Corbaut; et a cet effect sera tire le bois a ce
+    necessaire de nos forests, et se fera ladite Librairie
+    suiuant le pourtrait ou patron exhibe au Chapitre le
+    sixiesme iour de Mars 1506. Le Bailly de Chapitre donne
+    cent sols pour ce bastiment, a condition qu'il en aura
+    une clef[251].
+
+This library (fig. 44) is, so far as I know, an unique specimen of a
+library built wholly of wood, supported on wooden pillars with stone
+bases, so that it is raised about 10 feet above the stone floor on which
+they rest, probably for the sake of dryness. There is a legend that a
+market used to be held there; but at present the spaces between the
+pillars have been filled in on the south side. The one here represented
+(fig. 45) stands on the north side, in a small yard between the library
+and the cathedral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Chapter-Library at Noyon, France.]
+
+The site selected for the building is on the south side of the choir of
+the cathedral, with its longest axis north and south. It measures 72 feet
+in length by 17 feet in width between walls, but was originally longer, a
+piece having been cut off at the south end, where the entrance now is, and
+where the library is now terminated by a stone wall of classical
+character. Tradition places the entrance at the opposite end, by means of
+an external staircase; an arrangement which would have been more
+convenient for the members of the Chapter, as they could have approached
+it through their vestry, which is on the south side of the choir. There
+are now nine windows on the east side--originally there were at least ten;
+but none on the west side, and it is doubtful if there ever were any, as
+they would be rendered useless by the proximity of other structures. The
+fittings are modern and without interest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. A single pillar of the cloister beneath the
+Chapter Library at Noyon.]
+
+At Bayeux also the Chapter-library is a detached building--of stone, in
+two floors, about 40 feet long by 26 feet wide, but I have not been able
+to discover the date at which it was built; and at York a detached library
+was built 1421-22 at the south-west corner of the south transept. This
+building, in two floors, the upper of which appears to have held the
+books, is still in existence.
+
+The Cathedral library at Troyes, built by Bishop Louis Raguier between
+1477 and 1479, to replace an older structure, was in an unusual position,
+and arranged in an unusual manner. It abutted against the south-east angle
+of the south transept, from which it could be entered. It was nearly
+square, being 30 feet long by 24 feet broad; and the vault was supported
+on a central pillar, from which radiated the six desks which contained the
+books (fig. 46). It was called _La Theologale_, because lectures on
+theology were given in it, as in the library at Salisbury. The desks were
+taken down in 1706, and the whole structure swept away in 1841-42, by the
+Departmental Architect, in the course of "a thorough restoration[252]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Plan of the Library at the south-east angle of the
+south transept of the Cathedral at Troyes.
+
+A, B, C, D, Library; E, Entrance from vestibule in front of south transept
+door. The room on the east side of this passage was used to keep records
+in.]
+
+At this point I cannot refrain from mentioning a somewhat anomalous
+library-foundation at Worcester, due to the zeal of Bishop Carpenter
+(1444-76), though both structure and foundation have been long since swept
+away[253]. In 1464 he built and endowed a library in connexion with the
+charnel-house or chapel of S. Thomas, martyr, a detached building on the
+north side of the cathedral. The deed in which this foundation is recorded
+contains so many interesting particulars that I will state briefly the
+most important points insisted upon[254].
+
+The Bishop begins by stating that by ancient arrangement the sacrist of
+the cathedral, assisted by a chaplain, is bound to celebrate mass daily in
+the charnel-house or chapel aforesaid, to keep it in repair, and to supply
+it with ornaments and vestments. For this purpose an annual endowment of
+15 marks has been provided. He then describes his own foundation.
+
+In accordance with the intention of his predecessors, and actuated by a
+desire to increase the knowledge of our holy faith, he has built a library
+in the aforesaid charnel-house, and caused certain books to be chained
+therein. Further, lest these volumes should be left uncared for, and so be
+damaged or abstracted, he has caused a dwelling-house for a master or
+keeper of the said books to be erected at the end of the said library; and
+he has conferred on the said keeper a new stipend, in addition to the old
+stipend of 15 marks.
+
+This keeper must be a graduate in theology, and a good preacher. He is to
+live in the said chantry, and say mass daily in the chapel thereof. He is
+to take care of all the books in the library, which he is to open on every
+week-day for two hours before None, and for two hours after None, to all
+who wish to enter for the purpose of study. He is to explain hard and
+doubtful passages of scripture when asked to do so, and once in every week
+to deliver a public lecture in the library. Moreover on Holy Thursday he
+is to preach in the cathedral, or at the cross in the burial-ground.
+
+Further, in order to prevent any book being alienated, or carried away, or
+stolen from the library, a tripartite list of all the books is to be made,
+wherein the true value of each is to be set down. One of these lists is
+to be retained by the Bishop, another by the sacrist, and a third by the
+keeper. Whenever a book is bequeathed or given to the library it is to be
+at once set down in this list together with its true value.
+
+On the Friday after the feast of Relics (27 January) in each year, the
+sacrist and the keeper are carefully to compare the books with the list;
+and should any book have disappeared from the library through the
+carelessness of the keeper, he is to replace it or the value of it within
+one month, under a penalty of forty shillings, whereof twenty shillings is
+to be paid to the Bishop, and twenty shillings to the sacrist. When the
+aforesaid month has fully expired, the sacrist is to set apart out of his
+own salary a sum sufficient to pay the above fine, and to purchase and
+chain in the library as soon as possible another book of the same value
+and material.
+
+The keeper is to receive from the sacrist an annual salary of ten pounds,
+and four yards of woollen cloth to make him a gown and hood.
+
+The sacrist is to keep the chapel, library, books, and chains, together
+with the house built for the use of the keeper, in good repair; and he is,
+moreover, to find and maintain the vestments and lights required for the
+chapel. All these duties he is to swear on the Holy Gospels that he will
+faithfully perform.
+
+My enumeration of Cathedral libraries would be sadly incomplete if I did
+not say a few words about the splendid structure which is attached to the
+Cathedral of Rouen[255]. The Chapter possessed a respectable collection of
+books at so early a date as 1120; this grew, and, 29 July, 1424, it was
+decided to build "a study or library (_quoddam studium seu vnam
+librariam_)," which was completed in 1428. Fifty years afterwards--in
+1477--it was decided that the library should be extended. The first
+thought of the Chapter was that it should be built of wood, and the
+purchase of good stout timber (_bona et grossa ligna_) is ordered. This
+plan, however, was evidently abandoned almost as soon as it was formed,
+for two years afterwards (20 April 1479) "the library lately erected" is
+mentioned. These words can only refer to the existing structure which is
+built wholly of stone. A week later (28 April) William Pontis,
+master-mason, was asked to prepare a design for a staircase up to the
+library. This he supplied on the following day. In June of the same year
+the Chapter had a serious difference of opinion with him on the ground
+that he had altered the design and exceeded the estimate. They came,
+however, to the wise conclusion that he should go on with the work and be
+requested to finish it with all dispatch.
+
+In the following spring (20 March 1480) it was decided to prolong the
+library as far as the street; and in 1481 (18 September) to build the
+beautiful stone gate surmounted by a screen in open-work through which the
+court is now entered. This was completed by the end of 1482. The whole
+structure had therefore occupied about five years in building.
+
+The library, together with a building of older date next to the Cathedral
+which serves as a sort of vestibule to it, occupies the west side of what
+is still called, from the booksellers' shops which used to stand there,
+_La Cour des Libraires_. The whole building measures 105 ft. in length, by
+25 ft. in breadth. The library proper is lighted by six windows in the
+east wall, and by two windows in the north wall. The masonry of the wall
+under these windows and the two lancets by which it is pierced indicate
+that advantage had been taken of an earlier building to form the
+substructure of the library. The west wall must always have been blank.
+Access to the library was obtained directly from the transept by means of
+the beautiful stone staircase in two flights which Pontis built in 1479.
+This staircase leads up to a door marked BIBLIOTHECA which opens into the
+vestibule above mentioned. In 1788 a room was built over the library to
+contain the archives of the church, and the staircase was then ingeniously
+prolonged so as to reach the new second-floor.
+
+Unfortunately the minutes of the Chapter tell us nothing about the
+original fittings of this room[256]. In 1718 the books were kept in
+cupboards protected by wire-work, over which were the portraits of
+benefactors to the library[257].
+
+At present the archives have disappeared; the few books that remain have
+replaced them in the upper storey, and the library is used as a second
+vestry. The illustration (fig. 47) shews the interior of the _Cour des
+Libraires_, with the beautiful gate of entrance from the street. The
+library occupies the first floor. Beneath are the arches under which the
+shops used to be arranged; and above is the library of 1788.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. Interior of the _Cour des Libraires_, Rouen,
+shewing the gate of entrance from the street, and the Library.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[208] _Catalogi Bibliothecarum antiqui_; ed. G. Bekker, 8vo. 1885, pp.
+24-28.
+
+[209] _Ibid._, pp. 43-53.
+
+[210] _Ibid._, pp. 64-73.
+
+[211] _Ibid._ p. 82-120.
+
+[212] _Catalogi Veteres Librorum Eccl. Cath. Dunelm._, ed. Surtees Soc.
+1838, pp. 1-10.
+
+[213] See a letter by Dr M. R. James in _The Guardian_, 18 May, 1898.
+
+[214] _Catalogi Veteres Librorum Eccl. Cath. Dunelm._ Ed. Surtees Soc,
+1838, pp. 46-79. This catalogue is dated Easter, 1395.
+
+[215] _Ibid._ pp. 10-34. This catalogue is dated 1391.
+
+[216] _Ibid._ pp. 34-38. Of the same date.
+
+[217] _Ibid._ pp. 80, 81. These volumes are recorded in the first of the
+above catalogues.
+
+[218] _Ibid._ pp. 81-84. The date is 1395. For a description of the
+Spendment see _Rites of Durham_, _ut supra_, p. 71.
+
+[219] Printed in _Catalogue general des manuscrits des Bibliotheques
+Publiques de France_, V. 339-452.
+
+[220] Inventarium librorum monasterii Cistercii, Cabilonensis diocesis,
+factum per nos, fratrem Johannem, abbatem eiusdem loci, anno Domini
+millesimo CCCC octuagesimo, postquam per duos annos continuos labore
+duorum et sepius trium ligatorum eosdem libros aptari, ligari, et
+cooperiri, cum magnis sumptibus et expensis fecimus.
+
+[221] Et primo librorum existencium in libraria dormitorii, quam ut est
+disposuimus, cum locus ipse prius diu fuisset inutilis et dudum arti
+sutorie et vestiario serviebat, sicut per aliquas annexas armariorumque
+dispositiones apparebat, sed a II^o annis vel circa nichil aut parum ibi
+fuerat.
+
+[222] _Dictionnaire raisonne de l'Architecture_, I. 271. He does not give
+the date, but, when I examined the original in the _Bibliotheque
+Nationale_, I found it plainly dated 1674. It is a most valuable record,
+as it shews the monastic buildings, which were greatly altered at the
+beginning of the last century, in their primitive state.
+
+[223] With this use of the word _linea_ may be compared the word _rayon_,
+now usually used in France for a shelf, especially a book-shelf.
+
+[224] Godwin, _De Praesulibus Angliae_, ed. Richardson, I. 126.
+
+[225] _Anglia Sacra_, I. 145. Librariam etiam supra Capellam Prioris
+situatam perpulcra caelatura adornavit, quam etiam nonnullis libris
+instaurari fecit, ad usum maxime literarum studiis deditorum, quos miro
+studio et benevolentia nutrivit et fovit.
+
+[226] _Rites of Durham_, p. 26.
+
+[227] Item structura ij fenestrarum in Libraria tam in opere lapideo,
+ferrario et vitriario, ac in reparacione tecti descorum et ij ostiorum,
+necnon reparacione librorum se extendit ad iiij^{oo}x^i. xvj^o. et ultra.
+_Hist. Dunelm. Scriptores tres._ Ed. Surtees Soc. p. cclxxiii.
+
+[228] _Regist. Abbatiae Johannis Whethamstede Abbatis monasterii sancti
+Albani iterum susceptae_: ed. II. T. Riley, Rolls Ser. Vol. I. p. 423.
+
+[229] _Hist. and Ant. of Worcester._ By V. Green, 4to. Lond. 1796. Vol. I.
+p. 79. The measurements in the text were taken by myself in 1895.
+
+[230] _Monumenta Franciscana_, ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Ser. Vol. I. p.
+319, from a document called "Prima fundatio fratrum minorum Londoniae,"
+MSS. Cotton, Vitellius, F. xii.
+
+[231] Stow's _Survey_, ed. Strype, fol. Lond. 1720, Book 3, p. 130.
+
+[232] _History of Christ's Hospital_, by Rev. W. Trollope, 4to. Lond.
+1834, App. p. xxiii. The view of the library (fig. 32) is borrowed from
+this work.
+
+[233] I have to thank M. Joseph Garnier, Archiviste du Departement, for
+his great kindness, not only in allowing me to examine these precious
+relics, but in having them conveyed to a photographer, and personally
+superintending a reproduction of them for my use.
+
+[234] This plan is not dated, but, from internal evidence, it forms part
+of the set to which the bird's-eye view and the general ground-plan
+belong. They were taken when "des projets," as the heading calls them,
+were being discussed. One of these was an increase of the library by the
+addition of a long gallery at the east end at right angles to the original
+construction.
+
+[235] _Voyage Litteraire de deux Religieux Benedictins_, 4to. Paris, 1717,
+I. 198, 221.
+
+[236] I have taken 1 _toise_=6.39 feet.
+
+[237] I have to thank M. Leon Dorez, of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris,
+for kindly lending me his transcript of this catalogue, and for continual
+help in all my researches.
+
+[238] Printed in Didron, _Annales Archeologiques_, 1845, III. 228. The
+article is entitled: _Un grand monastere au XVI^{me} siecle_. I owe this
+reference to my friend Mr W. H. St John Hope, Assistant Secretary to the
+Society of Antiquaries.
+
+[239] _Voy. Litt._ I. 101, 102.
+
+[240] _Dictionnaire de l'Architecture_, I. 267.
+
+[241] For the history of this library see Bouillart's work cited at the
+foot of Fig. 37; and Franklin, _Anciennes Bibliotheques de Paris_, Vol. I.
+pp. 107-134.
+
+[242] For the historical information contained in this narrative, which
+originally appeared as a paper in the _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._
+IX. 37 for 18 February, 1895, I am indebted to an article in _The
+Builder_, 2 April, 1892, pp. 259-263, by my friend the late Rev. E.
+Venables, Canon and Precentor of Lincoln.
+
+[243] This list has been printed in the Appendix to _Giraldus Cambrensis_
+(Rolls Series), VII. 165-171.
+
+[244] Memorandum quod in ista indentura continentur omnes libri existentes
+in libraria ecclesie beate Marie Lincoln de novo sub seruris cathenati,
+cuius quidem indenture una pars consuitur in fine nigri libri dicte
+ecclesie et altera pars remanet in.... The rest of the line is illegible.
+I have to thank the Rev. A. R. Maddison for kindly lending me his
+transcript of this valuable MS.
+
+[245] For this plan I have to thank my friend T. D. Atkinson, Esq., of
+Cambridge, architect.
+
+[246] William of Malmesbury, _Gesta Pontificum_, Rolls Ser. p. 183.
+
+[247] Ex eo quod visum est eis vtile et necessarium diuersis causis eos
+moventibus habere quasdam scolas competentes pro lecturis suis vna cum
+libraria ad conseruacionem librorum et vtilitatem inibi studere volencium
+qua hactenus caruerunt statuerunt ... quod super vna parte claustri
+eiusdem ecclesie huiusmodi scole edificentur ... cum libraria [etc.].
+Chapter Act Book. I have to thank A. R. Malden, Esq., Chapter Clerk, for
+his kind assistance.
+
+[248] Dugdale, _History of S. Paul's Cathedral_, fol. 1658, p. 132.
+
+[249] I have fully described this library and its fittings in _Camb. Ant.
+Soc. Proc. and Comm._ 1891. Vol. viii., pp. 6-10.
+
+[250] My account of the library at Lichfield is derived from the _History
+and Antiquities of the Church and City of Lichfield_, by Rev. Th. Harwood,
+4to. Gloucester, 1806, p. 180; and the Chapter Act Book, which I was
+allowed to examine through the kindness of my friend the Very Rev. H. M.
+Luckock, D.D., Dean.
+
+[251] Levasseur, _Annales de L'Eglise Cathedrale de Noyon_, 4to. Paris,
+1633, p. IIII. A marginal note tells us that the gift of the Bailly de
+Chapitre was accepted 14 June, 1507.
+
+[252] _Voyage archeologique ... dans le Departement de l'Aube._ A. F.
+Arnaud. 4to. Troyes 1837, pp. 161-163.
+
+[253] For the library belonging to the monastery see p. 108.
+
+[254] The deed is copied in _MSS. Prattinton_ (Soc. Ant. Lond.), Vol.
+VIII. p. 379. For this reference I have to thank the Rev. J. K. Floyer,
+M.A., librarian of Worcester Cathedral. See his _Thousand Years of a
+Cathedral Library_ in the _Reliquary_ for Jan. 1901, p. 7.
+
+[255] My principal authority for the history of the Chapter Library is the
+Minute-Book of the Dean and Chapter of Rouen Cathedral, now preserved in
+the Archives de la Ville at Rouen, where I had the pleasure of studying it
+in September, 1896. A summary of it is given in _Inventaire-Sommaire des
+Archives Departementales_ (Seine Inferieure), 4to. Paris, 1874, Vol. II. I
+have also consulted _Recherches sur les Bibliotheques ... de Rouen_, 8vo.,
+1853.
+
+[256] The Canons held a long debate, 28 May, 1479, "de ambonibus seu
+lutrinis in nova libraria fiendis et collocandis"; but finally decided to
+use the furniture of the old library for the present.
+
+[257] _Voyage Liturgique de la France_, par Le Sieur de Moleon, 1718, p.
+268. I have to thank Dr James for this quotation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE FITTINGS OF MONASTIC LIBRARIES AND OF COLLEGIATE LIBRARIES PROBABLY
+IDENTICAL. ANALYSIS OF SOME LIBRARY-STATUTES. MONASTIC INFLUENCE AT THE
+UNIVERSITIES. NUMBER OF BOOKS OWNED BY COLLEGES. THE COLLEGIATE LIBRARY.
+BISHOP COBHAM'S LIBRARY AT OXFORD. LIBRARY AT QUEENS' COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
+AT ZUTPHEN. THE LECTERN SYSTEM. CHAINING OF BOOKS. FURTHER EXAMPLES AND
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+How were the libraries mentioned in the preceding chapter fitted up? For
+instance, what manner of bookcases did Archbishop Chichele put into his
+library at Canterbury in 1414, or the "bons ouvriers subtilz et plains de
+sens" supply to the Abbat of Clairvaux in 1496? The primitive book-presses
+have long ago been broken up; and the medieval devices that succeeded them
+have had no better fate. This dearth of material need not, however,
+discourage us. We have, I think, the means of discovering with tolerable
+certainty what monastic fittings must have been, by comparing the
+bookcases which still exist in a more or less perfect form in the
+libraries of Oxford and Cambridge with such monastic catalogues as give
+particulars of arrangement and not merely lists of books.
+
+The collegiate system was in no sense monastic, indeed it was to a certain
+extent established to counteract monastic influence; but it is absurd to
+suppose that the younger communities would borrow nothing from the
+elder--especially when we reflect that the monastic system, as inaugurated
+by S. Benedict, had completed at least seven centuries of successful
+existence before Walter de Merton was moved to found a college, and that
+many of the subsequent founders of colleges were more or less closely
+connected with monasteries. Further, as we have seen that study was
+specially enjoined upon monks by S. Benedict, it is precisely in the
+direction of study that we might expect to find features common to the two
+sets of communities. And, in fact, an examination of the statutes
+affecting the library in the codes imposed upon some of the earlier
+colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, leads us irresistibly to the conclusion
+that they were derived from monastic Customs, using the word in its
+technical sense, and monastic practice. The resemblances are too striking
+to be accidental.
+
+I shall therefore, in the next place, review, as briefly as I can, the
+statutes of some of the above colleges, taking them in chronological
+order[258]; and I shall translate some passages from them.
+
+But first let me mention that the principle of lending books to students
+under a pledge was accepted by the University of Oxford many years before
+colleges were founded. It is recorded that Roger L'Isle, Dean of York, in
+the early part of the thirteenth century, "bestowed several exemplars of
+the holy Bible to be used by the Scholars of Oxford under a pledge"; that
+the said books, with others, were "locked up in chests, or chained upon
+desks in S. Mary's Chancel and Church to be used by the Masters upon leave
+first obtained"; that certain officers were appointed to keep the keys of
+these chests, and to receive the pledges from those that borrowed the
+books; and that the books were so kept "till the library over the
+Congregation House was built, and then being taken out, were set up in
+pews or studies digested according to Faculties, chained, and had a keeper
+appointed over them[259]."
+
+In the statutes of Merton College, Oxford, 1274, the teacher of grammar
+(_grammaticus_) is to be supplied with a sufficient number of books out of
+the funds of the House, but no other mention of books occurs therein[260].
+The explanatory ordinances, however, given in 1276 by Robert Kilwardby
+(Archbishop of Canterbury 1273-79), direct that the books of the community
+are to be kept under three locks, and to be assigned by the warden and
+sub-warden to the use of the Fellows under sufficient pledge[261]. In the
+second statutes of University College (1292), it is provided, "that no
+Fellow shall alienate, sell, pawn, hire, lett, or grant, any House, Rent,
+Money, Book, or other Thing, without the Consent of all the Fellows"; and
+further, with special reference to the Library:
+
+    Every Book of the House, now given, or hereafter to be
+    given, shall have a high value set upon it when it is
+    borrowed, in order that he that has it may be more
+    fearful lest he lose it; and let it be lent by an
+    Indenture, whereof one part is to be kept in the common
+    Chest, and the other with him that has the Book: And let
+    no Book, belonging to the House, be lent out of the
+    College, without a Pawn better (than the Book), and this
+    with the Consent of all the Fellows.
+
+    Let there be put one Book of every Sort that the House
+    has, in some common and secure Place; that the Fellows,
+    and others with the Consent of a Fellow, may for the
+    Future have the Benefit of it.
+
+    Every Opponent in Theology, or Reader of the Sentences,
+    or a Regent that commonly reads (_regens et legens
+    communiter_), when he wants it, shall have any necessary
+    Book, that the House has, lent to him Gratis; and when
+    he has done with it, let him restore it to that Fellow,
+    who had formerly made choice of it[262].
+
+The statutes of Oriel College, dated 1329, lay down the following rules
+for the management of books:
+
+    The common books (_communes libri_) of the House are to
+    be brought out and inspected once a year, on the feast
+    of the Commemoration of Souls [2 November], in presence
+    of the Provost or his deputy, and of the Scholars
+    [Fellows].
+
+    Every one of them in turn, in order of seniority, may
+    select a single book which either treats of the science
+    to which he is devoting himself, or which he requires
+    for his use. This he may keep, if he please, until the
+    same festival in the succeeding year, when a similar
+    selection of books is to take place, and so on, from
+    year to year.
+
+    If there should happen to be more books than persons,
+    those that remain are to be selected in the same
+    manner[263].
+
+The last clause plainly shews how small the number of the books must have
+been when the statute was written. Their safety was subsequently secured
+by an ordinance of the Provost and Scholars, which, by decree of the
+Visitor, dated 13 May, 1441, received the authority of a statute. The high
+value set upon the books is shewn by the extreme stringency of the
+penalties imposed for wilful loss or failure of restitution. After
+describing the annual assemblage of the Provost and Fellows, as directed
+in the former statute, the new enactment proceeds as follows:
+
+    Any person who absents himself on that day, so that the
+    books selected by him are neither produced nor restored;
+    or who, being present, refuses to produce or to restore
+    them; or who refuses to pay the full value, if, without
+    any fraud or deception on his part, it should happen
+    that any one of them be missing; is to be deprived of
+    all right of selecting books for that year; and any
+    person who wittingly defers the aforesaid production or
+    restitution till Christmas next ensuing, shall, _ipso
+    facto_, cease to be a Fellow.
+
+    Further, any scholar who has pawned or alienated,
+    contrary to the common consent of the college, any book
+    or object of value (_jocale_) belonging to the college;
+    or who has even suggested, helped, or favoured, such
+    pawning or alienation, shall, _ipso facto_, cease to be
+    a member of the Society[264].
+
+The statutes of Peterhouse, Cambridge, dated 1344, class the books of the
+Society with the charters and the muniments, and prescribe the following
+rules for their safe custody:
+
+    In order that the books which are the common property of
+    the House (_communes libri_), the charters, and the
+    muniments, may be kept in safe custody, we appoint and
+    ordain that an indenture be drawn up of the whole of
+    them in the presence of at least the major part of the
+    scholars, expressing what the books are, and to what
+    faculty they belong; of which indenture one part is to
+    be deposited with the Master, the other with the Deans,
+    as a record of the transaction.
+
+    The aforesaid books, charters, and muniments are to be
+    placed in one or more common chests, each having two
+    locks, one key of which shall for greater security be
+    deposited with the Master, the other with the Senior
+    Dean, who shall cause the books to be distributed to
+    those scholars who have need of them, in the manner
+    which has been more fully set forth in the section which
+    treats of the office of the Deans[265].
+
+The section referred to prescribes that the Deans
+
+    are to distribute them [the books] to the scholars in
+    such manner as shall appear to them expedient; and
+    further, they shall, if they think proper, make each
+    scholar take an oath that he will not alienate any book
+    so borrowed, but will take all possible care of it, and
+    restore it to the Master and Dean, at the expiration of
+    the appointed time[266].
+
+In 1473 Dr John Warkworth became Master. He was evidently a lover of
+books, for he gave to the Library fifty-five volumes, which he protected,
+after the fashion of an earlier age, by invoking a curse upon him who
+should alienate them. Moreover, during his Mastership, in 1480, the
+College enacted or adopted a special statute headed, _De libris Collegii_,
+which may be thus translated:
+
+    In the name of God, Amen. As books are the most precious
+    treasure of scholars, concerning which there ought to be
+    the most diligent care and forethought, lest, as
+    heretofore, they fall to decay or be lost, it is hereby
+    appointed, settled, and ordained, by the Master and
+    Fellows of the House or College of S. Peter in
+    Cambridge, that no book which has been chained in the
+    library there shall be taken away from, or removed out
+    of, the library, except by special assent and consent of
+    the Master and all the resident Fellows of the aforesaid
+    College--it being understood that by resident Fellows a
+    majority of the whole Society is meant.
+
+    Provided always that no book which has been given to the
+    library on condition of being kept perpetually chained
+    therein shall, by virtue of this statute, be on any
+    pretence removed from it, except only when it needs
+    repair.
+
+    Provided also that every book in the library which is to
+    be selected and distributed shall have a certain value
+    set upon it by the Master and the two Deans, and that
+    indentures shall be drawn up recording the same.
+
+    Once in every two years, in the Michaelmas Term, a fresh
+    selection and distribution shall be held of every book
+    which is not chained in the Library--the precise day to
+    be fixed by the Master and the Senior Dean.
+
+    No book so selected and distributed shall pass the night
+    out of College, except by permission of the Master and
+    the President and the other Dean who is not President;
+    provided always that the said book be not kept out of
+    the College for six months in succession.
+
+    If it should happen that a given book be not brought in
+    and produced on the aforesaid day of fresh selection and
+    distribution, then the person who is responsible for it
+    shall pay to the Master, or in his absence to the Senior
+    Dean, the full value of the said absent book, under pain
+    of being put out of commons until it be restored.
+
+    Every Fellow who is not present on the aforesaid day
+    shall appoint a deputy, who shall be prepared to bring
+    in any books which may have been lent to him, on the day
+    when a fresh distribution is to take place, under pain
+    of being put out of commons[267].
+
+The statutes given in 1350 to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, by the Founder
+William Bateman (Bishop of Norwich 1344-56), contain rules which are more
+stringent than those already quoted, and were evidently written in
+contemplation of a more considerable collection of volumes. A list of the
+books which he himself presented to Trinity Hall is appended to his
+statutes, and a special chapter (_De libris collegii_) is allotted to the
+Library. This may be translated as follows:
+
+    On the days appointed for the general audit of accounts
+    [in the Michaelmas and Easter Terms] all the books which
+    have been received, or shall be received in future,
+    either from our own liberality, or from the pious
+    largess of others, are to be laid out separately before
+    the Master and all the resident Fellows in such manner
+    that each volume may be clearly seen; by which
+    arrangement it will become evident twice in each year
+    whether any book has been lost or taken away.
+
+    No book belonging to the aforesaid College may ever at
+    any time be sold, given away, exchanged, or alienated,
+    under any excuse or pretext; nor may it be lent to
+    anybody except a member of the College; nor may it be
+    entrusted in quires, for the purpose of making a copy,
+    to any member of the College, or to any stranger, either
+    within the precincts of the Hall or beyond them; nor may
+    it be carried by the Master, or any one else, out of the
+    Town of Cambridge, or out of the aforesaid Hall or
+    Hostel, either whole or in quires, except to the
+    Schools; provided always that no book pass the night out
+    of College, unless it be necessary to bind it or to
+    repair it; and when this happens, it is to be brought
+    back to College as soon as possible after the completion
+    of the binding or the repair.
+
+    Moreover, all the books of the College are to be kept in
+    some safe room, to be assigned for the College Library,
+    so that all the Scholars of the College may have common
+    access to them. We give leave, however, that the poor
+    scholars of the college may have the loan of books
+    containing the texts of Canon and Civil Law for their
+    private use for a certain time, to be fixed at the
+    discretion of the Master and the three Senior Fellows,
+    provided they be not taken out of College; but the books
+    of the Doctors of Civil and Canon Law are to remain
+    continuously in the said Library Chamber, fastened with
+    iron chains for the common use of the Fellows[268].
+
+It is evident that this statute was regarded as a full and satisfactory
+expression of what was required, for it is repeated, with additions or
+omissions to suit the taste of the respective founders, in the statutes of
+New College (1400), All Souls' (1443), Magdalen (1479), Corpus Christi
+(1517), Brasenose (1521), Cardinal College (1527) and S. John's College
+(1555), at Oxford; and in those of King's College, Cambridge.
+
+Among these changes a few are sufficiently important to require special
+notice. At New College William of Wykeham allows students in civil law and
+canon law to keep two text-books "for their own special use during the
+whole time they devote themselves to those faculties in our College,
+provided they do not possess such books of their own"; the "remaining
+text-books, should any be left over, and also the glosses or commentaries
+of the Doctors of civil and canon law, may be lent to the persons
+belonging to those faculties by the method of annual selection, as in the
+other faculties"; the "books which remain unassigned after the Fellows
+have made their selection are to be fastened with iron chains, and remain
+in the Common Library for the use of the Fellows[269]"; the wishes of
+donors, whether expressed by will or during their lifetime, are to be
+respected; and, lastly, the safety of the Library is to be secured by
+three locks, two large, and one small, of the kind called "a clickett."
+The keys of the two former are to be kept by the Senior Dean and the
+Bursar respectively; of the clickett each Fellow is to have a separate
+key. At night the door is to be carefully locked with all three keys[270].
+
+At All Souls' College, the founder, Henry Chichele (Archbishop of
+Canterbury 1414-43), makes the books to be chained the subjects of
+definite choice. The principle of an annual selection is maintained,
+except for "those books which, in obedience to the will of the donors, or
+the injunction of the Warden, the Vice-Warden, and the Deans, are to be
+chained for the common use of the Fellows and Scholars." Further, the
+preparation of a catalogue is specially enjoined. Every book is to be
+entered in a register by the first word of the second leaf, and every book
+given to the Library is to bear the name of the donor on the second leaf,
+or in some other convenient position. The books are to be inspected once
+in every year, after which the distribution, as provided for by Bateman
+and Wykeham, is to take place. Each Fellow who borrows a book is to have a
+small indenture drawn up containing the title according to the first word
+of the second leaf, and an acknowledgment that he has received it. These
+small indentures are to be left in charge of the Warden, or, in his
+absence, of the Vice-Warden[271].
+
+In the statutes of Magdalen College, the founder, William Waynflete
+(Bishop of Winchester 1447-87), maintains the provisions of Wykeham and
+Chichele, but introduces an injunction of his own, to the effect that
+every Fellow or Scholar who uses the Library is to shut the book he has
+consulted before he leaves and also the windows; and the last to use the
+Library at night is to go through the whole room and see that all the
+windows are shut and not to leave the door open--under a severe
+penalty[272].
+
+At Corpus Christi College, the founder, Richard Fox (Bishop of Winchester
+1501-28), insists upon safeguards against the indiscriminate chaining, of
+books:
+
+    No book is to be brought into the Library or chained
+    there, unless it be of suitable value and utility, or
+    unless the will of the donor have so directed; and none
+    is to be taken out of it, unless it so happen that there
+    be there already a considerable number on the same
+    subject, or that another copy in better condition and of
+    greater value, to take its place, have been presented by
+    some benefactor.
+
+    By this means those books which are of greater value, or
+    which contain material of greater utility to students in
+    each Faculty, will be stored up in the Library; while
+    those which are not fit for the Library, or of which a
+    sufficient number of copies already exist in it, may be
+    distributed to the Fellows of the College, according to
+    the system of indentures between the borrower and the
+    President, or in his absence the Vice-President, or one
+    of the Deans[273].
+
+The Bishop was evidently afraid that the Library should be overcrowded,
+for he even allows books to be sold, in the event of their becoming so
+numerous as to be no longer of use to the Fellows for the purpose of being
+borrowed.
+
+Lastly I will translate the following College Order or Statute which was
+in force at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Unfortunately it is without date,
+but from internal evidence may take rank with some of the earliest
+enactments already quoted.
+
+    Let there be in the aforesaid House a Keeper of the
+    Books, who shall take under his charge all the books
+    belonging to the community, and once in each year,
+    namely on the feast of the Translation of S. Thomas the
+    Martyr [7 July], or at the latest within the eight days
+    immediately following, let him render to the community
+    an account of the same, by exhibiting each book in order
+    to the Master and Fellows.
+
+    The inspection having been made, after the Fellows have
+    deliberated, let him distribute them to each Fellow in
+    proportion to his requirements. And let the said Keeper
+    have ready large pieces of board (_tabulas magnas_),
+    covered with wax and parchment, that the titles of the
+    books may be written on the parchment, and the names of
+    the Fellows who hold them on the wax beside it. When
+    they have brought their books back, their names shall be
+    erased, and their responsibility for the books shall
+    come to an end, the keeper remaining liable. So shall he
+    never be in ignorance about any book or its borrower.
+
+    No book is to be taken away or lent out of the House on
+    any pretext whatever, except upon some occasion which
+    may appear justifiable to the major part of the
+    community; and then, if any book be lent, let a proper
+    pledge be taken for it which shall be honourably
+    exhibited to the Keeper[274].
+
+Let us consider, in the next place, what points of library-management have
+been brought into the most prominent relief by the above analysis of
+College statutes. We find that the "Common Books" of the House--by which
+phrase the books intended for the common use of the inmates are meant--are
+placed on the same footing as the charters, muniments, and valuables
+(_jocalia_). They are to be kept in a chest or chests secured by two or
+three locks requiring the presence of the same number of officials to open
+them. These volumes may not be borrowed indiscriminately, but each Scholar
+(Fellow) may choose the book he wants, and write a formal acknowledgment
+that he has received it, and that he is bound to restore it or pay the
+value of it, under a severe penalty. Once a year the whole collection is
+to be audited in the presence of the Master of the College and all the
+Fellows, when a fresh distribution is to be made. The books not so
+borrowed are to be put in "some common and secure place"; an arrangement
+which was subsequently developed into a selection of books required for
+reference, and the chaining of them in "the Library Chamber for the common
+use of the Fellows."
+
+The Register of Merton College, Oxford, contains many interesting entries
+which shew that these directions respecting the choice and loan of books
+were faithfully observed. I will translate a few of them[275]:
+
+    On the twenty-fourth day of October [1483] choice was
+    made of the books on philosophy by the Fellows studying
+    philosophy.
+
+    On the eleventh day of November [1483], in the Warden's
+    lodging, choice was made of the books on theology by the
+    Fellows studying theology[276].
+
+    On the eighteenth day of March [1497] choice of books on
+    logic was held in the Common Hall[277].
+
+The next entry is particularly valuable, as it proves that all the books
+on a given subject, no matter how numerous, were occasionally distributed:
+
+    On the twenty-sixth day of the same month [August, 1500]
+    choice was made of the books on philosophy. It was found
+    that there were in all 349 books, which were then
+    distributed among the Fellows studying philosophy[278].
+
+In 1498 (14 December) the Warden wished to borrow a book from the
+library, whereupon a record of the following formalities was drawn
+up[279]:
+
+    On the same day a book of College Orders (on the second
+    leaf _ter posita_) was taken out of the library with the
+    consent of all the Fellows. And leave was given to the
+    Warden, in the presence of the four senior Fellows, to
+    make use of it for a season. As a caution for this book
+    the aforesaid Warden deposited a certain other book,
+    viz. S. Jerome's commentary on Matthew and the Epistles
+    of Paul (on the second leaf _sunt_). This book lay in
+    our possession as caution for the other book of College
+    Orders[280]; but, because this book was an insufficient
+    caution, there was deposited with it as a supplementary
+    caution another book, namely: Jerome on Isaiah,
+    Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.
+
+The Warden kept the book for a year, at the expiration of which we find
+the following entry[281]:
+
+    On the last day but one of the same month [1499] the
+    Warden returned to the Vice-Warden the book of College
+    Orders (on the second leaf _ter posita_) which he had
+    had out of the library for his own use for a season on
+    depositing a sufficient caution.
+
+    Whereupon the Vice-Warden returned to him his cautions,
+    namely, the commentary of S. Jerome on Matthew (second
+    leaf _sunt_), and another, namely, S. Jerome's
+    exposition of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel (second
+    leaf, _Audi cela_).
+
+Lastly, I will quote a record of the solemn reception of a gift to the
+library:
+
+    On the same day [2 August, 1493] a handsome book was
+    given to the College through John Godehew, Bachelor, by
+    two venerable men, Robert Aubrey and Robert Feyld, to be
+    chained in the common library of the House for the
+    perpetual use of those studying in it. It is Hugh of
+    Vienne on the Apocalypse, on the second leaf _quod
+    possessio eius_. Let us therefore pray for them[282].
+
+These provisions savour of the cloister. The "common books" represent the
+"common press (_armarium commune_)" with which we are so familiar there;
+the double or triple locks with which the book-chests are secured recall
+the rules for safeguarding the said press; the annual audit and
+distribution of books is directed in Lanfranc's statutes for English
+Benedictines; the borrowing under a pledge, or at least after an entry
+made by the Librarian on his roll of the name of the book and the name of
+the brother who borrowed it, was universal in monasteries; and the setting
+apart of certain books in a separate room to which access was readily
+permitted became a necessity in the larger and more literary Houses.
+Lastly, the commemoration of donors of books is specially enjoined by the
+Augustinians[283].
+
+This close similarity between monastic and secular rules need not surprise
+us. I have shewn in the preceding chapter how faithfully the Benedictine
+rules for study were obeyed by all the Monastic Orders; and I know not
+from what other source directions for library-management could have been
+obtained. Besides, in some cases the authors of the rules which I have
+been considering must themselves have had experience of monastic
+libraries. Walter de Merton is said to have been educated in an
+Augustinian Priory at Merton; Hugh de Balsham, founder of Peterhouse, was
+Bishop of Ely; William Bateman, whose library-statute was so widely
+applied, had been educated in the Benedictine Priory at Norwich, and his
+brother was an abbat; Henry Chichele was Archbishop of Canterbury, where,
+as I have shewn, a very extensive collection of books had been got
+together, to contain which worthily he himself built a library.
+
+Secondly, monastic influence was brought directly to bear on both
+Universities through student-monks; and at Oxford, which was specially
+selected as the University for monastic colleges, the Benedictines founded
+Gloucester House, now Worcester College, so early as 1283. This college
+had a library, on the south side of the chapel, which was built and
+stocked with books at the sole charge of John Whethamstede, Abbat of S.
+Albans[284]--whose work in connexion with the library of that House has
+been already recorded[285]. Durham College, maintained by the Benedictines
+of Durham, was supplied with books from the mother-house, lists of which
+have been preserved[286]; and subsequently a library was built there to
+contain the collection bequeathed in 1345 by Richard de Bury (Bishop of
+Durham 1333-45)[287]. Lastly, Leland tells us that at Canterbury College
+in the same University the whole furniture of the library (_tota
+bibliothecae supellex_) was transferred from the House of Christ Church,
+Canterbury[288]. It is, I submit, quite inconceivable that the fittings
+supplied to these libraries could have been different from those commonly
+used in the monasteries of S. Albans, Durham, and Canterbury.
+
+Further, it should be noted that the erection of a library proper was an
+afterthought in many of the older colleges, as it had been in the
+monasteries. For instance, at Merton College, Oxford, founded 1264, the
+library was not begun till 1377; at University College, founded 1280, in
+1440; at Balliol College, founded 1282, in 1431; at Oriel College, founded
+1324, in 1444; at Pembroke College, Cambridge, founded 1347, in 1452.
+William of Wykeham, who founded New College, Oxford, in 1380, was the
+first to include a library in his quadrangle; and, after the example had
+been set by him, the plan of every subsequent college includes a library
+of sufficient dimensions to last till the Reformation, if not till the
+present day.
+
+The above dates, covering as they do at least two-thirds of the fifteenth
+century, shew that the collegiate libraries were being built at the same
+time as the monastic. This coincidence of date, taken in conjunction with
+the coincidences in enactment which I have already pointed out, seems to
+me to supply an additional argument in support of my theory that the
+internal fittings of collegiate and monastic libraries would be identical.
+Besides, no forms are so persistent as those of pieces of furniture. A
+workman, once instructed to make a thing in a particular way, carries out
+his instructions to the letter, and transmits them to his descendants.
+
+Before we consider what these fittings were, I will briefly deal with some
+other questions affecting collegiate libraries, as, for instance, their
+size, position, and general arrangement. And first, as regards the number
+of books to be accommodated.
+
+It happens, unfortunately, that very few catalogues have been preserved
+of the libraries referred to in the above statutes; but, if we may
+estimate the extent of the remainder from those of which we have some
+account, we shall see that the number of volumes contained in a collegiate
+library must have been extremely small. For instance, the catalogue[289]
+appended to Bishop Bateman's statutes, dated 1350, enumerates eighty-four
+volumes, classed under the following subjects, in two divisions[290], viz.
+those presented to the College for the immediate use of the Fellows (_A_);
+and those reserved for the Bishop's own use during his life (_B_):
+
+                            _A_  _B_
+  Books on Civil Law         7    3
+  Books on Canon Law        19   13
+  Books on Theology          3   25
+  Books for the Chapel       7    7
+                            --   --
+                            36   48
+
+At King's Hall, in 1394, eighty-seven volumes only are enumerated[291];
+and even in the University Library not more than 122 volumes were recorded
+in 1424[292]. They were distributed as follows:
+
+  [Books on General Theology][293]                        54
+  Books on Scholastic Theology (_Theologia disputata_)    15
+  Books on Moral Philosophy                                5
+  Books on Natural Philosophy                             12
+  Books on Medicine (_medicinalis philosophia_)            5
+  Books on Logic                                           1
+  Books on Poetry                                          0
+  _Libri sophisticales_                                    1
+  Books on Grammar                                         6
+  Books on History (_Libri cronicales_)                    0
+  Books on Canon Law                                      23
+                                                         ----
+              Total                                      122
+
+The catalogue of the Library of Queens' College, dated 1472, enumerates
+one hundred and ninety-nine volumes[294]; the second catalogue of the
+University Library, dated 1473, three hundred and thirty volumes[295]; an
+early catalogue of the library of S. Catharine's Hall, one hundred and
+four volumes, of which eighty-five were given by the Founder[296]; and a
+catalogue of the old library of King's College, dated 1453, one hundred
+and seventy-four volumes. In these catalogues the books are not directly
+classed under heads, but arranged roughly, according to subject, in their
+respective cases[297].
+
+At Peterhouse in 1418 we find a somewhat larger collection, namely, three
+hundred and eighty volumes, divided among seventeen subjects. The general
+heading of the catalogue[298] states that it contains "all the books
+belonging to the house of S. Peter in Cambridge, both those which are
+chained in the library, those which are divided among the Fellows, and
+those of which some are intended to be sold, while certain others are laid
+up in chests within the aforesaid house." This language shews that by the
+time the catalogue was made the collection had been divided into books for
+the use of the Fellows (_libri distribuendi_) and books chained in the
+library (_libri cathenati in libraria_); in other words, into a lending
+library and a library of reference. We are not told how this division had
+been made, or at what time; but it is evident that by 1418 it had become
+permanent, and no longer depended on the tastes or studies of the Fellows.
+There was one set of books for them to select from, and another for them
+to refer to; but the two were quite distinct[299].
+
+In the next place I will analyse the catalogue in order to shew what
+subjects were represented, and how many volumes there were in each. And
+first of the contents of the library of reference:
+
+  Libri theologie cathenati                                      61
+  Isti sunt libri Naturalis Philosophie cathenati in librario    26
+  Libri Metaphisice                                               3
+  "     Moralis Philosophie                                       5
+  "     Astronomie                                               13
+  "     Alkenemie                                                 1
+  "     Arsmetrice                                                1
+  "     Musice                                                    1
+  "     Geometrie                                                 1
+  "     Rethorice                                                 1
+  "     Logice                                                    5
+  "     Gramatice                                                 6
+  "     Poetrie cathenati                                         4
+  "     De Cronicis cathenati                                     4
+  "     Medicine cathenati                                       15
+  "     Iuris Ciuilis cathenati                                   9
+  "     Iuris Canonici cathenati                                 18
+  Ex dono ducis exonie                                            1
+  "       M. Joh. Sauage                                          2
+  Libros subscriptos donavit Mag. Edm. Kyrketon                   7
+  "      contulit M. W. Lichfeld                                  2
+  Ex dono M. W. Redyct                                            4
+  Libros subscriptos contulit M. Joh. Fayre                       3
+  "      contulit M. Will. More                                  13
+  "        "      M. John Ledes                                  14
+                                                                ----
+                                                                220
+
+The books that were to be divided among the Fellows are classed as
+follows:
+
+  Libri theologie assignati sociis                                   63
+  "     Philosophie Naturalis Metaphisice et Moralis
+              diuisi inter socios                                    19
+  "     Logice diuisi inter socios                                   15
+  "     Poetrie et Gramatice assignati sociis                        13
+  "     Medicine                                                      3
+  "     Iuris Ciuilis diusi inter socios                             20
+  "       "   Canonici diuidendi inter socios                        19
+  "     empti ad usum ... sociorum collegii cum pecuniis
+              eiusdem collegii                                        8
+                                                                    ----
+                                                                    160
+
+In framing these tables I have included among the _Libri cathenati_ those
+specially presented to the College, 46 in number; but I have not attempted
+to sort them according to subject. I have also assumed that any book or
+books representing a given class, if not represented in the lending
+library, as Astronomy, Arithmetic, Music, etc., would be chained for
+reference. The number of this class, 220, if added to the 160 of the other
+class, gives the required total, 380.
+
+In addition to these tables it will be interesting to construct a third,
+containing the subject and number of the books represented in both
+collections:
+
+                           Chained      Lent
+
+  Theology                    61         63
+  Natural Philosophy          26 }
+  Metaphysics                  3 }       19
+  Moral Philosophy             5 }
+  Logic                        5         15
+  Grammar                      6 }
+                                 }       13
+  Poetry                       4 }
+  Medicine                    15          3
+  Civil Law                    9         20
+  Canon Law                   18         19
+                            ----------------
+                             152        152
+
+The subjects of the books included in this latter table represent, in a
+very clear and interesting way, the studies pursued at Peterhouse in the
+14th and 15th centuries. It is prescribed by the statutes, dated 1344,
+that the scholars are to study Arts, Aristotelian Philosophy, or Theology;
+but that they are to apply themselves to the course in Arts until, in the
+judgment of the Master and Fellows, or at least of the larger and wiser
+portion of that body, they are sufficiently instructed to proceed to the
+study of Theology[300]. Two may study Civil Law or Canon Law, but no more
+at the same time; and one may study Medicine[301]. For both these lines of
+study special leave is required.
+
+The course of Arts comprised Grammar, Logic, Aristotle, Arithmetic, Music,
+Geometry, and Astronomy. In the first of these, including Poetry, the
+lending library contained more volumes than the reference library; in
+Logic it had three times as many; in Philosophy (Aristotle and his
+commentators) it was well supplied; but, on the other hand, Music,
+Geometry and Astronomy were wholly wanting. Theology is represented by 63
+volumes as against 61 in the reference library; Civil Law by 20 volumes
+against 9 in the reference library; and Canon Law by 19 against 18. In
+Medicine, however, there were only 3 against 15. By a curious coincidence
+the number of volumes in the two collections dealing with the subjects
+represented in both is the same. The subject most in request, as might
+have been expected, was Theology. Next to this come Civil Law and Canon
+Law. Medicine was evidently unpopular. I have no explanation to offer for
+the curious fact that Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Rhetoric are
+represented by only a single volume apiece in the library of
+reference[302].
+
+These examples, which there is no reason to regard as exceptional, are
+sufficient to shew that an ordinary chamber would be large enough to
+contain all the volumes possessed by a college, even after some of the
+more generally useful books of reference had been chained to desks for the
+resort of students.
+
+It has been already shewn that what Professor Willis calls "a real
+library--that is to say, a room expressly contrived for the purpose of
+containing books[303]"--was not introduced into the plan of colleges for
+more than a century after their first foundation. He points out that such
+rooms can be at once recognised by their equidistant windows, which do
+not, as a rule, differ from those of the ordinary chambers, except that
+they are separated by much smaller intervals. Examples of this arrangement
+are still to be seen at S. John's College, Jesus College, and Queens'
+College, Cambridge; but perhaps the most characteristic specimen of all is
+that which was built over the Hall at Pembroke College in the same
+University, by Laurence Booth (Master 1450-1480), the aspect of which has
+been preserved in Loggan's print, here reproduced (fig. 48)[304].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Pembroke College, Cambridge, reduced from Loggan's
+print, taken about 1688.
+
+A, Chapel; B, Library; C, Hall; D, Master's Lodge; E, Kitchen; F, Master's
+Garden; G, Fellows' Garden.]
+
+The upper chamber (_solarium_) which Thomas Cobham (Bishop of Worcester
+1317-27) began to build over the old Congregation House on the north
+side of S. Mary's Church, Oxford, about 1320, for the reception of the
+books which he intended to present to the University, is the earliest of
+these libraries in existence. It still retains on the south side part of a
+range of equidistant single-light windows of the simplest character,
+which, as just stated, mark the destination of the apartment. This room
+is about forty-five feet long by eighteen feet broad, and, in its original
+state, had probably seven single-light windows on each side, and a window
+of two lights at the east end[305] (fig. 49). A long controversy between
+the University and Oriel College rendered the benefaction useless for more
+than forty years; and it was not until 1367 that the University passed a
+statute directing that Bishop Cobham's books are to be chained, in proper
+order; and that the Scholars who wish to use them are to have free access
+to them at convenient hours (_temporibus opportunis_). Lastly, certain
+volumes, of greater value, are to be sold, to the value of forty pounds,
+or more, if a larger sum can be obtained for them, for the purpose of
+purchasing an annual rent-charge of sixty shillings, to be paid to a
+chaplain, who is to pray for the soul of the aforesaid Thomas Cobham, and
+other benefactors; and who is to take charge of the books given by him and
+them, and of all other books heretofore given, or hereafter to be given,
+to the University[306]. The passing of this statute may probably be
+regarded as the first institution of the office of University Librarian.
+Notwithstanding this statute, however, the University did not obtain
+peaceful possession of their library until 1410, when the controversy was
+finally extinguished by the good offices of their Chancellor, Richard
+Courtenay[307].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Long Section of Old Congregation House and
+Library, Oxford, looking south.
+
+From _The Church of S. Mary the Virgin, Oxford_, by T. G. Jackson,
+Architect.]
+
+As a type of a collegiate library I will select the old library of Queens'
+College, Cambridge. This room, on the first floor of the north side of the
+quadrangle, forms part of the buildings erected in 1448. It is 44 ft. long
+by 20 ft. wide (fig. 50), and is lighted by eleven windows, each of two
+lights, six of which are in the south wall and five in the north wall. The
+windows in the south wall have lost their cusps, but they are retained in
+those in the north wall--and the library has in all points suffered less
+from modern interference than almost any other with which I am acquainted.
+The bookcases have been altered and patched more than once, in order to
+provide additional shelf-room; but at the bottom of the more modern
+superstructure part at least of the original medieval desk may be
+detected. If this fragment be carefully examined it will be found that
+there is on the inside of each end of the bookcase a groove which
+evidently once supported a desk 6 ft. 6 in. long, and of a height
+convenient for a seated reader to use[308] (fig. 51). The books lay on
+their sides on this desk, to which they were chained in a way that I shall
+explain directly, and a bench for the reader was placed between each pair
+of desks. In the plan (fig. 50) I have added the half-desk which once
+stood against the west wall; and I have lettered all the desks according
+to the catalogue made in 1472 by Andrew Docket, the first President.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Ground-plan of the Library at Queens' College,
+Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Elevation of book-desk in Library of Queens'
+College, Cambridge.][309]
+
+It should be carefully noted, when studying this plan, that the distance
+between each pair of windows is not more than 2 feet, and that the end of
+the desk covers the whole of this space. If this fact be borne in mind
+when examining libraries that are now fitted up in a different way, it
+becomes possible to detect what the original method was.
+
+I propose to name this system of fittings the lectern-system; and I shall
+shew, as we proceed, that it was adopted, with various modifications, in
+England, France, Holland, Germany and Italy.
+
+Fortunately, one example of such fittings still exists, at Zutphen in
+Holland, which I visited in April, 1894. Shortly afterwards I wrote the
+following description of what is probably a unique survival of an ancient
+fashion[310].
+
+The library in which these fittings occur is attached to the church of SS.
+Peter and Walburga, the principal church of the town. A library of some
+kind is said to have existed there from very early times[311]; but the
+place where the books were kept is not known. In 1555 a suggestion was
+made that it would be well to get together a really good collection of
+books for the use of the public. The first stone of the present building
+was laid in 1561, and it was completed in 1563. The author of the
+_Theatrum Urbium Belgicae_, John Blaeu, whose work was completed in 1649,
+describes it as "the public library poorly furnished with books, but being
+daily increased by the liberality of the Senate and Deputies[312]."
+
+The room is built against the south choir-aisle of the church, out of
+which a door opens into it. In consequence of this position the shape is
+irregular, for the church is apsidal, and the choir-aisle is continued
+round part of the apse. It is about 60 feet long, by 26 feet broad at the
+west end. In the centre are four octagonal columns on square bases,
+supporting a plain quadripartite vault. The room is thus divided
+longitudinally into two aisles, with a small irregular space at the east
+end.
+
+The diagrammatic ground-plan, here subjoined (fig. 52), will help to make
+this description clear. It makes no pretensions to accuracy, having been
+drawn from notes only[313].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Ground-plan of the Library at Zutphen.]
+
+There are two windows, each of three lights, at the west end of the room,
+and four similar windows on the south side, one to each bay. There is a
+fifth window, now blocked, at the south-east corner. Some of these windows
+contain fragments of richly coloured stained glass--among which the figure
+of a large green parrot is conspicuous; but whether these fragments were
+brought from the church, or are part of the glass originally supplied to
+the library, there is no evidence to shew. Most of these windows are
+partially blocked, having been damaged, it is said, in one of the numerous
+sieges from which Zutphen has suffered. The position of the church, close
+to the fortifications, as Blaeu's bird's-eye view shews, makes this story
+probable. The floor is paved with red tiles. The general appearance of the
+room will be understood from the view of the north aisle reduced from a
+photograph (fig. 53)[314].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. General view of the north side of the Library
+attached to the church of S. Walburga at Zutphen.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Desk and reader on the south side of the Library
+at Zutphen.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Elevation of (A) one of the bookcases in the
+Library at Zutphen: (B) one of those in the Library at Queens' College,
+Cambridge[315].]
+
+There are eighteen bookcases, or desks; namely, ten on the south side of
+the room, and eight on the north side (fig. 52). The material is oak; the
+workmanship very rude and rough. I will describe those on the south side
+first. Each is 9 feet long by 5 feet 5 1/4 inches high, measured from the
+floor to the top of the finial on the end; and the lower edge of the desk
+on which the books lie is 2 feet 6 1/4 inches above the floor; but the
+general plan, and the relative dimensions of the different parts, will be
+best understood from the photograph of a single desk at which a reader is
+seated (fig. 54), and from the elevation of one of the ends (fig. 55, A),
+beside which I have placed the elevation of one of the desks at Queens'
+College (B). The photograph shews that in fixing the height of the desk
+above the ground the convenience of readers has been carefully considered.
+The iron bar that carries the chains is locked into the ornamental
+upright, passes through a staple in the middle of the desk, and into the
+upright at the opposite end, which is left plain. This bar is half an inch
+in diameter, and one inch above the level of the top of the desk. It is
+prevented from bending by passing through a staple fixed in the centre of
+the desk. A piece of ornamental iron-work is fixed to the upright. It is
+made to represent a lock, but is in reality a mere plate of metal, and the
+tongue, which looks as though it were intended to move, is only an
+ornament, and is pierced by the keyhole. The lock is sunk in the thickness
+of the wood, behind this plate, and the bar, which terminates in a knob,
+is provided with two nicks, into which the bolts of the lock are shot
+when the key is turned (fig. 56). Between each pair of desks there is a
+seat for the reader.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. End of iron bar, Zutphen.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. End of one of the desks on the north side of the
+Library, Zutphen.]
+
+The desks on the north side of the room differ slightly from those on the
+south side. They are rather larger, the ends are of a different shape and
+devoid of ornament (fig. 57), and there is a wider interval between the
+bar and the top of the desk. It seems to me probable that the more highly
+ornamented desks are those which were put in when the room was first
+fitted up, and that the others were added from time to time as new books
+had to be accommodated.
+
+The books are attached to the desk by the following process. A chain was
+taken about 12 inches long, more or less, consisting of long narrow links
+of hammered iron. These links exactly resemble, both in shape and size,
+those of a chain which may still be seen in the library of the Grammar
+School at Guildford, Surrey[316]. This chain, of which a piece is here
+figured (fig. 58), was probably made in 1586, or only 23 years after the
+building of the library at Zutphen. It terminates, like those at Zutphen
+(fig. 59), in a swivel (to prevent entanglement), attached to the ring
+which is strung upon the bar. The attachment of the chain to the book was
+effected by means of a piece of metal bent round so as to form a loop
+through which the last link of the chain was passed. The ends of the loop,
+flattened out, were attached by nail or rivet to the edge of the stout
+wooden board which formed the side of the book. This mode of attachment
+will be best seen in the volume which I figure next (fig. 60)--a
+collection of sermons printed at Nuremberg in 1487. It is believed to have
+once belonged to a Dominican House at Bamberg, in the library of which it
+was chained[317].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Piece of chain, shewing the ring attached to the
+bar, the swivel, and one of the links, actual size. Guildford.]
+
+The iron loop in this specimen (fig. 60) is fastened to what I call the
+right-hand board of the book; by which I mean the board which is to the
+right hand of a reader when the book lies open before him; but the
+selection of the right-hand or the left-hand board depended on individual
+taste. Further the mode of attachment is never the same in two examples.
+The iron and rivets are often clumsy, and do considerable damage to the
+leaves, by forcing them out of shape and staining them with rust.
+
+In this method of chaining no provision is made for removing any book
+from the desk when not wanted, and placing it on a shelf beneath the desk,
+as was done in some Italian modifications of the system. Each volume must
+lie on the desk, attached by its chain, like a Bible on a church-lectern.
+The smallest number of volumes on any desk at Zutphen is six; the largest,
+eleven; the total, 316. Most of those on the south side of the room were
+printed during the first half of the sixteenth century; those on the north
+side are much later, some as late as 1630. I did not see any manuscripts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Piece of the iron bar, with chain, Zutphen.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Chained book, from a Dominican House at Bamberg,
+South Germany.]
+
+If we now reconsider the indications preserved at Queens' College, it
+will, I feel sure, be recognised that the desks at Zutphen explain them,
+and enable us to realise the aspect of what I conceive to have been the
+most ancient method of fitting up a collegiate or a monastic library. When
+such a room first became necessary in a monastery, and furniture suitable
+for it was debated, a lectern would surely suggest itself, as being used
+in the numerous daily services, and proving itself singularly convenient
+for the support of books while they were being read.
+
+Another example of such fittings was once to be seen at Pembroke College,
+Cambridge, in the library above the hall (fig. 48). In Dr Matthew Wren's
+account of that library already quoted there is a passage which may be
+translated as follows:
+
+    I would have you know that in the year 1617 the Library
+    was completely altered and made to assume an entirely
+    new appearance. This alteration was rendered necessary
+    by the serious damage which, to our great sorrow, we
+    found the books had suffered--a damage which was
+    increasing daily--partly from the sloping form of the
+    desks, partly from the inconvenient weight of the chains
+    (_tum ex declivi pluteorum fabrica, tum ex inepta mole
+    catenarum_)[318].
+
+These desks were copied at S. John's College in the same University. A
+contract dated 20 June, 1516, provides that the contractor
+
+    shall make all the Desks in the Library wythin the said
+    college of good and substanciall and abyll Tymber of Oke
+    mete and convenient for the same Library, aftir and
+    accordyng to the Library within ... Pembroke Hall[319].
+
+The Library here referred to was on the first floor to the south of the
+Great Gate of the college. It is now divided into chambers, but its
+original extent can be readily made out by its range of equidistant
+windows. The wall-spaces dividing these are 28 1/2 inches wide,
+practically the same as those at Queens' College.
+
+At Peterhouse also a similar arrangement seems to have subsisted when the
+catalogue of 1418 was made. The very first book, a Bible, is said to stand
+"in the sixth lectern on the west side (_lectrino 6^o ex parte
+occidentali_)." The word _lectrinum_ is unusual, but it emphasizes the
+form of the desk more clearly than any other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61 Single desk in the old Library, Lincoln Cathedral.]
+
+A splendid example of this type of case is to be seen at Lincoln (fig.
+61), where three "stalls" or desks, belonging to the old library already
+described[320], are still preserved. Each is about 7 ft. long, 3 ft.
+broad, and 4 ft. 4 in. high to the top of the sloping portion. At each
+end, and in the centre, is a massive molded standard, 7 ft. 2 in. high,
+terminating in a boldly carved finial; and these three standards are
+connected together by a band of open-work, of a design similar to that of
+the cornice of the library. Half way between this band and the top of the
+desk is the bar to carry the chains, now of wood, but formerly of course
+of iron; and below this again is a shelf 18 in. wide, projecting slightly
+beyond the sloping portion of the desk. The edge of the desk is protected
+by a ledge, as usual, and under it is a second shelf extending the whole
+width of the piece of furniture. What was the use of these shelves? As the
+bar is above the desk, not below it, the books must have reposed, as a
+general rule, upon the desk, instead of being laid on their sides on the
+shelf below it when not wanted by a reader. The chains would not have been
+long enough to allow of any other arrangement. I think, therefore, that
+the lower shelf must have been a constructional contrivance, to assist in
+keeping the standards in their places. The narrow upper shelf, on the
+other hand, was probably intended for the convenience of the reader. He
+might place on it, temporarily, any book that he was not using, and which
+got in his way while he was reading one of those beside it; or, if he was
+making extracts, he might set his inkstand upon it.
+
+These desks evidently stood in the old library against the shafts of the
+roof, for one of the ends has been hollowed out in each to receive the
+shaft; and the finial, which is left plain on that side, is bent over
+slightly, to admit it under the brace (fig. 39).
+
+As I have now described three varieties of the lectern-system, I will
+place before my readers, side by side, elevations of each of the three
+(fig. 62) drawn to the same scale. It will be seen that they resemble each
+other exactly in essentials. The differences observable are accidental,
+and may be referred to individual taste.
+
+That this form of desk was recognised on the continent as typical of
+library-fittings is proved by its appearance in a French translation of
+the first book of the _Consolation of Philosophy_ of Boethius, which I had
+the good fortune to find in the British Museum[321] (fig. 63). This
+manuscript was written in Flanders towards the end of the fifteenth
+century. In such a work the library shewn requires what I may term
+generalised fittings. An eccentric peculiarity would have been quite
+inadmissible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Elevation of (A) one of the bookcases in the
+Library at Zutphen; (B) one of those in the Library at Queens' College,
+Cambridge; (C) one of those in the Library of Lincoln Cathedral.]
+
+In the Stadtbibliothek of Nuremberg some of the oldest works on
+jurisprudence still preserve their chains. Each has a short chain about
+12 in. long fixed on the upper edge of the left-hand board. The title is
+written on the middle of the upper edge of the right-hand board. It is
+obvious that these volumes must have lain on a desk with their titles
+uppermost[322].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Interior of a Library.
+
+From a MS. of a French translation of the first book of the _Consolation
+of Philosophy_ by Boethius: written in Flanders towards the end of the
+fifteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Library of the College de Navarre, Paris, now
+destroyed.]
+
+It is probable that similar fittings were used in the library of the
+Sorbonne, Paris, which was first established in 1289, with books chained
+for the common convenience of the Fellows (_in communem sociorum
+utilitatem_)[323]. This library was divided into two separate collections,
+which formed, so to speak, two distinct libraries. The first, called the
+great library, or the common library, contained the books most frequently
+studied. They were chained, and could only be taken out under the most
+exceptional circumstances. A statute, dated 1321, the provisions of which
+recall the collegiate statutes summarised above, directed that the best
+book the society possessed on each subject should be thus chained. The
+second division of the library, called the small library, contained
+duplicates, books rarely consulted, and generally all those of which the
+loan was authorised under certain conditions[324]. The following
+description of this library has been given by Claude Hemere (Librarian
+1638-43) in his MS. history. This I proceed to translate:
+
+    The old library was contained under one roof. It was
+    firmly and solidly built, and was 120 feet long by 36
+    feet broad.... Each side was pierced with 19 windows of
+    equal size, that plenty of daylight both from the east
+    and the west (for this was the direction of the room)
+    might fall upon the desks, and fill the whole length and
+    breadth of the library. There were 28 desks, marked with
+    the letters of the alphabet, five feet high, and so
+    arranged that they were separated by a moderate
+    interval. They were loaded with books, all of which were
+    chained, that no sacrilegious hand might [carry them
+    off. These chains were attached to the right-hand board
+    of every book] so that they might be readily thrown
+    aside, and reading not be interfered with. Moreover the
+    volumes could be opened and shut without difficulty. A
+    reader who sat down in the space between two desks, as
+    they rose to a height of five feet as I said above,
+    neither saw nor disturbed any one else who might be
+    reading or writing in another place by talking or by any
+    other interruption, unless the other student wished it,
+    or paid attention to any question that might be put to
+    him. It was required, by the ancient rules of the
+    library, that reading, writing, and handling of books
+    should go forward in complete silence[325].
+
+This description indicates desks similar to those of Zutphen. Even the
+height is the same.
+
+A library which vividly recalls the above account, with 19 windows on one
+side and probably the same number on the other, was built in 1506 for the
+College de Navarre, Paris, now the Ecole Polytechnique[326]. My
+illustration (fig. 64) is from a photograph taken shortly before its
+destruction in 1867. I have calculated that it was about 108 ft. long by
+30 ft. wide.
+
+The library of the College d'Autun, Paris, was similarly arranged. An
+inventory taken 29 July, 1462, records: "dix bancs doubles, a se seoir
+d'une part et d'autre, et ung poupitre; esquelz bancs et poupitre out este
+trouvez enchaisnez les livres qui s'ensuyvent, qui sont intitulez sur la
+couverture d'iceulx[327]." The catalogue enumerates 174 volumes, or rather
+more than 17 for each "banc" or lectern. The expression _bancs doubles_ is
+interesting, as it seems to imply that there were at that time libraries
+in which _bancs simples_ were used; that is to say, lecterns with only one
+sloping surface instead of two.
+
+A study of the catalogue drawn up in 1513 for the Augustinian House of S.
+Victor, Paris, by Claude de Grandrue, one of the monks, shews that the
+same system must have been in use there. Further, his catalogue is an
+excellent specimen of the pains taken in a large monastery to describe the
+books accurately, and to provide ready access to them. A brief prefatory
+note informs us that the desks are arranged in three rows, and marked with
+a triple series of letters. The first row is marked A, B, C, etc.; the
+second AA, BB, etc.; the third AAA, BBB, etc. To each of these letters are
+appended the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, to shew the position of the
+required volume. For instance--to take one at random--_Abaelardi confessio_
+is marked P. 13: that is, it is the thirteenth book on the desk in the
+first row marked P. When the catalogue proper--in which each manuscript is
+carefully described--was finished, the author increased its usefulness by
+the composition of an alphabetical index[328].
+
+How, I shall be asked, can the form of the bookcase or desk (_pulpitum_)
+be inferred from this catalogue? I reply: In the first place, because
+there are no shelf-marks. The librarian notes the letter of the desk, and
+the place of each book on it, but nothing more. Secondly, because the
+number of manuscripts accommodated on each desk is so small. There are 50
+desks, and 988 manuscripts--or, an average of little more than 19 to
+each. At Zutphen the average is exactly 18. This piece of evidence,
+however, is so important that I will give it in detail. The following
+table, compiled by myself from the catalogue, gives the letters used to
+mark the desks, and the number of manuscripts on each.
+
+  A   13 | AA   13 | AAA   15
+  B   21 | BB   16 | BBB   16
+  C   13 | CC   19 | CCC   17
+  D   18 | DD   18 | DDD   19
+  E   17 | EE   21 | EEE   17
+  F   20 | FF   17 | FFF   29
+  G   18 | GG   18 | GGG   24
+  H   16 | HH   17 | HHH   29
+  I   16 | II   23 | III   25
+  K   17 | KK   21 | KKK   29
+  L   22 | LL   21 | LLL   23
+  M   21 | MM   20 | MMM   26
+  N   18 | NN   20 |      ----
+  O   14 | OO   13 |      269
+  P   19 | PP   23 |
+  Q   22 | QQ   27 |
+  R   14 | RR   26 |
+  S   14 | SS   28 |
+  T   21 | TT   24 |
+     ----|     ----|
+     334 |     385 |
+
+These totals give a general total of 988 manuscripts, which, divided by
+50, makes the average number for each desk, as stated above, 19.76.
+
+Further, my theory is supported by the positive evidence of a description
+of this library (unfortunately without date) quoted by M. Delisle: "Les
+livres estoient couchez et enchaisnez, sur de longs pupitres, et une allee
+entre deux[329]." It is obvious that the English system of placing each
+lectern between a pair of windows could not have been maintained here.
+
+At Queens' College, Cambridge, the catalogue, dated 1472, enumerates 192
+volumes, divided over 10 desks and 4 half-desks, each called a step
+(_gradus_). There were (avoiding fractions) 8 books on each half-desk, and
+15 on each complete desk; so that by comparing the plan (fig. 50) and
+elevation of a desk (fig. 51) with the views of the library at Zutphen, a
+good idea of a college library in the fifteenth century can be obtained.
+
+Before I leave the lectern-system, I will describe two eccentric specimens
+of it. The first is still to be seen at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; the
+second once existed at the University of Leyden.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Elevation of a book-desk and seat in the Library
+of Trinity Hall, Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. General view of the Library at Trinity Hall,
+Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. A French Library of 1480.
+
+From MS. 164 in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.]
+
+The library of Trinity Hall is thoroughly medieval in plan, being a long
+narrow room on the first floor of the north side of the second court, 65
+feet long by 20 feet wide, with eight equidistant windows in each
+side-wall, and a window of four lights in the western gable. It was built
+about 1600, but the fittings are even later, having been added between
+1626 and 1645 during the mastership of Thomas Eden, LL.D. They are
+therefore a deliberate return to ancient forms at a time when a different
+type had been adopted elsewhere.
+
+There are five desks and six seats on each side of the room, placed, as
+usual, at right angles to the side-walls, in the inter spaces of the
+windows, and in front of the windows, respectively. Their arrangement, and
+the details of their construction, will be understood from the general
+view (fig. 65), and from the elevation (fig. 66).
+
+These lecterns are of oak, 6 feet 7 inches long, and 7 feet high, measured
+to the top of the ornamental finial. There is a sloping desk at the top,
+beneath which is a single shelf (fig. 66, A). The bar for the chains
+passes under the desk, through the two vertical ends of the case. At the
+end farthest from the wall, the hasp of the lock is hinged to the bar and
+secured by two keys (fig. 67). Beneath the shelf there is at either end a
+slip of wood (fig. 66, B), which indicates that there was once a moveable
+desk which could be pulled out when required. The reader could therefore
+consult his convenience, and work either sitting or standing (fig. 65).
+For both these positions the heights are very suitable, and at the bottom
+of the case was a plinth (fig. 66, C), on which he could set his feet. The
+seats between each pair of desks were of course put up at the same time as
+the desks themselves. They shew an advance in comfort, being divided into
+two, so as to allow support to the reader's back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. Lock at end of book-desk. Trinity Hall.]
+
+Similar desks occur in a beautiful miniature (fig. 68) from a manuscript
+(now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge[330]) written in France about
+1480. They appear to be solid--possibly fitted with cupboards for books
+under the sloping portion. No seats are shewn, and, as a reader is
+standing between them consulting a book, it may be concluded that they
+could only be used by students in that position.
+
+Lastly, I reproduce (fig. 69) a print by Jan Cornelis Woudanus, shewing
+the library of the University of Leyden in 1610[331]. The bookcases were
+evidently contrived with the view of getting the largest number possible
+into the room. Each contained a single row of books, chained to a bar in
+front of the shelf; and, also for the purpose of saving the space usually
+occupied by a seat, readers were obliged to consult them standing. There
+are eleven bookcases on each side of the room, each containing from 40 to
+48 volumes. At the end of the room are two cupboards, probably for
+manuscripts; and to the right of the spectator is a third press, marked
+_Legatum Josephi Scaligeri_. He died in January, 1609. Further, as an
+illustration of the usual appliances for study found in libraries at this
+period, and often mentioned in catalogues and account-books, I would draw
+attention to the globes and maps.
+
+I present these bookcases at this point of my researches with some
+diffidence, for they can hardly be said to represent the lectern-system.
+On the other hand, they do not exactly represent any other; and I
+therefore submit that they may be looked at here, as transitional
+specimens, bridging over the interval between the desks we have lately
+been considering, and those which we shall have to consider in the next
+chapter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. The interior of the Library of the University of
+Leyden.
+
+From a print by Jan Cornelis Woudanus, dated 1610.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[258] The Statutes of the Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge bearing on the
+care of books have been thoroughly analysed by Professor Willis in his
+essay on "The Library," _Arch. Hist._ III. pp. 387-471, which I edited and
+completed. I have therefore not thought it necessary to acknowledge each
+quotation separately, but I wish it to be understood that this section of
+my present book is to a great extent borrowed from him.
+
+[259] Wood, _History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford_, ed.
+Gutch, 4to. Oxford, 1796, Vol. II. Part 2, p. 910.
+
+[260] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. 1. Statutes of Merton College, Cap.
+2, p. 24.
+
+[261] _Sketch of the Life of Walter de Merton_, by Edmund [Hobhouse],
+Bishop of Nelson, New Zealand, 8vo. Oxford, 1859, p. 39.
+
+[262] _Annals of University College_, by Wm. Smith, 8vo. 1728, pp. 37-39.
+I have compared Mr Smith's version with the Statute as printed by Anstey,
+_Munimenta Academica_, I. 58, 59, and have made a few corrections.
+
+[263] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. I. Statutes of Oriel College, p.
+14.
+
+[264] _Ibid._ p. 22.
+
+[265] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 38. De omnibus libris Domus,
+Munimentis, et Chartis custodiendis.
+
+[266] _Ibid._ p. 17. De Duobus Decanis et eorum officio.
+
+[267] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 44. Statutum de libris Collegii.
+
+[268] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 432. De libris Collegii.
+
+[269] The words are "in libraria communi ... ad sociorum communem usum
+continue remanere."
+
+[270] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. I. Statutes of New College, p. 97.
+De libris collegii conservandis et non alienandis.
+
+[271] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. I. Statutes of All Souls' College,
+p. 54. De custodia bonorum ad capellam pertinentium.
+
+[272] _Ibid._ Vol. II. Statutes of Magdalen College, p. 60. De custodia
+librorum, ornamentorum, jocalium, et aliorum bonorum collegii.
+
+[273] _Ibid._ Statutes of Corpus Christi College, p. 89. De custodia
+bonorum Collegii.
+
+[274] This passage is quoted in a short account of Pembroke College
+Library, drawn up by Matthew Wren, D.D., while Fellow, as the preface to a
+volume dated 1617, in which he recorded the names, of those who had
+presented books to the Library. The words at the end of the statute are:
+"sub cautione idonea custodi librorum exposita sine fraude."
+
+[275] The history of Merton College has been most admirably written, in Mr
+Robinson's series of College histories, by my friend Bernard W. Henderson,
+M.A., Fellow and Librarian. His researches have thrown a new light on the
+library, and especially on the date of the fittings. My most cordial
+thanks are due to him, to the Warden and to the Bursar, for their kindness
+in allowing me access to the library, and also to all the documents
+referring to it.
+
+[276] _Reg. Vet._ fol. 7 b. Vicesimo quarto die Octobris celebrata erat
+eleccio librorum philosophie inter philosophicos collegii socios.
+
+Undecimo die mensis Novembris celebrata erat eleccio librorum theologie in
+domo custodis inter Theologos collegii socios.
+
+[277] _Ibid._ fol. 110. 18^o. die eiusdem mensis [Marcii] fuit eleccio
+librorum logicalium in Alta Aula.
+
+[278] _Ibid._ fol. 125 b.
+
+[279] _Reg. Vet._ fol. 118.
+
+[280] The words are: "qui quidem liber jacuit pro caucione alterius libri
+decretorum collegii."
+
+[281] _Ibid._ fol. 121.
+
+[282] _Ibid._ fol. 100 b.
+
+[283] See above, p. 71.
+
+[284] Dugdale, _Mon. Angl._ IV. 403-406.
+
+[285] See above, p. 108.
+
+[286] _Cat. Vet. Libr. Eccl. Cath. Dunelm._ ed. Surtees Soc. pp. 39-41.
+
+[287] Wood, _History etc._, Vol. II. p. 910.
+
+[288] Leland, _Comm. de Script. Brit._ ch. 131. I owe this important
+quotation to the kindness of Dr James.
+
+[289] Printed in the _Camb. Antiq. Soc. Comm._, Vol. II. p. 73.
+
+[290] The headings of the two lists are as follows: "Libri per nos de
+presenti dicto nostro Collegio dati et in dicto Collegio ex nunc ad
+Sociorum communem usum perpetuo remansuri."
+
+"Libri vero de presenti per nos dicto collegio dati, quorum usum nobis pro
+vitae nostrae tempore quamdiu nobis placuerit duximus reservandum, immediate
+inferius describuntur."
+
+[291] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. II. p. 442. History of Trinity College.
+
+[292] _Collected Papers of Henry Bradshaw_, 8vo. Camb., 1889, pp. 19-34.
+
+[293] No heading to the first division of the list is given in the
+catalogue.
+
+[294] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Comm._, Vol. II. p. 165.
+
+[295] _Ibid._ Vol. II. p. 258.
+
+[296] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Quarto Publ._, No. I. This catalogue represents the
+state of the library at the end of the fifteenth century, for it contains
+the books given by Richard Nelson, who founded a Fellowship in 1503, and
+probably gave his books at the same time, "sub ea condicione quod semper
+remanerent cum tribus sociis."
+
+[297] From my additions to the essay on "The Library," by Professor
+Willis, p. 404.
+
+[298] This catalogue, written at the beginning of the old parchment
+Register of the College, has been printed by Dr James in his _Catalogue of
+the MSS. in the Library of Peterhouse_, 8vo. Camb., 1899. pp. 3-26.
+
+[299] From my additions to the essay on "The Library," by Professor
+Willis, p. 402.
+
+[300] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), Vol. I. p. 21. Stat. 24.
+
+[301] _Ibid._ p. 22.
+
+[302] This analysis of the catalogue of Peterhouse Library is borrowed
+from the Introduction which I had the pleasure of contributing to my
+friend Dr James' _Catalogue_.
+
+[303] _Arch. Hist._, The Library, p. 404.
+
+[304] _Arch. Hist._, vol. I., p. 138.
+
+[305] I have to thank my friend Mr T. G. Jackson, architect, for kindly
+lending me this section of Bishop Cobham's library. For his history of the
+building, see his _Church of St Mary the Virgin, Oxford_, 4to. 1897, pp.
+90-106. With regard to the number of windows he notes (p. 102): There
+would have been eight, two to a bay, were it not that the tower buttresses
+occupy half the western bay.
+
+[306] Anstey, _Mun. Acad._ I. 227.
+
+[307] Jackson, _ut supra_, p. 98.
+
+[308] The total height of this desk-end is 66 in.; from the ground to the
+beginning of the groove 31 in.; each slit is 19 in. long.
+
+[309] For scale see fig. 62, p. 163.
+
+[310] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ Vol. VIII. pp. 379-388, 7 May,
+1894.
+
+[311] The existing Library is still called the New Library.
+
+[312] _Novum ac Magnum Theatrum Urbium Belgicae_, fol. Amsterdam, 1649, s.
+v. Zutphania. For these historical facts I have to thank my friend Mr
+Gimberg, _Archivarius_ at Zutphen.
+
+[313] I have to thank Mr T. D. Atkinson, architect, for drawing this plan.
+
+[314] I have again to thank Mr Gimberg for this photograph. It was a work
+of no small difficulty owing to the imperfect light.
+
+[315] For scale see fig. 62, p. 163.
+
+[316] I have described this library in _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._
+Vol. VIII. pp. 11-18.
+
+[317] This book is now in the University Library, Cambridge.
+
+[318] _Arch. Hist._, The Library, III. 429. It is obvious that these heavy
+chains must have been attached to the lower edge of one of the boards, and
+that the bar must have been below the desk and not above it. See above, p.
+139.
+
+[319] _Arch. Hist._ II. 244.
+
+[320] See above, pp. 117-121.
+
+[321] MSS. Harl. 4335. The picture hanging on the wall represents
+Philosophy offering her consolation to a sick man.
+
+[322] For this information I have to thank my friend, Bernard W.
+Henderson, M.A., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford.
+
+[323] Delisle, _Cabinet des manuscrits_, II. 186, _note_.
+
+[324] This account is, in the main, a translation of that given by M.
+Delisle, _ut supra_.
+
+[325] Bibl. Nat. Par. MSS. Lat. 5493. For the history of this library see
+Delisle, _ut supra_, pp. 142-208; Franklin, _Anciennes Bibliotheques de
+Paris_, I. pp. 221-317.
+
+[326] Franklin, _ut supra_, vol. I. p. 399.
+
+[327] Franklin, _Bibliotheques de Paris_, II. 70.
+
+[328] Delisle, _ut supra_, II. 228-231; Franklin, _ut supra_, I. 135-185.
+The catalogue of Claude de Grandrue is in the Bibliotheque Nationale,
+fonds latin, No. 14767; the alphabetical index in the Bibliotheque
+Mazarine, No. 1358.
+
+[329] Delisle, p. 228, _note_.
+
+[330] The MS. (No. 164) is by Frere Jehan de Castel.
+
+[331] This reproduction is from a copy of the print now in the Fitzwilliam
+Museum, Cambridge. It also occurs on a reduced scale in _Les Arts au Moyen
+Age et a l'Epoque de la Renaissance_ par Paul Lacroix, 4^o. Paris, 1869,
+p. 492; and in _Illustrium Hollandiae et Westfrisiae Ordinum_ etc. 4^o.
+Lugd. Bat., 1614.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+RECAPITULATION. INVENTION OF THE STALL-SYSTEM. LIBRARY OF CORPUS CHRISTI
+COLLEGE, OXFORD, TAKEN AS A TYPE. SYSTEM OF CHAINING IN HEREFORD
+CATHEDRAL. LIBRARIES OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD, AND CLARE COLLEGE,
+CAMBRIDGE. THE STALL-SYSTEM COPIED AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY, WELLS, AND DURHAM
+CATHEDRALS. THIS SYSTEM POSSIBLY MONASTIC. LIBRARIES AT CANTERBURY, DOVER
+PRIORY, CLAIRVAUX.
+
+
+If the evidence brought forward in the last chapter be accepted, the
+Library which a Monastery or College built in the fifteenth century was a
+long narrow room lighted by rows of equidistant windows. Occasionally, if
+neighbouring buildings allowed, there was a window at the end of the room
+also. The fittings were lecterns of wood. On these the books were laid,
+each volume being fastened by a chain to a bar usually placed over the
+desk, but occasionally, in all probability, in front of it or beneath it.
+The readers sat on benches immoveably fixed opposite to each window. It is
+obvious that reading was convenient enough so long as the students were
+few, but if they were numerous and the books chained too closely together
+much annoyance must have been caused. When the University of Oxford
+petitioned Humphrey Duke of Gloucester in 1444 to help them to build a new
+library, they specially dwelt upon the obstacles to study arising from the
+overcrowded condition of the old room. "Should any student," they said,
+"be poring over a single volume, as often happens, he keeps three or four
+others away on account of the books being chained so closely
+together[332]."
+
+Further, the lectern-system was so wasteful in the matter of space, that,
+as books accumulated, some other piece of furniture had to be devised to
+contain them. The desk could not be dispensed with so long as books were
+chained; and it therefore occurred to an ingenious carpenter that the
+required conditions would be fulfilled if the two halves of the desk were
+separated, not by a few inches, but by a considerable interval, or broad
+shelf, with one or more shelves fixed above it. Thus a case was arrived at
+containing four shelves at least, two to each side of the case, which
+could be made as long as the width of the library permitted. I propose to
+call this system "the stall-system," from the word _staulum_ (sometimes
+written _stalla_, _stallus_, or _stallum_), which is frequently applied to
+a case for books in a medieval library.
+
+There are at least five fine examples of this system at Oxford--none, I am
+sorry to say, at Cambridge. There was a set at Clare College, supplied to
+the old Library about 1627, but they have since been altered by the
+removal of the desks. Those at Oxford are at Corpus Christi College
+(1517), S. John's College (1596), Sir Thomas Bodley's library (1598),
+Merton College (1623), Jesus College (1677-79), Magdalen College (of
+uncertain date).
+
+As a type of this system I shall take the library of Corpus Christi
+College, founded in 1516 by Richard Fox, Bishop of Winchester. The library
+was ready for the fittings by the end of March in the following year, as
+we learn from a building account preserved by Hearne:
+
+    8 Henry VIII. This boke made from the xvth day off March
+    unto the xxxti day off the same Moneth [30 March, 1517].
+
+    Md. couenauntyd and agreid wyth Comell Clerke, for the
+    makyng off the dextis in the liberary, to the summe off
+    xvi, after the maner and forme as they be in Magdaleyn
+    college, except the popie heedes off the seites, thes to
+    be workmanly wrowght and clenly, and he to have all
+    maner off stooff foond hym, and to have for the makyng
+    off on dexte xs the sum off the hole viii. li.[333]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Bookcases and seat in the Library at Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford.
+
+From a photograph taken in 1894.]
+
+The arrangement and appearance of these most interesting cases will be
+understood from the general view (fig. 70) and from the elevation (fig.
+71), but I shall proceed to describe them with some minuteness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Elevation of one bookcase in the Library of Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford.]
+
+The library occupies the first floor of the south side of the quadrangle
+opposite to the entrance. It is 79 feet 6 inches long, by 21 feet broad,
+with ten equidistant windows, about 3 feet 6 inches apart, on each side.
+At the west end there is an inner library, occupying the angle between the
+south and west sides of the quadrangle. On each side there are nine
+bookcases, each 8 ft. 6 in. high, 2 ft. wide, and 7 ft. 6 in. long,
+divided by partitions into three compartments.
+
+I have carefully studied these cases on several occasions, and it seems to
+me that the only alterations introduced since the original construction
+are: (1) the addition of about two feet to the upper portion of the case
+in order to provide additional shelf-room; (2) a slight change in the
+arrangements of the desk for the reader; and (3) the addition of the
+catalogue frame, which by its style is evidently Jacobean, to the end next
+the central alley. Originally each case had two shelves only, one on the
+level of the desk (Fig. 71, G, H), and the second about half-way between
+it and the original top of the case (_ibid._ E, F). Before chaining fell
+into disuse the cases were heightened so as to provide an additional shelf
+(_ibid._ C, D). At present the number has been further increased by the
+addition of a fourth shelf above the desk (_ibid._ A, B), and two below it
+(_ibid._ I, K, L, M). The desks have been altered by a change in the
+position of the bracket, and by the suppression of the slit through which
+the chains usually passed, as I shall explain below.
+
+The system of chaining used for the lectern-system required modification
+and extension to suit this new arrangement of shelves. At Corpus Christi
+College most of the iron-work remains (fig. 70); but it is necessary to go
+elsewhere to find chained books actually in use. Of such chaining I know
+no better example than the Chapter Library in Hereford Cathedral, from a
+study of which I will describe the system, and shew that it is the same as
+that employed at Corpus Christi College and elsewhere.
+
+The Chapter Library at Hereford was originally over the west cloister, and
+there is evidence that it was being fitted up in 1394, when Walter de
+Rammesbury, B.D., gave L10 for the desks[334]. The original building has
+long since been destroyed, and the books were transferred from one place
+to another until the present beautiful structure was built on the old site
+in 1897.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Part of a bookcase in the Chapter Library,
+Hereford.]
+
+Throughout these changes some very ancient bookcases have been preserved.
+They have been taken to pieces and altered several times, but are
+probably, in the main, those put up in 1394. Above all, one of them
+possesses, in thorough working order, the system of chaining, parts of
+which are to be met with on the cases at Oxford which we have been
+considering. Of the accompanying illustrations the first (fig. 72) gives a
+general view of the most complete case, that which now contains the
+manuscripts, and the second (fig. 73) shews one compartment of the same
+case with the books, chains, desk etc. This case is 9 ft. 8 in. long, 2
+ft. 2 in. wide and 8 ft. high, exclusive of the cornice. The material is
+unplaned oak, very rough; the ends are 2-3 in. thick, made of three planks
+fastened together with strong wooden pegs. The desk has been a good deal
+altered, and is now inconveniently low, but, as the books were chained, it
+is evident that there must always have been desks on each case, and
+moreover the hook which held them up is still to be seen in several
+places. The frames to contain the catalogue, which closely resemble those
+at Oxford, are known to have been added in the 17th century by Thomas
+Thornton, D.D., Canon Residentiary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Bookcase in the Chapter Library, Hereford
+Cathedral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Part of a single volume, shewing the clasp, the
+ring for the chain, and the mode of attaching it: Hereford.]
+
+From a sketch taken in 1876.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. A single volume, standing on the shelf, with the
+chain attached to the iron bar: Hereford.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Iron bar and socket, closed to prevent removal of
+the bar: Hereford.]
+
+As the books were to stand upright on a shelf, not to lie on their sides
+on a desk, it was necessary to attach the chain in a different manner. A
+narrow strip of flat brass was passed round the left-hand board (fig. 74)
+and riveted to it, in such a manner as to leave a loop in front of the
+edge of the board, wide enough to admit an iron ring, an inch and a
+quarter in diameter, to which one end of the chain was fastened. The book
+is placed on the shelf with the fore-edge turned outwards, and the other
+end of the chain is fastened to a second ring, rather larger than the
+former, which plays along an iron bar (fig. 75). For the two upper shelves
+these bars, which are 1/2 in. in diameter, are supported in front of the
+shelf, at such a distance from it as to allow of easy play for the rings
+(fig. 73). Each bar extends only from partition to partition, so that
+three bars are needed for each shelf. For the lowest shelf there are also
+three bars, set two inches behind the edge of the shelf, so as to keep the
+rings and chains out of the way of the desk. The bars for the upper
+shelves rest in iron sockets screwed to the woodwork at the juncture of
+the horizontal shelves with the vertical divisions and ends respectively.
+The socket fixed to the end of the bookcase which was intended to stand
+against the wall is closed by an iron plate (fig. 76), so that the bar
+cannot pass beyond it. At the opposite end, that which would usually face
+the alley between the two rows of bookcases, the bars are secured by lock
+and key in the following manner. A piece of flat iron is nailed to the end
+of the bookcase, just above the level of the uppermost shelf (fig. 77).
+Attached to this by a hinge is a hasp, or band of iron, two inches wide,
+and rather longer than the interval between the two shelves. Opposite to
+each shelf this iron band expands into a semicircular plate, to which a
+cap is riveted for the reception of the head of the socket in which the
+bar rests (fig. 77); and just below the middle shelf it drops into a lock
+and is secured by a key (fig. 73). A second hasp, similarly constructed,
+secures the lowest of the three bars; but, as that bar is behind, and not
+in front of, the shelf to which it belongs, the arrangements described
+above are reversed. One lock and key serves for the ironwork belonging to
+the three shelves.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Iron bar, with part of the iron plate or hasp
+which is secured by the lock and keeps the bar in place: Hereford.]
+
+The chains are made of links of hammered iron as shewn in the sketch (fig.
+78) which represents a piece of one of the actual size. There is usually a
+swivel in the centre, probably to prevent twisting. They vary somewhat in
+length, and in the length of the links, according to the shelf on which
+the books to which they belong are ranged, it being obviously necessary to
+provide for the convenient placing of a book on the desk when a reader
+wished to consult it. The most usual dimensions are 3 ft. 4 in., 3 ft. 6
+in., 4 ft. 3 in.
+
+The removal of any of the volumes, or the addition of a new one, must have
+been a tedious and inconvenient operation. The bar would have to be
+withdrawn, and all the rings set free. Moreover, if this change had to be
+effected in one of the compartments remote from the end of the case which
+carried the lock, the bar belonging to each of the other compartments
+would have to be withdrawn before the required volume could be reached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Piece of chain, shewing the swivel: Hereford.
+
+Actual size.]
+
+If the views (figs. 70, 71) of the book-cases at Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford, be attentively examined, it will be seen that the ironwork exactly
+resembles that at Hereford. We find similar sockets to contain the bars at
+the junction of the horizontal shelves and vertical uprights, and a
+similar system of iron hasps to prevent the bars from being withdrawn.
+
+The desk for the reader would of course vary according to individual
+taste. As a general rule it was attached to the ends of the case by strong
+hinges, so that it could be turned up and got out of the way when any
+alteration in the ironwork had to be carried out. Iron hooks to hold it up
+were not unfrequently provided. One of these, from the Bodleian Library,
+is here figured (fig. 79). It was also usual to provide a slit in this
+desk, about 2 in. wide, as close as possible to the shelf, for the chain
+attached to the book in use to pass through. This is well shewn in the
+view of a single book-case in Merton College, Oxford (fig. 83).
+
+I will next describe the library of Merton College, Oxford. There is still
+considerable doubt respecting the date of some of the bookcases, but the
+appearance of the library is so venerable, so unlike any similar room with
+which I am acquainted, that it must always command admiration, and deserve
+study[335].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. Exterior of the Library at Merton College, Oxford,
+as seen from 'Mob Quadrangle.'
+
+From a photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899.]
+
+The library occupies the whole of the first floor of the south side of
+"Mob Quadrangle" and the greater part of the same floor of the west side
+(fig. 80). It is entered through a doorway in the south-western angle of
+the court, whence a staircase leads up to the vestibule (fig. 81). This
+room is separated from the two divisions of the library by lofty oak
+screens, elaborately carved and ornamented in the style of the early
+renaissance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Hook to hold up the desk. Bodleian Library,
+Oxford.]
+
+The two rooms into which the library is divided have a uniform width of 20
+ft. 6 in. The west room, called by tradition Old Library, is 38 ft. 6 in.
+long (A, B, fig. 81); the south room, or New Library, is 56 ft. 6 in. long
+(C, D, fig. 81).
+
+The west room is lighted by seven equidistant lancet windows in each of
+the west and east walls, and by two dormer windows of peculiar design on
+the side of the roof next to the court. The south room is similarly
+lighted by ten lancets in each of the north and south walls, and on the
+side next to the court by two dormer windows like those in the west room.
+This room moreover has an open space at the east end, about 10 ft. long,
+lighted by a window of two lights in each of the north and south walls
+respectively, and by an oriel of five lights in the east wall. In both
+rooms there is a waggon-roof of five cants boarded, and divided into
+panels by molded ribs with little bosses at the intersections (fig. 82).
+
+The blank wall at the north end of the west room is panelled with oak of
+an elaborate and beautiful design for a height of about 12 ft. (fig. 82).
+The space above this is decorated with panels of plaster-work. The large
+square central panel contains the arms of the college; the circular panel
+to the west those of John Whitgift (Archbishop of Canterbury 1583-1604);
+and the similar panel to the east those of Sir Henry Savile (Warden
+1585-1621).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Ground-plan of the Library at Merton College,
+Oxford.]
+
+The east end of the south room is similarly treated, but the oak panelling
+is less elaborate. In the plaster-work above it the arms of the college
+are flanked on the north by those of George Abbot (Archbishop of
+Canterbury 1611-1633) and on the south by those of Sir Nathaniel Brent
+(Warden 1621-1651).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Interior of the west Library at Merton College,
+Oxford.
+
+From a photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Bookcase in the west Library of Merton College,
+Oxford.
+
+From a photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899.]
+
+Both rooms are floored with rough oak planking. On this are laid four
+sleepers, each about 5 in. square, parallel with the side-walls. The two
+central sleepers have their outside edge roughly chamfered. Into these the
+bookcases and the seats are morticed. The central alley, 5 ft. wide, is in
+both rooms paved with encaustic tiles.
+
+In the west room there are twelve complete cases and four half-cases; in
+the south room there are twenty complete cases and two half-cases (fig.
+81); in both rooms arranged in the usual manner with respect to the walls
+and windows.
+
+In order to present as vivid an idea as possible of these beautiful cases,
+I reproduce here a photograph of a single compartment from the west
+library, with a seated reader at work (fig. 83). The case is made to look
+rather higher than it really is, but this distortion can be easily
+corrected by comparing the height of the standard with that of the seated
+figure.
+
+In the west room each case (figs. 82, 83) is 7 ft. 5 in. long, 1 ft. 5 in.
+wide and 6 ft. high from the top of the sleeper to the top of the cornice.
+The material is oak. The ends are nearly 2 in. thick, and next the wall
+are shaped roughly with an adze. Each case is separated into two divisions
+by a central partition; and originally there was a desk 1 ft. 3 in. wide
+on each side of the case. These desks were immoveable, and nailed to rough
+brackets. There were two shelves only to each case: one just above the
+level of the desk, and a second about half-way between it and the cornice
+(fig. 84).
+
+The system of ironwork by which the books were secured can be easily
+recovered by studying the scars on the ends of the cases next the central
+alley. At the lower end of the standard, two feet from the ground, was an
+iron bar which carried the chains of all the books which stood on the
+shelf just above the level of the desk, without reference to the side from
+which they were to be consulted. This bar was secured by a separate hasp
+and lock. The bars for the upper shelf, one on each side of the case, were
+obviously secured by a system similar to that described above at Hereford
+and Corpus Christi College. The whole system has been indicated on the
+elevation (fig. 84), which should be compared with the reproduction of one
+of the cases in the west room (fig. 83). Originally no books stood below
+the desk. The comfort of readers was considered by the insertion of a bar
+of wood to rest the feet on, between the seat and the bookcase (fig. 84).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Elevation of a bookcase and seat in the West
+Library at Merton College, Oxford.
+
+Measured and drawn by T. D. Atkinson, Architect.]
+
+In the south room the cases are on the same general plan as in the west
+room; but the system of chaining appears to have been slightly different,
+and to have approximated more closely to what I may call the Hereford
+type.
+
+In both rooms each case has a picturesque enrichment at the end of the
+standard above the cornice, and a small oblong frame just below it to
+contain the general title of the books within the case. The west room is
+devoted to LIBRI ARTIUM, with the exception of the three cases and the
+half-case at the north end of the east side, which are marked CODICES MSS.
+These are protected by latticed doors of wood. In the south room the
+cases on the south side are all lettered L. THEOLOGIAE; on the north side
+the first three are lettered L. MEDICINAE; the next L. MEDIC. IURISPP. and
+the last five L. IURIS PRVDENTIAE. In this room the last cases at the east
+end on each side have latticed doors like those on the corresponding cases
+in the west room.
+
+The building of this library is recorded in four separate account-rolls
+extending from the beginning of the first year of Richard II. to the third
+year of the same king, that is from 1377 to 1379. From these documents it
+appears that the building cost L462. 1_s._ 11 1/2_d._
+
+From this first construction to the beginning of the sixteenth century--a
+space of 125 years--the accounts furnish us with no information; but, from
+what we learn afterwards, it would appear that the internal walls were
+unplastered, that the roof-timbers were unprotected, and that the only
+light was admitted through the narrow lancet windows.
+
+In 1502-3 the panel-work (_celatura_) on the roof of the west library was
+put up at a cost of L27. 6_s._ 0_d._ The account contains also a charge
+for painting the bosses (_nodi_) at the intersection of the moldings that
+separate the panels. Mr Henderson points out that these ornaments prove
+the existing ceiling to be that put up in 1503; for among them are the
+Tudor Rose, the dolphin of Fitzjames (Warden 1483-1507). and the Royal
+Arms used from Henry IV. to Elizabeth, but altered by James I.
+
+After this another long interval occurs during which no work done to the
+library is recorded; but in 1623 the south room was taken in hand, and the
+changes introduced into it were so extensive that it is referred to in the
+accounts as New Library (_Nova Bibliotheca_) a name which it still
+retains.
+
+In the first place the room at the east end (fig. 81) was thrown into it,
+and the oriel window constructed, together with the two large dormers on
+the side next the court (fig. 80). These works, by which light was so
+largely increased, prove how gloomy the library must have been before they
+were undertaken. Next, after important repairs to the walls and floor, and
+the construction of the decorative plaster-work at the east end, the old
+bookcases were sold, and Benet the joiner supplied twenty new cases and
+one half-case. The only old case remaining is, by tradition, the half-case
+against the screen on the north side as one enters from the vestibule.
+
+It is therefore certain that the cases and seats in the south room date
+from 1623. It is unfortunately equally certain that we know nothing about
+the date of those in the west room; and we are therefore unable to say
+whether the cases in the south room were copied from them in 1623, or
+whether the reverse process took place at some unknown date. If we adopt
+the pleasing theory that in the west room we have very early cases,
+constructed possibly when the library was built, we must still admit that
+these relics of a remote past have been altered at some subsequent period,
+so as to be brought into conformity with the cases in the south room; for
+the cornices and the frames for the titles are precisely similar in the
+two rooms.
+
+The difference between the two sets of cases in the method of chaining, to
+which attention has been already drawn, may bear on the question of date.
+As time went on chaining would be modified in the direction of simplicity;
+and to replace a single central bar by two lateral ones is a step towards
+this, for under such conditions the addition or removal of a book would
+entail less displacement. Further, it must be recognised that these cases,
+whether extremely ancient or comparatively modern, differ in many
+particulars from those to be met with elsewhere. They are lighter,
+narrower and more elegant. Again, when the ground-plan of the library is
+considered (fig. 81) it will be seen that their ends occupy nearly the
+whole space between a pair of windows. In other examples of the
+stall-system this is not the case.
+
+The only explanation I have to offer for the whole difficulty is the
+following. The library was constructed for the lectern-system, with
+wall-spaces not more than 2 ft. wide, and was so fitted up. When books had
+become numerous the western library was taken in hand, and the lecterns
+altered into stalls, the single central bar being retained. At the same
+time, in all probability, the dormers were inserted. It is remarkable that
+these changes should not be recorded in the accounts, but possibly they
+were carried out as the result of a special benefaction[336]. In 1623 the
+stalls which had been placed in the west room, having been found
+convenient, were copied for the south room.
+
+I will in the next place briefly notice the distinctive points of the
+other examples of the stall-system in Oxford.
+
+At S. John Baptist's College the library was built in 1596, and we may
+presume was fitted up soon afterwards, as Wood records numerous donations
+of books in the years immediately succeeding, and the appointment of a
+keeper to take charge of them in 1603[337]. This library, on the first
+floor of the south side of the second quadrangle, is 112 feet long by 26
+feet wide, with eight windows of two lights in each wall. The bookcases,
+of which there are eight on each side between the windows, with a
+half-case against the west wall, are rather larger than those at Corpus
+Christi College, being 10 feet high, and 2 feet 6 inches wide. They have a
+classical cornice and terminal pediment. The titles of the subjects are
+painted at the tops of the stalls as at Merton College. A few traces of
+chaining are still to be detected. The desks have not been altered. Each
+is in two divisions, as at Corpus, separated by a central bracket, and it
+has the slit to admit the chains. The long iron hinges are evidently
+original. The seats resemble those at Corpus.
+
+The bookcases at Trinity College, set up in 1618, and those at Jesus
+College, made probably in 1679, call for no special remark.
+
+Between 1598 and 1600 Sir Thomas Bodley refitted the library over the
+Divinity School. This noble room is 86 feet long by 32 feet wide. These
+dimensions contrast forcibly with those of the long narrow rooms to which
+we have been accustomed; and it is probably on account of the great width
+that the 10 windows on each side have two lights apiece. At right angles
+to these walls, which face north and south, there are nine bookcases on a
+side with a half-case at each end. Here again we find so close a
+resemblance to the cases at Corpus Christi College, that a particular
+description is unnecessary. It should be noted, however, that, as at S.
+John's College, they had been made of a greater height (8 feet 4 inches)
+in the first instance, so as to accommodate two shelves above that on the
+level of the desk. These shelves are proved to be original by the
+existence, at the juncture of the shelves with the upright divisions, of
+the plates of iron which originally carried the sockets for the bar. The
+rest of the ironwork has been removed, and it is difficult to detect
+traces of its former existence, because modern shelves have been set
+against the ends of the cases. The hole for the lowest bar, however,
+remains in the same relative position as at Corpus Christi College; and,
+as the ironwork for supporting the bars is identical with what still
+remains there, it seems safe to conclude that no new principle was
+introduced. The desks are modern, but the large and ornamental brackets
+which support them are original, and the iron hooks (fig. 79) still remain
+by which they were prevented from falling when turned up. The position of
+these hooks shews that each desk was 19 inches broad. There were
+originally seats between each pair of cases, as may be seen in Loggan's
+view of the interior of the library, where their ends are distinctly
+shewn.
+
+A special feature of this room is the beautiful open roof, practically
+that which Sir Thomas Bodley put up in 1599. The principals and tie-beams
+are ornamented with arabesques, while the flat surface between them is
+divided into square compartments on which are painted the arms of the
+University. On the bosses that intervene between these compartments are
+the arms of Bodley himself.
+
+I mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that the stall-system had
+been represented in the library at Clare College, Cambridge. The old
+library was a long narrow room over the old chapel, and we know on the
+authority of William Cole[338] that it was "fitted up with wainscote
+Classes on both sides." These "classes" had been put up shortly before
+1627, when the Duke of Buckingham, then Chancellor of the University, was
+taken to see them. When this library was pulled down in 1763 they were
+removed to the new library which had been fitted up 20 years previously,
+and ranged round the room in front of the modern shelves. They are
+splendid specimens of carpentry-work, and bear so close a resemblance to
+the cases in the library of S. John's College, that it may be assumed that
+they were copied from them[339]. When the removal took place they were a
+good deal altered, and a few years ago some fragments which had not been
+utilised were found in a lumber-closet. One of the standards (fig. 85),
+with its brackets, shews that the cases were once fitted with desks, the
+removal of which was ingeniously concealed by the insertion of slips of
+wood in the style of the older work[340]. I have not been able to discover
+any traces of chaining, but as there are a number of seats in the library,
+very like those in Corpus Christi College, Oxford, it is more than
+probable that chains were once employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. Stall-end in the Library of Clare College,
+Cambridge.]
+
+The stall-system was not only popular in Oxford itself, but was adopted as
+a standard for bookcases, and reproduced elsewhere.
+
+The first example I will cite is at Westminster Abbey[341], where part of
+the dorter was fitted up as a library during the years 1623 and 1624 by
+John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln and afterwards Archbishop of York, who
+was dean of Westminster from 1620 to his death in 1650. In the flowery
+rhetoric of his biographer Bishop Hacket:
+
+    With the same Generosity and strong propension of mind
+    to enlarge the Boundaries of Learning, he converted a
+    wast Room, scituate in the East side of the Cloysters,
+    into _Plato's_ Portico, into a goodly Library; model'd
+    it into decent shape, furnished it with Desks and
+    Chains, accoutred it with all Utensils, and stored it
+    with a vast Number of Learned Volumes[342].
+
+This library--which has not been materially altered since 1625--occupies
+the north end of what was once the dorter. It is 60 feet long, by 33 feet
+4 inches broad. There are twelve bookcases--evidently the "desks" recorded
+by Williams' biographer. Each is 10 feet 10 inches long, 2 feet broad, and
+8 feet 3 inches high, divided by plain uprights into three compartments.
+There are three shelves, below which is a desk for the reader, resting on
+brackets, and provided with the usual slit for the chains to pass through.
+These desks are hinged. The cases are quite plain, with the exception of a
+molded cornice; above which, on the end of each, is some scroll-work.
+There is also a small frame to contain the catalogue. It is probable that
+there were originally seats for readers between each pair of cases. I
+cannot discover any certain evidence of chaining, and yet "chains" are
+distinctly enumerated among the dean's benefactions. There are faint scars
+at the intersection of some of the shelves and uprights which may be
+screwholes--but I cannot feel certain on the point.
+
+I have already given the plan of the cathedral library at Wells (fig. 42).
+After the Restoration this building was re-fitted during the episcopate of
+Robert Creighton (Bishop 1670-1672), with the help of donations from the
+celebrated Dr Richard Busby, and Dr Ralph Bathurst, who was dean from 1670
+to 1704. It is important to remember that Bathurst was also master of
+Trinity College, Oxford, an office which he retained until his death. As
+he is described in the MS. List of Benefactors preserved in the library as
+having taken a foremost part in fitting it up (in _Bibliotheca hac
+instauranda_ [Greek: ergodioktes]), the selection of the bookcases may
+with much probability be ascribed to him. His own college has still
+bookcases which once must have been excellent specimens of the
+stall-system.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Bookcases in the Library of Durham Cathedral.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+There are eight bookcases at Wells, of plain unpainted deal, projecting
+from the west wall between the windows (fig. 42). They are 8 ft. 6 in.
+long, 8 ft. 1 in. high and 3 ft. broad. Seven of them have desks on both
+sides, but the last--that placed against the partition at the south end,
+which screens off a small room for a study--has a desk on one side only.
+There is no shelf below the desk, but two above it. They are fitted with
+the usual apparatus for chaining. Between each pair of bookcases, in front
+of the window, is a seat for the reader. These cases resemble so closely
+those at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, that the source from which they
+were derived cannot be doubtful.
+
+Was this library ever chained? A Walton's Polyglot, 1657, had evidently
+been prepared for chaining, and in a novel fashion, the plate to carry the
+chain being attached to the left-hand board close to the back of the
+volume (fig. 86)--so that it was evidently set on the shelf in the
+ordinary way, and not with the fore-edge turned to the spectator, as is
+usual in chained libraries. But with this exception I could not discover
+indications of the attachment of a plate on any of the volumes. If I am
+right in concluding that the books in this library were never chained, the
+cases are a curious instance of the maintenance of fashion. Dean Bathurst
+ordered a bookcase, and it was supplied to him with all its fittings
+complete, whether they were to be used or not.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Ring for attachment of chain, Wells.]
+
+My last example is from Durham Cathedral, where John Sudbury, dean from
+1661 to 1684, fitted up the ancient Frater as a library. The room is about
+115 feet long by 30 feet wide, with nine windows in each side-wall. Their
+sills are ten feet from the ground.
+
+The cases (fig. 87) are evidently the work of a carpenter who was
+thoroughly conversant with the stall-system. They had originally two
+shelves only above the desk, the entablature, now visible on the ends
+only, being carried along the sides. The shelf below the desk is also
+modern. These cases are ten feet apart, and between each pair, instead of
+a reader's seat, is a dwarf bookcase terminating in a desk. Attached to it
+on each side is a seat conveniently placed for a reader to use the desk on
+the side of the principal case.
+
+I have shewn that the stall-system made its appearance at Oxford early in
+the sixteenth century, but I have not been able to discover who introduced
+it. My own impression is that it was monastic in its origin; and I can
+prove that it fits at least two monastic libraries exactly. This theory
+will also explain the prevalence of such cases at Oxford, and their almost
+total absence from Cambridge, where monastic influence was never exercised
+to the same extent.
+
+I will begin with Canterbury, where, as I mentioned above[343], the
+library was over the Prior's Chapel. The construction of this chapel is
+described as follows by Professor Willis:
+
+    Roger de S. Elphege, Prior from 1258 to 1263, completed
+    a chapel between the Dormitory and Infirmary.... The
+    style of its substructure shews that it was begun by his
+    predecessor.... [It] is placed on the south side of the
+    Infirmary cloister, between the Lavatory tower and
+    Infirmary. Its floor was on the level of the upper
+    gallery, and was sustained by an open vaulted ambulatory
+    below. This replaced the portion of the original south
+    alley [of the cloister] which occupied ... that
+    position.... But, as this new substructure was more than
+    twice as broad as the old one, the chapel was obtruded
+    into the small cloister-garth, so as to cover part of
+    the facade of the Infirmary Hall, diminish the already
+    limited area, and destroy the symmetry of its form[344].
+
+Above this chapel Archbishop Chichele built the library which Prior
+Sellyng fitted up. It stood east and west, and of course must have been of
+the same size as the chapel beneath it, namely, according to Professor
+Willis, 62 feet long on the north side, 59 feet long on the south side,
+and 22 feet broad. The door was probably at the south-west corner, at the
+head of a staircase which originally led only to the chapel beneath it.
+
+From these measurements I have constructed a plan of the room (fig. 88),
+and of the bookcases which I am about to describe. The windows are of
+course imaginary, but, I submit, justified by the uniform practice of
+medieval libraries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. Conjectural plan of the Library over the Prior's
+Chapel at Christ Church, Canterbury.]
+
+I am able to reconstruct this library because I have had the good fortune
+to come across a very curious document[345] which gives sufficient data
+for the purpose. It is contained in a MS. volume, now the property of the
+Dean and Chapter of Canterbury, composed of several quires of paper
+stitched into a parchment cover. They once belonged to, and were probably
+written by, Brother William Ingram, who was _custos martirii_ in 1503; and
+in June 1511 was promoted to the office of Pitancer. The accounts and
+memoranda in the book are of a very miscellaneous character. The part
+which concerns the library consists of a note of the books which were
+repaired in 1508. This is headed:
+
+    Repairs done to the books contained in the library over
+    the chapel of our lord the Prior, namely, in new byndyng
+    and bordyng with covers and claspyng and chenyng,
+    together with sundry books of the gift of the aforesaid
+    Prior, namely, in the year of our Lord 1508, and the
+    year of the reign of King Henry VII., 23[346].
+
+The writer goes round the room, beginning at the west end. He proceeds
+along the north side, and returns along the south side, to the point
+whence he started, enumerating on his way the bookcases and their shelves,
+the volumes removed, and, occasionally, a note of the repairs required.
+For my present purpose I will content myself with his account of a single
+bookcase, the first on the list. The writer begins thus: "From the upper
+shelf on the east side in the first seat (_de superiori textu[347] ex
+orienti parte in prima_ (sic) _sedile_)." Three volumes are enumerated.
+"From the lower shelf (_de inferiori textu_)," two volumes. "From the
+upper shelf on the other side of the same seat (_de superiori textu ex
+altera parte eiusdem sedilis_)," seven volumes. "From the lower shelf (_de
+inferiori textu_)," five volumes. In this way eight seats, i.e. bookcases,
+are gone through on this side of the room. The writer next turns his
+attention to the south side, and goes through eight more seats, beginning
+with: "From the east side of the upper shelf on the south side (_de textu
+superiori ex parte australi incipiendo. In parte orientali_)." The
+examination was evidently thorough, and, as the same number of seats is
+enumerated for each side of the room, we may, I think, safely conclude
+that all were examined, and that the whole number in the library was
+sixteen.
+
+The passages I have quoted shew that each of these bookcases had an upper
+and lower shelf on each side, on which the books stood, so as to be
+conveniently consulted by readers on each side; the books were chained;
+and, in consequence, there must have been a desk, presumably below the
+shelves on each side; and a seat for the reader. I have embodied these
+requirements in the accompanying sketch or diagram (fig. 89), which
+indicates a bookcase of the same type as those at Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford. If we may suppose that each of these cases was two feet wide and
+eight feet long like those at Merton College, we can accommodate eight
+cases on each side of the room (fig. 88), with the same interval between
+each pair as at that college.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89. Sketch of the probable appearance of a bookcase,
+and a reader's seat, in the Library at Christ Church, Canterbury.]
+
+Let us now consider whether the library as thus arranged would have had
+sufficient shelf-room. Each bookcase being 8 feet long would contain 32
+feet of shelving, and the 16 cases a total of 512 feet. The catalogue made
+in the time of Prior Henry of Eastry (1285-1331) enumerates 1850
+volumes[348]. If we allow two feet and a half for every ten of these we
+shall require 462 1/2 feet; or in other words we can arrange the whole
+collection in 14 stalls, leaving 2 over for the additions which must have
+been made in the interval between the middle of the 14th century and the
+date of Brother Ingram's researches.
+
+If the sketch here given of the probable aspect of the library at Christ
+Church, Canterbury, be compared with the view of the library at Merton
+College, Oxford (fig. 82), a fairly correct idea of a great conventual
+library will be obtained. A very slight effort of imagination is needed to
+make the necessary changes in the shelves, and to replace academic
+students by Benedictine monks. Then, if we conceive the shelves to be
+loaded with manuscripts, many of which were written in the early days of
+the English Church, we shall be able to realise the feelings of Leland on
+entering the library at Glastonbury:
+
+    I had hardly crossed the threshold when the mere sight
+    of books remarkable for their vast antiquity filled me
+    with awe, or I might almost say with bewilderment: so
+    that for a moment I could not move a step forward[349].
+
+I propose in the next place to print a translation of the Introduction to
+the catalogue[350] of the Benedictine Priory of S. Martin at Dover, which
+was a cell to Canterbury made in 1389 by John Whytfeld. This catalogue
+does not indicate the stall-system; in fact I am at a loss to define the
+precise system which it does indicate. I print it in this place on account
+of its internal interest, and the evidence which it affords of the care
+taken in the last quarter of the fourteenth century to make books easily
+accessible to scholars.
+
+    The present Register of the Library of the Priory of
+    Dover, compiled in the year of the Lord's Incarnation
+    1389 under the presidency of John Neunam prior and monk
+    of the said church, is separated into three main
+    divisions. The object is that the first part may supply
+    information to the precentor of the house concerning the
+    number of the books and the complete knowledge of them:
+    that the second part may stir up studious brethren to
+    eager and frequent reading: and that the third part may
+    point out the way to the speedy finding of individual
+    treatises by the scholars. Now although a brief special
+    preface is prefixed to each part to facilitate the
+    understanding of it, to this first part certain general
+    notes are prefixed, to begin with, for the more plain
+    understanding of the whole Register.
+
+    Be it noted, then, first, that this whole Library is
+    divided into nine several classes (Distinctions), marked
+    according to the nine first letters of the alphabet,
+    which are affixed to the classes themselves, in such a
+    way that A marks out to him who enters the first Class,
+    B the second, C the third, and so on in order. Each of
+    the said nine classes, moreover, will be seen to be
+    divided into seven shelves (grades), which are also
+    marked off by the addition of Roman numeral figures,
+    following the letters which denote the classes. We begin
+    the numbering of the shelves from the bottom, and
+    proceed upwards so that the bottom shelf, which is the
+    first, is marked thus, I; the second thus, II; the third
+    thus, III; and so the numbering goes, on up to
+    seven[351].
+
+    In addition to this, the books of the Library are all of
+    them marked on each leaf with Arabic numerals, to
+    facilitate the ascertaining of the contents of the
+    volumes.
+
+    Now since many of the volumes contain a number of
+    treatises, the names of these treatises, although they
+    have not always been correctly christened, are written
+    down under each volume, and an Arabic numeral is added
+    to each name shewing on what leaf each tract begins. To
+    this number the letter A or B is subjoined, the letter A
+    here denoting the first page of the leaf, and the letter
+    B the second. The books themselves, furthermore, have
+    their class-letters and also their shelf-marks inserted
+    not only outside on their bindings, but also inside,
+    accompanying the tables of contents at the beginning. To
+    such class-letters a small Arabic figure is added which
+    shews clearly what position the book occupies in the
+    order of placing on the shelf concerned.
+
+    On the second, third, or fourth leaf of the book, or
+    thereabouts, on the lower margin the name of the book is
+    written. Before it are entered the above-mentioned
+    class-letters and shelf-numbers, and after it (a small
+    space intervening) are immediately set down the words
+    with which that leaf begins, which I shall call the
+    proof of investigation (_probatorium cognitionis_). The
+    Arabic figures next following will state how many leaves
+    are contained in the whole volume; and finally another
+    numeral immediately following the last clearly sets
+    forth the number of the tracts contained in the said
+    volume.
+
+    If then the above facts be securely entrusted to a
+    retentive memory it will be clearly seen in what class,
+    shelf, place and order each book of the whole Library
+    ought to be put, and on what leaf and which side of the
+    leaf the beginnings of the several treatises may be
+    found. For it has been the object of the compiler of
+    this present register [and] of the Library, by setting
+    forth a variety of such marks and notations of classes,
+    shelves, order, pagination, treatises and volumes, to
+    insure for his monastery security from loss in time to
+    come, to shut the door against the spite of such as
+    might wish to despoil or bargain away such a treasure,
+    and to set up a sure bulwark of defence and resistance.
+    And in truth the compiler will not be offended but will
+    honestly love anyone who shall bring this
+    register--which is still faulty in many respects--into
+    better order, even if he should see fit to place his own
+    name at the head of the whole work.
+
+    In the first part of the register, therefore, we have
+    throughout at the top, between black lines ruled
+    horizontally, first the class-letter, in red, and,
+    following it, the shelf-mark, in black characters
+    (_tetris signaculis_). Then again between other lines
+    ruled in red, vertically: first, on the left a numeral
+    shewing the place of the book in order on its shelf:
+    then the name of the volume: thirdly, the number of the
+    "probatory" leaf; fourthly, the "probatory" words (in
+    the case of which, by the way, reference is made to the
+    text and not to the gloss); fifthly, the number of
+    leaves in the whole volume; and, lastly, the number of
+    the treatises contained in it--all written within the
+    aforesaid lines. In addition there will be left in each
+    shelf of this part, at the end, some vacant space, in
+    which the names of books that may be subsequently
+    acquired can be placed[352].
+
+The meaning of the word "distinction" is the principal difficulty in the
+way of understanding the above description. I thought at first that it
+denoted merely difference of subject, and that _gradus_, as in the
+catalogue of Queens' College, Cambridge, was a side of a lectern. But the
+statement that the grades are numbered "from the bottom and proceed
+upwards" can hardly be reconciled with any arrangement of lecterns.
+_Distinctio_ probably denotes a bookcase or press, divided into 7 grades,
+and probably placed against the wall, the word _gradus_ here meaning a
+flat shelf, instead of one set at an angle as in former instances. If this
+explanation be correct we have here a very early instance of shelves in
+such a position.
+
+My second example of a monastic library fitted up according to the
+stall-system is the library at Clairvaux. As I have already printed a full
+description of it[353], I need not do more in this place than translate
+the passage referring to the fittings:
+
+    This library is 189 feet long, by 51 feet wide[354]. In
+    it are 48 seats (_bancs_), and in each seat 4 shelves
+    (_poulpitres_) furnished with books on all subjects, but
+    chiefly theology.... The building that contains the said
+    library is magnificent, built of stone, and excellently
+    well lighted on both sides with five large windows, well
+    glazed.
+
+As there were so many as 48 bookcases, that is, 24 on each side, the
+bookcases were evidently spaced without reference to the lateral windows,
+which were probably raised high above the floor.
+
+The catalogue, from which I have already quoted the verses commemorating
+the building of the library, contains much useful information respecting
+the arrangement of the books. The verses are succeeded by the following
+introductory note:
+
+    Repertorium omnium librorum in hac Clarevallis
+    biblioteca existentium a fratre Mathurino de cangeyo
+    eiusdem loci monacho non sine magno labore editum.
+
+                            Lege
+
+    Pro intelligentia presentis tabule seu Repertorii,
+    sciendum est quod a parte aquilonari collocantur libri
+    quorum litere capitales nigre sunt, quorum vero rubre a
+    parte australi. Et omnes in ea ordine alphabetico
+    scribuntur.
+
+    Utriusque autem partis primum analogium per litteram A
+    signatur, secundum per litteram B, tercium per litteram
+    C, quartum per litteram D, quintum per litteram E. Et
+    consequenter cetera analogia per sequentes litteras
+    alphabeticas.
+
+    Quodlibet autem analogium quatuor habet partes, quarum
+    prima signatur per litteram A, secunda per B, tercia per
+    C, quarta per D.
+
+    Prime partis primi analogii primus liber signatur per A.
+    a. 1, secundus per A. a. 2, tercius per A. a. 3, et
+    consequenter.
+
+    Secunde partis primus liber signatur per A. b. 1,
+    secundus per A. b. 2; et de consequentibus similis est
+    ordinatio.
+
+    Tercie partis primus liber signatur per A. c. 1,
+    secundus per A. c. 2; et consequenter.
+
+    Quarte partis primus liber signatur per A. d. 1,
+    secundus per A. d. 2; et consequenter.
+
+    [In this way five "analogia" are enumerated.]
+
+    Et eadem est disciplina et ordinacio de ceteris
+    analogiis prout habetur in novissimo quaternione eiusdem
+    tabule, immo et in fronte cuiuslibet analogii in tabella
+    eidem appendente.
+
+    Hanc tabulam seu repertorium scripsit quondam frater
+    Petrus mauray de Arecis oriundus. Vivus vel defunctus
+    requiescat in bona semper pace. Amen.
+
+The most important passage in the above note may be thus translated:
+
+                            Read
+
+    For the right understanding of the present table or
+    method of finding books (_tabule seu repertorii_), you
+    must know that on the north side are ranged those books
+    whereof the capital letters are black; on the south side
+    those whereof the capital letters are red. All are set
+    down in alphabetical order.
+
+    On each side the first desk (_analogium_) is marked by
+    the letter A; the second by the letter B; [and so
+    forth].
+
+    Each desk has four divisions, the first of which is
+    marked by the letter _a_, the second by the letter _b_,
+    the third by the letter _c_, the fourth by the letter
+    _d_. The first book on the first shelf of the first desk
+    is marked A. a. i; the second A. a. ii; [and so forth].
+
+The catalogue as well as the description makes it perfectly clear that
+each desk, that is to say, each bookcase, had four shelves; and further,
+as the authors of the _Voyage Litteraire_ (1708) mention chains[355], it
+may be concluded that there were desks, and seats for readers, between
+each pair of bookcases. If we place two shelves on each side of the case
+we get a piece of furniture precisely similar to that in use at
+Canterbury.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[332] Macray, _Annals of the Bodleian Library_, p. 7. The words used are:
+Jam enim si quis, ut fit, uni libro inhaereat, aliis studere volentibus ad
+tres vel quatuor pro vicinitate colligationis praecludit accessum.
+
+[333] Hearne's _Glastonbury_, ed. 1722, p. 286.
+
+[334] _Fasti Herefordenses_, by Rev. F. T. Havergal. 4^o, 1869, p. 181. A
+Chapter-order dated 16 February, 1589, directed the removal of the books
+to the Lady Chapel, and the erection of a school on the ground where the
+Library had once stood.
+
+[335] For the historical facts in the following account I am indebted to
+Mr Henderson's History, to the merits of which I have already drawn
+attention. I have also made copious extracts from the College
+account-books. Further, I have carefully studied the library on several
+occasions, and have had the benefit of the professional assistance of my
+friend Mr T. D. Atkinson, Architect.
+
+[336] In the bursar's accounts for 1605, among other charges for the
+library, is the following entry: "pro pari cardinum ad sedem in
+bibliotheca 12d." If I am right in thinking that this refers to the desks
+for the readers in the west library it proves that the existing cases had
+been set up before 1605.
+
+[337] Wood, _Colleges and Halls_, p. 551.
+
+[338] Add. MSS. Mus. Brit. 5803, MSS. Cole, II. 9.
+
+[339] _Arch. Hist._ III. 453.
+
+[340] I have described these fragments in _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc._, Vol.
+VIII. p. 18.
+
+[341] See my paper in _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._, Vol. IX. p. 37.
+
+[342] _Scrinia reserata_: a Memorial ... of John Williams, D.D.... By John
+Hacket. Fol. Lond. 1693, pp. 46, 47.
+
+[343] See above, p. 106.
+
+[344] _Arch. Hist. of ... Monastery of Chr. Ch. Cant._ 8vo. 1869, p. 65.
+This chapel was pulled down at the end of the 17th century and the present
+library, called the Howley library, built in its place.
+
+[345] I have to thank my friend Mr W. H. St John Hope, Assistant Secretary
+of the Society of Antiquaries, for first drawing my attention to it; and
+the Dean and Chapter of Canterbury for leave to use it.
+
+[346] Reparaciones facte circa libros qui continentur in libraria supra
+capellam domini prioris videlicet in le new byndyng and bordyng cum
+coopertoriis and le claspyng and chenyng eciam cum diuersis libris ex dono
+eiusdem prioris videlicet Anno domini M^o ccccc^o viij^o and Anno Regni
+Regis henrici vij^o xxiii.
+
+[347] This word seems to have been used at Canterbury to denote any piece
+of joinery. We have already seen it applied to a carrell (p. 99).
+
+[348] See above, p. 102. The catalogue has been printed by Edwards,
+_Memoirs of Libraries_, I. pp. 122-235.
+
+[349] Vix certe limen intraveram cum antiquissimorum librorum vel solus
+conspectus religionem, nescio an stuporem, animo incuteret meo; eaque de
+causa, pedem paullulum sistebam. Leland, _De Script. Brit._ ed. Hall, I.
+41.
+
+[350] This catalogue is in the Bodleian Library (MSS. 920). I am indebted
+to my friend Dr James for the admirable translation which I here print.
+
+[351] The words thus translated are: "Incipiendo graduum computacionem a
+loco inferiori in altum procedendo videlicet ut gradus infimus qui primus
+est sic signetur I."
+
+[352] Dr James has pointed out (_Camb. Ant. Soc. Oct. Publ._, No. XXXII.)
+that there are six MSS. from Dover Priory among Archbishop Parker's MSS.
+at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. The first of these--a Bible in two
+volumes--is entered in the catalogue of the Priory as A. 1. 2, 3--that is
+to say it was in _distinctio_ A, _gradus_ 1, and the volumes stood second
+and third in the _gradus_.
+
+[353] See above, p. 112.
+
+[354] The words are: "contient de longueur LXIII passees, et de largeur
+XVII passees." I have taken one pace=3 feet.
+
+[355] _Voyage Litteraire_, ed. 1717, Part I.. p. 102.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE LECTERN-SYSTEM IN ITALY. LIBRARIES AT CESENA, AT THE CONVENT OF S.
+MARK, FLORENCE, AND AT MONTE OLIVETO. VATICAN LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. DUCAL
+LIBRARY AT URBINO. MEDICEAN LIBRARY, FLORENCE. SYSTEM OF CHAINING THERE
+USED. CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIEVAL LIBRARIES. NAMES OF MEDIEVAL BOOKCASES
+AND BOOKSHELVES.
+
+
+While the "stall-system" was being generally adopted in England and in
+France, a different plan was being developed in Italy. It consisted in a
+return to the "lectern-system," with the addition of a shelf below the
+lectern, on which the books lay on their sides when not wanted; and an
+ingenious combination of a seat for the reader with the desk and shelf.
+
+The earliest library fitted up in this manner that I have been able to
+discover is at Cesena, a city of north Italy between Forli and Ravenna. It
+is practically in its original condition.
+
+In the fifteenth century Cesena was governed by the powerful family of
+Malatesta, one of whom, Domenico Malatesta Novello, built the library in
+1452, and placed it under the charge of the convent of S. Francesco. Two
+burghers were associated with the Friars in this duty. The library was
+always public. It was designed by Matteo Nuzio of Fano, a celebrated
+architect of the day, as we learn from an inscription originally inserted
+into the wall on the right of the door of entrance, but now placed inside
+the library:
+
+                    MATHEVS. NVTIVS.
+               FANENSI EX VRBE. CREATVS.
+                 DEDALVS ALTER. OPVS.
+              TANTVM. DEDVXIT. AD VNGVEM.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 90, 91. Ground-plan and section of Library at
+Cesena.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. General view of the Library at Cesena.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+The general plan and arrangement will be readily understood from the
+ground-plan (fig. 90), and the longitudinal section (fig. 91), copied on a
+reduced scale from those given by the learned Giuseppe Maria Muccioli, who
+published a catalogue of the MSS. in the library in 1780[356], and also
+from the general view of the interior (fig. 92). It is a long narrow
+building, 133 ft. 4 in. long, by 34 ft. broad[357], standing east and
+west, so that its windows face north and south. It is on the first floor,
+being built over some rooms which once belonged to the convent, and is
+entered at the west end through a lofty marble doorway. Internally it is
+divided into three aisles, of which the central is the narrowest, by two
+rows of ten fluted marble columns. Against the side-walls and partly
+engaged in them, are two rows of similar columns. The aisles are divided
+by plain quadripartite vaults, resting partly on the central columns,
+partly on those engaged in the side-walls, into eleven bays, each lighted
+by two windows (fig. 91). These aisles are about 12 ft. wide. The central
+aisle, 8 ft. 3 in. wide between the columns, has a plain barrel vault,
+extending from end to end of the building.
+
+The influence of the Renaissance may readily be detected in the
+ornamentation of the columns, but traces of medieval forms still linger in
+the room. If the central alley were wider it might be taken for the nave
+of a basilica.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Bookcases at west end of south side of Library,
+Cesena.]
+
+There are 29 bookcases in each aisle. Between each pair of cases there is
+a wooden floor, raised 3 1/2 in. above the general level of the room; and
+there is an interval of 2 ft. 3 in. between the cases and the wall, so
+that access may be readily obtained to them from either end. The room is
+paved with unglazed tiles.
+
+The westernmost bay is empty (fig. 90), being used as a vestibule, and
+the first bookcase, if I may be allowed the expression, on each side, is
+really not a bookcase but a seat (fig. 93)[358].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94. Part of a bookcase at Cesena to shew the system of
+chaining.]
+
+The construction of these cases is most ingenious, both as regards
+convenience and economy of space. If they were designed by the architect
+who built the room, he must have been a man of no ordinary originality.
+Each piece of furniture consists of a desk to lay the books on when wanted
+for use, a shelf for those not immediately required, and a seat for the
+reader, whose comfort is considered by a gentle slope in the back (fig.
+93). At the end next the central alley is a panel containing the heraldic
+devices of the Malatesta family.
+
+The principal dimensions of each case are as follows:
+
+  Length                       10 ft. 2 1/2 in.
+  Height                        4 ft. 2 1/4 in.
+  Width of seat                 3 ft. 1 in.
+  Width of foot-rest           11 in.
+  Height                        3 1/2 in.
+  Height of seat from ground    1 ft. 10 1/2 in.
+  Width                         1 ft. 4 in.
+  Distance from desk to desk    4 ft. 1 in.
+  Angle of slope of desk       45 deg.
+
+The books are still attached to the desks by chains. The bar which carries
+them is in full view just under the ledge of the desk (fig. 94), inserted
+into massive iron stanchions nailed to the underside of the desk. There
+are four of these: one at each end of the desk, and one on each side of
+the central standard. The bar is locked by means of a hasp attached to the
+standard in which the lock is sunk.
+
+The chains are of a novel form (fig. 95). Each link, about 2 1/4 in. long,
+consists of a solid central portion, which looks as though it were cast
+round a bent wire, the ends of which project beyond the solid part. The
+chain is attached to the book by an iron hook screwed into the lower edge
+of the right-hand board near the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. Piece of a chain, Cesena.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Chained book at Ghent.]
+
+The volume which I figure next (fig. 96), entitled _Lumen animae seu liber
+moralitatum_, was printed at Eichstaedt in Bavaria, in 1479. M. Ferd.
+Vander Haeghen, librarian of Ghent, bought it in Hungary a few years
+since, and gave it to the library which he so ably directs. The chain is
+just 24 in. long. The links, of which there are ten, are slightly
+different from any which I have figured, each link being compressed in the
+middle so that the two sides touch each other. There is no ring, but a
+link, rather larger than the rest, is passed round the bar. It will be
+observed that the chain is fastened to the left-hand board, and not to the
+right-hand board as in Italy. The presence of a title written on
+parchment kept in place by strips of leather, and five bosses of copper,
+shew that the left-hand board was uppermost on the desk. The position of
+the chain shews that when it was attached the book was intended to lie on
+a desk, where the bar must have been in front of, or below, the desk; but
+there is also a scar on the upper edge of the right-hand board, which
+shews that at some previous period it lay on a desk of what I may call the
+Zutphen type, where the bar was above the sloping surface.
+
+With the library at Cesena may be compared that attached to the Dominican
+Convent of S. Mark at Florence, built in 1441 for Cosmo dei Medici--the
+first public library in Italy. It is on the first floor, and is approached
+by a staircase from the cloister. It is 148 ft. long by 34 ft. 6 in.
+wide[359], divided into three aisles by two rows of eleven columns. The
+central aisle, 9 ft. wide between the columns, has a plain barrel vault;
+the side aisles, 11 ft. wide, have quadripartite vaults. In each of the
+side-walls there are twelve windows. In all these details the library
+resembles that at Cesena so closely that I cannot help suspecting that
+Malatesta or his architect may have copied it.
+
+The original fittings have been removed, but we learn from the
+catalogue[360] that the books were originally contained in 64 _banchi_,
+half of which were on the east side and half on the west side of the room.
+There was an average of about sixteen books to each _banchus_. The
+catalogue also mentions a Greek library, which had seven _banchi_ on each
+side. This was probably a separate room.
+
+There is a similar library at the Benedictine Convent of Monte Oliveto,
+near Siena, but it is on a much smaller scale. Like the others, it is
+divided into three aisles by two rows of six columns. The central aisle
+has a barrel vault, and the side aisles quadripartite vaults. It is 85 ft.
+long by 32 ft. broad. There are seven windows on one side only. At the end
+of the library, approached by a flight of thirteen stairs, is a room of
+the same width and 21 ft. long, which may have been used as an inner
+library. An inscription over the door of entrance records that this
+library was built in 1516[361].
+
+While discussing the arrangements of Italian libraries, I must not omit
+that at the Convent of S. Francis at Assisi[362]. The catalogue, dated 1
+January, 1381, shews that the library, even at that comparatively early
+date, was in two divisions: (1) for the use of the brethren; (2) for loans
+to extraneous persons. This catalogue, after a brief preface stating that
+it includes "all the books belonging to the library of the Holy Convent of
+S. Francis at Assisi, whether they be chained, or whether they be not
+chained," begins as follows:
+
+    In the first place we make a list of the books which are
+    chained to benches (_banchi_) in the Public Library as
+    follows, and observe that all the leaves of all the
+    books which are in this catalogue, whether they are in
+    quires of 12, 10, 8, or any other number of leaves
+    larger or smaller,--every one of these books contains
+    the denomination of the quires, as appears in the first
+    quire of each book on the lower margin: all the quires
+    being marked at beginning and end in black and red with
+    the figure here shewn, and the number of the quire
+    within it.
+
+    [Illustration]
+
+    Moreover, the letters of the alphabet that are placed on
+    the top of the covers ought all to be fairly large and
+    entirely black, as marked below [in this catalogue] at
+    the end of each book[363].
+
+This introduction is succeeded by the list of books. They are chained to
+nine benches on the west side of a room, and to the same number on the
+east side. The total is 170.
+
+The second part of the catalogue has the following heading:
+
+    In the name of the Lord, Amen. Here begins the list of
+    all the books which are in the Reserved Library
+    (_libraria secreta_) of the Holy Convent of S. Francis
+    at Assisi, appointed to be lent to prelates, masters,
+    readers, bachelors, and all other brethren in orders,
+    according as the amount of knowledge or line of study of
+    each demands them.
+
+This part of the collection is contained in eleven presses (for which the
+unusual word _solarium_[364] is used) arranged along the east and west
+walls of a room, but whether the same as the last we are not informed. The
+number of manuscripts is 530.
+
+A considerable number of the manuscripts here registered still exists.
+They are well taken care of in the Town Hall, and a list of them has been
+privately printed. Several are in their original condition, bound in
+boards about a quarter of an inch thick, covered with white leather. The
+title, written on a strip of parchment, is pasted on the top of the
+right-hand board. It usually begins with a capital letter in red or black,
+denoting the desk or press in which a given MS. would be found, thus:
+
+  F   Postilla Magistri
+      Nicolai de lyra super psalmos
+      reponatur uersus orientem in banco vj^o.
+
+In the next place I will tell at length the story of the establishment of
+the Vatican Library by Pope Sixtus IV., as it is both interesting in
+itself and useful for my present purpose[365].
+
+The real founder of the Vatican Library, as we understand the term, was
+Nicholas V. (1447-1455), but he was unable to do more than collect books,
+for which no adequate room was provided till the accession of Sixtus IV.
+in 1471. In December of that year, only four months after his election,
+his chamberlain commissioned five architects to quarry and convey to the
+palace a supply of building-stone "for use in a certain building there to
+be constructed for library-purposes[366]"; but the scheme for an
+independent building, as indicated by the terms here employed, was soon
+abandoned, and nothing was done for rather more than three years. In the
+beginning of 1475, however, a new impulse was given to the work by the
+appointment of Bartolommeo Platina as Librarian (28 February)[367]; and
+from that date until Platina's death in 1481 it went forward without let
+or hindrance. This distinguished man of letters seems to have enjoyed the
+full confidence of the Pope, to have been liberally supplied with funds,
+and to have had a free hand in the employment of craftsmen and artists to
+furnish and decorate his Library. It is pleasant to be able to record that
+he lived to see his work completed, and all the books under his charge
+catalogued. The enumeration of the volumes contained in the different
+stalls, closets, and coffers, with which the catalogue of 1481 concludes,
+is headed by a rubric, which records, with pathetic simplicity, the fact
+that it was drawn up "by Platina, librarian, and Demetrius of Lucca his
+pupil, keeper, on the 14th day of September, 1481, only eight days before
+his death[368]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. Ground-plan of the rooms in the Vatican Palace
+fitted up for library-purposes by Sixtus IV.
+
+E. Wilson, Cambridge]
+
+It is evident that the Library had suffered considerably from the
+negligence of those in whose charge it had been. Many volumes were
+missing, and those that remained were in bad condition. Platina and his
+master set to work energetically to remedy these defects. The former
+engaged a binder, and bought materials for his use[369]; the latter issued
+a Bull (30 June) of exceptional severity[370]. After stating that "certain
+ecclesiastical and secular persons, having no fear of God before their
+eyes, have taken sundry volumes in theology and other faculties from the
+library, which volumes they still presume rashly and maliciously to hide
+and secretly to detain"; such persons are warned to return the books in
+question within forty days. If they disobey they are _ipso facto_
+excommunicated. If they are clerics they shall be incapable of holding
+livings, and if laymen, of holding any office. Those who have knowledge of
+such persons are to inform against them. The effect produced by this
+document has not been recorded; nor are we told what the extent of the
+loss was. It could hardly have been very extensive, for a catalogue which
+Platina prepared, or perhaps only signed, on the day of his election,
+enumerates 2527 volumes, of which 770 were Greek and 1757 Latin[371]. The
+number of the latter had more than doubled in the twenty years that had
+elapsed since the death of Nicholas V., an augmentation due, in all
+probability, to the activity of Sixtus himself.
+
+The place selected to contain this extensive collection was the
+ground-floor of a building which had been erected by Nicholas V. and
+subsequently used as a provision store. The position of it, and its
+relations to neighbouring structures, will be understood from the
+accompanying plan (fig. 97), which I borrow from M. Fabre's paper. In
+order to shew how the building was arranged when it was first built,
+before other structures abutted against it, I have prepared a second plan
+(fig. 98) drawn from measurements taken by myself.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Ground-plan of part of the Vatican Palace, shewing
+the building of Nicholas V., as arranged for library purposes by Sixtus
+IV., and its relation to the surrounding structures.
+
+From Letarouilly, _Le Vatican_, fol. Paris, 1882; as reproduced by M.
+Fabre.]
+
+The floor is divided into four rooms by party-walls which are probably
+older than 1475, but which are proved, by the catalogue of 1481, to have
+been in existence at that period. The first of these rooms, entered
+directly from the court, contained the Latin Library; the second, the
+Greek Library. These two, taken together, formed the Common, or Public,
+Library (_Bibliotheca communis_, _B. publica_, or merely _Bibliotheca_).
+Next to this room, or these rooms, was the _Bibliotheca secreta_ or
+Reserved Library, in which the more precious MSS. were kept apart from the
+others. The fourth room, which was not fitted up till 1480 or 1481, was
+called _Bibliotheca pontificia_. In addition to MSS. it contained the
+papal archives and registers (_Regesta_). In the catalogue dated 1512 it
+is called _Intima et ultima secretior bibliotheca_, and seems to have
+contained the most valued treasures. This quadripartite division is
+commemorated by Aurelio Brandolini (Epigram XII.)[372]. After alluding to
+the founders of some of the famous libraries of antiquity, he says in
+conclusion:
+
+  Bibliotheca fuit, fateor, sua cuique, sed vna.
+    Sixte pater vincis: quatuor vnus habes.
+
+Thanks to the care with which Platina set down his expenditure, we are
+able to follow step by step the gradual transformation of the rooms. His
+account-books[373], begun 30 June 1475, record, with a minuteness as rare
+as it is valuable, his transactions with the different artists and workmen
+whom he thought proper to employ. It was evidently intended that the
+library should be beautiful as well as useful, and some of the most
+celebrated artists of the day were set to work upon it.
+
+The librarian prudently began in August, 1475, by increasing the light,
+and a new window was made "on the side next the court." It seems to have
+been impossible to get either workmen or materials in Rome; both were
+supplied from a distance. For the windows, glass, lead and solder were
+brought from Venice, and a German, called simply Hormannus, i.e. Hermann,
+was hired to glaze them. For the internal decoration two well-known
+Florentine artists--the brothers Ghirlandajo--were engaged, with Melozzo
+da Forli, who was painting there in 1477[374]. In 1476 the principal
+entrance was decorated with special care. Marble was bought for the
+doorcase, and the door itself was studded with 95 bronze nails, which were
+gilt, as were also the ring and knocker, and the frame of trellised
+ironwork (_cancellus_), which hung within the outer door.
+
+The building is entered from the _Cortile del Papagallo_[375] through a
+marble doorway (fig. 98, A) in the classical style surmounted by the arms
+of Sixtus IV. On the frieze are the words SIXTUS PAPA IIII. The doorcase
+is doubtless that made in 1476; but the door, with its gilt nails and
+other adornments, has disappeared. Within the doorway there has been a
+descent of three steps at least to the floor of the Library[376]. The four
+rooms of which it was once composed are now used as the _Floreria_ or
+_Garde-meuble_ of the Vatican Palace; a use to which they have probably
+been put ever since the new Library was built at the end of the sixteenth
+century.
+
+The Latin Library, into which the door from the court opens directly, is a
+noble room, 58 ft. 9 in. long, 34 ft. 8 in. wide, and about 16 ft. high to
+the spring of the vault. In the centre is a square pier, which carries the
+four plain quadripartite vaults, probably of brick, covered with plaster.
+The room is at present lighted by two windows (B, C) in the north wall,
+and by another, of smaller size, above the door of entrance (A). That this
+latter window was inserted by Sixtus IV., is proved by the presence of his
+arms above it on a stone shield. This is probably the window "next the
+court" made in 1475. The windows in the north wall are about 8 ft. high by
+5 ft. broad, and their sills are 7 ft. above the floor of the room.
+Further, there were two windows in the west wall (_b_, _c_) a little
+smaller than those in the north wall, and placed at a much lower level,
+only a few feet above the floor. These were blocked when the Torre Borgia
+was built by Alexander VI. (1492-1503), but their position can still be
+easily made out. This room must have been admirably lighted in former
+days.
+
+The room next to this, the Greek Library, is 28 ft. broad by 34 ft. 6 in.
+long. It is lighted by a window (fig. 98, D) in the north wall, of the
+same size as those of the Latin Library, and by another (_ibid._, E) a
+good deal smaller, opposite to it. This room was originally entered from
+the Latin Library by a door close to the north wall (_d_). But, in
+1480[377], two large openings (_e_, _f_) were made in the partition-wall,
+either because the light was found to be deficient, or because it was
+thought best to throw the two rooms into one as far as possible. At some
+subsequent date the door (_d_) was blocked up, and the opening next to it
+(_e_) was carried down to the ground, so as to do duty as a door. The
+other opening (_f_), about 7 ft. 6 in. square, remains as constructed.
+
+The decorative work of the brothers Ghirlandajo can still be made out, at
+least in part, though time has made sad havoc with it. The edges of the
+vaulting were made prominent by classical moldings coarsely drawn in a
+dark colour; and at the key of each vault is a large architectural
+ornament, or coat of arms, surrounded by a wreath of oak-leaves and
+acorns, to commemorate the Della Rovere family. They are tied together on
+each side with long flaunting ribbons, which, with their shadows, extend
+for a considerable distance over the vaults. The semi-circular lunettes in
+the upper part of the wall under the vaults are all treated alike, except
+that those on the sides of the room, being larger than those at the ends
+(fig. 98), contain two subjects instead of one. The lower part, for about
+3 feet in height, is painted to represent a solid marble balcony, behind
+which a Doctor or Prophet is supposed to be standing. He is visible from
+rather below the waist upwards, and holds in his hand a scroll bearing an
+appropriate text. On each side of the figure in the smaller lunettes,
+resting on the balcony, is a large vase of flowers; and behind it a clear
+sky. Round the upper edge of the lunette is a broad band of oak-leaves,
+and fruits of various kinds. The figures, of which there were evidently
+twelve originally, are the following, beginning with the one at the
+north-east corner over the door leading into the Greek Library, and
+proceeding to the right:
+
+   1. HIERONYMUS. _Scientiam scripturarum ama, et vitia carnis non amabis._
+
+   2. GREGORIUS. _Dei sapientiam sardonyco et zaphyro non confer._
+
+   3. THOMAS. _Legend illegible._
+
+   4. BONAVENTURA. _Fructus scripturae est plenitudo aeternae felicitatis._
+
+   5. ARISTOTELES. }
+                   }
+   6. DIOGENES.   }
+                   }
+   7. CLEOBULUS.   }
+                   }  _Legends illegible._
+   8. ANTISTHENES. }
+                   }
+   9. SOCRATES.    }
+                   }
+  10. PLATO.       }
+
+  11. AUGUSTINUS. _Nihil beatius est quam semper aliquid legere aut
+                  scribere._
+
+  12. AMBROSIUS. _Diligentiam circa scripturas sanctorum posui._
+
+Jerome and Gregory occupy the east wall; Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura
+the first lunette on the south wall, over the door of entrance; Aristotle
+and Diogenes the next, succeeded by Cleobulus and Antisthenes on the west
+wall; on the first lunette on the north wall are Socrates and Plato; in
+the second Augustine and Ambrose, facing Aquinas and Bonaventura. Thus the
+eastern half of the library was presided over by doctors of the Christian
+Church, the western by pagan philosophers.
+
+The space on the north wall (_gh_), nearly opposite to the door of
+entrance, was occupied by the fresco on which Melozzo da Forli was working
+in 1477. It was intended to commemorate the establishment of the Library
+in a permanent home by Sixtus the Fourth. The Pope is seated on the right
+of the spectator. On his right stands his nephew, Cardinal Pietro Riario,
+and before him, his head turned towards the Pope, to whom he seems to be
+speaking, another nephew, Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, afterwards Pope
+Julius the Second. At the feet of the Pope kneels Bartolommeo Platina, the
+newly appointed Librarian, who is pointing with the forefinger of his
+right hand to the inscription below the fresco. Behind Platina are two
+young men with chains of office round their necks. The inscription, said
+to have been written by Platina himself, is as follows:
+
+  TEMPLA, DOMUM EXPOSITIS[378], VICOS, FORA, MOENIA, PONTES,
+      VIRGINEAM TRIVII QUOD REPARARIS AQUAM,
+  PRISCA LICET NAUTIS STATUAS DARE MUNERA PORTUS,
+      ET VATICANUM CINGERE, SIXTE, JUGUM,
+  PLUS TAMEN URBS DEBET; NAM QUAE SQUALORE LATEBAT
+      CERNITUR IN CELEBRI BIBLIOTHECA LOCO.
+
+The fresco is now in the Vatican picture-gallery. It was transferred to
+canvas soon after 1815, when the present gallery was formed, and has
+suffered a good deal from what is called restoration[379].
+
+The decoration of the Greek Library is not alluded to in the
+Accounts[380]; but it is easy to see that the lunettes have been
+ornamented on the same system as those of the Latin Library, but without
+figures; for their decoration still exists, though much damaged by time
+and damp. Below the lunettes the walls are covered with whitewash, under
+which some decoration is evidently concealed. The whitewash has peeled off
+in some places, and colour is beginning to make its appearance.
+
+The _Bibliotheca secreta_ is 20 ft. wide by 38 ft. 6 in. long. It is
+lighted by a single window in the north wall (fig. 98, F), of the same
+size and shape as the rest. The light is sufficient, even under present
+conditions.
+
+The fourth and last room--spoken of in 1480 as "that addition which our
+Master lately made"--is 29 ft. wide by 40 ft. 6 in. long. It is at present
+lighted by only a single window in the north wall (fig. 98, G), and is
+very gloomy. But in former days, before Julius II. (1503-1513) built the
+_Cortile di San Damaso_, it had another window in the middle of the east
+wall (_ibid._, H), where there is now a door. Nothing certain can be made
+out about its decoration.
+
+It is much to be regretted that so little is said about the glazing of the
+windows throughout the Library. Great care was evidently bestowed upon
+them, and the engagement of foreign artists, with the purchase of glass at
+Venice, are proofs that something specially beautiful was intended.
+Coloured glass is mentioned, which may have been used either for coats of
+arms--and we know that the Papal Arms were to be set up in the
+_Bibliotheca secreta_--or for subjects. But, in forming conjectures as to
+the treatment of these windows, it should be remembered that the
+transmission of light must always have been the first consideration, and
+that white glass must have preponderated.
+
+The rooms for the Librarian and his assistants were in a small building
+which abutted on the Library at its S.W. corner, and stood between the two
+courts, obtaining light from each. Over the door of entrance was the
+inscription:
+
+              SIXTUS . IIII . PONT . MAX.
+  BIBLIOTECARIO . ET . CVSTODIBVS . LOCVM . ADDIXIT[381].
+
+The accommodation provided was not magnificent, two rooms only being
+mentioned. A door (fig. 98, _a_), now blocked, gave access to the Library
+from this building. It is interesting to note, as a proof of the richness
+of all the work, that it was of inlaid wood (_pino intarsiata_).
+
+The work of fitting up this Library occupied about six years. It began in
+September 1475, and proceeded continuously to January 1477, when Melozzo's
+fresco was in progress. In December of that year the windows of the
+_Bibliotheca secreta_ were begun; but during 1478 and 1479 nothing was
+done. In 1480 work was resumed, and the last payment to painters was made
+in 1481.
+
+Let us now consider how these rooms were fitted up for the reception of
+books. I will first collect the notices in the Accounts respecting desks,
+or _banchi_, as they are called, and then compare them with the rooms
+themselves, and with the descriptions in the catalogues, which are
+fortunately extremely full; and I think that it will be possible to give a
+clear and consistent picture of the arrangements.
+
+Platina ordered the desks for the Latin Library first, in 1475. This is
+set down in the following terms:
+
+    I have counted out, in the presence of Clement, steward
+    of the household of His Holiness our Master, Salvatus
+    the library-keeper (_librarius_), and Demetrius the
+    reader (_lector_), 45 ducats to Francis the carpenter of
+    Milan, now dwelling in the fishmarket of the city of
+    Rome, towards making the desks in the library; and
+    especially ten desks which stand on the left hand, the
+    length of which is 38 palms or thereabouts; and so
+    having received a part of the money, the total of which
+    is 130 ducats, he promises and binds himself to do that
+    which it is his duty to do, this 15th day of July,
+    1475[382].
+
+The full name of this carpenter is known, from his receipts, to have been
+Francesco de Gyovane di Boxi da Milano. He received in all 300 ducats
+instead of the 130 mentioned in the first agreement, and when the last
+payment was made to him, 7 June, 1476, the following explanatory note is
+given:
+
+    Moreover I have paid to the same [Francis the carpenter]
+    30 ducats for what remains due on 25 desks for the
+    Library: for the longer ones, which are 10 in number,
+    there were paid, as entered above, 130 ducats; for the
+    rest there were paid 170 ducats, making a total of 300
+    ducats, and so he has been paid in full for all the
+    desks, this 7th day of June, 1476[383].
+
+In 1477 the furniture for the next room, the _Bibliotheca secreta_ or
+Inner Library, was begun. The work was entrusted to a Florentine, called
+in the Accounts merely _Magister Joanninus faber lignarius de Florentia_,
+but identified by M. Fabre with Giovannino dei Dolci, one of the builders
+of the Sistine chapel. The most important entry referring to him is the
+following:
+
+    Master Giovannino, carpenter of Florence, had from me
+    Platyna, librarian of His Holiness our Master, for
+    making the desks in the inner library, for the great
+    press, and the settle, in the said room--all of which
+    were estimated by Master Francis of Milan at one hundred
+    and eighty ducats--he had, as aforesaid, sixty-five
+    ducats and sixty groats on the 7th May, 1477[384].
+
+The last payment on this account was made 18 March, 1478, on which day he
+also received eight ducats for three frames "to contain the names of the
+books," and for some repairs to old desks[385]. These frames were painted
+by one of Melozzo da Forli's workmen[386]. In February, 1481, 12
+book-chests were supplied[387].
+
+The desks for the fourth room or _Bibliotheca pontificia_ were ordered in
+1480-81. The workmen employed were Giovannino and his brother Marco.
+
+    Master Giovannino of Florence and Master Marco his
+    brother, a carpenter, received XXV ducats in part
+    payment for the desks which are being made in the
+    library now added by His Holiness our Master, 18 July,
+    1480[388].
+
+These workmen received 100 ducats up to 7 April, 1481, but the account was
+not then settled. Up to this period the bookcases had cost the large sum
+of 580 ducats or, if the value of the ducat be taken at six shillings and
+sixpence, L188 10_s._ of our money.
+
+The purchase of chains began in January 1476[389]. It is worth notice that
+so simple an article as a chain for a book could not be bought in Rome,
+but had to be sent for from Milan; where, by the way, the dues exacted by
+the government made the purchase irksome and costly. The total number of
+chains bought was 1728, and the total cost 102 ducats, or rather more than
+L33. The rings were found to be too small, and were altered in Rome.
+Nothing is said about the place from which the rods came (_ferramenta
+quibus catenae innituntur_).
+
+In 1477 (14 April) "John the chain-maker (_Joannes fabricator catenarum_)"
+supplies "48 iron rods on which the books are strung on the seats[390]"
+and also 48 locks, evidently connected with the same number of rods
+supplied before. In the same year a key-maker (_magister clavium_)
+supplies 22 locks for the seats and cupboards in the _Bibliotheca
+secreta_[391]; and in 1480, when the _Bibliotheca pontficia_ was being
+fitted up, keys, locks, chains, and other ironwork were supplied by
+Bernardino, nephew of John of Milan[392].
+
+For further information we must turn to the catalogues. For my present
+purpose the first of these[393] is that by Platina, of which I have
+already spoken, dated 14 September, 1481. It is a small folio volume,
+written on vellum, with gilt edges, and in plain binding that may be
+original. The first page has a lovely border of an enlaced pattern with
+the arms of Sixtus IV. in a circle at the bottom.
+
+The compiler of the catalogue goes through the library case by case,
+noting (at least in the Latin Library) the position of the case, the
+subjects of the books contained in it, and their titles. This is succeeded
+by an enumeration of the number of volumes, so as to shew, in a couple of
+pages, how many the whole Library contained. MM. Muentz and Fabre print
+this enumeration, but, so far as I know, the catalogue itself has not as
+yet been printed by any one. For my present purpose I shall combine the
+headings of the catalogue, the subjects, and the number of the volumes, as
+follows:
+
+  Inventarium Bibliothecae Palatinae Divi Sexti Quarti Pont. Max.
+
+  [I. LATIN LIBRARY.]
+
+  Ad sinistram ingredientibus
+
+    In primo banco. [_Bibles and Commentaries_]               51
+    In secundo banco. _Hieronymus. Augustinus_                55
+    In tertio banco. _Augustinus. Ambrosius. Gregorius_       47
+    In quarto banco. _Ioannes Chrysostomus_                   50
+    In quinto banco. _Thomas_                                 47
+    In sexto banco. _In Theologia. In divino officio_         54
+    In septimo banco. _Ius canonicum_                         43
+    In octauo banco. _Ius canonicum_                          41
+    In nono banco. _Ius civile_                               42
+                                                            ----430
+
+    In primo banco ad dextram ingredientibus. _Philosophi_    53
+    In secundo banco. _Astrologi. In Medicina_                48
+    In tertio banco. _Poetae_                                  41
+    In quarto banco. _Oratores_                               43
+    In quinto banco. _Historici_                              33
+    In sexto banco. _Historici ecclesiastici_                 48
+    In septimo banco. _Grammatici_                            47
+                                                            ----313
+
+  [II. GREEK LIBRARY.]
+
+    In primo banco Bibliothecae Grecae. _Testamentum
+       vetus et novum_                                        42
+    In secundo banco. _Auctores clariores [Fathers]_          31
+    In tertio banco. _Auctores clariores_                     46
+    In quarto banco. _Auctores clariores_                     49
+    In quinto banco. _Ius civile et canonicum_                58
+    In sexto banco. _In Philosophia_                          59
+    In septimo banco. _Oratores et Rhetores_                  57
+    In octauo banco. _Historici. Poetae et Grammatici_         58
+                                                            ----400
+
+
+  [III. INNER LIBRARY.]
+
+  [A. BANCHI.]
+
+    In primo banco Bibliothecae Secretae. [_Bibles, Fathers,
+      etc._]                                                  29
+    In secundo banco. _In Theologia_                          37
+    In tertio banco. _In Philosophia_                         41
+    In quarto banco. _Ius canonicum_                          20
+    In quinto banco. _Concilia_                               34
+    In sexto banco. _In Astrologia. In Hebraico. In
+      Dalmatico. In Arabico_                                  29
+                                                            ----190
+
+  [B. ARMARIUM.]
+
+  In primo armario Bibliothecae Secretae. _Libri sacri
+    et in divino officio_                                    173
+  In secundo armario. _Ius canonicum. Ius civile_            148
+  In tertio armario. _Expositiones. In sententiis. Poetae
+    Grammatici et Historici Greci_                           242
+  In quarto armario. _In medicina. Mathematici et
+    Astrologi. Ius canonicum et civile. Oratores et
+    Rhetores. Platonis Opera. In Philosophia_                186
+  In quinto armario. _Auctores clariores_                     89
+                                                            ----938
+
+  [C. CAPSAE.]
+
+  In prima capsa primi banchi Bibliothecae Secretae.
+    _In Theologia_                                           107
+  In secunda capsa primi banchi. _Diversa facultas_
+    [_Miscellanea_]                                           66
+  In prima capsa secundi banchi. [_Privileges and Royal
+    Letters in_ 3 _volumes_]                                   3
+  In secunda capsa secundi banchi. [_Miscellanea_]           124
+  In prima capsa tertii banchi. _Philosophi_                  90
+  In secunda capsa tertii banchi                            [00]
+  In prima capsa quarti banchi. _Historici_                   65
+  In secunda capsa quarti banchi                            [00]
+  In prima capsa quinti banchi. [_Official forms_]            43
+  In secunda capsa quinti banchi. _In Arabico_                23
+  In prima capsa sexti banchi. _In Historia
+    ecclesiastica. Ceremonialia_                              67
+  In secunda capsa sexti banchi. _Libri sine nomine
+    ad quinquaginta parvi et modici quidem valoris_           50
+                                                            ----638
+
+  [D. SPALERA.]
+
+  In prima capsa spalerae Bibliothecae Secretae. _In
+    Poesi. Oratores Rhetores_                                 69
+  In secunda capsa. _In divino officio et sermones_           59
+  In tertia capsa. _Concilia et Canon. De potestate
+    ecclesiastica_                                            54
+  In quarta et ultima capsa. _In Medicina. In
+    Astrologia_                                               34
+                                                            ----216
+
+
+  [IV. BIBLIOTHECA PONTIFICIA.]
+
+  [A. BANCHI.]
+
+  In primo banco Bibliothecae Pontificiae. _Testamentum
+      vetus et novum_                                         19
+  In secundo banco. _Expositores_                             22
+  In tertio banco. _Augustinus_                               14
+  In quarto banco. _Hieronymus_                               23
+  In quinto banco. _In Theologia_                             22
+  In sexto banco. _In Theologia_                              18
+  In septimo banco. _Thomas_                                  23
+  In octavo banco. _In Philosophia_                           29
+  In nono banco. [_Greek and Latin Classics_]                 25
+  In decimo banco. _Ius canonicum_                            28
+  In undecimo banco. [_Civil Law_]                            17
+  In duodecimo banco. [_New Testament. Fathers_]              19
+                                                            ----259
+
+  [B. SPALERA.]
+
+  Regestra Pontificum hic descripta in capsis Spalerae
+  Bibliothecae Pontificiae per Platinam Bibliothecarium
+  ex ordine recondita et in capsa prima                       21
+  In secunda capsa Spalerae Bibliothecae Pontificiae             47
+  In tertia capsa Bibliothecae Pont. Regestra recondita
+      par Platynam Bibliothecarium                            16
+  In quarta capsa Spalerae Bibliothecae Pontificiae Regestra
+      recondita                                               16
+  In quinta capsa Spalerae Bibliothecae Pontificiae Regestra
+      recondita                                               15
+
+  These lists give the following results:
+
+  Latin Library, left hand, 9 seats                          430
+   "      "     right   "   7   "                            313
+                                                            ----743
+
+  Greek Library             8   "                               400
+  Inner  "                  6   "                            190
+                             Armaria                         938
+                             Capsae                           638
+                             Spalera                         216
+                                                            ----1982
+
+  Bibliotheca Pontificia     12 seats                        259
+                             5 Capsae (Regestra)              115
+                                                            ----374
+                                                                ----
+                                                      Total     3499
+
+Before proceeding farther, it should be noticed that, on a rough average,
+each seat in the Latin Library, left hand, contained 47 volumes, and in
+the same Library, right hand, 43 volumes. In the Greek Library, each seat
+contained 50 volumes; in the Inner Library, 31 volumes; in the
+_Bibliotheca pontificia_, 21 volumes.
+
+In the next place I will give the results of the examination of a
+catalogue[394] of the Library, which M. Fabre, with much probability,
+assigns to the year 1512[395]. It begins as follows with the Latin
+Library:
+
+  Ad sinistra' Pontificis bibliothecam introeuntibus
+    In primo scanno supra                            [27]
+         "     "    infra                            [27]
+    Finis primi scanni sub et supra                      [54]
+
+The nine seats (_banchi_) of the left side of the Latin Library are gone
+through in the same way as the first, with the result that each is shewn
+to have two shelves. The total number of books is 457, or 27 more than in
+1481.
+
+On the opposite, or right-hand side of the Library, the first two seats
+have three shelves, and are described as follows:
+
+  In primo scanno supra                            [22]
+       "       "  infra                            [27]
+   " eodem scanno inferius siue sub infra          [26]
+  Finis primi scanni sub et subter                     [75]
+
+On this side of the Latin Library the number of books has risen to 360 as
+against 313 of the previous catalogue.
+
+In the Greek Library there are similarly two shelves to each seat, and the
+total number of volumes is 407 as against 400.
+
+The account of the Inner Library begins as follows:
+
+  In secretiori bibliotheca
+  In iij^o. scanno supra.                          [16]
+  "           "    infra                           [17]
+  "           "    inferius siue sub infra         [21]
+
+Three of the seats have three shelves; the rest two; and the total number
+of volumes has become 222 as against 190: or, an average of 37 to each
+seat.
+
+The _Bibliotheca pontificia_ is introduced with the following heading:
+
+    In intima et ultima secretiori bibliotheca ubi libri
+    sunt pretiosiores.
+
+Each seat has two shelves, and the total number of volumes is 277 as
+against 259 in 1481. Among the MSS. occurs "Virgilius antiquus litteris
+maiusculis"--no doubt the Vatican Virgil (_Codex romanus_), a volume which
+fully justifies its place among those termed _libri pretiosiores_.
+
+This catalogue closes with the following sentence:
+
+    Finis totius Bibliothece Pontificie: viz. omnium
+    scamnorum tam Latinorum quam Grecorum in prima, secunda,
+    tertia, et quarta eius distinctione et omnium omnino
+    librorum: exceptis armariis et capsis: et iis libris,
+    qui Graeci ex maxima parte, in scabellis parieti
+    adherentibus in intima ac penitissima Bibliothece parte
+    sunt positi. Deo Laudes et Gratias.
+
+The increase between 1481 and 1512 in the number of volumes in the parts
+of the Library defined in the above catalogue will be best understood from
+the following table, which shews that 131 volumes had been added in 31
+years.
+
+                         1481   1512
+
+  Latin Library           743    817
+  Greek    "              400    407
+  Bibliotheca secreta     190    222
+      "       pontificia  259    277
+                         ----   ----
+                 Total   1592   1723
+
+Another catalogue, unfortunately without date[396], but which has every
+appearance of belonging to the same period, notes the rooms as the
+_Bibliotheca magna publica_, i.e. the Latin and Greek Libraries taken
+together, the _Bibliotheca parva secreta_, and the _Bibliotheca magna
+secreta_.
+
+The catalogue drawn up by Zenobio Acciaioli, 12 October, 1518[397], offers
+no peculiarity except that in the Inner Library each seat is noted as
+having three rows of books, thus:
+
+  In primo bancho bibliothece parve secrete
+                        Infra in secundo ordine
+                            "    tertio     "
+
+[Illustration: Fig 99. Interior of the Library of Sixtus IV., as shewn in
+a fresco in the Ospedale di Santo Spirito, Rome.
+
+From a photograph taken by Danesi.]
+
+We may now proceed to arrange the Library in accordance with the
+information derived from the Accounts and the catalogues, compared with
+the ground-plan (fig. 98).
+
+These authorities shew that in each of the rooms the books were arranged
+on what are called _banchi_, or as they would have been termed in England,
+desks, or seats, to which the books were attached by chains. It is
+obvious, therefore, that there must have been also seats for readers. A
+piece of furniture fulfilling these conditions and constructed twenty-five
+years earlier, is still to be seen at Cesena, as I have just explained.
+Further, I have examined a good many manuscripts now in the Vatican
+Library which formed part of the older collection; and wherever the mark
+of the chain has not been obliterated by rebinding, it is in the precise
+position required for the above system.
+
+If I am right in supposing that the cases at Cesena are a survival of what
+was once in general use, we should expect to find another example of them
+in the Vatican; and that such was the case, is proved by the evidence of a
+fresco in the Ospedale di Santo Spirito at Rome, representing the interior
+of the library. This hospital was rebuilt by Sixtus IV. on an enlarged
+scale[398], and after its completion in 1482, one of the halls on the
+ground floor was decorated with a series of frescoes representing the
+improvements which he had carried out in the city of Rome. Recent
+researches[399] make it probable that the earlier pictures in the series
+of which the library is one, were selected by Platina, and executed before
+his death in 1481. I am able to present to my readers a reduced copy of
+this invaluable record (fig. 99) executed for me by Signor Danesi, under
+the kind superintendence of Father Ehrle.
+
+The artistic merit of such a work as this is not great, but I feel sure
+that the artist faithfully reproduced what he saw with the limitations
+prescribed by his own want of skill. The desks bear a general resemblance
+to those at Cesena; they are plainer than the Accounts would warrant, but
+this may be due to want of skill on the part of the artist. The chains
+have also been omitted either for the same reason or from a wish to avoid
+detail. It will be noticed that each desk is fully furnished with volumes
+laid out upon it, and that these vary in number and size, and have
+different bindings. It may be argued that the artist wished to compliment
+his patrons by making the most of their property; but I should be inclined
+to maintain that this was the normal condition of the Library, and that
+the books, handsomely bound and protected by numerous bosses of metal,
+usually lay upon the desks ready for use.
+
+If this fresco be compared with the earlier work of Melozzo da Forli, it
+is not difficult to identify four of the persons present in the Library
+(other than the readers). The central figure is obviously Sixtus IV., and
+the Cardinal to whom he is speaking is, I think, meant for Giuliano della
+Rovere, afterwards Julius II. The figure immediately behind the Pope may
+be intended for Pietro Riario, and the figure behind him is certainly
+Platina. The others, I take it, are simply attendants.
+
+Nor must it be forgotten that, important as this fresco is in connexion
+with the Library of the Vatican, it is of even greater interest as a
+contemporary representation of a large fifteenth century library.
+
+The arrangement of each room is not quite so simple as might appear at
+first sight; and, besides the desks, there are other pieces of furniture
+to be accounted for. We will therefore go through the rooms in order with
+the ground-plan (fig. 98). On this plan the cases are coloured gray, the
+readers' seats are indicated by transverse lines, and the intervals are
+left white.
+
+_Latin Library._ The Accounts tell us that there were 10 seats on the left
+hand of the Latin Library, and that these were longer than the rest,
+measuring 38 palms each, or about 27 ft. 9 in. English[400].
+
+As the distance from the central pier to the west wall is just 27 ft. 6
+in., it is obvious that the cases must have stood north and south--an
+arrangement which is also convenient for readers, as the light would fall
+on them from the left hand. For this reason I have placed the first desk
+against the pier, the reader's seat being westward of it. A difficulty
+now arises. It is stated in the Accounts that _ten banchi_ are paid for,
+but all the catalogues mention only _nine_. I suggest that the explanation
+is to be found in the fact that ten pieces of furniture do occur between
+the pier and the wall, the first of which is a shelf and desk, and the
+last a seat only. This arrangement is to be seen at Cesena and in the
+Medicean Library at Florence. The room being 34 ft. 8 in. wide, space is
+left for a passage along the south wall to the door (_a_) of the
+Librarian's room, and also for another along the opposite ends of the
+desks.
+
+For the arrangement of the rest of the Library, the Accounts give a most
+important piece of information. They tell us that the whole of the seats
+for the Common Library, i.e. the Latin and Greek Libraries taken together,
+25 in number, cost 300 ducats, of which sum the 10 long seats above
+mentioned absorbed 130 ducats, leaving 170 to pay for the remaining 15.
+From these data it is not difficult to calculate the cost of each palm,
+and from that the number of palms that 170 ducats would buy. I make this
+to be 510 palms, or about 373 feet[401].
+
+It is, I think, obvious that there must have been some sort of vestibule
+just inside the door of entrance, where students could be received, and
+where they could consult the catalogue or the Librarian. Further, the
+catalogues shew that the seven desks arranged in this part of the Library
+were in all probability shorter than those of the opposite side, for they
+contained fewer volumes. If we allow each of them 21 ft. 4 in. in length,
+we shall dispose of 149 ft., which leaves 224 ft. for the 8 desks of the
+Greek Library, or 28 ft. for each, with one foot over.
+
+_Greek Library._ In this room there were eight seats, and, as explained
+above, each was about 28 ft. long. The room being 28 ft. wide, this
+number, with a width of 3 ft. for each, is very convenient, and leaves a
+passage 4 ft. wide along the west wall. The length, moreover, does not
+interfere with the passage from door to door, and leaves a short interval
+between the ends of the desks and the opposite wall.
+
+_Inner Library._ In this room space has to be provided for (1) six seats,
+each holding on an average about 30 volumes; (2) a press (_armarium_) with
+five divisions, and holding 938 volumes; (3) a settle (_spalera_); (4) 12
+chests or coffers (_capsae_).
+
+I have placed the _armarium_ at the end of the room, opposite the window.
+In this position it can be allowed to be 20 ft. in width with 5 divisions,
+each, we will suppose, about 4 ft. wide. Let us suppose further that it
+was 7 ft. high, and had 6 shelves. If we allow 8 volumes to each foot,
+each shelf would hold 32 volumes, and each division six times that number,
+or 192. This estimate for each division will give a total of 960 volumes
+for the five divisions, a number slightly in excess of that mentioned in
+Platina's catalogue.
+
+After allowing a space 5 ft. wide in front of the press, there is plenty
+of room left for 6 desks, each 21 ft. long. I have placed the _spalliera_,
+with its four coffers (_capsae_) under the seat, below the window. This
+piece of furniture, in modern Italian _spalliera_, French _epauliere_, is
+common in large houses at the present day. It usually stands in an
+ante-room or on a landing of one of the long staircases. A portion at
+least of the _spalliere_ used in this Library are still in existence. They
+stood in the vestibule of the present Vatican Library until a short time
+ago, when the present Pope had them removed to the Appartamento Borgia,
+where they stand against the wall round one of the rooms. There are two
+distinct designs of different heights and ornamentation. The photograph
+here reproduced (fig. 100) was taken specially for my use. The _spalliere_
+have evidently been a good deal altered in the process of fitting up, and
+moreover, as it is impossible to discover whether we have the whole or
+only a part of what once existed, it is useless to make any suggestion,
+from the length of the portions that remain, as to which room they may
+once have fitted. They are excellent specimens of inlaid work. That on the
+right, with the row of crosses along the cornice, is 6 ft. 2 in. high, and
+66 ft. long. That on the left is 5 ft. 10 in. high, and 24 ft. 7 in. long.
+The capsae project from the wall 1 ft. 4 in., and are 2 ft. high. Their
+lids vary a little in length, from 3 ft. 11 in. to 4 ft. 10 in.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. The library-settles (_spalliere_) once used in
+the Vatican Library of Sixtus IV., and now in the Appartamento Borgia.
+
+From a photograph.]
+
+But the presence of a _spalliera_ is not the only peculiarity in the
+furniture of this room. Platina's catalogue shews that, connected in some
+manner with each seat, were two coffers (_capsae_): and we have seen that
+12 such chests were brought into the Library in 1481. I have placed these
+in pairs at the ends of the desks opposite the settle (_spalliera_).
+
+_Innermost Library_, or _Bibliotheca pontificia_. This Library contained
+12 desks. These, from their number, must have stood east and west. There
+was also a _spalliera_, which held the Papal Registers. I have placed it
+in the recess on the north side of the room, which looks as though made
+for it.
+
+It should be noted that there was a map of the world in the Library, for
+which a frame was bought in 1478[402]; and a couple of globes--the one
+celestial, the other terrestrial. Covers made of sheepskin were bought for
+them in 1477[403]. Globes with and without such covers are shewn in the
+view of the Library of the University of Leyden taken in 1610 (fig. 69);
+and M. Fabre reminds us that globes still form part of the furniture of
+the Library of the Palazzo Barberini in Rome, fitted up by Cardinal
+Francesco Barberini, 1630-40[404].
+
+Comfort was considered by the provision of a brazier on wheels "that it
+may be moved from place to place in the Library[405]."
+
+The following curious rule, copied, as it would appear, in the Library
+itself, by Claude Bellievre of Lyons, who visited Rome about 1513, shews
+that order was strictly enforced:
+
+    Nonnulla quae collegi in bibliotheca Vaticani. Edictum S.
+    D. N. Ne quis in bibliotheca cum altero contentiose
+    loquatur et obstrepat, neve de loco ad locum iturus
+    scamna transcendat et pedibus conterat, atque libros
+    claudat et in locum percommode reponat. Ubique volet
+    perlegerit. Secus qui faxit foras cum ignominia mittetur
+    atque hujusce loci aditu deinceps arcebitur[406].
+
+Before concluding, I must quote an interesting description of this Library
+by Montaigne:
+
+    Le 6 de Mars [1581] je fus voir la librerie du Vatican
+    qui est en cinq ou six salles tout de suite. Il y a un
+    grand nombre de livres ataches sur plusieurs rangs de
+    pupitres; il y en a aussi dans des coffres, qui me
+    furent tous ouverts; force livres ecris a mein et
+    notamment un Seneque et les Opuscules de Plutarche. J'y
+    vis de remercable la statue du bon Aristide[407] a tout
+    une bele teste chauve, la barbe espesse, grand front, le
+    regard plein de douceur et de mageste: son nom est
+    escrit en sa base tres antique....[408]
+
+    Je la vis [la Bibliotheque] sans nulle difficulte;
+    chacun la voit einsin et en extrait ce qu'il vent; et
+    est ouverte quasi tous les matins, et si fus conduit
+    partout, et convie par un jantilhomme d'en user quand je
+    voudrois[409].
+
+Sixtus IV. intended the library attached to the Holy See to be of the
+widest possible use. In the document appointing Demetrius of Lucca
+librarian, after Platina's death, he says distinctly that the library has
+been got together "for the use of all men of letters, both of our own age,
+or of subsequent time[410]"; and that these are not rhetorical
+expressions, to round a phrase in a formal letter of appointment, is
+proved by the way in which manuscripts were lent out of the library,
+during the whole time that Platina was in office. The Register of Loans,
+beginning with his own appointment and ending in 1485, has been printed by
+Muentz and Fabre, from the original in the Vatican Library[411], and a most
+interesting record it is. It is headed by a few words of warning, of which
+I give the general sense rather than a literal translation.
+
+    Whoever writes his name here in acknowledgment of books
+    received on loan out of the Pope's library, will incur
+    his anger and his curse unless he return them uninjured
+    within a very brief period.
+
+    This statement is made by Platina, librarian to his
+    Holiness, who entered upon his duties on the last day of
+    February, 1475[412].
+
+Each entry records the title of the book lent, with the name of the
+borrower. This entry is sometimes made by the librarian, but more
+frequently by the borrower himself. When the book is returned, Platina or
+his assistant notes the fact, with the date. The following entry, taken
+almost at random, will serve as a specimen:
+
+    Ego Gaspar de Ozino sapientissimi domini nostri
+    cubicularius anno salutis MCCCCLXXV die vero XXI Aprilis
+    confiteor habuisse nomine mutui a domino Platina
+    Lecturam sive commentum in pergameno super libris X
+    Etticorum Aristotelis, et in fidem omnium mea propria
+    manu scripsi et supscripsi. Liber autem pavonatio
+    copertus est in magno volumine.----Idem Gaspar manu
+    propria.----Restituit fideliter librum ipsum et
+    repositus est inter philosophos die XXVIII April 1475.
+
+It is occasionally noted that a book is lent with its chain, as for
+instance:
+
+    Christoforus prior S. Balbine habuit Agathium Historicum
+    ex banco viii^o cum cathena.... Restituit die XX
+    Octobris post mortem Platyne.
+
+When no chain is mentioned are we to understand that the book was not so
+protected, and that there were in the library a number of books without
+chains, perhaps for the purpose of being more conveniently borrowed?
+
+A few words should be added on the staff of the library. At first--that is
+during the year 1475--Platina had under his orders three subordinates,
+Demetrius, Salvatus, and John. These are called writers (_scriptores_) or
+keepers (_custodes_); and Salvatus is once called librarian (_librarius_),
+but it will be shewn below that this word means a writer rather than a
+librarian, as we understand the word. The position of these persons was
+extremely humble; and Salvatus was so indigent that his shoes were mended
+at the Pope's expense, and a decent suit of clothes provided for him at
+the cost of eight ducats[413]. Besides these there was a bookbinder, also
+called John. In the following year two keepers only are mentioned,
+Demetrius and Josias. The latter died of the plague in 1478. The salary of
+the librarian was at the rate of ten ducats a month, and that of each of
+his subordinates at the rate of one ducat for the same period. This
+arrangement appears to have been confirmed by a Bull of Sixtus IV. before
+the end of 1477[414].
+
+These officers and Platina appear to have lived together in the rooms
+adjoining the Latin Library, as shewn by the accounts for the purchase of
+beds, furniture, and the like[415]; and when Josias falls ill of the
+plague, Platina sends away Demetrius and John the bookbinder, "for fear
+they should die or infect others[416]."
+
+All articles required for the due maintenance of the library were provided
+by Platina. The charges for binding and lettering are the most numerous.
+Skins were bought in the gross--on one occasion as many as 600--and then
+prepared for use. All other materials, as gold, colours, varnish, nails,
+horn, clasps, etc., were bought in detail, when required; and probably
+used in some room adjoining the library. Platina also saw to the
+illumination (_miniatio_) of such MSS. as required it.
+
+Comfort and cleanliness were not forgotten. There are numerous charges for
+coals, with an amusing apology for their use in winter "because the place
+was so cold"; and for juniper to fumigate (_ad suffumigandum_). Brooms are
+bought to clean the library, and fox-tails to dust the books (_ad
+tergendos libros_[417]).
+
+It should further be mentioned that Sixtus assigned an annual income to
+the library by a brief dated 15th July, 1477. It is therein stipulated
+that the fees, paid according to custom by all officials appointed to any
+office vacated by resignation, should thenceforward be transferred to the
+account of the library[418].
+
+While Sixtus IV. was thus engaged in Rome, a rival collector, Federigo da
+Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino (1444--1482), was devoting such leisure as he
+could snatch from warfare to similar pursuits. The room in which he stored
+his treasures is practically unaltered. It differs materially in
+arrangement from the other libraries of the same period. This difference
+is perhaps due to its position in a residence which was half palace, half
+castle. It is on the ground floor of a building which separates the inner
+from the outer court. It measures 45 ft. in length, by 20 ft. 9 in. in
+width. The walls are about 14 ft. high to the spring of the barrel-vault
+which covers the whole space. There are two large windows at the north end
+of the room, and one at the south end. These are about 7 ft. from the
+ground. The original entrance was through a door into the inner court, now
+blocked. In the centre of the vault is a large eagle in relief with F.D.
+on each side of its head; round it is a wreath of cherubs' heads: and
+outside of all a broad band of flames and rays. The vault is further
+decorated with isolated flames, gilt, on a white ground[419].
+
+The books are said to have occupied eight presses, or sets of shelves, set
+against the east and west walls, but our information on the subject of the
+fittings is provokingly meagre. It is chiefly contained in the following
+passage of a description written by Bernardino Baldi, and dated 10 June,
+1587. Baldi, as a native of Urbino, and in later life attached to the
+service of the Duke, must have been well acquainted with the room and its
+contents.
+
+    La stanza destinata a questi libri e alia mano sinistra
+    di chi entra nel Palazzo contigua al vestibolo, o andito
+    ... le fenestre ha volte a Tramontana, le quali per
+    esser alte dal pavimento, ed in testa della stanza, e
+    volte a parte di cielo che non ha sole, fanno un certo
+    lume rimesso, il quale pare col non distraer la vista
+    con la soverchia abbondanza della luce, che inviti ed
+    inciti coloro rhe v'entrano a studiare. La state e
+    freschissima, l' inverno temperatamente calda. Le
+    scanzie de' libri sono accostate alle mura, e disposte
+    con molto bell' ordine.
+
+    In questa fra gli altri libri sono due Bibbie, una
+    latina scritta a penna e miniata per mano di
+    eccellentissimi artefici, e l' altra Ebrea antichissima
+    scritta pure a mano ... Questa si posa sopra un gran
+    leggivo d' ottone, e s' appoggia all' ale d' una grande
+    aquila pur d' ottone che aprendole la sostiene. Intorno
+    alle cornici che circondano la libreria si leggono
+    scritti nel fregio questi versi[420].
+
+In the preface to the catalogue of the library published at Rome in 1895,
+the author, after quoting the above passage, adds "There were eight
+presses each containing seven shelves"[421]. The architectural decorations
+have all disappeared, with the exception of a fragment of a pediment at
+the south end of the room, on which F. E. DVX is still visible. The
+lectern is in the choir of the cathedral.
+
+The Biblioteca Laurenziana, or Medicean Library, at Florence, is the last
+Italian library which I intend to describe.
+
+After the death of Pope Leo X. in 1521, his executor Cardinal Giulio dei
+Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII., restored to Florence the books which
+their ancestors had got together, and commissioned Michelangelo to build a
+room for their reception. The work was frequently interrupted, and it was
+not until 1571 (11 June) that the library was formally opened.
+
+The great architect, supported by the generosity of the Pope, constructed
+an apartment which for convenience and for appropriate decoration stands
+alone among libraries. It is raised high above the ground in order to
+secure an ample supply of light and air, and is approached by a double
+staircase of marble. It is 151 ft. 9 in. long, by 34 ft. 4 in. broad, and
+was originally lighted by 15 windows in each of the side-walls at a height
+of about 7 ft. 6 in. from the floor. There is a flat roof of wood, carved;
+and a pavement of terra-cotta consisting of yellow designs on a red
+ground.
+
+When the room was first fitted up there were 44 desks on each side, but
+when the reading-room was built at the beginning of the last century,
+four were destroyed. This reading-room also blocks four windows. The glass
+was supplied by Giovanni da Udine in 1567 and 1568. The subjects are
+heraldic. In each window the arms of the Medici occupy a central position,
+and are surrounded by wreaths, arabesques, and other devices of infinite
+grace and variety, in the style which the genius of Raphael had introduced
+into the Vatican.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Bookcases in the Medicean Library, Florence.]
+
+The bookcases (fig. 101) are of walnut-wood, a material which is said to
+have been prescribed by the Pope himself. They were executed, if we may
+believe Vasari[422], by Battista del Cinque and Ciapino, but they are now
+known to have been designed by Michelangelo. A rough outline in one of his
+sketch-books, preserved in the Casa Buonarotti at Florence with other
+relics illustrating his life, and here reproduced (fig. 102),
+unquestionably represents one of these desks. The indication of a human
+figure on the seat proves the care which he took to ensure a height
+convenient for readers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Copy, slightly reduced, of a sketch by
+Michelangelo for one of the bookcases in the Medicean Library, Florence.]
+
+These desks are on the same general plan as those at Cesena, but they are
+rather higher and more richly ornamented. Each is 11 ft. 3 in. long, and 4
+ft. 4 in. high. It must be admitted that the straight back to the reader's
+seat is not so comfortable as the gentle slope provided in the older
+example. A frame for the catalogue hangs on the end of each desk next the
+central alley. In order to make clear the differences in the construction
+of the desks at Cesena and at Florence I append an elevation of each
+(figs. 103, 104).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Elevation of desks at Cesena.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. Elevation of desks at Florence.]
+
+It will be seen from the view of one of the desks (fig. 101) that the
+books either lie on the sloping desk or are packed away on the shelf under
+it. There is an average of 25 books on each desk. The chains, as at
+Cesena, are attached to the lower edge of the right board, at distances
+varying from 2 in. to 4 in. from the back of the book (fig. 105). The
+staple is sunk into the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105. A book in the Medicean Library, to shew
+attachment of chain.]
+
+The chains are made of fine iron bars about one-eighth of an inch wide,
+but not quite so thick, flattened at the end of each link, and rounded in
+the centre, where a piece of the same iron is lapped round, but not
+soldered. Each chain (fig. 106) is 2 ft. 3 in. long. So far as I could
+judge all the chains in the library are of the same length. There is a
+ring at the end of the chain next to the bar, but no swivel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Piece of chain in the Medicean Library, of the
+actual size.]
+
+The ironwork by which these chains are attached to the desk is somewhat
+complicated. By the kindness of the librarian, Signor Guido Biagi, I have
+been allowed to study it at my leisure, and to draw a diagrammatic sketch
+(fig. 107) which I hope will make it clear to my readers. The lock is sunk
+in the central support of the desk. The bar passes through a ring on each
+side of this support, and also through a ring near each end of the desk.
+These rings are fixed to the lower edge of the desk just under the
+molding. A flat piece of iron is forged on to the bar near the centre.
+This iron is pierced near the key-hole with an oblong slit through which
+passes a moveable piece of iron, here shewn in outline of its actual size
+(fig. 108). The bolt of the lock passes through a hole in this piece, and
+holds the bar firmly in its place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107. Diagram to explain the ironwork at the Medicean
+Library.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108. Outline of bolt forming part of ironwork.]
+
+The bar is not quite so long as the desk; consequently, when it has been
+unlocked, and the iron bolt sketched above withdrawn, it can be turned
+round by taking hold of the central iron, and pushed to the right or to
+the left, past the terminal rings. The chains can then be readily
+unstrung, or another strung upon the bar.
+
+In the next chapter I shall describe the changes in Library arrangements
+adopted during the period which succeeded the Middle Ages; but, before
+ending this present chapter, there are a few points affecting the older
+libraries and their organization to which I should like to draw attention.
+
+In the first place all medieval libraries were practically public. I do
+not mean that strangers were let in, but even in those of the monasteries,
+books were let out on the deposit of a sufficient caution; and in Houses
+such as S. Victor and S. Germain des Pres, Paris, and at the Cathedral of
+Rouen, the collections were open to readers on certain days in the week.
+The Papal library and those at Urbino and Florence were also public; and
+even at Oxford and Cambridge there was practically no objection to lending
+books on good security. Secular corporations followed the example set by
+the Church, and lent their manuscripts, but only on security. A very
+remarkable example of this practice is afforded by the transaction between
+the Ecole de Medecine, Paris, and Louis XI. The king wanted their copy of
+a certain work on medicine; they declined to lend it unless he deposited
+12 marks worth of plate and 100 gold crowns. This he agreed to do; the
+book was borrowed; duly copied, and 24 January, 1472, restored to the
+Medical Faculty, who in their turn sent back the deposit to the king[423].
+
+As a general rule, these libraries were divided into the lending library
+and the library of reference. These two parts of the collection have
+different names given to them. In the Vatican Library of Sixtus IV. we
+find the common library (_Bibliotheca communis_) or public library (_B.
+publica_), and the reserved library (_B. secreta_). The same terms were
+used at Assisi. At Santa Maria Novella, Florence, there was the library,
+and the lesser library (_B. minor_). In the University Library, Cambridge,
+there was "the public library" which contained the more ordinary books and
+was open to everybody, and "the private library" where the more valuable
+books were kept and to which only a few privileged persons were
+admitted[424]. At Queens' College, in the same university, the books which
+might be lent (_libri distribuendi_) were kept in a separate room from
+those which were chained to the shelves (_libri concatenati_), and at
+King's College there was a public library (_B. magna_) and a lesser
+library (_B. minor_). In short, in every large collection some such
+division was made, either structural, or by means of a separate
+catalogue[425].
+
+I have shewn that two systems of bookcases, which I have called
+lectern-system and stall-system, were used in these libraries; but, as
+both these have been copiously illustrated, I need say no more on that
+part of the subject. Elaborate catalogues, of which I have given a few
+specimens, enabled readers to find what they wanted in the shortest
+possible time, and globes, maps, and astronomical instruments provided
+them with further assistance in their studies. Moreover in some places the
+library served the purpose of a museum, and curiosities of various kinds
+were stored up in it.
+
+No picture of a medieval library can be complete unless it be remembered
+that in many cases beauty was no less an object than utility. The
+bookcases were fine specimens of carpentry-work, carved and decorated; the
+pavement was of encaustic tiles worked in patterns; the walls were
+decorated with plaster-work in relief; the windows were filled with
+stained glass; and the roof-timbers were ornamented with the coat-armour
+of benefactors.
+
+Of these embellishments the most distinctive was the glass. At St Albans
+the twelve windows contained figures illustrating the subjects of the
+books placed near them. For instance, the second window represented
+Rhetoric and Poetry; and the figures selected were those of Cicero,
+Sallust, Musaeus, Orpheus. Appropriate verses were inscribed beneath each.
+The whole scheme recalls the library of Isidore, Bishop of Seville, which
+I have already described[426]. In the library of Jesus College,
+Cambridge, each light contains a cock standing on a globe, the emblem of
+Bishop Alcock the founder, with a label in his beak bearing a suitable
+text, and under his feet an inscription containing half the designation
+required. For instance, the first two bookcases contained works on Physic,
+and in the window is the word PHI-SICA divided between the two
+lights[427]. In Election Hall at Eton College--a room originally intended
+for a library--we find the Classes of Civil Law, Criminal and Canon Law,
+Medicine, etc., illustrated by medallions shewing a church council, an
+execution, a physician and his patient, and the like[428]. At the
+Sorbonne, Paris, the 38 windows of the library were filled with the
+portraits of those who had conferred special benefits on the college[429];
+at Froidmont[430] near Beauvais the authors of the _Voyage Litteraire_
+remark the beautiful stained glass in the library: and in Bishop Cobham's
+library at Oxford, according to Hearne, there "was brave painted glass
+containing the arms of the benefactors, which painted glass continued till
+the times of the late rebellion[431]."
+
+Lastly, I will collect the different terms used to designate medieval
+bookcases. They are--arranged alphabetically--_analogium_, _bancus_ or
+_banca_, _descus_, _gradus_, _stallum_, _stalla_, _stallus_ or _staulum_,
+and _sedile_. I have sometimes thought that it would be possible to
+determine the form of the bookcase from the word used to describe it; but
+increased study has convinced me that this is impossible, and that the
+words were used quite loosely. For instance, _bancus_ designates the cases
+in the Vatican Library which represent a variety of the lectern-system;
+and its French equivalent _banc_ the cases at Clairvaux which were stalls
+with four shelves apiece. Again "desk" (_descus_) is used interchangeably
+with "stall" (_stallum_) in a catalogue of the University Library,
+Cambridge, dated 1473, to designate what I strongly suspect were lecterns;
+in 1693 by Bishop Hacket when describing the stalls which Dean Williams
+gave to the library at Westminster Abbey[432]: and in 1695 by Sir C. Wren
+to describe bookcases which were partly set against the walls, partly at
+right-angles to them.
+
+It has been already shewn that _gradus_ means a shelf, or a lectern, or a
+side of a lectern[433]; and _sedile_ is obviously only the Latin
+equivalent for "seat," which was sometimes used, as at S. John's College,
+Cambridge, in 1623[434], to designate a bookcase. It was also used at
+Christ Church, Canterbury, for what I have shewn to be a stall with four
+shelves[435]. The word _analogium_ was used in France to signify a
+lectern[436]. The word "class" (_classis_) is used at the University
+Library, Cambridge, in 1584, instead of the ancient "stall," and
+afterwards superseded it entirely. For instance, when a Syndicate was
+appointed in 1713 to provide accommodation for Bishop Moore's Library, the
+bookcases are described as _Thecae sive quas vocant classes_. Gradually the
+term was extended until it reached its modern signification, namely, the
+shelves under a given window together with those on the sides of the
+bookcases to the right and left of the spectator facing it[437].
+
+We sometimes meet with the word _distinctio_. For instance, an Apocalypse
+in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, which once belonged
+to St Augustine's College, Canterbury, is noted as having stood
+"_distinctione prima gradu tertio_"; and the same word is used in the
+introduction to the catalogue of Dover Priory to signify what I am
+compelled to decide was a bookcase. The word _demonstratio_, on the other
+hand, which occurs at the head of the catalogue of the library of Christ
+Church, Canterbury, made between 1285 and 1331, probably denotes a
+division of subject, and not a piece of furniture.
+
+Until the lectern-system had gone out of fashion, a word to denote a shelf
+was not needed. When shelves had to be referred to, _textus_[438] was used
+at Canterbury, and _linea_[439] at Citeaux. On the other hand, at Saint
+Ouen at Rouen, this word indicates a row of bookcases, probably lecterns.
+In a record of loans[440] from that library in 1372 and following years,
+the books borrowed are set down as follows (to quote a few typical
+instances):
+
+  Item, digestum novum, linea I, E, II.
+  Item, liber de regulis fidei, cum aliis, linea III, L, VIII.
+  Item, Tulius de officiis, linea II a parte sinistra, D, II.
+
+These extracts will be sufficient to shew that the cases were arranged in
+three double rows, each double row being called a _linea_. Each lectern
+was marked with a letter of the alphabet, and each book with the number of
+the row, the letter of the lectern to which it belonged, and its number on
+the lectern. Thus, to take the first of the above entries, the Digest was
+to be found in the first row, on lectern E, and was the second volume on
+the said lectern. It is evident that there was a row of lecterns on each
+side of a central alley or passage, and that a book was to be found on the
+right hand, unless the left hand was specially designated.
+
+A catalogue has been preserved of the books in the castle of Peniscola on
+the east coast of Spain, when the anti-pope Benedict XIII. retired there
+in 1415. They were kept in presses (_armaria_), each of which was
+subdivided into a certain number of compartments (_domuncule_), each of
+which again contained two shelves (_ordines_)[441]. I suggest that this
+piece of furniture resembled, on a large scale, Le Chartrier de Bayeux,
+which I have already figured (fig. 26).
+
+In conclusion, I will quote a passage in which the word library designates
+a bookcase. It occurs in an inventory of the goods in the church of S.
+Christopher le Stocks, London, made in 1488:
+
+    On the south side of the vestrarie standeth a grete
+    library with ij longe lecturnalles theron to ley on the
+    bokes[442].
+
+I need hardly remind my readers that the French word _bibliotheque_ has
+the same double meaning.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[356] Catalogus Codicum Manuscriptorum Malastestianae Caesenatis bibliothecae
+fratrum minorum fidei custodiaeque concreditae.... Auctore Josepho Maria
+Mucciolo ejusdem ordinis fratre et Ravennatis coenobii alumno. 2 vols.
+fol. Caesenae, 1780-84.
+
+[357] These measurements were taken by myself, with a tape, in September,
+1895.
+
+[358] The desk bearing a single volume shewn on this seat (fig. 93) is
+modern.
+
+[359] These measurements were taken by myself with a tape, in April 1898,
+and verified in April 1899.
+
+[360] This catalogue is in the State Archives at Modena.
+
+[361] I visited Monte Oliveto 19 April, 1899.
+
+[362] See _Ueber Mittelalterliche Bibliotheken_, v. T. Gottlieb. 8vo.
+1890, p. 181. I have twice visited Assisi and examined the Catalogue here
+referred to. My best thanks are due to Professor Alessandri for giving me
+every assistance in my researches.
+
+[363] Inprimis facimus inventarium de libris in libraria publica ad bancos
+cathenatis in hunc modum. Et nota, quod omnia folia omnium librorum, qui
+sunt in isto inuentario sive per sexternos vel quinternos aut quaternos
+seu quemvis per alium numerum majorem vel minorem omnes quotquot sunt,
+nomina quaternorum tenent, ut apparet in quolibet libro in primo quaterno
+in margine inferiori; quare omnes sunt ante et retro de nigro et rubeo per
+talem figuram intus cum suo numero signati. Item lictere alphabeti, qui
+desuper postes ponuntur, omnes debent esse aliquantulum grosse et
+totaliter nigre, sicut inferius in fine cuiuslibet libri signatur. The
+spots round this figure are alternately black and red.
+
+[364] Ducange s. v. _solarium_ shews that occasionally it =_armarium_.
+
+[365] I have to thank Father C. J. Ehrle, _S. J._, Prefect of the Vatican
+Library, for the very great kindness with which he has assisted me in
+these researches during three visits to Rome in 1898, 1899, 1900; and also
+the officials who allowed me to examine parts of the palace not usually
+accessible to strangers.
+
+Further, I wish it to be clearly and distinctly understood that my
+researches are based upon an essay by M. Paul Fabre, _La Vaticane de Sixte
+IV._, which had appeared in the _Milanges d'Archeologie et d'Histoire of
+the Ecole Francaise de Rome_ for December 1895, but of the existence of
+which I had never heard until Father Ehrle shewed it to me. On reading it,
+I found that M. Fabre had completely anticipated me; he had done exactly
+what I had come to Rome to do, and in such a masterly fashion that I could
+not hope to improve upon his work. After some consideration I determined
+to verify his conclusions by carefully examining the locality, and to make
+a fresh ground-plan of it for my own use. I have also studied the
+authorities quoted by M. Eugene Muentz (_Les Arts a la Cour des Papes_)
+from my own point of view.
+
+There are two works to which I shall frequently refer: _Les Arts a la Cour
+des Papes pendant le xv^e et le xvi^e siecle_, par Eugene Muentz: Part III.
+1882 (Bibl. des Ecoles Francaises d'Athenes et de Rome, Fasc. 28): and _La
+Bibliotheque du Vatican_ _au xv^e Siecle_, par Eugene Muentz et Paul Fabre;
+Paris, 1887 (Ibid. Fasc. 48). The former will be cited as "Muentz"; the
+latter as "Muentz et Fabre." My paper, of which an abstract only is here
+given, has been published in the _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ 6 March
+1899, Vol. X. pp. 11-61.
+
+[366] This document, dated 17 December, 1471, has been printed by Muentz,
+p. 120. I am afraid that this order can have but one meaning: viz. the
+excavation and destruction of ancient buildings.
+
+[367] This is the date assigned by Platina himself. See below, p. 231.
+
+[368] MS. Vat. Lat. 3947, fol. 118 b. Notatio omnium librorum Bibliothecae
+palatinae Sixti quarti Pont. Max. tam qui in banchis quam qui in Armariis
+et capsis sunt a Platyna Bibliothecario et Demetrio Lucense eius alumno
+custode die xiiii. mensis Septemb. M.CCCC.LXXXI facta. Ante vero eius
+decessum dierum octo tantummodo. This _Notatio_ has been printed, Muentz et
+Fabre, p. 250, but without the catalogue to which it forms an appendix.
+This, so far as I know, still remains unprinted.
+
+[369] Muentz et Fabre, pp. 148-150, _passim_.
+
+[370] _Ibid._ p. 32.
+
+[371] _Ibid._ p. 141. The catalogue is printed pp. 159-250.
+
+[372] MS. Vat. 5008.
+
+[373] These accounts, now preserved in the State Archives at Rome, have
+been printed with great accuracy (so far as I was able to judge from a
+somewhat hasty collation) by Muentz, _Les Arts a la Cour da Papes_, Vol.
+III. 1882, p. 121 sq.; and by Muentz and Fabre, _La Bibliotheque du Vatican
+au xv^e Siecle_, 1887, p. 148 sq.
+
+[374] The entries referring to these purchases are given in full, with
+translations, in my paper above referred to.
+
+[375] The name is derived from the frescoes with which its external walls
+were decorated during the reign of Pius IV. (1559-1565). They represented
+palm trees, on which parrots (_papagalli_) and other birds were perching.
+Fragments of these frescoes are still to be seen. The court beyond this
+"del Portoncin di Ferro" was so called from an iron gate by which the
+passage into it from the Cortile del Papagallo could be closed.
+
+[376] The difference of level between the floor of the court and the floor
+of the library is eighteen inches. An inclined plane of wood now replaces
+the steps.
+
+[377] Item pro purganda bibliotheca veteri et asportandis calcinaciis
+duarum fenestrarum factarum inter graecam et latinam b. XX die qua supra,
+i.e. 20 Aug. 1480. Muentz, p. 132.
+
+[378] A Foundling Hospital, alluding to the Ospedale di Santo Spirito
+founded by Sixtus IV.
+
+[379] Fabre, _La Vaticane_, p. 464. Bunsen, _Die Beschreibung der Stadt
+Rom_, ed. 1832, Vol. II.. Part 2, p. 418.
+
+[380] The following entry is curious: Habuere Paulus et Dionysius pictores
+duos ducatos pro duobus paribus caligarum quas petiere a domino nostro dum
+pingerent cancellos bibliothecae et restituerent picturam bibliothecae
+graecae, ita n. Sanctitas sua mandavit, die xviii martii 1478. Muentz, p.
+131.
+
+[381] Fabre, _La Vaticane_, p. 465, citing Bandini, _Bibliothecae
+Mediceo-Laurentianae catalogus_, I. p. xxxviii.
+
+[382] Enumeravi, praesente Clemente synescalcho familiae s. d. n., Salvato
+librario, et Demetrio lectore, ducatos XLV Francischo fabro lignario
+mediolanensi habitatori piscinae urbis Romae pro banchis Bibliothecae
+conficiendis, maxime vero decem quae ad sinistram jacent, quorum longitudo
+est XXXVIII palmorum, vel circa, et ita accepta parte pecuniarum, cujus
+summa est centum et XXX ducatorum, facturum se debitum promittit et
+obligat, die XV Julii 1475. Muentz, p. 121.
+
+[383] Item solvi eidem ducatos XXX pro reliquo XXV banchorum bibliothecae:
+pro longioribus autem qui sunt X solvebantur centum et triginta, ut supra
+scriptum est; pro reliquis solvebantur centum et septuaginta; quae summa
+est tricentorum ducatorum: atque ita pro banchis omnibus ei satisfactum
+est, die VII Junii 1476. Muentz, p. 126. The rest of the money had been
+paid to him by instalments between 15 July, 1475, and this date.
+
+[384] Magister Joanninus faber lignarius de Florentia habuit a me Platyna
+s. d. n. bibliothecario pro fabrica banchorum Bibliothecae secretae, pro
+Armario magno et Spaleria ejusdem loci, quae omnia extimata fuerunt centum
+et octuaginta ducat' a magistro Francisco de Mediolano; habuit, ut
+praefertur, ducatos sexaginta quinque et bononenos sexaginta die VII maii
+1477. Muentz, p. 130. There were 100 bononeni in each ducat.
+
+[385] Habuit ultimo ducatos octo pro tribus tabulis ex nuce cornisate (?)
+ad continenda nomina librorum e per le cornise de tre banchi vechi ex nuce
+die supradicta; nil omnino restat habere ut ipse sua manu affirmat,
+computatis in his illis LX bononenis qui superius scribuntur. Muentz, p.
+130.
+
+[386] Dedi Joanni pictori famulo m. Melotii pro pictura trium tabularum
+ubi descripta sunt librorum nomina carlenos XVIII die X Octobris 1477.
+_Ibid._, p. 131.
+
+[387] Item pro XII capsis latis in bibliothecam secretam. Muentz et Fabre,
+p. 158.
+
+[388] Magister Joanninus de Florentia et m. Marcus ejus frater faber
+lignarius habuere ducatos XXV pro parte solucionis banchorum quae fiunt in
+bibliotheca addita nunc a S^mo. d. nostro, die XVIII Julii 1480. Muentz, p.
+134.
+
+[389] Muentz, pp. 124-126.
+
+[390] Magister Joannes fabricator catenarum habuit a me die XIIII aprilis
+1477 ducatos decem, ad summam centum et quinque ducatorum quos ei debebam
+pro tribus miliaribus et libris octingentis ferri fabrefacti ad usum
+bibliothecae, videlicet pro quadraginta octo virgis ferreis ad quas in
+banchis libri connectuntur [etc.]. Muentz, p. 128.
+
+[391] _Ibid._, p. 127.
+
+[392] _Ibid._, p. 135.
+
+[393] MSS. Vat. 3947.
+
+[394] MSS. Vat. 7135.
+
+[395] _La Vaticane_, etc., p. 475.
+
+[396] MS. Vat. 3946.
+
+[397] MS. Vat. 3948.
+
+[398] For an account of what Sixtus accomplished at Santo Spirito see
+Pastor, _History of the Popes_, Eng. Tran. IV. 460-462.
+
+[399] Brockhaus, _Janitschek's Repertorium fuer Kunstwissenschaften_, Band
+VII. (1884); Schmarsow, _Melozzo da Forli_ (1886), pp. 202-207.
+
+[400] I have taken 1 palm = metre 0.223; and 1 metre = 39.37 in.
+
+[401] My calculation works out as follows. Each of 10 seats was 38 palms
+long: total length, 380 palms. As these 10 seats cost 130 ducats, each
+palm cost 130/380 ducats = 1/3 a ducat nearly.
+
+As the total paid was 300 ducats, this first payment, viz. 130 ducats,
+left 170 ducats still due for the 15 remaining seats. As each palm cost a
+third of a ducat, 170 ducats would buy 510 palms = 113.73 metres = 4477
+inches (nearly) = 373 feet.
+
+[402] Per lo tellaro del mappamondo b. 52. Muentz, p. 129. Habuere pictores
+armorum quae sunt facta in duabus sphaeris solidis et pro pictura mappemundi
+ducatos III, die XII decembris 1477. Muentz et Fabre, p. 151. This map had
+probably been provided by Pius II. (1458-1464), who kept in his service
+Girolamo Bellavista, a Venetian maker of maps. Muentz et Fabre, 126.
+
+[403] Expendi pro cobopertura facta duobus sphaeris solidis quarum in
+altera est ratio signorum, in altera cosmographia, ducatos IIII videlicet
+cartenos XVI in octo pellibus montoninis, cartenos XXV in manifactura;
+sunt nunc ornata graphio cum armis s. d. n., die XX decembris 1477. Muentz
+el Fabre, p. 152. M. Fabre quotes an extract in praise of the map and
+globes from a letter written from Rome in 1505, _La Vaticane de Sixte
+IV._, p. 471 _note_.
+
+[404] _Ibid._
+
+[405] Muentz, p. 130.
+
+[406] Bibl. Nat. Paris, MSS. Lat. 13123, fol. 220, quoted by Muentz et
+Fabre, p. 140.
+
+[407] This statue, found in Rome in the middle of the sixteenth century,
+represents Aristides Smyrnaeus, a Greek rhetorician of the second century
+after Christ. It is still in the Vatican Library, at the entrance to the
+Museo Cristiano.
+
+[408] In the omitted passage Montaigne describes a number of books shewn
+to him.
+
+[409] _Journal du voyage de Michel de Montaigne en Italie_, ed. Prof.
+Alessandro d' Ancona. 8vo. Citta di Castello, 1895, p. 269. I owe this
+quotation to M. Fabre.
+
+[410] Muentz et Fabre, p. 299.
+
+[411] _Ibid._, pp. 269-298. MSS. Vat. Lat. 3964.
+
+[412] Quisquis es qui tuum nomen hic inscribis ob acceptos commodo libros
+e bibliotheca pontificis, scito te indignationem ejus et execrationem
+incursurum nisi peropportune integros reddideris. Hoc tibi denuntiat
+Platyna, S. suae bibliothecarius, qui tantae rei curam suscepit pridie Kal.
+Martii 1475.
+
+[413] Dedi die XIII Septembris 1475 ducatum unum Salvato scriptori pro
+emendis calligis. Item expendi pro veste una Salvati scriptoris seminudi
+et algentis ducatos XIII de mandato sancti domini nostri. Muentz et Fabre,
+p. 148.
+
+[414] Habui ego Platyna sanctissimi domini nostri bibliothecarius ducatos
+triginta pro salario meo, quod est decem ducatorum in mense, ab idibus
+Julii usque ad idus Octobris 1477, quemadmodum apparet in bulla de
+facultatibus officiis et muneribus a sanctissimo domino nostro papa Sixto
+IIII facta. _Ibid._ p. 150.
+
+[415] Muentz, pp. 129, 133.
+
+[416] Item dedi ducatos quinque pro quolibet Demetrio et Johanni ligatori
+librorum quos ex mandato domini nostri foras misi, mortuo ex peste eorum
+socio, ne ipsi quoque eo loci interirent vel alios inficerent, die VIII
+junii 1478. Muentz et Fabre, pp. 153.
+
+[417] The entries alluded to in this account will all be found in Muentz
+and Fabre, pp. 148-158.
+
+[418] The document is printed by Muentz and Fabre, p. 300.
+
+[419] I visited Urbino for the purpose of studying this library 28 April,
+1900.
+
+[420] _Memorie concernenti la Citta di Urbino._ Fol. Rome, 1724, p. 37.
+See also Vespasiano, _Federigo Duca d' Urbino_; ap. Mai, _Spicilegium
+Romanian_, I. pp. 124-128; Dennistoun, _Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino_,
+8vo. 1851, I. pp. 153-160. The duties of the librarian, which remind us in
+many particulars of those of the monastic _armarius_, are translated by
+Dennistoun (p. 159) from Vat. Urb. MSS. No. 1248, f. 58.
+
+[421] _Codices Urbinates Graeci Bibl. Vat._ 4to. Rome, 1895, p. 12. For
+this statement, the writer cites Raffaelli, _Imparziale istoria dell'
+unione delta Biblioteca ducale di Urbino alia Vaticana di Roma_. Fermo,
+1877, p. 12.
+
+[422] _Vasari_, ed. 1856, vol. XII. p. 214.
+
+[423] Franklin, _Anc. Bibl. de Paris_, II. 22.
+
+[424] This statement rests on the authority of Dr Caius, _Hist. Cant.
+Acad._ p. 89. Cum duae bibliothecae erant, altera priuata seu noua, altera
+publica seu vetus dicebatur. In illa optimi quique; in hac omnis generis
+ex peiori numero ponebantur. Illa paucis, ista omnibus patebat.
+
+[425] _Arch. Hist._ III. p. 401.
+
+[426] See above p. 45. Dr James has printed the verses from Bodl. MSS.
+Laud. 697, fol. 27, _verso_, in _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ VIII.
+213.
+
+[427] The whole series is given in _Arch. Hist._ III. p. 461.
+
+[428] I quote this account of the glass at Eton from Dr James, _ut supra_,
+p. 214.
+
+[429] De Lisle, _Cabinet de Manuscrits_, vol. II. p. 200.
+
+[430] _Voyage Litteraire_, ed. 1717, II. 158.
+
+[431] Bliss, _Reliquiae Hearnianae_, II. 693; _ap._ Macray, _Annals_, p. 4.
+
+[432] See above, p. 188.
+
+[433] See Index.
+
+[434] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. II. p. 270.
+
+[435] See above, p. 192.
+
+[436] See Index.
+
+[437] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. III. p. 30. Conyers Middleton, _Bibl. Cant. Ord.
+Meth._ Works, Vol. III. p. 484.
+
+[438] See above, p. 192.
+
+[439] See above, p. 105.
+
+[440] _Du pret des livres dans l' abbaye de Saint Ouen, sous Charles V._
+par L. Delisle. _Bibl. de l' Ecole des Chartes_, ser. III. Vol. I. p. 225.
+1849.
+
+[441] _Le Librairie des Papes d' Avignon_, par Maurice Faucon, Tome II. p.
+43, in _Bibl. des Ecoles Francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_, Fasc. 50.
+
+[442] _Archaeologia_, Vol. 47, p. 120. I have to thank my friend Mr P. T.
+Micklethwaite, architect, for this quotation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+
+CONTRAST BETWEEN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. SUPPRESSION OF THE
+MONASTERIES. COMMISSIONERS OF EDWARD VI. SUBSEQUENT CHANGES IN LIBRARY
+FITTINGS. S. JOHN'S COLLEGE, AND UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, CAMBRIDGE. QUEEN'S
+COLLEGE, OXFORD. LIBRARIES ATTACHED TO CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS. CHAINING IN
+RECENT TIMES. CHAINS TAKEN OFF.
+
+
+I have now traced the evolution of the bookcase from a clumsy contrivance
+consisting of two boards set at an angle to each other, to the stately
+pieces of furniture which, with but little alteration, are still in use;
+and I hope that I have succeeded in shewing that the fifteenth century was
+emphatically the library-era throughout Europe. Monasteries, cathedrals,
+universities, and secular institutions in general vied with each other in
+erecting libraries, in stocking them with books, and in framing liberal
+regulations for making them useful to the public.
+
+To this development of study in all directions the sixteenth century
+offers a sad and startling contrast. In France the Huguenot movement took
+the form of a bitter hostility to the clergy--which, after the fashion of
+that day, exhibited itself in a very general destruction of churches,
+monasteries, and their contents; while England witnessed the suppression
+of the Monastic Orders, and the annihilation, so far as was practicable,
+of all that belonged to them. I have shewn that monastic libraries were
+the public libraries of the Middle Ages; more than this, the larger
+houses were centres of culture and education, maintaining schools for
+children, and sending older students to the Universities. In three years,
+between 1536 and 1539. the whole system was swept away, as thoroughly as
+though it had never existed. The buildings were pulled down, and the
+materials sold; the plate was melted; and the books were either burnt, or
+put to the vilest uses to which waste literature can be subjected. I will
+state the case in another way which will bring out more clearly the result
+of this catastrophe. Upwards of eight hundred monasteries were suppressed,
+and, as a consequence, eight hundred libraries were done away with,
+varying in size and importance from Christ Church, Canterbury, with its
+2000 volumes, to small houses with little more than the necessary
+service-books. By the year 1540 the only libraries left in England were
+those at the two Universities, and in the Cathedrals of the old
+foundation. Further, the royal commissioners made no attempt to save any
+of the books with which the monasteries were filled. In France in 1789 the
+revolutionary leaders sent the libraries of the convents they pillaged to
+the nearest town: for instance, that of Citeaux to Dijon; of Clairvaux to
+Troyes; of Corbie to Amiens. But in England at the suppression no such
+precautions were taken; manuscripts seem to have been at a discount just
+then, for which the invention of printing may be to some extent
+responsible; their mercantile value was small; private collectors were
+few. So the monastic libraries perished, save a few hundred manuscripts
+which have survived to give us an imperfect notion of what the rest were
+like.
+
+How great the loss was, has probably been recorded by more than one
+writer; but for the moment I can think of nothing more graphic than the
+words of that bitter protestant John Bale, a contemporary who had seen the
+old libraries, and knew their value. After lamenting that "in turnynge
+ouer of y^e superstycyouse monasteryes so lytle respect was had to theyr
+lybraryes for the sauegarde of those noble and precyouse monumentes" (the
+works of ancient writers), he states what ought to have been done, and
+what really happened.
+
+    Neuer had we bene offended for the losse of our
+    lybraryes beynge so many in nombre and in so desolate
+    places for the most parte, yf the chiefe monumentes and
+    moste notable workes of our excellent wryters had bene
+    reserued.
+
+    If there had bene in every shyre but one solempne
+    lybrary, to the preseruacyon of those noble workes, it
+    had bene yet sumwhat. But to destroy all without
+    consydyracyon is and wyll be vnto Englande for euer a
+    moste horryble infamy amonge the graue senyours of other
+    nacyons. A greate nombre of them whych purchased those
+    superstycyouse mansyons, reserued of those bokes some to
+    ... scoure theyr candelstyckes, and some to rubbe theyr
+    bootes. Some they sold to the grossers and sopesellers,
+    and some they sent ouer see to the boke bynders, not in
+    small nombre, but at times whole shyppes full, to the
+    wonderynge of the foren nacyons. I know a merchaunt man
+    which shall at this tyme be namelesse, that boughte the
+    contentes of two noble lybraryes for. xl. shyllynges
+    pryce, a shame it is to be spoken. This stuffe hath he
+    occupyed in the stede of graye paper by the space of
+    more than these .x. yeares, and yet he hath store ynough
+    for many yeares to come[443].
+
+The Universities, though untouched by the suppression, were not allowed to
+remain long at peace. In 1549, commissioners were sent by Edward the Sixth
+to Oxford and Cambridge. They considered that it fell within their
+province to reform the libraries as well as those who used them; and they
+did their work with a thoroughness that under other circumstances would
+have been worthy of commendation. Anthony Wood[444] has told us in
+eloquent periods, where sorrow struggles with indignation, how the college
+libraries were treated; how manuscripts which had nothing superstitious
+about them except a few rubricated initials, were carried through the city
+on biers to the market-place and there consumed. Of the treatment meted
+out to the public library of the University he gives an almost identical
+account[445]. This library--now the central portion of the Bodleian--had
+been completed about 1480. It was well stocked with manuscripts of value,
+the most important of which, in number about 600[446], had been given by
+Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, between 1439 and 1446. His collection was
+that of a cultivated layman, and was comparatively poor in theological
+literature. Yet in this home of all that was noble in literature and
+splendid in art (for the Duke's copies are said to have been the finest
+that could be bought) did this crew of ignorant fanatics cry havoc, with
+such fatal success that only three MSS. now survive; and on January 25,
+1555-56, certain members of the Senate were appointed "to sell, in the
+name of the University, the book-desks in the public library. The books
+had all disappeared; what need then to retain the shelves and stalls, when
+no one thought of replacing their contents, and when the University could
+turn an honest penny by their sale[447]?"
+
+I suppose that in those collegiate and cathedral libraries of which some
+fragments had been suffered to remain, the gaps caused by the destruction
+of manuscripts were slowly filled up by printed literature. No new
+bookcases would be required for many years; and in fact, nearly a century
+passed away before any novelty in the way of library-fittings makes its
+appearance. Further, when new libraries came to be built, the provision of
+suitable furniture was not easy. The old stall, with two shelves loaded
+with books attached to them by chains, and a desk and seat for the use of
+the reader, was manifestly no longer adequate, when books could be
+produced by the rapidity of a printing-press, instead of by the slowness
+of a writer's hand. And yet, as we shall see, ancient fashions lingered.
+
+So far as I know, the first library built and furnished under these new
+conditions in England was that of S. John's College, Cambridge. This
+"curious example of Jacobean Gothic[448]" was built between 1623 and 1628,
+at the sole charge of Bishop Williams, whose work at Westminster during
+the same period has been already recorded. The site selected was the
+ground between the second court of the college and the river, the
+library-building being constructed as a continuation of the north side of
+that court, with the library on the first floor, and the chambers intended
+for the Bishop's Fellows and Scholars on the ground floor.
+
+The room, after the fashion of the older libraries, is long and narrow,
+110 ft. in length by 30 ft. in breadth. Each side-wall is pierced with ten
+lofty pointed windows of two lights with tracery in the head. The sills of
+these windows are raised 4 ft. above the floor, and the interval between
+each pair of windows is 3 ft. 8 in. There is also a western oriel, the
+foundations of which are laid in the river which washes its walls (fig.
+109). The name of the founder is commemorated on the central gable by the
+letters I. L. C. S., the initials of _Johannes Lincolniensis Custos
+Sigilli_, the Bishop being at that time keeper of the Great Seal, or, as
+we should say, Lord Chancellor. The date 1624 marks the completion of the
+shell of the building[449].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109. West oriel of the Library at S. John's College,
+Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110. Bookcases in the Library of S. John's College,
+Cambridge.]
+
+The beautiful fittings (fig. 110), which are still in use, were completed
+before 1628. Medieval arrangement was not wholly discarded, but various
+modern features were introduced. The side-walls and window-jambs are
+panelled to a height of 8 ft.; and the cornice of this panel-work is
+continuous with that of the taller cases--which, as in the older examples,
+stand at right angles to the walls between each pair of windows. Before
+these fittings were constructed, chaining had been practically abandoned,
+so that it was not necessary to provide either desk or seat. In the place,
+therefore, of the reader's seat, a low bookcase was set in front of each
+window. These cases were originally 5 ft. 6 in. high, with a sloping desk
+on the top on which books could be laid for study. Stools also were
+provided for the convenience of readers. The larger cases or, as the
+building-account of the library calls them, "the greater seats," have been
+a good deal altered in order to accommodate more books. Originally the
+plinth ran round the sides of the case; as did also the broad member which
+is seen on the end above the arches. By this arrangement there were in all
+only four shelves, namely, one below the broad member and three above it.
+Further, there was a pilaster in the middle, below the central bracket. It
+should be noted that the medieval habit of placing a list of the books
+contained in each case at the end of the case is here maintained.
+
+It might have been expected that these splendid cases would have invited
+imitation, and in those at Clare College the general style was undoubtedly
+copied. But, as I have already explained[450], those cases were originally
+genuine specimens of the stall-system, with desks. In other libraries,
+while a new style of bookcase was put up, we shall find no innovation
+comparable to that seen at S. John's. This was due, in great measure, to
+the medieval character of the rooms to be fitted up.
+
+The library at Peterhouse was lengthened in 1633. It is 75 ft. long by 25
+ft. broad, and each of its side-walls is pierced by a range of three-light
+windows. The cases (fig. 111) were put up between 1641 and 1648. Like
+those at S. John's, they stand at right angles to the walls between the
+windows, but they are detached, and not continuous with the panelwork.
+Originally they were just eight feet high, but have since been heightened
+to accommodate more books. Each case is still divided by a central
+pilaster. So far they do not present any striking peculiarity, but I wish
+to draw attention to a curious contrivance, which we shall find
+subsequently reproduced in various forms, though not exactly as it is seen
+here; for these cases were evidently admired, and imitated in several
+other colleges. The chains had been taken off the books at Peterhouse in
+1593-94, when they were first moved into the new library; so that desks
+attached to the cases were not required. Nor were lower cases, with desks
+at the top of them, provided. But the convenience of the reader was
+considered, up to a certain point, by the provision of a seat, 12 in.
+wide and 23 in. high, extending along the side of each case, and returned
+along the wall between it and the case next to it. This arrangement may
+still be seen in the two compartments at the west end of the room, one on
+each side of the door of entrance. The ends of the seat or 'podium,' are
+concealed by boldly carved wings[451].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111. Bookcases in the Library of Peterhouse,
+Cambridge.]
+
+The convenience of this type of case was evidently recognised at once, for
+we find it copied, more or less exactly, in the south room of the
+University Library (1649); at Jesus College (1663); at Gonville and Caius
+College (1675); at Emmanuel College (1677); and at Pembroke College
+(1690).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112. Bookcases in the south room of the University
+Library, Cambridge.]
+
+The south room of the University Library, on the first floor, is 25 ft.
+wide and was originally 67 ft. long. It was lighted by eight windows in
+the north wall, and by nine windows in the south wall, each of two lights.
+There was also a window of four lights in the east gable, as we learn from
+Loggan's print, and probably a window in the west gable also[452]. It was
+entered by a door, in the north-east corner, approached by a "vice," or
+turret-stair. This door was fortunately left intact when the east building
+was erected in 1755. The room has been but little altered, and still
+preserves the beautiful roof, the contract for which is dated 25 June,
+1466[453].
+
+We do not know anything about the primitive fittings, but, having regard
+to the fact that the spaces between the windows are barely two feet wide,
+it is probable that they were lecterns. Moreover, a catalogue, dated 1473,
+enumerates eight stalls on the north side each containing on an average 21
+books, and nine on the south side, each containing 18 books[454]. These
+numbers, compared with those mentioned above at Zutphen, indicate
+lecterns.
+
+In the next century this room was assigned to teaching purposes, and the
+lecterns were either removed or destroyed. In 1645 the University
+petitioned Parliament to put them in possession of Archbishop Bancroft's
+library, which he, by will dated 28 October, 1610, had bequeathed to the
+Public Library of the University of Cambridge, should certain other
+provisions not be fulfilled. The request was granted, 15 February, 1647,
+and the books arrived in 1649. The room in question, then used as the
+Greek School, was ordered, 3 September, 1649, to be "fitted for the
+disposeall of the said books" without delay. The existing cases were
+supplied at once, for Fuller, writing in the following year, speaks of
+them with commendation[455]. Their exact date is therefore known.
+
+These cases (fig. 112) are 8 ft. high from the floor to the top of the
+horizontal part of the cornice, and 22 in. broad. They have the central
+pilaster; but the seat has been cut down to a step, which is interrupted
+in the middle, so as to allow the central pilaster to rise directly from
+the ground. The wing, however, was too picturesque a feature to be
+discarded, so it was placed at the end of the step, and carried up, by
+means of a long slender prolongation, as far as the molding which
+separates the two panels on the end of the stall.
+
+These cases were exactly copied at Gonville and Caius College; and again
+at Emmanuel College; but in both those examples the step is continuous. At
+Jesus College the same type is maintained, with the central pilaster and
+continuous step; but the work is extremely plain, and there is neither
+wing nor pediment. At Pembroke College there is a further modification of
+the type. The step disappears, and, instead of it, a plinth extends along
+the whole length of the case. The wing, however, remains, as a survival of
+the lost step, and helps to give dignity to the base of the standard,
+which is surmounted by a semicircular pediment, beneath which is a band of
+fruit and flowers in high relief[456].
+
+I will now describe a very interesting bookcase at King's College,
+Cambridge (fig. 113), which was put up in 1659, with a bequest from
+Nicholas Hobart, formerly Fellow[457]. It remains in its original position
+in one of the chapels on the south side of the choir, which were used for
+library-purposes till the present library was built by Wilkins in 1825. It
+has several details in common with those at S. John's College, as
+originally constructed, and will help us to understand their aspect before
+they were altered. There is a lofty plinth, a broad member interposed
+between the first and second shelf, a central vertical pilaster; and, as
+at Peterhouse, and elsewhere, a step or 'podium' with a wing. But, with
+these resemblances to cases in which books are arranged as at present, it
+is curious to find the usual indications of chaining, which we know from
+other sources was not given up in this library until 1777. There are locks
+on the end of the case just below each of the two shelves, and scars on
+the vertical pilasters caused by the attachment of the iron-work that
+carried the bar. Further, just below the broad band, a piece of wood of a
+different quality has been inserted into the pilasters, evidently to fill
+up a vacancy caused by the removal of some part of the original structure,
+probably a desk or shelf.
+
+The antiquary William Cole, writing in 1744, describes these chapels when
+used as libraries. Each chapel held five bookcases, "two at the
+extremities, which are but half-cases, and three in the body, of which the
+middlemost is much loftier than the rest." In the chapel fitted up by
+Hobart, Cole tells us that "at the end of the biggest middle class is
+wrote in gold letters LEGAVIT NICOLAUS HOBART 1659[458]." As the chapel is
+only 20 ft. long, the intervals between the cases could hardly have
+exceeded 2 ft., and as the books were chained they must have been
+consulted standing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Bookcase in the old Library of King's College,
+Cambridge, made with the bequest of Nicholas Hobart, 1659.]
+
+A similar return to ancient forms is to be found in the library of Queen's
+College, Oxford, begun in 1692. The architect is said to have been
+Nicholas Hawkesmoore, to whom the fittings, put up in the first fourteen
+years of the eighteenth century[459], are also ascribed. This library is
+123 ft. long by 30 ft. wide. There are ten bookcases on each side at right
+angles to the walls between the windows. Each case is about 11 ft. high,
+and 2 ft. 6 in. wide; but, though their ornamentation is in the style of
+the period, of which they are splendid examples, their general design
+exactly reproduces the old type. In their original state they were
+provided with desks, though there is no evidence that the books were
+chained; they had only two shelves above that which was on the level of
+the top of the desk; and there was a double seat between each pair of
+cases. The space above the second shelf, between it and the cornice, was
+occupied by a cupboard, handsomely ornamented with carved panels, for
+small books or manuscripts[460]. In fact, the only innovation which the
+designer of these remarkable cases permitted himself to employ was to make
+the moldings of their cornices continuous with that of the panelwork which
+he carried along the sides of the room, and into the jambs of the windows.
+The space below the desk was utilised for books, but, as these were found
+to be inconvenient of access, the desks and seats were taken away in 1871,
+and dwarf bookcases provided in front of the windows.
+
+When the Dean and Chapter of Canterbury built their library, now called
+the Howley-Harrison Library, in 1669-70, they constructed a room on
+strictly medieval lines. It is 65 ft. long by 21 ft. broad, with seven
+equidistant windows in the north wall and six in the south wall. The
+bookcases, which are plain medieval stalls, project from the walls at
+right angles between the windows.
+
+There is another class of libraries which must be briefly mentioned in
+this chapter, namely, those connected with parish churches and
+grammar-schools. I suppose that after the destruction of monastic
+libraries all over the country, the dearth of books would be acutely felt,
+and that gradually those who had the cause of education at heart
+established libraries in central situations, to which persons in quest of
+knowledge might resort.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114. Ground plan of Library, Grantham, Lincolnshire.
+
+Scale one quarter of an inch to one foot.]
+
+The library (fig. 114) at Grantham in Lincolnshire occupies a small room,
+16 feet from north to south by 14 feet from east to west, over the south
+porch of the parish church, approached by a newel stair from the south
+aisle. It was founded in 1598 by the Reverend Francis Trigg, rector of
+Wellbourn; and in 1642, Edward Skipworth "out of his love and well-wishing
+to learning, and to encourage the vicars of Grantham to pursue their
+studies in the winter-time, gave fifty shillings, the yearly interest
+thereof to provide firewood for the library fire." From this language I
+conclude that the original gift of books was made for the benefit of the
+vicar for the time being.
+
+There are three bookcases set against the walls, each about 6 ft. high and
+6 ft. long. A considerable number of the books still bear their chains,
+which are composed of long flat links closely resembling those at
+Guildford, with a ring and swivel next to the bar. The library--room,
+bookcases, and books--was carefully restored and repaired in 1894[461].
+
+At Langley Marye or Marish in Buckinghamshire near Slough, a library was
+founded in 1623 by Sir John Kederminster "as well for the perpetual
+benefit of the vicar and curate of the parish of Langley, as for all other
+ministers and preachers of God's Word that would resort thither to make
+use of the books therein." He placed it under the charge of the four
+tenants of his almshouses, who were to keep safe the books, and the key of
+the room, under stringent penalties[462].
+
+The library is a small room on the south side of the church, entered
+through the squire's pew, to which there is a separate door in the south
+wall. The fittings are of an unusual character, and have been preserved
+unaltered. The whole room is panelled at a distance of 15 in. from the
+wall, so as to make a series of cupboards, in which the books are
+contained. The doors of these cupboards are divided into panels,
+alternately square and oblong. Each of the former contains a small figure
+painted in colours on a black ground; each of the latter a shield, or some
+heraldic device. The inner surface of these doors is similarly divided
+into panels, on each of which is painted an open book. Above the
+cupboards, just under the flat ceiling, is a series of more or less
+imaginary landscapes, doing duty as a frieze. Over the fireplace is a very
+beautiful piece of decoration consisting of a large oval shield with
+various coats of arms painted on it. It is set in an oblong panel, in the
+spandrels of which are painted seated figures of Prudence, Justice,
+Temperance, Fortitude, with their emblems and suitable mottoes[463].
+
+In 1629, the following entry occurs in what is called "the Church Book" of
+Cartmel, in Lancashire:
+
+    14 July, 1629. It is ordered and agreed upon that the
+    churchwardens seate in the body of the churche shall be
+    enlarged both in the wideness and in the deske that the
+    bookes given unto the church may bee more convenientlie
+    laid and chained to remain there according to the
+    directions of the donors[464].
+
+The will of Humphry Chetham, a wealthy merchant of Manchester, dated 16
+December, 1651, directs L200 to be spent on certain specified books,
+
+    to be, by the discretion of my Executors, chained upon
+    Desks, or to be fixed to the Pillars, or in other
+    convenient Places, in the Parish Churches of
+    _Manchester_ and _Boulton in the Moors_, and in the
+    Chapels of _Turton_, _Walmesley_, and _Gorton_, in the
+    said County of _Lancaster_[465].
+
+The bookcase at Gorton[466] is a cupboard of oak, 7 ft. long by 3 ft. high
+and 19 in. deep, raised upon four stout legs, 22 in. high. On opening the
+doors, the interior is seen to be divided into two equal parts by a
+vertical partition, and again by a horizontal shelf. The shelf and the
+partition are both 9 in. deep, so as to leave a considerable interval in
+front of them. The bars--of which there is one for each division--rest in
+a socket pierced in a small bracket screwed to each end of the case, in
+such a position that the bar passes just in front of the shelf. A flat
+piece of iron, nailed to the central division, carries a short hasp, which
+passes over the junction of the bars, and is there secured by a lock. By
+this arrangement no person could withdraw either bar without the key. The
+chains, of iron, tinned, are of the same type as those at Hereford, but
+the links are rather longer and narrower. They are attached to the volume
+in the same manner, either near the bottom of the right board, or near the
+top of the left board. There are scars on the lower edge of the case, and
+on the legs, which seem to indicate that there might once have been a
+desk. Otherwise, the books, when read, must have rested on the reader's
+knees. The whole piece of furniture closely resembles one dated 1694 at
+Bolton in Lancashire to be described below (fig. 116).
+
+The bookcase at Turton[467] resembles that at Gorton so closely that it
+needs no particular description. The doors are richly carved, and on the
+cornice above them is the following inscription, carved in low relief:
+
+THE GIFT OF HUMPHRY CHETHAM ESQVIRE. 1655.
+
+Besides these parochial libraries Mr Chetham directed the foundation
+(among other things) of "a Library within the Town of _Manchester_, for
+the Use of Scholars, and others well affected, to resort unto ... the same
+Books there to remain as a public Library for ever; and my Mind and Will
+is, that Care be taken, that none of the said Books be taken out of the
+said Library at any Time ... the same Books [to] be fixed or chained, as
+well as may be, within the said Library, for the better Preservation
+thereof." In order to carry out these provisions the executors bought an
+ancient building called the _College_, which is known to have been
+completed before 1426 by Thomas Lord de la Warre, as a college in
+connexion with the adjoining collegiate church, now the Cathedral[468].
+The library was placed in two long narrow rooms on the first floor, the
+original destination of which is uncertain. They are at right angles to
+each other, and have a united length of 137 ft. 6 in., with a breadth of
+17 ft. The south and west walls are pierced with fourteen three-light
+windows, probably inserted by Chetham's executors; the east and west walls
+are blank.
+
+The existing fittings, though they have been extensively altered[469] from
+time to time, are in the main those which were originally put up. The
+bookcases, of oak, are placed in medieval fashion at right angles to the
+windows. They are 10 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and were originally 7 ft. high,
+but have been pieced apparently twice, so that they now reach as high as
+the wall-plate. Each pair of cases is 6 ft. apart, so as to make a small
+compartment, closed by wooden gates, which now open in the middle; but a
+lock attached to one side of the end of each case indicates that
+originally the gates were in one piece. The cases are quite plain, with
+the exception of a few panels at the end. On the uppermost of these, which
+is oblong, and extends from side to side of the case, the subjects of the
+works are written: as PHILOSOPHIA; and beneath, in smaller characters,
+_Mathematica_, _Physica_, _Metaphysica_. All indications of chaining have
+been obliterated, but a reference to the earliest account-book which has
+been preserved, that beginning 20 April, 1685, shews that the founder's
+directions were obeyed:
+
+  20 Apr. 1685.   To James Wilson for Cheining ten books
+                                                            0  2  6
+
+     "    1686.   -------------- for making 26 large
+                    Claspes and Cheining 26 bookes          0  4  4
+
+  9 Mar. 1686-87. -------------- for Cheining and
+                    Clasping 12 doz. bookes                00 18 00
+
+Chains were evidently kept as a part of the stock-in-trade of the library,
+to be used as required, for, at the end of an Inventory taken 18 November,
+1684, we find:
+
+    Alsoe in the Library two globes; three Mapps; two queres
+    of larg paper to make tables; a paper fol-booke; A
+    Ruleing penn; 24 dossen Chains; A geniological roul; and
+    a larg serpent or snaks skin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115. Ring and link of chain: Wimborne Minster.]
+
+At Wimborne Minster the books are placed in a small room, about fifteen
+feet square, over the vestry, a building in the Decorated style, situated
+between the south transept and the south aisle of the choir. Access to
+this room is obtained by a turret-stair at the south-west corner. It was
+fitted up as a library in 1686, when the greater part of the books were
+given by the Rev. William Stone. There are two plain wooden shelves,
+carried round three sides of the room. The chains are attached to the
+right-hand board of each book, instead of to the left-hand board, and they
+are made of iron wire, twisted as shewn in the sketch (fig. 115). The
+swivel, instead of being central, plays in a twist of the wire which
+forms the ring attached to the book. The iron bars are supported on eyes,
+and are secured by a tongue of iron passed over a staple fixed into the
+bracket which supports the shelf. The tongue was originally kept in its
+place by a padlock, now replaced by a wooden peg. No desk was attached to
+the shelves, but in lieu of it a portable desk and stool were
+provided[470].
+
+A library was built over the porch of the parish church at
+Denchworth[471], Berks, in 1693, and "stocked with 100 books well secured
+with chains," presumably for the use of the vicar and his successors; and
+in 1715, William Brewster, M.D., bequeathed 285 volumes to the
+churchwardens of All Saints' Church, Hereford, for the same purpose[472].
+The books were placed in the vestry, where they still are. They are all
+chained on a system copied from that in use at the Chapter Library.
+
+In addition to collections of books, which varied in extent according to
+the taste, or the means, of the donor, single volumes are often found
+chained in churches. These do not come within the scope of this Essay, and
+I will therefore pass on to notice some libraries connected with Grammar
+Schools.
+
+At Abingdon in Berkshire, the school, founded 1563, had a library, some
+volumes of which, bearing their chains, are still preserved. There was a
+similar collection at Bicester in Oxfordshire, where a school is said to
+have been in existence before 1570. In 1571 James Pilkington, Bishop of
+Durham (1561-1577), by will dated 4 February in that year, bequeathed his
+books to the school at Rivington in Lancashire. The following extracts
+from the statutes, said to have been made shortly after the arrival of the
+books, remind us of monastic provisions[473].
+
+    The Governors shall the first day of every quarter when
+    they come to the School take an account of all such
+    books as have been given to the School, and if any be
+    picked away torn or written in they shall cause him that
+    so misused it to buy another book as good and lay it in
+    the place of it and there to be used continually as
+    others be.
+
+    The Schoolmaster and Usher whensoever the Scholars go
+    from the School shall cause all such books as have been
+    or shall be given to the School and occupied abroad that
+    day to be brought into the place appointed for them, and
+    there to be locked up; and every morning shall cause the
+    dictionaries, or such other books as are meet to be
+    occupied abroad by the Scholars, that have none of their
+    own, to be laid abroad, and see that none use to write
+    in them, pull out leaves, nor carry them from the
+    School; and if any misuse any book, or pick it away, the
+    Governours shall cause him to buy another as good, to be
+    laid in the stead of it, and occupied as the other was.
+
+    And for the books of divinity, the Schoolmaster and
+    Usher and such as give themselves to study divinity,
+    shall occupy them, that they may be the more able to
+    declare any article of the catechism or religion to the
+    scholars; and in the church to make some notes of the
+    Chapters that be read that the people may better
+    understand them and remember what is read. And yet these
+    books they shall not carry out of the School, without
+    license of the Governours, and on pain to bring it
+    again, or else to buy one as good, in its stead, and to
+    be allowed out of the Master's or Usher's wages.
+
+    If any preacher come and desire to have the use of some
+    of those books, they shall let him have the use of them
+    for a time so that they see them brought in again; none
+    other shall carry them from the School except they have
+    license of half the Governours and be bound to bring it
+    safe again.
+
+In 1573 John Parkhurst, Bishop of Norwich (1560-1575), bequeathed "the
+most part" of his Latin books to his native town Guildford, to be placed
+in "the Lybrarie of the same Towne ioyning to the Schole." These books,
+after some legal difficulties had been overcome, were brought to
+Guildford, and placed in a gallery which connected the two wings of the
+school, and had been begun in 1571. The books were fastened to the shelves
+with chains, one of which has been already figured (fig. 58). There is
+evidence that the library was well cared for, and augmented by various
+donations, which were regularly chained as they came in, down to the end
+of the 17th century[474].
+
+Henry Bury, founder of the free school at Bury in Lancashire in 1625,
+directed in his will that a convenient place should be found for the
+library, because, as he proceeds to say:
+
+    I have already geven ... in trust for the use of Bury
+    Parish and the countrie therabouts, of ministers also at
+    ther metinge and of schole maisters and others that seek
+    for learninge and knowledge, above six hundreth bookes,
+    and some other such things as I thought might helpe for
+    their delight, and refresh students, as globes mappes
+    pictures and some other things not every wheare to bee
+    seene.
+
+This language shews that this provident benefactor intended his library to
+be public. It is pleasant to be able to record that some of the books
+which he gave are still in existence[475].
+
+Lastly I will figure (fig. 116) the press given in 1694 by "James Leaver
+citison of London," to the Grammar School at Bolton in Lancashire. It
+closely resembles those given by Humphry Chetham to Turton and Gorton. The
+system of ironwork by which the bars are kept in place is exactly the
+same; and it retains the desk, traces of which exist at Gorton.
+
+In my enumeration of the libraries attached to schools and churches, I
+have drawn special attention to the fact that in nearly all of them the
+books were chained. In explanation of this it might be argued that these
+libraries were in remote places, to which new ideas would not easily
+penetrate, but I am about to shew that this method of protection, which
+began in a remote past, was maintained with strange persistency down to
+modern times. I shall collect some further instances of the chaining of
+books in places where it might have been expected that such things would
+be no longer thought of; and in conclusion I shall record some dates at
+which the final removal of chains took place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. Bookpress in the school at Bolton, Lancashire.
+
+From _Bibliographical Miscellanies_ by William Blades.]
+
+In the library of the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, the books were ordered
+to be chained in 1509, in consequence of some thefts; and these chains
+were still attached to certain books in 1770[476]. At Corpus Christi
+College, Cambridge, in 1554, it was ordered that the books bequeathed by
+Peter Nobys, D.D. (Master 1516-23), should be taken better care of for the
+future, and, if the chains were broken, that they should be repaired at
+the expense of the college[477]. In 1555, Robert Chaloner, Esq.,
+bequeathed his law books to Gray's Inn, with forty shillings in money, to
+be paid to his cousin, "to th' entent that he maie by cheines therwith and
+fasten so manye of them in the Librarye at Grauisin [Gray's Inn] as he
+shall think convenyente[478]."
+
+At S. John's College, Cambridge, in 1563-4, three shillings were paid to
+"Phillip Stacyoner for cornering, bossing, and chayninge _Anatomiam
+Vessalii etc._[479]" In 1573, Dr Caius directs by will twelve copies of
+his own works to be given to his college, "there to be kepte as the other
+bokes are, and to be successivelye tyed with chaynes in the Librarye of
+the same College[480]." Dr Perne, Master of Peterhouse, by will dated 25
+February, 1588, directs that all his books therein bequeathed "be layed
+and chayned in the old Librarie of the Colledge[481]." At Trinity College,
+Cambridge, in 1601, Mr Peter Shaw gave L5 towards the "cheyning and
+desking of his bookes given to the newe liberarie[482]." In 1638-9, when a
+new library was completed for the Barber Surgeons of London, L6. 18_s._
+were spent on binding and chaining, as for instance:
+
+    Paid for 36 yards of chaine at 4_d._ the yard and 36
+    yards at 3_d._ the yard cometh to xxij_s._ vj_d._
+
+    Paid to the coppersmith for castinge 80 brasses to
+    fasten the chaines to the bookes--xiij_s._ iiij_d._[483]
+
+Sir Matthew Hale, who died in 1676, directed in his will that certain
+manuscripts should be given to the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn:
+"My desire," he said, "is that they be kept safe and also in remembrance
+of me. They were fit to be bound in leather and chained and kept in
+archives[484]." In the will of Matthew Scrivener, Rector of Haslingfield
+in Cambridgeshire, dated 4 March, 1687, the following passage occurs: "I
+give fifty pounds in trust for the use of the public Library [at
+Cambridge], either by buying chains for the securing the books at present
+therein contained, or for the increase of the number of them[485]." At
+the church of S. Gatien at Tours it is recorded in 1718 that the library
+which occupied one alley of the cloister was well stocked with
+manuscripts, chained on desks, which stood both against the wall and in
+the middle of the room[486]. Lastly, in 1815, John Fells, mariner, gave
+L30 to found a theological library in the church of S. Peter, Liverpool.
+"The books were originally fastened to open shelves in the vestry with
+rods and chains[487]."
+
+Towards the end of the eighteenth century the practice was finally
+abandoned. At Eton College in 1719 it was "Order'd to take y^e Chains off
+y^e Books in y^e Library, except y^e Founder's Manuscripts[488]"; at the
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, the removal of them began in 1757[489]; at
+King's College, Cambridge, the books were unchained in 1777[490]; at
+Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1780[491]; and at Merton College in
+1792[492].
+
+In France the custom was evidently abandoned at a much earlier date, for
+the authors of the _Voyage Litteraire_, who visited more than eight
+hundred monasteries at the beginning of the eighteenth century, with the
+special intention of examining their records and their libraries, rarely
+allude to chaining, and when they do mention it, they use language which
+implies that it was a curious old fashion, the maintenance of which
+surprised them[493].
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[443] _The laboryouse Journey and Serche of Johan Leylande for Englandes
+Antiquitees...._ by Johan Bale. London, 1549.
+
+[444] _History and Antiquities of University of Oxford_, Ed. Gutch, 410.
+1796, Vol. II. p. 106. Wood (b. 1632, d. 1695) gives these facts as
+"credibly reported from antient men and they while young from scholars of
+great standing."
+
+[445] _Ibid._ Vol. II. Pt. 2, p. 918.
+
+[446] This number is given on the authority of Macray, _Annals of the
+Bodleian Library_, Ed. II. p. 6.
+
+[447] Macray, _ut supra_, p. 13.
+
+[448] These words were used by Professor Willis, _Arch. Hist._ Vol. III.
+p. 451.
+
+[449] For the history of this building see Professor Willis, _ut supra_,
+Vol. II. pp. 264-271.
+
+[450] See above p. 186.
+
+[451] _Arch. Hist._ ut supra, Vol. I. p. 33, and Vol. III. p. 454.
+
+[452] When the new facade was built in the middle of the 18th century this
+room was shortened by about 8 feet, so that now there are only 8 windows
+on the south side and 7 1/2 on the north side.
+
+[453] The contract is printed and explained in _Arch. Hist._ Vol. III. pp.
+92-6.
+
+[454] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc._ Vol. II. p. 258. The catalogue is printed,
+with remarks, by H. Bradshaw, M.A., University Librarian. It should be
+noted that on the south side of the room, the first case only is called
+'stall,' the remaining eight are called 'desks.'
+
+[455] _History of University of Cambridge_, ed. Prickett and Wright, p.
+160. See also _Arch. Hist._ Vol. III. p. 27.
+
+[456] These descriptions are all borrowed from Professor Willis, _Arch.
+Hist._ Vol. III. pp. 454-458, 460, 465.
+
+[457] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. I. p. 538.
+
+[458] _Arch. Hist._ I. p. 539.
+
+[459] This date is given on the authority of the present Provost, John
+Richard Magrath, D.D.
+
+[460] A view of the Library in its original state is given in Ingram's
+_Memorials_, Queen's College, p. 12. An article in _Notes and Queries_,
+6th Ser. IV. 442, by the Rev. Robert Lowes Clarke, M.A., Fellow and
+Librarian, contains the following passage: "The bookcases were fitted with
+reading desks, as at the Bodleian, and there were fixed oak seats in each
+recess. These were convenient in some ways, and helped to make the room
+seem a place for study rather than a store for materials, but they made
+the lower shelves hard of access, and were removed in 1871 to give room
+for new cases."
+
+[461] For these details I have to thank the late Canon H. Nelson. I
+visited Grantham in 1895 with my friend Mr. T. D. Atkinson, architect, who
+drew the above plan.
+
+[462] _Report of Comm. for Inquiring concerning Charities_, Vol. II. pp.
+95-100.
+
+[463] This description of the library is partly from my own notes, taken 7
+July, 1901, partly from Hornby's _Walks about Eton_, 1894.
+
+[464] _Old Church and School Libraries of Lancashire_, by R. C. Christie,
+Chetham Soc., 1885, p. 76.
+
+[465] _The last will of Humphry Chetham_, 4to. Manchester, n. d. p. 42.
+
+[466] This bookcase stood in the National School-room when I examined it
+in 1885. In 1898 the books were thoroughly repaired.
+
+[467] The front of this bookcase is figured on the title-page of
+_Bibliographical notices of the Church Libraries at Turton and Gorton_.
+Chetham Soc., 1855, p. 3.
+
+[468] The architectural history of these buildings has been admirably
+worked out, in _Old Halls in Lancashire and Cheshire_, by Henry Taylor,
+Architect, 4to. Manchester, 1884, pp. 31-46.
+
+[469] These alterations probably began when the following Order was made:
+"Tuesday, 24 July, 1787. That a Committee be appointed to inspect the
+Library along with the Librarian, consisting of the Treasurer [etc.]; And
+that such Committee shall have power to repair and make such Alterations
+in the Library as they may think proper." No Order for taking off the
+chains has been discovered.
+
+[470] _Sketches of English Literature_, by Clara Lucas Balfour, 12mo.
+Lond. 1852. Introduction. In the description of the library there given
+the padlocks are specially mentioned. Compare also, _A History of Wimborne
+Minster_, 8vo. Lond. 1860; and Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_, ed. 1803, Vol. II.
+p. 554.
+
+[471] _Notes and Queries_, Series 6, Vol. IV. p. 304. The library was
+destroyed in 1852 when the Church was restored by Mr George Street,
+Architect.
+
+[472] _The History of All Saints' Church, Hereford_, by Rev. G. H.
+Culshaw, M.A., 8vo. Hereford, 1892.
+
+[473] _Old Church and School Libraries of Lancashire_, by R. C. Christie,
+Chetham Soc., 1885, p. 189.
+
+[474] _Cam. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ Vol. VIII. pp. 11-18. In 1899 the
+books which remained were put in order and set on new shelves by the care
+and at the cost of H. A. Powell, Esq.
+
+[475] _Old Church and School Libraries of Lancashire_, by R. C. Christie,
+Chetham Soc. p. 139.
+
+[476] Franklin, _Anc. Bibl._ Vol. II. p. 25.
+
+[477] Masters, _History_, p. 62.
+
+[478] _The Guild of the Corpus Christi, York_, ed. Surtees Society, 1872,
+p. 206, _note_.
+
+[479] S. John's College Audit-Book, 1563-4, _Exp. Necess._
+
+[480] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 309.
+
+[481] _Arch. Hist._ III. 454.
+
+[482] Sen. Burs. Accounts, 1600-1, _Recepta_.
+
+[483] _Memorials of the Craft of Surgery in England_, ed. D'Arcy Power.
+8vo. London 1886, p. 230.
+
+[484] Herbert, _Inns of Court_, p. 303.
+
+[485] _Documents relating to St Catharine's College_, ed. H. Philpott,
+D.D., p. 125.
+
+[486] _Voyage Liturgique de la France_, by Le Sieur de Moleon, 1718. I
+have to thank Dr James for this reference.
+
+[487] _Old Church Libraries_, _ut supra_, p. 102.
+
+[488] Eton College Minute Book, 19 December, 1719.
+
+[489] Macray, _ut supra_, p. 86. The inconvenience of chaining had long
+been felt for in _The Foreigner's Companion through the Universities_, by
+Mr Salmon, 1748, it is objected that "the books being chain'd down, there
+is no bringing them together even in the Library," p. 27.
+
+[490] King's College Mundum Book, 1777: _Smith's work_. "To a man's time 9
+Dayes to take the Chains of the books L1. 7_s._ 0_d._"
+
+[491] Churton's _Lives of Smyth and Sutton_, p. 311, _note_.
+
+[492] Henderson's _History_, p. 237.
+
+[493] _Voy. Litt._, ed. 1724, Vol. III. p. 24.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE WALL-SYSTEM. THIS BEGAN ON THE CONTINENT. LIBRARY OF THE ESCORIAL.
+AMBROSIAN LIBRARY AT MILAN. LIBRARY OF CARDINAL MAZARIN. BODLEIAN LIBRARY
+AT OXFORD. WORKS AND INFLUENCE OF WREN. FRENCH CONVENTUAL LIBRARIES OF THE
+SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+While in England we were struggling with the difficulties of adapting
+medieval forms of libraries and bookcases to the ever-increasing number of
+volumes, a new system was initiated on the continent, which I propose to
+call the wall-system.
+
+It seems so natural to us to set our bookshelves against a wall instead of
+at right angles to it, that it is difficult to realize that there was a
+time when such an arrangement was an innovation. Such however was the
+case. I believe that this principle was first introduced into a library at
+the Escorial, which Philip the Second of Spain began in 1563, and
+completed 13 September, 1584. I do not mean by this sentence that nobody
+ever set bookshelves against a wall before the third quarter of the
+sixteenth century. I have shewn above, when discussing the catalogue of
+Dover Priory[494], that the books stood on pieces of furniture which were
+probably so treated; and it is not uncommon in illuminated manuscripts to
+see a writer's books standing on one or more shelves set against the wall
+near his desk. Further, in the accounts of the library arranged in the
+Vatican by Sixtus IV., shelves set against the wall of one of the four
+rooms are specially mentioned[495]; and in the description of the library
+of the Dukes of Urbino, it is expressly stated that "the shelves for the
+books are set against the walls (_le scanzie de' libri sono accostate alle
+mura_)[496]." What I wish to enforce is that before the Escorial was
+built, no important library was fitted up in that manner from the
+beginning by the architect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Bookcases in the Library of the Escorial on an
+enlarged scale.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. General view of the Library of the Escorial,
+looking north.]
+
+The library of the Escorial[497] occupies a commanding position over the
+portico through which the building is entered. It is 212 ft. long, by 35
+ft. broad and about 36 ft. high. The roof is a barrel-vault, gorgeously
+painted in fresco, as are the wall-spaces above the bookcases, and the
+semicircular lunettes at the ends of the room. In that at the north end is
+Philosophy, in that at the south end is Theology, while between them are
+personifications of Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, Music, etc. On the walls,
+forming a gigantic frieze, are various historical scenes, and figures of
+celebrated persons real and imaginary, as for instance, the first Nicene
+Council, the School of Athens, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, Cicero,
+David, Orpheus, etc. The general appearance of this splendid room will be
+understood from the view (fig. 117). It is lighted by five windows on the
+east side and seven on the west side, to which is added on the east side a
+range of five smaller windows just under the vault. The principal windows
+are quite different from those of any other library I have been
+considering, for they are nearly 13 ft. high, and extend down to the
+floor.
+
+The wall-spaces between each pair of windows have bookcases fitted to
+them, of a very original and striking design. They are divided into
+compartments by fluted Doric columns supporting an entablature with
+projecting cornice, above which again is a sort of second entablature. The
+bases of the columns rest upon an extremely lofty plinth, intersected, at
+about three-quarters of its height from the ground, by a shelf, behind
+which is a sloping desk. The material used for these cases is mahogany,
+inlaid with ebony, cedar, and other woods. They were designed by Juan de
+Herrera, the architect of the building, in 1584, and I am assured that
+they have escaped alteration, or serious damage from the numerous fires
+which have occurred in the palace.
+
+In order to exhibit the distinctive peculiarities of these remarkable
+cases as clearly as possible, I give (fig. 118) an enlargement of part of
+the former view; and further, an elevation of one of them drawn accurately
+to scale (fig. 119), for which I have to thank a Spanish architect, Don
+Ricardo Velasquez.
+
+These bookcases have a total height of rather more than 12 ft, measured
+from the floor to the top of the cornice. The desks are 2 ft. 7 in. from
+the floor, a height which corresponds with that of an ordinary table, and
+suggests that they must have been intended for the use of seated readers,
+though seats are not provided in the library at present. The section of
+the shelf and desk placed beside the elevation shews that there is a
+convenient slope to lay the books against. The uppermost of the four
+shelves is at a height of 9 ft. from the ground, so that a ladder is
+required to reach the books. The two photographs which I have reproduced
+(figs. 117, 118) shew that they have the fore-edge turned outwards,
+according to what is, I am informed, the usual custom in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. Elevation of a bookcase, and section of a desk in
+the Library of the Escorial.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Interior of the Ambrosian Library at Milan.
+
+From a photograph taken in 1899.]
+
+I believe that the work done in the Escorial had a very definite effect on
+library-fittings elsewhere; but, like other important inventions, the
+scheme of setting shelves against a wall instead of at right angles to it
+occurred to more than one person at about the same period; and therefore I
+cannot construct a genealogical tree, as I once thought I could, with the
+Escorial at the root, and a numerous progeny on the branches.
+
+Between 1603 and 1609--only 25 years afterwards--Cardinal Federigo
+Borromeo built, endowed, and furnished the Biblioteca Ambrosiana at Milan.
+A plain Ionic portico, on the cornice of which are the words BIBLIOTHECA
+AMBROSIANA, gives access to a single hall, on the ground floor, 74 ft.
+long by 29 ft. broad (fig. 120). The walls are lined with bookcases about
+13 ft. high, separated, not by columns, but by flat pilasters, and
+protected by wire-work of an unusually large mesh, said to be original. At
+each corner of the hall is a staircase, leading to a gallery, 2 ft. 6 in.
+wide. The cases in this gallery are about 8 ft. 6 in. high. Above them
+again is a frieze consisting of a series of portraits of saints in oblong
+frames. The roof is a barrel-vault, ornamented with plaster-work. Light is
+admitted through two enormous semi-circular windows at each end of the
+room. No alteration, I was informed when I visited the library in 1898,
+has been permitted. Even the floor of plain tiles, with four tables (one
+at each corner), and a central brazier, is left as the Cardinal arranged
+it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. Ground-plan of the Ambrosian Library at Milan.
+
+Reduced from that given by P. P. Boscha.]
+
+A good idea of the appearance of this noble room will be obtained from the
+general view (fig. 121)[498]. The way in which the books were arranged
+was evidently thought remarkable at the time, for a contemporary writer
+says of it "the room is not blocked with desks to which the books are tied
+with iron chains after the fashion of the libraries which are common in
+monasteries, but it is surrounded with lofty shelves on which the books
+are sorted according to size[499]."
+
+This library was part of a larger scheme which included a college of
+doctors, a school of art, a museum, and a botanic garden; all of which
+were amply endowed. The library was to be open not merely to members of
+the college, but to the citizens of Milan and all strangers who came to
+study there; but the severest penalties awaited those who stole a volume,
+or even touched it with soiled hands; and only the Pope himself could
+absolve them from such crimes[500].
+
+Before many years were over these novelties in library arrangement and
+library administration found a ready welcome in France, where Cardinal
+Mazarin was engaged in the formation of a vast collection of books
+intended to surpass that of his predecessor Richelieu[501]. Even then his
+library was public; all who chose to come might work in it on Thursdays
+from 8 to 11 in the morning, and from 2 to 5 in the afternoon. At a later
+period of his life, when he had removed to a palace now included in the
+Bibliotheque Nationale, he was able to build a library in accordance with
+his magnificent ideas. An accident of construction placed this room over
+the stables, a conjunction which afforded endless amusement to the
+pamphleteers of the time. It was finished at the end of 1647; and in the
+following year the Cardinal threw it open, the first public library given
+to Paris. _Publice patere voluit, censu perpetuo dotavit, posteritati
+commendavit_, said the inscription which he placed over the door of
+entrance. I need not attempt to recover from the somewhat conflicting
+accounts of admiring contemporaries the exact dimensions and arrangements
+of this gallery, for the bookcases still exist almost unaltered in the
+Bibliotheque Mazarine. One detail deserves notice because it may have been
+borrowed from the Ambrosian Library. There is said to have been a
+staircase in each of the four corners of the room by which access to a
+gallery was obtained[502].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122. Bookcases in the Bibliotheque Mazarine, Paris.
+
+From a photograph by Dujardin, 1898.]
+
+Mazarin died in 1661, and, in accordance with his will, a college, to be
+called _Le College des Quatre Nations_, was founded and endowed, and the
+library was removed into it. The college was suppressed at the Revolution,
+and the buildings are now occupied by the _Institut de France_, but the
+library remains practically intact. It occupies two rooms at right angles
+to each other with a united length of about 158 ft., and a width of 27 ft.
+They are admirably lighted by 17 large windows.
+
+The bookcases (fig. 122), from the original library in the Palais Mazarin,
+were placed round the new room. At first they terminated with the cornice,
+surmounted by the balustrade which protected the gallery mentioned above,
+and the roof was arched. In 1739, when additional shelf-room was required,
+and the roof was in need of repair, it was agreed to construct the present
+flat ceiling, and to gain thereby wall-space of sufficient height to
+accommodate 20,000 additional books. The gallery thus formed is approached
+by two staircases constructed at the same time[503].
+
+If the elevation of these cases (fig. 123) be compared with that of the
+cases in the Escorial (fig. 119), I feel sure that my readers will agree
+with me in admitting that the French example was copied from the Spanish.
+The general arrangement is the same, and especially the really distinctive
+features, namely, the division by columns, and the presence of a desk. It
+will be observed that the French example is the larger of the two, being
+18 ft. high from the floor to the top of the cornice. The desk, moreover,
+is 4 ft. from the floor, so that it was evidently intended to be used
+standing.
+
+I am aware that Naude, the librarian employed by Mazarin to collect books
+for him, did not visit Spain, nor was Mazarin himself ever in that
+country. There is therefore no evidence to connect his library with that
+of Philip II., but in justification of my theory I submit that the
+resemblance is too close to be accidental, and that in all probability the
+library at the Escorial had been much talked of in the world of letters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. Elevation of a bookcase and section of a desk in
+the Bibliotheque Mazarine, Paris.]
+
+The convenience of placing book-shelves against a wall was soon accepted
+in England, but at first in a somewhat half-hearted fashion. The earliest
+instance of this, so far as I know, is to be met with in the Bodleian
+Library, Oxford, where the first stone of the eastern wing was laid in
+1610, and completed, with the fittings, in 1612[504].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. A portion of the bookcases set up in the eastern
+wing of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, built 1610-1612.
+
+From Loggan's _Oxonia Illustrata_, 1675.]
+
+Advantage was taken of the whole of the wall-space provided by this
+extension, and it was lined with a bookcase extending from floor to
+ceiling. In order to provide easy access to the upper shelves, a light
+gallery was provided, the pillars of which were utilised to support a seat
+for the readers, because, the books being still chained, desks and seats
+were indispensable. These cases still exist almost unaltered, but their
+appearance as first constructed has been preserved to us in Loggan's
+print, taken about 1675, part of which is here reproduced (fig. 124).
+
+In 1634 (13 May) the first stone was laid of the enlargement of the
+library towards the west, corresponding exactly to the wing at the
+opposite end erected twenty-four years before[505]. The fittings were on
+the same plan, but of a more elaborate and highly finished design, the
+plain supports of the former work being replaced by Ionic columns
+supporting arches with frieze and cornice, and a heavy balustrade for the
+gallery above.
+
+I now come to the influence exercised upon the architecture and fittings
+of libraries by Sir Christopher Wren, and I shall be able to shew that
+though he did not actually introduce the wall-system into England, he
+developed it, adapted it to our requirements, and by the force of his
+genius shewed what structural changes were necessary in order to meet the
+increased number of books to be accommodated. Wren never visited Italy,
+but in 1665 he spent about six months in Paris, where he made the
+acquaintance of the best painters, sculptors, and architects, among whom
+was the Italian Bernini. From him he might easily obtain information of
+what was passing in Italy, though he describes him as "the old reserved
+Italian" who would hardly allow him a glimpse of a design for which, says
+Wren, "I would have given my skin." French work he studied
+enthusiastically, and after giving a list of places he had visited says,
+"that I might not lose the impressions of them I shall bring you almost
+all France in paper." Among other things he specially records his
+admiration for what he terms "the masculine furniture of the Palais
+Mazarin," though he does not specially mention the library; but, as
+Mazarin had died four years before, his palace would have been practically
+dismantled, and the only furniture likely to attract Wren's attention
+would have been his bookcases[506].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Entrance to Wren's Library at Lincoln Cathedral,
+with part of the bookcase which lines the north wall.]
+
+The first piece of library work executed by Wren in England was at Lincoln
+Cathedral, 1674, where after the Restoration a new library was required.
+Dr Michael Honywood, who had been appointed Dean in 1660, offered to build
+one at his own cost, and to present to it the books which he had collected
+in Holland. The site selected was that formerly occupied by the north
+alley of the cloister, which, through faulty construction, had fallen
+down, and lain in ruins for a long period.
+
+The building consists of an arcade of nine semicircular arches supported
+on eight Doric columns. The upper storey, containing the library, has
+eleven windows in a similar classical style, and above there is a bold
+entablature ornamented with acanthus leaves. The library is 104 ft. long
+by 17 ft. 6 in. wide and 14 ft. high; the ceiling is flat and perfectly
+plain. In addition to the windows above mentioned there is another at the
+west end. The entrance is at the east end through a richly ornamented door
+(fig. 125). The shield in the centre of the pediment bears the arms of
+Dean Honywood.
+
+Wren placed a continuous bookcase along the north wall of this room,
+extending from floor to ceiling. At the base there is a plinth (fig. 125),
+which may have originally contained cupboards, but is now fitted with
+shelves; and at the top, close to the ceiling, there is a heavy
+entablature decorated with acanthus leaves and classical moldings above a
+plain cornice, which bears at intervals oblong tablets inscribed with the
+subjects of the books beneath. The shelves are disposed in compartments,
+alternately wide and narrow, the former being set slightly in advance of
+the latter, so as to break the monotony of a bookcase of uniform width
+extending the whole length of a long room.
+
+While this work was proceeding Wren planned the New Library for Trinity
+College, Cambridge[507], begun 23 February, 1675-6. His design is
+accompanied by an explanation, contained in a rough draught of a letter to
+some gentleman of Trinity College, probably the Master. It is not signed,
+but internal evidence shews that it must have been written or dictated by
+Wren.
+
+This library was placed on a cloister, open both to the east and to the
+west, at the end of Nevile's Court. The level of the library floor was
+made to correspond with that of the first floor of the chambers on the
+north and south sides of the court. This is shewn in Wren's design, part
+of which is here reproduced (fig. 126), and explained in the following
+passage of his memoir.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126. Part of Wren's elevation of the east side of the
+Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, with a section of the north range
+of Nevile's Court, shewing the door to the Library from the first floor.]
+
+    [The design] shewes the face of the building next the
+    court with the pavillions for the stairecases and the
+    Sections of the old buildings where they joyne to the
+    new....
+
+    I haue given the appearance of arches as the Order
+    required fair and lofty: but I haue layd the floor of
+    the Library upon the impostes, which answar (_sic_) to
+    the pillars in the cloister and the levells of the old
+    floores, and haue filled the Arches with relieues of
+    stone, of which I haue seen the effect abroad in good
+    building, and I assure you where porches are lowe with
+    flat ceelings is infinitely more gracefull then lowe
+    arches would be and is much more open and pleasant, nor
+    need the mason freare (_sic_) the performance because
+    the Arch discharges the weight, and I shall direct him
+    in a firme manner of executing the designe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. Elevation of one bay on the east side of the
+Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, drawn to scale from the existing
+building.]
+
+    By this contrivance the windowes of the Library rise
+    high and giue place for the deskes against the walls,
+    and being high may be afforded to be large, and being
+    wide may haue stone mullions and the glasse pointed,
+    which after all inventions is the only durable way in
+    our Climate for a publique building, where care must be
+    had that snowe driue not in....
+
+The general design seems to have been borrowed from that of the Library of
+S. Mark at Venice, begun by Sansovino in 1536. The Italian architect, like
+Sir Christopher Wren, raised his library on a cloister, which is in the
+Doric style, while the superstructure is Ionic. The Venetian example is
+more ornate, and there are statues upon every pier of the balustrade. The
+arcades are left open, because there was not the same necessity for
+accommodating the level of the floor to that of older buildings, and also
+because the wall opposite to the windows had to be left blank on account
+of the proximity of other structures. No consideration for fittings such
+as influenced Wren could have influenced the Italian architect.
+
+The style of Wren's work will be understood from the elevation of a bay on
+the east side (fig. 127), drawn to scale from the existing building. If
+this be compared with the original design (fig. 126), it will be seen that
+the style there indicated has been closely followed.
+
+We will now consider the fittings. A long stretch of blank wall having
+been provided both along the sides and at the ends of the room, Wren
+proceeded to design a masterly combination of the old and new methods of
+arranging bookcases. As he says in another passage of the same memoir,
+when describing this part of his design:
+
+    The disposition of the shelues both along the walls and
+    breaking out from the walls ... must needes proue very
+    convenient and gracefull, and the best way for the
+    students will be to haue a litle square table in each
+    Celle with 2 chaires. The necessity of bringing windowes
+    and dores to answer to the old building leaues two
+    squarer places at the endes and 4 lesser Celles not to
+    study in, but to be shut up with some neat Lattice dores
+    for archives.
+
+The bookcases, designed by himself, were executed under his direction by
+Cornelius Austin, a Cambridge workman. My illustration (fig. 128) shews
+one of the "4 lesser Celles" with one of its doors open, and next to it a
+"Celle" for students with table, revolving desk, and two stools. These
+pieces of furniture were also designed by Wren.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. Interior of the north-east corner of the Library
+of Trinity College, Cambridge, shewing the bookcases, table, desk and
+chairs, as designed by Sir C. Wren.]
+
+The cases are 11 ft. 10 in. high, and the wooden floor upon which they
+stand is raised higher than that of the library. The great depth of the
+plinth, which Wren utilised for cupboards, recalls the plan of some of the
+older cases, and there is the little cupboard to contain the catalogue at
+the end of each standard; but, with these exceptions, there is nothing
+medieval about them except their position. On the top of each case is a
+square pedestal of wood on which Wren intended to place a statue, but this
+part of his scheme was not carried out. The celebrated Grinling Gibbons
+supplied the busts which take the place of Wren's statues, and also the
+coats of arms and wreaths of flowers and fruit with which the ends of the
+cases are decorated.
+
+It is difficult to decide the source from which an architect so great as
+Wren derived any feature of his buildings, but it seems to me reasonable
+to ascribe to foreign influence his use of the side-walls at Trinity
+College library; and his scheme for combining a lofty internal wall with
+beauty of external design, and a complete system of lighting, must always
+command admiration. In the next example of his library work foreign
+influence may be more directly traced, for I feel that the library of S.
+Paul's Cathedral suggests reminiscences of the Ambrosian library at Milan.
+
+Wren placed the library of his new cathedral in the western transept, with
+an ingenuity of contrivance and a dignity of conception peculiarly his
+own. On the level of what in a Gothic church would have been the
+triforium, he constructed, both on the north and south side, a large and
+lofty room. It was his intention that each of these rooms should be used
+as a library, and that they should be connected by means of the gallery
+which crosses the west end of the nave. Access to them was to be obtained
+from the exterior, without entering the church, by a circular staircase in
+the south-west corner of the facade. This plan has not been fully carried
+out, and the southern library only has been fitted up. It is now usually
+reached by means of the staircase leading to the dome.
+
+These arrangements will be understood from the ground-plan (fig.
+129)[508]. This plan shews very clearly the library itself, the two
+circular staircases at the west end, leading up to the gallery, the wide
+geometrical staircase leading down to the portico, the corridor into which
+this staircase opens, and from which a visitor could either ascend by a
+flight of stairs to the gallery crossing the nave, or, turning to his
+right, either enter the library, or pass eastwards towards the dome.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129, Ground plan of Library and adjacent parts of S.
+Paul's Cathedral, London.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. Sir Christopher Wren's Library at S. Paul's
+Cathedral, London, looking north-east.]
+
+The library (fig. 130) is a well-lighted room, with an area measuring 53
+ft. by 32 ft, and of sufficient height to admit of the introduction of a
+gallery under the vault. A massive stone pier projects into the room at
+each corner, so as to break the formal regularity of the design in a very
+pleasing manner. The gallery, together with the bookcases, which stand
+against the walls, both in the gallery and below it, were either
+designed by Wren himself, or placed there with his approval. The Building
+Accounts[509] contain many valuable pieces of information respecting the
+history of the room and its fittings. The floor "in the south library" was
+laid down in July, 1708, as was also that in the gallery; the windows "in
+the north and south library," words which shew very clearly that the
+corresponding room on the north side was also intended for a library, were
+painted in December, 1708; and the ornamental woodwork was supplied in
+March, 1708-9. From the entries referring to these works I will quote the
+following, as it particularises the most striking feature in the room,
+namely, the large ornamental brackets which appear to support the gallery:
+
+    To Jonathan Maine Carver in the South Library, viz. For
+    carving 32 Trusses or Cantalivers under the Gallary, 3
+    ft. 8 in. long, and 3 ft. 8 in. deep and 7 in. thick
+    with Leather worke cut through and a Leaf in the front
+    and a drop hanging down with fruit and flowers etc. at
+    6^l. 10^s. each.
+
+                                                208^l.----
+
+The words "leather work," used in the above entry, are singularly
+suitable, for the whole composition looks more like something molded out
+of leather or plaster than cut out of a solid piece of wood. The vertical
+portion, applied to the pilasters, consists of a bunch of flowers, hops,
+and corn, somewhat in the manner of Grinling Gibbons, who has been often
+named as the artist. The above-mentioned pilasters divide the wall-space
+into 33 compartments, each of which is from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. wide, and
+9 ft. high, exclusive of the plinth and cornice, and fitted with six
+shelves, which are apparently at the original levels.
+
+The gallery is approached by a staircase contrived in the thickness of the
+south-west pier. It is 5 ft. wide, and fitted with bookcases ranged
+against the wall in the same manner as those below, but they are loftier,
+and of plainer design. The balustrade, a molded cornice of wood, supported
+on pilasters of the same material, which recall those separating the
+compartments below, and the great stone piers, enriched with a broad band
+of fruit, flowers, and other ornaments set in a sunk panel, are striking
+features of this gallery.
+
+The material used throughout for the fittings is oak, which fortunately
+has never been painted, and has assumed a mellow tone through age which
+produces a singularly beautiful effect.
+
+If we now return to Cambridge, we shall find that the influence of Wren
+can easily be traced in all the library fittings put up in the course of
+the 18th century. The first work of this kind undertaken was the provision
+of additional fittings to the library of Emmanuel College[510] between
+1702 and 1707. The tall cases, set up at right angles to the walls in
+1679, were moved forward, and shelves in continuation of them were placed
+against the side-walls. The same influence is more distinctly seen in the
+library of S. Catharine's Hall[511], which was fitted up, according to
+tradition, at the expense of Thomas Sherlock, D.D., probably while Master,
+an office which he held from 1714 to 1719. The room is 63 ft. 6 in. long
+by 22 ft. 10 in. wide; and it is divided by partitions into a central
+portion, about 39 ft. long, and a narrow room at each end, 12 ft. long.
+Each of these latter is lighted by windows in the north and south walls;
+the former has windows in the south wall only. The central portion is
+divided into three compartments by bookcases which line the walls, and
+project from them at right angles; in the two smaller rooms the cases only
+line the walls, the space being too narrow for any other treatment.
+
+When the building of the new Senate House had set free the room called the
+Regent House, in which the University had been in the habit of meeting
+from very early times, it was fitted up, between 1731 and 1734, as part of
+the University Library[512]. Wren's example was followed as far as the
+nature of the room would permit. Wherever a blank wall could be found, it
+was lined with shelves, and the cases placed at right angles to the
+side-walls were continued over the narrow spaces left between their ends
+and the windows. One of these cases, from the south side of the room, is
+here shewn (fig. 131). The shelves under the windows were added
+subsequently. A similar arrangement was adopted for the east room in
+1787-90.
+
+At Clare College, at about the same date, the new library over the kitchen
+was fitted up with shelves placed against the walls. These fittings are
+excellent specimens, ornamented with fluted Ionic pilasters, an elaborate
+cornice, and pediments above the doors. It is worth noting, as evidence of
+the slowness with which new fashions are accepted, that the antiquary
+William Cole, writing in 1742, calls this library "a very large
+well-proportion'd Room a la moderne, w^th ye Books rang'd all round it &
+not in Classes as in most of y^e rest of y^e Libraries in other
+Colleges[513]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131. Bookcase in the north room of the University
+Library, Cambridge, designed by James Essex, 1731-1734.]
+
+The fashion of which I have been tracing the progress in England had been
+accepted during the same period in France, where some beautiful specimens
+of it may still be seen. I presume that the example was set by the wealthy
+convents, most of which had been rebuilt, at least in part, in the then
+fashionable classical style, during the seventeenth century[514]. At
+Rheims a library fitted up by the Benedictines of Saint Remi in 1784 now
+does duty as the chapel of the Hotel-Dieu. Fluted Corinthian columns
+supporting an elaborate cornice divide the walls into compartments, in
+which the books are ranged on open shelves. The room is 120 ft. long, by
+31 ft. broad, with four windows on each side. With this may be compared
+the public library at Alencon, the fittings of which are said to have been
+brought from the abbey of the Val Dieu near Mortain at the Revolution. The
+room is 70 ft. long by 25 ft. wide. Against the walls are 26 compartments
+or presses, alternately open and closed. Each of these terminates in an
+ogee arch enriched with scrolls and a central shield. The whole series is
+surmounted by a cornice divided by console brackets, between which are
+shields, probably intended originally to carry the names of the subjects
+of the books.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132. Interior of the Library of the Jesuits at Rheims,
+now the _Lingerie de l'Hopital General_.]
+
+Lastly, I must mention the libraries of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette at
+Versailles. The walls are lined with a double row of presses, each closed
+by glass doors. The lower row is about four feet high, the upper row about
+ten feet high. The wood-work is painted white, and enriched with wreaths
+of leaves in ormolu. As a general rule the books are hidden from view by
+curtains of pleated silk.
+
+I mentioned in a previous chapter[515] that additional space was provided
+for the library in a French monastery by raising the roof of an existing
+building, putting in dormer windows, and converting the triangular space
+so gained into a library by placing in it bookcases of a convenient
+height, and connecting them together by a ceiling. I have fortunately
+discovered one such library still in existence at Rheims. It belonged
+originally to the Jesuits, who had constructed it about 1678, and when the
+Order was expelled from France in 1764, and their House became the
+workhouse (_hopital general_) of the town, it was fortunately made use of
+as the _lingerie_, or linen-room, without any material change. Even the
+table has been preserved. The view here presented of the interior (fig.
+132) may serve to give a general idea, not merely of this library, but of
+others of the same class. The decoration of the ceiling is coarse but
+effective. On the coved portion of it, within the shields, are written the
+subjects of the books on the shelves beneath. I made a list of these and
+have printed them on the margin of my ground-plan (fig. 133). This plan
+also shews the arrangement of the bookcases. They are placed at a distance
+of five feet from the walls, and are returned to meet each window, thus
+forming convenient bays for private study. The space between the bookcases
+and the wall was used as a store-room[516].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Ground-plan of the Library of the Jesuits at
+Rheims.
+
+The Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve, at Paris, offered originally a splendid
+example of a library arranged in this manner. It consisted of two
+galleries, at right angles to each other, fitted up in the same style as
+the library at Rheims. The longest of these galleries was 147 ft. long by
+24 ft. wide. The guidebooks prepared for the use of visitors to Paris in
+the middle of the 18th century dwell with enthusiasm on the convenience
+and beauty of this room. The books were protected by wire-work; between
+each pair of cases was a bust of a Roman emperor or an ancient
+philosopher; at the crossing of the two galleries was a dome which seemed
+to be supported on a palm-tree in plaster-work at each corner, out of the
+foliage of which peered the heads of cherubs; while the convenience of
+readers was consulted by the liberality with which the library was thrown
+open on three days in every week, and furnished with tables, chairs, a
+ladder to reach the upper shelves, and a pair of globes[517]. This library
+was begun in 1675, and placed, like that at Rheims, directly under the
+roof. The second gallery, which is shorter than the first, was added in
+1726. It was not disturbed at the Revolution, nor under the Empire, though
+the rest of the abbey-buildings became the Lycee Napoleon. After the
+Restoration, when this school became the College Henri IV., the presence
+of the library was found to be inconvenient, and in 1850 it was removed to
+a new building close to the Pantheon. The galleries are now used as a
+dormitory for the school-boys, but the dome, with some of its decorations,
+still survives.
+
+Another example of this arrangement, which seems to have been peculiarly
+French, is afforded by the library of Saint Germain-des-Pres, the gradual
+extension of which I have already described[518]. The books were contained
+in oak presses set against the walls. Above them was a series of portraits
+representing the most important personages in the Order of S. Benedict.
+This library was open to the public daily from 9 to 11 a.m. and from 3 to
+5 p.m.[519]
+
+I will conclude this chapter with a few words on the library of the most
+famous of all European monasteries, namely Monte Cassino, the foundation
+of which was undoubtedly laid by S. Benedict himself. I confess that I had
+hoped to find there a library which might either by its position or its
+fittings recall the early days of monasticism; but unfortunately the piety
+of the Benedictine Order has induced them to rebuild their parent house in
+a classical style, and to obliterate nearly every trace of the primitive
+building. The library, to which I was obligingly conducted by the Prior,
+is 60 ft. long by 30 ft. broad, with two large windows at the end opposite
+to the door. The side-walls are lined with bookcases divided by columns
+into four compartments on each side, after the fashion of Cardinal
+Mazarin's library. These columns support a heavy cornice with handsome
+ornaments. A band of woodwork divides the cases into an upper and lower
+range, but there is no trace of a desk. I could not learn the date at
+which these fittings had been constructed, but from their style I should
+assign them to the middle of the seventeenth century[520].
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[494] See above, p. 196.
+
+[495] See above, p. 224.
+
+[496] See above, p. 233.
+
+[497] For the history of the Escorial, see Ford, _Handbook for Spain_, Ed.
+1855, pp. 749-763, and _Descripcion ... del Escorial_, Fra de los Santos,
+fol. Madrid, 1657, with the English translation by G. Thompson, 4to.
+London, 1760.
+
+[498] I have to thank the librarian, Monsignore Ceriani, for kindly
+allowing this photograph to be taken for my use.
+
+[499] _Gli Istituti Scientifici etc. di Milano._ 8vo. Milan, 1880, p. 123,
+note.
+
+[500] Boscha, _De Origine et statu Bibl. Ambros._ p. 19; _ap._ Graevius,
+_Thes. Ant. et Hist. Italiae_, Vol. IX. part 6; see also the Bull of Paul
+V, dated 7 July 1608, approving the foundation and rehearsing the
+statutes, in _Magnum Bullarium Romanum_, 4to. Turin, 1867, Vol. xi. p.
+511.
+
+[501] For the history of the Bibliotheque Mazarine see Franklin, _Anc.
+Bibl. de Paris_, Vol. III. pp. 37-160.
+
+[502] Franklin, _Anc. Bibl. de Paris_, Vol. III. pp. 55-6.
+
+[503] The minute of the conservators of the library authorising this
+change is printed by Franklin, _ut supra_, p. 117.
+
+[504] Macray, _Annals_, ut supra, p. 37.
+
+[505] Macray, _ut supra_, p. 80.
+
+[506] Elmes. _Life of Sir C. Wren_, pp. 180-184. _Parentalia_, p. 261.
+
+[507] The history of this library has been fully narrated in the _Arch.
+Hist._, ut supra, Vol. II. pp. 531-551. Wren's Memoir quoted below has
+been collated with the original in the library of All Souls' College,
+Oxford, where his designs are also preserved.
+
+[508] This plan has been reduced from one on a larger scale kindly sent to
+me by my friend Mr F. C. Penrose, architect to the Cathedral.
+
+[509] I have to thank the Dean and Chapter for leave to study these
+Accounts, and to have a photograph taken of the library.
+
+[510] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. II. p. 710. Vol. III. p. 468.
+
+[511] _ib._ Vol. III. p. 468.
+
+[512] _ib._ Vol. III. pp. 74, 470.
+
+[513] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. I. p. 113.
+
+[514] See the set of views of French Religious Houses called _Le
+Monasticon Gallicanum_, 4to. Paris, 1882. The plates were drawn by Dom
+Germain 1645-1694.
+
+[515] See above, pp. 106, 114.
+
+[516] Jadart, _Les Anciennes Bibliotheques de Reims_, 8vo. Reims, 1891, p.
+14.
+
+[517] Franklin, _Anc. Bibl. de Paris_, Vol. I. pp. 71-99. He gives a view
+of the interior of the library from a print dated 1773.
+
+[518] See above, p. 114.
+
+[519] Franklin, _ut supra_, I. pp. 107-134.
+
+[520] I visited Monte Cassino 13 April, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+PRIVATE LIBRARIES. ABBAT SIMON AND HIS BOOK-CHEST. LIBRARY OF CHARLES V.
+OF FRANCE. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THIS LIBRARY FROM ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS.
+BOOK-LECTERN USED IN PRIVATE HOUSES. BOOK-DESKS REVOLVING ROUND A CENTRAL
+SCREW. DESKS ATTACHED TO CHAIRS. WALL-CUPBOARDS. A SCHOLAR'S ROOM IN THE
+FIFTEENTH CENTURY. STUDY OF THE DUKE OF URBINO. LIBRARY OF MONTAIGNE.
+LIBRARY OF MARGARET OF AUSTRIA. CONCLUSION.
+
+
+In the previous chapters I have sketched the history of library-fittings
+from the earliest times to the end of the eighteenth century. The
+libraries to which these fittings belonged were, for the most part,
+public, or as good as public. But, as in history we have recognised the
+important fact that a record of battles and sieges and enactments in
+Parliament gives an imperfect conception of the life of a people, so I
+should feel that this archeological subject had been insufficiently
+treated if I made no attempt to shew how private scholars disposed their
+books, or with what appliances they used them. For instance, in what sort
+of chair was the author of the _Philobiblon_ sitting when he wrote the
+last words of his treatise, 24 January, 1345, and how was his study in his
+palace at Auckland furnished? Further, how were private students bestowed
+in the fifteenth century, when a love of letters had become general?
+Lastly, how were libraries fitted up for private use in the succeeding
+century, when the great people of the earth, like the wealthy Romans of
+imperial times, added the pursuit of literature to their other fashions,
+and considered a library to be indispensable in their luxurious palaces?
+
+In the hope of obtaining reliable information on these interesting
+questions, I have for some years past let no opportunity slip of examining
+illuminated manuscripts. I have gone through a large number in the British
+Museum, where research is aided by an excellent list of the subjects
+illustrated; in the _Bibliotheque Nationale_, Paris; and in the
+_Bibliotheque Royale_, Brussels, where the manuscripts are for the most
+part those which once belonged to the Dukes of Burgundy. I have been
+somewhat disappointed in this search, for, with the single exception of
+the illustration from Boethius (fig. 63), I have not found any library,
+properly so called. This is no doubt strange, having regard to the great
+variety of scenes depicted. It must be remembered, however, that these are
+used for the most part to illustrate some action that is going forward,
+for which a library would be a singularly inappropriate background. Single
+figures, on the other hand, are frequently shewn with their books about
+them, either reading or writing. Such illustrations most frequently occur
+in _Books of Hours_, in representations of the Evangelists; or in
+portraits of S. Jerome, who is painted as a scholar at his desk surrounded
+by piles of books and papers; and I think we may safely take these as
+representations of ordinary scholars, because, by the beginning of the
+fifteenth century, when most of the pictures to which I refer were drawn,
+it had become the custom to surround even the most sacred personages with
+the attributes of common life.
+
+In the twelfth century, when books were few, they were kept in chests, and
+the owners seem to have used the edge as a desk to lean their book on. My
+illustration (fig. 134) shews Simon, Abbat of S. Albans 1167-1183, seated
+in front of his book-chest[521]. The chest is set on a frame, so as to
+raise it to a convenient height; and the Abbat is seated on one of those
+folding wooden chairs which are not uncommon at the present day. Simon was
+a great collector of books: "their number," writes his chronicler, "it
+would take too long to name; but those who desire to see them can find
+them in the painted aumbry in the church, placed as he specially directed
+against the tomb of Roger the hermit[522]."
+
+Chests, as we have seen above at the Vatican library, were used for the
+permanent storage of books in the fifteenth century; and a book-chest
+frequently formed part of the travelling luggage of a king. For example,
+when Charles V. of France died, 16 September, 1380, at the Chateau de
+Beaute-sur-Marne, thirty-one volumes were found in his chamber "in a chest
+resting on two supports, which chest is by the window, near the fireplace,
+and it has a double cover, and in one of the divisions of the said chest
+were the volumes that follow." His son, Charles VI., kept the thirteen
+volumes which he carried about with him in a carved chest, within which
+was an inlaid box (_escrin marquete_) to contain the more precious
+books[523].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134. Simon, Abbat of S. Albans (1167-1183), seated at
+his book-chest.
+
+From MSS. Cotton.]
+
+The earliest information about the furniture of a medieval private library
+that I have as yet discovered is contained in a fragment of an
+account-book recording the cost of fitting up a tower in the Louvre in
+1367 and 1368, to contain the books belonging to Charles V. of France.
+Certain pieces of woodwork in the older library in the palace on the Isle
+de la Cite are to be taken down and altered, and set up in the new room.
+Two carpenters are paid (14 March, 1367) for "having taken to pieces all
+the cases (_bancs_) and two wheels (_roes_), which were in the king's
+library in the palace, and transported them to the Louvre with the desks
+(_lettrins_), and the aforesaid wheels, each made smaller by a foot all
+round; and for having put all together again, and hung up the desks
+(_lettrins_) in the two upper stages of the tower that looks toward the
+Falconry, to put the king's books in; and for having panelled the first of
+those two stories all round on the inside with wood from 'Illande,' at a
+total cost of fifty francs of gold. Next, because the seats were too old,
+they were remade of new timber which the aforesaid carpenters brought.
+Also [they were paid] for two strong doors for the said two stories 7 ft.
+high, 3 ft. broad, and 3 fingers thick." In the following year (4 May,
+1368), a wire-worker (_cagetier_) is paid "for having made trellises of
+wire in front of two casements and two windows ... to keep out birds and
+other beasts (_oyscaux et autres bestes_), by reason of, and protection
+for, the books that shall be placed there." The ceiling is said to have
+been panelled in cypress wood ornamented with carvings[524].
+
+The "tower that looks toward the Falconry" mentioned in the above
+description has been identified with the north-west tower of the old
+Louvre. The rooms fitted up as a library were circular, and about 14 feet
+in diameter[525].
+
+The above description of a library will be best explained by an
+illumination (fig. 135) contained in Boccacio's _Livre des cas des
+malheureux nobles hommes et femmes_, written and illuminated in Flanders
+for King Henry the Seventh, and now in the British Museum[526]. Two
+gentlemen are studying at a revolving desk, which can be raised or lowered
+by a central screw. This is evidently the "wheel" of the French King's
+library. Behind are their books, either resting on a desk hung against the
+wall, which is panelled, or lying on a shelf beneath the desk. This piece
+of furniture would be properly described either as a _banc_ or a
+_lettrin_. It should be noted that care has been taken to keep the wheel
+steady by supporting it on a solid base, beneath which are two strong
+cross-pieces of timber, which also serve as a foot-rest for the readers.
+The books on the desk set against the wall are richly bound, with bosses
+of metal. Chaining was evidently not thought of, indeed I doubt if it was
+ever used in a private library. The window is glazed throughout. In other
+examples which I shall figure below we shall find a wire trellis used
+instead of glass for part at least of the window.
+
+My next illustration (fig. 136), also Flemish, is of the same date, from a
+copy of the _Miroir historial_[527]. It represents a Carmelite monk,
+probably the author of the book, writing in his study. Behind him are
+three desks, one above the other, hung against the wall along two sides of
+the room, with books bound and ornamented as in the former picture,
+resting upon them, and beneath the lowest is a flat shelf or bench on
+which a book rests upon its side. The desk he is using is not uncommon in
+these illustrations. It is fixed on a solid base, which is further
+strengthened, as in the example of the wheel-desk, by massive planks, to
+guard against the slightest vibration; and it can be turned aside by means
+of a limb--apparently of iron--which is first vertical, then horizontal,
+then vertical again. The Carmelite holds in his left hand an instrument
+for keeping the page perfectly flat. This instrument has usually a sharp
+point with which any roughness on the page can be readily removed. The
+volume he is using is kept open by two strings, to each of which a weight
+is attached. Behind the desk, covered with a cloth, is a chest secured by
+two locks. On this stands an object which appears to be a large magnifying
+glass.
+
+Sometimes the desk was carried round three sides of the room, with no
+curtain to keep off dust, and with no shelf beneath it. The illustration
+(fig. 137) is from a French translation of Valerius Maximus (1430-75) in
+the Harleian Collection[528].
+
+I now pass to a series of pictures which illustrate the daily life of a
+scholar or a writer who had few books, but who could live in a certain
+ease--allowing himself a chair and a desk. Of these desks there is an
+infinite variety, dictated, I imagine, by the fashion prevalent in
+particular places at particular times. I have tried to arrange them in
+groups.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. A Carmelite in his study.
+
+From a MS. of _Le Miroir Historial_ in the British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. Three musicians in a library.
+
+From a MS. of a French translation of _Valerius Maximus_, in the British
+Museum.]
+
+In the first place the chair is usually a rather elaborate piece of
+furniture, with arms, a straight back, and, very frequently, a canopy. A
+cushion to sit upon is sometimes permitted, but, as a general rule, these
+chairs are destitute of stuffing, tapestry, or other device to conceal the
+material of which they are made. Occasionally the canopy is richly carved
+or painted in a pattern.
+
+The commonest form of desk is a modification of the lectern-system. It
+consists of a double lectern, beneath which is a row of cupboards, or
+rather a shelf protected by several doors, one of which is always at the
+end of the piece of furniture. The triangular space under the lectern is
+also used for books. This device is specially commended by Richard de Bury
+in the _Philobiblon_[529]. "Moses," says he, "the gentlest of men, teaches
+us to make bookcases most neatly, wherein they may be protected from any
+injury: _Take_, he says, _this book of the law, and put it in the side of
+the ark of the covenant of the Lord your God_." My illustration (fig. 138)
+is taken from an edition of the _Ship of Fools_, printed at Basle by
+Nicolas Lamparter in 1507. In this example the desk with its cupboards
+stands on a plinth, and this again on a broad step. Both are probably
+introduced to ensure steadiness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138. A bibliomaniac at his desk.
+
+From the _Ship of Fools_.]
+
+The seated figure represents a bibliomaniac who treats his books as mere
+curiosities from which he derives no mental improvement. He has put on his
+spectacles and wielded his feather-brush, in order to dust the leaves of a
+folio with greater care. Under the cut are the following explanatory
+lines:
+
+  Qui libros tyriis vestit honoribus
+  Et blattas abijt puluerulentulas
+  Nec discens animum litterulis colit:
+  Mercatur nimia stultieiam stipe.
+
+I append a rough translation:
+
+  Who clothes his books in Tyrian dyes,
+  Then brushes off the dust and flies,
+  Nor reads one line to make him wise,
+  Spends lavish gold and--FOLLY buys.
+
+Such a desk as this was used in the succeeding century in at least two
+libraries belonging to ladies of high rank. The first belonged to Margaret
+of Austria, daughter of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany. She had been the
+wife of Philibert II., Duke of Savoy, and after his death, 10 September,
+1504, her father made her regent of the Netherlands. She died at Malines
+30 November, 1530, at the age of fifty. She seems to have been a liberal
+patroness of literature and the arts, and the beautiful church that she
+built at Brou in memory of her husband bears witness to her architectural
+taste and skill.
+
+The inventory, out of which I hope to reconstruct her library, is dated 20
+April, 1524[530]. It is headed: "Library," and begins with the following
+entry: "The first desk (_pourpitre_) begins over the door, and goes all
+round up to the fireplace." On this desk or shelf are enumerated fifty-two
+volumes, all bound in velvet with gilt bosses. This entry is succeeded by:
+"here follow the Books of Hours, being on a desk high up in continuation
+of the preceding one between the windows and the fireplace." This desk
+contains twenty-six volumes bound in velvet, red satin, or cloth of gold,
+with gilt bosses.
+
+We come next to "the first desk below (_d'ambas_) beginning near the door
+at the first seat." This desk carries nine books, presumably on the
+sloping portion, because we presently come to a paragraph headed "here
+follow the books covered with leather &c., which are underneath the desks
+beginning near the door." The author of the inventory then returns to the
+first desk, and enumerates eleven volumes. He next goes round to "the
+other side of the said desk," and enumerates thirteen volumes. In this
+way six desks are gone through. All have books bound in black, blue,
+crimson, or violet, velvet laid out upon them, while those in plainer
+dress are consigned to the shelves beneath. It should be added that the
+fourth desk is described as being near the fireplace (_empres la
+chemynee_).
+
+The desks having been gone through, we come to "the books which are within
+the iron trellis beginning near the door." This piece of furniture
+contained twenty-seven volumes.
+
+The number of books accommodated in the whole room was as follows:
+
+  First shelf                              52
+  Second shelf                             26   78
+  First desk (sloping portion)         9
+  Under desk: one side           11
+  "     "     other side         13   24   33
+                                 --------
+  Second desk                         21
+                                 11
+                                 10   21   42
+                                 --------
+  Third   "    "                      26
+                                 13
+                                 10   23   49
+                                 --------
+  Fourth  "    "                      15
+                                 18
+                                 14   32   47
+                                 --------
+  Fifth   "    "                      19
+                                 11
+                                 10   21   40
+                                 --------
+  Sixth   "    "                      20
+                                  9
+                                 10   19   39   250
+                                 --------
+  Within the trellis-work                        27
+                                                355
+
+We will next try to form some idea of the way in which this library was
+arranged; and first of the two shelves which begin "over the door." A
+shelf in this position is shewn in Carpaccio's well-known picture of S.
+Jerome in his study. It is set deskwise against the wall supported on iron
+brackets. As a large proportion of the fifty-two volumes on our shelf are
+described as of large size (_grant_), we shall be justified in assuming
+that each was 10 in. broad. The total therefore would occupy 520 in. or
+say 43 ft. at least, not allowing for intervals between them. This shelf
+extended from the door round the room to the fireplace, by which I suppose
+we are to understand that it began on the wall which contained the door,
+and was carried round the corner of the room up to the fireplace.
+
+The second shelf, at the same height as the preceding, contained only
+twenty-six volumes, fifteen of which are described as small (_petit_). A
+space of thirteen feet or even less will therefore be amply sufficient to
+contain them.
+
+The six desks which stood on the floor were, I imagine, constructed in
+some such way as that which I have figured above from the _Ship of Fools_.
+It is evident that books in velvet bindings and adorned with gilt bosses
+would be set out where they could be seen, and for such a purpose what
+could be better than a lectern? The table I have given above shews that
+there were 110 volumes thus disposed, or an average of say 18 to each
+desk. A careful analysis of the inventory, where the size of each book is
+always set down, shews me that there were very few small books in this
+part of the library, but that they were divided between large (_grant_)
+and medium size (_moien_). If we allow 8 in. for each book, we get an
+average of 144 in. = 12 ft. for each desk, that is, as the desk was
+double, the piece of furniture was 6 ft. long. Under the sloping portion
+it had a shelf on each side. Four such desks stood between the door and
+the fireplace, and two between the fireplace and the window, which seems
+to have been opposite the door.
+
+We are not told where the "trellis of iron" was. I suppose these words
+mean some shelves set against the wall with ironwork in front of them. As
+the enumeration of the books begins "near the door" the piece of furniture
+may be placed on the side of the door opposite to the former desks.
+
+The inventory further shews that this library did duty as a museum. It was
+in fact filled with rare and beautiful objects, and must have presented a
+singularly rich appearance. In the middle of the hood over the fireplace
+was a stag's head and horns bearing a crucifix. There was a bust of the
+Duke of Savoy, in white marble, forming a pendant to one of the Duchess
+Margaret herself, and in the same material a statuette of a boy extracting
+a thorn from his foot, probably a copy of the antique in the Ducal Gallery
+at Florence. There were also twenty oil paintings in the room, some of
+which were hung round the hood of the fireplace. Besides these works of
+art there were several pieces of furniture, as, for instance, a large
+press containing a complete set of armour, a sideboard "a la mode
+d'Italie," given as a present by the viceroy of Naples; a square table of
+inlaid work; a smaller table bearing the arms of Burgundy and Spain; three
+mirrors; a number of objects in rock-crystal; and lastly some feather
+dresses from India (S. America?), presented by the Emperor.
+
+It is provoking that the inventory, minute as it is, should desert us at
+the most important point, and give insufficient data for estimating the
+size of the room. I conjecture that it was about 46 ft. long from the
+following considerations. In the first place, I allow 2 ft. for the width
+of each desk. Of these there were four between the door and the fireplace
+= 8 ft. Secondly, I allow 3 ft. each for the five intervals = 15 ft., or a
+total of 23 ft. from the door to the fireplace. For the fireplace itself I
+allow 10 ft. Between the fireplace and the wall containing the window or
+windows, there were two desks and three intervals = 13 ft. I pointed out
+above that 43 ft. at least might be allowed for the shelf extending from
+the door to the fireplace. Of this I have absorbed 23 ft., leaving 20 ft.
+for the distance from the door to the corner of the room. As we are not
+told anything about the position of the door my estimate of the size of
+the room cannot be carried further.
+
+A similar arrangement obtained in the library of Anne de France, daughter
+of Louis XI., or as she is usually called Anne de Beaujeu[531]. Her
+catalogue made 19 September, 1523, records 314 titles, which I need hardly
+say represent a far larger number of books. They were arranged like those
+of the Duchess Margaret, on eleven desks (_poulpitres_). These were set
+round a room, with the exception of two which were placed in the middle of
+it. It is interesting to note respecting one of these, that it had a
+cupboard at the end, for the contents are entered as follows: _au bout
+dudit poulpitre sont enclos les livres qui s'ensuivent_, and sixteen
+volumes are enumerated. There was also a shelf set against the wall,
+described as _le plus hault poulpitre le long de la dite muraille_, which
+contained fifty-five volumes. This desk was probably high up, like the
+one in the library of the Duchess Margaret. The books upon it are noted as
+being all covered with red velvet, and ornamented with clasps, bosses, and
+corner-pieces of metal. There were also in this library an astrolabe, and
+a sphere with the signs of the Zodiac.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. S. John writing his Gospel.
+
+From a MS. _Hours_ in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.]
+
+A desk, similar in general character to that figured in the _Ship of
+Fools_, but of a curiously modern type, occurs in an Hours in the
+Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, executed about 1445 for Isabel, Duchess of
+Brittany. The picture (fig. 139) represents S. John writing his Gospel.
+
+A modification of this form of desk was common in Italy. It is often used
+by painters of the fifteenth century in pictures of the Annunciation,
+where it does duty as a prie-dieu. The example I have selected (fig. 140)
+is from a painting by Benedetto Bonfigli, in the church of S. Peter at
+Perugia. It represents S. Jerome writing. A small circular revolving desk,
+at the left-hand corner of the larger desk, holds the work he is copying
+or referring to. On the desk near the inkstand lies the pointed _stylus_
+mentioned above. Below the cupboard containing books is a drawer.
+Projecting from the top of the revolving desk, there is a vertical rod of
+iron with a long horizontal arm. This is no doubt intended to carry a
+lantern. I shall shortly give an example of one in such a position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141. Circular book-desk.
+
+From a MS. of _Fais et Gestes du Roi Alexandre_, in the British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. S. Jerome writing.
+
+From an oil painting by Benedetto Bonfigli, in the Church of S. Peter at
+Perugia.]
+
+I now return to the wheel-desk, of which I have already figured one
+specimen (fig. 135). A piece of furniture consisting of one or more tables
+which could be raised or depressed by means of a central screw, was very
+generally used by scholars in the Middle Ages. I shall present a few of
+the most common forms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142. S. Luke writing his Gospel.
+
+From the Dunois _Horae_, a MS. in the possession of H. Y. Thompson, Esq.]
+
+My first specimen is from a manuscript in the British Museum, written and
+illuminated in England in the middle of the fifteenth century. It is
+called _Fais et Gestes du Roi Alexandre_[532]. The picture (fig. 141)
+represents Alexander as a little child, standing in front of his tutor,
+who is seated in one of the chairs I described above. On the learned man's
+right is his book-desk. A circular table with a rim round it to prevent
+the books falling off, is supported on a central pedestal, which contains
+the screw. The top of the said screw is concealed by the little Gothic
+turret in the centre of the table. This turret also supports the book
+which the reader has in use.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143. A lady seated in her chair reading.
+
+From a MS. written in France, early in the fifteenth century.]
+
+My next example is from a miniature in a volume of Hours known as the
+Dunois _Horae_, also written in the middle of the fifteenth century. It has
+been slightly enlarged in order to bring out the details more clearly. The
+subject is S. Luke writing his Gospel, but the background represents a
+scholar's room. There is a bookcase of a very modern type, a table with
+two folio volumes lying upon it, and in the centre a hexagonal book-desk,
+with a little Gothic turret as in the last example. Round the screw under
+the table are four cylindrical supports, the use of which I fail to
+understand, but they occur frequently on desks of this type. The whole
+piece of furniture rests on a heavy cylindrical base, and that again on a
+square platform.
+
+I now pass to a variety of the screw-desk, which has a small book-rest
+above the table. The whole structure rests upon a prolongation of the
+solid platform on which the reader's chair is placed, so that it is really
+exactly in front of the reader. My illustration (fig. 143) is from "The
+booke of the noble ladyes in frensh," a work by Boccacio; it was written
+in France early in the fifteenth century[533].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144. Screw-desk.
+
+From a fifteenth century MS. in the Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal, Paris.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145. Hexagonal desk, with central spike, probably for
+a candle.
+
+From a French MS. of _Le Miroir Historial_.]
+
+These double desks are exceedingly common, and I might fill a large number
+of pages with figures and descriptions of the variety which the ingenuity
+of the cabinet-makers of the fifteenth century managed to impart to
+combinations of a screw and two or more tables. I will content myself
+with one more example (fig. 144) which shews the screw exceedingly well,
+and the two tables above it. The uppermost of these serves as a ledge to
+rest the books on, as does also the hexagonal block above it which
+conceals the top of the screw[534].
+
+We meet occasionally with a solid desk, by which I mean one the level of
+which cannot be altered. In the example here given (fig. 145) from a
+French MS. of _Le Miroir Historial_, there is a central spike which I
+suspect to have been intended to carry a candle[535].
+
+In some examples of these book-desks the pedestal is utilized as a
+book-cupboard (fig. 146). The picture which I have selected as shewing a
+desk of this peculiarity is singularly beautiful, and finished in the
+highest style of art available at the end of the fifteenth century in
+France. It forms half of the frontispiece to a fine manuscript of
+Boccacio's _Livre des cas des malheureux nobles hommes et femmes_[536].
+The central figure is apparently lecturing on that moving theme, for in
+front of him, in the other half of the picture, is a crowd of men
+exhibiting their interest by the violence of their gestures. On his left
+is the desk I mentioned; it stands on an unusually firm base, and one side
+of the vertical portion is pierced by an arch, so as to make the central
+cavity available for putting books in. From the centre of the table rises
+a tall spike, apparently of iron, to which is attached a horizontal arm,
+bearing a lighted lantern. On the table, in addition to three books, is an
+inkstand and pen-case. In front of the lecturer is a carved chest,
+probably one of those book-coffers which I have already mentioned. The
+chair and canopy are richly carved, and the back of the seat is partially
+covered by a piece of tapestry. Further, the lecturer is allowed the
+unusual luxury of a cushion.
+
+I will next deal with the appliances for reading and writing directly
+connected with the chairs in which scholars sat, and I will begin with the
+desk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146. A lecturer addressing an audience.
+
+From a MS. of _Livre des cas des malheureux nobles hommes et femmes_,
+written in France at end of fifteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148. The author of _The Chronicles of Hainault_ in his
+study (1446).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150. A writer with his desk and table.
+
+From a MS. of _Le Livre des Proprietes des Choses_ in the British
+Museum.]
+
+The simplest form of desk is a plain board, set at a suitable angle by
+means of a chain or cord extending from one of its corners to the back of
+the chair, while the opposite corner rests against a peg driven into the
+arm of the chair. This arrangement, variously modified, occurs very
+frequently; sometimes there are two pegs and two chains, but what I may
+term the normal form is shewn in my illustration (fig. 147)[537]. It is
+difficult to understand how the desk was kept steady.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147. S. Mark writing his Gospel.
+
+From a MS. _Hours_ written in France in the fifteenth century.]
+
+The author whose study I shall figure next (fig. 148) is engaged in
+writing the Chronicles of Hainault[538]. His desk rests securely on two
+irons fastened to the arms of his chair. On his right is a plain lectern
+with an open volume on each side of it, and behind are two or more shelves
+set against the wall with books lying on their sides. On his left is a
+chest, presumably a book-chest, with books lying on its closed lid. One of
+these is open. He has prudently placed his chair near the window in such a
+position that the light falls upon his work from the left. It should be
+noted that the upper part of the window only is glazed, the lower part
+being closed by shutters. When these are thrown back, the lights are seen
+to be filled to half their height with a trellis, such as was ordered for
+the French king's library.
+
+My third example of a chair fitted with a desk (fig. 149) is taken from
+_Les Miracles de Notre Dame_[539], a manuscript which belonged to Philip
+the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and was written for him at the Hague in 1456.
+The illustration represents S. Jerome seated in his study. From arm to arm
+of the chair extends a desk of a very firm and solid construction. The
+ends of this desk apparently drop into the heads of the small columns with
+which the arms of the chair terminate. The saint has in his left hand a
+pointed _stylus_, and in his right a pen, which he is holding up to the
+light. On the desk beside the manuscript lies an ink-horn. To the right of
+the saint's chair is a hexagonal table with a high ledge round it. There
+is no evidence that this table has a screw; but the small subsidiary desk
+above it seems to be provided with one. It will be observed that the
+support of this desk is not directly over that of the table beneath it.
+The desk is provided with two slits--an ingenious contrivance for dealing
+with a roll. On the table, besides an open book, are a pair of spectacles,
+four pens, a small box which may contain French chalk for pouncing, and
+what looks like a piece of sponge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149. S. Jerome in his study.
+
+From _Les Miracle de Nostre Dame_, written at the Hague in 1456.]
+
+I now figure two different sets of library appliances. The first (fig.
+150) is from a manuscript of the _Livre des Proprietes des Choses_, in the
+British Museum, written in the fifteenth century[540]. The writer is
+seated in one of those low chairs which occur very frequently in
+miniatures, and look as if they were cut out of a single block of wood.
+His desk, which is quite independent of the chair, is of the simplest
+design, consisting of a piece of wood supported at an angle on two carved
+uprights. On his left stands a very elegant piece of furniture, a table
+with a desk at a considerable height above it--so high, in fact, that it
+could only be used standing. This upper desk is fitted with a little door
+as though it served as a receptacle for small objects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151. S. Luke writing his Gospel.
+
+MSS. Douce, Bodl. Lib. Oxf., No. 381.]
+
+The second example (fig. 151) shews S. Luke sitting on a bench writing at
+a table[541]. The top, which is very massive, rests on four legs, morticed
+into a frame. In front of this table is a desk of peculiar form; the lower
+part resembles a reversed cone, and the upper part a second cone of
+smaller diameter, so as to leave space enough between the two bases for a
+ledge to rest books on. Round the base of the desk three quaint lions do
+duty as feet. These lions occur again beneath the frame of the picture,
+and may be connected with a former possessor of the manuscript. The
+pedestal of the desk is a twisted column, which, like the base, and indeed
+the whole structure, looks as though it were made of brass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152. S. Augustine at his desk.
+
+From a painting by Fra Filippo Lippi at Florence.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153. S. Jerome reading.
+
+From an oil painting by Catena, in the National Gallery, London.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154. A writer at work.
+
+From a French translation of Valerius Maximus, written and illuminated in
+Flanders in 1479, for King Edward IV.]
+
+I now pass to a totally different way of fitting up a study, which seems
+to have been common in Italy, to judge by the number of paintings in which
+it occurs. It consists of a massive desk of wood, one part of which is set
+at right angles to the other, and is connected in various ways with
+shelves, drawers, pigeon-holes, and other contrivances for holding books
+and papers. In the example I here figure (fig. 152), from a painting by
+Fra Filippo Lippi (1412-1469) representing S. Augustine's vision of the
+Trinity, there are two small recesses above the desk on the saint's right,
+both containing books, and behind the shorter portion of the desk, three
+shelves also with books on them. Attached to the end of the desk is a
+small tray, probably to contain pens.
+
+A similar desk occurs in the beautiful picture by Catena in the National
+Gallery[542], representing S. Jerome reading, of which I give a
+reproduction on a reduced scale (fig. 153). This picture also contains an
+excellent example of a cupboard in the thickness of the wall, a
+contrivance for taking care of books as common in the Middle Ages as it
+had been in Roman times[543].
+
+Cupboards in the thickness of the wall are also to be seen in the
+frontispiece (fig. 154) to a copy of a French translation of Valerius
+Maximus[544], written in Flanders in 1479 for King Edward IV. The
+writer--probably intended for the author or the translator of the book--is
+seated at a desk, consisting of a plank set at an angle and capable of
+being turned aside by means of a central bracket, like that used by the
+Carmelite (fig. 136). Observe the two weights hanging over the edge of the
+desk and the ends of the two horns, intended to hold ink, projecting
+through it. The window, as in the picture representing the author of the
+Chronicles of Hainault at work, is glazed in the upper part only, while in
+the lower are two framed trellises of wire-work. Behind the writer are two
+cupboards in the thickness of the wall. One of these is open, and shews
+books lying on their sides, upon which are some pomegranates. I cannot
+suggest any reason for the introduction of these fruits, except that from
+their colour they make a pleasing variety; but I ought to mention that
+they occur very frequently in miniatures representing a writer at work. On
+the other side of the window is a small hanging cupboard. Here again a
+fruit is introduced on the lowest shelf. Round the room is a settle,
+raised above the floor on blocks at intervals. The seat is probably a
+chest, as in the settles described above in the Vatican Library.
+
+The last picture (fig. 155) in this series of illustrations represents
+what I like to call a scholar's room, at the beginning of the fifteenth
+century[545]. The owner of the apartment is busily writing at a desk
+supported on a trestle-table. He holds a _stylus_ in his left hand, and a
+pen in his right. The ink-horn he is using is inserted into the desk.
+Above it are holes for two others, in case he should require ink of
+different colours. Above the inkstand is a pen stuck in a hole, with
+vacant holes beside it. The page on the desk is kept flat by a weight.
+Above this desk is a second desk, of nearly equal size, on which lies an
+open book, kept open by a large weight, extending over two-thirds of the
+open pages. Behind the writer's chair is his book-chest. The background
+represents a well-appointed chamber. The floor is paved with encaustic
+tiles; a bright fire is burning on the hearth; the window, on the same
+plan as that described in the last picture, is open; a comfortable--not to
+say luxurious--bed invites repose. The walls are unplastered, but there is
+a hanging under the window and over the head of the bed.
+
+With this simple room, containing a scholar's necessaries and no more, I
+will contrast the study of the Duke of Urbino.
+
+This beautiful room, which still exists as the Duke left it, is on an
+upper floor of the castle, commanding from its balcony, which faces the
+south, an extensive view of the approach to the Castle, the city, and the
+country beyond, backed by the Apennines. It is of small size, measuring
+only 11 ft. 6 in. by 13 ft. 4 in., and is somewhat irregular in shape. It
+is entered by a door from the Duke's private apartment. The floor is paved
+with rough tiles set in patterns. The walls are panelled to a height of
+about eight feet. The bare space between the top of the panel-work and the
+ceiling was probably hung with tapestry. The ceiling is a beautiful
+specimen of the most elaborate plaster-work, disposed in octagonal panels.
+The decoration of the panel-work begins with a representation of a bench,
+on which various objects are lying executed in intarsia work. Above this
+bench is a row of small panels, above which again is a row of large
+panels, each containing a subject in the finest intarsia, as for example a
+portrait of Duke Frederick, figures of Faith, Hope, and other virtues, a
+pile of books, musical instruments, armour, a parrot in a cage, etc. In
+the cornice above these is the word FEDERICO, and the date 1476.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155. A scholar's room in the fifteenth century.
+
+From a MS. in the Royal Library at Brussels.]
+
+Opposite the window there is a small cupboard, and on the opposite side of
+the projection containing it there are a few shelves. These are the only
+receptacles for books in the room. From its small size it could have
+contained but little furniture, and was probably intended for the purpose
+traditionally ascribed to it, namely as a place of retirement for the Duke
+when he wished to be alone.
+
+Another specimen of a library so arranged as to provide a peaceful retreat
+is afforded a century later by that of Montaigne, of which he has
+fortunately left a minute description.
+
+    [My library is] in the third story of a Tower, of which
+    the Ground-room is my Chappel, the second story an
+    Apartment with a withdrawing Room and Closet, where I
+    often lie to be more retired. Above it is a great
+    Wardrobe, which formerly was the most useless part of
+    the House. I there pass away both the most of the Days
+    of my Life, and most of the Hours of those Days. In the
+    Night I am never there. There is within it a Cabinet
+    handsome and neat enough, with a Fire-place very
+    commodiously contriv'd, and Light very finely fitted.
+    And was I not more afraid of the Trouble than the
+    Expence, the Trouble that frights me from all Business,
+    I could very easily adjoyn on either side, and on the
+    same Floor, a Gallery of an hundred paces long, and
+    twelve broad, having found Walls already rais'd for some
+    other Design, to the requisite height. Every place of
+    retirement requires a Walk. My Thoughts sleep if I sit
+    still; my Fancy does not go by itself, as when my Legs
+    move it: and all those who study without a Book are in
+    the same Condition.
+
+    The figure of my Study is round, and has no more flat
+    Wall than what is taken up by my Table, and my Chairs;
+    so that the remaining parts of the Circle present me a
+    view of all my books at once, set up upon five degrees
+    of Shelves round about me. It has three noble and free
+    Prospects, and is sixteen paces[546] Diameter. I am not
+    so continually there in Winter; for my House is built
+    upon an Eminence, as its Name imports, and no part of it
+    is so much expos'd to the Wind and Weather as that,
+    which pleases me the better, for being of a painful
+    access, and a little remote, as well upon the account of
+    Exercise, as being also there more retir'd from the
+    Crowd. 'Tis there that I am in my Kingdom, as we say,
+    and there I endeavour to make myself an absolute
+    Monarch, and so sequester this one Corner from all
+    Society both Conjugal, Filial, and Civil[547].
+
+The notices of libraries which I have collected have brought me to the end
+of the sixteenth century, by which time most of the appliances in use in
+the Middle Ages had been given up. I hope that I have not exhausted the
+patience of my readers by presenting too long a series of illustrations
+extracted from manuscripts. I love, as I look at them, to picture to
+myself the medieval man of letters, laboriously penning voluminous
+treatises in the writing room of a monastery, or in his own study, with
+his scanty collection of books within his reach, on shelves, or in a
+chest, or lying on a table. We sometimes call the ages dark in which he
+lived, but the mechanical ingenuity displayed in the devices by which his
+studies were assisted might put to shame the cabinet-makers of our own
+day.
+
+As the fashion of collecting books, and of having them bound at a lavish
+expense, increased, it was obvious that they must be laid out so as to be
+seen and consulted without the danger of spoiling their costly covers.
+Hence the development of the lectern-system in private houses, and the
+arrangement of a room such as the Duchess Margaret possessed at Malines.
+Gradually, however, as books multiplied, and came into the possession of
+persons who could not afford costly bindings, lecterns were abandoned, and
+books were ranged on shelves against the wall, as in the public libraries
+which I described in the last chapter.
+
+There is still in existence, on an upper floor in the Palazzo Barberini at
+Rome, a library of this description, which has probably not been altered
+in any way since it was fitted up by Cardinal Francesco Barberini about
+1630. The room is 105 ft. long by 28 ft. broad, and is admirably lighted
+by two windows in the south wall, and seven in the gallery. The shelves
+are set round three sides of the room at a short distance from the wall,
+so as to leave space for a gallery and the stairs to it. The cases are
+divided into compartments by fluted Ionic columns 5 ft. high. These rest
+upon a flat shelf 14 in. wide, beneath which are drawers for papers and a
+row of folios. This part of the structure is 3 ft. high from the floor to
+the base of the columns. Above the columns is a cornice, part of which is
+utilized for books; and above this again is the gallery, where the
+arrangement of the shelves is a repetition of what I have described in the
+lower part of the room. Dwarf cases in a plainer style and of later date
+are set along the sides and ends of the room. Upon these are desks for the
+catalogue, a pair of globes, some astronomical instruments, and some
+sepulchral urns found at Praeneste. The older woodwork in this library has
+never been painted or varnished, and the whole aspect of the room is
+singularly old-world and delightful.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156 Dean Boys in his Library, 1622.]
+
+Another instance is afforded by the sketch of the library of John Boys,
+Dean of Canterbury, who died in 1625. It occurs on the title-page of his
+works dated 1622, and I may add on his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral also.
+He clung to ancient fashions so far as to set his books with their
+fore-edge outwards, but in other respects his book-shelves are of a modern
+type.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have now reached the limit which I imposed upon myself when I began this
+essay. But before I conclude let me say a few last words. I wish to point
+out that collectors and builders in the Middle Ages did not guard their
+manuscripts with jealous care merely because they had paid a high price to
+have them written; they recognised what I may call the personal element in
+them; they invested them with the senses and the feelings of human
+beings; and bestowed them like guests whom they delighted to honour. No
+one who reads the _Philobiblon_ can fail to see that every page of it is
+pervaded by this sentiment; and this I think explains the elaborate
+precautions against theft; the equally elaborate care taken to arrange a
+library in so orderly a fashion that each book might be accessible with
+the least difficulty and the least delay; and the exuberant gratitude with
+which the arrival of a new book was welcomed.
+
+In my present work I have looked at libraries from the technical side
+exclusively. It would have been useless to try to combine fire and water,
+sentiment and fact. But let me remind my readers that we are not so far
+removed from the medieval standpoint as some of us perhaps would wish.
+When we enter the library of Queens' College, or the older part of the
+University Library, at Cambridge, where there has been continuity from the
+fifteenth century to the present day, are we not moved by feelings such as
+I have tried to indicate, such in fact as moved John Leland when he saw
+the library at Glastonbury for the first time?
+
+Moreover, there is another sentiment closely allied to this by which
+members of a College or a University are more deeply moved than others--I
+mean the sentiment of association. The most prosaic among them cannot fail
+to remember that the very floors were trodden by the feet of the great
+scholars of the past; that Erasmus may have sat at that window on that
+bench, and read the very book which we are ourselves about to borrow.
+
+But in these collections the present is not forgotten; the authors of
+to-day are taking their places beside the authors of the past, and are
+being treated with the same care. On all sides we see progress: the
+lecterns and the stalls are still in use and keep green the memory of old
+fashions; while near them the plain shelving of the twentieth century
+bears witness to the ever-present need for more space to hold the invading
+hordes of books that represent the literature of to-day. On the one hand,
+we see the past; on the other, the present; and both are animated by full,
+vigorous life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[521] MSS. Mus. Brit., MSS. Cotton, Claudius E. 4, part 1. fol. 124. I
+have to thank my friend, Mr Hubert Hall, of the Public Record Office, for
+drawing my attention to this illustration.
+
+[522] _Gesta Abbatum_, ed. Rolls series, I. p. 184. I owe this reference
+and its translation to the Reverend F. A. Gasquet, _Medieval Monastic
+Libraries_, p. 89, in _Downside Review_, 1891, Vol. X. No. 2.
+
+[523] Henri Havard, _Dict. de l' Ameublement_, s. v. Librairie. The first
+chest is described in the following words: "Livres estans en la grant
+chambre dudit Seigneur, en ung escrin assiz sur deux crampons, lequel est
+a la fenestre empres la cheminee de ladite chambre, et est a deux
+couvescles, en l'une des parties dequel coffre estoient les parties qui
+s'ensuivent." See also J. Labarle: _Inventaire du Mobilier de Charles V._
+4to. Paris, 1879, p. 336.
+
+[524] Franklin, _Anc. Bibl. de Paris_, Vol. II. p. 112. A copy of this
+account is in the _Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal_, No. 6362. This I have
+collated with M. Franklin's text. The most important passage is the
+following: A Jacques du Parvis et Jean Grosbois, huchiers, pour leur peine
+d'avoir dessemble tous les bancs et deux roes qui estoient en la librairie
+du Roy au palais, et iceux faict venir audit Louvre, avec les lettrins et
+icelles roes estrecies chacune d'un pied tout autour; et tout rassemble et
+pendu les lettrins es deux derraines estages de la tour, devers la
+Fauconnerie, pour mettre les livres du Roy; et lambroissie de bort
+d'Illande le premier d'iceux deux estages tout autour par dedans, au pris
+de L. francs d'or, par marche faict a eux par ledit maistre Jacques, XIV^e
+jour de mars 1367.
+
+[525] A. Berty, _Topographie historique du vieux Paris_, 4to. Paris, 1866,
+Vol. I. pp. 143-146. He considers that the "bort d'Illande" was Dutch oak,
+480 pieces of which had been given to the king by the officer called
+Senechal of Hainault.
+
+[526] MSS. Mus. Brit. 14 E. V.
+
+[527] MSS. Mus. Brit. 14 E. 1. This miniature has been reproduced by
+Father Gasquet in the paper quoted above.
+
+[528] MSS. Mus. Brit., MSS. Harl. 4375, f. 151 _b_.
+
+[529] _The Philobiblon of Richard de Bury_: ed. E. C. Thomas, London,
+1888.
+
+[530] Printed in _Jahrbuch der Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des
+Allerhoechsten Kaiserhauses_, Band III. 4to. Wien, 1885.
+
+[531] Lerou de Lincey, _Melanges de la Societe des Bibliophiles_, 1850, p.
+231.
+
+[532] MSS. Mus. Brit. 15 E. VI.
+
+[533] MS. Mus. Brit. 20 C. V.
+
+[534] Paris, Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal, MS. 5193, fol. 311. Boccacio: _Cas
+des malheureux nobles hommes et femmes_.
+
+[535] Paris, Bibl. Nat., MSS. Francais, 50, _Le Miroir Historial_, by
+Vincent de Beauvais, fol. 340. Probably written in cent. XV.
+
+[536] MSS. Mus. Brit. Add. 35321. MSS. Waddesdon, No. 12. Bequeathed by
+Baron Ferdinand Rothschild.
+
+[537] MSS. Bodl. Lib. Oxf., MSS. Rawl. Liturg. e. 24, fol. 17 _b_.
+
+[538] MSS. Bibliotheque Royale de Bruxelles, No. 9242. _Chroniques de
+Hainaut_, Pt. I. fol. 2, 1446.
+
+[539] MSS. Bibl. Nat. Paris, MSS. Fran. 9198. See _Miracles de Nostre
+Dame_, by J. Mielot, Roxburghe Club, 1885; with introduction by G. F.
+Warner, M.A.
+
+[540] MSS. Cotton, Augustus, VI. fol. 213 _b_. There is a beautiful
+example of a table and desk on this plan in a MS. of _La Cite des Dames_,
+from the old Royal Library of France in the Bibl. Nat., MSS. Fran. 1177.
+
+[541] MSS. Bodl. Lib. Oxf., MSS. Douce, No. 381, fol. 159. A second
+example occurs in the same MS., fol. 160.
+
+[542] I have to thank my friend Sidney Colvin, M.A., for drawing my
+attention to this picture.
+
+[543] See above, pp. 37, 38.
+
+[544] MSS. Mus. Brit. 18 E. IV.
+
+[545] _Le Debat de l'honneur entre trois Princes chevalereux_. Bibil. Roy.
+Bruxelles, No. 9278, fol. 10. The MS. is from the library of the Dukes of
+Burgundy, and may be dated in the second third of the fifteenth century.
+
+[546] The original words are 'seize pas de vuide.' The substantive 'pas'
+must I think mean a foot, the length a foot makes when set upon the
+ground. The word pace, the length of which is 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft., is
+inapplicable here.
+
+[547] _Essays of Michael Seigneur de Montaigne._ Made English by Ch.
+Cotton, Vol. III. pp. 53, 54. 8vo. London, 1741. I have to thank my friend
+Mr A. F. Sieveking for this reference.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abingdon, Berks, Benedictine House at:
+    customs in force respecting books, 68;
+    carrells set up, 98
+
+  Abingdon: School library, 262
+
+  Actor and masks: relief representing in Lateran Museum, Rome, 36
+
+  Agapetus, pope: his intended college and library, 44
+
+  Albans (S.): form of curse used, 78;
+    endowment of _scriptorium_, 80;
+    library built 1452-3, 108;
+    stained glass, 241
+
+  Alencon: town library, 287
+
+  Alexandria: account of libraries, 6;
+    in museum, _ibid._;
+    in temple of Serapis, 7
+
+  All Souls' Coll., Oxf.: library statute, 137;
+    special provisions, 138
+
+  Ambrosian Library, Milan: description, 271;
+    may have been copied by Wren at S. Paul's, London, 282
+
+  _analogium_: a book-desk, 105, 197, 243
+
+  Anne de Beaujeu: her library, 302
+
+  Antony, Mark: gives library at Pergamon to Cleopatra, 8
+
+  Apollo: temple and area on Palatine Hill at Rome, 14;
+    composition of the library, 18, 19;
+    allusions to, by Ovid and Horace, _ibid._
+
+  Apollonius Thyaneus: commemorated in Roman library, 23
+
+  Apse, triple: how treated in early times, 63;
+    De Rossi's theory, _ibid._;
+    description by Paulinus of Nola, _ibid._;
+    view of Lenoir, 64, _note_
+
+  Aristotle: said to have been a book-collector, 5;
+    his methods adopted by the Ptolemies, _ibid._
+
+  Ark: desk on pattern of, 297
+
+  armarium: in Ulpian library, 20;
+    described by Nibby, 37;
+    to contain _codices_, _ibid._;
+    held by jurist Ulpian to be part of the library, _ibid._;
+    description by Pliny of one sunk in wall of a room, 38;
+    on sarcophagus in Museo Nazionale, Rome, with shoemaker at work,
+        _ibid._;
+    on do. in Villa Balestra, Rome, with physician reading, _ibid._;
+    on tomb of Galla Placidia, 39;
+    in Jewish synagogues, _ibid._ note;
+    in Codex Amiatinus, 40, 41;
+    verses composed for his own presses by Isidore, Bp of Seville, 45;
+    called _fenestra_ by Pachomius, 64, 65, _note_;
+    alluded to by S. Benedict, 66;
+    word used for a library by the Cluniacs, 67;
+    placed in charge of precentor, who is called also _armarius_, _ibid._;
+    same provisions in force at Abingdon, 68;
+    at Evesham, 69;
+    word used for a library by the Carthusians, 69;
+    described in Augustinian Customs, 71;
+    what this piece of furniture was, 81-96;
+    the _armarium commune_, 82;
+    this described and figured at Fossa Nuova, _ibid._;
+    Worcester Cathedral, 84;
+    Kirkstall, 85;
+    Meaux, 86;
+    at Titchfield, 87;
+    Durham, 93;
+    book-presses in cloister at Durham and Westminster, 90-94;
+    in France, 94;
+    examples of presses at Bayeux, Obazine, and S. Germain l'Auxerrois,
+        94-96;
+    supervision of press at S. Augustine's, Canterbury, 99
+
+  _armarius_ (who is also Precentor):
+    has charge of library in Cluniac Houses, 67, 73;
+    in Augustinian, 71;
+    provides for borrowing as well as lending books among the
+        Premonstratensians, 72
+
+  Arts: books required for course in, at Cambridge, 147
+
+  Assisi: library at, catalogued 1381, 73;
+    analysis of this, 206, 207
+
+  Assur-bani-pal, King of Nineveh: library in his palace, 2
+
+  Astrolabe: in library of Anne de Beaujeu, 303
+
+  Athens: notices of ancient libraries at, 5;
+    library built by Hadrian, 6, 16
+
+  Attalus, King: note on his stoa at Athens, 11, _note_
+
+  Augustine (S.): directions about church library at Hippo, 63
+
+  Augustine (S.), Benedictine House at Canterbury:
+    extract from custumary on care of MSS., 76;
+    rules for use of carrells, 99;
+    organisation of library in cloister, _ibid._
+
+  Augustinians: rules for books in force among, 71
+
+  Augustus: builds libraries in Rome, 12;
+    porticus Octaviae, _ibid._;
+    temple and area of Apollo Palatinus, 14;
+    their organisation, 18
+
+  Autun, College d', Paris: library at, 166
+
+
+  Bale, John, laments loss of monastic libraries, 246
+
+  Bamberg: chained book from monastery, 159
+
+  _banca_ or _bancus_: meaning discussed, 242
+
+  Bancroft, Abp, his library brought to Cambridge, 253
+
+  Barber Surgeons, Lond.: books in their library chained 1639, 265
+
+  Barberini: library in their palace at Rome, 316
+
+  Bateman, Will., Bp of Norwich: his library statute for Trinity Hall, 136;
+    division of his library, 144
+
+  Bayeux, Cathedral: press called _Le Chartrier_ described and figured, 94;
+    library at, 125
+
+  Beaulieu, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86;
+    book-recesses in wall of cloister, 89
+
+  Benedict (S.): passage in his Rule respecting study, 66
+
+  Benedictines:
+    decrees given to English monks of the Order by Abp Lanfranc, 67;
+    customs in force at S. Benoit-sur-Loire, 68, _note_;
+    at Abingdon, Berks, _ibid._;
+    at Evesham, Worcestershire, 69;
+    their books bestowed in wooden presses, 84;
+    arrangement adopted at Durham, 90
+
+  Benoit (S.)-sur-Loire: customs quoted, 68, _note_;
+    endowment of library, 79
+
+  Bicester: school library, 262
+
+  Bobbio: library, 102
+
+  Bodleian Library, Oxf.: description, as fitted up by Sir T. Bodley, 185;
+    chains taken off 1757, 266;
+    inconvenience of chaining, 266;
+    new bookcases on wall-system, 275
+
+  Boethius: decoration of his library, 41;
+    view of a library in MS. of his _Cons. of Phil._, 163, 164
+
+  Bolton, Lanc.: school, 264
+
+  Book-room: in Cistercian Houses, 84-89;
+    at Fossa Nuova, 83
+
+  Boys, John: his library, 317
+
+  Brandolini, A.: epigram on library of Sixtus IV., 211
+
+  Brasenose Coll., Oxf.: library statute, 137;
+    chains taken off 1780, 266
+
+  _breve_ or _brevis_ = a book-ticket: in Cluniac Customs, 67;
+    in Lanfranc's decrees for Benedictines, 68
+
+  Brewster, Will.: bequeathes books to All Saints' Ch., Hereford, 262
+
+  Budge, Dr Wallis: note on Mesopotamian discoveries, 4
+
+  Bury, Lanc.: library in school, 263
+
+  Bury S. Edmunds: use of carrells, 98;
+    cloister glazed with stained glass, 100;
+    library built 1429-45, 108
+
+  Busts in Roman libraries: _see_ Portraits
+
+
+  Caesar, Julius: intends to build public library in Rome, 12
+
+  Caesarea: library, 62
+
+  Calder Abbey: portion of book-room, 88
+
+  Canterbury; _see_ Christ Church, Canterbury
+
+  Canterbury Coll., Oxf.:
+    library furnished from Christ Church, Canterbury, 143
+
+  _capsa_; box for carrying rolls, 30
+
+  Cardinal Coll., Oxf.; library statute, 137
+
+  Carols: _see_ Carrells
+
+  Carpenter, John (Bp of Worcester): his library foundation, 126
+
+  Carpet: books to be laid out on, in Chapter House for annual audit
+    in Cluniac Houses, 67;
+    in Benedictine, 68
+
+  Carrells: in cloister at Durham, 90;
+    detailed account of, with ground plan of a window, 96;
+    at Westminster Abbey, 92, 93;
+    series of, in stone, at Gloucester, 96-98;
+    general considerations as to arrangement, 98;
+    instances of their use in various houses, _ibid._;
+    by whom to be used, 99
+
+  Carthusians: rules for books in force among, 69
+
+  Cartmel, Lanc.: books to be chained in churchwarden's pew, 258
+
+  Cassiodorus: his _Codex grandior_ mentioned, 40;
+    intended college in Rome, 44;
+    monastery, library, and _scriptorium_ at Vivarium, _ibid._
+
+  Catharine (S.) Coll., Camb.: number of books in library, 145;
+    new cases, 285
+
+  Cedar: _see_ Citrus
+
+  Cesena: description of library, 199-203
+
+  Chaining: books chained in S. Mary's Ch., Oxf., cent, xiii., 132;
+    at Peterhouse, Camb., 135, 145;
+    Trinity Hall, 136, 168;
+    New Coll., Oxf., 137;
+    indiscriminate chaining forbidden, 138;
+    system in use at Zutphen explained, 153-159;
+    in Stadtbibliothek at Nuremberg, 163;
+    at Sorbonne, Paris, 164;
+    College d'Autun, 166;
+    S. Victor, _ibid._;
+    inconvenience of, at Oxf., 172;
+    at Hereford described, 174-8;
+    at Merton Coll., Oxf., 181, 182;
+    traces of, at S. John's Coll., Oxf., 185;
+    at Cathedral Library, Wells, 189;
+    at Cesena, 203;
+    on printed book from Hungary now at Ghent, 204;
+    chains bought for Vatican Library, 219;
+    at Medicean library, Florence, 238-240;
+    at Grantham, 257;
+    Cartmel, 258;
+    Gorton, 259;
+    Chetham library, Manchester, 260;
+    Wimborne, 261;
+    Denchworth, 262;
+    All Saints', Hereford, _ibid._;
+    Abingdon, Berks, _ibid._;
+    Bicester, _ibid._;
+    Guildford, 263;
+    instances of late use of chaining, 264;
+    Faculty of Medicine, Paris, _ibid._;
+    Corpus Christi Coll., Camb., _ibid._;
+    Gray's Inn, _ibid._;
+    S. John's Coll., Gonville and Caius Coll.,
+        Peterhouse, Trinity Coll., Camb., 265;
+    Library of Barber Surgeons, _ibid._;
+    wills of Sir M. Hale and M. Scrivener, _ibid._;
+    chains taken off at various places, 266;
+    inconvenience of, at Bodleian, _ibid._, note
+
+  Chair with desk: figured in MSS., 309-312
+
+  Chapter-House:
+    spaces divided off at west end for book-rooms in monasteries, 87-89;
+    books read in neighbourhood of, 89
+
+  Charles V., King of France: book-chest, 293;
+    fits up library in Louvre, _ibid._
+
+  Chest for books: bought for Vatican Library, 218;
+    used by Simon, Abbat of S. Albans, 292;
+    in France, 293
+
+  Chester Cathedral: arches in cloister, possibly used for books, 89
+
+  Chetham, Humphry: provisions of will, 259;
+    library in Manchester, 260
+
+  Chichele, Abp: builds library at Canterbury, 106;
+    account of this, 190
+
+  Christ Church, Canterbury: curse from a MS., 78;
+    library-walk of cloister, 91;
+    sets of nine holes, 92;
+    carrells in use, 99;
+    glass in cloister, 100;
+    catalogue, saec. xii., 102;
+    library, 106;
+    probable extent and arrangement of this described, 190-194;
+    Howley-Harrison library, 256
+
+  Christopher Le Stocks (S.), Lond.: library, 244
+
+  Christ's Hospital, Lond.: library, 108
+
+  Churches: libraries built in or near, 61, 64
+
+  Cirta: library, 62
+
+  Cistercians: rules for books, 70;
+    evolution of book-room, 84-89;
+    plan of this at Fossa Nuova, 85;
+    Kirkstall, _ibid._;
+    arrangement of books in, at Meaux, 86;
+    Titchfield, 87;
+    book-rooms at west end of Chapter House, Furness, _ibid._;
+    Calder Abbey, 88;
+    Fountains, _ibid._;
+    Beaulieu, 89;
+    Hayles _ibid._;
+    Chester Cathedral, _ibid._
+
+  Citeaux: books chained near Chapter House, 89;
+    arrangement of books, saec. xv., 103-106;
+    permanent library, 109-112
+
+  Citrus: identification of tree so called, 22, _note_;
+    used to preserve rolls, 29
+
+  Clairvaux: curse used, 78;
+    books chained near Chapter House, 89;
+    library, 112-4;
+    catalogue of this discussed, 196-8;
+    nature of fittings, 198
+
+  Clare Coll., Camb.: account of old library, 186;
+    new cases put up 1627,
+    _ibid._;
+    their plan discussed, 187;
+    new library fitted up, 285
+
+  _class_: meaning of word discussed, 243
+
+  _claustrum sine armario_ etc., 75
+
+  Cleopatra: receives library of Pergamon from Antony, 8
+
+  Cloister: the centre of monastic life, 80;
+    work interrupted by cold and bad weather, _ibid._;
+    activity at S. Martin's, Tournai, 81;
+    arrangements at Durham described, 90;
+    illustrated by reference to Westminster Abbey, 91-94;
+    was glazed at Durham, 90;
+    in other Houses, 100
+
+  Cluniacs: regulations in their Customs respecting books, 67;
+    date of these Customs, 68, _note_;
+    book-room in their priory at Much Wenlock, 87
+
+  Cobham, Thomas: library, Oxf., 148-151;
+    stained glass in windows, 242
+
+  Codex, a book: how accommodated, 36, 37;
+    figured on tomb of Galla Placidia, 39
+
+  Codex Amiatinus: representation of _armarium_ described, 40
+
+  Cold, in cloister, 80
+
+  _columpna_: a set of shelves, 87
+
+  _communes libri_; meaning of term, 82
+
+  Corbie: note from MS. once belonging to, 75, _note_;
+    injunction to use a MS. at, carefully, 77 and _note_;
+    endowment of library, 79
+
+  _cornua_: used for the knobs of a roll, 28
+
+  Corpus Christi Coll., Camb.: books chained 1523, 264
+
+  Corpus Christi Coll., Oxf.: library statute, 137, 138;
+    provisions against indiscriminate chaining, 138;
+    fittings supplied 1517, 172;
+    a type of the stall-system, _ibid._;
+    elevation of one bookcase, 173
+
+  Cosma e Damiano: church of, in Rome, 25, 26
+
+  Crates (of Mallus): his visit to Rome and influence there, 14
+
+  Creighton, Rob., Bp of Wells: fits up cathedral library, 188
+
+  Croxden, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86
+
+  Cruas, on the Rhone: book-press in the church, 94
+
+  Cupboards: in thickness of wall, 313
+
+  Curses, on those who steal or damage MSS., 77
+
+  Cuthbert, Abbat of Wearmouth: his scribes paralysed with cold, 80
+
+
+  Damasus, Pope: his archivum or Record Office, 42
+
+  _demonstratio_: meaning discussed, 243
+
+  Demosthenes: statue of, to shew way of holding roll, 27;
+    replica of his statue at Knowle Park, _ibid._, note
+
+  Denchworth: library in church, 262
+
+  De Rossi: theory respecting S. Lorenzo in Damaso, 42;
+    of the use of a triple apse, 63
+
+  Derr: library at, explored by Dr W. Budge, 4
+
+  _descus_: meaning discussed, 242
+
+  _distinctio_: word used in catalogue of Dover Priory, 194-196;
+    meaning discussed, 196, 243
+
+  [Greek: Diphthera] = cover of a roll, 29;
+    coloured purple, 29
+
+  Dolci, Giovannino dei: supplies bookcases to Vatican Library, 218
+
+  _domuncula_: a compartment of a bookcase, 244
+
+  Dover, Priory of S. Martin at: introduction to catalogue translated, 194
+
+  Durham: description of the book-presses and carrells in the cloister, 90;
+    _armarium commune_, 93;
+    plan of window and account of carrells, 96-99;
+    library at, saec. xii., 102;
+    enumeration of books at, saec. xiv., 103;
+    library at, built 1446, 107;
+    library fitted up by Dean Sudbury, saec. xvii., 189
+
+  Durham Coll., Oxf.: library, 142
+
+
+  Ely: endowment of _scriptorium_ at, 79
+
+  Emmanuel Coll., Camb.: bookcases at, 54;
+    new cases in library, 285
+
+  Endowment of libraries: at Corbie, 79;
+    S. Martin des Champs, _ibid._;
+    S. Benoit-sur-Loire (Fleury), _ibid._;
+    at Ely, _ibid._
+
+  Entreaties to use books carefully, 76
+
+  [Greek: Epistulion]: use of word explained, 32, _note_
+
+  Escorial: built by Philip II., 267;
+    description of library, 268;
+    of bookcases, 269;
+    cases copied at Bibliotheque Mazarine, 273
+
+  Eton College: stained glass in Election Hall, 242;
+    chains taken off 1719, 266
+
+  Eucherius, Bp of Lyons: describes a private library, 43
+
+  Euripides: said to have been a book-collector, 5;
+    lines from the _Frogs_ about him quoted, _ibid._
+
+  Euthydemus, follower of Socrates: his library, 5
+
+  Evesham, Benedictine House in Worcestershire:
+    customs respecting books, 69;
+    carrells, 99
+
+  _fenestra_ = cupboard: in rule of S. Pachomius, 64;
+    meaning of word discussed, 65, note
+
+  Fleury, Abbey at: _see_ Benoit (S.)-sur-Loire
+
+  _forulus_ = cell: receptacle for rolls in Roman libraries, 31
+
+  Fossa Nuova: book-press at, described and figured, 82;
+    plan and description of book-room, 85
+
+  Fountains Abbey: position of book-rooms at, 89
+
+  foxtails: bought to dust Vatican Library, 232
+
+  Francis (S.): reproves a brother who asked for a psalter, 72, _note_
+
+  Franciscans: provisions respecting books, 72;
+    their libraries described in the _Philobiblon_, _ibid._
+
+  Froidmont: glass in library, 242
+
+  _frons_: used for the edge of a roll, 28;
+    was evidently visible, 34
+
+  Furness Abbey: book-rooms at west end of chapter-house, 87
+
+
+  Gall (S.): library at, 102
+
+  Galla Placidia: book-press on her tomb, 39
+
+  Gatien, S., Tours, church of: chained library at, 1718, 266
+
+  Genevieve, S., Paris: description of library, 289
+
+  Germain (S.) des Pres, Paris: library open to strangers, 75;
+    expansion of library at, 114-6;
+    fittings described, 289
+
+  Germain (S.) l'Auxerrois, church of: wooden press in, described, 95
+
+  Ghirlandajo, the brothers: engaged to decorate Vatican Library, 211;
+    their work described, 213
+
+  Glass: in certain cloisters, 100
+
+  Glastonbury: feelings of Leland on entering Library, 194
+
+  Globes: in Vatican Library, 229;
+    in library of S. Genevieve, 289
+
+  Gloucester Cathedral: library-walk of cloister, 91;
+    sets of nine holes, 92;
+    stone carrells described and figured, 96-98;
+    library, 107
+
+  Gonville Hall, Camb.: curse from breviary used at, 79
+
+  Gonville and Caius Coll., Camb.: bookcases at, 254;
+    chaining of books bequeathed by Dr Caius, 265
+
+  Gorton: bookcase, 259
+
+  _gradus_ = a shelf, 87, _note_;
+    used with same meaning at Dover Priory, 194-196;
+    a side of a lectern, 167
+
+  Grammar Schools: _see_ Libraries
+
+  Grantham: library, 257
+
+  Gray's Inn: bequest of books to be chained, 264
+
+  Gregory (S.) the Great: notice of his monastery at Rome, 44
+
+  Groenendaal: library, 108
+
+  Guildford: chain in library of Grammar School, 157;
+    further account of this, 263
+
+
+  Hadrian: library built by him in Athens, 16-18;
+    similarity of plan between it and Pergamon, 18
+
+  Hale, Sir Matt.: his books given to Lincoln's Inn 1676 to be chained, 265
+
+  Hawkesmoore, N.:
+    builds library and bookcases at Queen's College, Oxford, 256
+
+  Hayles, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86;
+    arches possibly used as book-recesses, 89
+
+  Herculaneum: library, 23-25
+
+  Hereford, All Saints' Ch.: library, 262
+
+  Hereford Chapter Library: notes on, 174;
+    chaining described, 174-8
+
+  Hippo: library, 63
+
+  Hobart, Nich.: his bookcase at King's College, Cambridge, 254
+
+  Honywood, Mich.: builds library at Lincoln Cathedral, 276
+
+  Hook, to hold up desk, 179
+
+  Horace: advice to his friend Celsus respecting the Palatine library, 19
+
+  Howley-Harrison Library, Canterbury, 256
+
+  Humphrey, D. of Gloucester: his MSS. at Oxford, 247
+
+
+  _index_ = ticket bearing the title of a roll, 28;
+    of some bright colour, 29;
+    used in Cicero's library, 33
+
+  Isidore, Bp of Seville: on library of Pollio at Rome, 12;
+    on decoration of libraries, 41;
+    account of his own library, 45, 46
+
+  Ivory: books written on, 20
+
+
+  Jerome (S.): advises consultation of church-libraries, 62;
+    on library at Caesarea, _ibid._;
+    collated there MSS. used by Origen, _ibid._
+
+  Jerusalem: library, 62
+
+  Jervaulx, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86
+
+  Jesus Coll., Camb.: equidistant windows of library, 148;
+    glass in library, 242;
+    bookcases, 254
+
+  Jews: used _armaria_ in synagogues to contain the rolls of the law, 39,
+      _note_
+
+  John (S.) the Baptist, Coll., Oxf.: library statute at, 137;
+    library described, 185;
+
+  John (S.) the Evangelist, Coll., Camb.:
+    equidistant windows in old library, 148;
+    contract for desks, 160;
+    book chained at, 1564, 265;
+    library built 1623-1628, 248-251
+
+  Jumieges: curse from MS. at, 78
+
+  Juniper: bought to fumigate Vatican Library, 232
+
+
+  Kederminster, Sir John: founds library at Langley, 258
+
+  Kempis, Thomas a:
+    quotation from, on desolate condition of priest and convent without
+        books, 75;
+    injunction to use MSS. carefully, 77
+
+  King's Coll., Camb.: library statute, 137;
+    number of books in library 1453, 145;
+    bookcase by bequest from N. Hobart, 254;
+    Cole's account of library, 255;
+    chains taken off 1777, 266
+
+  Kirkstall Abbey: the _armarium commune_, 85
+
+  Kouyunjik: library, discovered by Layard, 2;
+    criticised by Dr W. Budge, 4
+
+
+  Lanciani. R.: discovers a private library in Rome, 22;
+    describes record-house of Vespasian, 26
+
+  Lanfranc, Abp: decree respecting use of books, 67
+
+  Langley Marye: library, 258
+
+  Lateran Museum, Rome: sculpture representing actor with masks, 36
+
+  Layard: library discovered by him at Kouyunjik, 2
+
+  Leaver, James: gives press to Bolton school, Lancashire, 264
+
+  Lectern-system: fittings in early libraries so named, 151-153;
+    at Zutphen, 153-159;
+    Queens' Coll., Camb., 151, 159;
+    Pembroke Coll., S. John's Coll., Peterhouse, Camb., 160;
+    Lincoln Cathedral, 161;
+    MS. Mus. Brit., 162;
+    Nuremberg, 163;
+    the Sorbonne, Paris, 164;
+    the College d'Autun, Paris, 166;
+    Monastery of S. Victor, Paris, 166;
+    Trinity Hall, Camb., 168;
+    MS. Fitzwilliam Mus., 169;
+    at University of Leyden, 170;
+    Cesena, 199-203;
+    S. Mark, Florence, 203;
+    Monte Oliveto, _ibid._;
+    Assisi, 206;
+    Vatican, 225;
+    Medicean Library, Florence, 235-240;
+    in private houses, 297-301
+
+  _lectrinum_ = desk, 161
+
+  Leland, John: his feelings on entering library at Glastonbury, 194
+
+  Lepidus, Domitius: temple built by him in Rome, 13
+
+  _liber_ = book: decision of the jurist Ulpian as to what is included
+    under this category, 37
+
+  Librarian: _see_ Precentor--Armarius
+
+  LIBRARIES, Assyrian: at Kouyunjik, discovered by Layard, 2-4;
+    at Derr, 4
+
+  Libraries of Cathedrals: 116-128;
+    Lincoln, 117, 161;
+    Salisbury, 121;
+    Old S. Paul's, 122;
+    Wells, 123;
+    Lichfield, 123;
+    Noyon, 124;
+    Bayeux, 125;
+    York, 125;
+    Troyes, 126;
+    Worcester, 126;
+    Rouen, 128
+
+  Libraries, Christian: situated in or near churches, 61;
+    at Jerusalem, 62;
+    at Caesarea, _ibid._;
+    at Cirta, _ibid._;
+    at Hippo, 63;
+    use of the triple apse, 63
+
+  Libraries of Colleges: statutes of Merton Coll., Oxford, 133;
+    University, 133;
+    Oriel, 133;
+    Peterhouse, Cambridge, 134;
+    Trinity Hall, 136;
+    New Coll., Oxford, 137;
+    All Souls', 137;
+    Magdalen Coll., Oxford, 138;
+    Corpus Christi Coll., Oxford, 137, 138;
+    Pembroke Coll., Cambridge, 139;
+    resume of regulations, _ibid._;
+    loan of books from, 140;
+    rules copied from monasteries, 141;
+    a real library an after-thought, 143;
+    characteristics of this, 143;
+    number of books, 143-148;
+    divided into lending and reference departments, 145;
+    examples of such libraries, 148;
+    Bp Cobham's library, Oxf., _ibid._;
+    Queens' Coll., Camb., a type, 151, 159;
+    fittings at Pembroke and other Coll., 160;
+    S. John's Coll., Camb., 248-250;
+    at Peterhouse, 251;
+    at Gonville and Caius, Emmanuel, Jesus, Pembroke, 254;
+    King's Coll., Camb., _ibid._;
+    Queen's Coll., Oxf., 255
+
+  Libraries, Greek: notices of, in Athens and elsewhere, 4, 5;
+    at Alexandria, 6;
+    at Pergamon, 7-12
+
+  Libraries, medieval: general characteristics, 240-244
+
+  Libraries, monastic: rule of Pachomius, 64;
+    general considerations 65;
+    Benedictine Rule, 66;
+    Cluniac Customs, _ibid._;
+    decrees given to English Benedictines by Lanfranc, 67;
+    Customs of Benedictine Houses, 68;
+    of Carthusians, 69;
+    of Cistercians, 70;
+    of Augustinians, _ibid._;
+    of Premonstratensians, 72;
+    of Mendicants, _ibid._;
+    general conclusions, 73;
+    divided into library of reference and library for lending, 74;
+    open to strangers, 75;
+    books a necessary possession, _ibid._;
+    protection of books, 76;
+    curses, 77;
+    endowment of libraries, 79;
+    work done and books kept in the cloister, 80;
+    furniture used, 81;
+    _armarium commune_, 82;
+    at Fossa Nuova, _ibid._;
+    at Worcester, 84;
+    evolution of Cistercian book-room, 84-89;
+    arrangements in Benedictine Houses, 90;
+    at Westminster Abbey, 91-94;
+    supervision at S. Augustine's, Canterbury, 99;
+    decoration, 100;
+    growth of, 101;
+    at S. Riquier, S. Gall, Bobbio, Lorsch, Durham, Canterbury, 102;
+    construction of a special library, 106;
+    at Canterbury, _ibid._;
+    Durham and Gloucester, 107;
+    Winchester, S. Albans, Worcester, Bury S. Edmunds, S. Victor, Paris,
+        Franciscans of London, 108;
+    Citeaux, 109-112;
+    Clairvaux, 112-114;
+    S. Germain des Pres, Paris, 114;
+    destruction in England, 246;
+    extension of their libraries in France in 17th cent., 287;
+    library of Jesuits at Rheims, 287-289;
+    of S. Genevieve, Paris, 289;
+    S. Germain des Pres, _ibid._;
+    Monte Cassino, 290
+
+  Libraries, parochial: at Grantham, 257;
+    at Langley Marye, 258;
+    Cartmel, _ibid._;
+    will of H. Chetham, 259;
+    Gorton, _ibid._;
+    Turton, _ibid._;
+    Wimborne Minster, 261;
+    Denchworth, 262;
+    All Saints', Hereford, _ibid._;
+    Abingdon, _ibid._
+
+  Libraries, private: books kept in chests, 292;
+    tower in Louvre fitted up as library, 293;
+    illustration of this, 294;
+    a Carmelite in his study, 296;
+    a scholar's chair, 297;
+    lectern, 297-9;
+    _Ship of Fools_, 298;
+    library of Margaret of Austria, 299-302;
+    of Anne de Beaujeu, 302;
+    Italian lectern, 304;
+    wheel-desk, 304-8;
+    chairs with desk, 309-312;
+    desks used in Italy, 312;
+    wall-cupboards, 313;
+    scholar's room, 314;
+    study of Duke of Urbino, _ibid._;
+    of Montaigne, 315;
+    Palazzo Barberini, 316;
+    library of Dean Boys, 317
+
+  Libraries, Roman (B.C.):
+    intention of Julius Caesar to build a library, 12;
+    library of C. Asinius Pollio, _ibid._;
+    decorated with busts of departed authors, _ibid._;
+    works of Augustus, _ibid._;
+    Porticus Octaviae, 12-14;
+    temple and area of Apollo, 14;
+    other public libraries, 15;
+    of Tiberius, Vespasian, Trajan, _ibid._;
+    of Hadrian at Athens, 16-18;
+    organisation of Roman libraries, 18;
+    composition of Palatine library, _ibid._;
+    description by Ovid, _ibid._;
+    advice of Horace respecting, 19;
+    library of Tiberius, _ibid._;
+    of Vespasian in templo Pacis, _ibid._;
+    of Trajan (bibliotheca Ulpia), _ibid._;
+    loan of books from public collections, 20;
+    fittings, 36;
+    private libraries: of Lucullus, 20, 21;
+    fashion for book-collecting denounced by Seneca, 21;
+    library in Via dello Statuto discovered by Lanciani, 22;
+    at Herculaneum, 23;
+    near Rome, as described by Martial, 31;
+    record-house of Vespasian, 26, 27;
+    contents of Roman libraries, 27-30;
+    fittings of Roman libraries: discussion of words used, 30-33;
+    what the furniture so designated was, 34, 35;
+    representation found at Neumagen, 35;
+    desk for rolls in Lateran Museum, 36;
+    presses (_armaria_), 36-41
+
+  Libraries, Roman (A.D.): decoration mentioned by Boethius, 41;
+    by Isidore, 41, 42;
+    library described by Eucherius, 43;
+    of pope Agapetus, 44;
+    of Isidore, Bp of Seville, 45;
+    summary of pagan conception of a library, 47;
+    illustrated by Vatican Library of Sixtus V., 47-60
+
+  Libraries of Schools: Abingdon, 262;
+    Bicester, _ibid._;
+    Rivington, _ibid._;
+    Guildford, 263;
+    Bury, _ibid._;
+    Bolton, 264
+
+  _Library_ = bookcase, 244
+
+  Lichfield Cathedral: library, 123
+
+  Lincoln Cathedral: library, 117;
+    desks described, 161
+
+  _linea_: a shelf for books, 105, _note_;
+    at Saint Ouen, 244
+
+  Linen: books written on, 20
+
+  L'Isle, Roger: gives books to Oxford, 132
+
+  Loan of books: from public libraries in Rome, 20
+
+  Loan of books (for external use): allowed at Abingdon, 68;
+    Evesham, 69;
+    among Carthusians, 70;
+    Augustinians, 71;
+    Premonstratensians, 72;
+    enjoined on monks by Council of Paris 1212, 74;
+    books bequeathed that they may be lent, 75;
+    one House lent to another, _ibid._;
+    to Oxford scholars, 132;
+    prescribed in College Statutes, 133-137;
+    instances of, at Merton Coll., 140;
+    from Vatican Library, 230-1
+
+  Loan of books (to brethren on written attestation): among Cluniacs, 67;
+    Benedictines, 68;
+    Augustinians, 71;
+    probable meaning of this provision, 74, note
+
+  _loculamentum_ = pigeon-hole:
+      receptacle for rolls in Roman libraries, 31, 32
+
+  _lora_ = straps to keep rolls closed, 29
+
+  Lorenzo in Damaso: church, 42
+
+  Lorsch: library, 102
+
+  Louvre: library fitted up, 293
+
+  Lucullus: library described, 20, 21
+
+  _Lumen animae_: chained book so called, 203
+
+
+  Magdalen Coll., Oxf.: library statute at, 137
+
+  Margaret of Austria: library described, 299-302
+
+  Mark, S., Florence, Dominican Convent of: library, 205
+
+  Martin (S.) des Champs, Paris: endowment of library, 79
+
+  Martin (S.), at Tournai: literary work in cloister, 81
+
+  Mary (S.) Church in Oxf.: books chained, 132
+
+  Matthew (S.): Hebrew original of his Gospel at Caesarea, 62
+
+  Mazarin, Cardinal, library of: described, 272-274;
+    furniture noted by Wren, 276
+
+  Meaux, in Holderness: book-room at, and arrangement, 86
+
+  Medicean Library, Florence: described, 234-240
+
+  Medicine, Faculty of, Paris: books chained in library 1509, 264
+
+  Melozzo da Forli: engaged to paint in Vatican Library, 212;
+    his work described, 214
+
+  Mendicants: libraries, 72
+
+  Merton Coll., Oxf.: library statute, 133;
+    choice and loan of books, 140;
+    reception of a gift, 141;
+    description of library, 178-185;
+    history, 183;
+    sale of old bookcases, _ibid._;
+    new cases supplied to south library 1623, 184;
+    chains taken off 1792, 266
+
+  Mesmin (Saint): curse from MS., 77, 78, and _note_
+
+  Metellus, Quintus: share in building the Porticus Octaviae, 13;
+    plan may have been derived from Pergamon, 14
+
+  Michelangelo:
+    builds Medicean Library, 234;
+    his sketch for the bookcases, 236
+
+  Micklethwaite, J. T.: his plan of Westminster Abbey, 91
+
+  Monastic influence at Oxf. and Camb., 142
+
+  Montaigne: visits Vatican Library 6 March, 1581, 230;
+    describes his own library, 315
+
+  Monte Cassino: library described, 290
+
+  Monte Oliveto, Benedictine Convent of: library, 205
+
+  Much Wenlock, Cluniac Priory: book-room, 87
+
+
+  Navarre, College de: library, 165
+
+  Netley, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86
+
+  Neumagen near Treves:
+    representation of a library found at, 34, and _note_
+
+  New College, Oxford: library statute, 137
+
+  _nidus_ = pigeon-hole: receptacle for rolls in Roman libraries, 30, 31
+
+  Noyon Cathedral: library, 124
+
+  Nuremberg: chained books in Stadtbibliothek, 163
+
+  Nuzio, Matteo: builds library at Cesena, 199
+
+
+  Obazine, in Central France: book-press described and figured, 95
+
+  Odo, Abbat of S. Martin at Tournai: promotes work in cloister, 81
+
+  Ordericus Vitalis: his work stopped by cold, 80
+
+  _ordo_: a shelf, 244
+
+  Oriel Coll., Oxf.: library statute, 133-134
+
+  Ouen, Saint: library, 244
+
+  Ovid: lines from the _Tristia_ describing Palatine library, 18
+
+  Oxford: destruction of MSS. 1549, 247
+
+
+  Pachomius (S.): provisions of his rule, 64, 65, _note_
+
+  Palatine library, Rome: _see_ Apollo
+
+  Pamphilus: founds library at Caesarea, 62
+
+  Parchment: story of its invention at Pergamon, 8
+
+  Parkhurst, Bp John: bequeathes books to Guildford school, 263
+
+  Paul, S., London, Cathedral: library, 122;
+    library built by Wren, 282-4
+
+  Paulinus, Bp of Nola:
+    describes use of apse in basilica built by himself, 63
+
+  Peace, library in Temple of, at Rome: _see_ Vespasian
+
+  _pegmata_ = shelves: use and meaning discussed, 32;
+    in Cicero's library, 33;
+    conclusion respecting, 34
+
+  Peisistratus, tyrant of Athens: said to have collected a library, 5
+
+  Pembroke Coll., Camb.: library statute, 139;
+    library fittings, 160;
+    bookcases at, 254
+
+  Peniscola: library of Boniface XIII., 244
+
+  Pergamon: description of site, 7;
+    foundation of library by Eumenes II., 8;
+    given to Cleopatra by Antony, _ibid._;
+    plan of temple and precinct of Athena, 9;
+    account of German exploration, 9-11;
+    plan possibly copied at Rome by Q. Metellus, 14;
+    described to Romans by Crates of Mallus, _ibid._;
+    copied by Hadrian at Athens, 18;
+    by Pope Damasus at Rome, 42
+
+  Peter (S.), Liverpool, Ch. of:
+    books bequeathed by John Fells, mariner, 1815, to be chained, 266
+
+  Peterborough: cloister windows glazed, 100
+
+  Peterhouse, Camb.: library statutes, 134-136;
+    discussion of catalogue dated 1418, 145-148;
+    lecterns in old library, 160;
+    bookcases put up between 1641 and 1648, 251;
+    chaining of books bequeathed by Dr Perne 1588, 265
+
+  Peter (S.) Mancroft, Norwich: wooden press in vestry, 96, _note_
+
+  Philobiblon: description of libraries of Mendicants quoted from, 72;
+    injunction to handle MSS. carefully, 76, _note_;
+    book-chest prescribed in, 297
+
+  Pigeon-hole system: used in Roman libraries, 47
+
+  Pilkington, Bp James: statutes for school at Rivington, 262
+
+  Platina, Bartolommeo: appointed librarian of Vatican, 208;
+    engages a binder, 209;
+    writes inscription in Latin library, 215;
+    rooms for himself and his assistants, 216;
+    orders desks for Latin library, 217;
+    selects subjects for frescoes in Ospedale di Santo Spirito, 225;
+    his assistants, 231-2;
+    provides all articles required for maintenance, 232
+
+  Pliny (the younger): describes _armarium_ sunk in wall of his bedroom, 38
+
+  _pluteus_ = shelf: use of word discussed and illustrated, 32, 33, 34
+
+  Pollio, C. Asinius:
+    builds a library and an _atrium libertatis_ in Rome B.C. 39, 12
+
+  Polycrates, tyrant of Samos: said to have collected a library, 4
+
+  Pompeii: reproduction of fresco shewing way to hold roll, 27
+
+  Pontis, Wm.: builds staircase in Rouen Cathedral, 129
+
+  Porticus Octaviae, 12-14
+
+  Portraits of departed authors used to decorate libraries:
+    at Pergamon, 11;
+    by C. Asinius Pollio, 12;
+    by Augustus, 14;
+    in private libraries, 35;
+    inscriptions accompanying them, _ibid._;
+    described by Eucherius, Bp of Lyons, in a private library, 43;
+    in library designed by pope Agapetus, 44
+
+  Precentor: called also _armarius_ and entrusted with care of books by
+      Cluniacs, 67;
+    Benedictines, 68;
+    Augustinians, 71;
+    Premonstratensians, 72;
+    supervises use of press at S. Augustine's, Canterbury, 99
+
+  Premonstratensians: rules for books among, 72
+
+  _Procurator bibliothecarum_: officer appointed by Augustus, 18
+
+  Protection of MSS.: rule for holding a MS., 76;
+    hands to be clean, _ibid._;
+    handkerchiefs to be wrapped round, _ibid._;
+    entreaties to use carefully, _ibid._;
+    curses on those who damage or steal, 77
+
+
+  Queens' Coll., Camb.: number of books in library 1472, 145;
+    equidistant windows of library, 148;
+    library selected as type, 151;
+    analysis of catalogue dated 1472, 167
+
+  Queen's Coll., Oxf.: library built by Hawkesmoore, 255
+
+
+  Ramsey Abbey, Hunts: bad weather in cloister at, 80
+
+  Remi, S., at Rheims: library belonging to, 286
+
+  Reserved library: in collegiate libraries, 145;
+    at Assisi, 207;
+    at Vatican, 211
+
+  Rheims: library of S. Remi, 286; of the Jesuits, 287
+
+  Riquier (S.): library, 102
+
+  Rivington: school library, 262;
+    Bp Pilkington's statute for, _ibid._
+
+  Roche, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86
+
+  _roe_, a wheel = a book-desk, 294;
+    explained, 295;
+    illustrated, 304-308
+
+  Rolls: dimensions, use, etc., 27;
+    fastened to stick, 28;
+    this decorated with knobs (_cornua_), _ibid._;
+    edges (_frontes_) of roll cut, _ibid._;
+    ticket (_index_) appended, 29;
+    closed with straps (_lora_), _ibid._;
+    wrapped in covers, _ibid._;
+    carried in a _capsa_ or _scrinium_, 30;
+    receptacles for, 30-34;
+    desk for reading, 36;
+    _armarium_ to contain, 37
+
+  Rome: _see_ Libraries, Roman
+
+  Rouen: Cathedral library, 128-130
+
+
+  Salisbury: Cathedral library, 121
+
+  Sarcophagus:
+    in Mus. Naz., Rome, with shoemaker at work in front of a press, 38;
+    in Villa Balestra, with physician reading, _ibid._
+
+  _scrinium_: box for carrying rolls, 30
+
+  Scriptorium: endowment, at Ely, 79;
+    at S. Albans, 80
+
+  Scrivener, Matt.:
+    bequeathes L50 to Univ. Library, Camb., 1687, to buy chains, 265
+
+  _sedile_: meaning discussed, 243
+
+  Sellyng, Prior, at Canterbury: sets up carrells in the cloister, 99;
+    glazes the windows, 100;
+    fits up library, 106
+
+  Seneca: denounces fashion for book-collecting, 21
+
+  _Ship of Fools_: lectern used in, 297
+
+  Shiryngton, Walt.: builds library at Old S. Paul's Cathedral, 122
+
+  [Greek: sillibos] = ticket bearing the name of a roll, 29;
+    used in Cicero's library, 33
+
+  Simon, abbat of S. Albans: book-chest, 292
+
+  _solarium_ = press, 207
+
+  Sorbonne: library, 164;
+    glass in windows of library, 242
+
+  _spalera_ or _spalliera_: a settle, 228
+
+  Stained glass: instances of, in libraries, 241
+
+  _stalla_ or _stallum_: meaning discussed, 242
+
+  Stall-system: term explained, 172;
+    type at Corp. Chr. Coll., Oxf., _ibid._;
+    description of these cases, 173;
+    chaining used, 174-8;
+    fittings at Merton Coll., Oxf., 178-185;
+    at S. John the Baptist Coll., Trinity Coll.,
+      Bodl. Library, Oxford, 185;
+    at Clare Coll., Camb., 186;
+    Westminster Abbey, 187;
+    Wells Cathedral, 188;
+    Durham Cath., 189;
+    origin probably monastic, 190;
+    Christ Church, Cant., 190-4;
+    Clairvaux, 196-8;
+    Howley-Harrison library at Canterbury, 256
+
+  Student-monks: at Oxf. and Camb., 142
+
+  Sudbury, John, dean of Durham: fits up Frater as library, 189
+
+
+  _tabula_, board covered with wax and parchment to record loan of
+      books, 139
+
+  _textus_ = bookshelf: at Ch. Ch., Canterbury, 192, 243
+
+  _theca_: a shelf or cupboard, 87, _note_
+
+  Theodmarus Cassinensis: his letter to Charlemagne quoted, 76 and _note_
+
+  Tiberius, Emperor: his library in Rome, 15, 16;
+    this mentioned by Aulus Gellius, 19;
+    contained public records, _ibid._
+
+  Tibur = Tivoli: story of library in temple of Hercules, 20
+
+  Tintern, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86
+
+  Titchfield: book-room and arrangement, 87
+
+  _titulus_ = ticket bearing the name of a roll, 28
+
+  Tournai: _see_ Martin (S.)
+
+  Trajan: library in his forum in Rome, 15;
+    statements of Aulus Gellius and Vopiscus respecting, 19;
+    described by Nibby, 37
+
+  _trichora_; applied to a triple apse, 63;
+    use of the word by Dioscorides, 64
+
+  Trigg, Fra.: founds library at Grantham, 257
+
+  Trinity Coll., Camb.: chaining of books given in 1601, 265;
+    Wren's library built, 277-281
+
+  Trinity Hall, Camb.: library statute, 136;
+    library described, 168
+
+  Troyes: library in Cathedral, 126
+
+  Turton: library, 259
+
+
+  Udine, Giovanni da: supplies stained glass to Medicean Library, 235
+
+  Ulpian, jurist: decisions respecting libraries and their furniture, 37
+
+  Ulpian library, at Rome: _see_ Trajan
+
+  _umbilicus_ = stick to which roll was fastened, 28
+
+  Universities: visited by Commissioners of Edward VI., 247
+
+  University Coll., Oxf.: library statute, 133
+
+  University Library, Camb.: subjects of books catalogued 1424, 144;
+    ditto 1473, 145;
+    bookcases supplied to, 1731-4, 285
+
+  Urbino: account of library, 233;
+    private study of Duke, 314
+
+
+  Varro, M. Terentius:
+    employed by C. Julius Caesar to collect books for his intended
+        library, 12;
+    his bust admitted into Pollio's library, _ibid._
+
+  Vatican Library of Sixtus IV.: description of, 208-32;
+    appointment of Platina as librarian, 208;
+    selection of site, 209;
+    fourfold division, 211;
+    purchase of materials, _ibid._;
+    engagement of artists, _ibid._;
+    door of entrance made, 212;
+    Latin Library described, _ibid._;
+    its decoration, 213;
+    Greek Library described, _ibid._;
+    its decoration, 215;
+    Bibliotheca secreta described, _ibid._;
+    Bibliotheca pontificia, _ibid._;
+    glazing of the windows, 216;
+    rooms for librarians, _ibid._;
+    bookcases for Latin library ordered, 217;
+    for _Bibliotheca secreta_, _ibid._;
+    catalogue-frames and coffers ordered, 218;
+    cases for _Bibliotheca pontificia_ ordered, _ibid._;
+    chains bought, 219;
+    information derived from catalogues, 220-4;
+    contemporary fresco representing library, 225;
+    arrangement of cases in the four rooms, 226-9;
+    globes and brazier, 229;
+    rule for good behaviour in, 1513, _ibid._;
+    visit of Montaigne, 230;
+    loans from, 230-1;
+    staff of library, 231;
+    maintenance of, 232
+
+  Vatican Library of Sixtus V.: type of an ancient Roman library, 47;
+    summary account of decoration, 48;
+    detailed do., 49-60
+
+  Versailles: libraries of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, 287
+
+  Verses: by Martial, to be placed under his own portrait, 35;
+    by Isidore of Seville, for the presses in his library, 45
+
+  Vespasian: his library in Rome _in templo Paris_, 15;
+    statement of Aulus Gellius respecting, 19;
+    his record-office, now church of SS. Cosma e Damiano, 25
+
+  Victor (S.), Paris: books bequeathed to, on condition of loan, 75;
+    library open to strangers, _ibid._;
+    lines from MSS. at, admonishing readers to be careful, 76;
+    curse habitually used at, 77, _note_;
+    library built at, 1501-8, 108;
+    catalogue of library analysed, 166-7
+
+  Villa Balestra, Rome: sarcophagus, 38
+
+  Vivarium, near Squillace: monastery of Cassiodorus near, 44
+
+  _volumen_ = roll, 27-30;
+    box for, 30;
+    fittings of libraries adapted to, 34;
+    representation of one of these, 35
+
+
+  Wall-system: name proposed, 267;
+    library of Escorial, 267-270;
+    Ambrosian Library at Milan, 271;
+    Bibliotheque Mazarine, 272-274
+
+  Wells Cathedral: library at, 123;
+    described, 188
+
+  Wessyngton, Prior: builds library at Durham, 107
+
+  Westminster Abbey: plan of cloister at, 91;
+    account of library in, 91-94;
+    carrells, 92, 93;
+    resemblance to Gloucester, 98;
+    library fitted up 1623-4, 187
+
+  Wheel-desk: _see_ roe
+
+  Whethamstede, John: builds library at S. Albans, 108;
+    at Gloucester House, Oxf., 142
+
+  Whittington, Sir R.: builds library at Christ's Hospital 1421, 108
+
+  Williams, John, Bp of Lincoln:
+    fits up dorter at Westminster Abbey as library 1623-4, 187;
+    builds library at S. John's Coll., Camb., 248-251
+
+  Wimborne: Minster library, 261
+
+  Winchester: position of library, 108
+
+  Winckelmann, J. J.: description of library at Herculaneum, 25
+
+  Wings, attached to bookcases: at Peterhouse, Camb., 252;
+    at University Library, 253;
+    at Pembroke Coll., 254
+
+  Worcester Cathedral: book-recesses in cloister at, 84;
+    library at, 108;
+    Bishop Carpenter's library-foundation, 126-8
+
+  Wren, Sir C.: visits Paris, 276;
+    builds library at Lincoln Cathedral, 277;
+    at Trinity College, Cambridge, 277-281;
+    at S. Paul's Cathedral, London, 282-4
+
+  Wren, Matt.: account of Pembroke Coll. library, 139, 160
+
+
+  York: Cathedral library, 125
+
+
+  Zutphen: library described, 153-159
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Care of Books, by John Willis Clark
+
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